:v. ;g!;iaKiKtBK!J«A:'W:,' 
 
 
 
Cornell University Library 
 LB1115.T17 
 
 The child; his thinlting, feeling, antj <Joi 
 
 3 1924 013 413 046 
 
RETURN TO 
 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY 
 
 ITHACA, N. Y. 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013413046 
 
THE CHILD 
 
 HIS THINKING, FEELING, AND DOING 
 
 By 
 
 AMY ELIZA TANNER 
 
 Lecturer in Children's Institute 
 
 Clark University 
 
 With an Introduction by 
 G. STANLEY HALL 
 
 Revised and 
 enlarged edition 
 
 RAND McNALLY & COMPANY 
 Chicago New York 
 
Copyright, lgo4, 
 By Amy Euza Tanner 
 
 Revised and enlarged edition 
 
 Copyright, igij. 
 
 By Amy Eliza Tanner 
 
 Chicago 
 
/ 
 
 THE TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Preface ....... i 
 
 Preface to the Revised Edition .... 3 
 
 The Introduction 6 
 
 I General Remarks 
 ■I Growth of the Bopy . 
 '/ Common Diseases and Defects 
 
 V Defects of Sight, Hearing, and the 
 
 Nervous System . 
 
 V Feelings and Ideas of Sex 
 I Nature versus Nurture . 
 I Sensation and Perception 
 I Memory . ... 
 ^ Imagination .... 
 i Conception and Reasoning 
 / Religious Sentiment and Theological 
 
 Ideas 
 I Conception of Good and Evil . 
 I Feelings and Emotions 
 
 Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive 
 
 Movements . . 335 
 
 ^ Growth in Control of the Body . . 356 
 I Imitation and Suggestion . . . .371 
 
 r Language 392 
 
 r Rhythm, Dancing, and Music . . 424 
 
 'C Drawing . 465 
 
 36 
 
 60 
 
 87 
 103 
 
 13s 
 
 172 
 200 
 224 
 
 261 
 28s 
 313 
 
iv The Table of Contents 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XX Play 487 
 
 XXI The Child IN A Democracy . . . -513 
 
 Key to Abbreviations in References found in 
 
 "The Child" 526 
 
 The Index . 530 
 
THE PREFACE 
 
 TN working over the mass of material which has 
 acctimulated on child study, I have been most 
 impressed by the fact that even now so few general 
 laws can be formulated about child nature. The 
 material is still in a chaotic state, and seems destined 
 to remain so for some time, because the reports from 
 different authorities are so conflicting. In many cases 
 the conflict is doubtless due to different conditions of 
 observation; but in other cases it is due to differences 
 in children resulting from heredity and nationality, or 
 from stirrotmdings — homes, food, and education. I 
 therefore appreciate the fact that some of the observa- 
 tions given here will be seriously modified by later ones. 
 I do not necessarily defend the observations which I 
 cite; I only present the most reliable and leave them 
 for confirmation or rebuttal. 
 
 On this account, I have not attempted to draw many 
 general conclusions, or to work out any complete 
 educational theory. I have aimed rather to bring 
 together under one cover a summary of the important 
 work done thus far in child study, so that the teacher 
 and mother who have little access to libraries may under- 
 stand something of what the condition of the subject 
 is, and may, if so disposed, contribute toward filling 
 up its gaps. This side of the matter is the more promi- 
 nent in my own mind because the book is the direct 
 outcome of the difficulties which I met in teaching the 
 subject to my classes in the University College of the 
 University of Chicago. There seemed to be a need 
 
2 The Preface 
 
 for a book which should give a resum^ of observations 
 which at that time were to be obtained only in all sorts 
 of magazines and books, and which were yet necessary 
 to an understanding of the subject. Such a book would 
 also, it seemed to me, furnish something of the per- 
 spective which is necessarily lacking in scattered reading, 
 ■would serve as a stimulus to more careful study of the 
 children with whom we deal every day, and would aid 
 in preparing the soil for a better educational theory than 
 at present prevails. 
 
 Although lacking in theory, the book should still 
 serve as a backgroimd upon which to sketch in details 
 of the child whom we know best. In the study of one 
 child or of a few children, to which most of us are 
 limited, we are rather prone to conclude that charac- 
 teristics which are in truth peculiar to the little group 
 known to us belong to all children. A knowledge of 
 these wider observations will prevent such errors and 
 will lead to more careful study. 
 
 Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made to Dr. 
 Stuart H. Rowe, Lecturer on Pedagogy at Yale Uni- 
 versity, who read the manuscript of this book and made 
 many valuable suggestions; to the Pedagogical Seminary 
 for permission to reproduce the charts found on pages 
 411 and 502; to the Elementary School Record for per- 
 mission to quote from Mrs. May Root Kern's article 
 on Song Composition^ and to the many authors whose 
 works I have consulted freely. 
 
 Amy Eliza Tanner. 
 December, IQ03. 
 
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 
 
 TN going over the child-study literature of the last 
 ten years, what most impresses one is the fact that 
 the formerly somewhat shapeless material is arranging 
 itself into specialized and technical aspects. Some of 
 these cannot be discussed in this book, but should be 
 at least briefly referred to here. School hygiene, includ- 
 ing medical inspection of schools, is now almost a sep- 
 arate subject, with its own literature, journal, and 
 congress. Almost the same is true of the study of 
 defective children, though this is closely bound up on 
 one side with studies in heredity and on another with 
 the problem of tests and standards of intelligence. The 
 latter is itself one of the most complex and important 
 of recent developments. Many practical benefits wait 
 for the discovery of trustworthy tests, such as the treat- 
 ment of juvenile delinquents, vocational guidance, and 
 the encouragement of talent, to say nothing of the 
 separation in school of subnormal from normal children. 
 Again, there is a considerable body of literature on the 
 methods of collecting and using data, the best ways 
 of presenting data in curves, tables, and figures, and 
 so on. Experimental pedagogy is another phase, though 
 its boundaries are still not clearly defined. In general 
 it is the application to teaching of the accredited results 
 of child study, and its fundamental motivation is to 
 clear the way in our schools for the normal learning 
 process in all subjects, instead of forcing the child's 
 mind to take the roundabout and wasteful routes so 
 often demanded now. When it is fully developed it 
 
4 Preface to the Revised Edition 
 
 will take the place of the old courses in "methods" — 
 and indeed it is already doing this in places not a few. 
 Still other phases with journals and a large literature 
 are sex hygiene and instruction, play and playgrounds, 
 and moral and religious education. 
 
 It is evident from the above that a book like this 
 cannot attempt to deal with all these sides of child study. 
 It has seemed to me, therefore, that the best that could 
 be done for the beginners for whom this book is intended 
 is to supply certain standard references which would 
 open to them the literature on all these subjects, and 
 to discuss in the book itself those subjects which seem 
 most suitable for a first book. 
 
 Among the many valuable studies which have appeared 
 since 1904, when the first edition of this book was pub- 
 lished, the chief source books in English are Dr. G. 
 Stanley Hall's volimies on Adolescence and Problems of 
 Education. In German the second edition of Meumann's 
 Vorlesungen (2 vols., approximately 1,600 pages, 1911) is 
 the great storehouse of information. Rusk's Introdiiction 
 to Experimental Education gives a large part of what is 
 in Meumann's first edition, with additions of works in 
 English. A student who has access to these four books 
 can find his way to most of the other literature through 
 their summaries and bibliographies. 
 
 The bibliographies in this book, though not complete 
 even of English writings, still aim to give the important 
 contributions. I have included only occasional refer- 
 ences in German, French, and Italian, because they are 
 usually inaccessible to beginners and would therefore 
 add little to the practical value of the lists. A student 
 wishing foreign articles and books can find them by go- 
 ing to the books above mentioned and to the bibliogra- 
 phies referred to in my lists. Articles in the Pedagogical 
 
Preface to the Revised Edition 5 
 
 Seminary and the Journal of Educational Psychology 
 usually have good bibliographies. The Clark Uni- 
 versity Library, under the direction of Dr. L. N. 
 Wilson, has published since 1899 an annual bibliog- 
 raphy of books and articles on child study (now issued 
 as one of the bulletins of the Bureau of Education, 
 Washington). For articles on physical growth and 
 training, sports, athletics, and kindred subjects, the 
 American Physical Education Review (Springfield, Mass.) 
 publishes a quarterly bibliography of works in English. 
 The current magazines referred to at the end of each 
 chapter also often have good book notices and reviews. 
 
 In conclusion, it is a pleasiu-e to add my name to 
 the long list of those who acknowledge their indebted- 
 ness to Dr. Hall for numerous suggestions and con- 
 stant inspiration. 
 
 Amy Eliza Tanner. 
 
 Clark University, 
 January, igiS 
 
THE INTRODUCTION 
 
 "POR a number of years after its appearance in 1904 
 this book was the best of its size on its general 
 subject. Since then several other excellent manuals 
 have appeared, and the literattu-e, particularly in German, 
 has greatly increased in volume, while the theoretical field 
 and the domain of practical application have widened, 
 so that besides the nearly one hundred additional pages, 
 the work of reconstruction necessary to a new edition 
 had to be radical and extended, and the references nearly 
 trebled in number. Much of the matter has been worked 
 over in the author's Saturday morning lectures at Clark 
 University, and it has all been especially adapted to 
 textbook purposes in colleges and normal schools, where 
 it ought to have wide use. The last should always be 
 the best, and I think The Child meets this requirement, 
 excellent as are its competitors. At any rate, the copious 
 reference addenda will be very helpful to teachers and 
 experts as well as to students in this field. 
 
 So vast has the domain of child study, or paidology, 
 now become; so central and all conditioning not only 
 for school work but for all the score of agencies of child 
 welfare; so important for the horne, Sunday school, 
 juvenile court, care of defective and dependent children; 
 so vitally concerned with the method and matter of 
 every school topic, as well as with every item of hygiene, 
 eugenics, play, child labor, moral and religious training, 
 and so on, that the work of selection and proper perspec- 
 tive, and the decision of what to omit, may well tax any 
 
 6 
 
The Introducti on 7 
 
 author's power of judgment, and that to the uttermost, 
 at every step. But in scanning these pages I think the 
 judicious expert will agree with me that this task has 
 been well accomplished. Indeed, it is on the whole a 
 book I should like to have written myself, and I can 
 only congrattilate the author on the successful accom- 
 plishment Q£_a most perplexing and at the same time a 
 most important task and bespeak for her work the large 
 place that it so well deserves among all who are interested 
 in childhood. 
 
 Genetic psychology has three divisions, — animals, 
 primitive man, and children. Not only do these three 
 stand in close and sympathetic relation with each other, 
 children being particularly interested in animals and 
 savages, but the scientific study of each sheds light on the 
 others, childhood particularly being a new-found key 
 to the stages of the development of mind in the world. 
 The Freud-Adler literature has in recent years shed a 
 new light upon all the early phases of child development 
 and greatly magnified the importance of infancy, not only 
 for all later steps in the unfoldment of the mature mind 
 in general, but finding in apparently slight abnormalities 
 in the silent and unremembered first quadrennium the 
 germs of about every psychic and nervous disorder in 
 adult life, including every form of arrest. Moreover, 
 the unconscious, which is now looming up in a way that 
 promises to make' it a large part of the psychology of the 
 future, is coming to be actually identified with childhood, 
 Freud going so far as to declare in round terms, "Das 
 Unbewusste ist das Kindliche." 
 
 Up to a few years ago it could be truthfully said that in 
 this coimtry we had lost touch with childhood and its 
 nature and needs to a degree without parallel in all the 
 world. Besides the nearly one million childless homes. 
 
8 The Introduction 
 
 the relegation of parental duties to the school and church 
 and other public agencies, the relative increase of delin- 
 quent, defective, and even dependent classes, and the 
 dull mechanization of education and its methods and 
 matter, the scantiness of toys, plays, and games and the 
 rapid urbanization of our life have been very hard on 
 children. Now a Copemican revolution from the scholio- 
 centric to the paidocentric view of education has begun, 
 and ever3rthing — topics, order, methods of teaching, 
 and study — is becoming more and more plastic to the 
 nature and needs of childhood, as the degree of adjust- 
 ment to childhood is the standard by which not only 
 progress in all pedagogic fields but the effectiveness of 
 every human institution and of progress in general is 
 best measured. If there is such a thing as a "call to 
 teach" it consists in loving children, and with love go 
 insight, the power to serve, and the desire to help each 
 child to the maximum development of body and soul of 
 which he is capable. When vocational guidance is fully 
 developed those intending to teach will ask themselves 
 the question, which is the supreme test of their fitness, 
 "Do I really love children?" Those who do not have 
 no right to teach. To incline those who read ft to know 
 children better, because this means to love them more 
 insightfully and efficiently, has been, I believe, the 
 author's chief purpose. 
 
 G. Stanley Hall. 
 Clark University, 
 January, igis 
 
THE CHILD 
 
 HIS THINKING, FEELING, AND DOING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 General Remarks 
 
 IVTATURALLY enough, children have always been 
 •»- ^ objects of the greatest care and solicitude to 
 society, and have always been observed and „, .. , 
 studied, as early educational theories show, its impor- 
 Still, while some systematic observation ^^'^^ 
 has been done before, it has been left for our scientific 
 age to attempt to reduce children, along with men, to the 
 terms of a general formula. 
 
 The importance of ascertaining the laws that govern 
 the growth of the child's body and mind is apparent 
 to the most superficial observer. Until we know how 
 a child grows; whether he is of the average height and 
 weight or not; whether he has the average control of 
 his body or not; whether he shows signs of nervousness 
 or not, we can know nothing of what the correct treat- 
 ment for that child is. We may hit accidentally upon 
 it, but we are just as likely to leave the child to suffer 
 from improper food or exercise or work. Similarly, 
 imtil we know the general characteristics of each stage 
 of mental development, we are unprepared to say what 
 a child shoidd study and how much he can do. We 
 carmot settle any of the questions concerning the courses 
 of study, the order of subjects and the mode of presenting 
 a subject, except as we know the child nature which 
 we expect to develop by our education. 
 
lo The Child 
 
 But when we ask what this child nature is, we find 
 
 ourselves face to face with the most important and 
 
 most unsolved problems of biology and 
 
 Genetic psychology. In the first place, we must 
 
 standpoint f "^ . ^ ." , , , , , 
 
 keep m mind that the newborn baby comes 
 
 into the world "trailing clouds," but whether of glory or 
 
 of shame depends upon his ancestry. He is not a blank 
 
 sheet of paper upon which we may write what we will, 
 
 but from the beginning responds to stimuli in ways that 
 
 are determined by his inheritance. It is supposed that 
 
 direct inheritance from the parents has the most potent 
 
 effect; from the grandparents one half as much as from 
 
 the parents, the next generation back one half as much 
 
 again, and so on back to the first ancestor. Biology 
 
 cannot yet tell us definitely how this is brought about, 
 
 nor how progress made by the parents can be transmitted 
 
 to the children, though there is little doubt of either as a 
 
 general truth. We must therefore first of all remember 
 
 that in dealing with a baby we are to some extent dealing 
 
 with psychic processes — instincts, feelings, and so on — 
 
 that have their roots far back of htunan existence in 
 
 animal life, and probably in some cases very primitive 
 
 forms of animal life, as well as with processes that are 
 
 distinctively human and individual. 
 
 But again, when we thus assume that a child simis up 
 
 or recapitulates the race experience, psychically and 
 
 Physical physically, we must imderstand what this 
 
 recapitula- means. The earlier ideas on these points 
 
 tion were very crude. According to them, a 
 
 human being in the course of embryonic development 
 
 passes through all the great stages of animal life — such as 
 
 an amoeba stage, invertebrate stage, fish stage, monkey 
 
 stage, and so on, — and is qfsentially like that genus at that 
 
 stage. Psychically the same was assumed to be true. 
 
General Remarks ii 
 
 and at birth the child was supposed to have innate and 
 inherited ideas which determined his reactions to objects. 
 The truth is far more complex and can as yet be only 
 tentatively stated. It is beyond question that in its 
 development the human embryo shows traces of its very 
 primitive ancestors. During the first month, for instance, 
 there are gill slits in the neck which indicate a fish-like 
 stage. There are also formed at an early stage amoeba- 
 like cells, and some of these persist in the blood. But 
 this is very far from saying that the embryo is at this 
 stage a fish, and so on. On the contrary, one of the most 
 characteristic things about the human embryo is the very 
 early stage at which the Anlage, or beginning of the brain 
 and central nervous system, is laid down, and the great 
 prominence which this has through the entire embryonic 
 development. That is, the most characteristically human 
 organs appear at very- early stages in the embryo and 
 also develop for the longest time. Some of the most 
 primitive organs appear at very early stages but soon 
 disappear; others appear at intermediate stages and may 
 persist or disappear either before or after birth. No 
 law has as yet been stated for this, but perhaps we may 
 say in a very general way that organs which have proved 
 themselves of great advantage to the species tend thus to 
 appear earlier and earlier, and to grow for longer and 
 longer times, while those which are either of no use or of 
 little use also tend to appear eariier and eariier but 
 atrophy sooner and sooner as well. While each individual, 
 therefore, in his development both before and after 
 birth, shows traces of all his ancestry, the traces do not 
 appear in the same order in which animal life has devel- 
 oped from lowest to highest, and they are often very 
 faint and fleeting. The record is like the geological record 
 in a volcanic or earthquake region, in which strata are 
 
12 The Child 
 
 crumpled and inverted, so that the geologist must know 
 what the original arrangement was before he can identify 
 the displaced and modified strata. So in ontogenetic or 
 individual development, because we already know what 
 the phyletic or race development has been in general from 
 unicellular life to man, we can to some extent decipher 
 the corresponding characteristics in man and see how his 
 human career has both changed the order of growth and 
 modified the organs and functions. As we learn more 
 of man we realize more and more how the later stages of 
 phyletic development preponderate in the development of 
 each human individual. 
 
 The genetic psychologist must assume that what is true 
 of bodily development is paralleled in psychic processes. 
 Psvchical ^^^ crude notion that a baby is bom with 
 recapitula- full-fledged innate ideas has long since been 
 tion given up, but so has the equally crude 
 
 opinion that his mind is like a sheet of unwritten paper, 
 which wiU take any imprint that we choose to give it. 
 Here, too, the truth is more complex by far and caimot yet 
 be satisfactorily stated. The least that can be said is 
 the following: Just as there is a continuous development of 
 bodily organs and functions from the beginning of embry- 
 onic life up to the mature adult, so there is of psychical 
 processes. The nature of these psychical processes is 
 determined by the structure of the organism, and especially 
 its nervous system, upon which depend the reception 
 of and responses to stimuli, We must conceive of a 
 continuous gradation of psychical processes from those 
 so vague and faint that they never get out of the sub- 
 conscious to those that are in the center of attention in 
 the most highly developed adult. The battle is still 
 being fought among the biologists as to whether organisms 
 without a nervous system can be supposed to have any 
 
General Remarks 13 
 
 form of consciousness, but all agree that there is at least 
 some vague sentiency from the stage in which nervous 
 ganglia are first found up to man. From then on the 
 psychical processes are supposed to increase continuously 
 in complexity and distinctness. In the individual 
 development also, we certainly cannot question that 
 some vague sensational or feeling processes must be 
 present in embryonic life at least as early as when the 
 Anlage of the brain and nervous system is laid down, 
 but here, as in the physical development, the order 
 is not the same in the individual as in the race. The 
 later stages have profoundly modified the earlier, and 
 so, while the psychical processes are homologous with 
 certain processes in the phylum, they are by no means 
 identical with or even very similar to them. That is, 
 the psychical development is htiman from the beginning, 
 just as the bodily is, though at the same time it is the 
 human modifjdng the ever present and important animal 
 factors. 
 
 But how can psyphical factors be inherited if there are 
 no innate ideas? It can be only through the inheritance 
 of certain organic structures which lead to 
 definite reactions to certain kinds of stimuli ^eritance 
 and thus to certain psychical states. Perhaps 
 the most universal instance is hunger, although it is 
 also one of the most complex. The sensation of hunger 
 depends upon the condition of the digestive tract as well 
 as of the entire body, which sends stimuH to the central 
 nervous system, giving as a result the sensation of hunger. 
 Again, in little babies as well as in most adults, a loud 
 noise calls out expressions of fear, and we infer thence to 
 a fear state of consciousness; that is, psychical inheritance 
 cannot be considered apart from physical inheritance. 
 From similar bodily conditions we infer similar psychical 
 
14 The Child 
 
 states, and so, if certain bodily structures and functions 
 
 are inherited, we can say fairly that their allied psychical 
 
 states are also inherited. But here we must also keep 
 
 in mind that just as instinctive acts do not occur until 
 
 the proper stimulus sets them off, so it is with their 
 
 allied psychical states; and just as some instincts do not 
 
 ripen for months or years after birth, so it is with the 
 
 psychical states corresponding. So here, too, the order 
 
 in which given psychical states appear proves nothing as 
 
 to whether they are inherited or acquired. 
 
 A human being is therefore the most complex organism 
 
 in the world. His body contains millions of cells and 
 
 his nervous system billions more, all of them 
 
 Objective constantly changing in their relations to 
 standpoint , ,-' ,", , , , i- 
 
 each other and to the world about him, 
 
 especially • in the growing years of childhood. Their 
 inner, psychical aspect can be no less complex and subtle 
 and shifting, though we have as yet no psychical micro- 
 scope to reveal the infinitesimal changes in the psyche 
 which correspond to the slighter and simpler physical 
 and nervous changes. Within ourselves we can observe 
 only the coarser changes, in conscious processes, and in 
 children and lower animals only changes in behavior, and 
 we infer from them the psychical states within. The thing 
 most to be desired in child study is careful observation 
 and description of children in this objective way, for if 
 we know how they act under given conditions we shall 
 know how to get what results we want and have thus a 
 scientific and objective basis for education in all its 
 aspects. From the point of view of applied psychology, 
 that is, behavior is the significant thing, and the mental 
 state assumes importance only as an interpretation of 
 behavior and so as being of assistance in controlling 
 otherwise inexplicable changes in behavior. 
 
General Remarks 15 
 
 We already have a large body of facts about children, 
 partly accurate and partly inaccurate. Systematic child 
 study shovild supplement and correct these by careful 
 observation and description and thus give a firm basis 
 for the science of education. 
 
 In this study, two methods are possible, each of which 
 may be piursued in two different ways: (i) We may 
 study some individual child with great. care 
 and detail, or (2) we may collect statistics ^1^°^^ 7^ 
 from large numbers of children. In both ' ^ " ^ 
 cases we may get our material simply from observing 
 children, or experiment upon them by fixing certain 
 conditions under which they shall act. 
 
 (i) Individual study has the decided advantage of 
 accuracy in details. We become intimately acquainted 
 with some one child, and learn to see the various fine 
 shadings of his mind. We discern the gradually increasing 
 complexity of his mental processes. We can see the 
 close connection between mind and body in many details, 
 and trace to their origin numerous quaint ideas and 
 marked characteristics. In this way we can learn to 
 deal with this one child so that we shall make com- 
 paratively few mistakes, even though our theoretical 
 knowledge be not very wide. 
 
 On the other hand, such a study fails us in many 
 respects when we come to work with other children. 
 We cannot be certain which of this child's traits are 
 peculiar to him or his family and which are common 
 to all children of his age, nor can we be sure just what 
 importance to attach to certain traits. We cannot tell 
 whether to ignore them because they will naturally be 
 outgrown, or to repress them. 
 
 (2) Group study aims to give just this sort of informa- 
 tion. It collects data from large numbers of children of 
 
i6 The Child 
 
 all ages, compares them, and finally is able to make a 
 statement about certain characteristics of the great major- 
 ity of children of each age. Such general statements, 
 when based upon sufficient data, rest upon the same kind 
 of fotindation that the laws of any science do, and have 
 the same authority. 
 
 It is evident that such group study is strong where 
 individual study is weak and, vice versa, is weak where 
 individual study is strong. It lacks the detail and 
 vividness of the individual study, but is more generally 
 true and is likely to be a safer guide when difficulties come 
 up in treating the average child whom we have not had 
 the opportimity to study. The two methods should, 
 therefore, supplement each other. Each parent or 
 teacher should get a perspective for himself by a knowl- 
 edge of the general facts of child nature, and then fill in 
 details by a study of the Mary and Johnnie with whom 
 he lives. 
 
 This outline of child nature is what child study hopes 
 to accomplish, but as yet the outline is fragmentary. 
 More observations have been made on the 
 dUId^study P^^Ysical nature of the child than on any- 
 thing else, but even here there is great 
 divergence of opinion as to the meaning of the facts 
 observed and as to their practical bearing. Good work 
 has been done on small groups of children in observing 
 most of the mental processes and some of the forms of 
 expression. From this we may get hints for an educational 
 theory, but it is valuable so far principally in giving 
 suggestions for further observations. 
 
 If, therefore, few conclusions are reached in the study 
 given here, it must be remembered that this is inevitable 
 vmder present conditions. It is easy to form a theory 
 if we have studied only a few children, but the more data 
 
General Remarks 17 
 
 we gather from large numbers of children the more 
 probable it seems that our present educational theories 
 must be considerably enlarged and altered before they 
 wiU. be applicable to most children. 
 
 The object of this book is not, therefore, so much to 
 offer conclusions, as to outline what has been done, to 
 show breaks in the outline, and to point out places for 
 future work. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 Growth of the Body 
 
 ALL weighing should be done with the child nude, 
 and all measuring without his shoes on. 
 
 1. Beginning with birth, keep a record of the changes 
 in weight and height. For the first month, weigh and 
 
 measure the baby every week; thence, to 
 Observa- ^j^g gj^^j Qf ^j^g gj-g^ year, every month; 
 
 thence, every three or six months. There 
 is very little material at present on changes between the 
 first and the sixth year, and any parents who will keep 
 such a record carefully wiU help to fill one of the gaps 
 in the subject of child study. 
 
 2. If you do not undertake any systematic record, 
 at least weigh and measure your children now and see 
 how they compare with the average weight and height 
 as shown in the tables. 
 
 3. In some schools it is possible for a teacher to get 
 statistics as to the height and weight of each child in 
 her room. Where she cannot do so, she can usually get 
 the height and weight of children who are peculiar, to 
 see how they compare with the average height and 
 weight as shown in the tables. 
 
 4. In cases where children faU below the average, 
 begin a little experimenting, i£ possible under a physi- 
 cian's advice, with their food and work. Keep a record of 
 the changes you make in the food and the work, and of 
 the effect upon the children. 
 
 18 
 
Growth of the Body 
 
 19 
 
 As our knowledge of the mind increases we see more 
 
 and more the close interrelation of mind and body, 
 
 and we realize that in trying to understand , 
 1 -. . ^ . , Importance 
 
 the condition of either at any time, we of the 
 
 must take into consideration the effect of subject 
 
 each upon the other. We have no right to expect the 
 
 Diagram 1. Showing the Relative Proportions of the Body in Child 
 AND Adult. (Langer.) 
 
 same mental work or the same moral standards from a 
 child who is sick, or cold, or hungry, as from the one who 
 is healthy, well fed, and well clad. The parent whose 
 child is much below the average in growth or in the 
 
20 The Child 
 
 control of his muscles, shotald be warned thereby to be on 
 the watch for various mental or moral abnormalities. 
 As there is no way of watching a child's mind except as 
 he reveals it through his movements, it becomes of great 
 importance that we should understand at least a little of 
 what his movements signify. 
 
 It is not uncommonly assumed that a child is simply 
 
 a little man or woman. How untrue this is as to his 
 
 body, a glance at Diagram i reveals. A 
 
 Child versus child who grew to manhood preserving his 
 man ,.,.., 1 1 i 
 
 childish proportions would be a monstros- 
 ity. What is so evidently true of the body as a 
 whole applies equally to details. The internal organs, 
 the bones, blood, fat, marrow, and nerves all differ so 
 materially from the adult's that when similar chemicdl 
 structures are found in him, they are considered path- 
 ological. We cannot, therefore, believe that a child 
 can eat the same food, breathe the same air, wear the 
 same clothing, and take the same exercise as an adult, 
 and obtain the highest degree of health. 
 
 Considering first the increase in weight from birth to 
 adolescence, observations upon hundreds of thousands of 
 Weieht children show that at birth the average 
 
 weight of a boy is 7.3 pounds; of a girl, 7.1 
 pounds. The boys' weights vary from 3 potmds to 12 
 pounds, but 87 per cent of them weigh between 6 and 9 
 pounds. The weights of the girls come within the limits 
 of 4 and II poimds, with 85 per cent between 6 and 9 
 poimds. The limits of safety, then, for both boys and 
 girls, seem to be 6 and 9 potinds. 
 
 One of the most interesting characteristics of growth, 
 both in height and weight, is its rapidly diminishing rate 
 after as well as before birth. Dviring the first three 
 months of embryonic life it is estimated that the weight 
 
Growth of the Body 21 
 
 increases 400,000,000 per cent; during the second three, 
 5,182 per cent; during the last three, 252 per cent; while 
 from birth to maturity the child will grow . 
 only about twenty-fold and during the first rate of 
 year after birth only about three-fold. By growth 
 the end of the first year the average boy weighs 21.9 
 pounds and the average girl 21.3 potinds. Koplik gives 
 the following average rates of growth during the first 
 year: from the second week to the fourth month, one 
 ounce a day; from the fourth to the sixth month, one 
 half to two thirds of an ounce a day; from the sixth to 
 the twelfth, one half an ounce a day. At six months the 
 child should weigh about twice what he did at birth. 
 
 During the nursing period there is no one health index 
 more important than that of increase in weight. If a 
 baby begins to lose weight, or even remains station- 
 ary, no effort should be spared to find the cause and to 
 remedy it. 
 
 In the registration area of the United States in 19 10 
 the deaths of babies under one year constituted more 
 than one sixth the total number of deaths — infant 
 140,057 out of 732,538. As the registration mortality 
 area is only 55 per cent of the total popiolation, nearly 
 twice this number of babies dies every year, and Irving 
 Fisher estimates that 47 per cent of these deaths are from 
 preventable causes. Thirty per cent, or nearly one third, 
 are due to diarrheal diseases, and only 15 to 20 per cent 
 to pneumonia and bronchitis. 
 
 These digestive disturbances have various important 
 causes. In brea^fed babies the mother's milk may not 
 be sufficient in a^punt or may be lacking in 
 food qualities, so that it needs to be supple- 
 mented by other food. In babies not breast-fed, the 
 milk or food used may be indigestible for the baby; or 
 
22 The Child 
 
 may be lacking in some of the necessary food qualities; 
 or, still worse, it may be impure, so that the baby gets 
 some bacterial disease. Numerous investigations show 
 that breast-fed babies have a great advantage over those 
 ■artificially fed. Their death rate is conservatively esti- 
 mated to be only one fifth or one sixth as large as that 
 of the artificially-fed babies; they are likely to weigh 
 more, their general health is better, and their develop- 
 ment is more likely to be normal. 
 
 Chemistry shows us why this is so. Milk is not just 
 milk. Its composition varies greatly even from one 
 breed of cows to another, and stiU more widely from 
 animals to man. With a healthy mother, the nailk is 
 perfectly adapted to the needs of the child, and not only 
 this but its composition changes during the. months of 
 the nursing period so that it supplies the different sub- 
 stances needed for growth at different ages. Any arti- 
 ficial substitute is almost inevitably lacking in some of 
 these or else has them in excess, and the result is more 
 or less defective nutrition or indigestion. 
 
 Accordingly, we find physicians stressing more and 
 more the great importance of a mother nursing her child 
 as far as possible. Every three months that a baby gets 
 the proper food increase its chances of life and health 
 tremendously, and every possible means shoiold be used 
 to increase and prolong the natural supply. 
 
 If artificial food is also needed, great care should be 
 used both in selecting the food and in keeping it pure. 
 In most cases a physician should be consulted, and the 
 baby should be carefully watched- ands^weighed in order 
 to be sure that it is gaining the prop^lamount. Fortu- 
 nately, in many of our cities now there are milk stations 
 where poor mothers may obtain pure milk either at cost 
 or free, and may also get the services of a physician and 
 
Growth of the Body 
 
 23 
 
 nurse free. Such stations have done much to reduce the 
 death toll of babies during the summer months and de- 
 serve town or city support. 
 
 We have very few records of increase in weight from 
 one to six years. Hall states that during the second 
 year the child should gain four or five pounds and by two 
 and a half years weigh about one fifth the adult weight. 
 
 By the sixth year, the average boy weighs 45.2 pounds; 
 the average girl, 43.4 pounds. Thence to the seventeenth 
 year, the following table shows the weights Average 
 
 in pounds, with ordinary indoor clothing. weights 
 
 Burk's Table Showing Average Weight of 68,000 American 
 Children in Boston, St. Louis, and Milwaukee 
 
 Age 
 
 6>^. 
 
 9'A- 
 10)4. 
 ii>?. 
 
 12^. 
 
 14^- 
 
 Boys 
 
 Average 
 in lbs. 
 
 45 
 49 
 54 
 59 
 65 
 70 
 76 
 84 
 95 
 107 
 121 
 
 Annual 
 increase 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 10 
 12 
 13 
 
 Per cent 
 
 of 
 increase 
 
 Girls 
 
 Average 
 in lbs. 
 
 43 
 47 
 52 
 57 
 62 
 69 
 78 
 
 106 
 112 
 
 Annual 
 increase 
 
 Per cent 
 of 
 
 9-9 
 10. o 
 
 9-3 
 9.6 
 10.5 
 13.2 
 12.7 
 II. 9 
 8.5 
 
 5-2 
 
 According to this table, for boys there is a fairly regular 
 increase in weight up to ten and one half years; then a 
 slightly retarded one to twelve and one half, and then 
 the adolescent more rapid increase up to the end of the 
 observed ages, sixteen and one half. The most rapid 
 rate is put at fifteen and one half years by most observers. 
 With girls the retardation period is very slight, and the 
 adolescent acceleration runs from eleven and one half to 
 fourteen and one half vyith the greatest height at twelve 
 
i4 
 
 The Child 
 
 and one half. In general girls weigh slightly less than 
 boys of the same age, but from twelve and one half to 
 fourteen and one half slightly more. 
 
 After the sixteenth year measurements on college 
 students show a progressive diminution in the rate of 
 growth, though there is some increase at least up to 
 twenty-five years. College students, however, are a 
 picked class, and probably their growth' is greater, both 
 absolutely and relatively, than that of the general pop- 
 ulation. 
 
 The average newborn boy measures 19.68 inches, with 
 
 the extreme limits at 15 and 24 inches; the newborn girl 
 
 19.48 inches, with the limits at 16 and 23 
 
 ^'^ inches. The most ' rapid growth in height, 
 
 as in weight, is in the first months of Hfe. In the first 
 month, a child adds something like 2}4 inches to his 
 length and by the end of the first year has increased from 
 7 to 8 inches. At the time of the first dentition Camerer 
 observed a lessening of the rate of growth. At the age of 
 six years, the average boy measures 44.10 inches, the 
 average girl, 43.66 inches. Thence to the seventeenth 
 year, their average heights in inches are shown in the 
 following table.' 
 
 Years 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 , 
 
 IS 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 Boys . . 
 Girls . . 
 
 44.10 
 43-66 
 
 46.21 
 45-94 
 
 48.16 
 48.07 
 
 SO.09 
 49.61 
 
 S2.2I 
 
 SI. 78 
 
 S4.OI 
 S3. 79 
 
 SS-78 
 57.16 
 
 S8.17 
 58.7s 
 
 61.08 
 60.32 
 
 62.96 
 61.39 
 
 65.58 
 61.72 
 
 66.29 
 61.99 
 
 iThese measurements were taken without shoes. As only 
 American children are included in them, the measures are slightly 
 larger than the average. The American-born child is slightly 
 taller and heavier than the English, Irish, German, or Scandinavian 
 child. No comparative measurements exist for other nationalities. 
 We should also note here that the periods of most rapid increase, 
 both in height and' in weight, are put from one to two years earlier 
 by some writers. Doubtless food, nationality, and climate influence 
 this. This table is taken from Bowditch. 
 
Growth of the Body 25 
 
 There is probably a slight increase in height up to 
 .twenty-five years, but there have been relatively few 
 measurements after the seventeenth year. 
 
 Here again we note a rhythm, of much the same nature 
 as that of the increase in weight. The boys, as a rule, 
 are taller than the girls except between the ages of thirteen 
 and fourteen. Their periods of growth are more sharply 
 defined, and individuals differ from each other within 
 wider limits. The differences between individuals also 
 increase with age. It is sometimes said that up to adoles- 
 cence a child lives the race life; at adolescence there is 
 a strong development of family traits, and thereafter the 
 child becomes more individual. 
 
 The most marked fluctuations in growth occur between 
 the years of six and nine for both boys and girls, and 
 again between eleven and thirteen for girls, pjivthms 
 and fourteen and sixteen for boys. The of growth 
 first period is closely connected with the ^^2^^^ 
 getting of the second teeth, and with the 
 fact that at this time the brain is rapidly developing 
 fibers of connection between its various parts. On ac- 
 count of this brain growth, there is usually a marked 
 ■mental change in each child. He has more interests, he 
 plays more kinds of games, and he has a wider range of 
 friends than before. The second change is the accom- 
 paniment of puberty and will be considered later. 
 
 It is most interesting to notice that, taking into con- 
 sideration all the observations made, periods of rapid 
 growth in height precede periods of rapid Relations 
 growth in weight, although this is not between 
 so marked with girls as with boys. This height and 
 is true not only of the larger periods >n weight 
 of which we have spoken, but of shorter periods 
 as well. 
 
6 The Child 
 
 R. Malling-Hansen of Copenhagen made observations 
 Lpon one htindred and thirty boys from seven to fifteen^ 
 horter years of age, for a period of two years, to 
 
 bytiuns find out what rhythms of growth occur with- 
 f growth jj^ ^jjg ^y^jg q£ ^]jg jQQX. He found these 
 
 rell marked both in height and in weight. The period of 
 lost rapid growth in weight. is from August to Decem- 
 ler; of average growth, from December to the end of 
 Lpril, and of least growth from April to August. Con- 
 ersely, the greatest increase in height is from April to 
 Lugust, and the least from August to December. 
 
 Within each month he observed rhythmical altema- 
 ions, a period of growth of perhaps fifteen days alter- 
 ating AAdth one of comparative rest. He also found a 
 imilar rhythm within the week, and noticed that during 
 he day children increase in weight and decrease in height, 
 ^hile during the night the converse is true. Heat and 
 ght seem to accelerate increase in weight. Camerer 
 orroborates Malling-Hansen in most of his observa- 
 Lons; and Vierordt and Fleischmann also corroborate the 
 reekly rhythms. 
 
 None of these observers has dealt with large numbers 
 f children, and therefore we need ftirther data before 
 ^e can be sure that these rhythms are universal; but the 
 arious observers agree as far as they have gone, and 
 lere seems to be no good reason a priori why the facts 
 lould not be generally true. 
 
 When we consider the growth of the various organs of 
 le body, and of the skeleton, muscles, and nervous sys- 
 rowth f *^"^' *^^ "^°^* striking fact is that it is irregu- 
 flerent ^^'^- At any given time, certain parts will 
 trts of the be developing rapidly, and others slowly. 
 The details of this growth are much too 
 smplex to be given here, and their meaning is not yet 
 
Growth of the Body 
 
 27 
 
 understood. It need only be stated that at adolescence 
 the heart and lungs, as well as the reproductive organs, 
 are growing very rapidly, and that between seven and nine 
 the brain is developing numerous fibers of connection, 
 although it is increasing little if any in size. 
 
 Vierordt's Table, Showing the Relative Growth of Various 
 Parts of the Body, Counting Size at Birth as 100. 
 
 Adult 
 
 Length of head 
 
 Upper part of head. 
 
 Length of face 
 
 From chin to upper end of breastbone. 
 
 Breastbone 
 
 Abdomen 
 
 Leg 
 
 Height of foot . 
 Upper arm . . . . 
 Forearm 
 
 Birth 
 
 End of 
 
 21 MOS. 
 
 y1. 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 191.7 
 
 100 
 
 114 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 100 
 
 500 
 
 700 
 
 100 
 
 186 
 
 300 
 
 100 
 
 160 
 
 240 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 455 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 300 
 
 100 
 
 iS,3 
 
 328 
 
 100 
 
 182 
 
 322 
 
 200 
 
 157 
 
 260 
 900 
 
 314 
 
 260 
 
 472 
 450 
 350 
 350 
 
 Relation of 
 size to food 
 
 It goes without saying that a child that is well fed 
 will be taller and heavier than he would be if he went 
 hungry, but there is another and erroneous 
 idea connected with this. We often assume 
 that any well-fed child will be taller and 
 heavier than one poorly fed. This is not so. Size de- 
 pends not only upon good nutrition but also upon nation- 
 ality, climate, and family. There seems to be a certain 
 size for each individual, which his body will strive des- 
 perately to reach even under the most unfavorable con- 
 ditions, but which it is not likely to exceed under any 
 circumstances. In this struggle, disease or insufhcient 
 food before the age of six has the most permanently bad 
 effects. After that time, any drawbacks will retard 
 growth temporarily, but will be followed by an unusually 
 rapid growth. A child who has had good health up to 
 the sixth year has an excellent start in life. 
 
 Bowditch's Tenth Report seems to show conclusively 
 
28 The Child 
 
 that duldren of the poorer classes are lighter and shorter 
 than those of the well-to-do, though the differences are 
 small. All observers find that the professional classes 
 are, at any given age, taller and heavier than the labor- 
 ing classes. This is true in England, Germany, Denmark 
 and Sweden. 
 
 The rate of growth, however, does not seem to be 
 markedly different; that is, the poor child grows as 
 rapidly as the rich, but is shorter and lighter to begin 
 with. This seems to indicate that the embryonic and 
 early conditions of nutrition are the most impor^nt for 
 absolute weights and heights. 
 
 Exactly what importance should be assigned in growth 
 to food, race, and climate is still unsettled. Americans 
 are taller and heavier than other nationalities, but this 
 is not due exclusively to race, for an Irish-American or 
 German-American recruit is taller and heavier than his 
 brother in the old country. Food and climate evidently 
 have considerable influence here. 
 
 It is significant that idiots and imbeciles are usually 
 shorter and lighter than normal persons; but on the 
 Relation of °^^^^ hand, we must not forget that men of 
 size to men- talent, if not of genius, are not infrequently 
 tal abiUty small. We cannot maintain that men below 
 a giv^n height and weight are stupid, any more than we 
 can hold that size has no relation whatever to mental 
 ability. The case should probably be stated thus: Any 
 child who falls much below the size of other members of 
 his family at the same age, is also likely to fall below them 
 in intelligence. A more direct relation between mind 
 and body is given in bodily control, which we shall con- 
 sider later. 
 
 In view of the well-marked rhythms of growth, the ques- 
 tion at once arises as to their bearing upon education. 
 
Growth of the Body 
 
 29 
 
 Should the child, while growing rapidly, have more or 
 
 less school work? Should we stimulate him or quiet 
 
 him? The most diverse answers have been „ . . , 
 j^ ii • „, , . , Periods of 
 
 given to these questions. The chief con- growth and 
 
 flict has raged about the proper treatment education 
 
 of the adolescent boy and girl. We find some physicians 
 
 declaring that girls from twelve to fourteen years old 
 
 should be taken out of school entirely, and boys from 
 
 fourteen to sixteen years old given much less mental 
 
 work to do. Many educators, on the other hand, claim 
 
 that this is the time when permanerit interests in all 
 
 subjects must be established. The child now lives in a 
 
 new world — one of ideals — and we must introduce him 
 
 as speedily as may be to the best in literature, history, 
 
 science, art, music, religion, and everything that goes to 
 
 make up our complex life. 
 
 We may perhaps untangle a few of the threads from 
 
 this knotted skein by comparing the pFi^ids of greatest 
 
 susceptibility to disease with those of adoles- p 1 ^ f 
 
 cence. Dr. E. M. Hartwell of Boston has age to 
 
 made tables based on the mortality returns disease 
 
 of Boston for 1875, 1885, and i8go. He finds that 
 
 specific life-intensity, that is, ability to resist disease, 
 
 varies as follows : 
 
 Age 
 
 Per cent of 
 increase 
 in weight 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Specific life 
 intensity 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Per cent of 
 increase 
 
 IN height 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 5-6. 
 6-7. 
 7-8. 
 8-9. 
 9-10 . 
 lO-II . 
 
 11-12 . 
 12-13 ■ 
 13-14 ■ 
 14-15 • 
 15-16 . 
 
 3 
 
 4.00 
 4.08 
 4-58 
 372 
 398 
 4.06 
 4- 56 
 4.. 08 
 
 311 
 1 .90 
 
 ■77 
 
 .20 
 .58 
 .38 
 •03 
 .04 
 .12 
 
 ■39 
 .78 
 .68 
 .01 
 ■36 
 
 60.08 
 
 69 
 103 
 123 
 
 19s 
 191 
 
 309 
 232, 
 162. 
 171. 
 169.3 
 
 673 
 74^5 
 106.8 
 164.0 
 134 ■ 8 
 209.3 
 233-2 
 290.1 
 238.7 
 250.1 
 I88.I 
 
 9.69 
 8.83 
 10.68 
 9.26 
 10.24 
 13-78 
 13 23 
 10.94 
 
 7-83 
 5-61 
 
 10.24 
 8.78 
 9.86 
 
 979 
 10.40 
 
 7-43 
 9-74 
 10.31 
 11.66 
 13.02 
 12.96 
 
30 The Child 
 
 According to this table, girls from eleven to twelve 
 years old and boys from twelve to thirteen years old are 
 better able to resist disease than at any previous time, 
 although the increase in power of resistance is not so 
 marked with boys as with girls. The entire period from 
 nine to thirteen for girls and from ten to fifteen for boys 
 is the time of greatest resistance to disease, while the 
 period after thirteen for girls and fifteen for boys is one 
 of less power of resistance than the years immediately 
 preceding. To state it in other terms, the period im- 
 mediately preceding adolescence is the healthiest time of 
 life; while adolescence itself falls short of this period but 
 exceeds the period before the ninth year. 
 
 Other statistics, on the other hand, seem to indicate 
 that the maximum resistance to disease comes some- 
 what later, when the boy or girl has practically finished 
 growing in height and is making great gains in weight. 
 This would seem to argue that the adolescent can endure 
 a reasonable amount of work without harm. We need, 
 however, more statistics which shall correlate all the 
 factors of growth in the same children over a period 
 of years before we can safely draw conclusions. 
 
 Throughout this account we have given -Only averages, 
 and have constantly used such terms as "between certain 
 Physiological ^S^s" or "at about this age," in order to 
 age indicate that while the order of growth is 
 
 the same in aU children, any particular child may be 
 more or less advanced than the average child of that age. 
 C. W. Crampton has made this difference between what 
 he calls the physiological and the chronological age the 
 subject of especial study. We know, for instance, that 
 the age for attainment of puberty may vary by as much 
 as five years, and in very exceptional cases even more, 
 so that some boys and. girls of twelve are in various 
 
Growth of the Body 31 
 
 respects as old as others of fourteen and sixteen. To 
 put such precocious children with those of the same 
 chronological age in their play interests is, Crampton 
 believes, a great mistake and works harm both to the 
 normal and the precocious children. Similarly, to force 
 a slowly developing boy or girl to keep up with those 
 who have developed more rapidly may do permanent 
 and serious injury. The true standard, therefore, is not 
 the number of years since birth, but the degree of devel- 
 opment already attained, and while there are means and 
 averages for the maturity of each part of the body, those 
 responsible for a given child should know also in what 
 respects he deviates from the mean, and should vary 
 his training accordingly. 
 
 In conclusion: In the newborn child all the elements 
 of the future man are present in germ, but education 
 decides which factors are to grow and 
 which ' are to atrophy. In the first years 
 of life growth of all parts of the body is far more rapid 
 than at any other time, and educational, that is, en- 
 vironmental, influences are most potent. There are at 
 least two well-marked periods of growth in height and in 
 weight with both boys and girls, of which the first is con- 
 nected with the second dentition and the second with the 
 setting in of puberty. Increase in height precedes in- 
 crease in weight, and increase in weight is accompanied 
 by increased resistance to disease, and is probably the, 
 time when mental work can be done to the best advan- 
 tage. Size and mental ability have, not a direct, but an 
 indirect, relation to each other, varying with the family, 
 climate, and food. Any given child must be studied not ^ 
 only in comparison with other children of the same age, 
 but also in comparison especially with others of his. Q^vjii 
 family. We need not only general laws for all children, 
 
32 The Child 
 
 but also for children of this or that family, just as we 
 have laws for species of flowers in addition to those for 
 the genera. 
 
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Growth of the Body 35 
 
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 Pearson, K. Intelligence. . . Size and Shape of Head. Biometrika, 
 
 1906, 105-146. 
 Pohlmann, A. Upright Position. Monisl, 1907, 570-582. 
 Porter, W. S. Physical Basis of Precocity and Dullness. Trans. 
 
 Ant. Acad. Sc. at St. Louis, Vol. VI, 161-181. Also Am. Phys. 
 
 Ed. Rev., Vc?l. II, 155-173, same article. 
 Growth of St. Louis Children, 263-380. 
 Posse, Nils. Special Kinesiology of Educational Gymnastics. Lee, 
 
 Boston. $3.00. 
 Radosavljevich, P. R., Prof. Boas's New Theory of Form of Head. 
 
 Am. Anthrop. 191 1, 394-436. 
 Roberts, C. Manual of Anthropometry. Churchill, London. $1.50. 
 Rowe, S. H. Physical Nature of the Child and How to Study It. 
 
 MacmiUan, N. Y. $1.00. 211 pp.v 
 Scripture, E. W. Education of Muscular Control and Power. 
 
 Studies from Yale Psy. Lab., II. 
 Seguin, E. Prenatal and Infantile Culture. Pop. Sc. Mo., Vol. X, 
 
 3a-43- 
 
 Shaw, E. R. Observations on Teaching Children to Write. 
 C. S. M., Vol. I, 226. 
 
 Smedley, F. W. Report on Child-Study Investigation. Chicago 
 Board of Education. 
 
 Telford-Smith, T. Scientific Study of Mental and Physical Con- 
 ditions of Childhood. Pediatrics, 1897, 317-321. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. Empirical Studies on Theory of Measurement, 
 N. Y., 1907, 45 pp. Col. Univ. Cont. XV, No. 3. 
 Theory of Mental and Social Measurements, 1904, 212 pp. 
 
 Tucker, M. A. Involuntary Movements. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. 
 VIII, 394- 
 
 Warner, Francis. Physical and Mental Condition Among Fifty 
 Thousand Children. Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc, 1896, 125-128. 
 (The basis of most other work of this sort.) Sum. in Rept. 
 Com. of Ed., 1895-6, 1175. 
 Study of Children and Nervous System of the Child. Mac- 
 millan, N. Y. Each, Ji.oo. (Both works cover much the 
 same ground; very diffuse.) 
 
 Wissler, Clark. Correlation of Mental and Physical Tests. Psy. 
 Rev., Monog. Sup., Vol. Ill, No. 6. 
 Growth of Boys. Am. Anthrop., N. S., 1903, 81-88. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 Common Diseases and De^cts 
 
 SINCE the connection between the sound mind and 
 the sound body is as close as the last chapters have 
 shown, it is of great importance for all who have charge 
 Prevention °^ children to know some of the more common 
 of disease s3miptoms of disease. Examinations, miade 
 in recent years, of the eyes and ears of school children 
 show that to a most appalling degree parents and teachers 
 have considered children stupid, obstinate, and bad who 
 are only partially deaf or blind. In the minds of phy- 
 sicians there can be little doubt that many other cases of 
 supposed innate wickedness or laziness are in reality 
 cases of some form of nervous derangement. 
 
 What we shall do, therefore, in this chapter is to de- 
 scribe some of the symptoms which should put parents 
 on their guard and set them to watching the child in 
 question more carefully, with a view to consulting with a 
 physician shoidd the doubtful symptoms persist. It 
 should be well understood that such observations as the 
 parent and teacher can make are only preliminary to the 
 physician's examination, and that it is unsafe for a tjTO 
 to adopt on his own responsibility any course of treatment. 
 The object is not to get rid of the physician, but to save 
 children from the suffering due to the neglect of un- 
 healthy conditions which arise from our inability to know 
 when they exist. We wish to sharpen our eyes to see 
 wrong conditions so that they may be more speedily re- 
 lieved. It is unquestionable that a very large percentage 
 
 36 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 37 
 
 both of deaths and attacks of disease could be pre- 
 vented, and Irving Fisher goes so far as to say that 67 
 per cent of the children who die between the second and 
 eighth years could be saved. In most cases we , know 
 both the cause and the remedy for the disease, but usually 
 we do not discover the disease until it has obtained tod 
 much headway, and the resisting powers of the child are 
 exhausted. It is of the utmost importance, -therefore, 
 that parents and teachers should know the danger signals, 
 especially of ^cute and serious disease, so that the child 
 may be promptly put into the hands of a competent 
 physician. 
 
 We have already noted that in the first year of life 
 gastro-intestinal diseases cause nearly one third of the 
 mortality, and can be largely prevented by g tr - 
 care in the choice and preparation of the intestinal 
 baby's milk. If, however, there is an acute «lisease 
 attack, it often begins with nausea and vomiting, usually 
 with diarrhea and fever, and often with acute pain in 
 the abdomen. Until a doctor can be obtained the safest 
 treatment is to stop giving food and to give a cathartic, 
 while a warm bath will often aid in relieving the pain and 
 stimulating the nervous system. 
 
 Certain chronic diseases like rachitis and scorbutus are 
 due to defective feeding, and while they may becorne very 
 serious if neglected, they are easily cured by getting the 
 proper food. 
 
 Another disease that is especially serious during the 
 first year of life is broncho-pneumonia. It usually at- 
 tacks those of low vitality and its symptoms 
 are doubtful. Usually there is at first a slight ^l°^^^f 
 bronchitis, followed after a few days by sud- 
 den chill and fever, with perhaps vomiting and cough- 
 ing. Other diseases of the respiratory tract are very 
 
38 The Child 
 
 common, especially before the tenth year, and tubercu- 
 losis is more common among children than was formerly 
 supposed. The best preventives of all such diseases are 
 good food and fresh air. 
 
 Acute infectious diseases assume a special significance 
 at the kindergarten age and thereafter on account of the 
 ease with which they may be spread. We will therefore 
 take them up in more detail, but must preface this 
 account by certain general statements. 
 
 In the first place, the early symptoms of a disease 
 may be somewhat differently described by different au- 
 Variations thorities, and an epidemic of a given disease 
 in symptoms in a certain year may have a character- 
 of disease jg^j^ severity or lightness. The causes of 
 such variations are obscure, but must depend somewhat 
 upon the differences in the strength and constitution 
 of individual children, and in part upon climatic 
 and other environmental conditions. Again, various 
 diseases resemble each other in their early stages, showing 
 certain common sjmiptoms, and are sometimes hard to 
 distinguish even by physicians. Teachers and parents 
 should not therefore expect rigidly accurate descriptions, 
 nor try to make a diagnosis for a specific disease. The 
 important thing is that a child showing symptoms which 
 may develop into an infectious disease or a serious attack 
 of sickness shall not be neglected, but shall be careftdly 
 wa,tched and promptly separated from other children if 
 the symptoms seem to point to an infectious disease. 
 
 It must also be said that statements as to the period of 
 incubation and of infection of infectious diseases vary 
 considerably, as will be indicated below. This introduces 
 uncertainty into the methods of preventing an epidemic, 
 so that we find much variation. But since the control 
 of this matter is not in the hands either of teachers or 
 
C ommon Diseases and Defects 39 
 
 parents, but of local boards of health, it falls somewhat 
 outside our discussion. The statements as to mortality 
 rates and age of greatest mortality and morbidity vary 
 somewhat also in different countries and different sec- 
 tions of one country. 
 
 The least dangerous of the acute infectious diseases 
 are German measles, chicken pox, and mumps. German 
 measles usually seem to appear suddenly, 
 with rash breaking out, a httle sore throat measles 
 and fever, and perhaps inflamed eyes. Both chicken pox, 
 the illness and its after effects are usually 
 slight. The disease is spread by the discharges from 
 nose and mouth. 
 
 Chicken pox usually has little or no fever and only a 
 slight rash, appearing as small pimples which fill with a 
 clear liquid and gradually dry up. Mumps also seem to 
 begin suddenly, with vomiting, fever, and pain about the 
 angle of the jaw. The glands become swollen and very 
 tender. The disease rarely leaves serious effects, but is 
 qtiite infectious, probably through discharges from nose 
 and mouth. 
 
 Whooping cough is much more serious. Koplik- gives 
 the mortality rate from it as 25 per cent during the first 
 year; 5 per cent from the first to the fifth, whooping 
 and but i per cent between the fifth and cough 
 tenth years. It rarely occurs after ten years, and is 
 most frequent in the first year. The period of incuba- 
 tion is variously stated as from two to fourteen days. 
 It usually begins like a cold in the head, with sore throat, 
 and is worse at night. Instead of improving in a few 
 days, it gets worse, the whoop appears, and the spasm of 
 coughing may end in vomiting. The discharges carry 
 the infection. 
 
 Measles rarely occur in the first year, and are most 
 
40 The Child 
 
 common between the first and fifth years. The period 
 of incubation, from the time of exposiire to the appear- 
 ance of symptoms, is from ten to fifteen days, 
 eases ^^ g^^^ ^j^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^j^. g2jg]^^ lassitude 
 
 and headache, and a little pinkness of the eyes, but very 
 little or no fever. If the mouth is examined at this 
 time, the soft and hard palates and cheeks may show- 
 irregular rose-colored streaks or spots, some of them 
 with whitish centers. Two or three days later nasal 
 catarrh, conjimctivitis and a cough appear, with a little 
 fever, and the eruption soon appears, beginning usually 
 on the face and head. It is supposed that ntieasles are 
 most infectious during the catarrh and eruption, but may 
 also be given during the desquamation. The average 
 mortality rate from them is about 8 per cent, largest in 
 the first year of life, and less after the fifth year. 
 
 Scarlet fever is highly infectious and dangerous. Some 
 authorities state that of persons below twenty years of 
 
 age exposed to this disease, 56 per cent take 
 fe^rcr^* it. It may be carried in clothing, on hands, 
 
 from the skin, secretions, or excretions of 
 the patient, and it is known that the germs live a long 
 time folded in clothing and hidden in rooms. The in- 
 fection may be given during incubation, eruption, and 
 desquamation, that is, through the whole period of the 
 disease. The period of incubation is not definitely known. 
 Some German authorities state it as eight to ten days, 
 some English as three to six. There are occasional cases 
 of thirty days. The symptoms are also variable. There 
 may at first be a a slight sore throat, especially if the 
 child has a sensitive throat. A sudden rise of tempera- 
 ture may follow and then an attack of vomiting. From 
 twelve to thirty six hours later the rash usually appears, 
 first on the upper chest. 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 41 
 
 Diphtheria is also highly dangerous and infectious. 
 It is most common between the ages of two and six, and 
 is carried by discharges, on the hands, or by 
 the clothing. The period of incubation is 
 from two to eight days, but the average is three. The 
 usual symptoms are sore throat, lassitude, pains in the 
 joints, back, and head, but there may be very little 
 fever. The throat usually shows the characteristic white 
 patches, but in some cases these do not appear, and yet 
 such cases are as infectious as any others. 
 
 Influenza is highly contagious and the after effects may 
 be serious, but it is rarely fatal. It is most frequent in 
 children before the fifth year, and is spread 
 in the discharges from nose and throat. The 
 period of incubation varies from twelve hours to three 
 days. The first symptoms are usually a chill, which may 
 be followed by vomiting, then some fever and pain in the 
 head and limbs. Usually there is a cold in the head and 
 cough, the eyes, throat, and tonsils are inflamed, and the 
 face is flushed. 
 
 The eyes are subject to certain contagions which may 
 lead to blindness or at least to pain in the use of the eyes. 
 If there be discharges from the eyes, whether 
 thin or thick, noticeable inflammation of eye- eye, ear, 
 balls or eyelids, and sensitiveness to light, a a?d skin 
 child should be at once examined by a phy- 
 sician. Eye diseases in school are easily spread by the 
 common towel, borrowed handkerchiefs, and in similar 
 ways. 
 
 Certain skin diseases, such as itch, are similarly spread, 
 and any child who scratches himself persistently should 
 be examined carefully. Itch, not to mention lice, 
 carmot always be detected unless there is a careful ex- 
 amination. 
 
42 The Child 
 
 Discharge from the nose, especially if it is thick and 
 
 creamy, breathing through the mouth, enlarged tonsils 
 
 or neck glands, should all be referred to 
 
 *°°' ® the physician for examination. ■ Breathing 
 through the mouth, if habitual, is a common sjnnptom of 
 adenoid growths. These are most frequent between 
 the ages of six and ten years, and are found in many 
 children, some investigators putting the per cent as high 
 as 25. The obstruction to breathing and the diminution 
 in thQ oxygen obtained leads to lassitude and general 
 mental slowness, so that the child is greatly hampered. 
 The removal is a very simple process and usually entirely 
 effective. 
 
 Defective teeth have also assvtmed great importance of 
 late. We are just beginning to realize that with proper 
 care a man's teeth will last his entire lifetime, 
 — assuming- that his general health and 
 especially his digestion are good. On the other hand, 
 dental examinations of school children show that from 
 two thirds to four fifths of them have one or more decay- 
 ing teeth, and school records show that a considerable 
 per cent stay out of School several days a year on account 
 of toothache. Parents very commonly do not care for 
 the first teeth of their children, believing that as they 
 soon drop out it does no harm to let them decay. Quite 
 the contrary is true, however, for quite apart from the 
 child's suffering from toothache, if the first teeth are 
 imperfect and the gums unhealthy, or if the first teeth 
 are pidled bef pre the second are ready to come through, 
 the second set is likely to be defective or misplaced. 
 
 Again, during the second dentition especial care should 
 be taken to see .that the first, teeth do not prevent the 
 second from coming in evenly. During this period the 
 difficulty that the child has in chewing his food properly 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 
 
 43 
 
 is likely to lead to imperfect digestion and may interfere 
 with his school work. Pronunciation is also affected, 
 and this may react to his discredit in reading and reciting. 
 The preventive measures — which are being widely in- 
 corporated in school hygiene— are to teach the children 
 the importance of brushing the teeth regularly and thor- 
 oughly, and to show them how to do it, as well as to 
 ernphasize the importance of prompt care of a decaying 
 tooth. 
 
 We can only refer here to the numerous problems con- 
 nected with sanitary schoolrooms and houses, such as the 
 choice of a site, architecture, size and lighting 
 of rooms, best methods of cleaning, colors for General 
 walls and ceiling, sanitary blackboards and 
 erasers, fire escapes, plumbing and closets, and so on. 
 These are discussed in detail in the standard texts on 
 school sanitation and hygiene, to which references are 
 given at the end of the chapter. » 
 
 Again, we cannot discuss the problems connected with 
 the physical care and the feeding of children, which are 
 fundamental to health and morality, but must be content 
 to refer to some of the standard texts. 
 
 Medical inspection in schools also can only be referred 
 to here. The value of medical examination for all 
 children has been abundantly demonstrated 
 by what it has accomplished, although in inspection 
 many places the physicians are poorly paid and school 
 and they handle such large numbers of 
 children that they cannot give a thorough examination. 
 The recommendations of the physician can, however, be 
 made far more effective if there is some one connected 
 with the school who follows up the children to see that 
 the parents remedy the indicated defects as far as possible. 
 In most cases this person should be a nurse who goes to 
 
44 The Child 
 
 the child's home and talks with the mother, explaining 
 the physician's directions and ascertaining whether or 
 not the parents can pay for glasses, dental service, or 
 whatever it may be. 
 
 The principal objection made to school doctors and 
 nurses is on the score of expense, but from a broad view- 
 point they save money to the community, both in pre- 
 venting disease and increasing effectiveness, and in 
 keeping each child in school more regularly so that the 
 school plant is more fully used. 
 
 There are, however, some conditions over which the 
 teachers can usually exercise some control, which are also 
 very closely and ftondamentally connected with the 
 amount and quality of the mental work done by the 
 children, and which soon react upon their nervous con- 
 dition. 
 
 The first of these is bad air, both at home and at school, 
 ^hy is it that the American, even the well-educated 
 American, is so insensitive to the need of 
 pure air? Is it because he breathes badly 
 and has his sense of smell dulled by catarrh? There 
 must be some other explanation than that of ignorance, 
 for the air even of most homes is not pure, and it is rare 
 indeed to go into a schoolroom where the air is not impure. 
 Many a sensible, weU-educated man and woman goes to 
 bed night after night with closed doors and windows, and 
 many a housekeeper, exemplary in other respects, never 
 feels the need of throwing the house open to the air and 
 sim. 
 
 The simplest test for piu-e air is that the air in a room 
 shall smell fresh upon coming in from outdoors. Even 
 in winter time this is easy to secure. Have boards about 
 four inches wide fitted into the bottom of the window 
 casings, and let the windows rest on them instead of 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 45 
 
 closing down. This secures a current of air at the top, 
 between the two sashes, and ventilates an ordinary living 
 or sleeping room. There is usually no reason why a 
 window should not be open in a bedroom at night, even 
 in the coldest weather; but if that demands too much 
 courage, at least the door can be open and a window in 
 some other part of the house opened to lead to a circu- 
 lation of the air. 
 
 In the schoolroom there is usually an inadequate system 
 of ventilation. Architects do not consider, in their es- 
 timate of the necessary supply of air, the amoimt that is 
 befouled by the bodies and clothes of the pupils. They 
 consider only the nice, clean, healthy child, who is, in the 
 city at any rate, the exception. As a result, the air in 
 most schools is heavy from the first half hour after school 
 opens to the end of the day. Then the janitor locks in 
 the bad air to be used again the next morning. 
 
 Supplement this defective ventilation by opening 
 windows at every recess and noon, and see to it that the 
 room is thoroughly aired at night. If the room is made 
 too cold for the pupils by this constant airing, warm them 
 by some vigorous gymnastics, and particularly by breath- 
 ing exercises. The fresh, invigorating oxygen will soon 
 reconcile them to the slightly lowered temperaturS. 
 
 The great importance of the air supply lies in the fact 
 that air that has once been breathed is deficient in oxygen, 
 which is one of the most important constituents in build- 
 ing up nervous and muscular tissue. A person who 
 breathes impure air five or six hours a day soon feels dull 
 all the time. He cannot think clearly or rapidly because 
 the brain centers are not properly fed, and his stupidity 
 may become permanent. His resistance to disease is 
 lessened, and he is subject to headaches and numerous 
 minor evils. 
 
46 The Child 
 
 The unsuspected value of fresh air has been demon- 
 strated in the most striking fashion within the last ten 
 
 years in the open-air and open-window 
 Open-air schools. Perhaps the best example of this 
 
 is the open-air school at Charlottenburg, a 
 suburb of Berlin, Germany. Here sickly children 
 spend the day, from eight to six o'clock out of doors, 
 with food and baths supplied, and with only about half 
 the usual number of hours spent in formal school work. 
 Nevertheless they do in this time the full amount done 
 by children in the regular school routine. Similar re- 
 sults have been obtained in other schools, even when 
 little or no food is given the children and the sole differ- 
 ence is in the amount of fresh air obtained. 
 
 The arrangements to protect children from unseasonable 
 weather and from cold vary widely. In some instances 
 the school is on the roof, a part of which is provided with 
 a tent or a pavilion where the desks and school apparatus 
 can be put. For cold weather, bags are provided for the 
 children to use when sitting. In other cases an old 
 building is modified by either taking out one outside 
 wall of each room' entirely, or by putting in a wide sur- 
 face of windows which may be closed in bad weather. 
 It is claimed that in such rooms, with a proper arrange- 
 ment of the program, children will be comfortable at a 
 temperature of about 45° P. and will be almost entirely 
 free from the nose and throat troubles which aflfUct other 
 children in closed rooms in the same building. 
 
 The most important thing to secure comfort is that 
 vigorous physical exefcise shall alternate with work at 
 the desks, and the statement is made that as a rule after 
 twenty minutes of play or exercise a child can sit con- 
 fortably for forty minutes, and do the work usually done 
 in an hour. 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 47 
 
 Whether or not individual parents or teachers are in- 
 clined to try the open-air living and sleeping the year 
 round, they can at least practice and teach deep breathing 
 and the proper use of the lungs, and gradually accustom 
 the children and th'? community to lower temperatures 
 and better air in our dwellings. 
 
 The humidity in the air has of late been receiving 
 much attention on account of its relation both to temper- 
 ature and to throat and nose affections. The 
 normal himudity is between 50 and 60 per 
 cent of saturation. If it be much greater it becomes very 
 oppressive, while if much less, the skin and membranes 
 of the nose and mouth which are exposed to the air be- 
 come too dry, and the person takes cold more easily and 
 is more likely to be nervous. One of the great advantages 
 of the open-air schools is that the normal humidity is 
 secured. As soon as windows are shut and artificial 
 heating is introduced it becomes difficult to secure enough 
 humidity. When air is heated it is also dried, and so 
 rather often the humidity of our dwellings and schools 
 goes as low as 30 per cent, and in cold weather, when all 
 the windows are shut tight and the boilers are working at 
 their limits, even as low as 10 or 15 per cent. Now, as 
 the humidity diminishes, more heat is needed, and so 
 we get the conditions so common of persons demanding 
 a temperattire of 75° F. or even more in order to be 
 comfortable. 
 
 The obvious way to remedy this, and perhaps also the 
 best, is that already suggested of opening all the windows 
 wide for ten or fifteen minutes every two or three hours. 
 In temperate latitudes outdoor air usually has sufficient 
 humidity. If the teacher is so unfortunate as to be in a 
 large building with an elaborate system of artificial ven- 
 tilation, under which she is forbidden to open windows, 
 
48 The Child 
 
 she can do little. The dish of water sometimes put on 
 the heater evaporates so little that it is of little use. 
 Some of the most recent ventilating systems also himiidify 
 the air introduced, but many do not. 
 
 The standards generally agreed upon for the air in a 
 dwelling room are, as already said, from 50 to 60 per 
 cent of hvimidity and a temperattire of 65° to 70° 
 F,, with the preference for the lower temperature. The 
 standard for purity or even what impurity it is that 
 is injurious is just now the subject of much discussion. 
 The rough and ready tests already referred to, of whether 
 the air is oflEensive to a person coming in from outdoors, 
 and whether those staying in the room become sleepy 
 and tired, in the absence of the knowledge and apparatus 
 necessary for testing purity, can be relied on tmder 
 ordinary conditions. But instead of the ordinary ther- 
 mometer, a wet- and dry-bulb thermometer should be put 
 into every schoolroom so that the teacher can know the 
 humidity as well as the temperature. 
 
 Habitual postures are now recognized as the cause of 
 much fatigue and even of actual disease, particularly of 
 
 _ . various forms of curvature of the spine. 
 
 2 Rflfi SG3.tS 
 
 Twenty to thirty per cent of high-school 
 children have curvatures of the spine as the result of 
 improperly made seats. 
 
 The most healthy posture in standing and sitting is, 
 prestraiably, the sjmimetrical one, in which both halves 
 of the body have the same position, because then the 
 muscles on the two sides will be used alike, and all strain 
 will be equally distributed. Variations from such a 
 position should be compensated by the two sides alter- 
 nating in the unsymmetrical position. 
 
 The best position in lying is still a matter of dispute. 
 Some maintain that the symmetrical position here also 
 
, Common Diseases and Defects 49 
 
 is the best, the person lying either on back or abdomen. 
 Others claim that lying on the back keeps the spinal 
 cord unduly heated and irritable, while lying on the 
 abdomen compresses both stomach and lungs. They 
 therefore advocate a position on either the right or left 
 side. The truth of the case probably is that the best 
 position for each individual will depend somewhat upon 
 his bodily characteristics. There can be no question, 
 however, but that lying on the back or abdomen allows 
 the most complete muscular relaxation, and it seems 
 doubtful whether there is any real harm done to spinal 
 cord, or stomach, or lungs, provided they were in good 
 condition at the start. 
 
 Practically all physicians agree that in order to be 
 both comfortably and correctly seated, there must be 
 certain relations between the size and shape of the seat 
 and the person. The height of the seat should be the 
 same as the length of the leg, measured from the under 
 side of the knee bent at right angles, to the sole; the depth 
 from front to back of the seat should be only enough so 
 that the entire back can rest against it, and the seat-back 
 should follow the curves of the "spine. If the seat is too 
 high, there is constant strain in the attempt to keep the 
 feet on the floor, and a strong tendency to slip forward in 
 the chair and sit on the end of the spine. This alone 
 may lead to tenderness of the spinal cord and consequent 
 nervousness. If the seat is too long from front to back, 
 the same thing occurs. 
 
 The desk should be of such a height that when the 
 elbow rests at the side, bent at right angles, it can lie on 
 top of the desk. The desk should slope one inch in six, 
 and should overlap the seat by at least, two inches. If 
 the desk is higher than this, it raises the elbow and brings 
 a needless strain upon the back muscles. If it is too far 
 
so The Child 
 
 . in front of the seat, the child is obliged to perch on the 
 seat-edge in order to write, and all the back muscles are 
 strained. He should be able to write while leaning back 
 in the chair. 
 
 These requirements are the same for both children and 
 adults, but are of especial importance for children, be- 
 cause the body is more plastic, and more easily changed 
 in shape, and because children become fatigued more 
 easily than their elders. 
 
 Such seats as these here described should be secured 
 for all schools. If possible, they should be adjustable, 
 so that each child can he fitted to a seat. Where that 
 expense is too great, each room should have at least a 
 few adjustable seats so that the unusually large and 
 small pupUs can be suited. 
 
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 Child Hygiene and Diseases 
 
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 Baker, Josephine. Reduction of Infant Mortality. N. Y. Med. 
 
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Common Diseases- and Defects 51 
 
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 Holt, Emmett L. Diseases of Infancy and Childhood. Appleton, 
 
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 Notter and Firth. Theory and Practise of Hygiene. Lond., 1908, 
 
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 653 PP- 
 Care of Child in Health. Macmillan, 1901, 308 pp. 
 
 Phelps, E.B. Infant Mortality. Am. Statis. Assn. Vol. XII, Dec. 
 
 1910, 341-359- 
 
52 The Child 
 
 Pisek, G. R. Milk Stations and Reduction of Infant Mortality. 
 N. Y. Med. Jour., 1911, 1065-1067. 
 
 Pyle, W. L. (ed.). Manual of Personal Hygiene. Sanborn Co., 1907, 
 451 PP- (Very good as an un technical but reliable presenta- 
 tion.) 
 
 Ravenhill, Alice. Practical Hygiene. Lond., 1907, 744 pp. Bibliog. 
 
 Saleeby, C. W. Health, Strength and Happiness. N. Y., 1908, 
 448 pp. 
 
 Stables, W. G. Parent's Guide to Children's Ailments. Lond., 
 
 1909, 236 pp. 
 
 Starr, L. Hygiene of the Nursery. 7th ed., Phila., 1906. 
 
 Tucker, Blanche. Care of Babies and Young Children. Longmans, 
 
 1907, 67 pp. 
 Wallin, J. E. W. Infant and Child Orthbgenesis. Psy. Clinic, 
 
 Nov. 1912, 153-173- 
 Welpton, W. P. Physical Education and Hygiene. Lond., 1908, 
 
 383 PP- 
 Wheeler, Marianna. The Baby. Harper, 1901, 189 pp. 
 White, G. T. Statistics of Infant Mortality. Survey, 1910, 877-884, 
 Wright, Lucy. Opthalmia Neonatorum. Nat. Con. Char. Corr., 
 
 1910, 357-364. 
 
 See also, reports of the International Congress for Welfare 
 and Protection of Children, beginning in 1899, and of the 
 International Congress of School Hygiene, beginning in 1907. 
 
 Posture 
 
 Bancroft, Jessie H. Posture of School Children. Macmillan, 1912, 
 327 pp. (Carefully chosen bibliography. This book is in- 
 valuable to any teacher, and is the only one of its kind so 
 far. It puts together numerous things that have so far 
 been widely scattered.) 
 See also, Articles on School Furniture, under School Hygiene. 
 
 Teeth 
 
 Bell, V. C. Our Teeth. How to Take Care of Them. Young Am. 
 
 Pub. Co., N. Y., 2d ed., 1900, 77 pp. (Very simple and good.) 
 Bumham, W. H. Hygiene of the Teeth. Ped. Sem., 1906, 293- 
 
 306. (Bibliography up to that date.) 
 Gant, A. W. Dental Inspection in Cambridge (England). School 
 
 Hygiene, 191 1, 402-411. 
 
Common Diseases and Dejects 53 
 
 Holmes, Arthur. Can Impacted Teeth cause Moral Delinquency? 
 
 Psy. Clinic, Vol. XIV, 1910, 19-23. (Very interesting case.) 
 Irwin, A. Status of School Dentistry, 4th Int. Cong. 0/ School 
 
 Hygiene, Vol. II. 349-358. 
 Kirk, E. C. Dental Disabilities of School Children. Psy. Clinic, 
 
 1910, 217-223. 
 Marshall, J. S. Mouth Hygiene and Mouth Sepsis. Phila., 1912, 
 
 262 p. (Excellent.) 
 Merritt, A. H. Mouth Hygiene in Relation to Health. Am. 
 
 Acad. Pol. and Sac. Sc, 191 1, 472-486. 
 Pedley, Denison and Harrison. Our Teeth. Blackie and Son., 
 
 Lond., 1908, 97 pp. (Not so complete as Marshall, but very 
 
 good.) 
 Reavis, W. C. Dental Examination. Ele. Sch. Teach., 1910, 
 
 90-98. 
 School Dentists' Society. Objects and Aims. Watford, Eng., 
 
 1913, 116 pp. (Shows how dentists can deal with the 
 
 problem of school children's teeth.) 
 Tremaine, W. P. Dental Irregularities and Mental Infirmities, 
 
 Jour. Psycho-asthenics, 1909, 48-50. 
 Upton, Henry S. Dental Irritation as Cause of Mental Aberration, 
 
 Rev. Neur. and Psy., 1910, 457-462. 
 Wallace, J. S. Prevention of Dental Caries. 2d ed., Lond., 1913, 
 
 70 pp. (Good and practical.) 
 WaUin, J. E. W. Medical and Dental Inspection in Cleveland 
 
 Schools. Psy. Clinic, 1910, 93-108. 
 Experimental Oral Euthenics, Dental Cosmos, Apr. and May. 
 
 1912, 32 pp. 
 
 Sleep 
 Ackland, T. D. Hours of Sleep at Public Schools. Churchill, 
 
 Lond., 33 pp. 
 Also in Lancet, July 15, 1905, 136-142. 
 Claperede, Ed. Th6orie biologique de sommeil. Arch, de Psy., 
 
 1904-5, 245-349. Bibliog. 
 Collins, J. Sleep and the Sleepless. Sturgis and Walton, 1912, 
 
 129 pp. jSi.oo. 
 Coriat, Isador. Nature of Sleep. Jour. Abn. Psy., 1911, 329-368. 
 Eurich, F. W. Sleep. Child Life, 1910, 69-76. 
 Foster, H. H. Necessity for a New Standpoint in Sleep Theories. 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., 1901, 145-177. Bibliog. 
 
54 The Child 
 
 Osborne, Caroline. Sleep of Infancy. Fed. Sent., 1912, 1-48. 
 
 Bibliog. (This article and that of Terman and Hocking 
 
 best sum up the matter of sleep for children.) 
 Ravenhill, Alice. Some Characteristics of Childhood. Leeds, 70 pp. 
 Sleep among School Children. Int. Arch, fiir Sch. Hygiene, 
 
 Apr., 1908, B. 5, H. I, 8-25. (Excellent on English children.) 
 Rowe, E. C. Hygiene of Sleep. Psy. Rev., 191 1, 425-432. 
 Sidis, Boris. Experimental Study of Sleep. Boston, 1909, 106 pp. 
 Terman, Lewis M. and Hocking, Adeline. Sleep of School 
 
 Children. Jour. Ed. Psy., Mar., Apr., May, 1913. Bibliog. 
 
 [See Osborne above.) See also 4th Int. Cong. School 
 
 Hygiene, Vol. II. 38-47. 
 
 Diet 
 Bean, C. H. Starvation and Mental Development. Psy. Clinic, 
 
 1909, 78-85. 
 Bell, Sanford. Psychology of Foods. Ped. Sem., 1904, 57-90. 
 
 (Almost the only study on the psychological aspects. Gives a 
 
 long list of children's food experiments, likes and dislikes, etc.) 
 Benedict, P. G. Mental and Muscular Work and Nutritive Proc- 
 esses. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, 1910, 145-163. 
 Brown, D. R. The Baby. Whitcomlj and Barrows, 1908, 193 pp. 
 Bryant, Louise S. School Feeding. Lippincott, 1913, 345 pp. 
 
 $1.50. (An authoritative survey of conditions.) 
 Cannon, W. B. Real Nature of Hunger. Pop. Sc. Mo., Sept. 
 
 1912, 291-307. (Recent experiments. Cannon is one of 
 
 the authorities on this subject in this country.) 
 Chittenden, Russell H. The Nutrition of Man. Stokes, 1907, 
 
 301 pp. (One of the standards.) 
 Davis, N. S. Food in Health and Disease. Blakiston, Phila., 
 
 1912, 449 pp. $3.50. 
 Denyer, C. H. Feeding School Children at Public Expense. Econ. 
 
 Jour., 1906, 617-622. 
 Elliott, C. A. Feeding by the State. Nineteenth Cent., 1909 862- 
 
 874. 
 Fitz, Rachel K. and Geo. W. Problems of Babyhood. Holt, 
 
 1906, 121 pp. {See sections on Food and Diet.) 
 Food Reform Association, National. Report on Diet and Hygiene 
 
 in Schools. London, 1912, 467 pp. 
 Hall, G. S. Hygiene of Appetite. Trans. 4th Int. Cong. School 
 
 Hygiene, 1913, Vol. I. 332-336. 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 55 
 
 Hall, Winfield S. Nutrition and Dietetics. Appleton, 1910, 298 pp. 
 Heron, David. Mental Defect, Malnutrition. Dolan, Lond., 191 1, 
 
 34 PP- 
 Holt, Emmett L. Care and Feeding 0/ Children. Appleton, 66 pp. 
 
 (Standard. Widely used.) 
 Hunt,. Caroline L. Daily Meals of School Children. Wash. 
 
 Govt. Print., 1909. Bull. No. 3, 62 pp. Bibliog. (Standard. 
 
 Gives dietaries, etc.) 
 Hunter, Robert. Social Significance of Underfed Children. Int. 
 
 Quart., 1906, 324-341. 
 Kellogg, J. H. Unwholesome Diet ... in School Children. 
 
 Tran. 4th Int. Cong. School Hygiene, 1913. Vol. II. 96-105. 
 Kerley, C. G. Shqrt Talks with Young Mothers. Putnam, 1909, 
 
 327 pp. {See sections on Food.) 
 Loch, C. S. Feeding of School Children. Yale Rev., Nov. 1906, 
 
 230-250. 
 MacCarthy, F. H. Hygiene for Mother and Child. Harper, 1910, 
 
 286 pp. {See sections on Food.) 
 Myers, Bernard. Care of Children. Lond., 1910, 161 pp. 
 Osborne, Lucy A. School Luncheons. Ped. Sent., June 1912, 
 
 204-219. 
 Richards, Ellen. First Lessons in Food and Diet. Whitcomb and 
 
 Barrows. 
 Richards and Talbot. Food as a Factor in Student Life. (Excellent.) 
 Rockwood, Laura C. Food Preparation. Pop. Sc. Mo., 191 1, 
 
 277-298. 
 Sadler, S. H. Infant Feeding by Artificial Means. Routledge, 
 
 Lond., 1909, 241 pp. 
 Schuyten, M. C. Coefficient of Nutrition in Antwerp School Chil- 
 dren. 4th Int. Cong. School Hygiene. Vol. II. 106-109. 
 Tallman, R. W. Taste and Smell in Diet. Gale's Psy. Studies, 
 
 1900, 1 1 8- 138. (A psychological survey, very suggestive.) 
 Thompson, W. G. Practical Dietetics. Appleton, 1903, 814 pp. 
 
 (Standard.) 
 Vincent, Ralph. Nutrition of the Infant. Bailli&re, 1904, 304 pp. 
 
 (Good.) 
 Winder, Phyllis D. Public Feeding. Longmans, 191 3, 84 pp. 
 
 Ventilation and Air 
 Benedict and Higgins. Effects on Men at Rest of Breathing 
 Oxygen. Am. Jour. Phys., 191 1, 1-28. 
 
5-6 The Child 
 
 Billings and Bergey. Composition of Expired Air. Smith. Cont. 
 
 to Knowl. Wash., 1905. Vol. XXIX, 81 pp. 
 Bumham, W. H. Fatigue in Relation to Need of Oxygen. Proc. 
 
 Am. School Hygiene Assn., N. Y., 191 1, 81-87. 
 Oxygen Supply as Condition of Efficient Brain Activity. Jour. 
 
 Ed. Psy., 191 1, 421-428. Bibliog. 
 Carrington, T. S. Fresh Air and How to Use It. N. Y., 1912,215 
 
 pp. $1.00. 
 Haldane and Priestley. Lung Ventilation. Jour, of Phys., 1905, 
 
 225-266. 
 Hill, L. Stuffy Rooms. Pop. Sc. Mo., Oct. 1912, 374-396. 
 Hill and Flack. Influence of Oxygen Inhalation on Muscular 
 
 Work. Jour, of Phys., 1910, 347-372. . 
 Hines, L. N. School Room Temperature and Work of Pupils. 
 
 Psy. Clinic, 1909, 106-113. 
 Macfie, R. G. Air and Health. Methuen, Lond., 1909, 345 pp. 
 Miiller, J. P. The Fresh-Air Book. Stokes, 1910, 152 pp. 
 Northrup, W. P. Good and Bad Air and EfiEects on Children. 
 
 Ped. Sem., 1909, 442-444. 
 Rosenau and Amos. Organic Matter in Expired Breath. Jour. 
 
 Med. Res., 1911, 25-84. 
 Titchener, E. B. Psychophysics of Climate. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1909, I-I4- 
 Tuberculosis in School Children. Fourth Annual Conference 
 
 National Association for Prevention of Consumption. Lond., 
 
 1912. 
 Wachenheim, F. L. Tuberculosis in School Children. Ped. Sem., 
 
 1909. 378-384- 
 
 Open-Air Schools 
 Alden, Geo. A. Open-Air Schools. Pub. Health. 1912, 249-259. 
 Ayres, Leonard. Open-Air Schools. Doubleday, Page and Co., 
 
 N. Y., 1910, 165 pp. (Most complete survey.) 
 Byles, A. H. Open-Air School. World's Work. 1909, 197-208. 
 Carrington, T. S. How to Build and Equip an Outdoor School. 
 
 Survey, 1910, 144-151. 
 Clark, Ida H. Open-Air Schools. Proc. N. E. A., 1909, 894-901. 
 Colton, Margaret. Out-of-Door Kindergarten Sessions. Proc. 
 
 N. E. A., 1910, 410-413. 
 Curtis, Elnora. Open-Air Schools. Ped. Sem., 1909, 169-194. 
 
 Bibliog. (Best article in English.) 
 
Common Diseases and Defects 57 
 
 Dew, L. E. Open-Air Schools for Abnormal Children. World 
 
 To-day, 1911, 557-564. 
 Hine, Lewis W. School in the Park. Outlook, 1906, 712-719. 
 Ingram, Helen. Value of Fresh-Air Movement. Rept of Nat. 
 
 Con. Char. Corr., 1907, 286-294. 
 Kingsley, S. C. Open-Air Crusaders. United Charities of Chicago, 
 
 1910, 107 pp. (Inspiring account of work in Chicago.) 
 Morin, Jeanne. Open-Air Schools in France. Wide World, 1909, 
 
 196-201. 
 O'Hagan, Anne. Open-Air Schools. Munsey, Apr. 191 1, 70-80. 
 Watt, Wm. E. Open-Air. Little Chronicle Co., Chicago, 1910, 
 
 82 pp. (Interesting account.) 
 
 School Hygiene and Sanitation 
 Barry, W. F. Hygiene of the Schoolroom. Snow and Farnham, 
 
 Providence, 1903, 167 pp. 
 Briggs, W. R. Modern American School Buildings. N. Y., 1902, 
 
 411 pp. 
 Burgerstein, Leo. Sanitation and School Work. Fed. Sem., 1910, 
 
 16-28. 
 Relation of Body to Mind. Ibid., 29-39. 
 Burgerstein and Netolitzky. Handbuch der Schulhygiene. Barth, 
 
 Leipzig, 1912, 548 pp. (One of the best on the subject.) 
 Burrage and Bailey. School Sanitation and Decoration. Heath, 
 
 1899, 191 pp. 
 Conservation of School Children. Conference at Lehigh University, 
 
 1912. Am. Acad. Med. (Articles by authorities on teaching 
 
 hygiene, sex hygiene, defective children, feeding, etc.) 
 Cotton, F. J. School Furniture for Boston Schools. Am. Phys. 
 
 Ed. Rev., Dec. 1904. (Good.) 
 Crowley, R. H. Hygiene of School Life. Lond., 1910, 403 pp. 
 
 (Good.) 
 Dresslar, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. Macmillan, 1913, 369 pp. 
 Egbert, Seneca. Hygiene and Sanitation. Lea and Febiger, 1910, 
 
 508 pp. 
 Gerhard, W. P. Sanitation of Public Buildings. Wiley and Sons, 
 
 1907, 262 pp. 
 Herman, Ernst. The Physical Phase of the School. Series of 
 
 articles in Jour, of Ed., 1909. 
 Hutt, C. W. Hygiene for Health Visitors, School Nurses and Social 
 
 Workers. Lond., 1912, 415 pp. (A practical compendium.) 
 
S8 The Child 
 
 Kelynack, T. N. (ed.). School Life. Lond., 191 1, 159 pp. 
 Mackenzie, R. L. School Life and Curvature of the Spine. Proc. 
 
 N. E. A., 1898, 938-949. 
 McGown, W. E. Sanitary Condition of a Public School Building. 
 
 Ped. Sent., Dec. 1910, 480-490. 
 Moore, J. A. The Schoolhouse, its Heating and Ventilation. Boston, 
 
 1905, 204 pp. 
 Nice, Leonard B. Disinfection of Books. Ped. Sem., 191 1, 197 
 
 204. 
 Putnam, Helen C. School Janitors, Mothers and Health. Am. 
 
 Acad. Med. Press, 1913, 201 pp. (Written for mothers, very 
 
 simply but accurately, with practical suggestions.) 
 Richards, Ellen. Sanitation in Daily Life. Boston, 1907, 78 pp. 
 
 (Good.) 
 Rowe, Stuart E. Lighting of Schoolrooms. N. Y., 1904, 85 pp. 
 
 BibUog. (Good.) 
 School Furniture. Boston School Committee Report, 1901-5. 
 
 (Good.) 
 Sever, J. W., School Desks and Chairs . in U. S. 4th Int. 
 
 Cong. School Hygiene, Vol. IL 676-691. 
 Shaw, E. R. School Hygiene. Macmillan, 1901, 255 pp. 
 Stacker, W. A. Desks for School Children. Mind and Body, 
 
 Apr. 1 91 1. (Good.) 
 Wheelwright, E. M. School Architecture. Rogers and Manson, 
 
 Boston, 1901, 324 pp., with many plans. 
 Wisconsin Department of Education, The School Beautiful, by 
 
 Maud Barnett, pub. by Wis. Dept. of Ed., 94 pp. 
 See also Report of Schoolhouse Commission, Wash. Govt. Print., 
 
 1908, with numerous plans, pictures, estimates of cost, etc.; 
 
 and Report of Woman's Association for Betterment of 
 
 Public School Houses, in Report of State Superintendent of 
 
 North Carolina, 1905, 60 pp., which contains pictures of old 
 
 and new buildings, etc. 
 For current articles, and information of new movenients, • 
 
 investigations, etc., see the monthly magazine. School Hygiene. 
 
 (Lond., is. per copy.) 
 
 Medical Inspection 
 
 Burnham, W. H. Medical Inspection in Schools. Ped. Sem., 
 1900, 70-94. Bibliog. 
 
Common Diseases and Defects $g 
 
 Cornell, W. S. Health and Medical Inspection. Davis Co., 1912, 
 
 614 pp. (The most complete account.) 
 Gulick and Ayres. Medical Inspection. N. Y., 1908, 276 pp. 
 
 Bibliog. 
 Harrington, T. F. Medical Inspection. Proc. N. E. A., 1908, 
 
 200-210. 
 Hogarth, A. H. Medical Inspection. Lond., 1906, 360 pp. 
 Jordan, W. R. Medical Inspection. Paid., 1906, 70-77. 
 Kelynack, T. N. Medical Examination of Schools and Scholars. 
 
 Lond., 19 10, 434 pp. Bibliog. 
 Leipoldt, C. L. The School Nurse. Lond., 1912, 197 pp. (The 
 
 only full account.) 
 McMillan, Margaret. Citizens of To-Morrow. 2d. rev. ed., 1906, 
 
 173-187. ' 
 
 Shafer, G. H. Medical Inspection of Schools in United States. 
 
 Fed. Sent., 19H, 273-314. Bibliog. 
 Snedden and Allen. School Reports and School Efficiency for 
 
 New York. Com. on Physical Welfare of School Children, 
 
 N. Y., 1908, 183 pp. 
 Terman, Lewis M. Medical Inspection in California. Psy. Clinic, 
 
 ign, 57-62. 
 For numerous articles on all the above phases of hygiene, see 
 the Trans, of the Fourth International Congress on School Hygiene, 
 Buffalo, 191 3, 5 vols. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Defects of Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 
 
 ' I "'HE eye and the ear are the principal channels through 
 
 -^ which our knowledge comes, and if either of them 
 
 is defective, the cliild is seriously hampered in all his 
 
 work. He himself is not likely to know 
 
 whether his eyes and ears are perfect, unless 
 
 they pain him, for he is accustomed to his condition, and 
 
 naturally supposes it to be like every one else's. We older 
 
 people must therefore watch over him. 
 
 For defective eyesight, notice the position of each 
 child when reading or writing at his seat. His eyes 
 shotdd be about one foot from his book or paper. If 
 the distance varies much from this, he should be given 
 special tests as follows: 
 
 Nearsight (myopia). Use Snellen's type test cardi 
 for this, having the child read the various lines of type 
 at the distances indicated on the card. If he cannot 
 see them at those distances, he is shortsighted and should 
 be taken to an oculist for more careful tests. In reading 
 the type, one eye should be used at a time, the other 
 being left open, but covered by a piece of cardboard. 
 
 Farsight (hyperopia). This may be roughly tested by 
 holding a dime two feet before the eyes. If the eyes, 
 in looking at it, turn inwards in a squint, there is prob- 
 ably farsight. It is sometimes supposed that a farsighted 
 eye does not need glasses as much as a nearsighted one, 
 
 "jThis can be obtained from any dealer in optical supplies It 
 costs from lo to 35 cents. 
 
 60 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 6i 
 
 because objects are plainly seen. This is a mistake. 
 The farsighted eye is under a constant strain in adjusting 
 itself to see any object clearly, and this strain, if neglected, 
 causes headache and nervousness. 
 
 Astigmatism may be tested by the radiating lines 
 shown on Snellen's test card. If these' lines look mark- 
 edly different, there is some astigmatism. 
 
 A B 
 
 Diagrams. Showing Change in Nerve Cells Due to Age: /I, Special 
 
 Ganglion Cells of a Still-Born Male Child; B, Same of a Man 
 
 -Dying at Ninety-two; n, Nuclei. Magnified 250 Diam. (Hodge.) 
 
 Another condition which the writer believes to be 
 corrimon, but for which, unfortunately, there is no ready 
 test, is that of weakness of one or more of the muscles 
 controlling the movements of the eyeball. If any one of 
 these muscles be weak enough it is perceptible as cross 
 eye, but there are slighter variations not perceptible to 
 sight, which still put too much work upon some muscles 
 in order to compensate for the weakness of the others. 
 With persons who do fine work, such as reading, this 
 may cause great nervousness and recurrent sick head- 
 aches. If children have these symptoms, and especially 
 if they complain of pain in the eyeball, these muscles 
 
62 
 
 The Child 
 
 should be tested along with the other eye tests. Un- 
 fortunately, many oculists do not give such tests, and 
 insist that the symptoms are not caused by defects in 
 the eye but by conditions of general health. 
 
 The ordinary test for hearing is given by means of a 
 watch. First, see how far a person whose hearing is 
 normal can hear the watch that is to be used, 
 earing fjoQn. test the child with his eyes closed, in a 
 
 quiet room. We may suspect deafness if a child seems dull 
 or inattentive, and constantly asks to have 
 things repeated. Not infrequently growths 
 form in the nose, and the tonsils enlarge, 
 causing a deafness that is easily ctu-ed. 
 
 In all these cases, the tests are only 
 to ascertain whether a physician's care is 
 needed. The teacher can give a child a 
 front seat if he be deaf, or a well-lighted 
 seat if his eyesight be poor, but such 
 measures are of little use tinless curative 
 treatment is also given. 
 
 When any part of the body is work- 
 ing the cells of which it consists are used 
 
 Fatigue: Its "P' ^^^^^ structure is changed, 
 cause and and new substances, some of 
 significance ^j^gj^ poisonous in nature, 
 are formed. The nerve cells decrease in 
 size, and some of their connections with 
 other nerve cells are temporarily broken. 
 (See Diagrams 2 and 3.) 
 
 If work is continued, the change or 
 tearing down of the cell goes on faster 
 than material to rebuild it can be fur- 
 nished by the blood; the waste material 
 or poison is left in part about the cell, 
 
 Diagram 3. 
 Showing Change 
 IN THE Nucleus of 
 A Prog's Nerve 
 Cell durii!)g 
 Seven Hours Con- 
 tinuous Electri- 
 cal Stimulation. 
 (Hpdge.) 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 63 
 
 instead of being carried off to the excretory organs, and 
 in small part is absorbed by other parts of the body 
 through which the blood passes. We then have the 
 condition known as fatigue. 
 
 It is evident that fatigue must follow as the result 
 of use of any part of the body, and as exercise is one 
 of the conditions of growth, it is also evident that fatigue 
 is not, by itself, an unhealthy condition. When it sets 
 in, we know that our expenditure is beginning to ex- 
 ceed our income, and while we may borrow and live for 
 a time on our reserve in the bank of health, it behooves 
 us not to overdraw. No disease is so difficult to recover 
 from entirely as is nervous exhaustion. 
 
 The amount of work which causes fatigue has been 
 the subject of careful experiment, so far as fatigue of 
 the muscles is concerned, and of wide- 
 spread, though not so scientific, observations Conditions 
 on mental fatigue. It has been found that 
 in the exercise of any muscle fatigue begins to show 
 after ten or fifteen seconds in a lowering of the rate of 
 movement. After ten or fifteen minutes, the reduction 
 is considerable, but is slower afterwards. There is also 
 a phenomenon comparable to the second wind in running. 
 A muscle can be exercised to the point where the ut- 
 most effort of the will is hardly enough to raise the rate 
 perceptibly. If, nevertheless, one continues to move it 
 as much as is possible, it will, after a short time, recover 
 in part its original freshness and move almost as rapidly 
 and as easily as at first. This will happen ten or fifteen 
 times before permanent faftigue ensues. 
 
 It is still open to question how far exercise of any one 
 set of muscles wearies the entire body. It does so to 
 some extent, doubtless, because the poisons given off by 
 the muscles in use are taken up by the blood and partially 
 
64 T he Child 
 
 absorbed by those parts of the body through which the 
 blood passes. It seems likely that exercise of the right 
 hand wearies the left hand to some degree. Many insist 
 that the left side of the body is more developed than it 
 would be as the result of its own exercise, and that this 
 is due to the reaction upon it of the exercise of the right 
 side. 
 
 In mental fatigue, as in physical, the immediate con- 
 dition is the tearing down of the nervous structures more 
 _ ... rapidly than they are being built up, but a 
 
 of mental great variety of causes may lead to this con- 
 fatigue dition. Prominent among them are: over- 
 work; too long hours of work and too much to do in 
 those hours; excessive worry over a reasonable amount of 
 work; wasteful methods of work; not enough work or not 
 enough variety in it; a nervous system so much below par 
 that it cannot do even a rational amount of work. 
 
 There has been of late years a great outcry against 
 the public schools on the charge of overwork. It is 
 Overwork in ^^^^^^ that they are fast reducing our 
 the public children and youth to nervous wrecks, and 
 schools ^jj^^ ^j^lg jg ^j.yg jjQ^ Qjjjy Qf Americans but 
 
 of English and Germans as well. The nervousness of 
 children increases in direct ratio to the number of years 
 that they are in school. Their weight and appetite 
 diminish from the beginning of the school year to the 
 end, especially just before examinations. They have 
 nightmares, grinding of the teeth, and tremors even when 
 they have no well-defined nervous disease. 
 
 All these things seem to many physicians the direct 
 result of too much study. In many schools, children 
 even as young as nine years are expected to do spme 
 home study, and from that age on the amount of it 
 increases constantly. 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 65 
 
 On the other hand, the demand is constantly made 
 by superintendents and parents that this or that new 
 study shall be introduced into school. The trades-unions 
 want manual training; the mothers want music and 
 drawing; the colleges demand languages and science. 
 And yet children leave school with the merest smatter- 
 ing of each subject and without knowing how to write 
 a letter correctly. Is the rising generation stupid, that 
 it gets nervous exhaustion in learning nothing? 
 
 This leads directly to the claim made by many observ- 
 ant parents and teachers that the undeniably bad nerv- 
 ous condition of many children is not so ~. 
 much due to the amount that they are not over- 
 expected to learn as to the conditions under '^"'^ 
 which they work. These bad conditions may be either 
 physical or mental. Under mental conditions must 
 be included such things as fear — fear of the teacher's 
 displeasure and of not passing examinations — and rival- 
 ries — ^the intense desire for good marks, the consequent 
 worry over inability to prepare a lesson, and the intense 
 chagrin at failures in recitation or examination. Such 
 conditions are thoroughly artificial and the combined 
 efforts of teachers and parents should be directed toward 
 removing them. Children should feel that they are in 
 school primarily to learn, not to show off, and that a 
 confession of ignorance after an honest attempt to get 
 knowledge is not a disgrace. A give and take among 
 the pupils in helping each other can also be established 
 in any school and family, to replace the rivalries and 
 fears of the other system and to remove one of the great 
 sources of worry. 
 
 Not uncommonly we find that a child who seems to 
 be up to the average in brightness takes two or three 
 times as long to prepare a lesson as another child. This 
 
66 TheChild 
 
 may be due to bad nervous conditions, which we shall 
 consider soon, or to ignorance of how to study. In 
 ^ gj J , the latter case, we find that the eyes are con- 
 methods of stantly wandering from the book, and that 
 study there are frequent lapses into daydreams. 
 
 Even when there is a fair amount- of interest in the 
 subject of study, there seems to be an inability to think 
 about one thing for more than a few minutes.' The best 
 thing to do with such a child is to study with him for 
 a time, showing him how to look for important points 
 and how to connect them with other things that he 
 knows. Under our present school conditions, this is 
 especially the work of the parents. Under ideal condi- 
 tions, it might be the work of the teacher, but now she 
 has no time in her day when such work can be done. 
 
 Certain patient German observers experimented upon 
 school children by giving them columns of figures to add 
 Monotony ^°^ *'^° hours, or copying to do for the same 
 of woik length of time. They found such an appall- 
 
 ing increase in the number of mistakes made by the end 
 of the second hour that they forthwith concluded that 
 our schools should all be closed or in ten years no children 
 would be left alive. However, they made the funda- 
 mental mistake of supposing that two hours made up of 
 a variety of subjects would be as fatiguing as two hours 
 of one subject. As a matter of fact, variety, while not a 
 complete rest, is a partial rest, and should be carefully 
 observed in making out a school program or in planning 
 a day's work for a child. It is believed that the best 
 hours of work are from nine to eleven; the next best from 
 three to four; and the poorest from eleven to twelve. If 
 we consider this in connection with the requirements of 
 variety, we should have a day's program in which the 
 most difficult subjects were put from nine to eleven; 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 67 
 
 from eleven to twelve an hour should be given to sub- 
 jects much less taxing, like drawing, which also gives 
 some of the relief of handwork after the hard mental 
 work. In the afternoon, the order would be reversed, 
 the easy subjects first, and the more difficult later. 
 
 In the demand for variety we find still another argu- 
 ment for handwork, drawing, and music. If any part 
 of the body is left unused for any length of time, there 
 is an irritability, a cry for exercise from the neglected 
 organ. If only one or a few parts of the brain are used, 
 they are over-exercised and other parts are not exercised 
 enough. The result is excessive weariness on one side, 
 and an almost imcontroUable desire for activity on the 
 other. A child brought up in but one line of thought 
 and action is nearly sure to go to extremes in other 
 directions as soon as the external repression is removed. 
 To get a balanced, controlled character, we must culti- 
 vate a variety of interests in thought and in action. 
 
 Finally, lack of interest is perhaps the most powerful 
 single factor in producing mental fatigue. The horrible 
 weariness, the indescribable sense of im- 
 prisonment to which a child is subjected 
 who is forced to a study which he does not like, is 
 something that we grown-ups will not ourselves endure 
 at all. While I do not think that the school should be a 
 caterer to the passing fancies of its pupils, I do believe 
 that a better arrangement of our curriculum, and wiser 
 and more individual methods of teaching would reveal 
 many interests in children which now we do not sus- 
 pect them of having. A closer connection of the school 
 with the life of the home and the village or city, and a 
 stronger appeal to the children's love of doing, would 
 accomplish much. 
 
 It seems probable, then, upon consideration of the 
 
68 The Child 
 
 various causes of mental fatigue, that if the conditions 
 for work were improved by removing causes for worry, 
 by inculcating correct habits of study, and by arranging 
 the curriculum so that it should appeal to natural, per- 
 manent, and valuable interests, fatigue would not be as 
 prevalent among school children as it now is. This is 
 true in schools where these changes have been made, 
 and in less time more work is done with more lasting 
 effects than under other conditions. The plea that we 
 should make, therefore, is not for a shorter school day, 
 but for a different one — one full of interesting work and 
 free from worries. 
 
 In discussing the causes of fatigue before the signs by 
 which we may know it, we may seem to have put the 
 Signs of c^i^ before the horse, but the transition 
 
 fatigue from healthy fatigue to over-fatigue, nerv- 
 
 ousness, and nervous exhaustion is so gradual that it 
 seems better to discuss them together. 
 
 Any person who lives with children at all knows the 
 first signs of fatigue. A child becomes inattentive and 
 fidgety. Ideas not related to the lesson keep coming 
 into his mind and he can with difficulty give even out- 
 ward attention because his muscles are tired and demand 
 constant movements to ease them. If a five-minute 
 recess is given at this point, there will be a noticeable 
 recovery of attention and of control of the body. 
 
 If, on the other hand, work is persisted in without a 
 rest, a child becomes more inattentive, fidgety, and 
 irritable, and less sensitive. Careful tests show that a 
 weary person's skin is not as sensitive to touch, and 
 that his eye cannot distinguish colors as well as when he 
 is fresh. The tired person has not as good a hand-grip or 
 muscular control as the rested one. This shows in the 
 schoolroom when the tired child is duller in recitation 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 69 
 
 and more awkward and untidy in moving about the 
 room, in writing, etc., than at other times. Such a 
 child is also more likely to be impertinent and undis- 
 ciplined than when rested and "fit." A good night's 
 rest and plenty of the right sort of food should restore 
 the normal . energy. 
 
 If even now he has no chance to rest, other symptoms 
 appear. He may have trouble in remembering the 
 names of famiHar persons and objects. He xhe nervous 
 is almost sure to forget quickly what he has child 
 learned. He is likely to be very irritable, and to pass 
 quickly from the gayest to the most sorrowful mood. 
 He will probably have bad dreams and sleep uneasily. 
 On the motor side, he will be even more fidgety than at 
 first. - Certain movements, such as swinging the foot or 
 twitching the fingers, will be kept up incessantly. The 
 facial expression will become exaggerated — the eyebrows 
 twitching, the forehead set in a frown, the lips compressed, 
 the nostrils dilated. The whole body will be in a tense 
 condition even when the child is doing nothing or is asleep. 
 
 Such a child is decidedly nervous, although he may 
 not as yet have any nervous disease. He must be care- 
 fully watched and relieved from worry and fear, but kept 
 pleasantly occupied. Every effort should be used to 
 build up bone, muscle, and fat. Stimulating foods, and 
 coffee, tea, and chocolate, should be avoided. Long 
 hours of sleep should be secured. Such sensitive children 
 are at once the promise and the danger of the next gen- 
 eration. They may degenerate into hysterical wrecks, 
 or become the leaders of society. 
 
 When the nervous condition is permanent, especially 
 if it is inborn, whether or not it be so serious that the child 
 can properly be called neurotic or neurasthenic we get 
 the children who tend to become pecuKar or exceptional 
 
70 T he C hild 
 
 in some way. They are more sensitive to everything ir. 
 their environment than are average children, and whether 
 Exceptional °^ "°t ^^^^ become efficient members of 
 children society depends largely upon their early 
 
 training. They may have some hysterical or even 
 epileptic tendencies, or may display a lack of mental or 
 moral balance in almost any direction. 
 
 We need not reiterate the importance of good food, 
 good air, and exercise for such a child. Just in pro- 
 
 o- v.L_ ,. c portion as he is unusual, does he need more 
 Treatment of ^ , . , . ' , -... , , 
 
 the excep- care taken of his body. His unstable, 
 
 tional child easily overturned nervous system ought to 
 have all the nutrition possible without stimulation. 
 
 For such a child, however, the most troublesome 
 question is how to treat him at home and at school. 
 He is always doing unusual or bad things. He does 
 not get along well with other children. Perhaps he 
 hates school^ and he shows all sorts of traits that make 
 him the despair of all who have to deal with him. 
 
 We can do nothing whatever with such a child until, 
 with the utmost patience and sympathy, we learn to 
 put ourselves in his place, to look at things from his 
 standpoint, and to see how, from tha,t standpoint, his 
 actions and feelings appear justifiable. This is, of course, 
 true in dealing with any children, but the difficulty in 
 doing it is not usually so great as with the peculiar child. 
 To put ourselves in his place we must get his confidence, 
 and at the same time do some unobserved observing and 
 experimenting, to find out his real interests and make 
 use of them to bring him into closer relations with other 
 people. In every way such a child should be led to feel 
 that he is a valued and needed member of society and 
 that his greatest happiness is in serving others. The 
 criminal is avowedly anti-social; the genius is too often 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 71 
 
 solitary, if he is not in open opposition to his time. 
 Children with such tendencies need, therefore, not to be 
 marked out and set apart from their little world, but 
 rather to be bound to it by infinite ties of service and 
 affection. Nothing will help an unbalanced person to 
 keep his self-control so much as the knowledge that he 
 has duties and obligations, provided that the service be 
 not so strenuous as to become a source of worry. 
 
 While it is not justifiable for any parent or teacher to 
 be ignorant of the greater perils and temptations that 
 face the child of nervous temperament than face the 
 phlegmatic child, neither should they forget that vuider 
 proper care such a child may become a most valuable 
 member of society. The very instability of the nervous 
 system, that makes him so easily the victim of liquor or 
 vice in any form, also makes it easy for him to adopt new 
 lines of action and thought, — that is, makes him less the 
 slave of habit than other people are. Such a person, 
 when led by high principles and love of the service of 
 his fellows, becomes the hero and leader of his generation. 
 His vagrant, unlawful impulses must in his childhood be 
 given the balance wheel of a noble ideal, and then we 
 may expect almost any good of him. 
 
 If, however, the nerve fatigue becomes excessive, these 
 S5nnptoihs become stiU more pronounced. There are 
 usually sleeplessness, morbid and causeless 
 fears, or angers, excessive sensitiveness, ^^ij^^^^^'^''^ 
 ciying for no or slight cause, suspiciousness, 
 forgetfulness, and loss of interest both in school work and 
 in play, and so on. Such a child may fairly be called 
 neurasthenic. The causes- of the condition are varied. 
 It may be due to bad habits of living — -wrong food, 
 insufficient or irregular hours of sleep, bad air — or to 
 overwork and worry in school, to bad home conditions, 
 
72 The Child 
 
 to bad inheritance, and so on. Parent or teacher shotdd 
 seek the cause in each case, put the child- under hygienic 
 ■physical conditions and mental and moral conditions free 
 from strain and anxiety, and thus perhaps save him from 
 a life of nervous irritability or from a nervous breakdown. 
 Another common nervous condition in school children 
 is chorea, usually called St. Vitus's dance. Restlessness 
 
 and twitching movements, especially of the 
 °'*^ hands, fingers, arms, and legs, which make 
 
 the child seem awkward or careless, are the common 
 sj^ptoms of this. Such children should be removed from 
 school for a time, not only to give them the best opportun- 
 ity for recovery but also that there may not be an epidemic 
 of the disease from other children imitating them. 
 
 We come next to the large class of children sometimes 
 called backward, sometimes retarded. These children 
 
 have in common the fact that they are not 
 Sfildren** regularly promoted, but stay in one room 
 
 two, three, or even more years. Medical 
 inspection, however, has shown that the lack of pro- 
 motion is due to very different causes. The defects 
 already mentioned, such as persistent ill health, which 
 either keeps the child out of school or makes him tmable 
 to work well in school; defective sight or hearing; ade- 
 noids; nervousness or nervous disease, and so on, account 
 for a considerable number of these laggards. Another 
 class consists of the truants, and only the third class is 
 made up of the mentally defective children — those who 
 under good conditions are unable to do the regular school 
 work with the average children of their own age. These 
 children fall into two great classes — the dull and listless 
 and the restless and excitable — but in all cases they have 
 little power of voluntary attention and are easily suggest- 
 ible. It is very difficult for them to study alone, though 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 73 
 
 sometimes they have good memories. They tend to play 
 with children younger than themselves. Morally they are 
 likely to be deficient also. 
 
 Teachers of experience will readily see that normal 
 children may, imder bad conditions of health or mental 
 and moral envirotmient, show for a time all these symp- 
 toms characteristic of the true mental or moral defective. 
 But the normal child profits by changed conditions, while 
 the defective profits little or not at all. He is incorrigible 
 in the literal sense of that word — incapable of profiting 
 by correction and teaching beyond a certain point, which 
 varies with different children but seems to be rather definite 
 and fixed for each child. To use another common term, 
 he is a case of arrested development. 
 
 Looking at the matter most broadly, therefore, we may 
 say that there are all grades of mental arrest, from 
 the genius to the idiot who cannot even feed 
 himself. University faculties mark off one Mental 
 
 grade in the requirement for the doctor's 
 degree that the candidate shall present a thesis which 
 makes an "original contribution to the sum of existing 
 knowledge," and varying and indefinite though this 
 standard is, there is a genuine difference between the type 
 of mind which comes up to the requirement with ease and 
 enjoyment and that which with the utmost effort cannot 
 attain it. College and high-school faculties feel corre- 
 sponding differences between those who can and those 
 who cannot pass the tests for the bachelor's degree and 
 high-school graduation, while the attainment of adoles- 
 cence, at whatever grade it comes, is the high-water 
 mark of mental "and moral attainment for large numbers 
 of young men and women who almost cease to develop 
 after sixteen or seventeen years of age. This is due not 
 so much to lack of opportunity for further schooling as 
 
74 • The Child 
 
 because they have reached their individual hmit of de- 
 velopment, and so have no especial interest in going on 
 and could profit little by it if they were forced on. , 
 
 These, however, are variations within the limits of 
 normality. Practically, we do not speak of mental defect 
 unless it is so serious that the person is in- 
 Mental capable of earning his own living or tmder- 
 taking the direction of his own life. But 
 here again there are all sorts of gradations, from the per- 
 son who can earn his living under direction, and who has 
 about the intelligence of a twelve or thirteen year old 
 child, down to the helpless, speechless idiot. It is of 
 great importance, both from the standpoint of education 
 and that of the care of such individuals, that there shall 
 be some way of determining just where they stand men- 
 tally, and all sorts of tests and standards of intelligence 
 have been proposed for application in schools -and in 
 juvenile courts, as well as in institutions for the feeble- 
 minded. One of the most widely used is the Binet 
 system, which has been adapted to American children by 
 Dr. H>'H. Goddard. Where so complex a thing as in- 
 telligence is involved, no one system can give perfect 
 satisfaction and no system can take the place of expe- 
 rience and skill in the one giving the tests, but, used with 
 good judgment, these tests are of great assistance in 
 classifying defective children. It should be needless to 
 say that they do not indicate the causes of the defects 
 discovered, and that these causes may or may not be 
 remediable. 
 
 We have already referred to remediable causes. When 
 they are found to exist the treatment of the child is 
 obviously to put him under the proper conditions and 
 see how far he can profit by them. If, however, with 
 the best of care he is not able to profit, but lags behind 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 75 
 
 children of his own age three, four, or more years, the 
 problem of his proper treatment becomes more serious 
 and embarrassing. There is general agree- _ 
 ment that such children should be taken out of classes for 
 the regular school classes and given special defectives 
 instruction in a class by themselves by a teacher who 
 can use methods especially adapted to them. If left in 
 the regular classes, they demand too much of the teacher's 
 time both for teaching and discipline, and so retard the 
 entire class to some degree. They themselves are un- 
 happy and discouraged by the contrast between them- 
 selves and the others, and often they are ridiculed by the 
 normal children. If put in a class with children like 
 themselves, they are able to work and learn to the limit 
 of their capacity, and if in addition they can be taught 
 some trade within the limits of their ability they may 
 become self-supporting members of society. 
 
 If, however, they lack ability for this, we have the 
 problem of what shall be done with this large class, 
 estimated at about one in every three hun- Subnormal 
 dred of our population. Here again special- children 
 ists are at one upon one point, namely, that such persons 
 must not be allowed to transmit their defect to the 
 generations to come. The studies of Goddard and others 
 in tracing the ancestry of children now in institutions 
 for the feeble-minded show conclusively that this class 
 is largely self-perpetuating and that in the course of five 
 or six generations the state may spend hundreds of 
 thousands of dollars in supporting the descendants of a 
 single feeble-minded man or woman, in jails, in charitable 
 institutions, or in institutions for the feeble-minded. 
 In order to protect itself, society must prevent the propa- 
 gation of this class. 
 
 The two methods suggested for accomplishing this end 
 
76 The Child 
 
 are segregation and sterilization. The latter is now 
 being tried in certain states, and the outcome of the 
 experiment will be watched with great interest. Those 
 who favor this plan believe that the necessary operation 
 leaves no permanent bad effects, and the defective person 
 is thereafter free to live with his or her own family, and 
 jiarticipate in social life and activity as far as he is able, 
 without at the same time being a menace to society. 
 The state is saved the expense of supporting large in- 
 stitutions to care for this class, and avoids all the difficult 
 problenis connected with the administration of the in- 
 stitutions and the training of the inmates. 
 
 The older method, and the one still most widely in 
 use, is that of requiring all defectives, especially women, 
 to be segregated in institutions during the reproductive 
 period. Those advocating this method urge that the 
 operation of sterilization has not yet been proved to be 
 free from permanent bad effects, and that, iurthermore, 
 defectives in most cases are not happy or useful members 
 of society. If kept by themselves they can be developed 
 to their limit and not be forced beyond it, while out in 
 the world they are almost inevitably forced to a pace 
 too rapid for them to maintain. The expense is, of course, 
 greater at first, but if segregation is strictly enforced, so 
 that there can be no further propagation pf this class, it 
 will be greatly diminished in the course of one generation. 
 
 There is still another class of children and youth for 
 which the term "moral defectives" has been proposed. 
 Moral '^° some extent this class overlaps that of 
 
 defectives mental defectives and that of physical de- 
 fectives, but there is also a remainder in which no mental 
 or physical defect can be discovered, but where there is a 
 lack of moral sense which cannot be counteracted by train- 
 ing or good environment. The range of delinquencies 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 77 
 
 and crimes is great — kleptomania, pyromania, incor- 
 rigible cruelty and love of torturing animals, some cases 
 of sexual crime, somei cases of murder, and so on. In 
 such cases there is sometimes an insane heredity, and 
 sometimes a transition later to insanity. It may be that 
 there is always defective development or injury to some 
 Center of the brain, but if this is so it cannot yet be 
 demonstrated. Such tendencies are likely to become 
 more pronounced at adolescence, but they may appear 
 between seven and nine years of age, or even earlier. 
 How far they can be corrected if taken in their earliest 
 stages is still unknown. ' It goes without saying that any 
 teacher or parent will do the utmost to correct them at 
 once, but so far we are unable to deal very effectively 
 with this class because we have no tests to show whether 
 or not the person is incorrigible. Such cases come before 
 the courts repeatedly for the slighter crimes. On the 
 other hand, even though a youth may show tendencies to 
 horrible crime, under present- conditions he cannot be put 
 under restraint until the crime is actually committed, and 
 then he must be treated as though he were a normal, 
 responsible person, unless he can be proved insane. But 
 the tests for insanity are themselves fluctuating, and so we 
 go round the circle of ignorance and end in indecision as 
 to the best treatment of this class of "moral defectives." 
 
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 Sight 
 
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 N. S., 1902, Vol. XV, 109-110. 
 American Textbook on Diseases of Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat. 1899- 
 
 6 
 
78 T he Child 
 
 Booth, F. W. Report of Commission on Defective Sight and 
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 Case, G. M. Eye Strain and Crime. Ophtk. Rec, N. S., 1906, 
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 1903, 157-161. 
 
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 1907, 303-312- 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 79 
 
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 Hearing 
 
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 1903, 1013-1019. 
 
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 1904. 939-946. 
 
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 Fatigue 
 
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8o The C hild 
 
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Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 8i 
 
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 Nervous and Mental Disease 
 
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82 T he Child 
 
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 Jones, Ernest. Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Am. Jour. 
 
 Fsy., Oct. 1911, 477-529. (Freudian standpoint.) 
 Langdon-Downe, R. Neurotic Children. Poid., 1903, Vol. V, 2-11. 
 Macmillan, Margaret. Early Childhood (Feeble-minded child, 
 
 cost of mental effort, and fatigue). Lond., 1900, 211 pp. 
 Mercier, Chas. Crime and Insanity. Williams, Lond., 1911,255 pp. 
 Psychology, Normal and Morbid. Macmillan, 1901, 518 pp. 
 Conduct and its Disorders. Macmillan, 1911, 377 pp. 
 Meyer, Adolf. Mental Reaction Types. P^y. Bm«., 1908, 245-261. 
 Preventive Mental Hygiene. Psy. Clinic^ 1908, 89-101. 
 The Neurotic Constitution. Am. Jour. Psy., 1903, Vol. XIV, 
 
 354-367- 
 Neu, C. F. Important Points in Nervous and Mental Diseases. 
 
 Alien, and Neur., 1909, 42-62. 
 Partridge, Geo. E. The Nervous Life. Sturgis and Walton, 191 1, 
 
 212 pp. 
 Peckham, Grace. Nervousness of Americans. Trans. III. Soc. C. S., 
 
 1886, 37H9- 
 Rachford, B. K. Neurotic Disorders of Childhood. N. Y., 1905, 
 
 440 pp. 
 Rayner, H. Early Recognition and Treatment of Mental Defects. 
 
 Med. Mag., 1899, 451-461 ; 591-600. 
 Reynolds, J. R. Influence of Tenement House Life on Nervous 
 
 Conditions of Children. Trans. III. Soc. C. S., Vol. II, 33. 
 Royce, Josiah. Mental Defects and Disorders from Teacher's Point 
 
 of View. Ed. Rev., June-Dec. 1893, 299,302, 449. (Very 
 
 stimulating.) 
 Russell, E. H. Exceptional Children in School. Ed. Rev., Vol. VI, 
 
 431-442. (Very suggestive.) 
 Schofield, G. T. Nervousness. N. Y., 1909, 80 pp. (Good popular 
 
 presentation.) 
 Starr, M. Allen. Familiar Forms of Mental Disease. Wood and Co. 
 Thomas, J. J. Hysteria in Children. Jour. Nerv. and Ment. Dis., 
 
 1908, 209-242. 
 Tuke, Hack. Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. See Index. 
 Warner, Francis. Study of Children. Macmillan, 1897, 264 pp. 
 Nervous System of Child. Macmillan, 1900, 233 pp. 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 83 
 
 White and Jelliflfe (eds.). Modern Treatment 0/ Nervous and Mental 
 Diseases. 2 vols., app. 900 pp. each. Lea and Febiger, 
 1913. 16.00 per vol. 
 
 Williams, Tom. A. Psychoprophylaxis in Childhood. Jour. Abn. 
 Psy., 1909, 182-199. Bibliog. 
 
 Nervous and Mental Defects, etc. 
 
 Arnold, Felix. Classification and Education of Afflicted Children. 
 
 Psy. Clinic, 5908, 180-191. 
 Ayres, Leonard H. Laggards in the Schools. Russell Sage Foun., 
 
 19091 236 pp. (Survey of the amount and causes of retarda- 
 tion.) 
 Backward Children. Report of Philadelphia Com., Dec. 31, 1910. 
 
 Phila., 68 pp. 
 Barr, M. W. Mental Defectives and Social Welfare. Pop. Sc. Mo., 
 
 1899, 746-759- 
 Feeble-Minded Child. Alien and Neur., 1905, 317-328. 
 Bibhography of Exceptional Children. U. S. Bur. of Ed., igi2. 
 
 Bull. No. 32, 600 titles. Compiled by A. Macdonald. 
 Bibliography of Feeblemindedness, annotated. Training School, 
 
 1910, 213-215; 1909, 11-19, 156 titles. 
 Bohannon, E. W. -Exceptional Children. Duluth, 1912, 29 pp. 
 
 Also Ped. Sem., 1896. 
 Butler, Amos W. The Burden of Feeblemindedness. Nat. Con. 
 
 Char. Corr., 1907, l-il. 
 Carter, Marion H. Conservation of the Feebleminded Child. 
 
 McClure's, June 1909, 160-171. 
 Chance, Lydia G. Public School Classes for Mentally Deficient 
 
 Children. Nat. Con. Char. Corr., 1904, 390-401. (Good 
 
 survey of conditions at that time.) 
 Criminals, Mental Defectives: Increase in Massachusetts from i8go 
 
 to iQii. ' Wright and Potter, State Printers, Boston, 1911, 
 
 50 pp. 
 Dawson, G. E. Study in Youthful Degeneracy. Ped. Sem., 
 1906-7, 221-258. 
 Characterization of Prevailing Defects. Ped. Sem., 1909, 
 
 339-436. 
 Ellis, Havelock. The Criminal. W. Scott, Lond., 3d ed., 1907, 
 
 419 pp. (Physical and mental characteristics.) 
 Exceptional Children. Proc. N. E. A., preliminary report, 1908, 
 
 42 pp. 
 
84 The Child 
 
 Falkner, R. P. Retardation. Psy. Clinic, 1908, 57-74; 1909, 
 
 255-275- 
 Farr, Wm. Vital Statistics. San. Inst. G. B., Vol. XXIV. 
 
 (Relation of degeneracy to sterility, idiocy, etc.) 
 F6r^, Ch. Morbid Heredity. Pop. Sc. Mo., July 1895, 388- 
 
 399- 
 Fernald, Walter E. Imbecile with Criminal Instincts. Jour. 
 Psychoasth., 1909-10, 16-38. 
 Mentally Defective Children in Public Schools. Ibid., Vol. 
 VIII, 25-35. 
 Goddard, H. H. The Kallikak Family. Macmillan, 1912, 121 pp. 
 (Showing the heredity of feeble-mindedness, the cost to the 
 state, etc.,' a very important study.) 
 Heredity of Feeblemindedness. Am. Breeders' Mag., 1910, 
 
 165-178; Eug. Rev., 1911, 46-60. 
 Numerous articles on mental deficiency and tests in The Train- 
 ing School, Jour. Ed. Psy., et al. 
 Sterilization and Segregation. In Conservation of Children, 
 Am. Acad, of Med., Conf. 1912, 53-62. 
 Groszmann, M. H. Position of the Atypical Child. Jour. Nerv. 
 and Ment. Dis., 1906, 425-446. 
 To What Extent may Atypical Children succeed in the Public 
 Schools? Proc. N. E. A., 1904, 754-759. 
 Harris, W. T. Study of Arrested Development as produced in 
 
 School Children. Jour, of Ed., 1900, 453-466. 
 .Hart, H. H. Sterilization as a Practical Measure. Russell Sage 
 Foun., 1913, II pp. 
 Extinction of the Defective Delinquent. Russell Sage Foun., 
 1913- 15 PP- 
 Healy, Wm. Mentality of Defectives and the Courts. Jour. 
 
 Psychoasth., 1910, 44-60. 
 Holmes, Arthur. Moral Imbecile or Bad Boy: Which? Psy. 
 Clinic, 1910, 109-116. 
 Conservation of the Child. Lipp., 1912, 345 pp. (Important.) 
 Huey, E. B. Backward and Feebleminded Children. Warwick and 
 
 York, 1912, 213 pp. Bibliog. (Good survey.) 
 Johnstone, E. R. Prevention of Feeble Mindedness. Jour. 
 Am. Pub. Health Assn., Vol. I, 1911, 90-97. 
 Practical Provision for Mentally Deficient Children. Nal. 
 
 Con. Char. Corr., 1908, 316-335. 
 Also various articles in The Training School. 
 
Sight, Hearing, and the Nervous System 85 
 
 Kerr, J. Mentally Defective Children. Birm. Med. Rev., 1905, 
 
 251-274. 
 LaPage, C. P. Feeblemindedness in Children of School Age. Man- 
 chester Univ. Press, 191 1, 359 pp. 
 Lincoln, D. P. Education of Feebleminded in U. S. Rept. U. S. 
 
 Com. Ed., 1902, 2157-2197. (Good up to that date.) 
 Lloyd, J. R. Education of Physically and Mentally Defective 
 
 Children. West. Rev., 1903, 662-674. 
 Lombroso, Cesare. Man of Genius. Scribner's. $1.25. (Relation 
 
 between genius and degeneracy.) 
 Longmead, Fred. Forms of Mental Defect. School Hygiene, Feb. 
 
 19131 9-18. (Classification and general survey.) 
 Maennel, Bruno. Auxiliary Education. . . . Training of Backward 
 
 Children. Doubleday, 1909, 267 pp. 
 Neighbours, Owen J. Retardation. Ele. Sch. Teach., 1910, 
 
 H9-I35- 
 Nordau, Max. Degeneration. Appleton. $3.50. 
 Norsworthy, Naomi. Psychology of Mentally Deficient Children. 
 
 The Science Press, N. Y., 1906, iii pp. 
 Richman, Julia. Special Classes. Nat. Con. Char. Corr., 1907, 
 
 232-243. 
 Sherlock, E. B. The Feeble Minded. Macmillan, 191 1, 327 pp. 
 Shuttleworth and Potts. Mentally Defective Children. 3d rev. ed., 
 
 1910, 236 pp. (Standard.) 
 
 Strayer, G. S. Retardation and Elimination. Wash. Gov. Print., 
 
 1911,144 pp. Bibliog. (Good survey.) 
 Triplett, Norman. Pedagogical Arrests and Peculiarities. Fed. 
 
 Sem., 1905, 141-157. Bibliog. 
 Wallin, J. E. W. Mental Defectives. Warwick and York, 1912, 
 
 155 Pp- 
 Mental Health of the School Child. Yale U. Press, 1914, 450 pp. 
 Witmer, Lightner. Special Classes for Backward Children. Phila., 
 
 1911, 275 pp. (Most complete account.) 
 
 Retardation in Children of the Rich. Psy. Clinic, 1907, 
 
 157-174- 
 Criminals in the Making. Psy. Clinic, 191 1, 221-238. 
 Retardation. Psy. Clinic, 1910, 121-131. 
 Also various other articles in Psy^ Clinic. 
 For other literature, account of present conditions, etc., see Psyr 
 
 chological Clinic, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Journal of 
 
 Psychoasthenics, and The Training School. 
 
86 The Child 
 
 Tests of Intelligence 
 
 Abelson, A. R. Measurement of Mental AbUity of Backward 
 
 Children. Brit. Jour. Psy., 191 1, 268-314. 
 Bell, J. C. Recent Literature on Binet-Simon Tests. Jour. Ed. 
 
 Psy., Vol. II, 1912, 101-114. 
 Binet and Simon. Method of Measuring the Development of Intel- 
 ligence. Trans, by Clara H. Towne, 2d. ed. 1913. Chicago 
 
 Medical Book Co., 82 pp. $1.00. (These are the tests about 
 
 which the battle is now waging.) 
 Goddard, H. H. Feeble Minded Children Classified by Binet 
 
 Method. Binet-Simon scale revised. Fed. Sem., Sept. 
 
 1910, 387-397; June 1911, 232-259; The Training School. 
 Healy and Fernald. Tests for Practical Mental Classification. Rev. 
 
 Pub. Co., Lancaster, 1911, 53 pp. 
 Huey, E. B. The Binet Scale. Jour. Ed. Psy., 1910, 435-444- 
 Retardation and Mental Examination. Jour. Psychoasth., 
 
 Vol. XV; Psy. Bull., Apr. 1912, 160-168. 
 Present Status of Binet Tests. Psy. Bull., Apr. 1912. Bibliog. 
 Kuhlmann, F. Binet Tests. Jour. Psychoasth., Monog. Sup., Vol. 
 
 I, No. I, 1912, 41 pp. (Gives the results of his use of the 
 
 tests on large numbers of children.) 
 Schmitt, Clara. Binet-Simon Tests. Ped. Sem., June 1912, 
 
 186-200. 
 Stem, Wilhelm. Die psychologische Methode der IntelligenzprUfung. 
 
 Barth, Leipzig, 1912, 106 pp. (The most critical evaluation 
 
 of methods. It is to be hoped some one will translate it.) 
 Terman, L. M. The Binet-Simon Scale. Psy. Clinic, 191 1, 239-244. 
 Terman and Childs. Tentative Revision and Extension of Binet- 
 Simon Tests. Jour. Ed. Psy., 1912, 61-74. 
 Thorndike, E. L. Theory of Menial and Social Measurements. 
 
 Revised and enlarged ed., 1913, 277 pp. $2.50. 
 Towne, Clara H. Binet-Simon Scale and Psychologists. Psy. 
 
 Clinic, 1912, 239-244. 
 Wallin, J. E. W. Administration of Binet-Simon Scale. Psy. 
 
 Clinic, 1911, 217-238. 
 Whipple, G. M. Manual of Menial and Physical Tests. Warwick 
 
 and York, 1910, 534 pp. 
 For articles and symposiums on the above subjects see also Trans. 
 
 of the Fourth International Congress of School Hygiene, 
 
 Buffalo, 1913, 5 vols. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Feelings and Ideas of Sex 
 
 WITHIN the last decade there has been a great 
 awakening as to the importance of instruction in 
 sex hygiene. Among the many factors which have con- 
 tributed to this may be mentioned the work „ . . 
 of eugenic societies, the diminishing birth sex man- 
 rate both here and abroad, the increasing ifestations 
 knowledge of sexual diseases, and the pathological studies 
 of Freud and his followers. In this coimtry Dr. G. 
 Stanley Hall's great work on Adolescence has emphasized 
 as has no other the significance of a normal attainment of 
 maturity both for the individual and society, not merely 
 on the physiological side but still more on the side of 
 character and civilization in their highest phases. We 
 are beginning to understand that no adequate psychology 
 can be written either of the adult or the child mind which 
 ignores this fundamental instinct. 
 
 In the sex instinct the race speaks through the indi- 
 vidual. Biologists tell us that though our body dies the 
 germ plasm is immortal. Before any organs are formed 
 in the developing embryo the germinal cells have sep- 
 arated from the other cells, and in them, through inher- 
 itance, the torch of life is passed on from generation to 
 generation. As hunger is the fundamental motive for 
 individual preservation, so sex desire is the fundamental 
 motive for race preservation, and both play up and 
 down the gamut of life in infinite forms. So varied and 
 transformed are these that often we should not be 
 
 87 
 
88 The Child 
 
 able to recognize them if we could not trace their gradual 
 
 development. 
 
 Every organ of the body contributes its quota to our 
 
 general bodily feeling and affects our state of mind, 
 
 „ , ^ , although we are not usually able to single 
 Early control =" , , ^ -^ . ■±. 
 
 of related out each constituent and trace it to its 
 
 factors source. We cannot doubt that the repro- 
 
 ductive organs add their mite to this fund of common 
 feeling, for it is impossible that any healthy organ should, 
 exist without acting and reacting upon the rest of the 
 body. Still, such feelings are very vague in the baby 
 and in the child, and though they are the forerunners of 
 sex desire we should keep clearly in mind the fact that 
 they are to it but as the acorn to the 'oak. Pathological 
 cases, in which they are exaggerated, give us some hints 
 as to the form they may assume, and such cases have in 
 recent years been especially studied by Freud and some 
 of his pupils. To put the case very briefly, in order to 
 secure the normal development of this instinct, as well as 
 the control, broadening, and sublimation of it, various 
 factors which later may cause abnormalities in this and 
 other fields must be controlled from the beginning of 
 life. Chief among these are the following: 
 
 a. Normal and regular habits of feeding and elimina- 
 tion of wastes, beginning even with the little baby. 
 Anything that contributes to inflammation or prolonged 
 tension here, or to overmuch thought and feeling about 
 these functions, also tends to react upon the sex instinct 
 by laying the basis for a passionate and irritable temper- 
 ament. 
 
 b. Children, as well as adults, fall into two great types of 
 the passive and the active, or those who do and those who 
 endure. In the normal person the two factors are bal- 
 anced, the excess in one direction or the other being 
 
Feelings and Ideas of Sex 89 
 
 slight. Such a balance can be to some degree obtained 
 by noting the natural tendency in the first three years 
 of life, and developing the opposite one. Great excess 
 in either direction leads to distinct types of defect, if not 
 of abnormality, in all the relations of life, sex relations 
 among the others. 
 
 c. The especial attraction of children for the parent of 
 the »)pposite sex is well known, and is of especial im- 
 portance when we consider that the boy's and the girl's 
 ideal woman and man are almost entirely shaped by the 
 father and mother. The qualities of the mate whom the 
 children will later choose are those loved in the parent, 
 and the child who loves the parent too much or too 
 narrowly, or who loves undesirable traits, is thereby 
 hampered in his choice, and is also likely to love his 
 mate unwisely or wrongly. To state it somewhat differ- 
 ently, the mother and father, in stimulating and shaping 
 the love of their children toward themselves, are at the 
 same time broadly outlining the attitude of the children 
 toward their own as well as toward the opposite sex, 
 both as to habits of acting and speaking and as to ideals. 
 
 d. Closely connected, probably, with the attraction of 
 the child to the parent of the opposite sex is the child's 
 curiosity over sex matters. Some physicians assert that 
 even the little child of three or four years is especially 
 wide awake to such things as complete nudity, words and 
 acts heard and seen without full understanding, and so 
 on. We may perhaps question whether this is true, in a 
 normal child. But it is true that by the time a child is 
 four years old he usually begins to ask questions about 
 the new baby, and whether he keeps a normal attitude or 
 is forced into one of morbid curiosity depends upon the 
 answers he first gets. Here the whole problem of sex 
 instruction is involved, and this we will take up shortly. 
 
go T he Child 
 
 e. We know little of the sex consciousness of children 
 between four or five years of age and puberty. We 
 should expect to find a marked change coming between 
 seven and nine with the other changes in interest 
 and attitude at that age, but few studies of value have 
 been made. It is sometimes called the latent or mental 
 period. 
 
 /. At some time between eleven and sixteen years 
 (and even earlier or later in exceptional cases) comes the 
 characteristic development of puberty. We can only refer 
 in the most cursory way to these changes. 
 
 1. The first marked change is a rapid growth in height, 
 which is soon followed by increase in weight. These of 
 _. course involve growth of the bones and 
 puberty. muscles as well as of all the internal organs, 
 I. Physical g^j^^j ^j-g accompanied by changes in the 
 functioning of the organs and in the feelings and sensations 
 naturally associated with these activities. 
 
 2. Changes in the circulatory system, especially in the 
 relation between the heart and the arteries, are marked 
 and sometimes make especial care necessary for a time. 
 The heart increases more relatively than the arteries, 
 reversing the condition existing in children, and this 
 means greatly increased blood pressure at puberty, and a 
 slight increase in bodily temperature. The quantity of 
 blood increases relative to the body weight, the specific 
 gravity increases (more in girls than in boys), and other 
 changes in the composition also occur in both sexes. The 
 frequency of the heartbeat lessens, and probably the 
 strength increases. 
 
 3. The lungs, thoracic cavity, and power of expansion 
 increase greatly and are closely related to the changes in 
 circulation. 
 
 4. The brain has already reached its maximum weight. 
 
F e elin ^s and I de as of S e% gi 
 
 but there is considerable evidence to show that at this 
 period the middle layer of fibers, which connect the 
 different parts of the cortex with each other and upon 
 whose development the growth of intelligence depends, 
 enters upon a rapid and prolonged growth. 
 
 5. Skin and special senses. The sense of touch seems 
 to be somewhat less delicate at this age, and the con- 
 dition of the other sense organs as to increased discrim- 
 ination is doubtful. It is certain, however, that there is 
 increased attention to all these sensations and their 
 arsthetic implications. The adolescent fusses with his 
 skin; develops strong likes and aversions to foods, per- 
 fumes and odors, colors and forms, sounds, etc. 
 
 6. Various tests of muscular activity show that hand 
 grip, ergograph work, and rate of tapping and reaction 
 time improve greatly at this age, but that accuracy of 
 movement seems not to improve. 
 
 7. There is the characteristic change of voice. 
 
 8. In addition to the above changes common to both 
 boys and girls, though in different degrees and at different 
 ages, there are also the changes peculiar to each sex in 
 the growth of the reproductive organs. 
 
 9. Changes in the feeling and thinking of the youth, 
 and in his attitude toward other persons, are equally 
 marked. The rapid growth of body and of 2. Psychical 
 brain fibers means profound changes in all changes 
 his sensations and emotions and in all his associations. 
 Old ideas are seen in new vistas and perspectives. They 
 acquire meanings, felt to be most deep and weighty, but 
 only glimpsed, mysterious, and therefore attractive. 
 Old interests get a new emphasis, new interests also rise, 
 and it is not stating the case too strongly to say that if 
 any given interest or ideal is to have a chance in later 
 life its seed must be planted now. Ideals in all directions 
 
92 The Child 
 
 lUUst be developed — love of nature, love of man, love of 
 God, self-respect, and the sense of honor — all these in all 
 their details must be stimulated and given the right 
 outlet in action. To all of them the adolescent is highly- 
 sensitive if he be rightly approached, but not along the 
 lines of command and prohibition. Just as he is suggest- 
 ible, humble, altruistic, glowing with noble desires under 
 the right conditions, so at other times he is obstinate, 
 conceited, selfish, sensualistic, and perhaps cruel and 
 vicious. Some of these alternations are but the reflex of 
 his bodily and especially his nervous instability, and 
 must be ignored tintil rectified by maturity. Some are 
 due to unwise treatment by adults, especially to any 
 form of compulsion. Happy is the adolescent boy or 
 girl who feels through this period that his father and 
 mother understand and sympathize. However ignorant 
 the parents, however learned and famed the children in 
 later life, wise and loving care at this time will ensure 
 that the children will to the end of their days rise up and. 
 call the parents blessed. 
 
 We enter, accordingly, upon the delicate problem of sex 
 instruction and sex hygiene. The time is now past when 
 
 Dangers of *^® ^^^^ ^°'' ®®^ instruction is questioned, 
 ignorance and we will only indicate in the briefest way 
 fo child ^jjg dangers of ignorance to the little child 
 
 and to the youth. 
 
 When a little child begins to ask questions about sex 
 matters he asks them of servants, plajmiates, or anybody 
 with whom he associates, as well as of parents. He is 
 almost certain to get garbled and often vicious ideas 
 unless the rnother takes the matter in hand and es- 
 tablishes special confidential relations with him. Ver,v 
 few parents, rich or poor, can prevent the child ob- 
 taining such information from some one. Furthermore, 
 
F e e l-in gs and I d e as of S e X 93 
 
 vicious children or servants may teach the child habits 
 of self-abuse unless he is safeguarded by the modesty 
 of knowledge. 
 
 The dangers to youth are still more serious when they 
 approach adolescence in ignorance. First of all, if 
 puberty comes upon them unexpectedly 
 there are great mental and emotional be- ** ^°"* 
 
 wilderment and anguish. Far from going to the parents 
 for help, the boy and girl who have been left alone in this 
 crisis are likely to conceal the experience as a shameful 
 secret, or to reveal it only to playmates or companions, 
 who may be ignorant or vicious or both. These are the 
 individuals who answer the quack advertisements by 
 hundreds of thousands, and they are fortunate if they 
 are despoiled only of money and do not lose health and 
 virtue as well. Secondly, both boys and girls need to 
 be given simple but important instruction in hygiene, 
 in order that proper sex habits may be formed and the 
 new functions healthily • established as soon as possible. 
 Thirdly, both boys and girls, but especially boys, should 
 have some information about contagious sex diseases, 
 which are now known to be widespread in this country 
 as well as abroad. 
 
 So obvious and well known are these dangers that no 
 informed man or woman now questions the need of sex 
 instruction, but there are differences of opinion as to the 
 way in which it should be given, who should give it, and 
 at what age it should be begun. The general consensus 
 of opinion, however, seems to be along the following lines: 
 
 First of all, it cannot be said too emphatically that 
 nothing can equal the wise and loving instruction of a 
 good mother and father. Parents shoul4 Home 
 consider it their highest moral and religiQjiSi^j., instruction 
 duty to inspire in their children the right feelings and 
 
94 The Child 
 
 thoughts toward the mystery of life. If parents fail to do 
 this they have failed fundamentally, and no amount of 
 money, forethought, and love expended in other directions 
 can make good this Refect. The home is the natural 
 and the best place for sex instruction. 
 
 Under the present conditions in this country, however, 
 we must admit that many parents — perhaps even the 
 School majority — fail here. Accordingly, many are 
 
 instruction urging that there should be classes for adoles- 
 cent boys and adolescent girls in connection with the 
 public schools. The teacher shduld be a woman for girls 
 and a man for boys, preferably a physician, but also a 
 person of attractive personality, of refinement, and with 
 skill in dealing with adolescents. This general plan ^ is 
 being tried in various places and it meets with great 
 success when the teacher wins the confidence of the 
 pupils and the parents. 
 
 For the matter and methods of sex instruction the 
 most authoritative statement is that of the report of the 
 Matter and special committee on this subject, issued by 
 methods the American Federation for Sex Hygiene. 
 The following are their recommendations :i 
 
 "i. Sex instruction has a purely practical aim ... to 
 impart such knowledge of sex at each period of the child's 
 life as may be necessary to preserve health, develop right 
 living, and control conduct. Its aim is both hygienic 
 and ethical. ... In all cases, however, temptations 
 should be anticipated by the instruction necessary to 
 protect the child from physical or moral harm. 
 
 "A further aim of such instruction . . . is to develop a 
 healthier public sentiment in regard to sex . . . . More- 
 over, a knowledge of the marvelous processes by which 
 life is" perpetuated from its lowest forms to its highest, 
 
 ^Report, copyrighted by the Federation. 
 
F e elin gs and I d e as oj S e X 95 
 
 impresses on the mind more firmly than is possible in any 
 other way the sacredness of human reproduction and the 
 dire consequences to future generations of wrong sexual 
 conduct. 
 
 "2. . . Sex instruction . . . must not seek to create 
 interest and awaken curiosity in the subject with which it 
 deals, but merely to satisfy the curiosity which spon- 
 taneously arises in the child's mind by answering his 
 questions truthfully, but only so completely as may be 
 necessary to give proper guidance to his conduct, both 
 hygienic and ethical. The less children and youth think 
 of sex, and the later they mature sexually, the better 
 both physiologically and ethically. Premature develop- 
 nient of the sex consciousness and the sex feelings is 
 harmful. . . . 
 
 "3. It follows, from the above principles, that detailed 
 descriptions of external human anatomy are to be avoided, 
 and that descriptions of internal anatomy should be limited 
 to what is necessary to make clear and to impress the 
 hygienic bearing of the facts to be taught. The details 
 of human embryology . . . should likewise be avoided. 
 In printed books and leaflets, cuts illustrating human 
 anatomy should be avoided wherever possible, and if 
 used at all should be limited to the absolutely essential 
 facts, and be conventionalized for the purpose as much 
 as scientific accuracy will permit. . . . Danger to the 
 movement might conceivably come from lack of judgment 
 or excess of zeal on the part of its friends. 
 
 "4. The purely scientific basis for such instruction 
 must be laid in the biological nature study in elementary 
 schools and in the more systematic instruction in biology 
 and hygiene in secondary schools and .colleges. 
 
 "5. It must be supplemented by providing physical 
 exercise; by insisting in the home on regular hours of 
 
96 The Child 
 
 sleep; by providing adequate facilites for play and whole- 
 some amusements; by protecting children from the un- 
 wholesome associations and corrupting influences of 
 debasing shows and immoral literature; and by main- 
 taining the confidence of children in their parents and 
 teachers, so that signs of danger may be the more promptly 
 detected. 
 
 "6. The purely scientific instruction must be reinforced 
 as strongly as possible by ethical instruction, both direct 
 and indirect, with due regard to the maturity of those 
 taught ... in secondary schools and colleges; and 
 certain phases . . . in the upper classes of the elementary 
 schools. Appeals to the sense of personal self-respect and 
 purity and to the instinct of chivalry can be effectively 
 made in the earliest years of adolescence, and even before.. 
 With relatively mature students the vast sociological 
 bearings of the" subject,, with their ethical implications, 
 can be effectively utilized. 
 
 "Among the means of indirect ethical instruction for 
 this purpose, the most effective is good literature. It is 
 of immense consequence that during the adolescent 
 years the pupils' minds be saturated with the great 
 masterpieces both in poetry and prose, which deal with 
 romantic love in its purest forms. Thoughts of sex and 
 sex emotion must at this time be spiritualized and placed 
 on the highest plane, and good literature is the most 
 effective means to this end which is available in th& 
 pubHc schools. Any kind of sex education which ignores 
 the education of the emotions, is seriously defective. 
 Deep intellectual interests, enthusiasm in art, or ardent 
 devotion to some worthy practical cause, absorb the 
 mind and furnish wholesome avenues for the expression 
 of the emotions. Few conditions are so dangerous at 
 this period as idleness, whether physical or mental, and 
 
F e elin gs and I de a s of S e X 97 
 
 an absence of interest in things which appeal to > the 
 higher altruistic interests. 
 
 "7. The value of physical exercise, especially in the 
 form of play and athletic sport, in its bearing on the 
 control of the sex instinct, is so generally recognized 
 that it needs no special emphasis here. 
 
 "8. . . The life of the pupil may be conveniently 
 divided into four periods . . on a basis of facts both 
 physiological and psychological. 
 
 "9. . . From one to six . . . the care of the child 
 falls chiefly on the mother. ... In lectures on sex 
 education given to mothers, special emphasis must be laid 
 upon this period and proper instruction be given as to 
 the care of the child's body. The danger . . . of an 
 immature or injudicious nurse should be pointed out. 
 Instruction should be given as to how the child's ques- 
 tions relating to the origin of human life may best be 
 answered. This is the only sex instruction a child needs 
 during this first period. In addition to this, watchfulness 
 over the child's habits and protection from untoward 
 influences constitute the mother's chief duty. 
 
 "10. . . From six to twelve . . the school must 
 share with the home the hygienic and moral care of the 
 child; and as most parents are not qualified at present to 
 give the necessary sex instruction to their children, this 
 duty falls mainly upon the school. 
 
 "Truthful and delicate answering of the child's ques- 
 tions as to the origin of the individual human life, and 
 instruction which will protect it from forming injurious 
 sexual habits, constitute the chief features of sex in- 
 struction during the early years of this period. ... At 
 this period it is best given privately and should be care- 
 fully adapted to the child's individual needs. . . . There 
 should be given during the later years ... a carefully 
 
98 ' The Child 
 
 planned series of lessons on reproduction in plants, as a 
 part of the course in nature study . . . the various 
 methods of fertilization and the necessity of fertilization, 
 and he should be led up to the generalization that plant 
 life always springs from plant life. 
 
 "In like manner a series on animal life below mammals. 
 . . . The origin of the chick, the fish, and the frog . . . 
 of insects, and finally the necessity for fertilization . . . 
 might form the chief general topics. . . . 
 
 "The aim should be . . . to impress deeply the mind 
 of the child with the beautiful and marvelous processes of 
 nature by which life is reproduced from life .... It is 
 not necessary and in most cases not desirable that chil- 
 dren shoiild make application of this knowledge to repro- 
 duction in man before the beginning of adolescence, 
 further than that the human infant is developed within 
 the mother. But such instruction . . . will afterward 
 invest reproduction in the higher animals and in man 
 with a significance and dignity not otherwise attainable, 
 and . . . wiU create the right emotional attitude toward 
 human reproduction and prepare the child's mind to ap- 
 preciate its sacredness." 
 
 Instruction to children with injurious sex habits shoiild 
 be given privately. 
 
 " 1 1 . From twelve to sixteen, more facts on reproduction 
 below mammals should lead up to mammals and to the 
 generalization that animal life comes from the ovum. 
 The simple facts of heredity and their application should 
 be given, to show the importance of sexual morality. 
 Girls should receive this instruction about a year earlier 
 than boys, with special instruction on the hygiene of 
 puberty. 
 
 " 12. During all adolescence, emphasis shovild be laid on 
 the parent's love and care of the young, the helplessness 
 
F e elin gs and I de as of S ex 99 
 
 of human young, and how it has led to the pairing of 
 couples and to the family; also on the ethical relations of 
 the home, and the fact that every boy owes to every 
 girl the same duty as he would expect from another boy 
 to his own sister. 
 
 "13. During adolescence children should understand 
 not only the physical but the psychic, especially emotional 
 changes through which they are passing. Lack of 
 sympathy from the parents now often leads to alienation 
 and loss of control. 
 
 "14. Now there should be systematic ethical instruc- 
 tion, of which the ethics of sex relations should form a part. 
 
 "15. From sixteen on, there should be more complete 
 instruction in heredity, immorality, and venereal diseases. 
 
 "16. It is not desirable that there should be specially 
 set lessons in sex instruction in schools, but such in- 
 struction in all but exceptional cases shotdd form a natural 
 part of the courses in nature study, biology, hygiene, and 
 ethics. 
 
 "17. All instruction in reproduction in plants and in 
 animals below mammals may be given in coeducational 
 classes. ; . . In mammals . . . usually best . . . 
 in separate classes; in human reproduction . . . always 
 ... in separate classes . . . and a teacher of their 
 own sex. 
 
 ' " 18. Certain pupils will always need special instruction, 
 and each class also should be carefully studied, and much 
 left to the tact and judgment of the teacher. 
 
 "19. . . It is not desirable that any teacher should 
 make a specialty of this type of instruction and of no 
 other. We do not want 'sex specialists.' It is better that 
 one of the regular corps of teachers . . . whom the 
 pupils personally kiiow and who has a firm moral hold 
 on them, should give this instruction. 
 
loo The Child 
 
 "20. All normal schools and all departments of edu- 
 cation in colleges and viniversities should provide the 
 necessary courses to meet this need {i.e. how to give 
 sex instruction). 
 
 "21. Sex instruction should be given in the regular 
 evening schools. 
 
 "22. Systematic courses at public expense should be 
 given for parents. 
 
 "23. Carefully adapted courses should be given in 
 Y. M. C. A. and various types of boys' clubs." 
 
 In conclusion, the committee emphasizes the impor- 
 tance of introducing such courses anywhere with tact, 
 and only when public sentiment will support them. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 General Accounts of the Sexual Nature 
 
 Ellis, Havelock. Man and Woman. Scribner's. 409 pp. $1.25. 
 Geddes and Thomson. Evolution of Sex. Scott, Lond., 1901, 342 
 
 pp. $1.50. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence. 2 vols., 1904, Appleton. App. 
 
 600 and 800 pp. $5.00. (By far the most important book 
 
 on the subject. Much space is given to the psychological 
 
 aspects.) 
 Youth. Appleton, 1906, 379 pp. I1.50. (A r6sum6 of parts 
 
 of Adolescence.) 
 Hitschmann, Eduard. Freud's Theories of the Neuroses. Jour. 
 
 Nerv. and Ment. Dis., Mon. series No. 17, N. Y., 19J3, 154 pp., 
 
 (The most important account in English of the Freudian 
 
 theory of sex.) 
 Marro, A. La Puberta. 1898, 507 pp. 
 Moll, A; Sexual Life of the Child. Macmillan, 1912, 336 pp. 
 
 $1.75. (One of the very important contributions.) 
 Northcote, Hugh. Christianity and Sex Problems. Davis Co. 
 
 Phila., 1906, 257 pp. (One of the older books, but excellent 
 
 in its general standpoint.) 
 Thomas, I. W. Sex and Society. U. of Chicago Press, 1907, 
 
 325 pp. (Shows the many ramifications of sex.) 
 
F e elings and I de as of S ex loi 
 
 Sex Instruction and Hygiene 
 
 Dawson, E.Q- The Book of Honor. Pilgrim Press, 1910, 192 pp. 
 
 Education in Matters of Sex. Soc. of Soc. Hygiene, Chicago, 1907. 
 Ten essays. (Good.) 
 
 Ellis, Havelock. The Task of Social Hygiene. Lond., 1912, 414 pp. 
 
 Foster, W. T. (ed.) The Social Emergency, mthlntrod. by Charles 
 W. Eliot. Houghton, Mifflin, 1914. $1.35. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley. The Pedagogy of Sex. Educational Problems. 
 Sex Hygiene in Infantile and Prepubertal Life, 4th Int. 
 Cong. School of Hygiene, 1913, Vol. II, pp. 10-16. Vol. I, 
 388-540. 
 
 Hall, Winfield S. The Conservation of the Child. The Child, 
 Chicago, July 1913, 7-14. 
 
 Morley, Margaret. Life and Love. McClurg, 1899, 214 pp. )i!i.25. 
 
 The Song of Life. McClurg, 1897, 155 pp. $1.25. 
 
 The Renewal of Life. McClurg, 1906, 200 pp. 
 
 (These three little books are excellent both in manner and 
 
 matter for parents .who wish to learn how to present the facts 
 
 of reproduction to their children. They are very simple 
 
 and require no technical knowledge on the part of the reader.) 
 
 Morrow, Prince A. The Relations of Social Diseases with Marriage, 
 and their Prophylaxis. Pub. by American Society of Sanita- 
 tion and Moral Prophylaxis. 72 pp. (Gives the prevalence 
 of these diseases, and the proper hygienic measures to prevent 
 their spread and to lead to cure. An authoritative statement.) 
 
 Ravenhill, Alice. Eugenic Education for Women and Girls. King, 
 1908, 24 pp. 
 
 Sex Hygiene. Report of Committee of Matter and Methods of Sex 
 Instruction, to the American Federation for Sex Hygiene. 
 Goldman Co., N. Y., 1913, 34 pp. (The recommendations 
 given here are the consensus of opinion of the best in- 
 formed persons in this country along these lines. They must 
 be considered as the most authoritative statement yet pre- 
 pared.) 
 
 [It will be noted that no references are given to books for children 
 and youth. There are, almost literally, hundreds of such books 
 on the market, many of them accurate as to their statements of fact. 
 But those with experience are questioning more and more the 
 desirability of giving printed material to young people, at least below 
 college age, unless the circumstances are exceptional. The American 
 Federation for Sex Hygiene, 105 West Fortieth St., New York City, 
 
102 The Child 
 
 will give information as to short pamphlets suited to boys arid 
 girls, and will send its publications for a nominal price. It will 
 also furnish facts about state and local organizations for sex 
 hygiene. Its information is the most reliable attainable at present, 
 and there is no danger that any one writing to it for assistance will 
 be exploited.] 
 
 Eugenics 
 
 Davenport, C. B. Eugenics. Holt and Co., 1910, 35 pp. (Excel- 
 lent.) 
 
 Dawson, G. E. Right of Child to be Well Born. Funk and Wagnalls, 
 1912, 144 pp. 
 
 Ellis, Havelock. Problems 0/ Race Regeneration. Lond., 191 1, 
 70 pp. 
 
 Eugenics, Problems in. Eugenics Ed. Soc, Lond., 1912, 486 pp. 
 
 Eugenics, Twelve University Lectures. Dodd, Mead and Co., 1914, 
 
 342 PP- 
 Ewart, Robert J. Aristocracy of Infancy. Eugenics Review, 
 
 1911, 143-169. 
 
 Jordan, D. L., The Heredity 0/ Richard Roe. Boston, 191 1. 
 
 Jordan, H. E. Rearing the Human Thoroughbred. Cleveland 
 Med. Jour., Dec. 1912, 875-889. 
 
 Kellicott, Wm. E. The Social Direction of Human Evolution. 
 Appleton, 191 1, 240 pp. (Well written popular account.) 
 
 Pearson, Karl. Groundwork of Eugenics. Lond., 1912. 
 The Problem of Practical Eugenics. Lond., 1912. 
 
 Saleeby, Caleb W. Parenthood and Race Culture. Lond., 1909, 
 331 pp. (Also good popular account.) 
 
 Tredgold, A. P. • Eugenics and Future Human Progress. Eugenics 
 Rev., 191 1, 914-917. 
 
 For new aspects of the eugenics movement, the Eugenics Rev., 
 published quarterly by Eugenics Educational Society, 
 London, is the best source of information, and in this 
 country the Am. Soc. Hygiene Bull., pub. monthly from 
 105 W. 40th St., New York City, 25 cents a year; also pub- 
 lications of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, 
 N. Y. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Nature versus Nurture 
 
 T N the Introduction the fact was emphasized that the 
 ^ body and the mind of each individual child sum up 
 or recapitulate the race experience, but that the later ex- 
 periences of the racfe always react upon and modify the 
 inheritance so that the individual at birth is not a bundle 
 of instincts and feelings neatly arranged in order and 
 labeled and tied up so that they cannot be mixed, but at 
 first glance seems much more to resemble the disjecta 
 membra scattered over a battle field. Much the same 
 impression is gained by reading various recent attempts 
 to describe this "original nature" or inheritance. 
 
 In many cases we cannot even separate the work of 
 nature from the effect of ntuture, and a satisfactory 
 classification of inherited tendencies, either from the 
 standpoint of their present value or of their origin, is 
 not to be looked for tmtil we can first say whether they 
 are inherited. At present lists must be admittedly in- 
 complete and classifications admittedly tentative. 
 
 Nevertheless, there is a margin of agreement, and we 
 shall pick our way along this as best we can, indicating 
 any deviations into the wilderness of speculation so that 
 the wary reader need not follow tmless he be of good 
 courage. We shall attempt only to indicate certain 
 important instinctive tendencies which, in their later de- 
 velopment and modification, are educationally important. 
 
 Probably the most fundamental aspect of psychical 
 processes is their pleasure-pain aspect, together with the 
 
 103 
 
104 The Child 
 
 conscious states rising from movements toward or from 
 the pleasure- or pain-bringing object. In its more corn- 
 Pleasure- plicated forms of satisfaction, enjoyment, 
 pain happiness, blessedness, and their opposites, 
 
 this aspect becomes bound up with nimierous others and 
 becomes so varied that many students question whether 
 it or the other factors are the motivation for action. 
 The characteristic facial expressions of pleasure and pain 
 are laughing and crying. Laughing probably is a relic 
 of eating movements of satisfaction, while the expression 
 in crjdng, the shrinking, and so on, originated in the 
 attempt to draw away from the pain-giving object. In 
 general, pleasure results in movements toward and pain 
 in movements from. 
 
 Hope and fear — the anticipation of pleasure or pain— 
 are the derivatives of pleasure and pain, and the char- 
 Hope and acteristic attitudes evoked by them are of 
 fear the utmost significance in education. The 
 
 child in the presence of an unknown factor or group of 
 conditions at first is hesitant, uncertain, poised between 
 hope and fear, with tendencies stronger in one or the other 
 direction according to his past experience and the super- 
 ficial aspect of the object in question. Racial experience 
 has inbred a tendency to investigate new things unless 
 they are immediately painful, and we express this by 
 saying that children are naturally auious. They con- 
 tinue to get closer to new objects, to touch, handle, and 
 often to put them into their mouths, unless they get hurt. 
 If the object can be pulled to pieces and put together 
 again, or if it can be used to change other things with — 
 that is, as a tool — it may become the focus of many and 
 often repeated activities. ' 
 
 If, on the other hand, the object causes pain, the 
 reaction later is some form of fear— caution, withdrawal, 
 
Nature versus Nurture 105 
 
 and so on — but if the pain is not too great, and if the 
 object has other qualities that make it desirable, the 
 child is Ukely to plan some way of using it without 
 getting the pain from it. 
 
 Still another situation may arise which evokes very 
 different reactions. If the object cannot be attained, 
 greater desire is first aroused, together with disappoint- 
 ment. There will be more violent movements toward 
 it, probably decided expressions of chagrin, anger, or the 
 like. The later course will depend greatly on the age and 
 temperament of the child. He may simply give up the 
 object, or he may devote himself to working out methods 
 of attaining it. 
 
 Some objects, forces, or persons, however, the child is 
 not able to attain or control, and toward these still 
 another attitude may appear-^ namely, that 
 of awe. They are mysterious to him, some- 
 times threatening and sometimes blessing, but always 
 stronger than he and moved by springs which he does 
 not understand. He hopes with fear, and fears with 
 hope, and seeks how to propitiate. 
 
 This fundamental attitude of curiosity toward the 
 unknown, with its suggestive mingUng of caution and 
 desire, is the basis of the intellectual life. . . 
 
 The learning process of primitive man was ' ^ 
 
 the process of gratifjdng his curiosity, as is to-day the 
 learning process of the inventor or the man engaged in 
 original research. 
 
 Probably the objects which first arouse curiosity, and 
 which call it out most easily throughout life, are: those 
 which may be used for food. Bell has - . . . ^ 
 shown how large this class of objects is with 
 little children to-day. Thorndike says that the general 
 tendency to grasp small objects of all sorts is a relic of the 
 
io6 The Child 
 
 food-getting instinct. Whether the love of bright objects 
 has its root here is also a question which may be asked. 
 The resulting movements are also numerous, widely varied, 
 and in many instances not only instinctive but reflex. 
 Most obvious, of course, are those focusing about the 
 mouth — sucking, licking, biting, chewing, swallowing. 
 But many of the movements, of hand and arm develop 
 in getting food to the mouth, and locomotion is largely 
 motivated by the search for food. We see this more 
 clearly in animals and among primitive men than among 
 civilized men. The savage, fishing or hunting, obviously 
 moves and uses his hands and his weapons for the sake of 
 appeasing hunger. The weapons themselves — the sling, 
 bow and arrow, fishing net, and so on — were short cuts 
 to food getting, as well as, in some cases, to the destroy- 
 ing of enemies. Again, the savage migrates in search of 
 more food. The civilized man who is following a trade 
 has at bottom this same motivation as the chief one, 
 though beside it are many others which we shall touch 
 upon soon. 
 
 Things that will keep one warm or make one cold are 
 other objects of perennial interest. Objects that may be 
 
 wrapped about the body, or that give out 
 Se"*on°^ heat, are very satisfying. Nooks and niches 
 
 in trees or rocks that keep off the wind not 
 only have this virtue but-alsb give a feeling of protection 
 and safety which must probably be classed as another 
 instinctive factor. Clothes and dwellings are the out- 
 come of several such factors — of desires for warmth and 
 shelter from weather, safety from wild animals and from 
 human enemies, and also for the satisfying of the tendency 
 to display oneself to the best advantage to others, to 
 arouse in them approval, submission, and so on. 
 Among the objects arousing instinctive fears are strange 
 
Nature versus Nurture 107 
 
 men and animals, especially those which come toward 
 us quickly; black places or holes, black things, and 
 darkness; thunder and lightning; any loud or 
 unexpected noise; and solitude. What the ^^ ° ^^^^ 
 nature of the response will be depends again upon the 
 strength of the stimulus and the age of the child, as well 
 as upon his education. It may be only flight, or shrink- 
 ing and cowering; it may be fight and anger; or in the 
 final outcome it rhay be some form of invention or 
 research which gets rid of the fear-rousing condition. 
 The latter is the outcome favored by right teaching; 
 indeed, Stanley Hall goes so far as to say that most of 
 science is simply learning to fear aright and to get rid of 
 imnecessary fears. 
 
 The objects most likely to arouse awe are the larger 
 forces and objects of nature. The sky, sun, moon and 
 stars, wind and weather, and unusual occurrences such as 
 earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, eclipses, mountain peaks, 
 great trees, animals with mysterious attributes rarely 
 seen, and also men have all been objects of worship. On 
 the other hand, natural objects and forces which lend 
 themselves to man's needs for food, clothing, or shelter, 
 which he can control and understand, are interesting 
 in quite a different way. 
 
 The instinctive attitudes toward other " persons fall 
 into at least three great classes, — those toward the 
 opposite sex, toward the same sex, and 
 toward the young, — but each of these is interests 
 greatly complicated from the start by the 
 family relationship. The attitudes of the unmarried man 
 and woman toward the same and the opposite sex, as 
 well as toward children, are very different from those of 
 the married couple and of parents. 
 
 As we noted above an instinctive fear of soUtude, 
 
io8 The Child 
 
 here we note an instinctive satisfaction in being with 
 others, a gregariousness, which in its most primitive ex- 
 pression is the enjoyment of physical contact with others 
 — the herding instinct with the sense of warmth and safety 
 that goes with it. In the presence of another person 
 there is an instinctive tendency first to attract his atten- 
 tion, and then to show off or dominate him in some form. 
 In its worse forms this becomes bullying, , teasing, and 
 cruelty; in its better, rivalry and emulation. But this 
 domination by no means excludes an instinctive sjnn- 
 pathy, which is especially easily called out by the sight 
 of physical pain or hunger or cold. In fact, pity is itself 
 a sort of domination, and therefore agreeable. 
 
 It is easy to see in a general way how this gregarious- 
 ness combines with hunger and fear to form men into 
 communities, but to trace the details of the development 
 would be the history of civilization written from a psy- 
 chological standpoint, and this has not yet been done. 
 Again, the various complications which lead to religion, 
 art, science, play, and education offer fascinating vistas 
 which we can merely indicate here. All of these, again, 
 are greatly intensified by their complications with the 
 sex and the parental instincts. 
 
 Let us outline, now, rather schematically the child's 
 development, indicating roughly how these instinctive 
 bases of education appear at various stages of develop- 
 ment. 
 
 For the first two months of his life, we may fairly 
 say that the baby's chief interest is in what goes into 
 Interests his mouth. Not only are the lips and the 
 of babyhood tongue the parts most sensitive to touch, 
 but touch is relatively more developed than are other 
 senses. Hearing is imperfect and sight is short and un- 
 controlled. The arms and legs are not under control for 
 
Nature versus Nurture 109 
 
 grasping and creeping, so that the baby must perforce 
 wait for what comes his way. Furthermore, he spends 
 a large part of his day in sleep. What little display of 
 anger he makes is when he does not get his food promptly. 
 So the baby is a dimly-seeing, dimly-hearing little crea- 
 tuxe, sleeping much of the time and conscious chiefly of 
 the satisfaction of food. 
 
 During the third month, however, with more distinct 
 seeing and the rise of memory, comes a marked interest 
 in seeing things. Now the baby holds his head up, 
 twists his head and body to see things, and studies each 
 thing abput him, learning it in its various appearances. 
 The interest in suckable objects continues and is strong, 
 but its prominence is relatively less because visible 
 objects have now become so interesting. 
 
 From the fourth to the sixth month, both of these 
 interests continue, and are fed and supplemented by 
 the great interest in graspable objects. Grasping and 
 sucking; seeing and grasping; seeing, grasping, and 
 sucking are now combined and find their satisfaction 
 in superlatively interesting, seeable, graspable, and suck- 
 able objects. 
 
 The craving of the growing limbs for more exercise 
 results in creeping and later in walking, with the wide 
 range of new activities and interests thus made possible. 
 
 Into this little world enter fear and shrinking also, 
 anger, fighting and jealousy, nearly all of them connected 
 with persons, and the numerous satisfactions connected 
 with the mother. With the infant the satisfaction of 
 hunger and of gregariousness, the getting of food and 
 of cuddling and warmth, as they are always associated, 
 are probably never differentiated until he begins to eat 
 solid food. The baby's world is never predominantly 
 a world of things, even when food is his chief interest. 
 
 8 
 
no T he Child 
 
 It is a social world — to which he zealously adapts him- 
 self from the begimiing. Various observers have noted 
 how soon a baby learns to know his mother's arms, and 
 how early she may establish almost any habits she pleases 
 as to ways of holding, associations with food, and so on. 
 
 Between the fifth and sixth months a baby begins to 
 repeat many of the movements going on about him. A 
 little later come babbling and the foreshadowing of 
 speech. How far this is due to an instinct of imitation 
 and how far to the spontaneous rise of certain tendencies 
 and the effect of practice is a matter of dispute. 
 
 During the first year and a half, then, the baby's in- 
 terests are first and chiefly those of food and persons, 
 and second, those of controlling the sense organs and 
 the body in general, but especially the organs of loco- 
 motion and grasping. By the end of this time he can 
 usually walk, has begun to talk, and can use his five 
 senses with a fair degree of acciiracy, though he still is 
 lacking in control in many respects. 
 
 From the acquisition of speech to the beginning of the 
 second dentition, the interests of babyhood are still 
 Interests strong, but are shown in more attention to 
 of early the details of the activities. The child now 
 
 childhood lijjgg ^Q pig^y games that" test the sharpness 
 of the senses; he likes to experiment with new move- 
 ments—to walk on tiptoe, to skip and dance, to play 
 finger games, to draw, to string beads, and so on. 
 
 His interest in persons is even greater than before. 
 His plays at this time are very largely imitative. He 
 imitates persons more than he does anything else. He 
 personifies all sorts of inanimate objects, and the only 
 cause he knows is a personal one. Through his interest 
 in imitating persons he enters into the race interests 
 which are going on about him — learns in a crude way 
 
Nature versus Nurture iii 
 
 how we get our food and so on. His interest in language 
 persists in various forms, such as his dehght in nonsense 
 rimes and his persistent desire to name all the objects he 
 sees. His love of rhythm is also prominent and is closely 
 connected with the increasing control of his movements. 
 
 During the latter part of this period some new and 
 strong interests arise. As memory and imagination 
 develop they introduce the child to another world which 
 he finds that he can change to suit himself, while he 
 cannot so alter the world of his senses. The love of 
 power which in his babyhood was gratified hy his new 
 control of his body, now finds another source of gratifica- 
 tion in this mental play. We find him, therefore, listen- 
 ing to and inventing tales of marvel and mystery. 
 
 The rise of an interest in causes at this time also leads 
 to wonderings and questionings and to speculations 
 sometimes startling in their shrewdness. With many 
 children there also seems to be an interest in emmieration 
 and in quantities, as seen in the love of counting and in 
 the comparisons of size. 
 
 In the little child, then, up to the beginning of the 
 second dentition, the interests are to a large extent 
 confined to his delight in the feeling of his own activities 
 and of his increasing control of them. On the physical 
 side this appears in his enjoyment of plays that exercise 
 his senses, in his practice of all movements that are a 
 little difficult for him, and in his use of rhjrthm and of 
 nonsense rimes. On the mental side it appears in his 
 love of imagining and inventing, in his covuiting and 
 measuring, and in his ceaseless questioning. The union 
 of the two and also the growth of his social interests 
 are marked above all by his love of imitation, the most 
 characteristic interest of this period. 
 
 In these early years the interests are, on the whole, 
 
112 T he C hi Id 
 
 immediate. The child enjoys the action for its own sake 
 without much reference to any end. Little children who 
 are plasdng "Pom pom pullaway," for instance, may for- 
 get all about the goal in the delight of running, and end 
 the game in a chase. So, also, a little fellow begins to 
 draw the story of the Three Bears, gets interested in 
 making the bear, and covers his paper with bears. The 
 movement or activity is what he enjoys. He does not 
 care for making some thing so much as he does for' going 
 through the movements of making. On this accovmt a 
 little child is usually easily diverted from one thing to 
 another, if only the new thing allows the same general 
 movements as the old. 
 
 Educationally, this is the period when interests can 
 be given a more definite and permanently valuable form 
 if the parent or teacher provide the materials for the 
 child to work with, and surround him with a life that is 
 worth the imitation. 
 
 The period from seven to twelve years of age seems to 
 contain at least two distinct subdivisions. From about 
 Interests seven to nine there is a rapid growth of 
 of later coimections between the parts of the brain, 
 
 childhood ^^^ ^^ |-jjg mental and emotional sides this 
 is marked by a broadening of interests in various directions. 
 Its character is perhaps best seen in the child's plays. 
 They are individualistic, demand much motor activity, 
 and are to large degree suggestive of primitive race 
 activities. The child enjoys the use of tools, and can 
 adapt means to ends over a wider range than before. 
 There are vivid interests in natural phenomena and 
 forces, in pets, collections, in what can be done with 
 stones and sticks, strings, and like objects. Religious 
 interests are in the Old Testament more than in the New, 
 and in individual heroes. The world of adults is farther 
 
Nature versus Nurture 113 
 
 removed from the child than before, and even the attitude 
 toward other children is more that of distrust and comr 
 petition than of cooperation and confidence. In the 
 latter part of this period boys and girls are more alike 
 than at any other, and both seem to reach a period of 
 relative adaptation and stability for a year or two before 
 the onset of puberty. Hall calls the entire period a 
 savage if not a half animal one, in which the child should 
 come into close contact with natural forces and phenom- 
 ena on a:ll sides of his nature. He ought to have the 
 opportimity to dig caves, live in tents, migrate in the 
 form of excursions, go on tramping trips or the like, 
 make collections, invent tools, hunt and fish, plant and 
 reap, spin, weave and sew, build, and so on. Morally 
 he is not much developed save in the sense of conformity 
 to custom, and religiously he is more likely to be the 
 victim of superstitions than to be given over to faith. 
 These interests evidently have important educational 
 bearings. Thus a beginning can be made in history and 
 science, the idea being to find out how people interests in 
 under certain conditions would be obliged to the "how" 
 live, how they would be obliged to get food and clothing, 
 and so on. This interest in the "how" of things, Dr. 
 Dewey warns us, however, is of slow growth. It arises 
 in about this order, he thinks : reading, writing, numbers, 
 science, history, and literature. That is, a child first sees 
 the advantage of knowing how to read and is interested in 
 learning words and sentences before he sees the use of 
 learning how to write. His first interest in science and 
 in history is the same as the little child's— the delight in 
 activity and in a good story, but a little later he begins 
 to experiment in science and to reason from cause to 
 effect in history. The interest in why has become 
 replaced by a curiosity as to how things are done. In 
 
114 The Child 
 
 order to hold this interest in the "how" a child must 
 
 also have experiences that make the "how" of use to 
 
 him, and he must have some end that he himself wishes 
 
 to reach. This point is too often neglected by teachers. 
 
 They think that if they themselves see the end, it is 
 
 sufficient. But if the child does not know what he is 
 
 working for, how can he be long interested? Or even if 
 
 he is curious, how can he work at the adapting of his 
 
 material to what he is making? 
 
 To find out what children's interests are, a series of 
 
 observations was made by Binet, Earl Barnes, and Shaw 
 
 in this manner: They made out. a list of 
 
 Observa- common words and asked the children to 
 tions 
 
 t^U them what the thing was which was 
 
 named. The children were taken separately, so that 
 
 they could not imitate each other. They were asked no 
 
 questions and given no suggestions, but left to state 
 
 their thoughts themselves. Left thus, it was believed- 
 
 that the children would describe the object according to 
 
 their greatest interest in it. The list of words was as 
 
 follows: 
 
 knife 
 
 mamma 
 
 earthworm 
 
 bread 
 
 potatoes 
 
 shoes 
 
 doll 
 
 bottle 
 
 finger 
 
 water 
 
 flour 
 
 lock 
 
 armchair 
 
 snail 
 
 horse 
 
 hat 
 
 mouth 
 
 wolf 
 
 garden 
 
 lamp 
 
 omnibus 
 
 All three observers found that the children were most 
 interested in what they could do with a thing, or in its 
 use to them. The great majority of them defined the 
 words from this personal point of view. For example: 
 "A mamma is to kiss me good night"; "A lamp is to 
 give rrie light." 
 
Nature versus Nurture 115 
 
 Next to use, they were interested in things that had 
 action or movement. They showed very little interest 
 in the structure or substance of things, and . 
 
 less than two per cent were interested in in color 
 
 form. Only three per cent were interested ^^^ ^® 
 
 in color, but the very small percentage in both these 
 cases may be because the words given do not call up these 
 ideas. Very few of the objects mentioned usually have 
 any such coloring or structure as would attract attention. 
 At the same time, it is true that children have little- 
 general aesthetic interest in the color of pictures. It is 
 "safe to say that practically all children prefer colored 
 pictures to black and white. They also choose pictures 
 which they call "cunning," or "sweet" in preference to 
 the masterpieces. A mother and child is usually pre- 
 ferred to a madonna, and pictures of children, kittens, 
 and puppies in playful antics mean much more than other 
 pictures. Natural and lifelike pictures are preferred to 
 ideal ones, and those that represent activity of some sort 
 to those of quiet scenes. In all this we get again the 
 same truths: childish interests are in the personal and 
 active sides of life. 
 
 As the children grow older, they define the terms less 
 according to the personal use, and more by putting them 
 into a larger class. Their concepts become more prom- 
 inent, and the central idea stronger. Formerly it was 
 supposed that reason — of which the idea of cause and 
 effect is a prominent part — did not develop until the 
 age of fourteen or fifteen at least, but we understand now 
 that it is of as long and gradual growth as our other 
 mental powers. Nearly all children ask "why" before 
 they are four years old, and this interest is a constant 
 one, although it is by no means the most prominent one 
 until maturity, if it is at that time. 
 
ii6 The Child 
 
 Another way in which children's interests have been 
 observed is to find out what stories from their Readers 
 J they remember best. Nineteen hxmdred and 
 
 in school fifty grade children have been questioned on 
 Readers ^Yos, point with rather startling results. It 
 
 was found to begin with that 44 per cent of the pieces in 
 four Readers, or nearly half, were remembered after one 
 term by only 5 per cent of the children. Almost half of 
 the material in these Readers was uninteresting, and this 
 was to a very large extent the instructive and moral parts. 
 The first lesson in each Reader was remembered, and. 
 also the long or continued lessons. Those best remem- 
 bered are, as we should expect, those which are especially 
 natural, and which appeal to the child through expe- 
 riences similar to his own. We find, for example, that 
 32 per cent of the children remember stories of life best, 
 and 12 per cent those of animals. Seven and one-half 
 per cent give allegiance to stories with morals, 56 per 
 cent to stories of heroism, and only two per cent to in- 
 structive stories. At first the liking for poetry is simply 
 enjojnnent of rhythm, and not until adolescence does 
 it begin to be enjoyed as literature. Of course these 
 interests were greatly influenced by the way the stories 
 were told. 
 
 The Readers were, if we remember correctly, those 
 in the state textbook series of Indiana, and were con- 
 sidered to be about the average. 
 
 G. Stanley Hall's Contents of Children's Minds is 
 also a book of great interest here as shovsdng how little 
 many of our school Readers appeal to a 
 Dn Hall's child's own experience. Dr. Hail's list of 
 words was obtained in large part from First 
 Readers, and the children's ignorance, as shown, is truly 
 amazing. 
 
Nature versus Nurture 117 
 
 Out of 113 objects, 
 
 90% are ignorant of 7 of them; 
 
 80 to 90% " " " 14 " " 
 
 70 to 80% " " " 10 " 
 
 60 to 70% " " " 21 " 
 
 50 to 60% ' 17 " 
 
 making an average of over 60 per cent of the children 
 who know nothing of the meanings of over half the words. 
 
 With regard to the regular school subjects, observa- 
 tions have also been made on two thousand children 
 above third grade. Arithmetic, history, geography, and 
 spelling are by far the most popular studies, in the order 
 named. Drawing, music, and nature study cannot 
 compete with them. Probably, however, these do not 
 show the natural interests of children, but rather are due 
 to the conditions of this particular school. It is stated 
 that drawing, for instance, is not much emphasized, and 
 again, it is very true that the teacher's interest controls 
 the child's more or less. If there were a good arithmetic 
 teacher and a poor drawing teacher, the child's interest 
 might be just the reverse of his natural interests. 
 
 The language interest is small during the first part of 
 this period but seems to revive in the latter part in thj^ 
 secret languages which we shall mention later. Ti(iis 
 seems to indicate the advantage of beginning the stiidy 
 of foreign languages at this time. 
 
 The interest in the use of the senses is at least, undi- 
 minished, while the love of movement is much increased. 
 The games of this period call for a far greater amount of 
 muscular strerigth than before. 
 
 The interest in persons becomes stronger, and now the 
 child delights in a history that describes heroic deeds. 
 
 In all cases an important difference exists between 
 this period and the previous one, namely, that the child 
 
ii8 T he Child 
 
 more and more, if given the opportunity, plans ways 
 
 and means of reaching an end. The little child does 
 
 this to a very limited extent. This and the greater 
 
 variety of interests of the later period are due to the 
 
 rapid growth of association fibers in the brain. 
 
 Finally, with the advent of puberty, and the last 
 
 period of rapid brain growth, the child enters upon the 
 
 last educational period. The period is now 
 
 Interests usually estimated to last to the time when 
 of youth 
 
 bodily growth is complete, at about the 
 
 twenty-fifth year. 
 
 On the side of interest this period is not so much char- 
 acterized by the rise pf new interests as by the broaden- 
 ing and deepening of those already existent. The senses 
 become more active and consequently there is a keener 
 interest in observation of all kinds, in nature, and in 
 science. The rapid development of the muscular system 
 in boys results in the athletic craze. The wider develop- 
 ment of reason appears in .the doubts and questionings 
 iabout the various systems of thought that the youth 
 finds embodied in the school system, the political system, 
 \the religious system, and all the other systems. 
 lyThe most notable development of the period is doubt- 
 less the growth of the interest in persons which comes as 
 thevdirect result of the sexual development of this age. 
 The >child now for the first time enters fully into his 
 social inheritance, feeling the bonds which connect him 
 with others and desiring the responsibilities and privileges 
 of all adults. The moral law now appeals to him as a 
 need of his own nature, and the obligation to do good for 
 its own sake now becomes binding. In numerous ways 
 his own individual self is yielded to his social self, in ways 
 both tragic and comic — in the devotion to dress and 
 manners as well as in the abandonment to religious 
 
Nature versus Nurture 119 
 
 exaltation. It is hardly stating it too strongly to say that 
 the key to the adolescent is his interest in living up to 
 what he conceives to be the social demands upon him. 
 Control of him lies to a large extent, therefore, in control- 
 ling his conceptions of what these social demands are, 
 and this is not a matter that begins only with adolescence. 
 
 We have had occasion to remark many times before 
 that social habits must be inculcated from the begin- 
 ning, and we can now see the importance of 
 this. The youth who has now awakened pf early 
 to a vivid interest in his relations to others social 
 has his sense of what these relations should 
 be determined in part by the social habits which he has 
 already acqmred, and in part by the customs of the 
 particular people with whom he is now thrown. Where 
 the two sets of customs disagree, as is often the case, the 
 child's consciousness of his own ambiguous position is 
 very keen, and he brings all his judgment and reason to 
 bear upon his decisions as to what he should do. Now 
 he is fortunate if his social habits and his training in 
 independent judgment are such that he can trust to his 
 habits for all the smaller details of deportment and devote 
 himself to the question of what his ideal shall be for the 
 vital questions of life. 
 
 In the shaping of this ideal or interest, as we have 
 already said, we must call into play all the influences of 
 surroundings — books, pictures, and so on — but more im- 
 portant, than any of these to the adolescent is the wise 
 and untiring friendship of some older person, teacher or 
 parent. Fortunate is the youth whose father and mother 
 are his best friends — and sadly lacking in some respect 
 are the parents who have not kept close enough to their 
 children to be their best friends. 
 
 We hear a great deal of talk about the importance 
 
120 T he C hild 
 
 of keeping children interested. Unless c^hMw&jMs: a. 
 school duty, a task, a dress, or a certain Jdnd pf-food, 
 Training and it is assimied that they ought not to be 
 interests bothered with it. It is claimed they must 
 follow their interests; that is, apparently, their caprices. 
 What right have we to impose our likes on them? . They 
 surely should be as free as others to express their ^^^ole 
 nature without let or hindrance. 
 
 On the other side there are still advocates of the idea 
 that the natural man is full of evil desires, so that the 
 very fact that a child wants a thing is one good reason 
 why he should not have it. Moreover, say these duty 
 lovers, life is full of disagreeable things that must be 
 done. No one can succeed who does not learn to do 
 cheerfully tasks that he dislikes. All progress is made 
 only by pain and suffering in giving up our natural 
 desires and in struggling toward our ideal, which we 
 see is right but do not yet love. Therefore, say' these 
 stern teachers, the truest kindness consists in training 
 our children to do work that they do not like. We 
 should not appeal to their interests, but rather to the 
 right, and lead them to make their interests agree with 
 what is right. The happiness of a child is of very little 
 account if only he be led into the paths of righteousness. 
 So hold the two extremes. Probably the majority of 
 parents and teachers hold a middle ground, not believing 
 that the child should be either wholly indulged or wholly 
 thwarted, and indulging or thwarting according ,to their 
 own particular likes. The mother who likes cabbage and 
 does not like tomatoes, will usually feed her child the 
 same way. The father who never lies, but finds it easy 
 to criticize or backbite his neighbor, will probably rebuke 
 falsehood but 'let backbiting go unscathed. The parent 
 who dislikes arithmetic and enjoys history finds it easy to 
 
Nature versus Nurture 121 
 
 condone his child's stupidity in the first but not in the 
 second. In all cases we seem to lack any standard by 
 which we judge whether or not a given trait in our child 
 shovdd be encouraged, whether or not he should be given 
 freedom to develop his own natural self. 
 
 Now it_ is unquestionably a difficult thing to know 
 what we shall do in any given case. On the one side, 
 we want our children to grow up good citizens, good 
 members of the family, and seekers after righteousness. 
 On the other, we do not want them to be confined, fear- 
 ful, distrustful of self; we wish them to live a broad, free 
 life, to feel the swing and delight of power, and to live 
 with force and vigor. Between the two we stand puzzled. 
 
 If what we have said of social recapitulation be true, 
 a child is at birth a bundle of strong but 
 vague impulses and instincts that have come g^ts vs. indi- 
 to him from numberless ancestors, that press yidual 
 him into constant action in this way and 
 in that, and that cause great unhappiness and dwarfed 
 development if repressed. 
 
 We have had very elaborate theories worked out of 
 these race-stages or ctilture-epochs, through which each 
 child passes, and the proper studies for him at each 
 stage, but such theories. cannot be said to have. scientific 
 value. We cannot say that because the race has gone 
 through a certain stage, therefore the child must go 
 through it.- We must instead study children, both in- 
 dividually and collectively, to see what race-stages they 
 do repeat in, fact, and the longer this study goes on, the 
 more certain it is that only certain steps of race-progress 
 are repeated in the individual. 
 
 Still further, the fact that a child is in a certain cul- 
 ture-repQeh,' does not mean that he must have only liter- 
 ature of; that epoch to nourish his mind. It means 
 
122 The Child 
 
 rather that he is . interested in the prominent activity 
 of that period, and wants to go through that activity 
 himself in the rough. , 
 
 It would be strange indeed if these imptdses were 
 either entirely good or entirely bad. They are all sur- 
 vivals of a ruder civilization, and their value must be de- 
 termined not merely by their antiquity but by their 
 adaptability to present-day conditions. The habitual 
 criminal is looked upon to-day as a person whose inter- 
 ests belong in the ages when violence was necessary to 
 self-preservation; but these interests are not suited to 
 civilized life, and so their possessor must give them up, 
 or go to dwell among barbarians, or be confined in prison. 
 As a rule, however, these instincts and impulses are 
 fluent enough to take the usual social channels. It is 
 the task of the parent and teacher to provide outlets 
 which will utilize these streams of energy, instead of 
 damming them. 
 
 The training of interests consists, then, primarily in 
 directing impulse and instinct to a worthy end, by all 
 Direction means — ^suggestion, good surrovindings, stim- 
 better than ulation of curiosity, and so on. If an im- 
 repression pulse can be so employed as to contribute 
 -to the family life, the best possible thing is. done. If 
 conditions do not allow of this, the parents can at least 
 take a rational attitude toward the children, instead of 
 assuming that all the children want is to make trouble. 
 We find, for instance, that as a rule parents are decidedly 
 opposed to their boys digging caves. Under the usual 
 conditions, where the cave is made a rendezvous for 
 smoking and reading dime novels, there is a good reason 
 for objection. But are such conditions necessary? Surely 
 not. So again, little children who run away do it 
 usually because their own yard is so small and their 
 
Nature versus Nurture 123 
 
 companions are so few that they cannot resist temptation. 
 Instead of forbidding them the freedom, we should rather 
 exert our ingenuity to make the freedom safe, for through 
 such wanderings a child acquires valuable independence, 
 gets a sense of direction and distance, and makes his 
 first venture into the social world outside the home. 
 
 In general, then, we may say that we should not con- 
 demn a child's impulses unless they are of such a defi- 
 nite, fixed, and base nature as to work decided harm to 
 himself or others. We should not try to repress impulses 
 so much as to direct them into useful channels by sug- 
 gesting to the children definite and valuable ends to 
 be accomplished. 
 
 The growing appreciation of this truth has led within 
 the last ten years to the systematizing of vocational 
 guidance and the establishment of vocational 
 bureaus, as well as to considerable discussion 
 as to the best way of developing and encouraging talent 
 and genius. It is altogether probable, Gesell thinks, 
 that the average attainment of children in school is 
 below the normal attainment because of our wasteful 
 methods and the failure to take advantage of natural 
 interests and instincts. Such writers as Berle and Sidis, 
 who ^ have attained remarkable results with their own 
 children, emphasize the same points. Whether or not 
 most normal children could be ready for college at twelve 
 or thirteen may be left an open question, without aux 
 disputing that our educational methods are extremely 
 wasteful and that our methods of dealing with exception- 
 ally bright children are stupid to the last degree. De- 
 fective and delinquent children have the most expensive 
 education in the world. Talented children usually have 
 to make their way against inertia if not opposition. 
 
 Vocational giiidance in its wider sense should deal 
 
124 The Child 
 
 with such children of genius as well as with normal and 
 defective children, but, unfortunately-, the tendency has 
 
 been to narrow the term to finding posi- 
 Vocational tions for children who leave the grammar 
 
 grades. Bloomfield considers the problem 
 almost entirely from the side of what trades are open to 
 children and what are the wages, conditions of work, 
 and so on, in those trades. But more important than 
 this, from the standpoint of the child's development and 
 his permanent service to the community, is the question 
 of what occupation his own individual ability and in- 
 terests best fit him for. Instead of merely round and 
 square holes there are holes of all shapes and sizes, and 
 to find the shape of the child's mind and the occupation 
 corresponding to it is by no means a simple matter, 
 especially when complicated by the fact that the child 
 must usually choose from the occupations of his own 
 town and is usually under the financial necessity of 
 doing something. 
 
 The question of tests of intelligence, therefore, comes 
 up here from another standpoint. How far can we as- 
 certain what quahties are necessary for a given trade, 
 and how far can we give a child tests to discover whether 
 or not he has those qualities? It is simple enough to 
 test for color blindness, and to shut out a color-blind man 
 from train service. Can we similarly test a boy who 
 wants to become a civil engineer, or a girl who wants 
 to specialize as a buyer of laces or furs? Miinsterberg 
 believes that even now we can to some degree do this. 
 For example, we can give tests for telephone operators 
 which will show whether the candidates have a certain 
 power of auditory attention necessary for an operator. 
 Similarly, artificial conditions can be arranged, he be- 
 lieves, which will test out motormen. So, in the course 
 
Nature versus Nurture 125 
 
 of time, tests can be arranged for all callings, and those 
 taking the tests will be automatically sorted out. 
 
 Much waste will be prevented if this ever can be done, 
 and it is to be hoped that those now working out tests 
 will be as successful as they desire. At the same time, 
 we can never afford to forget that the character of the 
 whole man is rarely called out by tests under artificial 
 conditions, and that the reserve qualities are those that 
 lead to success or failure when the time of trial arrives. 
 In callings where this or that sense organ must be used in 
 fine discrimination, tests are very valuable, but when 
 interest and judgment are the chief factors involved, 
 the difficulty is tremendous of getting tests that will 
 call them out as the real situation does, however willing 
 the subject may be. Nevertheless, such tests are worth 
 working for. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 The Psychology of Childhood 
 
 This list includes books which discuss various aspects of child 
 nature and training. They can be used to good advantage to 
 supplement the textbook. In many instances they have sections on 
 the subjects discussed in the following chapters of this book, and 
 should be referred to. It has seemed desirable to include not only 
 the more voluminous and scientific references here but also some of 
 those written especially for mothers and teachers. 
 Baldwin, J. Mark. Mental Development: Social and Ethical Impli- 
 cations. Macmillan, 1902, 606 pp. $2.60. (A discussion 
 of the effect of society upon the individual.) 
 Brockbank, E. M. Children, their Care and Management. Lond., 
 
 1912, 259 pp. (Simple and good.) 
 Chamberlain, A. F. The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought. 
 Macmillan, 1896, 464 pp. Bibliog. of 30 pp. 
 The Child: A Study in the Evolution of Man. Scott, 1903, 
 498 pp. Bibliog. of 30 pp. (These tiyo books summarize 
 effectively a large amount of literature upon the parallelisms 
 between child nature and savage and primitive man.) 
 
126 The Child 
 
 ClaparMe, Ed. Experimental Pedagogy. Trans, of 4th ed. Long- 
 mans, 191 1, 332 pp. Bibliog. (Discusses especially history, 
 methods, and fatigue.) 
 
 Colvin, S. S. Practical Results in . . . Educational Psychol- 
 ogy. Sch. Rev., May 1913, 307-322. 
 The Learning Process. Macmillan, 191 1, 336 pp. 
 
 Colvin and Bagley. Human Behavior. Macmillan, 1913, 336 pp. 
 $1.00. 
 
 Compayr^, G. Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. 
 Appleton, 1896-1902, 2 vols. 
 Development of the Child in Later Infancy. Appleton, 1902, 
 300 pp. 
 
 Davids, Eleanor. Notebook of an Adopted Mother. Dutton, 1903, 
 259 pp. (Good.) 
 
 Drummond, W. B. Introduction to Child Study. Lond., 1907, 
 
 348 pp. 
 DuBois, Patterson. Fireside Child Study. N. Y., 1903, 159 pp. 
 
 (Very simple. Intended for untrained mothers.) 
 Point of Contact in Teaching. 1908, 131 pp. 
 Education, Paul Monroe's Cyclopedia of. Three volumes now out. 
 Groszmann, M. P. E. Career of the Child. Badger, 191 1, 335 pp. 
 Gulick, Luther H. Mind and Work. Doubleday, 1908, 201 pp. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence. Appleton, 1904, 2 vols. App. 600 
 
 and 800 pp. jSs.oo. (Contains numerous summaries and 
 
 references to work in child study. See Index.) 
 Educational Problems. Appleton, 1911, 2 vols. App. 700 pp. 
 
 each. $5.00.^ (Most complete r6sum6 of recent movements.) 
 Hall, et al. Aspects of Child Life and Education. Ginn, 1907, 
 
 326 pp. (Includes papers on contents of children's minds, 
 
 daydreams, curiosity and interest, sandpile, dolls, collecting 
 
 instinct, ownership, fetishism, and boy life in a Massachusetts 
 
 town forty years ago.) 
 Henderson, C. H. Education and, the Larger Life. Houghton, 
 
 Miflflin, 1902, 386 pp. 
 Key, Ellen. Century of the Child. Putnam, 1909, 339 pp. 
 King, Irving. Psychology of Child Development. U. of Chicago 
 
 Press, 1903, 265 pp. "^ 
 
 Kirkpatrick, E. A. Genetic Psychology. Macmillan, 1909, 373 pp. 
 
 (Emphasizes the instinctive basis of education.) Editor 
 
 of Studies in Development and Learning. Arch, of Psy., 
 
 1909, loi pp. (Miscellaneous studies.) 
 
Nature versus Nurture 127 
 
 Lay, W. A. Experimenlelle Didaktik. 3d. ed. Leipzig, 1910, 661 
 
 pp. (Summarizes work on the various school subjects.) 
 McKeever, Wm. A. Farm Boys and Girls. Macmillan, 1912, 
 
 326 pp. 
 Macmillan, Margaret. Early Childhood. Swan, Lend., 1900, 
 
 2H pp. (Good.) 
 Mangold, Geo. B. Child Problems. Macmillan,- 1910, 381 pp. 
 Meumann, Ernst. Vorlesungen zur Einfiihrung in die Experimenlelle 
 
 Fddagogik. Enlarged and revised ed. Engelmann, Leipzig, 
 
 191 1. (This is the great German reference book for 
 
 practically all phases of child study.) 
 Monahan, A. Rural Education in the United States. Wash. Gov. 
 
 Print., 1913, 72 pp. 
 Mumford, Edith. The Dawn of Character. Longmans, 1910, 225 pp. 
 
 (Good, especially on the moral aspects.) 
 O'Shea, M. V. Education as Adjustment. Longmans, 1903, 317 pp. 
 Parmelee, Maurice. Science of Human Behavior. Macmillan, 1913, 
 
 445 pp. (Moral aspects especially.) 
 Partridge, Geo. E. Genetic Philosophy of Education. Sturgis and 
 
 Walton, 1912, 401 pp. (An excellent epitome of G. Stanley 
 
 Hall's educational writings, with a list of them.) 
 Pearson, E. L. The Believing Years. Macmillan, 191 1, 303 pp. 
 Perez, B. First Three Years of Childhood. Bardeen, 1889, 294 pp. 
 
 I1.50. 
 L'education des le berceau. 1888, 320 pp. 
 L' enfant de trois a sept ans. 1888, 307 pp. 
 Plaisted, Laura L. Early Education of Children. Clarendon 
 
 Press, 1909, 398 pp. 
 Pyle, W. H. Educational Psychology. Warwick and York, 1911, 
 
 254 PP- 
 Richmond, Ennis. The Mind of a Child. Longmans, 1901, 176 pp. 
 
 $1.00. 
 
 Rusk, R. R. Introduction to Experimental Education. Long- 
 mans, 1912, 303 pp. (Contains much of material from 
 Meumann.) 
 
 St. John, E. P. Child Nature and Child Nurture. Pilgrim Press, 
 191 1, 106 pp. (Very simple.) 
 
 Schreiber, Adele (ed.). Das Buch vom Kinde. Teubner, 1907, 2 
 vols, in I. (An important r&um6 of work in child study.) 
 
 Schtilze, Rudolph. Aus de Werkstattder Experimentelle Psychologie. 
 Leipzig, 1909, 292 pp. (Eng. trans, by R. Pintnei, 
 
128 The Child 
 
 Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy. Macmillan, 1912, 
 
 364 PP-) 
 Sisson, E. O. Essentials of Character. Macmillan, 1910, 209 pp. 
 Starch, D. Experiments in Educational Psychology. Macmillan, 
 
 191 1, 183 pp. 
 Sully, James. Studies of Childhood. Appleton, 1900, 525 pp. 
 
 $2.50. (An excellent discussion of child nature.) 
 Swift, Edgar J. Mind in the Making. Scribner's, 1908, 329 pp. 
 Youth and the Race. Scribner's, 1912, 342 pp. (Good presen- 
 tations from the genetic standpoint.) 
 Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. Vol. I, The Original 
 
 Nature of Man. Teacher's Coll., Columbia U. Pub., 1913, 
 
 318 pp. (An attempt to list and to describe the unlearned 
 
 tendencies of man.) 
 Tracy, P. Psychology of Childhood. Heath, 7th rev. ed., 1909, 
 
 219 pp. $1.20. 
 Urwick, W. E. The Child's Mind, its Growth and Training. Lond., 
 
 1907, 269 pp. 
 Washburne, Marion F. Study of Child Life. Am. School Home 
 
 Economics, Chicago, 1907, 183 pp. (Deals especially with 
 
 the baby. Simple and practical.) 
 
 Studies of Individual Children 
 
 Ament, Wilhelm. Die Entwicklung vom Sprechen und Denken beim 
 
 Kinde. Leipzig, 1899, 213 pp. 
 Buchner, M. Entwicklung der CemulsbeHiegungen im ersten Lebens- 
 
 jahre. Langensalza, Beyer, 1909, 19 pp. 
 Chamberlain, A. P. and Isabel. Studies of a Child^ Ped. Sent., 
 
 1904, 1905, and Mar. 1909. 
 Cramaussel, Ed. Le premier eveil intellectuel de I'enfant. 2d ed. 
 
 Alcan, Paris, 1910, 200 pp. 
 Darwin, Charles. Biographical Sketch of an Infant. Mind, 1877, 
 
 285-294. 
 Dearborn, G. W. N. Moto-Sensory Development. Bait., 1910, 
 
 215 pp. (Good.) 
 Egger, A. E. Sur le developpement de I'intelligence et du langage. 
 
 Picard, 1887, 102 pp. 
 Espinas, A. Obs. sur un nouveau-n6. Ann. de la Fac. des Lettres 
 
 de Bordeaux, 1883. 
 Groszmann, M. P. E. Study of Individual Children. 1912, 76 pp. 
 
Nature versus Nurture 129 
 
 Hall, Mrs. Winfield S. First Five Hundred Days of a Child's Life. 
 
 C. S. M., Vol. II, 1897. (Accurate, brief record.) 
 Hogan, Louise. Study of a Child. Harper, 1898, 219 pp. 
 Lobisch, J. E. Enlwicklungsgeschichte der Seele des Kindes. 1851. 
 Major, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. Macmillan, 
 
 N. Y., 1906, 360 pp. 
 Moore, Kathleen Carter. Mental Development of a Child. Psy. 
 
 Rev., Monog. Sup. No. 3, 1896. (Excellent.) 
 Partridge, Geo. E. Outline of Individual Development. Sturgis 
 
 and Walton, 191 1, 240 pp. (Suggestions for observation.) 
 Preyer, Wilhelm. Development of the Intellect. Appleton, 1898, 
 
 317 PP- 
 Senses and Will. Appleton, 1899, 346 pp. 
 The Infant Mind. Appleton, 1889, 317 pp. 
 (The first two books give the most detailed individual study 
 that has yet been made, and have been the basis of all fol- 
 lowing ones. The last is a brief r^sum^ of the others.) 
 Scupip, E. and Mrs. G. Bubi's Erste Kindheit. Grieben, Leipzig, 
 1907, 264 pp. 
 Bubi im 4 bis 7 Lebensjahre. Grieben, Leipzig, 1910, 272 pp. 
 Shinn, Milicent W. Biography of a Baby. Houghton, MifHin, 
 1900, 247 pp. (A delightful study of the first year.) 
 Notes on the Development of a Child. University Press, 
 Berkeley, 1907, 258 pp. 
 Sigismund, B. Welt und Kind. 1856, 221 pp. (One of the very 
 
 early studies.) 
 Sikorsky, I. A. Die Seele des Kindes. Leipzig, 1902, 80 pp. 
 Tiedemann, D. Record of Infant Life. Bardeen, Syracuse, 1890, 
 
 46 pp. J!o.i5. (Study made in 1781, the oldest known.) 
 Tilley, Laura Sawin. Record of the Development of Two Baby Boys. 
 Assn. Coll. Alumnae Pub., 1910, 83 pp. 
 
 TALEi^fT AND GeNIUS 
 
 Adler, A. Ueber Minderwertigkeit von Organe. Urban, 1907, 92 pp. 
 Adler, A., and Fortmiiller, K. Heilen und Bilden. Reinhardt, 
 
 Munich, 1914, 186 pp. 
 Also articles in his magazine, Zeits. fiir Individualpsychologie, 
 
 pub. in Munich, monthly, i mark. 
 Berle, A. A. The School in the Home. Moflfat, Yard and Co., 
 
 1912, 200 pp. 
 
130 The Child 
 
 Bruce, Addington. Bending the Twig. Am. Mag., 1910, 690-695. 
 Lightning Calculators. McClure's, 1912, 586-596. 
 New Ideas in Child Training. Am. Mag., 191 1, 286-294. 
 Story of Karl Witte. Outlook, 1912, 211-218. 
 Burnham, W. H. Individual Differences in the Imagination of 
 
 Children. Fed. Sem., 1893, 204-225. 
 Davidson, H. A. The Gift of Genius. Jour, of Fed., 1904, 281-297. 
 Dolbear, Katherine. Precocious Children. Fed. Sem., Dec. 1912, 
 
 471-491. Bibliog. 
 Downes, F. E. Seven Years with Unusually Gifted Pupils. Fsy. 
 
 Clinic, 1912, 13-18. 
 Ellis, Havelock. Study of British Genius. Lond., 1904, 300 pp. 
 Galton, Francis. English Men of Science. Lond., 1874, 266 pp. 
 Groszmann, M. P. E. The Exceptionally Bright Child. "" Froc. 
 
 , Nat. Assn. for Study and Ed. Excep. Ch., 1910, 103-133. 
 Hirsch, W. Genius and Degeneration. Appleton, 1896, 330 pp. 
 James, Wm. The Powers of Man. Am. Mag., 1907, 57-65. 
 Lombroso, C. Determining of Genius. Monist, 1901, 49-64. 
 O'Shea, M. V. Misconceptions concerning Precocity in Children. 
 
 Science, 191 1, 666-674. 
 Scripture, E. W. Arithmetical Prodigies. Am. Jour. Fsy., i8gi,i-$g. 
 Shields, T. E. Mailing and Unmaking of a Dullard. Cath. Ed. 
 
 Press, Wash., 1909, 296 pp. 
 Sidis, Boris. Fhilistine and Genius. Moffat, Yard and Co., 191 1, 
 
 105 pp. 
 Stern, Wilhelm. Die differentielle Fsychologie. Leipzig, 191 1, 503 
 
 pp. Bibliog. 
 The Supernormal Child. Jour, of Ed., 191 1, 143-149, 181-190. 
 Terman, L. M. Study of Precocity and Prematurition. Am. Jour. 
 
 Fsy., 1905, 145-183. . 
 Genius and Stupidity. Fed. Sem., 1906, 307-373. 
 Van Sickle, J. H. Gifted Pupils. Jour, of Ed., 1910, 291-292'; 
 
 Froc. N. E. A., 1908, 245-284; also. Bull. Wash. Gov. Print., 
 
 191 1, 92 pp.; Ele. Sch. Teach., 1910, 357-366. 
 Whitby, C. J. Makers of Man. Lond., 1910, 410 pp. 
 Williams, T. A. Intellectual Precocity. Fed. Sem., 191 1, 85-103. 
 Yoder, A. H. Boyhood of Great Men. Fed. Sem., 1898, 134-156. 
 
 Vocational Guidance 
 Barrows, Alice. The Dangers and Possibilities of Vocational Guid- 
 ahce. Ch. Labor Bull., Vol. I, No. i, 1912, 46-55. 
 
Nature versus Nurture 131 
 
 Bloomfield, Meyer. Vocational Guidance 0/ Youth. Houghton, 
 
 Miiflin, 191 1, 120 pp. Bibliog. 
 Cooley, E. G. Vocational Education in Europe. Chicago, 1912, 
 
 347 PP- 
 Gillette, John M. Vocational Education. Am. Book Co., igio, 
 
 303 PP- 
 Hutchinson, T. H. Vocational Guidance. Series of articles. 
 
 Assn. Sem., 1912, and Jan. 1913. 
 Mansterberg, Hugo. Vocation and Learning. St. Louis, 1912, 
 
 289 pp. 
 Page, C. S. Vocational Education. Wash. Gov. Print., 1912, 
 
 134 PP- 
 Parsons, Prank. Choosing a Vocation. Houghton, Mifflin, 1909,' 
 
 165 pp. Bibliog. 
 Puffer, J. Adams. Vocational Guidance. Rand McNally & Co., 
 
 1913, 294 pp. 
 Richardson, A. S. Girl Who Earns Her Own Living. Dodge, 1909, 
 
 283 pp. 
 Rollins, F. W. What Can a Young Man Do? Little, Brown, 1907, 
 
 339 PP- 
 Vocational Education. -Ed. by C. A. Bennett, Peoria, 111., Vol. I, 
 
 1912. Bimonthly. 
 Weeks, Ruth. The People's School. Houghton, Mifflin, 1912, 
 
 207 pp. 
 Bibliography pub. by Brooklyn Public Library, 1913, 63 pp. 
 
 Special Studies of Instinctive Tendencies and Interest 
 
 Acher, R. A. Spontaneous Constructions and Primitive Activities 
 of Children. Am. Jour. Psy., 1910, 1 14-150. 
 
 Allin, A. Social Recapitulation. Ed. Rev., 1899, 344-352. 
 
 Amett, L. D. Origin and Development of Home and Love of Home. 
 Ped. Sem., 1902, 324-365. 
 
 Arnold, Felix. Psychology of Interest. Psy. Rev., 1906, 221-238, 
 
 291-315- 
 Baldwin, J. Mark. Genesis of Social Interests. Monist, 1897, 
 
 340-357- 
 Social and Ethical Interpretations. See Index. 
 Balliet, T. M. Instincts and Education. Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., 
 
 1908, 1-7. 
 Bligh, Stanley M. Direction of Desire. Lond., 1910, 360 pp. 
 Bodin, John E. Mind as Instinct. Psy. Rev., 1906, 121-139. 
 
132 T he C hild 
 
 Bolton, F. E. Hydro-psychoses. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. X, 171-229. 
 Bucke, W. F. Oliver, the Tame Crow. Fed. Sem., 1903, Vol. X, 
 13-26. 
 Cyno-psychoses. Fed. Sem., 1903, 459-573- 
 Burbank, Luther. Training of the Human Plant. Century Co., 
 
 1907, 99 PP- 
 Burk, C. F. Collecting Instinct. Ped. Sem., 1900, 179-207. 
 Burk, F. and C. Frear. Study of Kindergarten Problem in . . . Santa 
 
 Barbara, CaL, 1898-99. $0.50. 
 Burnham, W. H. Group as Stimulus to Mental Activity. Science, 
 N. S., 1910, 761-767- 
 Attention and Interest. Am. Jour. Psy., 1903, Vol. XIX, 14-18. 
 Education from Genetic Point of View. Ele. Sch. Teach., 1905, 
 117-124. 
 Chamberlain, A. F. Use of Plants by Children. Jour. Am. folk 
 
 Lore, 1901, Vol. XIV, 132-138. 
 Chancellor, W. E. Motives, Ideals and Values in Education. 
 
 ^ Houghton, Mifflin, 1907, 534 pp. 
 Davis, Benj. M. Agricultural Education in the Public Schools. 
 U. of Chicago Press, 1912, 159 pp. Bibliog. (The most 
 complete survey.) 
 Dawson, G. E. Levels of Development. Jour, of Ped., 1905, 9-24. 
 Children's Interest in the Bible. Ped, Sem., 1900, 151-178. 
 Psychic Rudiments and Morality. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. XI, 
 181-224. 
 Dewey, John. Interest as related to Will, second supplement to 
 Herbartian Year Book, 1899. 
 Child and the Curriculum. U. of Chicago Press, 1902, 40 pp, 
 Educational Situation. U. of Chicago Press, 1902, 104 pp. 
 Ethical Principles Underlying Education. U. of Chicago Press, 
 
 1903, 34PP-- 
 
 Psychology and Social Practise. U. of Chicago Press, 1901, 42 pp, 
 School and Society. U. of Chicago Press, 1899, 125 pp. 
 Dexter, E. G. Weather Influences. Macmillan, 1904, 277 pp 
 
 Bibliog. 
 Dopp, Katherine E. Place of Industries in Elementary Education 
 
 U. of Chicago Press, 1903, 208 pp. 
 Ellis, G. H. Fetichism in Children. Ped. Sem., June 1902, 205-220, 
 Ellis, Horace. First Lesson in Thrift. Psy. Clinic, 1910, 23-25. 
 Fitch, I. G. Educational Aims and Methods. Macmillan, 1900, 
 
 448 pp. 
 
Nature versus Nurture 133 
 
 Greene, Louise M. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Com., 
 
 1910, 335 PP- Bibliog. (Good.) 
 Guillet, Cephas. Recapitulation and Education. Fed. Sem., 1900, 
 
 397-445- 
 Study in Interests. Fed. Sem., 1907, 322-328, 474-487. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. See books above referred to, in Tndex. 
 
 and Browne, C. A. Children's Ideas of Fire, Heat, Frost, and 
 Cold. Fed. Sem-, 1903, Vol. X, 27-85. 
 The Cat and the Child. Fed. Sem'., 1904, 3-29. 
 and T. L. Smith. Curiosity and Interest. Fed. Sem., 1903, 
 315-358. 
 Showing Off and Bashfulness. Fed. Sem., 1903, 159-199. 
 Reactions to Light and Darkness. Am. Jour. Psy., 1903, 
 21-83. 
 and Wallin, J. E. W. How Children Think and Peel about 
 Clouds. Fed. Sem., 1902, 460-504. 
 Harper, J.. W. Education and Social Life. Pitman, Lond., 1907, 
 
 314 PP- 
 Harris, W. T. Fsychologic Foundations of Education. Appleton, 
 
 1907, 400 pp. 
 Hart, W. R., and Morton, O. A. Boys' and Girls' Clubs. Wright 
 
 and Potter, Boston, 191 4, 32 pp. (Agricultural work.) 
 Jewell, J. J.. Agricultural Education, including Nature Study and 
 
 School Gardens. Wash. Gov. Print., 1908, 148 pp. (Very 
 
 inclusive.) 
 Kaylor, M. A. Children and Pets. Fed. Sem., 1909, 205-239. 
 Kent, E. B, Constructive Interests of Children. Columbia Univ. 
 
 Pub., 1903, 78 pp. (Very suggestive.) 
 Kern, O. J. Among Country Schools. Ginn, 1906, 366 pp. $1.35. 
 
 (Good.) 
 Kline, L. W. "Truancy as related to, the Migrating Instinct. Fed. 
 
 Sem., Vol. V, 381-420. 
 Miller, Persis K. School Gardens in relation to the Three R's. 
 
 Education, 1905, 531-542- 
 Murdock, F. F. Children in Geography. Jour, of Ed., 1906. 
 
 Series of articles. 
 Ordahl, Geo. Rivalry. Fed. Sem., 1908, Vol. 15, 492-549- 
 Ostermann, W. Interest in Relation to Fedagogy. Kellogg. $1.00. 
 Phillips, D. E. The Teaching Instinct. Fed. Sem., 1899, 188-255. 
 Pillsbury, W. B. Attention. Macmillan, 1908, 342 pp. 
 
134 The Child 
 
 Rooper, T. G. The Child, his Studies and Occupations. Kellogg. 
 
 $0.50. 
 Ruediger, W. C. Principles of Education. Houghton, Mifflin, 
 
 1910, 305 PP- 
 Scyz, Angelina. Flowers. Fed. Sem., 1906, Vol. XIII, 502-508. 
 Shuler, E. W. Passing of the Recapitulation Theory. Ed. Rev., 
 
 No. 44, 1912, 191-196. 
 Slaughter, J. W. Moon in Childhood and Folklore. Am. Jour. 
 
 Psy., Apr. 1902, 294-318. 
 Stockton, M.I. Preferences by Boys and Girls. Psy. Rev., 1911, 
 
 347-373- 
 Thayer, Alice. Children's Interest in Flowers. Ped. Sem., 1905, 
 
 107-140. 
 Thomas, I. W. The Gaming Instinct. Am. Jour. Soc, 1901, Vol. 
 
 VI, 750-763. 
 Titchener, E. B. Feeling and Attention. Macmillan, 1908, 391 pp. 
 Triplett, Norman. Pacemaking and Competition. Am. Jour. 
 Psy., 1898, Vol. VII, 507-533- 
 For experimental articles on attention and interest, see the 
 annual bibliography pubHshed by the Psychological Review, 
 and for supplementary references along the above lines, the 
 lists at the end of each chapter in this book. 
 Among the numerous magazines devoted to child study, the 
 
 following are among the best in English: 
 The Pedagogical Seminary. Ed. by G. Stanley Hall and W. H. 
 Burnham. Clark University, Worcester. Quarterly. $5.00 
 per annum. (This is the oldest magazine devoted to child 
 study and contains numerous original studies, besides many 
 book reviews and notices. One of the valuable character- 
 istics is the fullness of the bibliographies.) 
 The Child. Ed.byT.N.Kelynack. London. Monthly. $5.25. 
 
 (This is excellent, especially on the side of hygiene.) 
 Journal of Educational Psychology. Warwick and York, 
 Baltimore. Monthly. $1.50. (Also excellent, on the experi- 
 mental side of education.) 
 Journal of Experimental Pedagogy. Ed. by J. A. Green. 
 Longmans, London, is. per number. (Also on the experi- 
 mental side of education. Contains very important articles.) 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Sensation and Perception 
 
 'T^EACHERS and students who- are doing systematic 
 -•- work in child study should observe ihe following: 
 
 1. Sight. Keep a record of these points Observa- 
 in the baby's seeing : • tions 
 
 (i) When was the blank stare replaced by real 
 seeing of an object, that is, by convergence 
 of the eyes upon the object? 
 
 (2) When did his eyes first follow a moving object? 
 
 Was the object bright or large ? Did he move 
 head as well as eyes? 
 
 (3) When did he first look for an object or try to 
 
 see where a sound came from? 
 
 (4) When did he first look for something that he had 
 
 dropped? 
 (s) When did he first show a liking for some color? 
 
 What was the color? Was it in a bright light? 
 (6) When did he first wink at the approach of some 
 
 object threatening his eyes? 
 
 2. Grasping. When did these acts first occur? 
 
 (i) Closing of fingers over object put into the palm. 
 
 (2) Opposition of thumb and fingers in grasping. 
 
 (3) Putting hand in mouth. 
 
 (4) When did he first grasp for some object he saw? 
 Notice whether he reached for objects far beyond his 
 
 grasp, that is, whether the hand closed to grasp them. 
 Babies often stretch out their arms for things that they 
 want— such as the moon — but Baldwin claims that in 
 
 135 
 
136 The Child 
 
 such cases there is no reaching and grasping as there is 
 when they expect to seize a tangibk object. He also 
 claims that a baby does not grasp at objects far beyond 
 his reach, and very soon learns to correct his first slight 
 inaccuracies in judging distances. 
 
 Teachers who wish statistics as to the ideas that chil- 
 dren have about objects, should get G. Stanley Hall's 
 pamphlet. Contents of Children's Minds on Entering 
 School, also contained in Aspects of. Child Life, aiid follow 
 the plan outlined there. They may find another list of- 
 words more useful, but the general plan will be valuable 
 in any case. 
 
 In the preceding chapters we have discussed the 
 physical nature of the child, and have hinted at some 
 Introduc- °^ t^e relations between it and education, 
 tion We shall now take up his psychical nature 
 
 and endeavor to trace the growth from the rudiments 
 in sensation and perception to' the more complex 
 manifestations in the adolescent's reasoning. Each 
 mental process, such as memory and imagination, will 
 be similarly treated, so that when the account is finished 
 we shall have an accurate picture of the mental growth 
 of children. 
 
 In this part of our subject, far more than in the de- 
 scription of his physical nature or of his expressions of 
 thought, observations are lacking entirely, or are few in 
 ntimber, or defective; but nevertheless, individual obser- 
 vation may still be supplemented to a considerable degree. 
 
 At what point in prenatal life feelings and sensations 
 appear can never be settled until there is some general 
 Prenatal agreement as to the basis on which we can 
 consciousness properly infer the presence of psychical 
 processes. There is no such agreement at present, and 
 
Sensation and Perception 137 
 
 so we will simply state certain known facts, and our own 
 conclusions. 
 
 The Anlage, or first differentiation of nervous tissue 
 from other tissues, comes very early in embryonic life, 
 between the twelfth and twentieth days, and the most 
 striking characteristic of the human embryo all through 
 its development is the large size of the brain as compared 
 with the rest of the body. At the stage above mentioned 
 it comprises about one half of the nervous system, and 
 its apparent reduction in the course of development is 
 due to the fact that it folds over upon itself to make the 
 very complex arrangement of the developed brain. By 
 the fifth month of embryonic life it is believed that the 
 number of nerve cells is complete, and the later develop- 
 ment both before and after birth consists in an increase 
 in size of the cells, the formation of the myelin sheath 
 about the fibers, and the growth of association fibers 
 between the various parts of the brain. 
 
 If then we have a right to assume that any living 
 organism with a nervous system has some sort of vague,, 
 rudimentary consciousness, we must grant it to the 
 developing embryo at least from the third week on, but it 
 is very difficult for us to understand what it would be 
 like, so diffused and vague must it be. Again, it is 
 known that there are at least slight movements as early 
 as the fifth or sixth week, and in all probability these are 
 the response to touch stimuli or to chemical alterations 
 in the blood. 
 
 With regard to the special senses — touch, smell, 
 taste, sight, and hearing — their organs are all sufficiently 
 developed by the seventh month to function senses 
 when stimulated, as has been abundantly before birth 
 proved in prematurely bom children. That is, for a,t 
 least two months before birth, all these parts of the 
 
138 T he Child 
 
 ■ nervous system have developed and have done so with few 
 or none of their own proper stimuli. Undoubtedly there 
 are touch stimuH and sensations for a considerable period 
 before birth, as indicated above. Similarly, there are 
 taste sensations obtained from the amniotic fluid which 
 the child swallows, though they must be slight because 
 this fluid has little taste. There can be no smell sensa- 
 tion, because the nasal cavities also are filled with this 
 fluid. The ear also is filled with it, but very loud stimuli 
 or jars may agitate it sufficiently to set the ear bones in 
 motion and give a muffled sensation of sound. The eye 
 can receive little or no light, and the only possibility of 
 prenatal sensation here comes from pressure or changes 
 in its circulation, or perhaps some body transparency to 
 light, but these must be very slight. On the whole, the 
 condition of prenatal consciousness is like sleep, with 
 vague dreams and the responses to stimuli that occur in 
 sleep, and perhaps now and then a brief awakening, 
 concludes Preyer. 
 
 The consciousness of the newborn child has been tested 
 by various observers upon one or a few children, but by 
 Senses at ^^'^ ^^e most important contribution is that 
 birth ' of Peterson and Rainey on 1,060 newborn 
 
 children in Bellevue Hospital (959 normal white; 35 
 colored; 41 premature; 13 pairs of twins). Forty-one of 
 their cases were prematurely born, but even in those 
 bom in the seventh lunar month the nerves of special 
 sense usually reacted like those of children bom at full 
 term. They summarize their observations in a pre- 
 liminary way as follows: 
 
 "i. Sight. Sensibihty to sight is present in most in- 
 fants at birth, and this is the case even when prematurely 
 bom. 
 
 "2. Hearing. Sensibility to sound is quite as apparent 
 
Sensation and Perception 139 
 
 as sensibility to light at birth, for 276 normal children 
 reacted to sotind on the first day of life and 146 reacted 
 to light. A similar condition existed among the pre- 
 mature infants, many reacting to sound on the first day, 
 as well as to light. The auditory nerve is ready prepared 
 to receive impressions of sound some time before the 
 period of normal birth. This is wholly contrary to the 
 opinions of other authorities. 
 
 "3. Taste. The gustatory nerve not only reacts differ- 
 ently to salt, sweet, bitter, and sour at birth, but the same 
 mimetic reactions are observed in premature infants. 
 This nerve is therefore ready to receive taste impressions 
 some time before the normal period of birth. 
 
 "4. Smell. Two hundred and seven normal children 
 reacted to odors on the first day of birth, and similar 
 reactions were observed in premature infants. 
 
 "5. Cutaneous sensibility. Reactions to touch and 
 temperature, and effective manifestations of discomfort 
 obtained the first day in large numbers of normal infants, 
 were similarly obtained in premature infants, showing 
 that such sensibility is already present before the ex- 
 piration of the period of normal gestation. There is 
 every reason to believe that sensitiveness to painful 
 stimuli is present, but the reactions are more vague and 
 uncertain than in later life, which leads-many to assume 
 that the sense of pain is dull in the newborn. Muscular 
 sense cannot be tested in infants, but there is every 
 reason to believe that muscular sense, the sense of mo- 
 tion and sense of position, are developed early in utero. 
 
 "6. Thirst-hunger and organic sensation. The newborn 
 child frequently reacts to thirst-hunger on the first day, 
 though the actual need of food is seldom apparent tmtil 
 after the first or second day. Discomfort is clearly 
 marked when nourishment is not forthcoming. The 
 
140 The Child 
 
 cries of discomfort and pain are marked on the first day 
 in full-term infants and noteworthy in the premature, 
 
 "7. The beginning of memory, feeling, and consciousness 
 in the newborn child. There are good grounds for believ- 
 Conscious- i^g that the newborn child comes into the 
 ness at birth world with a small store of experiences and 
 associated feelings and shadowy consciousness. The fact 
 that even in premature infants we find the senses already 
 prepared for the reception of impressions on the five 
 senses is some evidence of such impressions having been 
 already received and stored up in the dim storehouse of 
 a memory alrealdy begim. It may even be that some 
 sort of vague light impressions have been received, for 
 it is possible that in the interior of the body the alter- 
 nation of day and night may in a mild degree be mani- 
 fested. The translumination of the hands before a 
 candle, of the skull and face bones in examination of the 
 frontal sinuses and antrum by electric hghts, are evi- 
 dences of a certain amount of translucency of the whole 
 organism to sunlight, which is so much more powerful 
 than any artificial light. There is greater possibility in 
 the matter of the auditory sense that it may be stimulated 
 by sounds within the body of the mother (by bone con- 
 duction possibly), such sounds as the beat of the mater- 
 nal and fetal hearts, the uterine and funic souffles, and 
 the bruit of the maternal aorta. 
 
 " Moderate stimulation of the gustatory nerve is thought 
 to occur through the common swallowing of amniotic 
 fluid by the fetus. 
 
 "A marked development of the senses of touch and of 
 muscular sense during uterine life is undisputed. 
 This activity of the muscles and constant contact of vari- 
 ous parts of the fetal body within the uterine walls for 
 a period of months before birth must lay a foimdation 
 
Sensation and Perception 141 
 
 under the threshold of consciousness for a sense of equilib- 
 rium and vague spatial relations. The material basis of 
 consciousness is prepared long before birth. 
 
 "There is already a feeling tone associated with the 
 earliest reactions, though we are altogether in the dark 
 as regards its psycho-physiology. The process has been 
 thus formulated: Stimulus-reaction-liking-reinforcement. 
 Stimulus-reaction-dislike or pain-inhibition. This is the 
 early simple associative memory in reactions to stimuH. 
 
 "8. There are no perceptible differences in reactions 
 of colored and white children or between pairs of tvpins." 
 
 Comparing these observations with those of other 
 observers, we find a general agreement but also some 
 important differences, more especially with regard to 
 hearing. The hearing test was given with a rattle of 
 such a character that the authors are convinced there 
 could be no mere jar or vibration from it to stimulate 
 the child, and yet with forty-eight normal children, 
 twenty-three reacted to it within the first three hours 
 after birth, sixteen within the first two, eleven within 
 the first, two within forty-five minutes, one within thirty 
 minutes, and one within fifteen minutes after birth. 
 Most earlier observers, especially Miss Shinn, make 
 more or less positive assertions as to deafness during the 
 first two or three days, but it is interesting to note that 
 Preyer is very careful not to do so, and in his Physiologie 
 des Embryo states that the ear is ready to function for 
 some time before birth and probably does receive muffled 
 stimtoli to which it reacts. We might make the general 
 s|;atement here that when an organ in any part of the 
 body is found all ready to function it is difficult for the 
 biologist to understand this readiness without some 
 previous functioning, however imperfect. The prevalent 
 standpoint to-day is that the development of the embryo 
 
142 The Child 
 
 and of each organ is a matter of reaction to stimuli. 
 
 Therefore we must not look upon the newborn child 
 as an utter stranger to this our world. The little world 
 within from which he comes has already given him in a 
 vague, dim form all the classes of sensations which he 
 will receive in the large outer world. Touch and the 
 muscular sense especially have been exercised so that 
 at birth, if not before, there is some localization of touch 
 stimuli and, Kussmaul believes, some consciousness of 
 an outer something which can satisfy himger and thirst 
 by going to the mouth. Organic memory has begun, 
 and we may at least ask why it is not possible that there 
 should be memory images of touch and movement, and 
 perhaps of taste, though in this case the stimuli are slight. 
 
 If we attempt to picttire the mental condition involved 
 here, we may quote Miss Shinn, with certain omissions: 
 "She took in with a vague comfort the gentle light that 
 fell on her eyes, seeing without any sort of attention or 
 comprehension the moving blurs of darkness that varied it. 
 She felt motions and changes; she felt the action of her 
 own muscles, and . . disagreeable shocks of soimd 
 now and then broke through the silence or perhaps 
 through an unnoticed jumble of faint noises. She felt 
 touches on her body from time to time . . and steady, 
 slight sensations of touch from her clothes, from arms 
 that held her, from cushions on which she lay, poured in 
 on her. 
 
 "From time to time sensations of hunger and thirst, 
 and once or twice of pain, made themselves felt through 
 all the others, and mounted till they became distressing; 
 from time to time a feeling of heightened comfort flowed 
 over her as hunger or thirst were satisfied; or release 
 from clothes and the effect of the bath and rubbing on her 
 circulation increased the net sense of well-being. 
 
Sensation and Perception 143 
 
 For the rest she lay empty minded, neither consciously 
 comfortable nor uncomfortable, yet on the whole per- 
 vaded with a dtall sense of well-being. Of the people 
 about her, of her mother's face, of her own existence, 
 of desire or fear, she knew nothing. Yet this dim dream 
 was flecked all through with the beginnings of later 
 comparison and choice." 
 
 To trace the steps of the marvelous transformation 
 from this animal-like little being to the wide-awake, 
 fascinating little person of a year later is especially to 
 trace the development of sensation and perception. 
 Memory, imagination, and thought also begin here, but 
 do not develop so rapidly as does perception. 
 
 After birth the ordinary stimuli and the reactions to 
 them cultivate a certain amount of discrimination, but 
 this is as a rule much less than is possible and less than 
 the nascent senses demand. Let us briefly consider the 
 development of sensation and perception in babyhood 
 and childhood. 
 
 It is difficult to test the sense of smell with any accu- 
 racy, and this sense is also of lessening importance in 
 human life, although of great significance Development 
 for some animals. Few observations have °^ smell 
 been made upon it in children. Undoubtedly it is de- 
 veloped at birth, but children seem rather insensitive to 
 it on the whole, and if kept in cleanly surroundings, with 
 good air, have relatively little opportunity to exercise it. 
 At puberty it becomes more sensitive, a fondness for 
 perfumes is likely to develop, and the odors connected 
 with persons are more keenly perceived with pleasure 
 or dislike. In some instances the sense is so keen that 
 individuals are recognized by their odor, and this is 
 especially likely to be the case if some other sense, such 
 as sight or hearing, has been lost. 
 
144 The Child 
 
 Aside from the aesthetic pleasures from perfumes, 
 children should be taught to know the odors of practical 
 importance — bad air, gas, odors that indicate whether 
 food, especially meat, is edible or not, and so on. 
 
 We have seen that for some time before birth the 
 power to distinguish sour, bitter, and sweet tastes is 
 Of t present, and soon after birth Preyer found 
 
 considerable fineness of discrimination. It is 
 interesting to know that in babies and children the taste 
 buds are more widely distributed than in adults, some- 
 times on the cheeks and in the back part of the nasal 
 passages as well as on the tongue. In lower forms of 
 life they are still more widely distributed, sometimes 
 being scattered over the surface of the body, so that the 
 animal not only tastes with its mouth but with its skin. 
 The baby, as we all know, tends to put everything to its 
 mouth, and this it does even when not hungry. In the 
 little child, especially before the fourth or fifth year, 
 this tendency to taste, lick, and suck everything is 
 undiscriminating, including often even disgusting things. 
 Bell gives a list of one hundred and eighty things, thus 
 experimented with. By degrees this catholicity narrows, 
 but all through childhood, especially from seven to ten, he 
 finds that most children like to try new mixtures and 
 kinds of food, while at adolescence new tastes and likings 
 develop but also strong disUkes, and the social factors in 
 eating come far more to the front. 
 
 We cannot here discuss the matter of children's diet, 
 but we must indicate certain guiding principles. It 
 should not be necessary to say that the only way to give 
 a child a normal, healthy liking for foods is to supply 
 him from the beginning with the right kinds of food 
 properly cooked. The child fed on fried, greasy, stim- 
 ulating food of course adapts himself to it and acquires 
 
Sensation and Perception 145 
 
 the liking of custom even though it is ruining his diges- 
 tion. Similarly, the child fed on the simple, well-cooked 
 diet suited to his age likes it and will prefer it through- 
 out life, as the other child does the unhealthful food. 
 But again, since the normal child likes to make these 
 taste experiments, he should have a chance to do so. An 
 effort should be made to put on the home table new 
 kinds and new combinations of food, such as the dishes 
 characteristic of various nationalities or feasts and fes- 
 tivals. Variety and change are great aids to appetite. 
 On the other hand, to cater to caprice is as great a 
 mistake qs 1;o ignore individual tastes entirely. To cook 
 individual dishes for the various healthy children in a 
 family is folly, just as is the opposite extreme of forcing 
 a child to eat food for which he has an insurmountable 
 dislike. Of course, a child may have some digestive, 
 nervous, or other disturbance which necessitates a special 
 diet, but if he is well, he shotdd eat the family dishes 
 or go hungry. Many of the caprices of children's — not 
 adolescents' — appetite, are simply those of an overfed 
 animal. 
 
 The sensitiveness to soimds varies considerably. 
 Compayre records that about the fourth day such slight 
 
 sounds as a sneeze or a whistle caused violent . , 
 
 Of sound 
 responses. We should notice, however, that 
 
 a child's starts or tremors when a door slams or when a 
 
 loud voice speaks are often due to the jar instead of to 
 
 the noise. This can easily be tested by making the 
 
 sounds where %ione of the jar from them can reach the 
 
 baby. Mrs. Hall observes this great sensitiveness to 
 
 jars on the first day. 
 
 On the seventh day a loud call would not awaken 
 
 Preyer's son, but on the third day Miss Shinn's niece 
 
 started when some paper was torn at a distance of eight 
 
146 The Child 
 
 feet. By the fifth week, Preyer'g boy was so sensitive 
 that during the day he would not sleep if any one was 
 talking or walking in the room. On the other hand, 
 many babies sleep tranquilly through prolonged con- 
 versations. Habit has much to do with this. 
 
 In the eighth week this same boy heard the piano, 
 and was much pleased with the loud tones, but paid no 
 attention to the soft ones. The various observations 
 on sensibility to musical tones we shall consider later 
 in connection with music. 
 
 During teething, the same boy's sensibility to sounds 
 was increased, and after the first year most new sounds, 
 even when very loud, like thunder, caused pleasioie 
 instead of fear. 
 
 Mrs. Hall noticed that her child distinguished different 
 kinds of sounds before any one sound was recognized. 
 When we consider the adult's inability to recognize ab- 
 'solute pitch, this is just what we should expect. Our 
 knowledge and recognition of sounds are almost entirely 
 matters of their relations to each other. 
 
 Five minutes after birth, when taken to a window 
 in the twilight, Preyer's son showed some sensitiveness 
 Of sight. *° *^® light. The eyes of a baby will close 
 
 I. Sensitive- if a bright light is brought near them, and 
 ness to light g^j.g pg^^jy ^^gg^ ^^g^ ^j ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ g^g^ 
 
 Compayr^ thinks that one reason why some babies are 
 so wakeful at night is that the darkness does not fatigue 
 their eyes as daylight does. 
 
 This first shrinking soon disappears, however. Within 
 a few days the baby will turn its head toward a window 
 or light, and within a few weeks will give various expres- 
 sions of pleasure at light. The strabismus or squinting 
 which is so marked in most newborn babies disap- 
 pears by the third week, and moderately bright lights 
 
Sensation and Perception 147 
 
 are enjoyed. The great sensitiveness to light at first 
 is shown also by the fact that a baby's pupils are more 
 contracted than an adult's. 
 
 The importance of shielding a baby's eyes from a 
 glare of light is thus evident. A little baby should not 
 lie facing a window or bright light for any length of 
 time, any more than a child should be allowed to face 
 them when he reads. 
 
 Observation seems to show that babies are generally 
 shortsighted for a time, and in addition to this, their 
 inability at first to move their eyeballs or 2. Range of 
 head with any regularity limits their vision ''sion 
 still more. The lens also does not accommodate itself 
 to objects at first, so that any object outside of the one 
 focal distance must be very indistinct. While a child is 
 not bom blind, therefore, his visual world is limited to 
 the few feet directly in front of him, filled with indistinct 
 blurs. By the sixth week the shortsightedness is less 
 marked and by the eighth, accommodation of the lenses 
 begins, both greatly enlarging the child's world. 
 
 The first movements of the eyelids are not coordi- 
 nated either with each other or with the eyeballs. One 
 
 eye may be wide open when the other is 
 
 3. Move- 
 half shut, and both \yill sometimes close ments of 
 
 while the eyes are fixed on some object, eyes; the 
 At first also they seem to be less sensitive 
 than later, for wetting the eyelids and even the cornea, 
 which is so sensitive in adults, will not cause the eyelids 
 to close in some cases until after the third month. So 
 also at first there is no winking when an object threatens 
 the eyes. The first appearance of winking occurs some 
 time between the forty-third and sixtieth days, by which 
 time the movements of the eyelids are fairly well co- 
 ordinated. 
 
148 The Child 
 
 Convergence, that is, harmonious movements of the 
 eyeballs so as to bring the points of clearest vision in 
 both to focus upon the same object, is in as 
 ^ ^^^-^ ® imperfect a state at birth as is ever3^hing 
 else. Many children are born cross-eyed and remain 
 so for months, the defect disappearing as the eyes are 
 used and accustomed to work together. 
 
 In all children different degrees of incoordination 
 can be observed even from the very first, for while at 
 some times the eyes are evidently not working together, 
 at others they appear to be. In the latter case, however, 
 closer watching usually shows that the movements are 
 not perfectly coordinated. CompajT^ traces the develop- 
 ment from incoordinate movements to involuntary 
 coordinated, and then to voluntary coordinated; but 
 while this shows the logical order and the order in which 
 the relative importance of the movements progresses, 
 all three are found from the second week on, if Preyer's 
 observations are correct. He notes that on the seventh 
 day his boy's eyes followed a candle, and converged, 
 while on the eleventh day there was unmistakable fix- 
 ation of the eyes. Mrs. Hall also notes that from the 
 second week the eyes began to rest on objects, but places 
 the first unmistakable fixation on the twenty-first day. 
 On the fifty-third day her child gazed at a box of rattling 
 matches for six minutes, and on the sixty-second at a 
 purse of jingling coins for twenty-eight minutes. Even 
 then he would have continued, though showing great 
 fatigue. 
 
 This prolonged convergence of the eyes is one of the 
 very important steps in seeing, as until it is accomplished 
 there can be no definite marking out of one object from 
 another. Sully notes that convergence is well established 
 by the sixth week, and it is followed almost at once in 
 
Sensation and Perception 149 
 
 the eighth week by the accommodation of the lenses, 
 which makes each object still more distinct and definite 
 in outline. The first well-defined seeing of objects 
 probably occvirs therefore about the second month, "or 
 between the second and third months. 
 
 Following a movement with the eyes cannot occur 
 until convergence is well established, but we find that 
 Preyer notes the first following with the first convergence, 
 on the seventh day. He notes again, however, on the 
 twenty-third day, that his son followed a moving candle 
 with his eyes and turned his head to do so. On the 
 thirtieth day Mrs. Hall's child followed the movements 
 of a brush and comb, and on the thirty-eighth day, 
 that of a gently swinging ball. This ability remains 
 limited for a long time; thus we find Preyer's child from 
 the forty-third to the sixty-fourth weeks just learning 
 to look after an object that falls, and even when two 
 and one-half years old unable to follow the flight of a bird. 
 After the baby gets distinct retinal images of objects 
 through convergence and accommodation, and has 
 learned to follow a moving object with his Looking for 
 'eyes, but one small step is necessary before a hidden 
 his mental growth proceeds by leaps and ° ^®*^* 
 bounds; that is,' he must learn to look for an object that 
 is out of sight. Herein lies the germ of memory and a 
 clear manifestation of will- 
 Miss Shinn first observed this at the beginning- of the 
 eighth week, when the baby turned from stud3dng her 
 aunt's face to study her mother's, which was entirely 
 out of sight. Accommodation began at the same time, 
 and was succeeded by a period of absorbed looking at 
 everything that she could by any possibility twist her 
 head and body to see. 
 
 Closely connected with this, from the eighth to the 
 
150 T. he Child 
 
 twelfth week, is the first recognition of faces. Naturally, 
 the one who takes the most care of the baby is noticed 
 first, or, if several persons spend about the same time 
 with him, the one who most satisfies his instincts and 
 impulses. Before this, even as early as the third week, 
 a baby learns to recognize people by touch, but here we 
 are speaking of sight alone. 
 
 Finally, we come to the sense of touch, the mother 
 sense, the oldest, both in the history of the race and of 
 the individual, from which all of the others 
 have been developed, and to which we still 
 return to get the closest sense of reality and the best 
 proof of the existence of things. Not only is touch the 
 oldest, but it is also the most widely distributed, sense. 
 From the skin, with its various nerve endings sensitive 
 to pressure, temperature, and pain, a million and a half 
 or more of nerve fibers pass to the spinal cord. Other 
 touch organs end in the muscles, joints, and tendons, 
 and still others in the visceral organs. We cannot even 
 begin to describe these adequately. We can only roughly 
 indicate certain general facts important to those deal- 
 ing with children. 
 
 Here, as in the case of smell, we have no exact obser- 
 vations as to how much a baby discriminates differences 
 I. Tempera- of heat and cold. It seems probable that 
 *"^ at the first bath he feels warmth and cold, 
 
 and after the first week he shows decided pleasure in a 
 warm bath and dislike of one i}4° C. lower. 
 
 Taylor warns us that the child of two or three years 
 has a membrane so much more sensitive than an adult's 
 that it may be blistered by food which to an adult seems 
 only warm. He evidences the protests of children 
 against food and water which to us seem only agreeably 
 heated. 
 
Sensation and Perception 151 
 
 Under the head of passive touch we consider only 
 those pressure sensations in which the skin alone is 
 involved. When the muscles also are used, 2. Passive 
 as in exploring a surface or in grasping, we touch 
 have active touch. When respiration begins, the reflexes 
 called out by slaipping or pinching are stronger than 
 before, and after two or three weeks there is a markedly 
 stronger response to a slight stimulus than at first. 
 
 Preyer found that the lips and tongue of a newborn 
 child are the most sensitive parts of the body. Tick- 
 ling the tip of the tongue before the child had ever been 
 fed caused sucking and swallowing movements, while 
 tickling the root caused movements of ejection. 
 
 Touching the palm of a two hours' old child causes 
 the fingers to close about the object, and the grasp is so 
 strong that the babe may hang suspended by his hands 
 for half a minute — a feat many adults cannot duplicate. 
 Touching the soles also causes reflex movements, but 
 they are slower than a week or so later. 
 
 In the discussion of this subject we anticipate what 
 should come in the chapter on instincts, but it is so 
 essential to the understanding of perception 3. Active 
 that the separation is unavoidable. We shall touch 
 take up here the series of movements which most assist 
 the child in getting a knowledge of objects as distinct from 
 each other and as holding space relations to each other. 
 
 We have already seen that Preyer found that the lips 
 
 and tongue are most sensitive in passive touch, and we 
 
 all know that everything goes into a baby's „ „ . 
 
 , , ■■ 1 ,• , 1 Mouthing 
 
 mouth, there to be sucked and licked. 
 
 Preyer attributes this to the baby's belief that all the 
 
 world is milk, and that to get milk at any time all that 
 
 is necessary is to put the first handy object into his 
 
 mouth and suck it diligently. Miss Shinn takes issue 
 
IS2 The Child 
 
 with Preyer here, and maintains that things go into 
 the mouth on account of the pleasure that comes from 
 contact with the sensitive lips and tongue, just as an 
 adult gets pleasure from touching smooth, warm surfaces 
 or from exploring the outlines of an object with the hand. 
 Both theories are based on observations of only, a few 
 children, but Miss Shinn's seems more true than Herr 
 Preyer's. We must, of course, except from consideration 
 the hungry child. He wants only food. But when he 
 is fed and warm and happy, he will still mouth eagerly 
 at anything between his lips, and will continue to do so 
 even though it is hard and tasteless. He shows no 
 disappointment when no milk comes from it, but on the 
 contrary goes over it again and again with lips and 
 tongue. And his repeated experiences that milk flows 
 only from the bottle do not deter him. On the con- 
 trary, long after a baby has shown in other ways that he 
 associates definite experiences with definite objects, he 
 continues to put things into his mouth. He wotdd not 
 do this if all that he wanted from them were food. 
 
 Miss Shinn also observed in her niece a stage when, 
 to some extent, she used the mouth for grasping instead 
 of the hand, putting her head down, like a dog, to get at 
 the object, and protruding her lips. For some time, in 
 getting an object into her mouth from her hand, she 
 pushed her head down toward her hand more than she 
 raised her hand to her mouth. For some time she would 
 mouth over the face and dress of the person holding her, 
 in preference to using her hands. 
 
 Even children four or five years old put things into 
 their mouths to suck, although they know that they are 
 not eatable, and many adults do the same. The habit 
 of chewing gum, where there is no taste after the first 
 few minutes, illustrates this. 
 
Sensation and Perception 153 
 
 In all this, there seem to be traces of the survival of 
 an ancestral stage when man, like other animals, did not 
 use his hands for grasping, but only his mouth. The 
 stage is, of course, rudimentary, and is not distinctly 
 marked ofE from that of hand grasping, but it does seem 
 to be present. 
 
 For lack of a better name, we call the first movements 
 of a child's hands and arms random. Many of them are 
 not coordinated and they seem to serve no Hand 
 
 useful end. The child himself has no control grasping 
 over them. They are due to overflows of nervous energy, 
 which drain off in this way. 
 
 In the first random movements the arms go helplessly 
 here and there, striking against the surrounding objects, 
 against the baby's own body, his face and his eyes, and 
 now and then getting into his mouth, where they are 
 sucked. They are especially likely to get to his mouth, 
 because in the prenatal posture the hands are close to 
 the mouth, and the position is naturally assumed by a 
 baby for some time after birth. The great enjoyment 
 obtained from the thumb or fist, deepehs the connections 
 thus accidentally formed between the hand movement 
 and the sucking movements, so that he soon learns to 
 put his hands to his mouth when he pleases. By the 
 tw;elfth week Mrs. Hall's baby was able to put things 
 into his mouth or near enough to it so that the lips could 
 feel them and draw them in. Even in the forty-third 
 week, Preyer's boy would miss his mouth sometimes 
 when it was open and waiting for food. In first learning 
 these movements, the left arm often moves S5mimetrically 
 with the right. 
 
 Grasping develops slowly through a number of stages 
 as follows : 
 
 I. Reflex clasping. Two hours after birth the fingers 
 
154 The Child 
 
 will close over an object put into them,, and within a 
 few days a loud sound or bright light may cause a con- 
 Reflex vulsive throwing up of both arms. Mrs. Hall 
 clasping states that at first her baby seemed uncon- 
 scious of any object in his hand, but that on the fifty- 
 seventh day the fingers closed over a small pencil case. 
 It seems as if her observation must be defective here, as 
 all other observers agree that the reflex grasping occurs 
 shortly after birth. 
 
 2. Holding with the thumb opposed to the fingers 
 when an object chances to be in the way of the moving 
 Thumb and hand. Mrs. Hall notes that after the 
 fingers seventieth day the thumb lay outside the 
 
 fingers when the hand was closed, while before it had 
 been inside. During the first three months, the thumb 
 becomes opposed to the fingers as in an adult, so that 
 any objects which come into contact with the hand are 
 more firmly held. This fact, combined with the ability 
 already gained to put the hands to the mouth, results 
 in many objects being taken to the mouth, where the 
 variety and pleasure of the new feelings prompt him to 
 repeat the act. 
 
 Thus the thumb and fingers have learned to work 
 together, though awkwardly, and thus connections 
 have been established between arm movements and 
 the pleasures of sucking the hand or the objects held 
 in the hand. But as yet the eye does not direct the 
 hand, and therefore the child does not reach for objects 
 that he sees, and he does not look at objects held by 
 his hand. 
 
 In order to bring out vividly the importance of the 
 sense of touch we cannot forbear the pleasure of quoting 
 at length from Arnold and Beatrice Gesell's book on Th^ 
 Normal Child and Primary Education (pp. 110-113): 
 
Sensation and Perception 155 
 
 "When compared with sight and hearing, touch has 
 been called an unintellectual sense, but such a state- 
 ment is seriously misleading. The most fun- significance 
 damental data for our perception of dis- of touch 
 tance, direction, size, and form come through the feel 
 gate. Only handling and manual activity can put vivid- 
 ness and content into the perceptions of the outside 
 world. The child must begin in very infancy its ac- 
 quaintance with the resistance and construction qualities of 
 paper, sand, cloth, wood, etc. ... If his opportunities 
 be good he will by tools learn the individuality of vari- 
 ous woods, cardboard, leather, wire, fibers, clay, glass, 
 stone, wood, cotton, and by dabbling acquire enough 
 about every art to give him an appreciative apperception 
 for everything that man has made. Our point is that 
 he cannot get this appreciation by mere reading or listen- 
 ing or even observation. His skin and tendons and 
 muscles must be stimulated before he gets the kernel of 
 reality in any physical thing. For this reason much of 
 the object teaching in the schools is not nearly so effec- 
 tive as is often fondly believed. It is only eye deep, 
 and what children need is the opportunity to handle and 
 stroke. A picture is better than a word, a stuffed bird 
 is better than a picture, but nothing can take the place 
 of putting a little live creature into the palms, where 
 fifty thousand touch bulbs will tingle with the flufifiness 
 of the feathers. . . There were touch sensations in 
 the primordial sea where the earliest life began. There 
 were touch sensations in the mud and on the land bil- 
 lions of years before the continents took their present 
 shape and before man appeared upon the face of those 
 continents. Touch is most intimately associated with 
 the fundamental instincts of workmanship, hungeir, sex, 
 curiosity, fighting, and sympathy. Moreover, it is most 
 
iS6 The Child 
 
 vague, diffuse, and general in character. All these 
 reasons combine to make it the most profoundly and 
 massively emotional of all the senses, especially in child- 
 hood. . . Through no other avenue does the child 
 get such a wealth of artistic enio3niient. Who can 
 number the thrills of pleasure every eager child gains by 
 the mere stroking of smooth surfaces and rondures, 
 polished woods and marbles, pebbles, silks, vegetables, 
 fruits, animals? And what of the endless rapturous 
 experiments with the textures, the pliancy, elasticity, and 
 rigidity of all sorts of materials? 
 
 "Then there are the larger dermal joys and adventures 
 in which face and cheek and sometimes the whole body 
 participate — the big, tactual experiences with the ele- 
 ments, fire, frost, cold, wind, mist, sod, beach, and sea. 
 These massy experiences, though less discriminative than 
 the delicate touches of the finger tips, are all the more 
 bucolic and exuberant, for they are profoundly dyed 
 with the interests, joys, and longings of the race; and 
 there is a resurgence of feeling when the child reexperi- 
 ences them. Hence his orgy of enjoyfnent when he is 
 free to wade, wallow, and splash in mud or water. Bare- 
 headedness, barefootedness, — and on swimming and 
 athletic days barebodiedness — are the biological rights 
 of every child. Only by such generous exposure to wind 
 and weather, to earth, water, and sky, can nature make 
 those rich, massive impressions which get to the depth of 
 the soul. Every child needs a rich range of touch ex- 
 periences—of the delicate for the appreciation of things 
 refined, of the grosser for the appreciation of things 
 strong, stately, and sublime. . . . Everything, however 
 huinble, which enriches the active and passive touch 
 experiences of the child, will therefore contribute to 
 higher aesthetic enjoyment." 
 
Sensation and Perception 157 
 
 So far, the development of each sense has been con- 
 sidered separately, as if when the baby saw, he did not 
 also touch or hear or taste, while actually sensation 
 the different senses cooperate almost from and 
 the beginning, although imperfectly. Con- perception 
 nections are established with particular rapidity between 
 certain sensations and certain reactions. Within two or 
 three weeks after birth, for instance, the sight or smell 
 of the milk will call out a definite response from the baby. 
 
 Such a sensation has bound up with it certain other 
 possible experiences that make it more than a mere 
 sight or sound. The sight of the milk now means also 
 to the baby a certain taste and satisfaction. Later on, 
 the sight of his mother's face means being held and 
 petted; the sight of his bath means splashing, and so 
 on through all his various experiences. He is binding 
 together thus the numerous different experiences that 
 he gets from each sense and from different senses, and 
 the result is that each sensation comes to stand for a 
 great many more possible sensations that he can get if 
 he chooses to exert himself to do so. When a sensation 
 has thus acquired meaning, it has become a perception. 
 
 The first sensations that are associated are probably 
 those of the taste and the touch of milk. These very 
 soon become associated with the sight of the Taste and 
 bottle, the connections being established touch 
 even as early as the third week. A child will then push 
 toward the bottle and a little later will cease fretting as 
 soon as preparations for feeding him are begun. 
 
 It is probably the case that various touch sensa- 
 tions are very early combined into one whole, as a 
 baby distinguishes persons by the way they Touch and 
 handle him long before he knows faces. touch 
 But we have no careful observations on this point. 
 
 11 
 
IS8 The Child 
 
 Sully's Extracts record that in the sixth week the 
 baby for the first time turned his head toward a sound 
 Sight and to see what made it. Preyer did not see 
 sound this until the eleventh week, but then it 
 
 became very common and by the sixteenth week was 
 done so quickly that it seemed reflex. This connection 
 never becomes close. Adults are rarely able to locate 
 sounds very accurately. 
 
 We have already noted that between the eighth and 
 twelfth weeks a baby first recdgnizes faces by sight and 
 Sight and begins to seek for objects that are out of 
 sight sight. He has now an immense amount of 
 
 work before him in the way of connecting the various 
 appearances of objects with each other and of tracing 
 similarities between objects, and he proceeds to this 
 work with infinite zest. If we will but consider a mo- 
 ment, we can see how complex a task this really is. The 
 slightest change of position changes greatly the appear- 
 ance of any object. A table is not at all the same 
 thing to the baby on the floor that i-t is when he is in 
 some one's arms, and both are different from the table 
 that he sits up to in his chair. We grown people have 
 learned to allow for these differences; but to the baby 
 mind the visual world must present a series of metamor- 
 phoses far more startling than any that the fairy god-, 
 mother is ever supposed to make. It is, then, small 
 wonder that he believes in fairy tales two or three years 
 later if the wonder created in his little mind by these 
 first miracles leaves any lasting impression. 
 
 Miss Shinn gives such an excellent description of 
 what takes place in establishing these connections be- 
 tween the various appearances of an object that we 
 will take it as typical: "Later the same day (when six 
 months old) she sat in my lap watching with an intent 
 
Sensation and Perception 159 
 
 and puzzled face the back and side of her grandmother's 
 head. Grandma turned and chirruped to her and the 
 little one's jaw dropped and her eyebrows went up in an 
 expression of blank surprise. Presently I began to swing 
 her on my foot, and at every pause in the swinging she 
 would sit gazing at the puzzling head till grandma turned 
 or nodded and chirruped; then she would turn away 
 satisfied and want more swinging. . . At first, amazed 
 to see the coil of silver hair and the curve of cheek turn 
 into grandma's front face, the baby watched for the 
 repetition of the miracle till it came to seem natural, and 
 the two aspects were firmly knit together in her mind." 
 Preyer tells also of how Axel in his seventh month gasped 
 with astonishment when a fan was opened and shut 
 before him. If we can imagine our own feelings if a 
 table should suddenly begin to disappear and reappear, 
 we can faintly understand his surprise. 
 
 When we consider that this same process of connect- 
 ing the various aspects of objects has to be gone through 
 with each object, we have a vastly increased respect for 
 the working powers of the baby's brain ! 
 
 Recognition of visual form grows rapidly, and by the 
 seventh or eighth month we find some babies identi- 
 fjang pictures, or recognizing the real object from its 
 representation, as with Mrs.. Hall's child, who recog- 
 nized a real dog from its likeness to a toy one that stood 
 on the mantelpiece. 
 
 In all this the baby is getting his world of things seen 
 well separated from each other and reunited into distinct 
 wholes,, but this process is much facilitated when he 
 begins to connect sight and touch. 
 
 At first the two series seem to run side by side inde- 
 pendently. The baby's hands grope and fumble with 
 objects and learn to carry them to his mouth, but his 
 
i6o The Child 
 
 eyes do not follow his hands. The connection between the 
 two is established mechanically at first. The eye chances 
 Sight and to catch sight of the hand that is fumbling 
 touch some object and follows its movements as 
 
 it does those of any moving thing. Sometimes the 
 empty hand catches the eye and is carefidly studied. 
 Thus, by degrees, the eye forms the habit of watching the 
 hand as it seizes, and later of directing it. 
 
 The time when active touch and seeing are thus first 
 united is given very differently. Sully puts it as early 
 as the ninth week; Mrs. Hall, the fourteenth; Preyer, 
 the seventeenth; and Miss Shinn, the twenty-first. 
 It seems doubtful whether it could occur as early as 
 the ninth week, for then convergence and accommoda- 
 tion have only just been established, and the distinct 
 seeing of objects would be too new a thing for the eye 
 to control the hand with any success. More observa- 
 tions are needed on this point. 
 
 When the connection is once established, however, 
 a baby is indefatigable in his efforts to reach and han- 
 dle everything about him. Here we stumble upon the 
 question whether a baby reaches for objects more than 
 a few inches beyond his grasp, or whether he has an 
 inherited distance sense, an instinct for distance. Bald- 
 win, in a series of experiments on his child, found that she 
 never grasped at objects more than a foot beyond her 
 reach, and soon learned to correct this error. He argues, 
 therefore, for a rudimentary instinct. Preyer brings 
 forward on the other hand, numerous illustrations of 
 Axel's grasping for objects across the room; and finally 
 cites this incident, which occurred in the ninety-sixth 
 week. Axel was in the garden and his father in a 
 second-story window. Axel held up a piece of paper, 
 asking his father to take it, and held it up to him 
 
Sensation and Perception i6i 
 
 for some time, thinking that he could reach his father's 
 hand. 
 
 The various observers record numberless attempts 
 and failures to grasp, but whether the failure is due to 
 wrong judgment of the distance or simply to lack of 
 control of the hand is not evident from the accounts. 
 As between Baldwin and Preyer, it is impossible to 
 form an opinion until we have more extended data. 
 Observations on one child are not sufficient material 
 for a theory, especially when there is so much dispute, 
 as in this case. 
 
 The ability to direct the hand by the eye increases 
 very rapidly when once begun, until the child of a year 
 has fair control of the larger movements; but how much 
 he lacks in detail is shown by his difficulty in doing many 
 common things. He has to learn to carry a spoon straight 
 to his mouth, to dress himself, to button or lace his 
 shoes, to throw a ball — in short, to do all the acts that 
 with us are so habitual that we are almost unconscious 
 of them. 
 
 In these numberless ways he is getting more and 
 more definite ideas of the qualities of objects, and of 
 their relations to each other in space — that is, ideas of 
 distance. He now has but to continue repeating in 
 detail what he has already gone over in large. 
 
 When we consider perception in its larger aspect as 
 knowledge and observation of the wotld about us, the 
 part played by each of the senses and our genses and 
 own psychical reaction to the various stimuli the mental 
 become of great importance. Sanford points ® 
 out that touch is especially closely connected with the 
 muscles, and that it is the only sense that can be doubled 
 upon itself, as it is when we get double contact. It also 
 stands high in the power to rouse emotion. Hearing 
 
i62 The Child 
 
 also is very closely connected with the muscles, but as a 
 long-range sense it becomes the basis of many indirect 
 perceptions and inferences, especially in language. Seeing, 
 of course, has this characteristic still more developed. 
 Smell and taste, on the other hand, Sanford considers of 
 little importance to civilized man. 
 
 Perception, as we have already seen, is essentially a 
 matter of retaining certain qualities of things and not 
 attending to others, and this shading or emphasizing is 
 what gives differences of meaning with different people 
 who are perceiving the same thing. But behind these 
 differences there is still the sensory experience, and this 
 gives the boundary. Roughly speaking, these limits 
 are a^ follows: Touch gives us the world of matter, force, 
 and energy; active touch especially gives us the sense of 
 efficiency and freedom. Hearing gives us the symbols 
 of thought, and the organic and general sensations the 
 sense of self and the basis of our emotions. Sight gives 
 us especially the larger relations of space and of objects 
 in space, and, in connection with touch, the object as 
 a whole. 
 
 But just as striking as the importance of these senses 
 as the basis of knowledge is the other fact, that they are of 
 relatively little use unless attention and interest direct 
 them. We are amazed to see how little a blind deaf-mute 
 like Helen Keller lacks of normal mental development, 
 but the inference we should properly make from such 
 cases is that children with normal senses are greatly 
 neglected or maltreated educationally and so do not 
 attain nearly their normal development. This appears in 
 various recent educational developments both positively 
 and negatively. 
 
 Negatively, we should consider the various tests on 
 the contents of children's minds. As far back as 1869 
 
Sensation and Perception 163 
 
 the teachers' union of Berlin undertook to find out what 
 children just entering school knew about their environ- 
 ment and how much they differed. They contents of 
 found that many children had never seen children's 
 important squares and monuments near ™"*"^ 
 their homes; only about half knew what a circle was; 
 less than half a sunset, meadow, triangle, forest, 
 herd of sheep, tempest, sunrise; less than one third 
 oak, plow, dew, lake, harvest; only one tenth a river, 
 and so on. Large percentages of children, therefore; 
 lacked ideas which were the basis of all school instruc- 
 tion. In 1879 Lange obtained corresponding results on 
 eight hundred children. In 1880 Hall imdertook a far 
 more extensive investigation on Boston children, which 
 was followed three years later in Kansas City by a similar 
 experiment by Greenwood on children who had been in 
 school a year. At the same time, without knowing Hall's 
 work, Hartmann tested children entering the Annaberg 
 schools for five successive years. In 1893 and 1894 
 Seyffert undertook a similar investigation in Zwickau; 
 in 1898 Olsen tested five thousand six hundred pupils 
 in Varde; and in 1903 and 1904 Engelsperger and Ziegler 
 tested two hundred selected children entering the Munich 
 schools. Finally, in 1909; Libby compared one boy 
 from a good home, orphanage children, and public-school 
 children, white and colored children. He also tested 
 four hundred and eight boys and girls just entering 
 high school. 
 
 The methods of testing and questioning, as well as the 
 lists, varied somewhat from study to study, and we 
 should expect differences in the various reports due 
 solely to environment. Nevertheless, the ignorance of 
 various fundamental ideas is strikingly shown in all these 
 studies, as is evidenced by the following list : 
 
164 
 
 The Child 
 
 Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School 
 Percentage of Children Ignorant 
 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Hall 
 
 Green- 
 wood 
 
 Hart- 
 man n 
 
 Olsen's 
 boys 
 
 Hare (or rabbit) 
 
 76' 
 
 
 
 84 
 72 
 
 37 
 
 Hen 
 
 
 19 
 
 . I 
 
 19 
 
 Frog ■ 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 20.5 
 
 87 
 
 2.7 
 
 76 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 Butterfly 
 
 40 
 
 ■5 
 
 30 
 
 Pine tree 
 
 
 65.6 
 
 78 
 
 37 
 
 Apple tree 
 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 
 Flowers 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 41 
 
 10 
 
 Tempest 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 65 
 
 10.3 
 
 63 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Sunset 
 
 38 
 
 53-5 
 
 195 
 
 88 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 56.5 
 
 16.6 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 Phases of moon 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 46 
 
 
 Days of week 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 .64 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Railway station . 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 Potato field 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Cube 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 Counting 1 to 10 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 Coins 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sickness 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 God 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 37 
 
 Jesus 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 73 
 
 Father's name 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 19 
 
 and business 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 The original lists used are much larger and range over 
 the real fom common religious and moral ideas as well. 
 The lists were made from the words in reading books, 
 the .common objects in the child's environment, -and the 
 ideas necessary for him to have in order to understand 
 the teaching of the first year in school. Certain infer- 
 ences can plainly be drawn from them: 
 
 I. The teacher cannot safely assume knowledge of any 
 one thing on the part of all the pupils, and hence should 
 
Sensation and Perception 165 
 
 start out with pupils just entering school by talking 
 with them a great deal to find out what they do and do 
 not know. Practically, Hartmann revised his lists until 
 he got one which is used in the Annaberg schools twice 
 a year, at the beginning and end, for the first-year chil- 
 dren. He found that the children who did best in these 
 tests were also the best in school work, and that by 
 noting which groups of ideas the child knows best we 
 can tell rather definitely h^s interests and ability. 
 Accordingly, after the tests have been given to the 
 children just entering, the children can be classified so 
 that the teachers can fill up the gaps, and when the 
 tests are given at the end of the year they can be 
 reclassified. The best test-ideas in his opinion are : hare, 
 hen, frog, butterfly, pine tree, flower, tempest, rainbow, 
 moon phases, days of the week, child's home, city hall, 
 railway station, potato field, snow' landscape, cube, 
 counting from i to 10, work in the field, baptism, coins, 
 sickness, God, Jesus, certain localities. 
 
 2. The best preparation for school training is plenty of 
 contact with natural objects, and wise parents will see 
 to it that children have playthings and possessions which 
 give a wide range of sensory qualities. 
 
 Bright, pure colors, and harmonious combinations of 
 them, beautiful forms and sweet sounds, should be 
 provided. For the hand, all sorts of objects, hard and 
 soft, smooth and rough, accompanied by all the other 
 touch qualities, should be supplied, and they should 
 be of such a nature that they can go into . the mouth 
 without injury. A child must have objects to handle, 
 even though we do object to having our nice things 
 spoiled by hot little hands and wet mouths. If a 
 child cannot handle things his knowledge of them is 
 always imperfect, and so he must be provided with 
 
i66 The Child 
 
 things that he can work over to his heart's content. 
 
 Hall found that kindergarten children were distinctly 
 better than those who had not had this training. 
 
 In the hsts given the children, country children were 
 better than city children, but of course other lists might 
 be made in which city children would excel. The funda- 
 mental question, however, is : What ideas are of the most 
 value? What ideas does the child need most in his daily 
 life and in understanding what is going on about him? 
 
 Perhaps, in the light of the above, we ought to say 
 that what he most needs in the beginning are not ideas 
 Kinder- SO much as all sorts of sensory-motor experi- 
 
 garten ences, and that these need a careful setting 
 
 and gradual interpretation by parents .and teachers as 
 the child's interests develop. The kindergarten and 
 the Montessori system both undertake to fill this need 
 after babyhood. The aims and methods of the kinder- 
 garten are so well known that they need not be discussed 
 here. The intuitive genius of Froebel saw many truths 
 that psychology has rediscovered since, and the only 
 regret that one can have is that — as is always the case 
 — some of his followers violate his spirit to follow his 
 letter. Instead of seeking and joyously accepting the 
 rich material and methods now open to them, as Froebel 
 himself would so gladly have done, they limit the children 
 to the narrow range of Froebel's individual environment. 
 
 The Montessori method and apparatus have been so 
 widely advertised that they perhaps need more a sober 
 Montessori second thought than a description. Dr. 
 schools Montessori's training was chiefly with sub- 
 
 normal children, and* she herself expresses her great 
 obligation to Itard and Seguin, two of the best known 
 teachers of defective children. As her schools are con- 
 ducted in Rome under her own direction, the method is 
 
Sensation and Perception 167 
 
 briefly as follows: The parents agree to certain definite 
 conditions before the children are accepted, and children 
 are excluded who are dirty, not amenable to discipline, 
 or whose parents fail to live up to the terms agreed on. 
 The problem of discipline is thus much simpler than that 
 of the public kindergarten or school. Children between 
 three and seven years are accepted, and are kept in the 
 school from eight to nine hours, about two hours being 
 spent in formal work, and the rest in preparing and 
 serving meals, sleep, play, gymnastics, exercises of 
 practical Hfe — such as learning to dress and undress, 
 washing, learning how to walk and sit, handle objects, 
 and so on. In this long day. Dr. Montessori's ideal is 
 that the children shall be left free to express themselves, 
 the teacher's part being chiefly to observe each child 
 carefully and to remove unobtrusively obstacles to this 
 expression. The child takes the initiative instead of the 
 teacher, and so no two childreii may be doing the same 
 thing at the same time, and one child may do only one 
 thing as long as he pleases. It is auto-education instead 
 of education by the teacher. The results in these schools 
 at least have been most happy. Not only are the children 
 alert, happy, spontaneous, but they are graceful, skillful, 
 and far beyond most children of their years in the knowl- 
 edge acquired. Reading and writing are done easily by 
 three- and four-year-olds, and they can take care of 
 themselves and children a little younger in an astonishingly 
 capable way. 
 
 How are such results attained? Judging from the 
 effective advertising in this country, they are due to the 
 Montessori apparatus, and any teacher who 
 chooses to pay the sum asked for this outfit, 
 and to get a smattering of Dr. Montessori's theories in 
 one way or another, can get the same results. Such 
 
i68 The Child 
 
 claims are of course absurd, and it would not be surprising 
 if on account of them there was a reaction against the 
 entire system in this country within a few years. The 
 Montessori "apparatus" consists of a large number 
 of pieces like the following: little squares of fabrics, 
 cotton, woolen, silk, linen, of different weaves; rough and 
 smooth things, metals, and so on. For color there is a 
 set of silks, with various shades of each color. There 
 are also devices for teaching various figures, and insets 
 of metal; sets of sandpaper letters and smooth paper 
 letters. To teach other things there are two pieces of 
 cloth and leather to be buttoned, hooked, laced. Most 
 of the "apparatus," except the insets, any teacher could 
 easily acquire at practically no cost by going through the 
 rag bag, button box, china closet, writing desk, tool 
 box, and carpenter's bench, and from time immemorial 
 mothers have done this very thing. Why now should 
 these be made into "apparatus" and patented under 
 the strictest restrictions? The insets, again, though not 
 in quite this form, have been used a long time in work 
 with defective children. To one who looks over the 
 "apparatus" with a view to seeing how much it leaves 
 ■ out in the way of sensory qualities,' it seems astonishingly 
 meager. Active touch is the best provided for, but it 
 works upon small things entirely, and no provision is 
 made for all the sensations from liquids or from many 
 natural objects — such as dirt and sand, leaves of different 
 kinds, the fur, feathers, and sldn of different kinds of 
 animals, and so on. Of course these are in many cases 
 obtained in the . schools, with the skilled teachers and 
 beautiful surrounding^ of the schools of Rome. But 
 how about the unskilled teacher in the public city school? 
 The ear has little provision made for it. The eye, of 
 course, is used in all the handling of the materials, but 
 
Sensation and Perception 169 
 
 not in the tracing of the insets, and one wonders what 
 is done to train visual observation. The colors provided 
 are of doubtful purity. Altogether, if the system has 
 to depend for its success upon the "apparatus," its future 
 is more than doubtful. 
 
 But its success in fact has been due to the personality 
 and skill of Dr. Montessori herself and her coadjutors, 
 to the freedom and the favorable surroundings, and to the 
 fact that on account of the long hours the children can 
 live nearly their whole waking life, with all its varied 
 activities, under the influence of the teachers. The 
 apparatus is relatively unimportant, and, in fact, in one 
 school where its introduction was delayed for several 
 months the children progressed almost as well as in the 
 other schools. Dr. Montessori should have full credit 
 for emphasizing again the importance of sense-training 
 and of freedom of initiative, and for showing us what can 
 be done by one who appreciates the importance of these 
 two things, but all educators must regret that her theory 
 has become so bound up with her apparatus that to the 
 general public the two terms are almost synonymous. 
 
 Furthermore, it is doubtful, pedagogically, whether 
 normal children should be forced to acquire their sensory 
 experiences in isolation. What is the relative educative 
 value of these two experiences — one in which the child 
 fingers a piece of woolen cloth and looks at the skein of 
 red; and another in which the child plays with a red 
 worsted ball? Objects, things which have uses to the 
 child, which may acquire meaning, about which activities, 
 emotions, ideals may focus, are infinitely more educative 
 than scraps of cloth. And again, if these objects are 
 those which the race has used and is using to satisfy 
 its fundamental needs, surely there will be another edu- 
 cative value added and an emotional response from the 
 
170 The Child 
 
 child which a skein of silk and a row of buttons will 
 never extort. A bright red apple, a doll to dress, a spjash 
 in the tub, a race in the wind, the song of the trees and 
 the birds— these are the child's life, not redness, buttoning, 
 wetness, motion, pitch, and so on. Over-analysis is the 
 bane of school work. The child is a whole child, and 
 naturally deals with wholes. Only gradually do special 
 interests and needs lead to analysis, and rarely do these 
 interests demand the separation of one sensory quality 
 from all others. Most of us deal with objects. The 
 artist may look at objects as only splashes of color, and 
 the musician may hear a melody as only differences of 
 pitch, but such abstractions are far from the average 
 adult, and much farther still from the child. 
 
 To sum up the situation briefly, we must never forget 
 that the senses and perception have developed in the 
 service of living and that they will grow best when they 
 get the most complete exercise in the normal activities of 
 life, if only that life is a full, all-round life. An ideal 
 home and school would complement each other, therefore, 
 the two together covering the whole range of life activities, 
 and the school of a given commimity would differ from 
 those in other commtuiities just as its homes do. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The references of the preceding chapters, especially the studies of 
 individual children, nearly all bear upon the use of the senses and 
 perception. The discussions in the textbooks on psychology give 
 the general theory of perception and apperception. 
 Boyd, Wm. From Locke to Montessori. Holt and Co., 1914, 268 pp. 
 Colvin, S. S., and Meyers. Imagination and Ideational Types 
 
 . . . and various Sense Departments. Psy. Rev., Monog. 
 
 Sup., 1909, Vol. XI, 85-126. 
 Dell, J. A. The Gateways of Knowledge. Cambridge Univ. 
 
 Press, 1912, 171 pp. 
 The Learning of Sensible Material. Jour. Ed. Psy., 1912, 401-6. 
 ■Fisher, Mrs. D. F. C. A Montessori Mother. Holt, 1912, 240 pp. 
 
Sensation and Perception 171 
 
 Foster, W. S. Effect of Practice upon Visualizing. Jour. Ed. Psy., 
 
 Jan. 191 1, 11-21. 
 George, Anne F. First Montessori School in America. McClure's, 
 
 1912, 177-187. 
 Gesell, Arnold L. and Beatrice C. The Normal Child and Primary 
 
 Education. Ginn, 1912, 342 pp. (Very good discussion of 
 
 touch.) 
 Griffin, J. T. Practical Illustrations of the Law of Apperception. 
 
 Ped. Sem., Sept. 1912, 403-415. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Contents of Children's Minds. E. L. Kellogg 
 
 & Co. $0.25. (Also in Aspects of Child 'Life.) 
 Henmon, V. A. C. Relation between the Mode of Presentation and 
 
 Retention. Psy. Rev., 1912, Vol. XIX, 79-95. 
 Holmes, W. H. Montessori Methods. Education. Vol. XXXIII, 
 
 1912, I-IO. 
 
 Houdin, Robert. Memoirs. Phila., 1859. (Interesting as showing 
 
 how he trained his power of observation.) 
 Libby, Walter. Contents of Children's Minds. Ped. Sem., 1910, 
 
 242-272. (Continues Hall's, and reports on later work, as 
 
 well as his own.) 
 Monroe, W. S. Perception of Children. Ped. Sem., 1904, 498-507. 
 Moore, C. C. Treatise on Facts, or Weight and Value of Evidence. 
 
 1908, 2 vols., 1612 pp. (A discussion of the defects in legal 
 
 testimony, the errors in common observation, etc.) 
 Peterson, Fred. Beginnings of Mind in the New Born. Bull. 
 
 of Lying-in Hospital. N. Y., Dec. 1910, 24 pp. (The most 
 
 important article on condition of sense-organs at birth.) 
 Sanford, E. C. Function of the Several Senses in the Mental Life. 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., Jan. 1912, 59-74. 
 Smith, Anna T. Montessori System. Wash. Gov. Print., 1912, 
 
 30 pp. 
 Smith, Theodate L. Montessori System. Harper, 1912, 77 pp. 
 Stevens, Ellen Yale. Guide to the Montessori Method. Stokes, 
 
 1913, 240 pp. 
 
 Tozier, Josephine. Montessori Apparatus. McClure's, 1912, 
 
 289-302. 
 Ward, Florence E. The Montessori Method and the American 
 
 School. Macmillan, 1913, 231 pp. Bibliog. 
 (The German and French studies on testimony {Aussage, 
 
 timoignage), referred to in the chapter on memory, also have 
 
 important bearings on perception.) 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Memory 
 
 1. In getting data from adults, have them write out 
 their earliest memory. In doing so they should state (i) 
 the age at the time of the event; (2) how they know that 
 the memory is true and not obtained merely from some 
 one else's account; (3) what influence it had, if any, 
 upon their later life. 
 
 2. Teachers can get practical suggestions by testing 
 the pupils in any given room to see what subjects taught 
 they remember best, and for how long. In giving such 
 tests the essential thing is that they shall be unexpected, 
 so that the pupils have no chance to prepare for them. 
 
 3. Modifications of the Aussage tests described in the 
 chapter are easily given and suggestive. 
 
 When a baby sees or hears or has any other sensation, 
 however vague it is, there is still some modification of 
 Memory and his brain, some chemical change in the 
 sensation structure of his nerve cells, and this change 
 remains when the sensation has passed away. When two 
 senses are appealed to at once or in close succession, as in 
 seeing the breast and nursing, two or more brain centers 
 are affected, and for some unknown reason fibers of 
 connection are likely to form between them. When 
 this has happened a number of times, so that the fibers 
 are well established, the baby begins to show signs of recog- 
 nition. This happened as early as the twenty-second 
 day with Preyer's boy. 
 
 We also find memory showing itself faintly in another 
 
 172 
 
Memory 173 
 
 way when the baby turns to look for some object that 
 has just moved out of sight. Here there has hardly 
 been time for the retinal activity that was roused by 
 the object itself to die out; the memory has persisted 
 only a short time after the sensation, but still there is 
 the beginning of memory. 
 
 These first traces left by sensations upon the brain 
 are sometimes called organic memories. They are not 
 mental pictures of past events, but they Organic 
 make it possible for a baby to do with memories 
 greater ease the acts which at first were very imperfect. 
 For example, the first step in moving the eyes simulta- 
 neously is thus made possible. 
 
 Organic memory is what makes the earliest percep- 
 tions possible. We have seen already that perception 
 differs from pure sensation, since in it the perception 
 sensation has become bound up with other and organic 
 sensations, or rather with the traces of "^^^"'y 
 other sensations. The binding is done by organic mem- 
 ory. The nerve centers receive a stimulus differ- 
 ently when they have already been modified by previous 
 stimuli. They now contain within themselves the 
 changes caused by previous seeing or hearing, and so are 
 better prepared to receive again the same sight or sound 
 or one like it. It is very much like getting acquainted 
 with a person. The first time we meet him, we are rather 
 formal, and the interchange of thought is not very free; 
 the second time it is freer, and so on. So the brain cell 
 does not respond readily at first, but later is more easily 
 aroused. 
 
 The same thing occurs in forming a habit, except that 
 the process is more complicated. Usually we limit the 
 term "habit" to series of movements, but we also hear 
 the term "habits of thought," and we seem to form habits 
 
174 T he C hild 
 
 of thought much as we do habits of action. Perception — 
 seeing objects as soHds and as distant, as having character- 
 Organic '^^'^^^ tastes and touches and sounds —is simply 
 memory and the most inveterate mental habit formed, and 
 ^**"* is much the same for all people. Other asso- 
 ciations, such as connecting a certain dress or place with 
 a certain person, are also mental habits, but they vary 
 greatly with different persons, and they usually call into 
 play memory images as well as organic memories. 
 
 In the case of habitual movements, we saw that a 
 baby soon learns to put his hands to his mouth; he gets 
 a connection established between the feeling of his arms 
 when they move in a certain way and the pleasure from 
 sucking his thumb. Any movements that occur simulta- 
 neously or in quick succession, if they are repeated often 
 enough, and are pleasurable or aid in reaching some 
 end, will thus become connected and form an habitual 
 series. Then any one movement in the series will call out 
 the next, this the next, and so on. 
 
 Such a habit is an organic meriiory in the baby. He 
 has few or no distinct images, but certain connections 
 have been formed between certain nervous centers. 
 The same is true of the adult, in such cases as learning 
 to ride a wheel. It would be impossible for us to describe 
 'the various positions that we must assume in order 
 to keep our balance, and yet 'oiir nerve cells have learned 
 their lesson so well that we irarely get a tumble. The 
 education of the spinal cord and brain centers to perform 
 long series of movements accurately goes on apace by 
 means of organic memory, that is, by means of the 
 changes made in the nerve cells and their connections, 
 which persist and modify their future action. All this, 
 it must be understood, takes place at least below the 
 level of clear consciousness, and often below the level 
 
Memory 175 
 
 of consciousness itself, in the subconscious processes. 
 
 Habits, then, may be formed in the baby or small 
 child simply by regularity in the conditions about him 
 — regularity in his meals, in the kinds of food given 
 him, in his hours of sleep and waking, in everything 
 in his daily life. The rapid growth of his nerve cells 
 makes education and the acquirement of habits espe- 
 cially easy. 
 
 With the older child and the adult habits are also 
 formed voluntarily as well as involuntarily. We decide 
 that we want to learn carpentry or embroidery, or that 
 we will learn to tell the truth or to acquire some other 
 virtue. Here we must in the first place keep the end 
 that we wish to attain so clearly before us that old asso- 
 ciations cannot besiege us or forgetfulness overtake us. 
 A desire to reach some end is so essential that it is of 
 little use to force a child to do daily a thing that he 
 dislikes. The pain which he constantly connects with 
 the act or the study is so much stronger than the other 
 connections that are established that even after years of 
 discipline the habit falls off within a month or two when 
 external pressure is removed. We all know that a 
 teacher who wakes herself at six o'clock for nine months 
 of the year will sleep until eight through the summer 
 vacation, after only two or three mornings of wakefulness. 
 So a child forced to go through certain mental or bodily 
 movements for which he feels only dislike drops them 
 as soon as restraint is taken away. 
 
 There is one possible exception here when a child 
 has a prejudice toward a study or act, but finds it pleas- 
 lirable when he actually begins it. In such a case a 
 habit may be formed, but not tuiless the original dislike 
 yields to a later pleasure or to a recognition of the value 
 of the habit. When a habit has been formed, the first 
 
176 The Child 
 
 clear attention which was necessary for its performance 
 is no longer required. The nerve centers have learned 
 their lesson. 
 
 Just because a habit of thought or action frees the 
 mind for higher things, it is important that a child 
 Importance should at an early age acquire the largest 
 of good possible number of good habits which he 
 
 habits ^jj ^Q^ need to unlearn later. It is un- 
 
 pardonable for parents so to neglect a child that when 
 he is twelve or fourteen years old he has to spend his 
 time in learning regular habits of eating, habits of cleanli- 
 ness — all those habits which relieve him from constant 
 thought of his bodily wants and make social intercourse 
 easy.. The boy of this age has before him the more 
 important task of forming habits of moral thought and 
 action. He is shaping his ideal of character, and he 
 ought not to have to struggle constantly over these little 
 things which a small child learns so easily. 
 
 It is one of the important tasks of parents therefore 
 to see to it that the little child grows insensibly into 
 good habits of taking care of his body, and into the 
 social habit of considering others equally with himself. 
 
 From another standpoint we can see how deep the 
 traces of our early experiences go when we consider 
 Earliest °^^ earliest recollections. It has always 
 
 recpUec- been of much interest to men to ascertain 
 how far back their memories go, and it is 
 also of interest to teachers and parents to know whether 
 the experiences of infancy and early childhood will be 
 remembered by the adult. 
 
 Sometimes we find a person who claims to remember 
 an event occurring in the first year of life, but few of 
 us can go back of the fourth year. Even then we are 
 likely to confuse true memory with descriptions that 
 
Memory 177 
 
 have been given to us. Do events previous to the fourth 
 year, then, have no effect upon later life? On the con- 
 trary, in those important years many things have been 
 acquired — notably walking and talking — which through 
 constant practice are never forgotten, and it seems 
 probable that these early experiences leave traces upon 
 the growing mind and brain that determine to a large 
 extent the emotional temperament of the child — the 
 likes and dislikes, which either direct him well or must 
 be fought and conquered with much effort later on. The 
 observations of the Freudians on morbid cases are very 
 suggestive here. It is well known that if a little child 
 receive a severe fright, fear is likely to persist far into 
 adult life, although the person forget the occasion that 
 gave rise to the fear. The image is lost, but the organic 
 and emotional effects persist. Dr. G. Stanley Hall tells 
 us that upon visiting the farm where he lived until one 
 and one-half years old, the feeling of familiarity was 
 strong, and at special places a decided emotional tone 
 arose, without any knowledge of what experience was 
 connected with that place. We have other records of 
 adults going to places connected with babyhood or 
 early childhood of which they had never been told and 
 having this same emotional tone and feeUng of familiar- 
 ity. Most interesting is the following anecdote told of 
 Helen Keller. She became deaf and blind when about 
 one and one-half years old. Before that time her father 
 used to sing to her, especially two plantation songs of 
 which she was very fond. One day, when she was a 
 girl of eighteen and had been taught to speak, and was 
 at the piano "feeling the music," those songs were played 
 to her. At first she was bewildered, and painfully 
 excited; then she repeated some of the words of one of 
 the songs. There were evidently connections between 
 
178 The Child 
 
 the touch center and the auditory and word centers, such 
 that these dispositions, left from the first year and a 
 half of life, could be revived. There are other cases also 
 of disease bringing back memories of very early childhood. 
 
 Now, if this be generally true, the first four years of 
 life are as important educationally as any that succeed, 
 or rather, they are more important. Nothing else can 
 be so important as to start a child out in life with good 
 health and with a healthy equipment of emotions and 
 habitual actions. That these cannot be supplied by 
 talk, is evident. Example is the only teacher. Every- 
 thing that is given to the child should be of such a character 
 that the feelings and actions aroused by it can be the 
 basis for the finer emotions and actions that come later. 
 He should live in an atmosphere of trust and confidence, 
 where there is no fretting and worry, much less dislike 
 and hate. The music and stories that are given him should 
 cultivate the positive, serene, fearless, high-minded 
 attitudes. I have seen some little children whose con- 
 fidence and joy were such as to make one believe almost 
 anything possible in this direction. We must be siu-e 
 that our children's restlessness and whining are not simply 
 the reflection of our own worry and cowardice before we 
 can assert the powerlessness of early surroimdings to 
 shape the very little child. 
 
 So far, memory has been considered principally as a 
 matter of the changes in nerve centers, but in its narrower 
 Development meaning memory includes rather the mental 
 of memory side — the revival in consciousness of some 
 images previous experience. How this conscious 
 
 revival of an experience develops is what we wish to trace 
 now. Preyer's observations on this point may be given 
 in full here, as most other observers agree substantially 
 with him. The first memory image is one of taste. 
 
Memory 179 
 
 followed by smell, touch, sight, and hearing, in the 
 order given. On the twenty-second day, his boy asso- 
 ciated the breast with nursing, as was shown by his 
 movements. During the second and third months, the 
 presence of strange faces excited wonder, but the absence 
 of familiar faces was not noticed. The memory for 
 faces was the first visual memory. In the twenty- 
 fourth week, the baby saw his father's image in the 
 mirror and at once turned to look at his father, evidently 
 recognizing the image. In the twenty-sixth week, he 
 repeated this, and compared the face with the image, 
 turning from one to the other several times, but he had 
 as yet Httle distinct memory. In the seventh month, 
 he did not recognize his nurse after an absence of four 
 weeks. Not until the forty-third week did he miss his 
 parents when they were absent, or miss a favorite toy 
 when it was gone. Another observer says that one little 
 girl of ten months recognized her father after four days' 
 absence. Perez also quotes the case of a child seven or 
 eight months old who very much wanted a piece of 
 bread that looked like some favorite cake. When he 
 tasted it, he threw it away angrily, showing that he had 
 an image of the taste of the cake, with which the reality 
 did not agree. 
 
 In the fifty-seventh and fifty-eighth weeks, in looking 
 at the image in the mirror and at a picture of himself, 
 Preyer's boy apparently recognized both and passed 
 his hands to the back of 1 each, much puzzled by the 
 differences he saw. Evidently the memory was becoming 
 more distinct and detailed. In the sixtieth week he 
 recognized his mother's image as different from the 
 reality. 
 
 In the sixty-first week, he burned his finger in the 
 candle, after which he never put it in again, though he 
 
i8o The Child 
 
 would jokingly make movements in that direction. 
 The memory image of the pain was well developed, 
 though memories as a rule were not stable. In the 
 twenty-third month, he recognized the playthings from 
 which he had been parted nearly three months, which 
 proves him well started toward the development of 
 imagination. 
 
 In these first experiences the baby's memory is very 
 vague. As James says, his world is a "big, blooming, 
 Freeing of buzzing confusion," whose parts have to 
 memory be made distinct from each other and shaped 
 
 images j^^^^ distinct, unified objects. One certain 
 
 experience, like being fed, is repeated under many con- 
 ditions — now in light, and ndw in darkness, now in one 
 room and now in another. The two constant things, 
 that his mother is always there and that his hunger is 
 always satisfied, by their constant repetition and great 
 satisfaction beconie impressed upon him, so that he 
 soon recognizes his mother. Take also his recognition 
 of his mother's face. At first certainly it is to him only 
 a light patch against a darker^ background, moving from 
 one place to another. But as he sees more distinctly 
 and is able to follow it with his eyes, he learns that all the 
 different appearances, side and front and back views, 
 belong to his mother's face, and the constant repetition 
 of that face with its accompaniment of increased comfort 
 soon teaches him to recognize it apart from any one place 
 or time. In brief, the memory image becomes freed 
 from memories of any particular time and place by 
 having the one constant experience — the mother's face 
 — in many times and places. This is the usual experience. 
 
 When psychologists use the term "image," they mean 
 any revival of a former experience in a form distinct 
 enough for us to look at it mentally and describe it. The 
 
Memory i8i 
 
 revival of the sound of a piano, of the color of a sunset, 
 of the taste and smell of coffee, of the "feel" of velvet, 
 and of the exertion of running or stretching, are all 
 equally images. If we place these in some definite time 
 when we experienced them, we say the Memory 
 image is a memory image ; while if we combine images 
 
 them in new forms, we approach imagination. Memory 
 images, that is, reproduce our past life in much the same 
 form as we lived it; imagination. makes new combinations. 
 
 Images are evidently derived in the first place, there- 
 fore, from our sense-life; that is, we get our materials 
 of knowledge through the special sense organs — the eye, 
 ear, skin, nose, tongue, and the movements of the muscles. 
 The feelings aroused in this way directly by objects, we 
 call sensations or perceptions of sight, sound, touch, 
 smell, taste and movement; and when, in the absence of 
 the object, the sensation or perception is revived or 
 remembered, we have images of sight, sound, and so on, 
 or, to use the Latin terms, visual, auditory, tactile, 
 olfactory, gustatory, and motor images. 
 
 If you recall your childhood's home, you will prob- 
 ably get good examples of most of these. You can 
 see in your mind's eye the old house, its various rooms 
 and the people in them (visual); you can hear your 
 mother's voice (auditory); you can taste some especial 
 food that she excelled in cooking (gustatory); you can 
 probably smell some characteristic flavor or garden 
 product or perhaps some medicine that you had to 
 take (olfactory); you can feel your mother's kiss or, 
 perhaps, some whipping or spanking you received; and 
 you will probably find that almost all your memories of 
 the place are bound up with your feelings of movement 
 about it, climbing trees and haymow, and so on. 
 
 Which of these classes of images is most common, and 
 
i82 The Child 
 
 whether or not there is any relation between the ideational 
 type and the best memories are important questions for 
 
 teachers. Schuyten, Netschajeff, Lobsien, 
 '^o®* Lay, Colvin, Meyer, and others have 
 
 made observations which give valuable 
 suggestions. Very few of them bear upon little children, 
 especially those who' cannot yet read and write with 
 ease, but there is some evidence to indicate that for such 
 children auditory-verbal images are the most common, 
 and that oral instruction is best for them. Rousselle 
 even advocates that at first children shaE be allowed 
 to study aloud. From eight or nine years on, however, 
 the auditory image decreases relatively to the others, 
 and various spelling tests indicate that it can be omitted 
 in learning to spell without materially adding to the 
 errors, and that the best results are obtained by a 
 combination of visual and motor imagery. NetschajefiE 
 and Lobsien, who used similar methods on children 
 between eight and eighteen years of age, got similar 
 results. Netschajeff (687 children) found that only 
 1 1 per cent of his boys had any one strongly predominant 
 type of imagery; of the mixed type, 32 per cent were 
 visual-motor; 5 per cent motor-acoustic, and 2 per cent 
 visual-acoustic. The other 40 per cent seemed to use 
 various forms with about equal ease. Both he and 
 Lobsien found the greatest relative increase in memory 
 between ten and twelve years. Their experiments, and 
 also those of Colvin and Meyers, seem to prove that 
 from eight years to ten, at least, the predominant type 
 of imagery is visual and concrete. As we go up the 
 grades this is replaced by verbal imagery 'and more 
 abstraction. Motor and auditory imagery are of less 
 importance than has been assumed, and in some cases 
 may be a positive hindrance to learning. 
 
Memory 183 
 
 The educational inferences are fairly evident. The 
 so-called imaginal or ideational types are not as inborn 
 and distinct as we have supposed, but depend largely 
 upon the character of the training. If we consider how 
 far ahead of the other senses sight is in bringing us knowl- 
 edge, it seems inevitable that visual images shall pre- 
 dominate over the others, just as it does that what is 
 first learned through a given sense is best retained in the 
 same image form. There are doubtless some exceptions 
 here in. the case of learning highly abstract demonstra- 
 tions, but not in remembering perceptual experiences. 
 
 More important for remembering than the image type 
 are interest and attention. These may rest either upon 
 an instinctive basis or may be artificially 
 stimulated by the conditions under which the 
 child lives. A child may be highly interested in anything 
 by attaching to it rewards, approbation, punishment, 
 and so on, but here again it is the work of the school to 
 ascertain what natural interests can be made most useful 
 in life, and to develop them, while at the same time ignor- 
 ing or transforming those which are now useless or harmful. 
 
 In 1885 the experiments of Ebbinghaus on memory 
 were published, in which the attempt was made to state 
 exactly the facts of remembering and for- Laws of 
 getting. They have stimulated many exper- forgetting 
 iments both upon memory and upon the learning process, 
 and though- they have been corrected in various ways by 
 later work they should be mentioned on account of 
 their historical interest. We now have a large body of 
 facts obtained both from adults and children on the 
 basis of which We may give this general account of remem- 
 bering: In the case of nonsense material, about three 
 fourths is remembered one hour after learning; and 
 about one half eight hours after. But between eight 
 
184 The Child 
 
 hours and one day there is a rise to about two thirds and 
 from then on a fairly regular forgetting, till on the thirtieth 
 day about one fifth is remembered. There are wide 
 individual variations in forgetting, as we should expect. 
 The difficulty of remembering seems to bear a fairly 
 regular relation to the length of the nonsense series, 
 and does not increase disproportionately more in the 
 longer series, as was at first supposed. 
 
 Sense material, of course, requires less repetition than 
 does nonsense, but the general law of forgetting is the same. 
 Individual differences are greater here, but, in general, 
 the one who learns easily forgets easily, because he gets 
 fewer repetitions. Practice in learning tends to equalize 
 all, and the slow learner may become more rapid by 
 concentrating attention more, while the rapid learner 
 may become more thorough by more repetitions. 
 
 The method of committing to memory must vary more 
 or less with the material to be committed. If it is rela- 
 Method of tively short and easy, the best way is to 
 repetition repeat the whole each time, as this gives all 
 the proper connections. If it is long, however, the 
 middle part is Hkely to be forgotten sooner than the 
 rest, because by the time it is reached attention flags and 
 there is not yet the stimulus of being near the end. In 
 such a case, especially if some parts are more difficult 
 than others, the best way seems to be to divide the 
 material and learn it in parts, but with every now and 
 then a reading of the whole. Again, to secure permanent 
 retention, if the material is not very easy relatively few 
 repetitions on successive days will secure better results 
 than will many repetitions on one day. This seems to be 
 due to the fact that time is essential in order for impres- 
 sions to become set and assimilated. 
 
 This same fact is of importance in another connection. 
 
Memory 185 
 
 in giving an interval of five or ten minutes between 
 recitations, in which attention shall be left entirely free. 
 Some experiments indicate that when this Free 
 is done in school work the different lessons intervals 
 are better remembered than when attention is immedi- 
 ately forced from one subject to another. On this 
 account it is well in the case of individual pupils to 
 have recitation and study periods alternate if possible. 
 
 In general, children fatigue more readily than adults, 
 have less attention, and so can recall less readily and 
 require more repetitions than adults. 
 
 In learning anything, and more especially in learning 
 anything requiring motor functions, such as using a 
 typewriter or telegraphic key, learning goes Learning 
 on rapidly at first and then more slowly, • plateau 
 imtil a level is reached where no improvement is apparent. 
 If practice be kept up, a time comes when there is a 
 sudden rise in skill and speed, followed by the same 
 slowing down and apparent cessation of improvement, 
 and later another rise. These levels or plateaus are due 
 to different causes. Sometimes they indicate that the 
 person is assimilating what has been learned and has no 
 extra energy and attention to use on new things. Some- 
 times, again, they indicate that the limit of skill with the 
 old method has been reached and there will never be 
 more improvement unless new methods are found. Or, 
 again, there may be a let-down of interest and attention, 
 and the subject may run along on old habits. 
 
 In general, in the learning process the more individual 
 and shorter elements are organized into larger and larger 
 wholes, and to do this attention is necessary all the time, 
 but repetition must also be sufficient to fix the various 
 factors. All of the subjects soon find a rhythm of repe- 
 tition which greatly aids them. 
 
i86 
 
 The Child 
 
 Schuyten's tests on school children suggest that memory 
 is better in spring and summer than in fall and winter, 
 and that the most intelligent children have the best 
 memories, though sometimes the stupid ones may excel 
 in mere verbal memory. 
 
 Mr. Jacobs and Mrs. Bryant took up one of the details 
 of Ebbinghaus's work and experimented with school chil- 
 Memoiy dren to ascertain how long a series could be 
 span learned with one repetition; how the span of 
 
 memory (that is, the length of series thus learned) varied 
 with age, and what relation it bore to the pupil's rank in 
 school. They used digits, omitting 7, and letters, omitting 
 w, as more uniform in sound than nonsense syllables. 
 They give the following table for the span of girls. 
 
 No. girls 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 9 
 13 
 
 6.7 
 
 7 
 
 ID 
 19 
 
 6.8 
 6.6 
 
 II 
 36 
 
 7-2 
 
 4.6 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 6.5 
 
 13 
 42 
 
 7-3 
 6.7 
 
 14 
 42 
 
 7-3 
 6.7 
 
 15 
 
 72 
 
 7-7 
 7-4 
 
 16 
 66 
 
 8 
 7-9 
 
 17 
 50 
 
 8 
 7-3 
 
 18 
 30 
 
 8.6 
 8.2 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 No. nos. 
 No. let'rs 
 
 6.6 
 6 
 
 8.6 
 8.9 
 
 This shows that the span increases with age. They 
 found also that the children with the largest spans were 
 usually those whom the teachers classed as their best 
 students, although there were some exceptions. Bolton 
 also foimd that the highest span is a measure of the 
 power of attention; but he puts the limit of the memory 
 span for numbers at six for public-school pupils. The 
 span for girls is also higher than for boys. All observers 
 find that the girls' memory is better than the boys'. 
 
 Kirkpatrick experimented upon pupils from the pri- 
 mary grade through college to find what kind of memory 
 Objects: images were best held. To do this, he first 
 words made three lists, two of ten words each, and 
 
 one of. common objects, avoiding associations as much as 
 possible. One list was reed to the pupils; the words of 
 
Memory 187 
 
 the second were shown one by one upon the board; and 
 the objects named in the third Hst were shown. The 
 pupils were then asked to write out as many words in 
 each list as possible. It was foimd that 6.85 words out 
 of the ten in the list heard were recalled; 6.92 of the ten 
 in the list seen; and 8.28 of the objects seen; that is, the 
 auditory memory was poorest; the visual memory of the 
 word next, and the memory of the object itself the best. 
 
 The memory of the college students was but two 
 words better than that of the primary children. 
 
 They were then given three more lists of words. The 
 first consisted of names of sounds, and the pupils were 
 asked to think of the sound; the second, of names of 
 colors, or lights and shades, and they were asked to 
 think of them; the third, of names of objects, and they 
 were asked to recall the object. They were then asked 
 to write out the lists. The results show that 6.98 names 
 out of the ten in the first list were recalled; 7.91 of the 
 ten in the second; and 7.48 of the ten in the third. That 
 is, the visual images of colors, or lights and shades were 
 slightly better than the auditory images of sounds, or 
 the memories of objects. 
 
 After three days, they were asked to write out what 
 they could recall of the first three lists, with the start- 
 ling result that .91 of list two, and 6.29 of list three 
 were recalled. That is, while the visual memory-average 
 of the words had declined to less than one word, from 
 the original 6.92, the memory-average of the object 
 itself was lessened only by two from that immediately 
 after the experience. There could hardly be a stronger 
 illustration of the superiority of things to words in early 
 education, and of the activity of the senses and its effects 
 upon memory. 
 
 The characteristic age difEerepces and those between 
 
i88 The Child 
 
 boys and girls, as shown by NetschajefE's tests and 
 Lobsien's duplication of them, are as follows: Netschajeff 
 Memory tested 687 boys and girls between nine and 
 and sex eighteen years of age. Twelve objects were 
 
 shown silently for two seconds, and the pupils wrote 
 down as much as they could remember. Then twelve 
 inarticulate noises were made; twelve numbers were 
 sppken; twelve names of visual objects; twelve sound 
 names; twelve suggesting touch, temperature, musculai- 
 sense, teaching, feeUng, and abstract ideas. Lobsien had 
 462 boys and girls nine to fourteen years of age and had 
 only nine in a series. Both agree that memory increases 
 with age, but differ in the placing of it. Lobsien found 
 a marked increase for all forms about the twelfth year 
 in the girls and for number, touch, sound, and feeling 
 names for boys in the tenth year. Netschajefi found, 
 however, that the increase in memory of feeling names 
 does not come until puberty for boys and girls, and 
 about the same time memory of abstract ideas rises 
 also. Both boys and girls remember objects better 
 than names, but girls have better memories of words 
 with feeling connotation and boys of those more abstract. 
 The greatest differences between boys and girls, in 
 NetschajefE's tests, come between eleven and fourteen. 
 The Aussage tests of Stern and his students bring out 
 still other aspects of memory. He showed for one 
 Aussage minute to 47 boys and girls, two to eighteen 
 tests years of age, a brightly colored picture of a 
 
 farmer's living room. First he asked them simply to 
 tell what' they had seen (Bericht), and when he was cer- 
 tain they could remember no more, he questioned them 
 (Verhor), some of the questions being intentionally 
 misleading or suggestive. He found three distinct 
 stages varjdng with the age. With the younger children, 
 
Memory 189 
 
 objects were simply named, often without the use of 
 sentences; with the next older, acts or movements were 
 described chiefly; while with the older the qualities and 
 relations of the persons and things shown were given. 
 That is, the younger children used chiefly nouns; the 
 middle ones, verbs ; and the older, adjectives and preposi- 
 tions. In the spontaneous account (Bericht), on the 
 average 94 per cent of what was given was correct, but 
 only two fifths of what was remembered came sponta- 
 neously, the other three fifths coming from questions. The 
 amount given spontaneously doubles between seven and 
 fourteen years and triples between seven and eighteen. 
 
 With regard to the suggestive questions, the most 
 interesting thing is that between seven and fifteen the 
 ability to withstand suggestion is doubled. In answering 
 non-suggestive questions, age seems to make little' differ- 
 ence as to correctness, and in the spontaneous narrative 
 the pupils graded high in class make the best records. 
 In answering non-suggestive questions, the percentage of 
 error with different experimenters varies from 20 to 27 
 per cent only. Stem believes that this percentage will 
 be found fairly constant for both sexes and'all ages, and 
 that it stands for a general law of memory which may 
 be thus stated: The degree of error in a memory is in a 
 constant relation to its quantity. Various other experi- 
 ments have been made to duplicate conditions in actual 
 life, such as the subjects would be under if they were 
 called upon to testify in court, but these we will omit. 
 
 As we should expect, experiments by Borst and 
 Oppenheim show that the accuracy of the memory 
 can be improved by training, but the im- Training 
 provement is not very great in these par- memory 
 ticular tests and seems to depend on improving attention 
 or methods of observation of the objects. Experiments 
 13 
 
igo The Child 
 
 by Winch indicate that improvement in one form of 
 memory may be followed by improvement in another. 
 Thus, children given practice in learning poetry improved 
 in learning history and geography, and children given 
 practice in memorizing stories improved in inventing 
 stories. These experiments have been questioned, but it 
 is rather difficult to see why such results might not be at- 
 tained in so far as the various processes tested all involve 
 improvement of attention or of methods of observation. 
 
 Taking into consideration interest as well as age, 
 Colegrove found that during the period from one to five, 
 Age and visual, auditory, and motor memories are 
 memory yery prominent. From the fifth to the 
 
 ninth year, the motor memories of girls increase markedly 
 but decrease from ten on; in boys, they increase slowly 
 froni five on, culminating at fifteen. In both cases we 
 trace directly the effect of habits of life. Girls, after the 
 tenth year, usually exercise much less freely than before, 
 while boys after that age constantly increase the amount 
 of exercise. 
 
 From ten to eleven, both boys' and girls' memories 
 for near relatives increase; and from twelve to thirteen, 
 decrease, but increase for all acquaintances, marking 
 the entrance into wider social relationships so charac- 
 teristic of adolescence. Between fourteen and fifteen, 
 the visual and auditory memories of both increase greatly 
 and also memories of places, doubtless marking the 
 beginning of a wider eesthetic sense. 
 
 If the above statements are correct, is it not a mis- 
 take to postpone manual training, sewing, and so on, 
 Educational to the high-school age? Should we not, 
 applications rather, put them at the time when the motor 
 brain regions are so active, as this abundance of memories 
 proves tkem to be? Again, what is to be done with the 
 
Memory 191 
 
 child of the third grade when memory is comparatively 
 poor? We saw before that this is one of the periods of 
 rapid growth. Is it a time when school work should be 
 lightened? That the auditory memories are best in 
 children under fourteen, points to the value of beginning 
 the study of languages early, and any work that demands 
 memorizing and has little reasoning connected with it. 
 With adults, the best way to memorize is to get a focus 
 of interest around which memories can cluster. With 
 the child this plan too should be followed. 
 
 Finally, the widening of memories for friends and 
 aesthetic objects between fourteen and fifteen, points to 
 the . importance of widening the child's experience in 
 both these lines. In all cases, we seem to see the close 
 connection between interests and memory. 
 
 In a former chapter we spoke of the effect of fatigue 
 and health upon memory, showing that in proportion 
 as health was poor or fatigue was great. Conditions 
 memory diminished. Health and freshness of good 
 are, then, two conditions for a good mem- memory 
 ory. On the mental side, to train a child's memory, 
 take up a subject when his memory for that class of 
 things is best and so present it that he shall feel its dose 
 connection with his own life and shall be on the qui vive 
 to get information about it. Knowledge so obtained has 
 many interconnections and holds together well. No 
 other will endure. 
 
 Mothers and teachers not infrequently find certain 
 mental peculiarities in their . children that they do not 
 know the significance of and are in doubt Unusual 
 how to treat. Among these are "colored conditions 
 hearing," and number, word, and time forms. Quite a 
 large proportion of people connect certain colors with 
 certain sounds, or with certain words or letters. The 
 
ig2 The C hi Id- 
 
 high, notes of a violin may seem pale blue; the resonant 
 trumpet tone, blood red, and so on. Each letter of the 
 
 __ alphabet may have its 
 characteristic color, or 
 all the vowels, or only 
 names of persons. It 
 is practically impossible 
 in many cases to find 
 the origin of these va- 
 rious associations, but 
 they may go back to 
 
 up 
 
 VJO 
 
 Diagram 4. Number Form of 
 Mr. Walter Larden, Form- 
 ERLYOF Cheltenham College, 
 England. The Paint Lines 
 are to show the perspective. 
 (Galton.) 
 
 very early memories, 
 or they may be due 
 to unusual congenital 
 connections between 
 the brain centers con- 
 cerned. They do not 
 mark any mental ab- 
 normality, and it is 
 not wise to ridicule a 
 child who has them. 
 
 1^ 
 
 90 
 
 aP 
 
 6° 
 
 60 
 
 Diagram s. An Hereditary Number Form 
 Common to a Brother and Sister. (Galton.) 
 
 To him they are perfectly natural. 
 Number, calendar, and alpTiabet forms are much more 
 
Memory 
 
 ^93 
 
 common. It is estimated that of men one sixth to one 
 fifteenth possess some kind of- form, and of children and 
 women a larger proportion. In all such cases, the num- 
 bers, days, or letters 
 are arranged in a defi- 
 nite form in which the 
 person always sees 
 them. The diagram 
 may be colored or not. 
 Several forms are 
 shown in Diagrams 4 
 to 9. This form is the 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 
 
 9 10 11 
 
 10 
 
 Diagram 6. Number Form or 
 Prof. Schuster, an English 
 Physicist. The Numbers 
 ARE ON « Kind of Horse- 
 shoe LYING ON A Slightly 
 Inclined Plane. (Galton.) 
 
 Diagram 7. A Complex Num- 
 ber Form made up of Dots 
 Running up to 1,000. In 10, 
 etc., the Odd Dot may ap- 
 pear AT Any of the Corners 
 Marked X. (Galton.) 
 
 same for the same per- 
 son from year to year. 
 It seems so necessary 
 to the person that he can hardly imagine how he could 
 do without it. It varies from the simplest arrangement 
 to exceedingly complex ones of definite shapes, in which 
 each number has its place. 
 
 Here, also, the origin is difficult to trace. In some cases 
 
 Diagram 8. An Hereditary Number Form 
 Showing Peculiarities which run through 
 A whole Family. 
 
194 
 
 The Child 
 
 it seems to be hereditary — several successive generations 
 having the same form. In others, its origin is hidden 
 in obscurity. As with the colored hearing, it does not 
 mark any abnormality, and the best policy is to leave it 
 alone. On the other hand, one attempt at least has 
 been made to teach a number form to all children, but 
 the wisdom of this is questionable. 
 
 /\so 
 
 lao aa/K 
 
 19 
 
 / 
 
 
 19 
 
 l^^J^ 
 
 J 
 
 15 
 
 » 
 
 -a 
 
 "Oyy^^j-'^^iy^O 
 
 >-5^ 
 
 Diagram q. Number Form of a Gentleman who learned to tell the Time 
 
 AT a Very Early Age. The Most Prominent Numbers are those found 
 
 IN THE Multiplication Table, especially 12. (Galton.) 
 
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 On the Analysis of the Memory Consciousness. Psy. Rev., 
 Vol. XIII, Sept. 1905, 316-348; Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. XVIII, 
 Oct. 1908, 389-420; Vol. XX, April 1909, 194-218. 
 
 Normal Illusions of Memory. Am. Jour. Psy., 1905, Vol. 
 
 XVI, 389-398. 
 
 Present Status of Memory Investigation. Psy. Bull., 1908, 
 
 Vol. V, 285-293. 
 Lakenan, Mary E. Whole and Part Methods of Memorizing. 
 
 Jour. Ed. Psy., Apr. 1913, 189-198. 
 Libby, W. Experiment in Learning Foreign Language. Ped. Sem., 
 
 1910, 81-96. 
 Lindley, E. H. Some Mental Automatisms. Ped. Sem., Vol. V, 
 
 1897, 41-60. 
 Meumann, E. The Psychology of Learning. Trans, of 3d ed. by 
 
 J. W. Baird. Appleton, 191 3, 393 pp. 
 Vorlesungen. See Index. 
 Meyerhardt, M. V. Economical Learning. Ped. Sem., June 1906, 
 
 VoL XIII, 145-185. 
 Miiller, G. E., and Pilzecker, A. Experimentelle Beiirdge zur Lehre 
 
 von Gedachtnis. Zeit. f. Psy. u. Physiol, d. Sinnesorgane, 
 
 1900, 300 pp. 
 Miiller, G. E., and Schuman, F. Experimentelle Beitrage zur 
 
 Untersuchung des Gedachtnisses. Zeit. f. Psy. u. Physiol. 
 
 d. Sinnesorgane, 1894, Vol. VI, 81-190; 257-339. 
 Netschajeff, A. Uber Memorieren. Reuther, Berlin, 1902, 39 pp. 
 OfEner, M. Das Gedachtnis. Reuther, Berlin, 1909, 238 pp. 
 Ogden, R. M. Memory and the Economy of Learning. Psy. 
 
 Bull., 1904, Vol. I, 177-184. 
 Ordahl, Louise E. Consciousness in Relation to Learning. Am. 
 
 Jour. Psy., 1911, Vol. XXII, 158-213. 
 O'Shea, M. V. Child and Educational Psychology. Psy. Bull., 
 
 March 15, 1909, Vol. VI, No. 3, 73-77. 
 Pillsbury, W. B. Effects of Training on Memory. Ed. Rev., 
 
 1908, Vol. XXXVI, 15-27. 
 Pyle, Wm. H. Retention as Related to Repetition. Jour. Ed. 
 
 Psy., 1911, 311-321- 
 Radestock, Paul. Hahit. Heath, Boston, 1902, 117 pp. 
 Radossawljewitsch, P. R. Das Behalten u. Vergessen bei Kindern u. 
 
ipS The Child 
 
 Erwachsenen nach experimentellen Untersuchungen. Nemnicli, 
 
 Leipzig, 1907, 197 pp. 
 Rowe, Stuart H. Habit Formation. Longmans, 1909, 308 pp. 
 Shaw, J. C. Test of Memory in School Children. Fed. Sem., 
 
 Oct. 1896, Vol. IV, 61-78. 
 Sleight, W. G. Memory and Formal Training. Brit. Jour. Psy., 
 
 191 1, 386-457- 
 Smith, T. L. On Muscular Memory. Am. Jour. Psy., July 1896, 
 
 Vol. VII, 453-490. 
 Smith, W. G. The Place of Repetition in Memory. Psy. Rev., 
 
 1896, Vol. Ill, 21-31. 
 The Relation of Attention to Memory. Mind, 1895, N. S., 
 
 Vol., IV., 47-74- 
 Starch, D. Periods of Work in Learning. Jour. Ei. Psy., 1912, 
 
 209-213. 
 Stern, W., and Clara. Erinnerung, Aussage und Liige in der Ersten 
 
 Kindheit. Barth, Leipzig, 1909, 162 pp. 
 Study of Memory, Class of 1910, Fitchburg Normal, 28 pp. 
 Swift, E. J. Acquisition of Technical Skill in Typewriting. Psy. 
 Bull., 1904, 295-305. 
 Beginning a Language. Houghton, Mifflin, 1906, 411 pp. 
 Psychology and Physiology of Learning. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1903, 200-251. 
 Mind in Making. Scribner's, 1908, 329 pp. 
 Tait, W. D. Effect of Psycho-physical Attitudes on Memory. 
 Am. Jour. Psy., Apr.-May 1913, 10-37. Bibliog. 
 Educational Psychology. Chap. 8, 80-93. 
 Thomdike, E. L. Memory for Paired Associates. Psy. Rev., 1908, 
 Vol. XV, 122-138. 
 The Effect of Practice in the Case of a Purely Intellectual 
 Function. Am. Jour. Psy., 1908, Vol. XIX, 374-384. 
 Thorndike, E. D., and Woodworth, R. S. The Influence of Improve- 
 ment in One Mental Function upon the Efficiency of Other 
 Functions. Psy. Rev., 1901, Vol. VIII, 247-261. 
 Winch, W. H. Immediate Memory in School Children. Brit. 
 Jour. Psy., 1904-5, Vol. I, 127-134; 1906-7, Vol. II, 
 52-57- 
 Transfer of Iniprovement in Memory. Brit. Jour. Psy., 1910- 
 II, 386-405. 
 Woodworth, R. S. The Accuracy of a Voluntary Movement. 
 Psy. Rev., Monog. Sup., Vol. Ill, No. 2, 1-114. 
 
Memory 199 
 
 The Causes of a Voluntary Movement. Studies in Philosophy 
 and Psychology by Former Students of Charles Garman. 
 Boston and N. Y., 411 pp. Chapter 12. 
 
 Number Forms 
 Calkins, M. W. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. V, 269-271. 
 Galton, Francis. Inquiries into Human Faculty. Section on 
 
 Number Forms. Macmillan. $4.00. 
 Hombrook, Adelia R. Pedagogical Value of Number Forms. 
 
 Ed. Rev., May 1893, Vol. V, 467-480. 
 Krohn, Wm. O. Pseudochronesthesia. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. 
 
 V, 20-38. (Historical r^sum^ and bibliography; good.) 
 Patrick, G. T. W. Number Forms. Pop. Sc. Mo., Feb. 1893. 
 Phillips, D. E. Genesis of Number Forms. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 July 1897, Vol. VIII, 506-527. (Good.) 
 For studies in the correctness of testimony both in children and 
 adults, see especially the Beitrdge zur Psychologie der Aussage, 
 edited by Stern, which contains little but this. Stern also has a 
 brief article in English, Am. Jour. Psy., 1910, 270-277, and Whipple 
 one in Psy. Bull., 1909, 153-170. Hugo Miinsterburg's "On the 
 Witness Stand" gives a popular but exaggerated account. Clapar- 
 ede also has a good popular account in The Strand, Sept. 1907. 
 There is little in English. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Imagination 
 
 1. Collect instances in which a child's dream has 
 created a lasting fear. Be sure that the fear did not exist 
 Observa- previous to the dream. Collect instances 
 tions where the dream created pleasure. Are 
 such cases likely to be as common as the other? Why? 
 
 2. Observe in some one child whether or not this 
 order is followed in the growth of imagination : 
 
 (i) Recalling and telling some experience of his own. 
 
 (2) Listening to stories told him. 
 
 (3) Inventing new stories himself. 
 
 3. Collect instances of the personification of inani- 
 mate objects. Did the children believe the object to 
 be alive or not? 
 
 4. If you know of any case of an imaginary plajnuate, 
 describe it fully, noting especially the age of the child 
 when it began; how long it lasted; sex of child and of 
 playmate; whether father or mother had such a playmate. 
 
 5. Collect statistics from school children on the fol- 
 lowing points. Get the age, sex, and grade of each 
 child on his paper. In getting such data, to secure 
 free utterance it is a good plan to tell the children not 
 to put their names on their papers. 
 
 (i) If you could be to-day just what you want to 
 be, what would you choose? Why? 
 
 (2) What do you want to be when you are grown 
 up? Why? 
 Various sensations leave their traces on the baby's 
 
Imagination 201 
 
 brain, and as persons and objects move about him, 
 he learns by degrees to connect their various aspects 
 with each other, that is, he learns to perceive Memory and 
 objects instead of merely receiving sensations, imagination 
 Next, after he perceives objects as wholes, or while he is 
 learning so to perceive them, comes recognition of them, 
 and finally distinct memory images of them and desires 
 for them when they are absent. Thus the baby arrives 
 at a consciousness, though still vague and imperfect, of 
 his past as well as of his present. He is no longer confined 
 to a now, but looks backward to a then. 
 
 As his memory images become more stable, they 
 also become freed from definite time and place associ- 
 ations. His experiences with chairs, tables, father and 
 mother, and so on, have been so numerous that his image 
 of a chair or table is not of his use of it at some one 
 time and place, but of it in an indefinite time and place 
 setting. He may have the definite setting, but he need 
 not. In this way, the memory images become more flexi- 
 ble and subject to his will, and presently we find him mak- 
 ing alterations, picturing himself as doing something this 
 morning that he has not done for a month; making little 
 plans of what he will do after dinner, and in such ways 
 showing his power to manage his images. Then suddenly 
 he becomes conscious of his power, and forthwith launches 
 boldly out into a riotous sea of imaginings. Sometimes, in- 
 deed, he becomes swamped, or he mistakes his buoyant 
 fancies for the dry land of facts, but by degrees he 
 learns to control them, and to see their limitations. 
 
 At first, however, his new combinations are very 
 inconspicuous, and more or less accidental. Perez 
 thinks that they are first formed spontaneously, especially 
 in sleep. Some slight disturbance of the circulation, 
 or change in the brain, may lead to the establishment 
 
202 The Child 
 
 of new connections — connections which cause new, 
 grotesque, or pleasing mental combinations. I think 
 Spontaneous ^® "^^^ safely say that the growth of the 
 new com- association fibers in the first months of 
 binations jj£g ^q^i^j lead to such new combinations, 
 without any effort of will on the child's part. These 
 spontaneous combinations will be found, though to 
 a less degree, as the child grows older, and doubtless 
 give suggestions for the voluntary combinations that 
 the child begins to form between the second and third 
 years. There can be little question that such combina- 
 tions do occur in dreams, and that they seriously affect 
 the waking life of many children. Mr. James gives a 
 dream of his little girl 'as illustrative. She woke with 
 a scream, saying that a dog had bitten her, and for 
 months afterward she had spasms of terror at the sight 
 of a dog, although up to that time she had liked them. 
 I myself have a little friend who awoke, crying that an 
 elephant was in the room and was going to eat her. 
 Her mother said that for weeks she would not go into 
 the room alone, even in the daytime, and even after six 
 months she would not sleep there. If such occurrences 
 are at all common, we can see how easily a child can 
 live in a world wholly different from that known to us, 
 and how, if his images in sleeping life are vivid enough, 
 he may confuse them with reality. There seems to 
 be little that one can do with such an unfortunate dream 
 except as far as possible to make the child realize that it 
 was only a dream and nothing to be afraid of. 
 
 The systematic forming of new combinations by the 
 Systematic child occurs first in listening to stories, but 
 ne™ com- ^^^^ '^°^^ ^°^ come until after he has learned 
 binations to tell little stories of his own Ufe — what 
 he has seen on his walk, what he did at grandma's, and 
 
Imagination 203 
 
 so on. He forms vivid images of these stories, as is 
 shown by his insisting upon the same words and facts 
 in the story every time they are told. 
 
 Only after this does he begin to invent stories of his 
 own, but once started, he carries his story-telling to 
 great lengths. The stories, like all his other fancies, 
 are improbable and inconsistent to us, but not so to 
 him, with his narrow experience. There is nothing 
 incredible to him about the hole in a stone being the 
 abode of fairies or about living in the water with the 
 fish, and so he both accepts and invents fairy tales and 
 myths with equanimity. As his experience widens and 
 he learns more of the world about him, his wild imagin- 
 ings give way to others that are more in agreement 
 with fact, and so less conspicuous. , 
 
 It may be partly true, also, that a child's fancies are 
 so tmbridled because his perceptions are indistinct, 'and 
 thus he can read into them whatever he pleases without 
 seeing any discrepancy with what is before him. In 
 this connection it is worth noticing that the same child 
 who can be so wildly imaginative finds great difficulty 
 in framing a clear image from a description. He has 
 not the power of concentration necessary for this. 
 
 There seems to be at times a real illusion in these fan- 
 cies. The child will lose himself in them for the moment. 
 The fancy is so real and divides from the object itself 
 so gradually that often he cannot say where one ends 
 and the other begins. He always starts with some actual 
 object and proceeds to adorn it with his fancy, usually 
 giving it quahties suggested by its likeness to other things. 
 
 As persons interest children most, they tend to per- 
 sonify all objects. The number of pretty Personifica- 
 and pathetic illustrations of this is infinite. *><"» 
 The stupid letters of the alphabet are made into persons. 
 
204 T he Child 
 
 and the child talks to "dear old W," L is sitting down, and 
 F and 3 are facing each other and talking. 
 
 The most prolonged case of ^uch personification is 
 given by Miss M. C. Whiting. Each niunber up to 12 
 had a distinct personaUty for her, and the various com- 
 binations of them in arithmetic made the subject most 
 fascinating. She began this at the age of eight, and 
 continued it for four years, taking it for granted that 
 other people thought in the same way. The various 
 combinations are made by the numbers acting in various 
 ways, thus: 8 is so angry that she puts thoughtless 5 
 into 13. Here he stays until kind 9 rescues him and 
 helps him into 14. 2 helps 6 and forces him into 12, a 
 kind of prison. 8 finds 6 here, and puts him into 14, 
 which is pleasant but beneath his dignity. 7 is akeady 
 there by the aid of 2, and 8 hurls him into 15, a dungeon. 
 S had already got himself here by the unintended moves of 
 3, but he persuades 4 to pity him and put him into 20, 
 a most desirable station; and so on to 12x12. 
 
 Jean I-ngelow tells us that when she was a little girl 
 she was sure that stones were alive, arid she felt very 
 sorry for them because they always had to stay in one 
 place. When she went walking she would take a little 
 basket, fill it with stones, and leave them at the farthest 
 point of the walk, sure that they were grateful to her 
 for the new view. Another little girl thought that the 
 leaves were alive, and autumn was a mournful time to 
 her because the leaves all had to die. Moving things 
 are likely to be personified, especially if they are noisy. 
 Machinery, engines, and steamers are terrific personalities 
 to the little child. But he also personifies his moving toys, 
 
 , his ball and his hoop. Even a sliding cushion was given 
 life by one small boy. It seems odd to us that children 
 should think of such things as growing, but a goodly 
 
Imagination 205 
 
 nximber of them do. Naturally enough, children attribute 
 solidity to all objects at first, and so we find them trying 
 to pick up the sunbeams. One little girl wants to wash 
 the smoke and get it nice and white; and another wants 
 to see the wind. When the wind was blowing strongly 
 toward a neighboring town, one little child said he would 
 like to go too bec&use there must be so much wind there. 
 
 Along with this personifying of all objects is the ten- 
 dency to look upon them all as made for the use of people 
 or even of the child. One little girl thought that the 
 flowers opened to please her, and that the sun came out to 
 light her. It is very difficult in all such cases to know 
 how far a child is accepting literally the figurative state- 
 ments of other people, and how far he is imagining. 
 
 It is equally hard to draw the line between imagina- 
 tion and reason. Thus, if a child sees a certain object, 
 his fancy at once forms pictures of how the object came 
 to be what it is. For example, one little child met a 
 lame tramp on his walk and at once began to tell his 
 mother that the tramp had been "riding on a big high 
 horse, and the horse had jumped and thrown him off 
 and hurt his leg." Another little fellow "imagination 
 saw the bumblebee industriously buzzing ^^^ reason 
 in the window, and told his mother that it was asking 
 for a lump of sugar. Then he addressed the bimiblebee 
 and told him that the sugar would give him cramps. 
 The transition from fancy to reason is clear in the case of 
 the tramp. The picture of the horse is the child's explana- 
 tion of how it might come about that the tranip was lame. 
 The induction does not seem to be different in nature 
 from the working hypothesis of the scientist. 
 
 It is also often difficult to distinguish between the 
 playfulness of the imagination and lying. A child 
 will sometimes come home and reel off long stories 
 
2o6 The Child 
 
 about what he has been doing and seeing, which have 
 little or no truth in them. This tendency will last for 
 Imagination months at a time. The thing one should look 
 and lying for in such a case is the motive. Does the 
 child intend to deceive you, or is he just playing with 
 images, and asking you to play too? One way to find 
 out is to respond to his story with some pretended doings 
 of your own, confessing at the end that it was only play, 
 and asking him if his story was not also. If in some way 
 like this he is reminded that his ideas are not Uke the facts, 
 he will usually outgrow the tendency. Only the intention 
 to deceive is dangerous, and this we shaU speak of shortly. 
 
 Loneliness, distance, and mystery are great stimu- 
 lants to a child's fancy. Probably most children have 
 Imaginary fictitious characters with whom they play at 
 playmates times, but the imaginary playmate reaches 
 its greatest development in the child who plays alone. 
 It is not uncommon to find that such a child has created 
 for himself an invisible companion who is with him 
 most of the time, and who remains in existence for two 
 or three years. This companion has a name and a 
 definite appearance and is a source of much comfort, 
 as well as, frequently, the alleged reason for much mis- 
 conduct. "Bokman made me do that, mamma," is the 
 reason sometimes given by one little girl that' I know. 
 Or, "Bokman is wearing her blue dress; can't I wear 
 mine?" It is frequently the case that the tendency to 
 create such companions is hereditary. Usually when a 
 child begins school, or gets absorbed in outside things, 
 the companion fades away, but I know of one case in 
 which it has persisted up to middle life. 
 
 The distant world, the world beyond the hills, or at 
 the end of the rainbow, or above the clouds, is the source of 
 many childish wonderings and imaginings. I remember 
 
Imagination 207 
 
 that in that charming story, The Golden Age, there is 
 an account of one picture in a book that was a source 
 of constant questionings by the children. Distance and 
 There was a hill beyond which church spires mystery 
 could be seen, and ships were sailing around a bend of 
 the river into the city. One day in a friend's house they 
 found a book with pictures of the town. What joy was 
 theirs really to see what they had wondered over so long ! 
 
 The degree to which these fancies may be carried, 
 and the amotmt of reality necessary to bolster up the 
 imagination, varies greatly. Sometimes a . 
 
 child may be urged to greater flights by 
 a little make-believe on our parts. For instance, in 
 playing store with a little girl of five I said I wanted 
 some blue ribbon. She answered that they were out 
 of it, but I pointed under a box cover and said, "Why, 
 no; there is some." The box cover was green. "No," 
 she said, "that ribbon is green." I persisted that there 
 was blue ribbon tmder the cover, and took the cover 
 away, pointing to the brown couch beneath, and saying, 
 "See, there is blue ribbon." "No," she said, "that is 
 brown ribbon. Don't you see it is brown?" But 
 presently, as I still persisted,, she accepted my view, 
 pretended there was blue ribbon, and taking it up — a 
 purely imaginary ribbon — brought it to me. The relation 
 of invention to imagination here is most interesting. 
 
 So far we have been discussing what may be called 
 
 fancy. Chance association and personal feeling control 
 
 the mind, and the child is more or less con- 
 Invention 
 scious of the unreality of his mental rovmgs. 
 
 We find a different state of affairs, however, when we 
 
 turn to invention. The account of this will follow 
 
 Baldwin. Let us go back, for the beginning of the 
 
 child's inventions, to his imitations, and study the method 
 
2o8 The Child 
 
 of persistent imitation. In repeating a movement 
 again and again, a child is constantly omitting some 
 movements, putting in others, and so learning new 
 ones. Now, just in proportion as a child gets skill in 
 reproducing the copy that he set out to imitate, his 
 attention can play about the movements he is making 
 and introduce tmtried combinations, which result in 
 something new or advantageous to himself. These 
 changes may be accidental at first, but the sense of mas- 
 tery that they give is a strong incentive to trjdng others, 
 and so there is constant experimenting, modif3dng of 
 old situations and stories, and intense enjoyment of the 
 results. Baldwin gives as illustrative of the process an 
 invention of Helen's. She' began by cop3dng with her 
 blocks a church from her picture book. When she 
 had it partly done, she saw that it could be altered a 
 little and finished as an animal, which she forthwith 
 did. This is typical of the inventive process, and is an 
 important step in the child's development, because it 
 teaches him that he has control over objects^- that he 
 is not limited to the mere imitation, . but can make a 
 new world of his own. From the teacher's standpoint, 
 the close connection between this creation and imi- 
 tation is important to note. The most imitative child, 
 may be the most imaginative. 
 
 When a child has made such an invention, the next thing 
 is to show it to an admiring world, to get social approval, 
 and this also is typical of all minds. If others will not 
 accept his wonderful creation, if they criticize or laugh at 
 it, he is forced to modify his enthusiasm of it — to change it 
 so that it will meet with general approval and use. The 
 possibility of using his invention in his relations with others 
 is thus a child's final test of his creation, and a spur to 
 new efEorts. The desire to have control of the situation, or 
 
Imagination 209 
 
 to escape unpleasant surroundings, doubtless underlies this; 
 Many so-called lies illustrate the same point. Bald- 
 win gives another example- here. Helen was bringing 
 some packages to him from the hall and invention 
 became tired before they were all brought ^^ lying 
 in. She brought them more, and more slowly and finally 
 stopped before him and said, "No more." Now, as she 
 became tired, Baldwin says, the thought of her delight 
 when the task was finished and of the praise she. would 
 receive from her father, became more and more prominent. 
 With this was the consciousness that she would tell her 
 father when she was through. From this consciousness 
 it was a short step to the thought that by telling him 
 at once that there were no more she would be praised and 
 relieved. That is, simply to escape from an tmpleasant 
 situation she invented a situation which would give her 
 the desired results, without any sense of wrongdoing. 
 Many of the first lies of children, where they are not 
 purely imaginative, are of this sort, and should be care- 
 fully dealt with, because they grow into deliberate lying. 
 They usually occiu- like this one, because they are of 
 use to a child in some way. The best way to deal with 
 them must vary according to the disposition of the 
 child. He must in one way or another learn that social 
 disapproval always follows such an act, because if people 
 generally lied, social life could not exist. On the other 
 hand, when he has done any kind of wrong, the treatment 
 of him should be such as to induce repentance instead of 
 fear, so that the "next time he does wrong he will not be 
 tempted to lie to escape punishment. Where there are 
 confidence and wise government, the lie problem will 
 not be so pressing as where there are fear and too great 
 restriction. To prevent lies, then, there should be 
 cultivated most carefully in a child the courage to take 
 
210 T h e C hild 
 
 the consequences of his acts, and the confidence that he 
 will always be justly treated and understood. 
 
 Brittain made a study of the imagination of nineteen 
 toys and twenty-one girls between thirteen and twenty 
 Sex dif- years of age. His study ran over six months, 
 
 ferences in and involved a wide range of questions and 
 adolescents observations, such as the favorite school 
 subject, the character of their daydreams and of the 
 poetry and stories written by them, the effect of natural 
 phenomena, music, and art upon them, their favorite 
 books and poems, the character of the story titles sug- 
 gested by them, and the stories written by them under 
 different conditions. 
 
 The points which stand out in his results are these: 
 The boys specialize in their interests more than the girls 
 do, and offer both the best and the worst cases of con- 
 structive imagination. Their daydreams are rarely of the 
 past, and hunting, fishing, and work are the predominant 
 subjects in them. About half of both boys and girls still 
 like fairy stories. In the other tests it appears that 
 the boys' interests are predominantly active, embracing 
 such subjects as hunting, fishing, seafaring, and war, 
 and they have a strong sense of practical hirnior. The 
 girls' interests center largely about the emotions of pity 
 and fear, their moral and social interests are stronger, 
 their motor interests of a less strenuous sort, their sense 
 of humor as great but more refined and fanciful, their 
 leaning toward the mysterious stronger. Lobsien makes 
 similar statements in his Kind und Kunst. 
 
 Finally we come to the most practical use of imagination 
 that any of us can make — the planning of a career. 
 Nearly eight thousand children have been asked what 
 they would like to do when they are grown up, or what 
 person they would like most to resemble, and what part 
 
Imagination 
 
 211 
 
 they would like to take in the life about them. The 
 close connection between imagination and imitation is 
 seen here. The occupations are necessarily j^eals 
 chosen from the lives that the children hopes,' and 
 know, and out of the whole Ust suggested ambitions 
 the boys mention two thirds to three quarters of the 
 entire number. As one girl puts it, "There are not 
 many things for a girl to be." 
 
 The following table shows the occupations mentioned 
 most frequently. Where two figures are given, they 
 show the variation between different reports; where 
 but one, agreement or but one report.^ 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Girls 
 
 Teacher , 
 
 Dressmaker , 
 
 Milliner 
 
 Music teacher 
 
 Musician 
 
 Artist 
 
 Housekeeper 
 
 Nurse 
 
 Servant 
 
 Wife and mother 
 
 Missionary 
 
 Factory hand 
 
 Bookkeeper 
 
 Typewriter 
 
 Clerk or stenographer . . '. 
 
 Trades (Taylor's estimate, i ,490 boys) — 
 
 Engineerr 
 
 Carpenter 
 
 Blacksmith 
 
 Machinist 
 
 Merchant, business man or storekeeper. . 
 
 Farmer 
 
 Minister , 
 
 Doctor 
 
 Lawyer 
 
 Sailor 
 
 Railroad man 
 
 1 The table is based on the figures of Taylor and Monroe, with 
 some data from Chandler and Darrah. . 
 
212 
 
 The Child 
 
 This table represents the average for all ages, but 
 we fihd certain changes in choice between seven and 
 fifteen years of age that should be noticed. Thus, 
 the choice of teaching varies frorh 41 per cent at seven 
 years and 58 per cent at nine years to 20 per cent at 
 eleven years. Among girls, milliner and dressmaker 
 choices outnumber those of teaching at thirteen and 
 fourteen years and only then, pointing to an increased 
 interest in dress. 
 
 With boys, trades seem to be the most popular between 
 seven and nine and clerkships between ten and twelve. 
 The choice of a business career appears at eight, that 
 of a sailor's life at nine, and both increase slowly, but 
 steadily. 
 
 These variations in the choice of profession at different 
 ages are shown in more detail in Mr. Jegi's table of two 
 thousarid eight hundred poor German children. The 
 table is given in per cents. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Years 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Total no. 
 choosing 
 father's 
 
 profession 
 
 Carpenter. . 
 Merchant . . 
 Bookkeeper' 
 
 Parmer 
 
 Engineer . . . 
 Machinist. . 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Fireman 
 
 Sailor 
 
 Officer 
 
 Soldier 
 
 21% 
 19 
 
 
 13 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 9 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 ID 
 
 26% 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 6 
 8 
 7 
 9 
 10 
 
 22% 
 
 16 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 ' 8 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 18 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 22% 
 13 
 15 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 17% 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 20 
 
 7 
 13 
 
 4 
 12 
 
 5 
 8 
 
 10% 
 12 
 
 15 
 10 
 10 
 18 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 6% 
 15 
 23 
 18 
 
 ID 
 
 23 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 67 
 
 3 
 <. 14 
 
 14 
 4 
 
 17 
 6 
 I 
 2 
 
 
Imaginatio't 
 
 213 
 
 
 
 
 3lRLS 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 Years 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 22% 
 , 91 
 91 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Clerk 
 
 17% 
 88 
 27 
 56 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 24% 
 64 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 '\ 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 19% 
 63 
 57 
 32 
 12 
 10 
 12 
 8 
 
 25% 
 
 77 
 
 48 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 ID 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 35% 
 
 33 
 
 63 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 16% 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 II 
 
 9 
 22 
 II 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Dressmaker 
 
 Housekeeper .... 
 Music teacher. . . 
 
 Milliner 
 
 Bookkeeper 
 
 Typewriter 
 
 The reasons for choice 
 
 may 
 
 be given as follows: 
 
 Reasons 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Like it 
 
 18% 
 
 25% 
 
 
 Fitness for work 
 
 
 24 
 4 
 5 
 I 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 6 
 
 Money 
 
 Easy 
 
 Philanthropy 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Parents' or relations' occupation pleasant 
 Demand for this work 
 
 Pleasant 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 Opportunity for travel 
 
 As Mr. Monroe gives the table it is: 
 
 Reasons 
 
 ■Like it . 
 
 Money 
 
 Easy 
 
 Philanthropy 
 
 Parents' or relations' occupation pleasant 
 Miscellaneous or no answer 
 
 Girls 
 
 44% 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Both tables agree in emphasizing the importance of 
 the child's liking and his desire to earn money in deciding 
 his choice. Indeed, the desire to earn money is so prom- 
 inent that we cannot but believe that our mercenary 
 age is influencing our children far too much. It seems 
 dreadful that as many children, not adults, but children. 
 
214 T he C hi Id 
 
 should feel the need of earning money, as feel free to 
 follow their own liking. Indeed, the most marked feature 
 The money of all those observations is that so few of the 
 motive children go beyond the range of the common- 
 
 place in their choice of a Hfe work. The shades of the 
 prison-house have already closed about them. They 
 do not feel free and conscious that the world is theirs 
 for the choosing. Most of them look forward to a life of 
 hard work — household drudgery or ditch digging. Are 
 they not loaded with the burdens of adult life too soon? 
 
 Money is the strongest motive for choice at every 
 age from seven up to fourteen, when the adolescent 
 asserts himself and chooses a profession because h3 
 likes it, or because his father or uncle is so and so. 
 
 Mr. Jegi's figures of the German children, however, 
 show that most of them, while choosing a humble profes- 
 sion, choose it because they like it, and that the money 
 motive decreases instead of increasing with age. 
 
 The desire to earn a Uving appears at the age of seven, 
 and this motive, growing in definiteness and determining 
 Other the occupation, such as teaching, because it 
 
 motives gives good pay, increases until it makes 
 
 25 per cent of the choices at the age of twelve. 
 
 There is also a growing appreciation of the disagree- 
 able side of all work, and of the demand for each sort. 
 
 Altruistic motives are not prominent until the eleventh 
 year, when 10 per cent of the choices are determined 
 by the desire to help support the family. At twelve, 
 plans to help the poor, to convert the heathen, and like 
 reasons, appear, and rise to their highest point at foirrteen. 
 
 In observations upon four hundred and fifty chil- 
 dren from kindergarten through eighth grade. Misses 
 Sheldon and Hamburgher found a marked difference 
 between the character of the wish for the present. 
 
Imagination 215 
 
 and for the future when they were grown up. Contrary 
 to what we should expect, 16 per cent chose the improb- 
 able for the present but only one-eightieth present and 
 ' of one per cent chose it for the future. The future 
 contrast is very funny in some cases, •^^^''^s 
 Thus, one child, if she could have her wish, would be a 
 rose in a garden to-day; but when grown, a teacher; 
 another would be a bird now, but a dressmaker when 
 grown; one boy of ten would be (of all things!) an angel 
 now, but a doctor by-and-by. 
 
 It was also quite noticeable that when asked what 
 they would choose for themselves and for another, they 
 chose the more probable thing for self and let their 
 fancy free on the other — bedroom slippers for self, and 
 a diamond ring for the mother. Or is it possible that to 
 the child the two things are on the same plane of values? 
 
 Why should a child choose the improbable for to-day, 
 and become so matter-of-fact over the future? Is it 
 because the futility of to-day's choice appeals to him so 
 that he lets his fancy roam? It would be worth while 
 to get returns from more children to see whether or not 
 this difference is constant, and whether it is more 
 marked with the older children than with the younger. 
 
 The character of the hopes which control childish acts 
 is seen from another standpoint in an inquiry into chil- 
 dren's motives for planting seeds. Among Esthetic and 
 the boys, materialistic purposes increased material 
 from 56 per cent at eight to 75 per cent at ' ®^^ 
 fourteen, and in the girls from 47 per cent at eight to 57 
 per cent at fourteen. Between eight and fourteen, the 
 aesthetic idea decreased among the boys from 50 per cent 
 to 28 per cent and among the girls from 54 per cent to 
 44 per cent. Altruistic motives fluctuate in the boys, 
 from 10 per cent at eight and 25 per cent at twelve, to 
 
2l6 
 
 The Child 
 
 I s per cent at fourteen. In the girls, on the other hand, 
 they increase steadily, from i8 per cent at eight to 60 
 per cent at fourteen. 
 
 Considering the ideal person whom the child would 
 be, we find tTiat with little children his traits are bor- 
 The child's rowed chiefly from father, mother, or friend, 
 ideal ^nd very seldom from literature or history; 
 
 while with sixteen-year-old boys and girls historical 
 characters lead, followed by those from literature, and 
 a very few from among friends or parents. Washington 
 and Lincoln are the heroes of both boys and girls, and 
 the girls' ideals as a rule emphasize qualities essentially 
 masculine. 
 
 The table below shows the most common ideal attri- 
 butes and their influence at different ages, in per cents. 
 
 Goodness 
 
 Goodness to self or class 
 
 Truth and honesty 
 
 Appearance 
 
 Striking quality 
 
 Feminine accomplishments 
 
 Intellectual power 
 
 Bravery and adventurous qualities. 
 
 Discoverer or inventor 
 
 Patriotism 
 
 Leadership 
 
 Wealth 
 
 7 YEARS 
 
 12 YEARS 
 
 25% 
 
 23% 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 22% 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 ,0 
 o 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 O 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 The studies by Chambers, Goddard, Hill, and Brandell, 
 who asked Barnes's question of American, German, and 
 Swedish children, bring out in a striking way both the 
 similarities and differences in the child mind. The 
 question asked was: What person of those whom you 
 have seen, thought of, heard of, or read about would you 
 most like to resemble, and why? 
 
 Among the German and Swedish nine-year-old children 
 parents were most commonly chosen, by 40 per cent of 
 
Imagination 217 
 
 the Swedes and 26 per cent of the Germans, but by- 
 only 17 per cent of the Americans. This percentage 
 steadily decreases with age. In all the studies few chil- 
 dren choose the teacher, and a larger percentage of girls 
 than of boys choose acquaintances. From parents and 
 acquaintances there is a transition to historical and public 
 characters in both boys and girls, the Swedish and Ameri- 
 can children leading in the percentage chosen and in the 
 variety of characters, while the German children from the 
 Volksschule have the narrowest range and the smallest 
 number of choices. Contemporary public characters 
 increase in number with the age of the children. In 
 America the most frequent choice of an historical or 
 pubHc character is George Washington; in Sweden, 
 Gustayus Adolphus; in Germany, Emperor- William. 
 The girls choose more characters from fiction and religion 
 than the' boys do, and more from the opposite sex, though 
 this is less true among the German -children than the 
 others. The American children average about 5 per 
 cent and the Swedish 6 per cent in choice ofi Biblical 
 characters, whereas the German, English, andl Scotch 
 children studied range from 7 to 18 per cent. This^, it 
 is supposed, is due to the religious instruction in the 
 schools, and Hill remarks that perhaps if this same ques- 
 tion were asked of American children in Sunday school 
 a much larger percentage of Biblical characters would 
 be chosen. 
 
 The reasons for choosing the given character differ 
 considerably with nationality and sex. The most com- 
 mon reason is that the ideal person is good and kind, 
 but this diminishes with age. Material possessions 
 apparently attract less than i per cent of the Swedish 
 children; 2 to 7 per cent of the American; 14 per cent of 
 the German boys and 5 per cent of the German girls; 
 
2i8 The Child 
 
 lo per cent of the London boys and 14 per cent of the 
 London girls. Again, only 2 and i per cent of Swedish 
 boys and girls long for social position, honor, and fame, 
 as against an average of about i^ per cent of American 
 and 20 per cent of London children. But 27 per cent of 
 Swedish boys and 33 per cent of the girls mention intellec- 
 tual and artistic qualities, 2 per cent of the German, 6 per 
 cent of the London and less than 5 per cent of the Amer- 
 ican. In all studies, these increase with age, and physical 
 characteristics are Httle referred to at any age. The per- 
 centage of girls is larger than that of boys. They also 
 choose moral qualities more frequently, while the boys 
 choose frequently social, military, and political qualities. 
 
 Adler emphasizes strongly the fact that the attributes 
 desired by any child or adult are those seen in the person 
 who is known to be most powerful, and that in the 
 child's life this person is usually the father. Again, if 
 the child feels himself weak in any special way, he will 
 make a special effort to assume or acquire the lacking 
 trait or possession, and thus he becomes tense, adapt- 
 able, sensitive, and may become nervous or neurotic, 
 capable, or even talented in directions in which he is by 
 nature weak. Whether he fails or succeeds depends 
 upon many incalculable factors, but it seems necessary 
 to assume, as Adler apparently does not, that the defect 
 cannot be too serious. A person with sensitive eyes or 
 ears, for instance, might become a painter or a musician, 
 but a deaf child or blind child cannot. Adler does not 
 seem to allow sufficiently for the normal person with 
 talent or genius, but almost leaves us to infer that unless 
 there is a feeling of inferiority there will be no striving 
 and no attainment. While this includes many cases it 
 does not cover all. 
 
 The more general question of what children would 
 
Imagination 219 
 
 choose to have for self and others, brought this result:' 
 
 Choice 
 
 Concrete things . 
 
 Knowledge 
 
 Health 
 
 Companionship . 
 
 Happiness 
 
 Virtue 
 
 Others 
 
 70i% 
 
 2 
 
 3i 
 31 
 4i 
 
 2| 
 
 With age there was a slight increase in the choice of 
 abstract qualities. 
 
 Now is it not a pity that children and young people 
 should be on the whole so prosy and confined to real 
 life as these children are? We hear a great ^se and 
 deal about the abuse of imagination, the abuse of 
 danger of daydreams and castles in Spain, "^^Sina on 
 and the moral obliquity involved in presenting fairy 
 tales and myths to children. There is, of course, a real 
 danger here, lest in playing with ideas a child forget 
 realities, but in view of this collection of ideals bor- 
 rowed so directly from the everyday life of thousands 
 of children, the danger of our becoming a nation of 
 dreamers does not seem to be nearly as imminent as 
 that of our becoming a nation of money lovers and 
 materialists, satisfied with present conditions. Will 
 children with such ideals ever become creators? Will 
 they turn out to be artists, poets, inventors, or even 
 signal successes in the conduct of any large enterprise? 
 
 Instead of abusing the imagination by exercising it 
 
 too much on useless things, we are abusing it by not 
 
 employing it to raise and elevate our lives from year 
 
 to year. There is no stronger power for good than a 
 
 1 Misses Mary L. Sheldon and Rae Hamburgher's unpublished 
 datp, from four hundred and fifty children in the Chicago schools. 
 The children were all from the "poorer districts." 
 
220 The Child 
 
 vivid and noble ideal. It is 'the air and water for the 
 beautiful character that grows from the soil of prosaic 
 surroundings. Even putting the question on practical 
 grounds, no business can be successfully conducted 
 unless the man at the head can imagine clearly the 
 consequences of this or that move. He must be able 
 to picture how his customers will like this new fabric; 
 how he can best introduce it, and so on. Imagination, in 
 short, is the pattern of the web of life. It is the shaping 
 force without which the universe would be a chaos. We 
 should say, then, that abuse of the imagination is possible 
 only when images do not finally turn back into our life 
 and change it in some way. With this one limitation, 
 we cannot encourage the free use. of images too much. 
 
 We have already seen that imagination is based upon 
 memory images. In proportion as those are clear and 
 Training of distinct, will the material of imagination be 
 imagination g^sy to manipiilate. There is, however, no 
 reason for using this rriaterial and so setting imagination 
 to work, unless a child's curiosity is roused by something 
 that he does not understand. When he asks himself a 
 question and sets about finding the answer, imagination 
 begins to work, and it may end in an invention like the 
 telephone, a theory like the nebular hypothesis, or a 
 picture like the Sistine Madonna. The necessary thing 
 in all cases is the arousing of a keen curiosity or interest 
 which is permanent enough to keep the questioner at it 
 until he has an answer. To cultivate the imagination, 
 therefore, cultivate far-reaching enthusiasms and interests. 
 
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 Imagination 
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 Alexander, H. B. Observations on Visual Imagery. Psy. Rev., 
 1904, Vol. XI, 319-338. 
 
Imagination 221 
 
 Baird, J. W. Memory and Imagination (Summary). Psy. Bull., 
 
 191 1, 243-253. 
 Baldwin, J. M. (ed.). Bibliography on Imagination. See Did. of 
 Phil, and Psychol., Vol. Ill, 1067-1069. Maomillan, N. Y., 
 1906. 
 Barnes, Earl. Children's Ideals. N. W. Mo., Oct. 1898, 91-93; 
 
 Ped. Sem., 1900, Vol. VII, 3-12. 
 Bentley, I. M. The Memory Image and its Qualitative Fidelity 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., October 1899, Vol. XI, 1-48. 
 Binet, Alfred. Mental Imagery. Fori. jf?e»., 1892, Vol. LVIII, 95. 
 Blow, S. E. Symbolic Education. Appleton, N. Y., 1895, 251 pp. 
 Bolton, T. L. A Genetic Study of Make-Believe. Jour, of Phil., 
 
 Psy. and Sci. Meth., 1908, Vol. V, 281-287. 
 Book, W. P., Psychology of Skill. U. of Montana Studies, 1908, 
 
 188 pp. 
 Brittain, H. L. A Study in Imagination. Ped. Sem., 1907, Vol 
 
 XIV, 137-207. 
 Burnham, W. H. Individual Differences in the Imagination of 
 
 Children. Ped. Sem., 1893, Vol. II, 204-225. 
 Carter, M. H. The Kindergarten Child after the Kindergarten. 
 
 Atlantic Mo., 1899, Vol. LXXXIII, 358-366. 
 Chalmers, L. H. Studies in Imagination. Ped. Sem., 1900, Vol. 
 
 VII, 111-123. 
 Chandler, TS.. A. Children's Purposes. C. S. M., 1897-98, 136-139. 
 Clapp, E. R. Dependence upon the Imagination of the Subject- 
 Object Distinction. Jour, of Phil., Psy. and Sci. Meth., 1909, 
 
 Vol. VI, 455-460. 
 Colvin, S. S. Child's World of Imagination. Ele. Sch. Teach., 
 
 Vol. VI, 1906, 327-342. 
 Colvin, S. S., and Meyer, I. F. Imaginative Elements in the 
 
 Written Work of School Children. Ped. Sem., 1906, Vol. 
 
 XIII, 84-93. 
 Development of Imagination. Psy. Rev., Monog. Sup., 1909, 
 
 No. 44, 85-126. 
 Compayr^, G. Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. 
 
 Chapter on Imagination. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 Darrah, E. M. Study of Children's Ideals. Pop. Sc. Mo., 1898, 
 
 88-98, Vol. LIII. 
 Davidson, John. Educational Meaning and Function of Myth. 
 
 Paid., 1907, 98-115. 
 
 15 
 
222 The Child 
 
 Davies, E. Training of the Imagination. Contemp. Rev., 1869, 
 
 Vol. XII, 25-37; LitteU's Liv. Age, 1869, Vol. CIII, 120-138. 
 Dearborn, J. V. A Study of Imaginations. ' Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1898, Vol. IX, 183-190. 
 Dugas, L. V Imagination. Doin, Paris, 1903, 350 pp. 
 French, F. C. Mental Imagery of Students. Psy. Rev., 1902, 
 
 Vol. IX, 40-56. 
 Galton, Francis. Inquiry into Human Faculties. Section on 
 
 Images. Macmillan. $4.00. 
 Gilbertson, G. N. Swedish Study in Children's Ideals. Ped. 
 
 Sem., Mar. 1913, 100-106. 
 Goddard, H. H. Ideals of a Group of German Children. Ped. 
 
 Sem., 1906, 208-220. 
 Hall, G. S. Children's Lies. Ped. Sem., June 1891, Vol. I, 211-218. 
 Herts, A. M. The Children's Educational Theatre. Harper, N. Y., 
 
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 Hill, David S. Children's Ideals. Ped. Sem., 1911,219-231. 
 Hursh, S. B. Children's Hopes. C. 5. M., 1895-6, 256-259. 
 Jastrow, J. Eye Mindedness and Ear Mindedness. Pop. Sc. 
 
 Mo., May to Oct. 1888, Vol. XXXIII, 597-6o8. 
 Jegi, J. I. Children's Ambitions. Trans. III. Soc. -C. S., 1899, 
 
 121-144. 
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 May 1898, Vol. II, 59 pp. 
 Lewis, H.K. The Child: His Spiritual Nature. 38-42. (Inventions.) 
 
 Macmillan, N. Y. $2.00. 
 Libhy, W. Imagination of Adolescence. Am. Jour. Psy., 1908, 
 
 Vol. XIX, 249-252. 
 McMillan, Margaret. Education through Imagination. London, 
 
 1905, 196 pp. 
 Meakin, Frederick. Mutual Inhibition of Memory Images. Psy. 
 
 Rev., Monog. Sup., No. 17, Jan. 1903, Vol. IV, 235-275. 
 Meumann, E. Vorlesungen. Englemann, Leipzig, 191 1. 2d ed. 
 
 Vol. I, 518-540. 
 Monroe, W. S. Vocational Interests. Education, Vol. XVIII, 
 
 259-264. 
 Moore, C. S. Control of Memory Image. Psy. Rev., Monog. 
 
 Sup., 1903, Vol. IV, 277-306. 
 Partridge, Geo. E. Reverie. Ped. Sem., 1898, Vol. V, 444-474. 
 Perky, C. W. Experimental Study of Imagination. Am. Jour. 
 
 Psy., 1910, 21, 422-452. 
 
Imagination 223 
 
 Price, Nancy. Behind the Night Light. Murray, Lond., 1912, 
 
 50 pp. 
 Queyrat, F. Les jeux des enfants. Alcan, Paris, 1905, 161 pp. 
 V imagination et ses varietes chez I'enfant. Alcan, Paris, 
 
 1893, 162 pp. 
 Ribot, T. Essay on Creative Imagination. Open Court Pub. Co., 
 
 1906, 370 pp. 
 Richmond, Mary E. Early Training of Imagination. Child Life, 
 
 1904, 193-198. 
 Royce, J. The Psychology of Invention. Psy. Rev., 1898, Vol. V, 
 
 1 13-144. 
 Secor, N. B. Visual Reading. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. XI, 225-236. 
 Slaughter, J. W. Behavior of Mental Images. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1902, 526-549. 
 Smith, T. L. Psychology of Day Dreams. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 Oct. 1904, Vol. XV, 465-488. 
 Sully, James. Studies 0/ Childhood. Chapter on Imagination. 
 
 Appleton, N. Y. $2.50. 
 Talbot, E. B. An Attempt to Train the Visual Memory. Am. 
 
 Jour. Psy., April 1897, Vol. VIII, 414-417. 
 Taylor, J. P. Preliminary Study of Children's Hopes. Annual 
 
 Kept, of Supt. of Ed. of N. Y., 1895-6, 992-1012. 
 Practical Aspects of Interest. Fed. Sem., Vol. V, 1897-8, 
 
 497-511- 
 Thurber, C. H. What Children Want to Do when they are Men 
 
 and Women. Proc. N. E. A., 1896, 882-887. (Summary 
 
 of Taylor.) 
 Tyndall, J. Scientific Use of Imagination. Appleton, 1881, 509 pp. 
 Vostrovsky, Clara. Imaginary Companions. Barnes's Studies 
 
 in Ed., 98-101. 
 Whiting, M. C. Individuality of Numbers. Ped. Sem., 1892-3, 
 
 107-110. 
 Willard, Hattie M. Children's Ambitions. Barnes's Studies in 
 
 Ed., Vol. I, 1896-7, 243-253. 
 Wiltse, S. E. Mental Imagery of Boys. Am. Jour. Psy., 1894, 
 
 144-148. 
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 315-341- 
 See also indexes in the general studies, and studies of individual 
 children. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 Conception and Reasoning 
 
 T. Notice: 
 
 (i) When the baby first connects sensations; for 
 example, the milk with the bottle. 
 
 (2) When he first compares objects; for example, 
 
 one face with another. 
 
 (3) When he first connects a present with an absent 
 
 object; for example, the dress with the ab- 
 sent mother. 
 
 (4) When he forms a sequence; for example, the 
 
 sight of his cloak suggests going outdoors, 
 (s) When he first adapts means to ends; for 
 example, pulls the tablecloth to bring some- 
 thing within reach. 
 (6) When he first asks a question. How old is he? 
 What is it? Does he follow it with others? 
 How long is it before questioning becomes 
 common? 
 2. Question children from three to eight years old as 
 follows : 
 
 ,(i) What is the length of an hour, day, week, 
 month, and year? 
 
 (2) See whether they know how much longer the 
 
 day is than the hour, the week than the day, 
 and so on. 
 
 (3) How much do they think that they can do 
 
 in an hour? 
 
 (4) At what age did they learn to tell time? 
 
 224 
 
Conception and Reasoning 225 
 
 (s) At what age do they care to know the day of 
 the month, the names of the months ? 
 
 3. Ask school children to tell you what the things 
 are that are named in Dr. Hall's list in the chapter on 
 Perception, or in a similar list. These descriptions will 
 show the imperfections in the children's sense experiences 
 and the consequent imperfections in their concepts. 
 
 With the development of genetic psychology it is 
 accepted as an unquestionable fact that the mental life 
 is a gradual and unbroken growth from the cradle to the 
 grave, as much as is the growth of the body. The infant 
 mind must contain in the germ the possibilities of the 
 highest reasoning. True, it needs the sunlight, air, and 
 water of favorable surroundings to develop it, as any 
 germ does, but it is waiting to be developed, except in the 
 few unfortunates who are bom with the possibility of 
 only a slight development. 
 
 Conception, judgment, and reasoning have their roots 
 in the first stimulus and the reaction to it, and are only 
 better methods of adaptation to surroundings than those 
 based merely on perception and knowledge of individual 
 things. We have already seen that perception is very 
 complex, involving factors of recognition and reaction on 
 the basis of recognition. We tend to react to present 
 stimuli, even if they be somewhat different from the old, 
 as we did to the old, and when such a reaction works 
 well, we identify the new thing with the old. 
 
 In discussing perception it was stated that by the 
 third week the sight of the breast called out movements 
 toward it for nursing, and that from the -^-^^^ ^^^_ 
 third month on, recognition of objects sfciousness 
 increased very rapidly. It was noted that " 
 this was to a large extent due to organic memory, and 
 not to the presence of memory images. At this stage, 
 
226 The Child 
 
 therefore, a baby cannot compare a present with a past 
 experience, and only with difficulty can compare two 
 present experiences. 
 
 This first recognition goes into few details. Some 
 strong impression appeals to the baby's senses, and any 
 object that gives the same impression calls out the same 
 reaction. Preyer's son showed a strong liking for white 
 bottles of any sort, like his milk bottle. Babies at first 
 usually treat all men as they do their father, unless 
 there is some striking peculiarity. If the mother remains 
 much with the child, she is kept in a class by herself, but 
 otherwise it is not at all uncommon for the baby to act 
 toward all women as he does toward his mother. 
 
 In such cases, there is a recognition by means of 
 organic memory of certain prominent characteristics, and 
 there is a responsive movement of some sort. The first 
 concept is thus, according to Baldwin, an habitual response 
 to a certain stimulus. 
 
 We may say confidently that the possibility of com- 
 parison is small at birth, for the various brain centers 
 The first have then few fibers connecting them. Dur- 
 comparisons jng the first nine months, however, the brain 
 increases more in size and in connections between its 
 parts than at any other period of life, so that we may 
 expect to find comparison by the ninth month, and in all 
 probability considerably earlier. 
 
 When we speak of comparison, we simply mean noting 
 the relationships between two objects or ideas. The two 
 things must both be included in one mental act. Even 
 if two objects are compared, then it is evident that there 
 must be'^at least enough memory to remember the first 
 object while examining the second. Miss Shinn records 
 the first memory and the first comparison at the same 
 time, in the beginning of the third month, when her niece 
 
Conception and Reasoning 227 
 
 studied her and her mother alternately, for some time, 
 turning her head from one to the other and exaniining 
 them both intently. 
 
 Perez gives what is clearly a case of comparison, 
 although he does not seem to be sure of it, in describing 
 an eight-months-old boy's experiences with two cats. 
 The boy was playing with one cat when another cat 
 of the same size and color entered the room. Sud- 
 denly the child caught sight of it and apparently could 
 hardly believe his eyes. He stared at it and then at 
 the first cat, his body tense with attention and aston- 
 ishment. He examined the two until he became satisfied 
 that they really were two different things, though so 
 much alike. 
 
 As soon as a child begins to speak, we have certain 
 and numerous evidences of the similarities that he is 
 constantly seeing between objects. All white animals 
 of a certain size are "Iambics"; all black ones, "doggies." 
 The hairless doll is "Grandpa." Men without beards 
 are boys even to the four-year-old, and the ten-cent 
 piece is a baby dollar. 
 
 We see comparison clearly when Mrs. Hall's child, 
 at eight months, recognizes the real dog from the image 
 on the mantel; when Preyer's boy, at about one year, 
 compares his father's face with its reflection in the mirror; 
 and in the case cited by Ribot, of the child who compared 
 the ticking of the watch with that of the clock. We 
 see here, as in the first class-consciousness, that only 
 certain very obvious or interesting qualities strike the 
 child's mind, and so his classification by those qualities 
 seems to us very funny or very pretty. We should add, 
 however, that where there is a strong interest, the com- 
 parisons of a four-year-old child will average favorably 
 with those of an uninterested adult. 
 
228 The Child 
 
 We have no data to show when a child first compares 
 two ideas with each other. 
 
 We may best describe the baby's condition when 
 comparison has fairly begun by summarizing Baldwin's 
 account of the origin of the concept. 
 
 The child begins with an indefinite and vague whole, 
 which is both particular and general, percept and con- 
 Origin of the cept. Take, for instance, the pet kitten, the 
 concept child's first experience with cats. The indi- 
 
 vidual and the class are to him the same at this point. 
 He knows no class but the individual. But he meets now 
 a big cat of a new color. He may not identify it with the 
 first cat at all, but the chances are that he will. Percept 
 and concept now begin to divide— ^ the two individuals 
 are alike in some ways, so- that both are called cats, and 
 different in others, so that one is called Tiger and one 
 Tom. Tiger scratches, Tom does not; but both are soft 
 and warm and both purr. So his idea of a cat is a purring, 
 warm, soft animal, that may or may not scratch. The 
 next cat he sees may lick his fingers, and so, with every 
 successive experience some qualities may be left out 
 and others put in only as possibilities, until there is 
 but a srnall nucleus of qualities belonging to all cats, 
 and a large fringe of other characteristics that may 
 belong to any particular Tabby or Tom. 
 
 The amazing thing is that the baby learns so quickly 
 to distinguish individuals from each other, and yet, at 
 the same time, to put them together into one class, as 
 things tf) eat, things to drink, rolling things, and so 
 on. Experience is his only teacher here, but experi- 
 ence, reinforced by pleasure and pain and by the natural 
 impulses and instincts of the child, is very powerful. 
 
 It is important to the baby's safety and comfort 
 that he should learn thus speedily to distinguish and 
 
Conception and Reasoning 229 
 
 associate. Take, for instance, the cats again. He 
 likes, the soft fur and warmth, but he gets scratched 
 by Tiger. Now for a long time he may be afraid that 
 all cats scratch, but if he learns that only Tiger scratches 
 and Tom and Tabby do not, he gets the pleasure of 
 playing with them and avoids the pain of Tiger's claws. 
 That is, to state' it generally again, a baby that learns 
 most readily the qualities peculiar only to an individual 
 and those common to a class, is the baby that is the most 
 independent and the surest of safety. 
 
 That the child's first concepts are incomplete is a 
 foregone conclusion from what we have already said. 
 His experiences with objects are necessa- 
 rily limited; he cannot tell from the few ness of ^" 
 people or houses or rivers that he has seen, child's 
 which of their qualities are peculiar to them 
 and which belong to all objects of their kind. When we 
 add to this his imperfect observation and his small power 
 of voluntary attention, we can see that correct concepts 
 will be a late mental product. A child may have as 
 wild an imagination as an adult, but an imagination 
 that attends to universal and real qualities, as concep- 
 tion does, is obtained only by long experience and training. 
 
 The child's concepts are therefore too general in some 
 cases and too particular in others. He does not put 
 into the concept all the qualities that it ought to have, as 
 in thinking that all white things are milk; or he puts 
 in wrong ones, as in thinking that all rivers are dirty; 
 or he combines both errors, as in thinking that blackness 
 marks off dogs from sheep. 
 
 We can, by a little adroit questioning of children, 
 see all these errors in their concepts of common classes 
 of objects, such as tables and chairs and people, while 
 with the still more abstract concepts, such as number, 
 
230 The Child 
 
 distance, growth, time, and the self, the errors are all 
 intensified. Their inferences and reasoning show the 
 various errors described in logic, but also the correct 
 forms, and if, with Rignano; we consider reasoning as a 
 mental experiment, a carrying out in imagination of 
 what later we try to carry out in fact, we should expect 
 this. Here we can no more set a definite point of time 
 at which abstract thought emerges than we can for any 
 other process; but, on the other hand, it is greatly facili- 
 tated as soon as a child becomes conscious of his power 
 to make new combinations, and has some control of 
 speech, that is, by the third or fourth year. At this 
 time there is an outbreak of questions, and there is likely 
 to be one of so-called lies, which is really a period of 
 experimenting in handling images. A child makes up 
 all sorts of fictions,, sometimes apparently just for the 
 pleasure of it,- and sometimes as an explanation. A little 
 later, in the primary-grade period, he tends more to 
 working out relations between objects he has to deal 
 with, becomes more practical, and at adolescence finally 
 broader conscious generalizations are made and logical 
 reasoning may become almost a fetish for a time. 
 
 According to Gale's observations, as well as according 
 to what we should infer from other incidental obserVa- 
 Early asso- tions, the associations of the first year are 
 ciations chiefly those of contiguity. Anything may 
 
 be associated with anything else in place and time, so that 
 it will call up the other in memory. The mother has the 
 child at her mercy for forming good or bad, natural and 
 permanent or artificial and temporary associations be- 
 tween his various experiences. There is no thought in the 
 narrower sense of that term, but there is the formation 
 of habitual sequences which may either persist through 
 life or must later be broken with difficulty. If, for 
 
Conception and Reasoning 231 
 
 instance, an association is formed between the baby's 
 screaming and being taken out of bed and carried or 
 held by the mother, in a very short time the baby learns 
 the combination and reacts accordingly, though we 
 have no reason to suppose that it reasons out the relation. 
 This automatic relating and reacting goes on to some 
 degree, perhaps we might say to a large degree, all our 
 lives, but in proportion as it fails to give the agreeable 
 result we are forced to greater consciousness and varied 
 reactions. 
 
 This is the kernel of the whole problem of the develop- 
 ment of thought within each of the main divisions just 
 outlined. We have various studies on the Later asso- 
 development of thought and the differences ciations 
 between children and adults to which we must briefly 
 refer. We saw in a previous chapter that when asked 
 to give definitions of common terms the younger children 
 defined by use or movement, while the older tended 
 more to the use of larger terms. Ellison found a similar 
 distinction among the four hundred and seventy-two 
 children studied, and states that what might be called 
 a fair definition did not appear before the tenth year. 
 Among the youngest, eight-year-old children, the most 
 common form of definition was to give an example. 
 In more detail, the studies of Ziehen, Meumann, Winteler, 
 Wreschner, and Rusk show that in giving association 
 words to children to get their first associations the following 
 classification is increasingly difficult: i. If a whole is 
 named to name a part of it; 2, the reverse of this; 3, 
 a coordinate; 4, a free concrete term; 5, a superordinate 
 term; 6, a subordinate term; 7, a free abstract term; 
 8, a causal relation. 
 
 In general, this shows how childish thought advances 
 from the concrete to the abstract, and these same studies 
 
232 The Child 
 
 agree with Colvin and others in indicating that the 
 clear visual imagery of childhood gradually passes over 
 From ™^° *^^ relatively indefinite verbal imagery 
 
 visual to of youth and maturity. Rusk agrees with 
 verbal Binet that in the latter period thought may 
 
 go on without imagery. (Imagery in Binet's sense does 
 not include the kinesthetic factors.) 
 
 Still another point of view which seems to show similar 
 difEerences is given in Lindley's study of puzzles. He 
 Trial and ^^^^ ^^^ *^® persons attempting to solve 
 error to the puzzle choose one of three chief methods, 
 
 conception ^hjch, of course, have many variants and 
 combinations. The younger or the less intelligent use 
 the method of trial and error, blindly fumbling at the 
 puzzle, succeeding by chance, and learning only by the 
 cumulative pleasurable effect of success. Next higher 
 is what may be called the receptual method, in which 
 there is some vague comprehension of the best point 
 of attack, but nothing distinct; and third, the conceptual, 
 in which the person thinks it out with considerable 
 distinctness. 
 
 He also found this difference reflected in the order of 
 age interests for puzzles. Beginning with three or four 
 years, and going up, the interest develops thus: riddles 
 and very simple mechanical puzzles, charades, catches 
 and quibbles, arithmetical, more complex mechanical, 
 geometrical, language, and, finally, logical and per- 
 sonal dilemmas, the last two scarcely appearing before 
 puberty. 
 
 These- give us certain large and important differences 
 between the different stages, but within each period what 
 particular ideas develop most or first depends largely 
 on the child's surroundings. Here we very much need 
 observations to trace the natural development of our 
 
Conception and Reasoning 233 
 
 fundamental concepts, and can give only a sketchy 
 account. 
 
 Ideas of space, with the related ideas of distance, 
 direction, position, measuring, and so on, are derived 
 primarily from active touch, and this we 
 have seen develops even early in embryonic 
 life. The unborn child adapts itself to the space relations 
 under which it lives, gets sensations of contact from the 
 uterine wall and also from one part of its body touching 
 another, and so in all probability at least vaguely localizes 
 the part of the body touched even before birth. With 
 the possibilities of movement after birth and the combina- 
 tion of touch and- visual sensations, we have seen how 
 the perception of objects and of their position relative to 
 each other and to the child develops. Distance means 
 the movement needed to grasp or go to an object seen. 
 Very early the child acquires a working knowledge of 
 distance, direction, and so on, but the ideas of units of 
 distance larger than his own experience, such as the mile, 
 are likely to remain vague up to adult life, and of course 
 exactness in calculation of the smaller units, like the foot 
 and the yard, will be lacking unless special training 
 be given. 
 
 The sense of time is similarly confused, and, from what 
 few observations we have, remains so for a considerable 
 time. Chamberlain's child at two years and ^.^^ 
 
 eight months used many time terms, such as 
 this afternoon, this month, this summer, by and by, now, 
 then, but did not seem to know their meaning. According 
 to the Binet tests, children do not, on an average, know 
 the difference between morning and afternoon until 
 they are six, and not until nine can they give the days 
 of the week in order, and name the day of the week 
 and month, the month and the year, — that is, give the 
 
234 The Child 
 
 complete date. The months of the year given in order 
 belong to the ten-year-old tests. 
 
 Again, Miss Patterson collated 2,337 answers of grade- 
 schopl children to the question "What does 1895 mean?" 
 There were many blanks before eight years, and she 
 concludes that the sense of historical time is utterly 
 lacking before seven, and is slight up to twelve. We 
 need many more observations here. 
 
 The baby's ideas of number are vague in the extreme; 
 ntimber in the abstract does not, of course, exist for 
 Concept of him. He knows only many things or this 
 number one particular thing. At eighteen months 
 
 Ribot says a child can distinguish concepts of one, two, 
 and several. D^wey also notes that three children 
 observed by him, varying in age from sixteen to twenty- 
 eight months, paired off objects. Two cotdd be counted 
 but not three. At three years, Ribot says, a child can 
 distinguish 1,2, and 4, or 2 x 2 . At five years, Binet says, 
 he can count four. The baby's first vague impressions 
 of quantity and mass are made more distinct through his 
 own movements in touching and handling objects, and 
 he is also aided by the regular alternations and rhythms " 
 in his experiences and in his bodily reactions. We know 
 that in his first counting a little child is very likely to 
 touch or tap as he counts, and that he likes to group the 
 objects or words in counting by pronounced accents. He 
 enjoys singing the multiplication tables, for instance. We 
 must also distingviish, with the little child, between repeat- 
 ing number names, and real counting. A child will often 
 apparently count to a high number, but when asked to 
 show ten objects or twenty objects, he will be at a loss. 
 Not infrequently a child takes the name of the nvunber for 
 the name of the object. If, for instance, the third object 
 happen to be a willow rocker, he may think it a "three." 
 
Conception and Reasoning 235 
 
 When a child has really learned to count, he delights 
 in it, both counting the objects about him, and merely 
 counting, without reference to particular objects. The 
 boards in the sidewalk, the blades of grass, the stones 
 in the road, are all enumerated, when he is not occupied 
 in numbering up to hundreds of thousands, or to millions 
 or billions. 
 
 At first, the child's idea of growth is simply that of 
 increase in size. It does not include the idea of increas- 
 ing complexity of the parts. To the childish Concept of 
 mind, a stone may grow as readily as a child. growth 
 Mr. Sully has some speculations on childish ideas of 
 growth which are interesting, though, perhaps, not so 
 general in their application as he believes. A child, he 
 says, cannot believe that things come from nothing or 
 go to nothing; hence the natural idea of a cycle, babies 
 growing to men, and men growing back to babies. 
 Babies, a child is told, come from various places, heaven 
 among others. He knows that they get larger by eating 
 and drinking, and that after a time they stop growing 
 and begin to shrink. Old people are frequently small, 
 they are spoken of as childish, and when they die they 
 are carried to heaven by the angels, hence they must 
 grow still smaller after they die. 
 
 A child's ideas about the origin of life, the meaning of 
 family relationships, and^ so on, inevitably are determined 
 by the superficial view of what he sees and hears, unless 
 special information is given. Many children think 
 brothers and sisters are all the children in one house, 
 fathers all the grown men, and so on. 
 
 The sense of self and the ideas about the self, ' though 
 interdependent, may yet be distinguished. The sense 
 of self depends upon all the stimuli coming in from all 
 parts of the body; both internal and superficial, and 
 
236 The Child 
 
 many of the resulting sensations, especially those from 
 the vegetative oigans, lungs, heart, and so on, are so vague 
 and slight that they defy analysis. The ideas 
 ^ about the self, come from the stronger sensa- 
 
 tions, and in health these are derived largely from the 
 surface of the body, the special senses, and our move- 
 ments. In the very brief space that can be devoted to 
 this important subject, I follow Dr. Hall. In returns 
 to questionnaires on the part of the body first attracting 
 children, the following was the order of frequency: 
 first, hands and fingers, then feet and toes, ear and nose. 
 Eyes of course must come later, but the eyes of others 
 are attractive to babies, and many children love to 
 watch their own eyes in a mirror. Their own hair is also 
 very attractive, and their teeth. Tongue and nails are 
 experimented with by many children. Other parts of 
 the body are much less attended to, though individual 
 children may develop fondness for particular parts. 
 Thus the child at first thinks of the surface of his body 
 and scarcely at all of what is inside the skin. 
 
 The first things inside the skin to be noticed are the 
 hard bones, and many questions are asked about them 
 between three and five years. Next comes the stomach. 
 The heart beat and breathing attract attention to them, 
 cuts to the blood, and so on. But these ideas remain 
 crude in the extreme unless special pains are taken to 
 give the proper information. 
 
 As early as the second year the child associates its 
 clothes closely with itself, especially shoes, and this is 
 probably connected with recognition of himself in the 
 mirror and so the forming of a more complete visual 
 image of himself. 
 
 The use of the personal pronouns is ordinarily con- 
 sidered one of the important signs of a growth in 
 
Conception and Reasoning 237 
 
 self -consciousness, but the dates for their correct use and 
 the order in which the various forms appear differ con- 
 siderably. Sully reports a case in which "I" was used 
 as early as the sixteenth month, but Preyer's boy did not 
 use "mich" until the thirty-second. Other observations 
 range between these. Gheorgov is probably correct in 
 saying that the order in which the forms are learned 
 depends especially upon those most frequently heard. 
 
 When the distinction is made between the body and 
 the self, children conceive the self in the most various 
 forms,' according to some chance associations — as a 
 flower, animal, room — but most often, like primitive 
 peoples, as a shadow-like form resembling the body. It 
 seems no more possible to eliminate imagery here than in 
 religious thought, and our endeavor ought to be to find 
 an image which shall be flexible enough to include all the 
 wider ranges of personality. This distinction between 
 body and self as the first differentiation of the material 
 and immaterial, is very significant. Probably it must 
 follow the rise of imagination, and it may be causally 
 related to the feeling of power over his mind that the 
 child gets when he finds he can invent stories that never 
 really happened. The feeling of strangeness is seen in 
 such questions as: What am I? What do I do when I 
 think? You can strike my hands but not the real me. 
 What is it that is sorry in me? Again, this rise of self- 
 consciousness makes children watch themselves in the 
 mirror when they cry, talk to themselves, scold and 
 praise themselves, and so on. 
 
 Taking a somewhat different standpoint, the difference 
 between the self and the not-self is impressed upon the 
 baby from the beginning in his contacts with and manipu- 
 lations of things, especially those that offer some resist- 
 ance. The way in which his sense of other personalities 
 
238 The Child 
 
 is built up we shall touch upon in considering imitation, 
 and the chapters on the child's characteristic ways of 
 acting may be considered as in truth discussions of the 
 developing sense of self. The whole process of building 
 up an adequate concept of self and of others is the most 
 complex in our experience, and involves the wide range 
 of all intellectual, emotional, moral, eesthetic, and reli- 
 gious experiences, as well as of our efficiency in the various 
 fields of motor skill, in our profession, and so on. In 
 its wider ranges it is the history of civilization. 
 
 From the sketchy accounts so far given, it is painfully 
 evident how defective is our knowledge of the growth 
 Forming °^ children's ideas in specific fields. It is 
 correct even more so with regard to the subjects of 
 
 concepts ^j^^ curriculum. Children's ideas about the 
 earth and its inhabitants, the town or qity where they 
 live and their government, the animals and flowers 
 about them, the materials and tools which they must 
 use, the food they eat, and so on, should be, at least to 
 some extent, canvassed by the teacher who is just begin- 
 ning a given subject. This may often be done by 
 devoting the first few periods to an informal talk, draw- 
 ing out the children and noting the various sources of 
 error mentioned, with a view to correcting and com- 
 plementing them later. If the child's ideas of a class 
 depend upon his acquaintance with objects of the class, 
 it is evident that the first step toward getting a correct 
 idea is to give many objects with which to get acquainted. 
 A child who has seen only one dog, cannot know as 
 much about dogs, other things being equal, as the child 
 who has played with several. A child who has seen but 
 one river has a more imperfect idea of rivers than a 
 child who has seen many. Of course, by far the best 
 way is to show the children the actual object, but if 
 
Conception and Reasoning 239 
 
 this is impossible, pictures do a great deal, especially 
 pictures that differ in minor details but agree in essentials. 
 
 It is hardly enough, however, simply to put the vari- 
 ous objects or pictures or ideas before the child. He 
 should be led to judge whether the differences are so 
 great that the objects cannot be put into one cl^s. 
 The degree to which this comparison is carried out 
 must be decided by the teacher. Kindergarten children 
 notice only the more striking likenesses and differences, 
 but in the ninth year a great awakening occurs. 
 
 Such comparison is quite as important as having 
 many objects because it means, once more, the forming 
 of associations which bind the child's world of thought 
 into a whole, and it lays the foundation for the systematic 
 reasoning which occurs in later life. 
 
 We have already answered indirectly the question 
 of whether general ideas can exist in the child's mind 
 before language. It seems unquestionable, conception 
 from the way that a child acts toward and Ian- 
 objects that are alike, that he does have some suage 
 class ideas even before he has learned to speak. 
 
 On the other hand, there can be no doubt that lan- 
 guage facilitates the formation of concepts because it 
 provides a convenient form in which to keep the idea. 
 Then, too, when the baby learns to speak, the great widen- 
 ing in his ability to get what he wants is a powerful 
 stimulus to mental activity, and to the naming of things. 
 
 The first questions are usually about what things are, 
 and this often means only what their names are. The 
 fact that this thing is a "dictionary" is itself satisfying 
 enough to rest in for some time. Some children seem 
 to have a mania for learning the names of objects^ they 
 seek for the Christian name' of every fish and insect and 
 leaf, and when the wearied mother tells them that there 
 
240 The Child 
 
 are no such names for them, the child in pity christens 
 them himself. Some anthropologists see in this a sur- 
 vival of the early worship and fear of the word as a living 
 thing. The Scriptures tell us that the Israelites dared 
 not pronounce the true name of Jehovah; in the Middle 
 Ages it was believed that there were words whose potency 
 was sufficient to stimmon all the powers of evil to the 
 aid of the bold man who spoke them; and so, in the 
 little child's satisfaction with a name, there is perhaps 
 implicit belief that it has a certain force of its own. 
 
 For a long time a child is at the mercy of verbal 
 sounds, mistaking words for others that sound like 
 them but are spelled differently, or getting the wrong 
 word. We all have some choice examples of this. Here 
 are two : One child sang lustily, 
 
 "Dare to be a spaniel (Daniel), 
 Dare to stand alone. 
 Dare to have a purple spine (purpose fine). 
 And dare to make it known! " 
 
 Another one, when asked by her father what she had 
 learned in Sunday school that morning, told him 
 earnestly that the mipister said that "he must put his 
 trousers in heaven, where the moths could not get at 
 them!" 
 
 However, when a child begins to question what things 
 are like, the question of what things are begins to mean 
 what they are like. 
 
 The period before nine, when all the quaint, childish 
 fancies that so delight us control the child, is especially 
 . _ the age of imagination. The odd com- 
 and?easoif parisons between familiar things, the imag- 
 ining of a situation that may have led up 
 to present conditions, are fancies, but they are also 
 attempts to make the world unified and reasonable. 
 
Conception and Reasoning 241 
 
 We have seen that the child's first class idea is the same 
 as his idea of the individual, and is separated from it only 
 through varying experience. So his first reason is an 
 image or a craving, as is also the reason of many adults, 
 and takes the form of logic only with a later develop- 
 ment. When we ask a child why he. did this, it is hard 
 for him to say, because his reason is probably only a 
 desire, a picture of himself enjoying a certain thing, and 
 it is hard to put this into words. ' ' Because, ' ' or " Because 
 I wanted it," is as far as he can go. 
 
 In reasoning, a more developed form of thought than 
 a conception is reached, for in it the relations which 
 were taken for granted before are now Conception 
 stated. The concept of table includes the and 
 ideas of a flat top and of usefulness to put reasoning 
 things on; but the reasoning about tables, expounds that 
 this is a table because all tables have the same qualities 
 that this has. We recognize clearly now relations that 
 before have either been unseen or only obscurely seen. 
 
 Reasoning takes three common forms — the tracing 
 of a particular cause to a particular effect; the discovery 
 of a law or truth or system from observation of particular 
 facts; and the classifying under an already known law 
 the facts afterward observed. We will consider the 
 child's reasoning under these heads. 
 
 Throughout all the child's thinking, as in his imag- 
 ining, he works from a personal world to an imper- 
 sonal. His first ideas of cause and effect Reasoning 
 are doubtless obtained from his own move- from cause 
 ments and their results, and the sense of 
 power appears to -have its rise with the first volitions 
 or persistent imitations in. the period between four and 
 six months. During this period the child seems to be 
 experimenting to see what he can do. He repeats and 
 
242 The Child 
 
 varies a movement ad infinitum, discovering the possi- 
 bilities and limitations of his movements, and at every 
 step connecting a given movement with a certain objec- 
 tive result. Thus he learns that he can always get certain 
 things by doing certain others, and has the feeling of 
 himself as a power, or cause. In all his experiences, 
 he and others like him are, more than anything else, 
 the causes, or movers of things. He sees very little 
 of impersonal natural causes. This strengthens what 
 seems to be his instinctive tendency to refer all results 
 to a personal cause. As Sully puts it: "He starts with 
 the amiable presupposition that all things have been 
 hand-produced, after the manner of household posses- 
 sions. The world is a sort of big house where every- 
 thing has been made by somebody, or at least fetched 
 from somewhere." "To ask who made the animals, the 
 babies, the wind, the clouds, is for him merely to apply 
 the more familiar type of causation as the normal rule." 
 One three-year-old girl thought that when the water 
 spurted from the faucet it was choking, because it coughed. 
 One child of foiu: years thought that running water was 
 alive; and another, that windmills were alive, because 
 they moved. Most small mothers think that their dolls 
 or pets must like the same things that they do themselves. 
 
 Observations have been made upon kindergarten 
 children to ascertain when they first asked "why." It 
 was found that all children had asked "why" before 
 the third year, and 75 per cent of the boys asked it before 
 the second year. The first real interest in the idea of 
 cause, however, is not usually shown by the first "why"; 
 but appears between six months and a year later in 70 
 per cent of the children. 
 
 The objects which call out this first question vary 
 considerably in boys and girls, seeming to point to certain 
 
Conception and Reasoning 243 
 
 differences in the natural interests of the two. Thus 
 75 per cent of the boys' questions relate to natural causes, 
 while only 30 per cent of the girls' do. Such questions 
 as, "Why does it grow dark?" "How does God make 
 it thunder?" fall here. Fifty per cent of the boys ask 
 questions about movements, such as, "Why do wheels go? " 
 "Why do horses nm?" while only 25 per cent of the girls 
 are first interested in movement. Twenty-five per cent 
 of the boys are curious about the adaptation of structure 
 to function: "Why do birds have wings?" "Why 
 does Towser have four legs and I only two?" The 
 girls have little interest in this. 
 
 On the other hand, the girls ask more first questions 
 about God and Christ, and about domestic affairs. 
 Both boys and girls always show great persistency in 
 following up a question with others until a satisfactory 
 answer is obtained. 
 
 Along with this idea of personal cause goes the other 
 idea, that everything has a purpose behind it, and so 
 we find children ready to believe that the idea of 
 
 Sim rises for them to get up by, that the purpose 
 
 flowers grow for them to pick, that the rain is trying to 
 plague them, and so on. 
 
 We can realize how deep in human nature lies this 
 tendency to make man the center of all things when 
 we find the earliest men, the savage races of to-day, and 
 even the civilized man himself doing the same thing. 
 I fancy that there are few of us who have not at some time 
 been thoroughly angry with some object or material that 
 we could not control as we wished. In early times 
 inanimate things and animals had legal punishment 
 meted out to them as to persons. 
 
 In these first experiences, what reasoning there is, 
 is usually only an association of one thing with another. 
 
244 The Child 
 
 Thus, the child who learns that th^ father gets home 
 and then supper follows, may reverse the procedure 
 Reasoning by and suppose that getting supper ready is 
 association the cause of the father's arrival. 
 
 The assertion's that the object of Thanksgiving is so 
 that we can have turkey, and of Christmas so that we 
 can have presents, combine both forms. Little by little, 
 the child is forced to discard a personal agency for a' 
 simple sequence of events, and so he seems to become 
 less imaginative. 
 
 Of cause in the sense of reason, he seems to have 
 little idea as yet. Sequence and analogy of sequence 
 govern his thought. Mr. Brown gives numerous instances 
 of this. Thus one boy would be a minister so he could 
 have the money from the collection boxes. One little 
 girl said she was a woman now because she had a butter 
 plate given her instead of having her bread spread. 
 
 Preyer's boy in the fifth month first connected move- 
 ments with. the following noises: the tearing of paper, 
 the jingling of keys, the opening and shutting of a drawer 
 with the accompanying sound. He would strike a spoon 
 _against a plate, listen, and then repeat it as if trying to 
 see where the sound came from. His delight in produc- 
 ing such results was at its maximum during the tenth 
 month, and Preyer believes this indicates the knowledge 
 that he was an agent or cause. But even then he had not 
 learned that objects, when dropped, fall to the ground, 
 and gaped with astonishment to see them go. 
 
 By degrees, however, definite sequences are estab- 
 lished, and then occurs the reasoning which is so ludi- 
 Establishing crous to us and so sensible to the child. 
 of sequences Qne child thought that a person with gray 
 eyes must be, old. Another of three years and three 
 months thought that a card lying on the floor was the 
 
Conception and Reasoning 245 
 
 cause of the sewing machine not going, because when 
 his mother got up to pull the machine out from the 
 wall, she first picked up the card from the floor. 
 
 Analogy of sequences is seen in such cases as these: 
 One child of two and a half thought that her baby sister 
 only needed larger shoes in order to walk; another, 
 that her eyes were bright because the sun shone into 
 them as into a room; another, of five, that men are filled 
 with sawdust, like dolls; a boy of five, that standing in 
 the rain until he got soaked would make him grow fast, 
 as it does seeds, so that he could wear "pants"! One 
 girl of six, when told that gum was grease and was not 
 good, reasoned thus: "Lard is in doughnuts, lard is 
 grease. It's good!"- and continued chewing. A boy 
 of five reasoned that thunder was made in heaven in the 
 same way that sounds are made in a sawmill. A girl 
 of seven was afraid to eat apple seeds, lest they grow up 
 to trees. Another wondered why, if she were dust, she 
 did not turn to mud when she drank water. One girl 
 thought her brother pale because he washed so much. 
 Then, too, there is the little boy who thriftily planted 
 his dime to have it grow, and another who planted bird 
 seed to get more birds and sardine cans to get more 
 sardines. Again, one boy thought his mother could 
 round some pieces of cloth better if she had a poker to 
 use as the motorman uses his to get around a comer. 
 The small boy who had lost a tooth and thought the new 
 tooth of his baby sister must be his, is not alone in his 
 reasoning. 
 
 Such examples show us how vague the child's ideas 
 are.' He has to learn that balls will roll away if his 
 hands let go of them; that he can use his hands to move 
 things, and so on. When we consider that a child begins 
 life with no knowledge, we must admit that to learn so 
 
246 T he C hild 
 
 much in the short space of a year he reasons much instead 
 of little. 
 
 This purely temporal relation of one event to another, 
 if it be a constant one, gives to the child his first idea 
 Idea of law of law and order. In his contact with 
 and order nature, he experiences certain fixed se- 
 quences, such as the seasons and day and night. In 
 his contact with people, and in the ordering of his daily 
 life he should find the same thing in all cases where his 
 mature mind will later justify the order by reasons. 
 Just in proportion as we, his elders, arrange our lives 
 and his according to an order controlled by laws, shall 
 we help him to untangle the essential from the imessential. 
 
 Plato, in discussing the proper, education of youth, 
 makes the point that we cannot get citizens who are 
 obedient to law in later Ufe unless we have trained them 
 to a respect for law in childhood. Now, what Plato 
 says of civil law is equally applicable to law in its widest 
 sense. The child" who is given meals at irregvilar hours, 
 who is never trained to habits of bathing and cleaning 
 the teeth, of sleeping, and so on, will never have a respect 
 for the laws of his body. If he is trained to the fallacy 
 that he can eat and drink just as he pleases, without 
 bad results, that he can sleep or not and feel just the same, 
 that he can bathe or not, and still be clean, he cannot 
 have the belief in cause and effect that the child who 
 has been taught to observe regularity in all such things 
 has. Order or regularity is the same as law to the little 
 child; and to primitive peoples also, custom, or the usual 
 way, is the law. The reason upon which this law rests 
 becomes apparent only later. Hence it is our part to see 
 that children acquire habits or customs of orderly acting 
 and thinking, customs which need not be disturbed when 
 reason passes them in review. So shall respect and 
 
Conception and Reasoning 247 
 
 obedience to law be a work of love and not of duty. 
 
 To many it will probably seem rather pretentious to 
 class the modest efforts of children to make their world 
 into a connected whole under inductive 
 reasoning, which is the method of scientists. Masoning or 
 But precisely because the two are not usually attempts at 
 associated in our thought, we wish to unite ^iwS 
 them here. The child mind is trjang, though 
 spasmodically, to reach to a system of thought. He does 
 not like to live in a chaotic world, and although his 
 efforts to produce order are greatly limited by his inex- 
 perience and by his undeveloped power of attention, the 
 desire for unity which impels him is the same as that which 
 impels the scientist. 
 
 In discussing the child's thoughts about nature. Sully 
 says that we can see some crude attempts to form a 
 system and to get back to the first cause which will explain 
 all else. In what little we know of the child's naive 
 thoughts on this subject we are strongly reminded of 
 the speculations of the early philosophers. The child, 
 too, wonders who made' God; who were the first people 
 and who took care of them when they were babies; 
 where the first hen came from, and so on. The child, 
 like the race, seems first to ask "why" and only later to 
 become interested in "how" and satisfied with it. 
 
 When he comes to frame his cosmology, things are 
 taken for what they seem. The earth is flat and the 
 sky round; the stars and the moon shine through holes in 
 the sky and are lamps for God or the angels. Natural phe- 
 nomena, like thunder and lightning, storms,' wind, are 
 caused by God for some definite purpose of His own. 
 
 Most children have some such imperfect system, 
 which they fill out from time to time in detail. Thus, 
 one boy of six, after watching the smoke rising from a 
 
248 The Child 
 
 locomotive, said he knew now that smoke made the 
 sky. This was not so bad for a city dweller. 
 
 The consistency of these childish reasonings is a subject 
 on which we have as yet few exact data. Earl Barnes 
 Consistency assiores US that it is difficult for a child 
 in reasoning ^ hold a whole subject in his mind because 
 his thinking is fragmentary. In drawing the story of 
 the. "Three Bears," for instance, a child will often forget 
 the story in his delight in drawing the bears, and will 
 fill the paper with bears and nothing else. This is doubt- 
 less true to a certain extent, though Rossma believes 
 that when actually drawing the child fills the apparent 
 gaps by speech and acting. We have already seen that 
 the little child's interest is immediate, and that he does 
 not clearly distinguish means from ends. 
 
 Still, we must not suppose that a child sees no connec- 
 tion between cause and effect, and does no connected think- 
 ing. Observations made by Miss Lillian Clow seem, on 
 the contrary, to show that when children have once made 
 an assumption about an object, they hold to that fairly 
 well in the rest of their thinking about that object. 
 
 Miss Clowi collected data from three hundred and sixty 
 children, forty of each grade from kindergarten through 
 eighth grade, in order to see how their reasoning changed 
 as they grew older. She selected a sea poircupine as an 
 object with which the children were unfamiliar, so that 
 thejr .reasoning would not be directly influenced by their 
 knowledge, but which was yet striking enough to arouse 
 curiosity and stimulate thought. This was shown to the 
 children and they were asked these questions among others : 
 
 I. What does it look like? 
 
 1 Unpublished data from Chicago school children. The object 
 was a beautiful specimen of a sea porcupine. The tables are given 
 in per cents. 
 
Conception and Reasoning 
 
 249 
 
 2. What do you think it is? Why? 
 
 3. Where did it come from? What makes you think 
 
 sof 
 
 4. If it moved from one place to another, -how did 
 it go? 
 
 The following tables show the answers. 
 
 Question i 
 
 Kg. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 Fish 
 
 Porcupine 
 
 "Porcupine fish" . . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 37^ 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 
 37 
 
 471 
 22 
 
 7 
 17 
 
 52^ 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 85 
 
 ■ 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 52 i 
 
 15 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 27i 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 45s 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 Question 2 
 
 Kg. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 62 
 
 5 
 87 
 
 6 
 65" 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 Fish 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 Porcupine 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 lOl 
 
 " Porcupine fish " . , 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 62 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 ID 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 Question 3 
 
 Sea or ocean . . . 
 Lake, river. . . . 
 Geog. place. . . . 
 Miscellaneous . . 
 
 Kg. 
 
 I 
 22 
 
 2 
 40 
 
 3 
 40 
 
 4 
 45 
 
 5 
 75 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 ID 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 67 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 45 I 63,2 = 
 18 i Water 
 
 Question 4 
 
 Swam 
 
 Crawled or walked . 
 Rolled 
 
 Kg. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 47 
 
 70 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 87 
 
 65 
 
 87 
 
 77 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Total 
 
 ~64~ 
 II 
 10 
 
 One of the interesting things in these tables is to see 
 how the percentage of miscellaneous answers decreases 
 from the kindergarten up. Whereas 69 per cent of the 
 kindergarten children give such different answers that 
 they cannot be classified, only 5 per cent of the fifth 
 grade and a somewhat larger number of the eighth grade 
 do. This seems to show the effect of the interchange of 
 
2SO 
 
 The Child 
 
 ideas in training all children to similar habits of thought 
 so that they reason in much the same way even on new 
 subjects. 
 
 In discussing the consistency of the answers, we see 
 
 how well the children hold to a standard that they have 
 
 . chosen. Thus if a child says in the first 
 
 reasoning, or answer that the strange animal looks like a 
 
 classifying figh and is a fish because it has little fins, 
 
 y.a Stan ar ^^ ^^^ .^ ^.^ j.^^ .^ water, and swim, 
 
 he is thoroughly consistent throughout with his first 
 assumption that it was like a fish. 
 
 The answers to the first three questions were clearly 
 consistent in si| per cent of the individual papers, and 
 clearly inconsistent in i6§ per cent. In the remaining 
 cases the child's thought seemed confused. These per- 
 centages were distributed as follows: 
 
 
 Kg. 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 26 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 61 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 Consistent 
 
 Inconsistent 
 
 53 
 23 
 
 44 
 18 
 
 72 
 19 
 
 74 
 19 
 
 82 
 13 
 
 78 
 17 
 
 51 
 16 
 
 We should hardly seem justified from these figures 
 in concluding that even the little child's thought is 
 predominantly fragmentary. It may be true that the 
 systematic questioning made the children relate their 
 answers more closely than they would have done if left 
 to themselves, so that the percentage of consistency may 
 be a little higher than it should be; but even so, it would 
 seem that a child's thought is not so much inconsistent 
 as it is incomplete. 
 
 The improvement in consistency from 28^ per cent in 
 the kindergarten to 78 per cent in eighth grade is very 
 marked, and is closely paralleled by Mr. Hancock's 
 observations on reasoning about numbers. They show 
 
Conception and Reasoning 251 
 
 an improvement from 40 per cent of correct reasonings 
 at the age of seven years to 86 per cent at fifteen. 
 
 A simple form of deductive reasoning is seen in the 
 adaptation of means to ends, as when the year-old child 
 pulls the tablecbth oyer to bring a dish Adapting 
 within reach, or climbs into a chair for the means to 
 same purpose. Or when the three-year-old ^""^^ 
 feigns a cough in order to get some cough drops. A more 
 elaborated form is seen in the boy of four who wanted 
 to get a bone from a dog. When he found that he could 
 not catch the dog by chasing him, he got a stick and 
 brought it to the dog to smell. In smelling, the dog 
 dropped the bone, and after one unsuccessful trial the boy 
 got it. Akin to this is the thriftiness of the boy who, when 
 given some money, bought some court-plaster "because I 
 might need it some time." We have also the numberless 
 plans to escape punishment. One little child scrawled 
 the newly papered wall, and when confronted with a 
 whipping by an indignant mother, appealed to her affec- 
 tions thus: "I just writed a letter to my dear papa. 
 Ain't my papa lobely?" 
 
 In its more logical form deductive reasoning is seen 
 with especial clearness in the solution of arithmetical 
 problems, and as the teaching of arithmetic Arithmetical 
 is also an important part of the curriculum, reasoning 
 the observations and experiments along this line will be 
 briefly referred to. 
 
 We should distinguish rather sharply mere ability to 
 count and to perform the fundamental operations from 
 ability to solve problems. In the first two the drill 
 element is much larger than in the last. We have noted 
 that in the Binet tests, one of the five-year-old tests is to 
 count four pennies, pointing to them; one of the seven- 
 year-old tests is similarly to count thirteen pennies, and two 
 
2SJ The Child 
 
 thirds of the six-year-old children ^re said to fail on this. 
 Bonser, however, testing forty-five children just entering 
 school, found the median number to which they could 
 count was loo, and the range of variation 3 to 1,000. He 
 does not indicate whether there was any test of knowledge 
 of what this meant or whether it was mere rote repeating. 
 The various tests of the ability to reason all show, as 
 we should expect, improvement with age and training, 
 whether the problems, are concerned with arithmetic, or 
 with cases of false reasoning, assuming that the subject 
 matter is familiar. But it also appears that not infre- 
 quently school children are expected to reason without 
 the necessary basis of familia,rity with the data to be 
 handled. One of the most important investigations here 
 is that of Bonser. He gave four kinds of tests: arith- 
 metical problems such as those ordinarily found in text- 
 books; controlled associations (filling in a blank in a 
 sentence, and also crossing out the tmsuitable one of two 
 suggested words in a sentence) ; writing the opposites to 
 a list of sixty words; selective judgment— choosing the 
 correct reason among ten. given for the truth of a state- 
 ment, choosing the correct definition out of five given; 
 and literary interpretation, which consisted in giving the 
 content of certain stanzas in the pupil's own words. 
 Bonser tested seveil hundred and fifty-seven children from 
 fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, nearly equal nimibers of 
 boys and girls. The hardest test was that of literary inter- 
 pretation, then selective judgment, mathematical judg- 
 ment, and controlled association. The percentage of 
 improvement from grade to grade is very suggestive. For 
 boys it is : 3 2. 44 per cent from A to sB; 3.2itosA; 16.43 to 
 6B;9.62to6A. For girls, 12.50; 12.82; 14.24; 8.48. That 
 is, the improvement of the girls is much steadier' than 
 that of the boys, and that of the boys is much the greatest 
 
Conception and Reasoning 253 
 
 between the first two grades. Correlation between indi- 
 vidual tests ranges from ..45 to .53; but correlation 
 between each individual test and all the tests taken 
 together, ranges from .85 with the opposites test to only 
 .37 with the literary interpretation test. That is, the 
 pupil who stands well in the opposites test will average 
 well in the others, but the correlations between the indi- 
 vidual tests indicate that the abilities tested are too 
 different for us to infer from test to test. Stone's tests 
 in arithmetic alone point in the same direction. He 
 found (testing six thousand children) that the correlations 
 between the fimdamental operations are very high — .92 to 
 .95 ; that is, children good in one are very likely to be good 
 in all. But the highest correlation of a fundamental with 
 reasoning is that of subtraction, and that is only .50, while 
 that of addition is only .32. A child may be very good 
 in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with- 
 out being good in reasoning. 
 
 Though it is aside from our main problem here, we 
 ought to note that both Rice's and Stone's studies, in 
 which large numbers of children from various cities were 
 tested, show no constant relation between the amount of 
 time spent in arithmetic and the good results obtained. 
 
 Fox and Thomdike, testing seventy-seven high-school 
 pupils along this same line, found similar independence 
 between the fundamental operations, problems, and 
 working with fractions. 
 
 These tests as already noted touch only upon the de- 
 ductive aspect of reasoning, and only upon a small part 
 of that. The application of a code of morality, a standard 
 of truth, of beauty, to particular cases would give still 
 other phases of this subject, and these will be touched 
 upon in connection with moral, aesthetic, and religious 
 ideas. Construction is still another phase. 
 
 17 
 
2 54 T he C hi Id 
 
 In considering what use parents and teachers can make 
 of the rather fragmentary data given in this chapter, at 
 Need of ^^^^ ^^° fundamental pedagogical situations 
 
 genuine appear. The first is the large one of putting 
 
 problems ^-^^ ^j^j^j under conditions which will demand 
 from him thoughtful adaptation not beyond his powers 
 of accomplishment. Normally, children are both inquisi- . 
 tive and adaptive; they love change and reaction to 
 change, and if they are supplied with plenty of sense 
 material, as already indicated, they will go far even alone. 
 We have also seen how spontaneously they create and 
 imagine for pure love of doing so, and much more when 
 there is some need to motivate the action. The mother 
 and teacher can supply situations demanding planned 
 action, and should do so. 
 
 Another of the best ways to encourage this as well as 
 
 systematic thought is by wise answefing of questions. 
 
 There is a certain kind of questioning into 
 
 which some children fall automatically. 
 
 They do not ask because they do not hear or because 
 
 they want to know, but simply for the sake of saying 
 
 „^ . , something. Usually, if no answer is given 
 Educational , , , ■' , . , , 
 
 bearings: them they wander on to something else, and 
 
 children's from that to something else. Frequently 
 questions , , - , , , 
 
 they themselves know the answer to the 
 
 question they ask. Such a bad habit can usually be 
 broken by asking in turn of the child the question he has 
 asked, thus making him realize how foolish or how 
 thoughtless he has been. However, when a child waits 
 for an answer, and persists in the question, he should be 
 answered in as true and scientific a way as he can under- 
 stand, and should be encouraged to ask more questions, 
 instead of being repressed. 
 
 Wonder, or curiosity in the good sense, is the root of 
 
Conception and Reasoning 255 
 
 all love of knowledge, and it is one of the greatest dis- 
 credits to our present school system that it is more likely 
 to crush this tendency than to nurture it into the 
 scientific spirit. The child who enters school curious at 
 every point, overflowing with questions, and brimful of 
 wonder and reverence at the mysterious things about 
 him, becomes in a few years passive and quiet, a receptacle 
 for any information that is poured into him, and blind to 
 any value or beauty that it has. The teacher asks all 
 the questions and he has to answer them. Seldom are 
 the tables turned. Such a condition is very different 
 from the ideal school, in which there "is a constant give 
 and take in question and answer between teacher and 
 pupils, and where both teacher and pupils are learners. 
 Both have doubts to settle, and can settle them best by a 
 free discussion. 
 
 Again, we often do not know how to answer a child's 
 question in a way that he can understand. When he asks 
 why it thimders, or why the leaves fall off, it is puz- 
 zling to know what to say. Often, if we can cite some 
 similar case, it satisfies him. If he has ever seen an 
 electric spark, he will probably be contented to know that 
 the lightning and thunder are just a big spark and the 
 noise that it makes. Such an answer has the further 
 advantage of connecting in the child's mind similar 
 phenomena, and of forming the habit of looking for 
 such similarities. Certainly it is useless to give the 
 child superstitions about such well understood scientific 
 facts as these. There is, however, the question of whether 
 we should answer a child imaginatively or literally. 
 Mr. Sully is authority for the statement that when a child 
 is in the imaginative age, between four and eight," we can 
 best answer such questions as why the leaves fall by 
 saying they are tired of hanging on the trees. We can 
 
2s6 The Child 
 
 say Jack Frost draws the pictures on the window pane, 
 and in various ways assume, as the child himself does at 
 this time, that all causes are persons. In this coiuiection 
 we have also the much mooted question of whether we 
 shall teach children to believe in Santa Claus and fairies. 
 
 There is, I believe, a point to be made here which 
 sets a standard for the sort of answer to be given. It is 
 certainly true that the child from four to eight years old 
 lives in a world that is personal through and through, 
 and that he delights in Santa Claus and fairies. Now, 
 the point is this : Can we not answer his questions 
 imaginatively, and still in such a way as to present the 
 scientific truth, though not in a literal form? There 
 is a certain truth in the statement that the leaves are 
 tired of hanging on to the trees, and that they drop off 
 because they are old and weak. The child told this goes 
 on easily, when he can, to the knowledge of the changes 
 in the leaf that dry it and let it drop ofE. The essential 
 thing is to state the truth as nearly as we can, though in 
 the imaginative form, and not to give a child the imagina- 
 tive answer when he is old enough for the scientific. 
 
 Finally, to cultivate a child's reasoning powers, there 
 is no better way than to start with his own question, 
 Cultivating and answer enough of it to give him the 
 reasoning necessary information and the curiosity 
 to think out the rest of the answer. Constantly suggest 
 the question of how this fact is related to that : If leaves 
 drop off because they are tired, why do not the oak and 
 evergreen leaves get tired? Or do they get tired too? 
 Why do the leaves come out in the spring? If lightning 
 is an electric spark, why don't we use it in our houses, 
 as we do electricity? Lead the child, through imitation 
 and suggestion, to form the habit of (questioning and of 
 thinking out the answ;ers to the questions. The person 
 
Conception and Reasoning 257 
 
 who can question wisely renders the greatest intellectual 
 service possible to another in the way of stimulation and 
 suggestion. It has been well shown in the Aussage 
 tests that all questions have something of a suggestive 
 power, if not in their own form then in the manner, 
 inflections, and so on, of the questioner. A question is 
 fundamentally a command or an appeal, and involves 
 factors of will and emotion in addition to that of knowl- 
 edge, when the situation is normal. Unfortunately, 
 many teachers do not consider questions as aids to 
 purposive thinking for their pupils, but use them only 
 for the purpose of testing, knowledge already acquired, 
 and even then they oftentimes suggest the answer by the 
 way they ask the question. As a result, the pupils soon 
 learn to pay less attention to the content of the question 
 than to the manner of asking, and become adepts at 
 giving correct answers without much real knowledge of 
 the subject under discussion. If we teachers could give 
 purposive, non-suggestive questions adapted to the 
 pupils a long step would be taken toward obtaining 
 ideal schools. 
 
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 Further Work on Numerical Accuracy in School Children. 
 
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 Memory. Brit. Jour. Psy., 191 1, 95-125; 1910, 386-405. 
 Wright, W. R. Some Effects of Incentives on Work and Fatigue. 
 
 Psy. Rev., 1906, Vol. XIII, 23-34. 
 Yamada, Sochichi. Study of Questioning. Fed. Sem., June 1913, 
 
 129-186. Bibliog. 
 Young, Sarah. Children's Saving and Spending. Paid., 1904, 
 
 Vol. VI, 6-17. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 
 
 Question the children on the following points: 
 
 1. God. Where is He? What does He do? Why 
 can we not see Him? Observa- 
 
 2. Death. Why do people die? Where *'°°s 
 
 do they go? ^--^^l 
 
 3. Heaven. Where is it? Who go there? Barnes 
 What do they do there? What will children have there? 
 
 4. Hell. What must a person do to go there? What 
 is it like? 
 
 5. Angels. What do they do? 
 
 6. Ghosts. Why are people afraid of them? 
 
 7. Witches. What can they do? 
 
 8. Prayer. Why do people pray? Why do they not 
 get what they pray for? 
 
 9. Why do people celebrate Christmas? Why do 
 they go to church? 
 
 In entering upon a subject on which there are so 
 many differing opinions, a word as to the standpoint 
 taken is necessary. The attempt is made Introduc- 
 here, as elsewhere, to state in an unbiased t'on 
 way all the facts so far reached by actual observation and 
 questioning of children and adults, and to draw only what 
 conclusions are warranted by those facts. The funda- 
 mental principle that the teaching of childhood largely 
 determines the adult's belief is the idea which is here 
 worked out in detail. The close connection between 
 physical and mental states also receives further emphasis 
 
 261 
 
262 The Child 
 
 from the study of religious phenomena, and we do not 
 believe that religion is belittled by the acknowledgment of 
 this connection, any more than natural science is. Rather, 
 the necessity of religion is emphasized. 
 
 The attempt to sum up religious feelings, conver- 
 sions, and so on, in tables may also seem to some to be, 
 from the very nature of the case, futile. It must be 
 remembered, however, that these data are obtained from 
 the individuals undergoing the experiences thus tabulated, 
 — just as were the data for imagination and memory, — and 
 are reliable to the same degree. Doubtless more data 
 are needed to corroborate those given, but equally are 
 more needed to discredit them. They are simply con- 
 tributions to aid in solving the difficult problem of re- 
 ligious instruction. 
 
 At the outset, it is necessary to differentiate certain 
 terms that in common consciousness overlap or are 
 Morality confused. Morality, religion, and theology 
 religion, and are not identical, and yet it is difficult to 
 
 ^^ °sy separate them. The difference may, per- 
 haps, be stated concisely thus: They represent three 
 aspects of human nature— religion is the feeling or longing 
 for unity, the feeling of sin, the consciousness of imper- 
 fection, and the striving for harmony with the good. It 
 is primarily emotional, not volitional or intellectual. 
 Theology is the interpretation which the intellect gives; 
 the formulating or the explanation of this feeling of 
 incompleteness and striving for perfection. Morality, 
 again, is the code of action and the actual living toward 
 perfection as we conceive it, the holding of right relations 
 to our fellow-men and to God. Theology gives the men- 
 tal content to religious feeling, and morality is religion 
 incarnate. A man may, then, be religious, that is, he may 
 have the rehgious spirit, without believing in any creed 
 
Keligious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 263 
 
 or dogma; and, indeed, so Professor Leuba says, with- 
 out believing in a Gpd, if he has this active longing 
 for perfection, for a better than he. His theology 
 may be science or philosophy, or any kind of knowledge 
 whatever. 
 
 If we accept this general statement we can easily see 
 that theologies and systems of morality will vary from 
 age to age, according to public opinion and the prog- 
 ress of knowledge; but that the underlying religious 
 feeling, the striving of the self toward a better self, 
 will remain as the source or motive of all our theologiz- 
 ing and moralizing. Marshall, indeed, maintains that 
 there is a religious instinct, an inborn desire to reach 
 beyond one's petty self, and that this is the root of 
 all altruism — the emphasis of the race as against the 
 individual. 
 
 Froebel also maintains that the germ of the reli- 
 gious spirit exists even in the baby, in the feeling of com- 
 munity and dependence between himself Religious 
 and the mother; and Baldwin, voicing the spirit and 
 opinion of many writers of to-day, looks ^°" ^^'^ 
 upon the religious sentiment as the highest outgrowth 
 of the ethical and social sentiments. We cannot, he 
 believes, say properly that the little child is religious 
 except as he is social. His first love, trust, and dependence 
 are directed toward the people about him. Only later, 
 and by slow degrees, does he learn to transfer these 
 feelings to an invisible God. 
 
 In these relations to people he is developing more 
 sense (i) of his own personality, and (2) of that of others. 
 
 In the reHgious sentiment, the first element gives 
 content; the second, mystery and awe. 
 
 Thus we find that children interpret God and heaven 
 in terms of their familiar experience, making oftentimes 
 
264 The Child 
 
 the most grotesque and bizarre combinations. God is a 
 big man and Satan a bogie, heaven is a glorified earth, 
 Child's ^^^ ^° ^^ along the line. The little child 
 
 images of looks on father and mother much as adults 
 do on God, and relying upon them for help; 
 learns his first lessons in religious trust and faith. 
 
 So, also, the child may look upon any person or thing 
 that is very strong as a god. Sully quotes the case of 
 a little boy of four years who, on seeing a group of 
 workmen, asked his mother if they were gods, "because 
 they make houses and churches same as God makes 
 moons and people and ickle dogs." The idea of God 
 is, at first, only that of a person more powerful than 
 others. 
 
 As the child's mind develops, he comes to look upon 
 father and mother as the all-wise to whom obedience 
 must be given and from whom knowledge may be 
 obtained, but who must also, on occasion, be deceived 
 or propitiated. God is, then, the great lawgiver. 
 
 The question of whether a child left without any 
 religious instruction at all would form an idea of God, 
 Effect of no ^^ difficult to answer, for all children hear 
 religious more or less talk about religious matters. 
 *"^^ There is, however, a case of an uninstructed 
 
 deaf-mute, M. d'Estrella, who formed for himself the 
 idea of a "Strong Man behind the hills, who threw the 
 sun up into the sky, puffed the clouds from his pipe, and 
 sent out the wind when he was angry." It would be 
 strange, indeed, if any reflective mind did not reach 
 some idea of a cause of the world, and the first tendency 
 is always to make the cause a person. 
 
 Furthermore, we have already seen that little children 
 are thoroughly animistic, that' they naturally interpret 
 everything going on about them in terms of personality. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 265 
 
 so that objects and animals, to say nothing of the larger 
 forces of nature, are looked upon as acting for or against 
 the child, as meaning him good or ill. If Natural 
 
 they seem to be more powerful than he, fear religion 
 
 and the attempt to propitiate are inevitable °* '^'"'^ 
 
 next steps, and then we have a form of religion. 
 
 We cannot, therefore, agree with Ames in his position 
 that children before nine years cannot pass beyond the 
 non-moral and non-religious attitude to any great degree. 
 They cannot attain the adult standpoint and have 
 the religion and morality of a mature mind, all would 
 admit, but that is far from saying that they have no 
 religion or morality. We may grant that their reli- 
 gion is superstition and their morality the relatively 
 external condition of obedience and custom, but we may 
 at the same time insist that the child . who does not 
 attain to these is in all probability defective or dis- , 
 tinctly abnormal. 
 
 Dawson's position seems nearer the truth. He says 
 that the natural religion of children consists of three chief 
 factors — it is animistic, has belief in a personal cause, 
 and has belief in personal immortality. Various returns 
 show that children naturally asstmie that they never die, 
 and that the first thought of annihilation is not only 
 intolerable but hardly conceivable. We know how early 
 in primitive religions dreams, shadows, echoes, and similar 
 phenomena gave rise to the belief in a spirit world, the 
 animistic mind seizing with avidity upon every evidence 
 of continuance of personality. We may feel that this 
 belief stands condemned by science, but we still have left 
 the question of how we shall deal with it in the child 
 with,out religion. Shall we bring him up in ignorance of 
 the great race religion, the tremendous religious emotions 
 and forces at work in every community, because we do 
 
266 The Child 
 
 not approve the theological fonri they may have taken? 
 Shall we leave reverence, inspiration, awe, and prayer 
 out of his life because we are not sure there is an objective 
 or personal God? 
 
 We have also one full account of the theological ideas 
 of a boy brought up without rehgious training, whose 
 Bergen's parents were opposed to current religious 
 account ideas, but who was accidentally informed of 
 
 religious matters by neighbors and occasional attendance 
 at church. It is interesting as showing the effect of early 
 surroundings in as marked a way as the other records to 
 be quoted later. 
 
 No religious instruction was given this boy, and he was 
 not told his parents' belief until fifteen years of age; 
 servants were warned not to speak of religious matters, 
 no grace was asked at table, and all religious terms used 
 in his presence were spelled. Naturally, he became very 
 curious to know what the spelled words meant. He first 
 went to church to an Easter service when seven years of 
 age, but did not understand at all the sjmibolism of the 
 spring-time resurrection. When ten years old he went 
 for the second time to a Catholic vesper service, at which 
 he was impressed by a large painting of Christ. When 
 twelve years of age he was encouraged to go to church, 
 but showed great distaste for it. 
 
 He knew something about death even when three years 
 old, but had no fear of it until eleven, when a physical 
 shrinking, which he did not outgrow for several years, 
 manifested itself. He was unable to conceive of the soul 
 as immaterial at ten years of age, and hunted for it in all 
 parts of dead animals. At twelve, he said that the 
 resurrection could not have happened, for in respect to 
 death people were in the same condition now that they 
 were two thousand years ago. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 267 
 
 He grew very eager to read the Bible, because he 
 noticed that people spoke differently of it from what 
 they did of other books; but when a New Testament 
 was given him, at the age of ten, he soon tired of it. At 
 eleven, he explained the accounts of miracles as exaggera- 
 tions of some real act of Jesus due to the repeating of it 
 by one person to another. 
 
 When about fifteen years old he admitted that there 
 must be some force or cause back of the physical world, 
 but he maintained that we had no reason to say that 
 this force was a person, and that it was belittling to 
 worship a thing; therefore worship was senseless. Thus, 
 the Gradgrind method produced the same results in 
 religion as in any other field. 
 
 In the case of children who receive the usual religious 
 training, there is an unquestioning acceptance of what is 
 told them up to the seventh year. Between p, ., ,, 
 the seventh and the tenth year there are tude toward 
 some questions, and after ten, attempts to feligious 
 reason things out, this critical attitude 
 increasing to the thirteenth or fourteenth year. The 
 spirit of doubt first shows itself in attempts to place the 
 responsibility for statements: as, "The Bible says," 
 "My father believes," and so on. Next come attempts 
 to make the theological accdunt square with actual life 
 and with the child's own ideas of kindness and justice. 
 The life of eternal song has not the attractions that life 
 with a calliope or dnmi has. The injustice of sending the 
 baby sister to hell-fires leads to rebelUon against the entire 
 system. Still, on the whole, there is little questioning 
 from most children. 
 
 Starbuck,! who, with Barnes, has made the widest 
 observations on children's theological ideas, finds the 
 
 iStarbuck's data include 330 children; Barnes's, 1,091. 
 
268 
 
 The Child 
 
 following factors predominant in the child's religious life: 
 
 Factors 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 , Credulity and conformity 
 
 Doubt 
 
 Bargaining with God 
 
 God as talisman 
 
 God and heaven near 
 
 Love and trust in God 
 
 Awe and reverence 
 
 Fears 
 
 Dislike of religious observances. . 
 Pleasure in religious observances . 
 Keen sense of right and wrong . . . 
 
 3-1% 
 
 5% 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 3, 
 
 17 . 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 i6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 We notice here, as usual, the tmquestioning acceptance 
 of statenients made by parents or teachers as noted also 
 by Barnes. This, Baldwin would doubtless refer to the 
 child's feeling of dependence on parents. Again, the idea 
 of barter and the small percentage of feelings of love, 
 reverence, and fear, in Hall's opinion, seem to point to 
 parents teachings that God is a sort of servant for the 
 child. Barnes's papers show essentially the same thing. 
 God and heaven are most common in thought; hell and the 
 devil less so. The spiritual world is, in the main, pleasant, 
 but is peopled with strange forms, doing unreal things. 
 
 Natural phenomena are hardly mentioned in relation 
 to God. He seems to the child's consciousness wholly 
 distinct from the world. 
 
 Children, as a rule, have very vague ideas about what 
 God and Christ do, or what religious observance is for. 
 One boy says God bosses the world, but usually they 
 seem to think that the angels do the practical work. 
 The relation of Christ to God is reversed in one fourth 
 of the cases where he is mentioned, and in the majority 
 of cases he is not even mentioned. The Trinity is 
 spoken of by only two children out of one thousand and 
 ninety-one. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 269 
 
 The virtues which are most commonly considered 
 necessary in order to get to heaven are: being very 
 good, keeping the commandments, believing „ ,. . 
 in God, loving God, praying, and so on, — feeling'and 
 all in the line of religious observance, and P°rfl sense 
 not at all of practical morality. 
 
 Children do not name teachers as the sovtrce of their 
 ideas, but parents, church, pictures, and the "hired girl." , 
 
 If these reports are typical, it would seem that up to 
 the age of twelve the child's theological consciousness con- 
 sists, as a rule, simply of statements made by others and 
 accepted without doubt; that the religious feeling is not 
 yet separated from the feeling of dependence and mystery 
 excited by parents and companions; and that the moral 
 sense is only the sense of what custom demands. Shame 
 is the shame of being found out, rather than of the doing 
 of wrong, and the virtues possessed by the child are the 
 result of imitation rather than of moral conviction. 
 
 Between the ages of twelve and sixteen, however, 
 comes the great period of conversion, for this is the time 
 when by far the majority of professing Conversion: 
 Christians join the church. If this does not average age 
 occur before the age of twenty, at most, it is unlikely to 
 take place later. 
 
 Starbuck's records show that out of three hundred and 
 thirty cases in all,- the average age of conversion for girls 
 was between twelve and thirteen and for boys between 
 fifteen and sixteen. A second period occurs between th6 
 ages of sixteen and eighteen. These cases are explained 
 by the fact that many of those converted then had been 
 partially converted two years before, but for one cause 
 or another had become indifferent. The first of these 
 periods, you will notice, is at the age of puberty, and it 
 seems practically certain that the oncoming of maturity 
 
270 The Child 
 
 is closely connected with conversion. It is the time 
 when the physical nature develops the necessity of 
 another for its perfection, and this need would naturally 
 be reflected in the mental and emotional life in every 
 way. The vague mental longings and questionings and 
 unrests due to the rapid growth of association fibers in 
 the nervous centers may be in large part satisfied by 
 love of the ideal, and the hero-worship of which religion 
 is one form. This close connection between mental and 
 physical growth is shown also by the records of early 
 conversion (71 per cent of women and 64 per cent of 
 men). Such conversions are often due to overtraining or 
 strong pressure (84 per cent and 73 per cent) ; but other- 
 wise they seem to accompany early physical development 
 (43 and 36 per cent). 
 
 Coming now to the meaning of the term, "conversion" 
 properly covers all awakening to the demands of the 
 Meaning of higher life and determination to meet them, 
 conversion whether the change be sudden or slow. 
 Most writers agree in the following: 
 
 1. The sense of sin. This is found in 17 per cent of 
 revival and 20 per cent of non-revival conversions, with 
 or without religious training. If we include in this the 
 fear of God as the Judge, with the resultant fears of 
 death and hell, we must add 15 per cent and 16 per cent 
 more to each of the above, making 32 per cent and 26 
 per cent, respectively. When the early life has been 
 bad, this sense is, of course, more prominent, but it 
 appears even when the worst sins are little faults. Pro- 
 fessor Leuba says that fear is often taken for the con- 
 viction of sin, and that many such cases are complicated 
 with bodily disorders, as hysteria, which add to the 
 feeling. This period will be referred to again later. 
 
 2. Self -surrender. The yielding of self to the divine 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 271 
 
 will. This appears in 10 per cent of the men and 12 
 per cent of the women. It is usually preceded by much 
 mental depression and meditation. Often there is 
 violent resistance, wrestling with God, argument and 
 doubt. This is much more prominent in men than in 
 women — doubt registering with them 36 per cent as 
 against 6 per cent in women. In a few cases this is 
 followed by a determination to live a better life, but as 
 a rule the order after self-surrender is hope, trust, and 
 love, culminating in 
 
 3. Faith in 16 per cent of men and 15 per cent of 
 women. . The nature of faith has been much discussed 
 by theologians, and we cannot expect to settle what it 
 should be. In actual practice, it seems, more than any- 
 thing else, to be the feeling of oneness with God and 
 good, and the conviction that he is to be trusted. It 
 is entirely apart from intellectual conviction, and is not, 
 as a rule, behef in dogmas. It is not reasonable or 
 reasoned faith, but, rather, an emotional state. It leads 
 directly to 
 
 4. Justification, and the sense of forgiveness (22 per 
 cent of men and 14 per cent of women), or the feeling 
 of divine aid (10 and 6 per cent). Physiologically this 
 is perhaps due to the inevitable reaction from the great 
 nervous strain. We are speaking here of revival cases 
 only. Any one who has seen a genuine old-fashioned 
 revival cannot doubt that mere physical fatigue has 
 in some cases much to do with conversion. A woman, 
 for example, worked up to the highest nervous pitch by 
 her emotions, gives way, and an attack of weeping and 
 laughing with consequent relief follows, which is inter- 
 preted by her as knowledge of God's forgiveness. 
 
 5. As the nattu-al result, there is a feeling of great 
 joy. The world seems to be newly made. The whole 
 
272 The Child 
 
 nature rises to a higher level, and in many cases (14 
 and 18 per cent) public confession and testimony to 
 the power of the divine spirit follow. 
 
 6. The will is felt to be wholly powerless. The sub- 
 ject is carried on by a power outside himself. "Saved 
 by the grace of God" expresses his state of mind. It 
 seems to be to a large extent a struggle between con- 
 scious and unconscious factors, between .habits which 
 have passed below the level of attention and ideas which 
 are as yet so vaguely felt as to be indescribable. It is 
 again, perhaps, in large part the mental reflection of 
 the bodily change — the opposition between the life of the 
 individual and that of the race. 
 
 Between the two sets of forces the child's conscious- 
 ness stands dismayed. He feels himself as day molded 
 by forces far more powerful than he, forces not only 
 without him, but within him — how can he feel otherwise 
 than helpless, and what hope is there for him if not in God? 
 
 Let us now take up in more detail the studies of actual 
 conversions. 
 
 In the first place it seems to be true that the natiire 
 of the conversion, for most people, depends to a large 
 Conversion extent upon what is expected. Thus the 
 and denominations Hke the Methodist, that 
 
 e uca ion employ the revival method and teach the 
 necessity of a sudden and absolute turning from sin, 
 can show the most remarkable cases of reformation; 
 while those like the Episcopalian, that look for a steady 
 development of the religious life, are more likely to 
 secure that. 
 
 Teaching, imitation, and social pressure in other 
 ways influence 42 per cent of revival cases and 37 per 
 cent of non-revival cases. We do not mean to say that 
 they are the sole factors, but only that they are important. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 273 
 
 Allowing, however, for preconceived expectations, 
 we find that many who look for sudden conversion, 
 and perhaps even desire and strive for it, conversion 
 are iinable to attain it, while others get and tem- 
 just what they expect. perament 
 
 Professor Coe finds that out of sixteen subjects who ex- 
 pected conversion and were satisfied, twelve were in an emo- 
 tional, as opposed to an intellectual, state of mind; eight 
 of them had had hallucinations or motor automatisms of 
 some kind, such as involtintary laughter or song, and 
 many of them felt assured of special answer to prayer. 
 
 In another group, on the other hand, out of twelve 
 subjects, who expected conversion and were disap- 
 pointed, nine were in an intellectual state, only one 
 had either hallucinations or motor automatisms, and 
 very few had direct answers to prayer. 
 
 Under hypnotic influence, those in the first group are 
 as a rule passively suggestible, while those in the second 
 group, except in one or two cases, are suggestible, but are 
 likely to add to or modify the suggestions in some way. 
 
 Taking now those who are converted, Starbuck gives 
 the following; 
 
 Circumstances of Conversion 
 
 Revival or camp meeting . 
 At home after revival . . . . 
 
 At home alone 
 
 Regular church 
 
 Circumstances not given . . 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 48% 
 
 46% 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 .32 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 The motives of conversion have been touched upon 
 slightly already, in giving- social motives or objective 
 forces, and the sense of sin. Other motives Motives of 
 also enter in. Egotistic motives, such as to conversion 
 gain heaven, form 21 per cent of both revival and non- 
 revival cases. These motives average highest in the 
 
2 74 T he C hild 
 
 earlier years, diminishing up to the age of sixteen, then 
 increasing up to eighteen, and thence declining. Love 
 of God and Christ is mentioned as a motive in but 2 
 per cent of the cases, while love of a moral ideal is given 
 in 15. Thei latter motive steadily increases in importance 
 with the age of the one converted. 
 
 These motives ought to determine the character of 
 the new life, and yet the percentages do not seem to 
 agree in all cases. 
 
 Motive 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 
 25% 
 43 
 36 
 48 
 
 S 
 
 25% 
 
 Love for others 
 
 42 
 
 Nearness to Nature 
 
 32 
 
 
 47 
 
 Nearness to Christ 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 If love of God enter so little into conversion, it seems 
 strange that the feeling of nearness to him should be 
 so marked a feature of the new Ufe, unless the desire for 
 his approval is really more prominent before conversion 
 than is indicated. Or, again, it may be that the mere 
 feeling of relaxation, or release after the strain of expecta- 
 tion, is given this meaning. 
 
 Notice how small a part is assigned to Christ in these 
 figures, obtained in nearly all cases from orthodox church 
 members; and yet Christ is the central figure in the 
 scheme of justification and redemption. 
 
 Let us now consider briefly the religious life which 
 is a gradual growth, without the storm and stress of con- 
 Gradual version. Whether the development shall be 
 growth gradual or not is to a large extent a matter 
 of temperament, but gradual growth is facilitated by 
 early religious surroundings and by freedom to raise 
 doubts and wisdom in answering them. In such cases 
 the belief in God, Christ, and immortality play a much 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 275 
 
 more important part than in cases of sudden conversion. 
 The thought is not centered so entirely upon self. 
 
 In cases where the reUgious feeling was not aroused 
 at puberty, some other strong interest takes its place. 
 Usually this is the moral interest in 33 per cent of women 
 and 43 per cent of men, but it may be intellectual (21 
 and 32 per cent), or assthetic (15 and 16 per cent). 
 
 What now are the permanent results? In the cases 
 of gradual growth, doubts are usually settled as they 
 rise, hence the growth is as a nile a part of permanence 
 character. of conver- 
 
 In cases of conversion, on the other hand, ^'°°^ 
 there is frequently a period of reaction and reconstruc- 
 tion of belief. The tables stand thus: 
 
 
 Men 
 
 Result of 
 Conversion 
 
 Revivals 
 
 Age 
 
 Non-revi- 
 vals 
 
 Age 
 
 Relapsed 
 
 Permanent 
 
 48% 
 15 
 
 13-7 
 17 
 
 24% 
 35 
 
 175 
 18.7 
 
 
 Wmoen 
 
 Result of 
 Conversion 
 
 Revivals 
 
 Age 
 
 Non-revi- 
 vals 
 
 Age 
 
 
 41% 
 14 
 
 12 
 143 
 
 14% 
 
 n 
 
 16 
 
 Permanent 
 
 15-3 
 
 This reconstruction ma^ be, and often is, simply a 
 new interpretation of religious beliefs, a more vital 
 realization of the meaning of religion to the individual. 
 It does not necessarily involve any break with the church, 
 although the struggle is often a severe one. Or, again, it 
 may lead to rupture. This period usually covers the 
 period from sixteen to twenty years. 
 
 What, then, should be the religious traJining of a child? 
 When should it begin ? What should be formal and what 
 
276 The Child 
 
 incidental? These and many other questions still await 
 solution, although within the last ten years many books 
 have appeared and many reforms have been made in 
 Sunday school work fn various places. For a general 
 standpoint we can hardly do better than to follow G. 
 Stanley Hall's chapter on ReUgious Training, in Problems 
 of Education. 
 
 To the baby the parents, and especially the mother, 
 stand in th© place . of God. The feeling of absolute 
 Religion in dependence, with the love flowing naturally 
 babyhood out of the satisfaction of its needs, is the 
 same that later should be felt toward God, and the more 
 the mother and father cultivate love and gratitude toward 
 themselves, the more naturally will the child feel them 
 later toward the supreme sovirce of all good. If the 
 parents are wise, good, loving, the child will easily believe 
 in a God that is so, but if they. are capricious, governed 
 by moods, or subject to the child's whims, his idea of 
 God will be similarly defective. 
 
 Again, the very establishment of regularity, order, 
 and law in all the details of the child's life is the most 
 effective preparation for a later belief in tuiiversal law. 
 This holds even of all the physical details — regular hours 
 of eating, sleeping, and so on, but far more of the attitude 
 of parents to children in matters of discipUne and morality. 
 
 By the time the child is three or fotur years old he 
 begins to ask questions about religious as about all other 
 subjects, and the question of religious instruction becomes 
 pressing. How shall we begin so that when the child is 
 grown he need not with suffering imleam what he now 
 acquires ? Certainly, we cannot leave a child uninstructed. 
 He himself prevents this by his eager questions, and if 
 we do not answer them, or if we give evasive answers, 
 we get results very analogous to those resulting from 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 277 
 
 wrong responses to questions about' sexual matters. 
 The child will get information, and the real question each 
 parent must ask himself and answer is whether he wishes 
 to give the information himself or will risk the child's 
 getting it from sources he deems undesirable. 
 
 We have already seen that early childhood is the age 
 of fancy, belief in a living world, in fairies, and so on. 
 We have not considered it necessary to shut in early 
 out fairy tales and Santa Claus and Jack childhood 
 Frost; we give the child the Greek myths, and why should 
 we not give him the Hebrew myths, telling these as we 
 do the others so that the central meaning shall be true 
 later to his reason? 
 
 Again, stories of the childhood and babyhood of Christ, 
 the nativity, the wise men following the star and worship- 
 ing the babe in the manger, the angels' song, and so 
 on, appeal to little children as stories, and lay the basis for 
 the intimate knowledge so desirable later. 
 
 Dawson's questionnaire returns on the interest of 
 children in the Bible give some very interesting data. 
 At eight years, interest in the Old and New Bible 
 Testaments was nearly equal for the boys — interests 
 60 per cent preferring the New; but 70 per cent of the 
 girls preferred the New. A year later, however, interest 
 is equal in Old and New, and interest in the New declines 
 up to 32 per cent for boys at fourteen years and 30 per cent 
 for girls at twelve years. Studies in other fields would 
 lead us to suppose on other grounds such results. Children 
 like stories of heroes, exciting events, speedy punishments, 
 strict justice, — and all these are found in the Old Testa- 
 ment tales. In Dr. Hall's opinion, children's moral 
 outlook is very similar to that of the Old Testament, 
 and the God there depicted is the one whom they naturally 
 worship. The love, pity, and self-sacrifice of Christ they 
 
278 The Child 
 
 cannot understand, and still less, of course, the Epistles 
 and Revelation. If they are forced prematurely to these, 
 not only do they become more or less hypocritical in re- 
 ligious expression, but they acquire mechanically from 
 their elders forms of thought and expression which mean 
 little and which later repress the normal growth. 
 
 At adolescence, however, when love and altruism 
 and high ideals burgeon, when the sense of inadequacy 
 Adolescent of the pubescent easily deepens into the sense 
 religion of sin, Christ and the Gospels take on a 
 
 deep significance. We do not sufficiently appreciate 
 the fact that Christ and his apostles were adolescents. 
 At twelve Christ took up his mission, and he completed 
 it when he had barely reached what we now consider 
 maturity. The events of his life, and especially those 
 of his death and resurrection, make a stronger appeal 
 at this age than at any other, and may become the strong- 
 est motive for imitation and love. Here again, however, 
 in Dr. Hall's opitiion, the human side should predominate 
 in the teaching. 
 
 Still later, the development of Christianity — that is, 
 church history, the development of missions, the historical 
 aspects of the Jewish religion, and so on — becomes inter- 
 esting, as does also comparative religion. 
 
 Along with this humanistic aspect of religion goes the 
 natural side. The worship of Nature and natural objects 
 Nature and is a deeply rooted tendency in human nattore, 
 reUgion and appears in the child in his tendencies 
 
 to animism, in his belief in charms and superstitions, 
 and in the reverential, awe-stricken attitude toward 
 great natural phenomena so well described in Dr. Hall's 
 chapters in Adolescence. The child should be out in 
 the starry night, in winter and summer, alone, if possible. 
 ■He should wander in the woods and muse on the clouds. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 279 
 
 the shadows, the wind, and thus breathe in the infinities 
 and spiritualities of space as his forbears did. To-day, 
 in our endeavor that our reUgion shall be justified by its 
 fruits, we are in danger of making worship nothing but 
 work. The service of humanity, the institutional church, 
 the belief in God as the great socius and in conscience as 
 the product of social training — all these have done much 
 good, especially in their rebound from the doctrine of 
 faith without works. But with them religion must also 
 have the factors of contemplation, awe, mystery, infinity, 
 and eternity, and these it can get best from contact with 
 Nature. God is more than the ideal companion; he is 
 also the Eternal, which was before even the mountains 
 were brought forth; he rides on the wind and speaks 
 through the thunder. Conscience, too, though it take its 
 form from its surroundings, bases itself upon instincts 
 that antedate himianity, and the service of humanity 
 itself would have no motivation were it not for instinc- 
 tive feelings of which reasoning religion takes little ac- 
 count. It is an interesting fact that the great mystics, so 
 called, have also been persons who excelled in good 
 works; while the theologians have too often left the 
 hungry still hungry and the wicked unrepentant. 
 
 Religion, then, to do its perfect work upon the tender 
 child and the youth, must be allowed to adapt itself to 
 their nature, and this means that it must Religion 
 be a growth like the child. In its early a growth 
 forms it will contain crudities and superstitions, and lack 
 some factors which are necessary to its higher forms. 
 But these will come by the way of natural development, 
 if they are not prematurely forced. 
 
 There are ntunerous practical questions in all directions 
 which can barely be referred to here. One of the most 
 puzzling to the parent who believes thoroughly in 
 
28o The Child 
 
 immutable law is whether or not the child shall be 
 taught to pray. Of course children do pray constantly to 
 all those about them, just in proportion as they 
 feel their dependence, and in the animistic 
 stage of their mental growth it is inevitable that they shall 
 pray to the God or gods in whom they believe. To teach 
 them to pray aright is the parents' task — to so pray that 
 the expression of their desires shall strengthen all the 
 tendencies to good, their aspirations and ideals, and shall 
 give them a conviction that the great forces of good in 
 the universe are working with them. Nothing, on the 
 other hand, can be much worse than to allow children to 
 pray for material goods, for specific pleasures, for this 
 makes God a Special sort of servant who can be pro- 
 pitiated or bought. 
 
 Again, there are the various problems connected with 
 the Sunday schools, and with the matter of religious 
 School instruction in the public schools. Whether 
 
 instruction jn this country it will ever be possible for 
 Protestant, Catholic, and Jew to agree upon certain 
 fundamentals seems doubtful at present. It may be 
 that when we have a satisfactory scheme of moral instruc- 
 tion we shall find that the matter of religious instruction 
 has also been solved. In the Sunday schools we find the 
 most varied conditions. The sentiment is growing, 
 however, that the teacher here should be trained for the 
 work, and paid if necessary; that the work should be 
 given systematically and in accordance with the best 
 attainable knowledge, instead of being left to the inspira- 
 tion and prayer of the teacher. The apparatus and 
 methods of the secular schools in the way of maps, draw- 
 ing, and so on, are being introduced, but just as' in the 
 public schools, we find them used at times in ways that 
 are, to put it mildly, absurd. For these we must refer 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 281 
 
 the reader to the special books given in the reference lists. 
 The teaching of the special dogmas of the parents' 
 sect or religion is another difficult question, and perhaps 
 hardly seems open to discussion by those who 
 are ardent believers. But surely we cannot 
 question to-day that the youth has the right to choose 
 that particular sect which he feels most suited to his own 
 needs, and that to force his childish thought into the 
 mold of a given set of dogmas is a dwarfing of his soul. 
 There is a justification for different sects in the needs of 
 different natures, though these needs probably do not 
 appear imtil adolescence. The youth should then have 
 the opportimity to know the tenets of the different sects 
 within Christianity, as well as of various religions. 
 Tolerance should be a fact as well as an ideal. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Religious Ideas 
 
 Ames, E. S. Psychology of Religious Experience. Houghton, 
 
 Mifflin, 1910, 427 pp. 
 Barnes, Earle. Theological Life of a California Child. Fed. Sent., 
 
 1892, 442-448. 
 Punishment as Seen by Children. Fed. Sem., Vol. Ill, 234-245. 
 Batten, S. Z. Church as the Maker of Conscience. Am. Jour. Soc, 
 
 1902, Vol. VII, 611-628. 
 Beck, F. O. Prayer. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., Mar. 1906, 107-121. 
 Bergen, F. D. Theological Development of a Child. Aretm, 
 
 1898, Vol. XIX, 254-266. 
 Brockman, F. S. Moral and Religious Life of 251 Preparatory 
 
 School Students. Ped. Sem., Sept. 1902, 255-273. 
 Brown, Daisy D. Young People's Ideas of the Value of Bible 
 
 Study. Ped. Sem., 1910, 370-386. 
 Brown, Marianna C. Sunday School Movements in America. 
 
 Revell, 1901, 261 pp. 
 Butler, N. M. Religious Instruction in Education. Ed. Rev., 
 
 Dec. 1899, Vol. XVIII, 425-436. (Advocates longer S. S. 
 
 sessions and paid teachers.) 
 
282 T he Child 
 
 Buy, Jean de. Stages of Religious Development. Am. Jour. Rel. 
 
 Psy., Vol. I, 7-29. 
 Calkins, M. W. Religious Consciousness of Children. New 
 
 World, 1896, 705-718. 
 Chrisman, O. Religious Periods of Child Growth. Ediic. Rev., 
 1898, Vol. XVI, 40-48. 
 Religious Ideas of a Child. C. S. M., March 1898, 516-528. 
 Clapp, R. G. New Departures in Sunday School Pedagogy. Fed. 
 
 Sem., 1909, 530-536. 
 Coe, G. A. Morbid Conscience of Adolescents. Sept. III. Soc. 
 for Child Study, Oct. 1898, 97-108. 
 Dynamics of Personal Religion. Psy. Rev., 1899, 484-505. 
 Studies in Religion. Methodist Book Concern, N. Y. $1.00. 
 Education in Religion and Morals. Revell, 1904, 434 pp. 
 Moral and Religious Education. Rel. Ed., 1908, 165-179. 
 Religion of a Mature Mind. Revell, 1903, 442 pp. 
 The Spiritual Life. Eaton and Maines, 1900, 279 pp. 
 Collins, J. V. Religious Education of the Sunday School. Ed. 
 
 Rev., 1909, 271-283. 
 Cooper, E. H. Children's Prayers and Prayer Manuals. Fort. 
 
 Rev., 1903, 663-671. 
 Cope, Henry F. Evolution of the Sunday School. 1911. 
 The Modern Sunday School. Revell, 1907, 206 pp. 
 Cressey, F. G. ' The Church and Young Men. Revell, 1903, 233 pp. 
 Crozier, B. Problem of the Religious Consciousness. Fort. 
 
 Rev., 1902, 1004-1018. 
 Daniels, A. H. The New Life. Am. Jour. Psy., Oct. 1893, Vol. 
 VI, 61-106. (Significance of puberty with primitive peoples. 
 Connection between adolescence and, conversion.) 
 Davenport, P. M. Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals. Mac- 
 
 millan, 1905, 323 pp. 
 Dawson, Geo. E. The Child and His Religion. V. of Chicago 
 Press, 1909, 124 pp. 
 A Boy's Religion. Y. M. C. A., N. Y., 16 pp. 
 Drawbridge, C. L. Religious Education and How to Improve It. 
 
 Longmans, 1906, 222 pp. 
 Dresslar, F. B. Superstition and Education. Univ. Press, Berkeley, 
 19071 239 pp. Bibliog. 
 Psychology of Superstition. Am. Jour. Insanity, 1910, 213-226. 
 Elhs, A. C. Sunday School Work. Fed. Sem., June 1896, 363-412. 
 Ellis, G. H. Fetichism in Children. Fed. Sem., 1902, 205-22Q. 
 
Religious Sentiment and Theological Ideas 283 
 
 Ellis, Havelock. Religion and the Child. Nineteenth Cent., 1907, 
 
 764-775- 
 Gould, H. M. Child Fetiches. Fed. Sem., 1898, 421-425. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence and Educational Problems. See 
 
 Index. 
 Hammond, E. P. Conversion of Children. Revell, 274 pp. 
 Hoben, Allan. The Minister and the Boy. U. of Chicago Press, 
 
 1912, 171 pp. 
 Hodges, Geo. Training of Children in Religion. Appleton, 191 1, 
 
 328 pp. 
 Houghton, Louise S. Telling Bible Stories. Scribner's, 1905, 
 
 286 pp. 
 Hugh, D. D. Animism of Children. N. W. Mo., June and October 
 
 1899, 450-453. 71-74- 
 King, Henry C. Personal and Ideal Elements in .Education. Mac- 
 
 millan, 1904, 277 pp. 
 King, Irving. Development of Religion. Macmillan, 1910, 371 pp. 
 
 Bibliog. 
 Koons, Wm. G. The Child's Religious Life. Eaton and Mains, 
 
 1903, 270 pp. 
 Leuba, J. H. FaitH. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., Vol. I, 65-82. 
 
 Fear, Awe and Sublime in Religiori. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., 
 
 1906, 1-23. 
 Psychological Study of Religion. Macmillan, 1912, 371 pp. 
 Religion ... in the Struggle for Life. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., 
 
 Vol. II, 307-343- 
 Psychology of Religious Phenomena. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. 
 
 VII, 309-385- 
 Lowry, Eleanor. Concealed Neckwear of Children. School Hy- 
 giene, Feb. 1913, 38-41. 
 McMurry, Lida B. Children's Moral and Religious Conceptions. 
 
 Rept. III. Soc.for Child Study, Vol. II, 23-24. 
 Marshall, H. R. Religious Instinct. Mind, N. S., 1897, 40-58. 
 Montgomery, C. -Religious Element in Formation of Character. 
 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1899, 121-127. 
 Morse, Josiah. Pathological Aspects of Religion. 1906, 264 pp. 
 Okabe, T. Experimental Study of Belief. Am. Jour. Psy., Oct. 
 
 1910, 563-596. 
 Patch, Kate W. A Child's Thought of God. Kgn. Rev., 1906, 
 
 257-265. 
 
284 , T he C hi Id 
 
 Pratt, J. B. Types of Religious Belief. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., Mar. 
 1906, 76-94. 
 Psychology of Religious Belief. Macmillan, 1907, 327 pp. 
 Principles of Religious Education. Longmans, 1900, 292 pp. 
 (Symposium.) 
 Ransom, S. W. Psychology of Prayer. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., Vol. 
 
 I, 129-142. 
 Raymont, Thomas. Use of Bible in Education of Young. Long- 
 mans, 1911, 249 pp. 
 Robinson, V. P. Conception of God of College Students. Am. 
 Jour. Rel. Psy., Nov. 1908, 247-257. 
 ' Ruediger, W. C. The Period of Mental Reconstruction. Am. 
 Jour. Psy., July 1907, Vol. XVIII, 353-370. 
 Schroeder, Th. Religious Element in Public Schools. Ed. Rev., 
 1909. 375-389- 
 Adolescence and Religions. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., April 1913, 
 124-148. 
 Seashore, Carl E. Play Impulse and Attitude in Religion. Am. 
 Jour. Theol., 1910, 505-520; Assn. Sem., 1911, VoL XIX, 
 235-241- 
 Starbuck, E. D. Study of Conversion. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. VIII, 
 268-308. 
 Psychology of Religion. Scribner's, N. Y., 1899, 423 pp. f 1.50. 
 Feelings and Their Place in Religion. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., 
 Vol. I, 168-186. 
 Stephens, Th. (ed.). Child and Religion. Putnam's, 1905, 311 pp. 
 Stratton, G. M. Psychology of the Religious Life. Allan, Lond., 
 
 191 1, 376 pp. 
 
 Strong, A. L. Psychology of Prayer. V. of Chicago Press, 
 
 1909, 122 pp. Bibliog. 
 Subconscious and Prayer. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., Vol. II, 
 
 160-167. 
 Tanner, Amy E. Children's Religious Ideas. Ped. Sem., 1906, 
 
 509-513- 
 WalUs, W. D. Element of Pear in Religion. Am. Jour. Rel. Psy., 
 
 1912, 257-304. 
 
 Wilne, E. C. Culture of Religion. Pilgrim Press, 1912. 
 Woolston, H. B. Religious Emotion. Am. Jour. Psy., 1902, Vol. 
 XIII, 62-79. 
 For other excellent articles see Journal and Proceedings of, the 
 Religious Education Association, from 1906 on. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 Conception of Good and Evil 
 
 1. Tell the story of Jennie, and the box of paints 
 (see section on Remedial Agencies in this chapter), and 
 find what punishment the children would Observa- 
 give. tions 
 
 2. Ask the children whether it is "fair" for a teacher 
 to punish the entire class for something that was done 
 by a member of the class, but by which one she does 
 not know. 
 
 3. To test the sense of property rights, ask the chil- 
 dren: "If you found a sum of money on the School 
 doorstep, what would you do with it?" The amount 
 found should be varied in the different grades. It 
 should not be too large for the child to understand what 
 he can buy with it, or so small that he does not think it 
 necessary to seek its owner. The place where it is found 
 — the school doorstep — shows that probably the owner 
 can easily be found. A different set of answers would be 
 obtained if it were fotind in the street. 
 
 Writers upon moral training seem to be impressed 
 chiefly with the faults and vices of the children to be cor- 
 rected. This is natural enough, inasmuch as the "good" 
 child offers no problem for solution. On the other hand, 
 in so far as we lack knowledge of the positive morality 
 to which a child normally attains at various stages, we 
 must also lack correct standards by which to judge him. 
 Sometimes we shall demand things which he is too imma- 
 ture to do, while at other times we shall be over lenient, 
 
 19 285 
 
286 The Child 
 
 and if by chance we give the right word at the right time, 
 we shall also by chance do him irreparable harm. It is 
 of coiirse difficult to ascertain what sense of right a child 
 would have who was brought up in entirely normal sur- 
 roundings by entirely reasonable and loving parents, 
 and perhaps such knowledge would have little practical 
 value. We must try here rather to reach something of 
 a norm or type by various indirect means. 
 
 First of all, a clear distinction should be made between 
 genuine goodness and what is convenient for teachers 
 Goodness ^^^ parents. Sitting still in school and 
 vs. adult keeping his clothes clean are two points very 
 convenience jj^portant to the comfort of teacher and 
 parent, but to call their opposites faults is stu-ely a mis- 
 nomer. At the best they are bad necessities for the little 
 child; smaller evils to avoid greater ones, and the child's 
 failure should not be counted against him, but against the 
 system which makes such demands. In the long lists 
 that have been made of children's faults — ^so much longer 
 than the lists of their virtues — such items predominate. 
 
 True faults, on the other hand, are those that point to 
 defect in the child, which, if uncorrected, will lead to vice 
 or crime later on; true goodness or virtue at any given 
 age is the state from which will develop the personality 
 devoted to moral progress and ideals. Here too we must 
 admit the fluctuating estimates of goodness or virtue from 
 age to age and nation to nation, even in fundamentals. 
 We cannot discuss here the natiu-e of virtue in itself, but 
 will only attempt a rough estimate of childish development 
 under good conditions. 
 
 From the very beginning of the child's life his world 
 falls into three rather definite classes — the world of 
 objects; of other persons; of self. Other persons, per- 
 haps, are at first only objects, but at a very early stage 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 287 
 
 the mother, at least, asstmies a specific character, and if 
 there is a genuine social instinct persons are fr^m the 
 beginning interesting in a different way from objects. 
 We have also noted that from the very beginning the 
 child reacts in rather definite ways to certain classes of 
 objects — reaching for the pleasure-giving and avoiding 
 the pain-giving in their various forms and at their different 
 levels of complexity. Some moralists may dispute that 
 this is the germ of morality, but whether or not it is, it is 
 assiu-edly the point of attack for the mother who wishes 
 to teach her child. 
 
 For the baby, as we have seen, the great goods of life 
 are food, warmth, sleep, and opportunity for free exercise 
 of his senses. His great interests are in The baby's 
 securing these, and because they come to goods 
 him in connection with persons, all of them are bound up 
 with social reactions. Is there anything moral in his at- 
 titude? Certainly very little in the ordinary sense of the 
 term. It is self-evident that a baby can know nothing of 
 the right and the wrong attitudes toward self, others, and 
 the objective world. The most that it can know is, after 
 a little, that this act brings it pain and that pleasiu-e, 
 and (including here also deprivation of goods, approval 
 or disapproval, and so on, as well as mere physical pain 
 and pleasure) the best that it can do is to avoid the one 
 and secure the other. 
 
 The inborn factor of morality is normality. The baby 
 bom normal in body and mind and developing normally 
 has every opportunity to become normal Normality 
 morally. For such a baby, the basis of and 
 morality is the forming of good physical '"*"' ' ^ ^ 
 habits, and at the beginning this rests entirely with the 
 mother. By two or three weeks after birth some habits 
 have become grafted on instincts so that the child feeds, 
 
288 The Child 
 
 sleeps, and lies in ways that tend toward health or the 
 opposite, and toward self-control or the opposite. Any- 
 slight deviation from health which makes him fretful 
 and leads to niore attention than he gets ordinarily is the 
 vantage ground for forming wrong associations. Simi- 
 larly, any cause whatever which leads to irregularity in 
 his habits— visitors, or a trip from home — may end in 
 indulgence and over-assertion. If, on the other hand, 
 the mother lays down wise habits and customs in) all 
 departments of the baby's life, they become pleasant, 
 both in themselves and on account of the social approval 
 constantly associated with them, and the child very soon 
 carries them on automatically and, later, imitatively. In 
 this early stage the "good" child is only the unconscious 
 reflection of the good mother; and the "bad" child the 
 reflection of the bad mother. 
 
 When he is old enough to understand gestures and 
 inflections of approval or disapproval, the conflict be- 
 tween his social nature and various instincts 
 
 Obedience u ■ j i. j. j 
 
 begins, and may become very acute and 
 
 difficult to solve if the mother is unwise. Here obedience 
 may and indeed should begin, but,. on the other hand, the 
 mother should demand only what is within the child's 
 power at the time the demand is made. His virtue de- 
 pends to a large degree upon his health, hunger, fatigue, 
 or other condition, as well as upon his understanding 
 what she wants and upon his control of his body. No 
 one would require a year-old child to thread a needle, but 
 we ask other things just as impossible. With the 
 child who understands his mother's wishes, we may say 
 perhaps, that virtue consists in his effort to carry them 
 out, that is, in the attitude of obedience. She may be 
 teaching him habits that later on will be classed as faults, 
 — impertinence, slapping — to say nothing of bad habits 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 289 
 
 of eating and sleeping, but in doing what she wants he is 
 following the highest good he knows. If what she wants 
 could but be the same as what the progress of humanity 
 needs, the child would indeed be blessed. 
 
 As the child gets older, as he understands language and 
 sees other children and other people, as his desires develop 
 and he becomes more able to gratify them if left to himself, 
 obedience becomes harder and the problem of exacting 
 it greater. Some moralists would insist that a child 
 should obey without question; others would explain 
 everything and demand only obedience to reason. In all 
 probability the normal child develops from one to the 
 other, and in all the stages between babyhood and ma- 
 turity command and explanation must be judiciously 
 mingled. If parents themselves be reasonable and kind, 
 children usually obey. The importance of obedience as 
 laying the basis of respect for law can hardly be over- 
 estimated, but we must never forget on the other hand, 
 that forced obedience to unjust law breeds a sense of 
 injustice and a desire for revenge that go far toward 
 making criminals. 
 
 The development of the sense of law is shown in the 
 penalties children would attach at different ages to a 
 wrong act. At seven years 89 per cent would punish 
 regardless of the legal penalties; at twelve 29 per cent, 
 and at sixteen 74 per cent. 
 
 Conscience and the sense of honor, however, seem to 
 remain relatively undeveloped before puberty. The 
 child's morality at all ages before puberty, ^ 
 therefore, is motivated from the outside 
 more than it is from the inside; is a matter of custom 
 rather than of ideals. The best preparation for the 
 inwardizing of morality is, therefore, as has already 
 been said so many times, to train him in good habits 
 
290 The Child 
 
 in every possible direction. Hall goes so far as to 
 assert that it is wrong to put too much responsibility 
 upon children for their own acts. They are at this 
 stage docile. They are disciples, not masters. He be- 
 lieves that they both love and respect most the one who 
 demands obedience, and that under most circumstances 
 they would rather obey than order their own lives. 
 
 In the chapter on Imagination we have already shown 
 how a child may invent a lie in order to escape from 
 Attitude ^^ unpleasant situation, just as he invents 
 
 toward means of obtaining bread and jam. There 
 
 ® is in this at first no perception of the moral 
 
 wrong, but only the instinctive, shrinking fr6m pain. 
 To cure the child, therefore, we must bring about two 
 things: (i) Make him brave enough to take the conse- 
 quences of any act of his; and (2) make him realize the 
 self-contradiction and doubleness involved in a He. Some- 
 times it is said that a child should never be punished when 
 he confesses any wrongdoing. Such a course must breed 
 in a child a belief that there is no natural penalty for 
 wrong, and must end in more or less contempt of the law 
 that can constantly be overridden if only the transgression 
 is admitted. Rather, so high a fearlessness and honor 
 should be cultivated that a child who has done wrong 
 shall present himself for punishment. 
 
 Plato says somewhere that if man did but know his 
 highest good, he who had broken the law would hasten 
 to the judge for condemnation and punishment as a 
 sick man goes to his physician for medicine. So, in all 
 our dealings with a child, even if pain be needful, every 
 act and word should declare to him that our only purpose 
 is to heal his moral sickness, and to increase his moral 
 health. We all know that children can be very brave 
 under the physical pain inflicted by a physician if they 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 291 
 
 understand the necessity for it. _ Siirely they will be no 
 less brave under the pain resulting from their wrongdoing, 
 if there also they see the need of it. Lies offer little 
 temptation to a child who holds this attitude toward 
 pain. But most of us are too cowardly ourselves to 
 inculcate true courage in our children. We ourselves 
 prevaricate and falsify under slight temptation, and we 
 can expect nothing else from our children. 
 
 In all probability there is at first no intention of inflict- 
 ing pain in bullying and fighting. Burk believes that 
 they are survivals of acts useful to an earlier Teasing 
 civilization. That is, they are instinctive, bullying, 
 and have no consciously defined purpose cruelty 
 behind them. Probably curiosity to see how the victim 
 will act also enters in, as it does in the case of many 
 apparently cruel acts. In such cases there is a double 
 remedy. First, the child's sympathy should be aroused 
 for the victim by leading him to imagine himself in the 
 other's place, or, if he cannot imagine it, by actually 
 putting him there. A little bullying and teasing of the 
 bully, accompanied by remarks to show that the pain he 
 suffers now is only the pain he himself has inflicted on 
 others, will often cure him. In the second place, replace 
 the bulljdng, teasing, and cruelty by other acts, if possible 
 by kind acts, toward the victim; but if that is not pos- 
 sible, by constant occupation in work and games where 
 there is no opportunity to indulge this propensity. As 
 to fighting, it is doubtful whether a fair fight leaves any 
 bad moral effects, and does not rather square up grievances 
 in the most satisfactory way to the persons concerned. 
 There are, of course, boys who will brood over a defeat in 
 a fight and will be induced by it to use underhand means 
 the next time, but such a disposition is sure to coihe out 
 in other directions also, and must be combated all along 
 
292 The Child 
 
 the line. The only way of knowing whether a boy has 
 been benefited by a fight is to see how he feels toward 
 his opponent. The parent's' action can be safely guided 
 by that. 
 
 The moral ideas of children are concerned chiefly with 
 concrete acts. A good girl or boy is usually one who 
 The good minds the n;other. At a great distance^ 
 and the bad after obedience comes truthfulness, 29 per 
 cent as against 54 per cent. Is it not a sad commentary 
 upon us, that we should impress obedience upon children 
 so much more diligently than truthfulness? 
 
 There is an English proverb that "possession is nine 
 points of the law," and another that "finders are keepers." 
 Attitude Little children tend instinctively to act upon 
 
 toward these proverbs. The one who first gets a 
 
 possession ^^^^ t^^^ ^j^^ ^^gj^^ ^^ j^ against all others; 
 
 and, with the youngest children, this feeling of ownership 
 sets aside any previous ownership. The Uttle child does 
 not make the distinction of thine and mine. "Mine" is 
 whatever he wants, and when he does not want it, he 
 may or may not feel a sense of ownership. With kinder- 
 garten children the plea that they "had it first" seems 
 to override the argtmient "It's my turn," especially 
 if the turn is something left over from the day before. 
 There is a tendency to start each day with a new account 
 of rights. 
 
 The property sense is relatively undeveloped, therefore, 
 and remains so for a long time. Among juvenile offenses, 
 offenses against property and steaHng food lead all 
 others. It is very difficult for a boy to feel that he has 
 no right to a few apples, or that he may not enjoy himself 
 in a private park or cross a lawn on his way to school. 
 Property of his own does much to develop this sense, and 
 it is desirable that within certain limits children shall have 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 
 
 293 
 
 their own toys, places to put things, and so on. But we 
 must also avoid making a child selfish and over-indivi- 
 dualistic. 
 
 Children's ideas of justice reflect their feeling that the 
 right is the customary. Unusual punishments are more 
 likely to be resented than more severe , .. 
 
 familiar ones. Feeling plays a large part, 
 according to Kline's returns from 2,384 eight-to-eighteen- 
 year-old children. 
 
 Miss Schallenberger told two thousand children from 
 six to sixteen years old this story: "One afternoon, 
 six-year-old Jennie's mother went out to call,, leaving 
 Jennie playing with her box of paints. After a while 
 Jennie went into the parlor, and saw there some nice new 
 chairs. She exclaimed, 'Oh, I will paint all these chairs, 
 and mamma will be so pleased ! ' When her mamma came 
 home she found her chairs all spoiled. If you had been 
 her mamma, what would you have done to Jennie?" , 
 
 The punishments assigned fell into three classes. 
 
 1. The principle of reprisal. Jennie gave her mother 
 pain, and so she must suffer pain. The little children 
 advocated this far more than the older ones, for they 
 thought only of the act, not of the motive. At six only 
 23 children speak of Jennie's ignorance; at twelve, 322, 
 and at sixteen, 654. So, also, none of the six-year-olds 
 would tell Jennie why she was wrong; at twelve, 181 do, 
 and at sixteen, 751. The specific punishment assigned 
 is usually a whipping, but this lessens from"i,io2 out of 
 2,000 at six, to 763 at eleven, and 185 at sixteen. 
 
 2. Prevention by fear or terror. None of the six-year- 
 olds would threaten; 39 at twelve and 85 at fifteen would. 
 None of the six-year-olds would make her promise not 
 to do it again; 15 at twelve a,nd 35 at fifteen would. 
 Notice how very small this class is, both as to threats and 
 
294 The Child 
 
 promises; and yet there are no more common methods 
 than these two in dealing with children. 
 
 3. Reform. As we have already said, explanation of 
 why Jennie's act was wrong increases steadily up to 
 the age of sixteen. The idea of reform becomes more 
 prominent, but even at sixteen it is not as prominent 
 as the idea of revenge is at six. The older children are 
 more merciful than the younger. 
 
 Now consider in connection with this the reminiscences 
 by young people between seventeen and twenty-one years 
 old, given by Street, of punishments that did good or 
 harm. 
 
 Under punishments that did good we find the follow- 
 ing list: Sixteen were helped by whippings, of which 
 Tust or they speak with gratitude; eleven by with- 
 
 unjust pun- drawal of some privilege; six by talks; five 
 ishments ^y being left alone a time; four by scolding. 
 
 Harm was done to eight by whippings; to eight by 
 undeserved punishments; to four by sarcasm; to four 
 by talks; to three by forced apologies; to two by public 
 punishments. 
 
 These numbers are small, and must be supplemented 
 by Barnes, who collected two thousand papers describing 
 just and unjust punishments, from children between seven 
 and sixteen years old. Two and a half per cent of these 
 two thousand children cannot recall any just pimishment 
 that they have received, but we are left ignorant of their 
 character and surroundings; 25 per cent cannot recall an 
 imjust punishment; 42 per cent of those who think pimish- 
 ment just, can give no reason, and 12 per cent think that 
 it does them good, although they do not see how. In such 
 cases, there seems to be an unquestioning acceptance of 
 custom. Where reasons are given, the most common idea 
 is that of atonement, the expiation of an offense by pain. 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 295 
 
 Of those who felt some one punishment unjust, 41 
 per cent gave as a reason that they were innocent of 
 the offense; 27 per cent that they could not help it, 
 forgot, did not know better, did not intend to, etc.; ig 
 per cent admitted the offense, but thought the ptinish- 
 ment too severe, due to prejudice, etc.; 11 per cent 
 maintained that the act for which they were punished 
 was right, and 79 per cent threw all responsibiUty on 
 the one who punished them. Injustice is, on the whole, 
 charged about equally against parents and teachers, but 
 as children grow older they talk less about home matters. 
 
 The ideas of what pvinishments are just and what are 
 imjust are very vague, even among the older children. 
 The forms about which opinions commonly differ are : scold- 
 ing, confinement, and whipping. Six hundred and eighty- 
 one .whippings are called just, as against 493 unjust. 
 
 Finally, the results of investigations to determine 
 whether children admit the justice of making the inno- 
 cent sioffer with and for the guilty are rather stirprising. 
 This case was presented to nearly two thousand children 
 from seven to sixteen years old: "Some children in a 
 class were bad, but the teacher could not find out who 
 they were, and so she kept the whole class after school. 
 Was she just?" Out of these 1,914 children or 82 per cent 
 considered her justified, and the percentage was nearly 
 the same for all ages. 
 
 The reasons given for this decision were various. 
 Forty-nine per cent claimed that it was just because the 
 class would not tell on the guilty ones, evidently beheving 
 that the class as a whole is at least partly responsible 
 for the good behavior of each member. Sixteen per cent 
 said that the class was bad; 10 per cent, that the teacher 
 did not know the guilty ones and must punish some one; 
 S per cent, that it was a sure way of punishing the 
 
296 The' Child 
 
 offenders, and 4 per cent that it wotdd prevent a repeti- 
 tion of the offense. The feeling that the dass should 
 cooperate with the teacher in keeping order increases to 
 over 50 per cent after the age of ten. 
 
 How then, do children feel toward punishments? 
 
 1. Little children are much more prone than older ones 
 
 to consider only the act, and not the motive; 
 '""™"'^ to punish for reprisal; to inflict physical 
 pain; to give no reasons.. 
 
 2. At no age do children consider threats and promises 
 of much importance. 
 
 3. Practically all children accept most punishments as 
 just; but many consider some one or a few imjust. 
 
 4. What is just is very vague, and is probably almost 
 the same as what is customary, especially with the 
 younger children. Under imjust punishments, for in- 
 stance, violation of custom, either by punishing the 
 innocent or helpless child, or by exacting an unusually 
 severe penalty, covers nearly all the cases. 
 
 5. The most common punishment is whipping or 
 spanking. Among children of all ages, 681 whippings 
 were considered just, as against 493 unjust. As far as 
 these records go, children do not seem to feel that there 
 is any greater indignity in a whippihg than in any other 
 form of punishment. 
 
 6. Most children admit the justice, though on various 
 grounds, of pimishing a class for the misbehavior of 
 some unknown member. 
 
 The standards worked out in daily life among boys and 
 
 girls eleven to fifteen years old are rather rough and 
 
 ready and vary considerably from child to 
 Honesty 1 -u t 
 
 Child. In my own returns from 615 children 
 
 it appeared that 75 per cent would not tell on a play- 
 mate; 71 per cent would not cheat in a game; 71 per 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 297 
 
 cent would return a lost article if they knew and did 
 not like the owner, while 92 per cent would do it if 
 they liked him; 45 per cent of the boys and 18 per 
 cent of the girls would put bad money in a slot 
 machine; 52 per cent of the boys and 5 per cent of the 
 girls would pass it; 23 per cent of the boys and 12 
 per cent of the girls admitted that they would cheat in 
 a game. 
 
 Among college girls the standards also are rather 
 different from those of the developed and sensitive con- 
 science. According to returns from 440 girls in various 
 colleges, 4Q per cent would keep their street-car fare if 
 it were not collected; 50 per cent would run the risk of 
 being called on if unprepared in a lesson, and if partly 
 prepared, 67 per cent would "bluff"; .50 per cent would 
 exaggerate to give zest to a story; 65 per cent would 
 tell a white lie to save people's feelings; 37 per cent 
 would tell a credulous girl outlandish stories, and 57 per 
 cent wotild allow a person to think too well of them. 
 In the matter of examinations, under the honor system, 
 69 per. cent would avoid a girl known to cheat so that 
 they would not have to report her; 52 per cent would 
 report her if necessary; 27 per cent would use a point 
 seen accidentally on another's paper. In the daily 
 lesson work, 21 per cent would use a "pony." In a 
 considerable number of cases love and sympathy are felt 
 to be of more value than truth, and virtue comes more 
 easily in relation to people liked than to those disliked. 
 The response of girls at this age to being put on their 
 honor is both ready and complete, and the moral sense 
 is in a nascent stage that makes them very open to 
 suggestion. 
 
 In general, then, we cannot expect from children or 
 even from adolescents a highly developed sense of right 
 
298 The Child 
 
 and wrong. The unconscious lack of discrimination 
 between the good and the customary, and still more be- 
 tween the evil and the violated custom, is very evident 
 and very suggestive to one who gets on familiar terms 
 with children. The responsibility for estabhshing right 
 customs and for leading from them up to right thinking 
 and right ideals must rest upon the parent and teacher, 
 and here loving authority is the chief agency for securing 
 the desired results. 
 
 Turning now to the other side, we find a long list of 
 faults for which children receive punishments, made by 
 Sears on a thousand children, as follows: For 
 disorder, 17 per cent; disobedience, r6"per 
 cent; carelessness, 13 per cent; running away, 12 
 per cent; quarreling, 10 percent; tardiness, 7 percent; 
 rudeness, 6 per cent; fighting, 5 per cent; lying, 4 per cent; 
 stealing, i per cent. He gives a long list of punishable 
 offenses, for which, however, the percentages are very small 
 — maUce, swearing, obscenity, bullying, lying, cheating, 
 untidiness, insolence, noisiness, injury to books, property, 
 etc. In Triplett's census of faults named by teachers 
 inattention led all; then come defects of sense and 
 speech, carelessness, indifference, lack of honor and of 
 self-restraint, etc. In the census given by parents, willful- 
 ness and obstinacy led, then teasing, quarreling, dislike of 
 application and effort, etc. The children of these parents 
 and teachers, on the other hand, put fighting, bullying, 
 and teasing first; then stealing, bad manners, lying, dis- 
 obedience, truancy, cruelty to animals,.etc. The contrast 
 is striking, and should surely make us question the rea- 
 sonableness of our standards of good and bad children. 
 
 When we consider 'juvenile crime — offenses punishable 
 by law— we find that Morrison estimates that of children 
 under fourteen who are sent to corrective institutions, 
 
Conception of Good and Evi 299 
 
 more than half go for such offenses as truancy, begging, 
 incorrigibility, and refractory disposition, that is, for 
 offenses with a strong element of vagrancy; Juvenile 
 while of children from fourteen to sixteen «ime 
 
 years of age hardly one tenth go for such' offenses, but 
 with them theft leads, with offenses against property. 
 From sixteen to twenty-one, crimes against persons lead, 
 and serious offenses, such as burglary and house and 
 shop breaking, are four times as common as below sixteen. 
 When we turn from this brief consideration of the 
 virtues, faults, and crimes of children to the question of 
 how to secure the former and prevent or Moral re- 
 cure the latter, we find that perhaps the form first 
 most important problem, as it is assuredly *** adults 
 the first, is that we should take ourselves in hand. Not 
 only should our own lives exemplify the goodness that 
 we demand of children, but we should have such knowl- 
 edge of child nature as to realize that they are less 
 developed morally, as they are intellectually and phys- 
 ically. These are trite sayings, but they need reiteration 
 in view of the ntmierous schemes for formal instruction, 
 the special devices, and so on, which, it is often tacitly 
 assxmied, will supersede the fundamental method of daily 
 example and training. These schemes are legion, and 
 would need volimaes for their elucidation. Let it be said 
 that undoubtedly each has done good tinder certain con- 
 ditions, and for certain types of children, but that no one 
 can possibly cover the whole field. Each will fail in 
 certain directions, under certain conditions, with certain 
 children, and the most important task of those in charge 
 of the yoimg will be the same in the future as in the 
 past — namely, to know the complexity of each child's 
 moral nature and to apply all sorts of stimuli and aids, 
 from lowest to highest, as seems best in each individual 
 
300 The Child 
 
 case. Rarely is a bad child bad from any one cause. 
 Mind and body, instinct and training, habits and desires, 
 are interwoven so that a moral stimulus at almost any 
 one of these points will affect all the others to some 
 degree, while defect at any one point inevitably modifies 
 the rest. Let us consider some of these factors that 
 irradiate in all directions, and first among them good 
 health and good physical conditions generally. 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher once said, wittily and wisely, 
 that if he could but be bom right the first time he would 
 Physical be willing to take his chances on the Second 
 
 conditions Birth. Modem Christianity marks its sense 
 of the relation between the physical and moral. by send- 
 ing medical missionaries to the heathen and visiting 
 niu-ses to the poor of the slums. It has been abtmdantly 
 proved that the moral tone is somewhat lowered by 
 fatigue and that the habitual criminal usually has some 
 bodily defects. The first thing necessary, therefore, for 
 a healthy, moral nature is a healthy body. The moral 
 education of a child begins even before the marriage of 
 his parents, in their cultivation of right habits of living. 
 
 Everything that contributes toward making the child 
 well-bom physically, and toward keeping him so, is a 
 factor in his moral education. Here, and here alone, is 
 the justification for the expenditure of the best thought 
 and energy upon the science of hygiene, including cook- 
 ing. Such matters as the healthiest food for a meal and 
 the healthiest way of cooking it, the clothing, and the 
 ventilation of the house, assume from this standpoint the 
 aspect of important moral duties. The child who is bom 
 healthy and kept healthy by good food, good air, and 
 good clothing has the basis of a sound morality. 
 
 Hall says that a good table is one of the best pre- 
 ventives of stealing, and we know that playground and 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 301 
 
 recreation centers have lessened juvenile crime by giving 
 opportunities for boys and girls to gratify their natural 
 instincts without coining into conflict with the law. 
 
 Our treatment of juvenile offenders reflects this point 
 of view. More and more it is understood that a large 
 proportion of boy and girl criminals are either feeble- 
 minded or defective in some way, or else are the victims 
 of poverty or vicious home conditions. If the mother 
 goes out to work there is more chance of the childrto 
 coming into the juvenile court. If the children are 
 poorly fed they naturally pilfer food as they get the 
 chance, and the child who steals food easily develops 
 into the youth who steals money and breaks into houses 
 or stores. Such children can usually be reformed by 
 supplying the physical needs and the proper supervision, 
 but the defective child also needs some medical attention 
 which will reform the defects, or else he is so defective 
 in brain development that he cannot with our present 
 knowledge be cured. We have already referred to moral 
 aberrations due to the effects of adenoids, or even to 
 bad teeth, and elsewhere have briefly discussed the 
 "moral degenerate." 
 
 After the utmost has been done for the physical health 
 of the child, the establishing of hygienic habits both of 
 body and of mind comes next. Hygienic habits of eat- 
 ing, sleeping, bathing, dressing, may and should be so 
 automatic that they are rarely in the child's conscious- 
 ness, and the same should be the case in all the matters 
 of daily social intercourse. 
 
 The struggle between right and wrong occurs in most 
 of us because our feelings are opposed to our duty or 
 oiir reason, and it could be in large part transferred 
 to a wider sphere if we had been properly trained in small 
 matters. 
 
302 T he Child 
 
 It is pitiable to find a child of ten or eleven years 
 constantly disciplined for slight discourtesies, for indis- 
 Good criminate eating at meals and between meals, 
 
 breeding and for cruelty to weak things. His moral 
 struggles at this age should come in the resistance of 
 temptation to active wrongdoing. Such a condition is 
 usually the faiilt of the parent, who neglected these mat- 
 ters when the child was little. From the very begiiming 
 of life, only courteous tones, gestures, and acts should sur- 
 round the child, and be expected of him, as a matter of 
 course. Good breeding, which includes all the lesser moral- 
 ities, should be so habitual as to be unconscious. Then . 
 a child can turn his attention entirely to the more serious 
 moral questions that each of us must some time decide. 
 
 In the solution of these, however, we pass from the 
 realm of habit and custom to that of ideals and volition. 
 We have already seen how dependent chil- 
 r»en s p (j^en's ideals are upon their environment, and 
 so in the decision of these questions a child's greatest 
 safeguard, especially between ten and eighteen years of 
 age, hes in a close friendship with some older person, — 
 parent, teacher, or friend. Such a friendship brings 
 about naturally the free discussion of serious moral 
 •problems and allows a child to receive with an open 
 toind the opinions of his elders. Both for the prevention 
 and the correction of evil tendencies such a relation is 
 of the greatest value. Parents should, therefore, make 
 every effort to retain the confidence of their children, and 
 teachers should consider the securing of that confidence 
 as important as their class teachings. 
 
 Here, also, there is much difference of opinion as to the 
 value of discussing moral questions. More than a few 
 high-school teachers assert that talking does only harm, 
 because it hardens children and makes them hypocrites. 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 303 
 
 On the other haiid, we have some direct testimony from 
 boys showing that they were greatly helped at a critical 
 time by a friendly talk. 
 
 ■ It is possible here,^ as in everything else, to approach a 
 child in such a way that a discussion will only harden him, 
 but surely we cannot assert that a kindly, fair, and reason- 
 able presentation of a moral question, with opportunity on 
 the child's part for reasonable objections, will either harden 
 him or make him hypocritical. He must have had sad 
 experiences with other adults if this is the effect upon him. 
 
 The writer believes, on the other hand, that there is 
 serious danger in leaving a child to form his own opin- 
 ions of right and wrong. He has not the ability to 
 generalize with certainty, or the experience upon which 
 to base a correct judgment, and it is our duty to supple- 
 ment his defects without forcing our opinions down his 
 throat. This teaching is not best done by formal instruc- 
 tion, but in the evening or Sunday talks that every wise 
 mother has with her children. At such a time, specific 
 examples — this time when John got angry, and that one 
 when Mary told the fib — will come up of themselves, 
 and can be seen in their true Hght by the children. Such 
 talks show the children where they must learn self- 
 control, and make them feel that all of the family are 
 helping them. 
 
 The value and the method of formal moral instruction 
 in school is a much disputed question. France has a 
 highly developed system in all her pubUc School 
 schools, but it has not yet been estabHshed instruction 
 long enough for its virtues and defects to be beyond 
 question. They would surely not appear distinctly until 
 the second generation had been trained, and all the 
 feeling roused by the separation of church from state 
 had died out. We can hardly doubt, however, that formal 
 
304 The Child 
 
 instruction must to some degree raise the ideals of children 
 
 and create at least something of an esprit de corps in 
 
 goodness, especially if there is anjrthing in the nature of 
 
 public approval of good or heroic acts by individual 
 
 children. The dangers in such a method are of at least 
 
 two kinds. One is that parents and teachers will rest 
 
 satisfied with mere word instruction, and will give up 
 
 actual training. The other is that the children will be 
 
 made too self-conscious, and that the natural tendency to 
 
 do good for the sake of approval will become over strong. 
 
 Again, instruction on the details of morality is likely to 
 
 become platitudinous if not absurd, and thus lead to 
 
 depreciation of it by the children. 
 
 Instruction, however, that puts before the children 
 
 heroic examples suited to their years, that inspires them 
 
 ,, . with enthusiasm and love of these heroes, 
 
 Idcflls 
 
 whether they are obtained from biography 
 
 and literatiure, the theater or moving picture, or the 
 
 daily paper, is of great value. All these means, it must be 
 
 understood, are subsidiary to the great end of developing 
 
 high ideals and noble ambitions in the child by precept 
 
 and example. A morality that is merely habitual is 
 
 better than none, but is only the basis of a morality that , 
 
 is shaped and modeled by the power of a Uving, glorious 
 
 devotion to the highest aims. The parent or the teacher 
 
 who can by any means inspire a child with a love of the 
 
 good, the beautiful, and the true, with the ability to see 
 
 them in the lives about him, and with a willingness to 
 
 sacrifice himself for the sake of them has done the utmost. 
 
 The discussions of the best methods of reforming a 
 
 bad child differ as much as do those on prevention. 
 
 Certainly we cannot agree with those who seem to believe 
 
 that every error leaves a permanent stain on character. 
 
 On the other hand, the doctrine that a child must be 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 305 
 
 vaccinated with badness in order to become immune to 
 its more severe forms, seems a dubious pedagogical 
 position. There is of coiirse an element of attractiveness 
 in the tmknown and forbidden, and certain crudities 
 natural to children are naturally outgrown, as we have 
 said so many times. It is also true that strength is 
 gained by overcoming temptations not too great, and 
 no wise guardian would isolate a child in order that he 
 might never fall. Victory often comes in its best sense 
 after defeat, and sympathy and love for sinners can only 
 be felt by those who know their temptations. Average — 
 shall we say normal? — humanity stumbles more or less 
 in its upward path, and perhaps one of the best lessons a 
 child learns is that he will fall and then if he does not get 
 up he will be forced up in the same path as before. As 
 he gets praise, reward, and social approval in various 
 forms when he does well, punishment and condemnation 
 should come when he does ill, as soon as we are sure 
 that his failure is due to remediable defect in his ideals 
 or his will. The most important single factor here is 
 that the punishment shall be as inevitable as natural law. 
 Then it can be relatively slight and still work. 
 
 I. Punishment as a Logical Result. Spencer formu- 
 lated the doctrine that the reasonable punishment of a 
 wrong act is its own logical result, and that the punish- 
 ment given by parents or teachers shotdd simulate this 
 natural one as far as possible. The theory is excellent as 
 far as it goes, but there are many wrong acts in which the 
 consequences are so far removed that the child cannot 
 of himself see the connection; and there are others where 
 the effect for the time being is slight, and not painful; 
 and there are still others in which deformity or death 
 would result. As an example of the first we may take 
 the habit of lunching three or four times between meals; 
 
3o6 The Child 
 
 of the third, careless playing with a sharp knife. We 
 cannot, in any such cases, leave the child to learn by the 
 results, and so we supplement Nature by the second 
 method — moral suasion. 
 
 Moral suasion as a means of prevention or instruction 
 we have seen to be of great importance. When the 
 offense has already been committed it takes 
 '° "^? a more strenuous form, putting vividly be- 
 fore the child what he has done and its effects upon his 
 own character and upon the opinion that people hold of 
 him. Hall, gives a very concrete presentation of the 
 value of a good scolding in bringing home to a careless 
 child his fault, provided that the scolding does not degen- 
 erate into mere nagging and whining. The authoritative 
 character of the one who scolds, and his ftmdamental 
 reasonableness, make his condemnation of the child 
 dreadful, especially if it is given with some anger, as 
 Hall thinks it should be. Hall is distinctly opposed to 
 the theory that we shoiild never punish in anger. Rather, 
 he thinks, we should be sure that our anger is righteous, 
 and use it for an additional stimulus to the offender. 
 
 If the various agendes for prevention, instruction, 
 
 persuasion, disapproval, and scolding, and perhaps 
 
 . deprivation of various personal and social 
 
 'PPing privileges, do not effect a reform, fear of 
 physical pain seems the only resource. We may admit 
 that the failure of other means points to defect either in 
 the child or in ourselves, but we should also remember 
 that physical pain has been a great educator in the 
 history of humanity, and that in such forms as fighting 
 and dueling it is still the way in which many even civilized 
 people punish offenses. The evidence already quoted 
 from children shows that the younger ones have no such 
 sense of personal injury when they are whipped as some 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 307 
 
 older people have, and probably we should find great 
 variations even among adults. Certainly among some 
 classes of oiir population husbands beat their wives and 
 wives slap their husbands without more than rippling the 
 surface of the sea of matrimony. 
 
 Such an appeal to physical pain is, of course, a low- 
 grade stimidus, and may become brutalizing if too frequent 
 and too severe. On the other hand, if administered as a last 
 resort and made the basis of an appeal to the child's imag- 
 ination in the future, it may arouse a fear that will be 
 the beginning both of moral wisdom and of self-control. 
 Before puberty it is not likely to arouse any lasting anger 
 in a child, unless the conditions are very exceptional. 
 
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 Mangasarian, M. M. Purlishment of Children. Int. Jour. Ethics, 
 
 Vol. IV, 493-498. ■ 
 Meyer, Geo. E. Moral Training in Schools. Fed. Sem., 1906, 409-60. 
 Moral Training in Public Schools. California Prize Essays. Ginn, 
 
 1907, 203 pp. 
 Morro, A. Moral Influence of Puberal Development. , Am. Jour. 
 
 Soc, September 1899. 
 Noyes, Wm. Ethical Values of Manual and Domestic Arts. 
 
 Man. Train. Mag., 1910, 201-213. 
 Oliphant, James. Moral Instruction. Int. Jour. Ethics, 1906, 
 
 401-418. 
 Oppenheim, N. Why Children Lie. Pop. Sc. Mo., Vol. XLVII, 
 
 i895> 372-387- 
 Osborn, F. W. Ethical Contents of Children's Minds. Ed. Rev., 
 
 Vol. VIII, 143-146. 
 O'Shea, M. V. Development of Ethical Sentiment in the Child. 
 
 'int. Jour. Ethics, 1905, 68-76. 
 Palmer, G. H. Nature of Goodness. Houghton, Mifflin, 1903, 247 pp. 
 Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools. Houghton, Mifflin, 
 
 1909- 55 PP- 
 Can Moral Conduct be Taught in Schools? Forum, Vol. 
 
 XIV, 673-685. 
 Patterson, Alma. Children's Motives. Barnes's Studies in Ed., 
 
 352-355- U. of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 Payot, J. Education of the Will. Funk and Wagnall, 1909, 424 pp. 
 Pott, W. S. Honor System in the University of Virginia. Ed., 
 
 Jan. 1913, 303-311. 
 Putnam, Alice H. Moral Controls in Nursery and Kindergarten. 
 
 Ele. Sch. Teach., 1909, 493-503. 
 
Conception of Good and Evil 311 
 
 Quiller, H. H. Can Children be' Taught Morality? Jour, of Ed., 
 
 1901, Vol. XXIII, 488-491. 
 Rashdall, Hastings. Theory of Punishment. Int. Jour. Ethics, 
 
 Vol. XI, 20-31. 
 Richman, Julia. The Incorrigible Child. Ed. Rev., 1906, 484-506. 
 Rogers, J. F. Physical and Moral Training. Fed. Sem., Sept. 
 
 1909, Vol. XVI, 301-304. 
 Rowe, S. H. Fear in the Discipline of the Child. Outlook, Sept. 
 
 24, 1898, 234-235. 
 Royce, Josiah. Physical Training . . . Moral Education. Bost. 
 
 Nor. Sch. Gym., 1908, 32 pp. 
 Rugh, Chas. E. Books for Moral Training in Schools. Rel. Ed., 
 
 1908, 137-146. 
 Sadler, S. H. Higher Education of the Young. Lond., 1907, 276 pp. 
 (Ed.) Moral Instruction and Training in Schools. Longmans, 
 
 1908, 2 vols. (Summary of conditions all over the world.) 
 St. John, E. P. Stories . . . in Moral and Religious Education. 
 
 Pilgrim Press, Boston, 1910, 100 pp. 
 Veracity. Fed. Sem., 1908, 246-270. 
 Savage, M. J. Rights of Children. Arena, Vol. VI, 8-16. 
 Schallenberger, M. Children's Rights as Seen by Themselves. 
 
 Fed. Sem., 1894-6, Vol. Ill, 87-96. 
 Schroeder, H. H. Psychology of Conduct. Row, Peterson & Co., 
 
 Chicago, 1911, 287 pp. 
 Sears, C. H. Home and School Punishments. Fed. Sem., 1899, 
 
 159-187. 
 Sharp, F. C. Aims of Moral Education. Int. Jour. Ethics, 1899, 
 
 Vol. IX, 214-228. 
 Sharp and Newman. Moral Education for High Schools. Rel. 
 
 Ed., Feb. 1913, 653-680. 
 Sheldon, Winthrop D. Programme of Ethical Teaching in our 
 
 Schools. Ed., 1907, 262-270; 353-370. Bibliog. 
 Sisson, E. O. Can Virtue be Taught? Ed. Rev., 1911, 261-279. 
 Sisson, Genevra. Who Has the Best Right? .Barnes's Studies 
 
 in Ed., 259-263. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 Smith, TheodateL. Obstinacy and Obedience. Ped.5em., 1905,27-54. 
 Spiller, Gustav. Moral Instruction . . . in Schools of Austria, 
 
 Belgium, etc. Lond., 1909, 362 pp. 
 Stearns,A.E. Moral Standards in Schools. E(f., No. 32, 1912,529-538. 
 Stewart, A. H. American Bad Boys in the Making. N. Y., 1912, 
 
 241 pp. 
 
312 The Child 
 
 Street, I. R. Study in Moral Education. Fed. Sem., Vol. IV, 5-40. 
 Tanner, Amy E. Children's Ideas of Honor. Fed. Sem., Dec. 
 
 1906, 509-511- 
 College Woman's Code of Honor. Fed. Sem., Mar. 1906, 104-1 17. 
 Elevation of the College Woman's Ideal. Int. Jour. Ethics, 
 
 Apr. 1907, 361-370. 
 Taylor, C. K. Moral Education of School Children. Printed for 
 
 the author. Phila., 1913, 77 pp. fo.75. 
 Thompson, H. M. Moral Instruction in Schools. Int. Jour. 
 
 Ethics, 1904, Vol. XIV, 400-418; Vol. XV, 28-47. 
 Thurston, Henry W. Social Significance of Juvenile Court. Sch. 
 
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 Trask, Mary G. What is a Good Child? Kgn. Rev., 1901, Vol. 
 
 XII, 1-6, 126-32. 
 Travis, Thomas. The Young Malefactor. Crowell, 1908, 243 pp. 
 Triplett, Norman. Faults of Children. Fed. Sem., 1903, Vol. X, 
 
 200-238. 
 Ueda, Tadaichi. Psychology of Justice. Fed. Sem., Sept. 1912, 
 
 297-349- Bibliog. 
 Urwick, H. M. "If You Found a Shilling?" Faid., 1901, Vol. 
 
 Ill, 18-22. 
 Van Liew, C. C. Mental and Moral Development of the Kinder- 
 garten Child. Froc. N. E. A., 1899, 551-559. 
 Vaughn, S. J. Moral Significance of Vocational Motive. Ed., 
 
 June 1913, 591-603. 
 Vincent, Geo. E. Group Morality of Children. Kgn. Mag., Vol. 
 
 XV, 1903, 559-565- 
 
 Votaw, Clyde W. Curriculum for Moral and Religious Education 
 
 of Boys and Young Men. Assn. Sem., 1908, 203-220. 
 Welton, J., and Blandford, F. G. Moral Training. Clive, Lond., 
 
 1909, 262 pp. 
 Wiggin, Kate D. Rights of Children. Scribner's Mag., Vol. XII, 
 
 242. Also in book form as Children's Rights. Houghton, 
 
 Mifflin, Boston. $1.00. 
 Wilson, Albert. Education, Personality and Crime. Greening, 
 
 Lond., 1908, 296 pp. 
 Winterburn, Florence Hall. Nursery Ethics. Baker, N.Y. $1.00. 
 .WyckofI, Adelaide E. Children's Ideals. Fed. Sem., 1901, Vol. 
 
 VIII, 482-494. 
 The Journal and Proceedings of the Religious Education Asso- 
 ciation have niimerous articles on moral training. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Feelings and Emotions 
 
 1. Trace in some one child the growth of fear, anger, 
 and love. Note what called out the first expression in 
 each case, and how the range of objects Observa- 
 widens. Did the child express affection ^^°^^ 
 before he was taught the kiss or the loving pat? Was 
 he imitating? 
 
 2. Ask children of what they are most afraid, and 
 why. 
 
 3. Obtain' from adults reminiscences of the persons 
 whom, as children, they loved best. 
 
 (i) At what age did the love exist? 
 
 (2) What relation did the person hold to you? How 
 well did you know the person? Did you see the 
 person daily or hourly? Was mystery an element 
 in the love? 
 
 (3) Why did you love the person? On account of 
 substantial services, like feeding • and clothing 
 you? Or for some personal quality? Or because 
 of kisses and caresses for you? Or for gifts — 
 candy, picture books, etc.? (It would hardly- 
 be possible to question children themselves, as 
 the knowledge that their papers were to be read 
 by the teacher would prevent a free expression 
 of feeling.) 
 
 The fundamental springs of action are pleasure and 
 pain, and in all probabihty tl^ey exist even in forms of 
 life that have no nervous system. Mere sensory pleasures 
 
 313 
 
314 The Child 
 
 and pains in their simplest forms involve no memory 
 .but very soon they become complicated by past expe- 
 riences and we find the beginning of fear and hope. 
 Thence up the scale, both intellectual and emotional 
 associations build up the many forms of emotion for 
 which language is so inadequate. 
 
 The feeling aspect of consciousness has been relatively 
 little studied save by G. Stanley Hall and his pupils, and 
 for the most part our account must therefore follow their 
 work with occasional references to morbid phenomena. 
 
 Even before birth it is probable that a child feels 
 pains and pleasures of touch, from pressures 'and jars. 
 First pains ^^^ these are necessarily vague. After birth, 
 and for a long time, the most vivid feelings 
 
 pleasures ^^.^ ^jjQgg connected with hunger and its 
 satisfaction, with warmth and cold, and with touch. 
 Under this last head come the baby's delight in being 
 relieved from the confinement of clothing, the comfortable 
 feeling of water in the bath, and the pleasure of being 
 rubbed dry and warm. Preyer and Compayre agree 
 that in the first months of life the greatest pleasure is the 
 negative one of getting rid of pain. In the course of a 
 month, moderately bright lights and slowly moving 
 objects cause pleasure, and by the second month bright 
 colors and sweet soimds are sources of delight. Between 
 the fourth and sixth months, the pleastire of grasping 
 things and the delight of being able to do things, such 
 as tearing or crumpling paper, ringing the bell, and so on, 
 come into prominence. 
 
 The appearance of the first smile that indicates pleasure 
 is the occasion of much rejoicing. Of course, a baby 
 may make grimaces that look Hke smiles very early, 
 either accidentally or as the reflex of some one else's ex- 
 pression, but the first smile of delight, Darwin says, did 
 
Feelings and Emotions 315 
 
 not appear in his son until the forty-fifth Say. The smile 
 is usually accompanied, especially as the child gets a little 
 older, by crowing and kicking, and movements of the arms. 
 Perez says that the little baby is easily fatigued by any 
 unusual experience, whether pleasurable or painfvil, and 
 should not be constantly amused by over-fond mothers. 
 
 If he is well, the baby is usually content to lie in his 
 cradle and take in from it the sights and sounds about 
 him, dropping off to sleep at intervals to recover from 
 the pressure of the novel world. He gets all the amuse- 
 ment that his nervous system can stand in this way. 
 
 In the history of the race, however, there is much to 
 indicate that pain in one form or another has been more 
 prominent than pleasure, and fear more potent than hope. 
 Pain calls out stronger reactions than pleasure, and im- 
 prints itself more upon the organism. It is easier to create 
 fear than faith, and the attitude of curiosity is more 
 readily tipped toward distrust than toward confidence. 
 Again, anything that lowers the vitality increases the 
 tendency to fears, and so we find physicians asserting 
 that a tmiversal characteristic of nervous diseases, if not 
 of all disease, is the presence of fear or anxiety. 
 
 The normal fears of children have been studied in more 
 detail than any other emotion, and the various observers 
 agree in their general outline of the fre- 
 quency and uncaused nature of certain fears. 
 It is generally agreed that certain types of stimuli call 
 out instinctively the fear reaction and that these are the 
 stimuli that have been phylogenetically dangerous, while 
 the reactions have, on the whole, been of service. 
 
 The very first fears, which come at least as early as 
 the third month, are due almost entirely to surprise. 
 Loud or unexpected sounds, therefore, such as thunder, or 
 the banging of a door, or the furious barking of a dog. 
 
3i6 The Child 
 
 are the most common causes of these fears. A little 
 later, strange objects and persons call out protests and 
 tears from many children, but the fear is only slight. 
 The recovery from it may be followed by laughter and 
 delight. This makes it possible to train a child to face 
 little fears, and afterward larger ones, bravely. 
 
 In Sully's record the first fears of things seen were 
 called out by a strange place in the fourth month, and 
 by a strange face in the sixth month. This latter fear 
 was not overcome for a year. New clothes may cause 
 terror, and tossing in the arms and learning to walk 
 alone also cause many fears. In both these cases, the 
 feeling of insecurity is doubtless the potent factor. Dolls 
 that have anything unusual about them, such as oddness, 
 or ugliness, or broken members, also arouse fear. In 
 this class also should be put fears of apparently un- 
 caused occurrences, such as a feather floating in the air, 
 or the shadow of a cloud moving over the grass. Some 
 observers of animals claim that this is what makes horses 
 shy at a bit of paper in the road. The story of the dog 
 who was frightened into a fit by seeing a bone moved by 
 an invisible thread also belongs here. Fear of the dark 
 does not occur vintil the fourth rnonth or later, as a rule, 
 and is closely connected with imagination. 
 
 All these fears may rise at any time with children who 
 never had them before, and they may persist through life, 
 or remain for only a short time. Fear of black things, 
 black animals, black dresses, black places, and fears of furs 
 and of teeth, occur also with some children without any 
 . experience to justify them. Whether they are reverbera- 
 ifions of ancestral or prenatal experience or not, we cannot 
 say. Preyer records that at ten months his boy was afraid 
 of high tones; and at twenty-one months, of the sun. 
 Doubtless each parent can cite other individual instances. 
 
Feelings and Emotions 
 
 317 
 
 Let us consider now the proportions of children who 
 have and who have not fears, and the numbers afid 
 the causes of the fears. It seems to be the Percentage 
 case that deaf children fear more kinds of of *ears 
 things than normal children, and have more imaginary- 
 fears. The sense of helplessness is more prominent. 
 Imbeciles, on the other hand, have fewer fears, for they 
 do not know enough to be afraid. Miss Calkins has 
 investigated the fears of children with these results : 
 
 
 All Children 
 
 
 
 
 Under 
 3 Years 
 
 3 TO 6 
 
 Years 
 
 6 TO 16 
 
 Years 
 
 No fear ■. 
 
 39% 
 61 
 
 11.5% 
 88.5 
 
 5 % 
 88.2 
 
 Fear 
 
 
 
 Comparison of Boys and Girls 
 
 
 Under 6 Years 
 
 6 TO 16 Years 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 No fear 
 
 17-4% 
 82.6 
 
 24.2% 
 75-8 
 
 1.7% 
 Q8.3 
 
 0% 
 
 Pear 
 
 ICO 
 
 
 
 The girls show less variety in their fears and are less 
 afraid of imaginary things than the boys. Under three 
 years, 66 per cent of the fears were of things seen, and 
 23 per cent of things heard, an exact reversal of the fears 
 of the baby. Both of these diminish somewhat by the 
 sixth year, and the number of miscellaneous fears increases. 
 The change in the objects of fear at different ages is also 
 very interesting: 
 
 
 c/l 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 a 
 Ph 
 
 tfi 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 4 
 
 
 z 
 
 Under 6 years . . 
 9 to 14 years . . . 
 
 7-3% 
 2.2 
 
 17-2%, 
 2-4 
 
 2.5% 
 
 2.2 
 
 9-8% 
 1-3 
 
 14-7% 
 60.6 
 
 26.2% 
 13-7 
 
 93% 
 4 
 
 21 
 
3i8 
 
 The Child 
 
 Imaginary fears increase from 27 per cent at the age of 
 six to 5S per cent at fourteen. Indeed, we may probably 
 class the enormous increase in the fear of wild animals 
 as an imaginary fear to a large extent, for few children 
 have any actual experience with wild animals. The 
 fear of domestic animals decreases. All fears of the other 
 things with which the child deals constantly, decrease 
 steadily, except fear of nature. Here the feeling of 
 helplessness and uncertainty seems to increase with 
 experience. A comparison of these observations with 
 the reminiscences collected by Dr. Hall which are far 
 more numerous than any others, and by Holbrook, will 
 be of interest. ^ 
 
 Objects 
 
 OF Fear under 23 Years of Age 
 
 
 Hall 
 
 Calkins 
 
 Holbrook 
 
 Thunder 
 
 Girls 
 
 14% 
 
 Boys 
 
 9% 
 
 
 1% 
 
 
 
 Persons 
 
 II 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 7.6% 
 
 18 
 
 Reptiles 
 
 
 Darkness 
 
 4-4 
 
 22 
 
 Death 
 
 6 
 
 Domestic animals . . 
 Wild animals 
 
 18.4 
 43-4 
 
 12 
 
 Rats and mice 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 1* 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 Insects 
 
 
 
 Ghosts 
 
 2.2 
 
 A 
 
 Wind 
 
 
 End of world 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 
 Robbers 
 
 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 Monsters 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 Vague fears 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. Hall gives an average of 2.21 per cent fears, for 
 each boy, and 3.55 for each girl, while from other figures he 
 
 1 Varendonck's recent study agrees with Hall's as to objects 
 most feared. 
 
Feelings a,nd Emotions 
 
 319 
 
 gets an average of 2.58 for each boy, and 5.46 for each girl. 
 For different ages the averages are : 
 
 
 Under 4 
 
 4 TO 7 
 
 7 TO II 
 
 II TO 15 
 
 IS TO 18 
 
 18 TO 26 
 
 Boys 
 
 1.76% 
 4.89 
 
 1-5 % 
 2.44 
 
 3.56% 
 
 4-34 
 
 3.69% 
 6.22 
 
 3.60% 
 10.67 
 
 2.55% 
 
 4 -.31 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 Bashfulness 
 
 This directly contradicts Miss Calkins's observations 
 for children under the age of six, as she found that girls 
 have fewer fears than boys. 
 
 Bashfidness is an offshoot of fear, the survival in a 
 lessened form of what was active terror in our ances- 
 tors. It appears in the little child as an 
 instinctive shrinking from strange persons 
 and things. It is not marked enough to be called fear. 
 : However, it may be overcome under proper condi- 
 tions by imitation, but is succeeded in the second or 
 third year by a second shyness, which is due to self- 
 consciousness. The three-year-old hides and yet looks; 
 he wants to become acquainted, but cannot forget himself 
 enough to do so. Such bashfulness is likely to obtrude 
 itself under unusual circumstances until adolescence is 
 passed. 
 
 The unlearned character of many of these fears is most 
 significant, and points to their being truly instinctive. 
 Many of them serve no useful purpose now and are 
 even positive detriments. Sometimes they develop with- 
 out any discoverable cause, like fear of the darkness, and 
 are so intense that the most parents can do is to avoid, as 
 ''(ar as possible, the occasion of them. 
 
 In both children and adults they shade over into 
 moi-bid fears, and into the group of states characterized 
 in recent medical literature as anxiety neuroses. Morbid 
 fears or phobias are uncontrollable, and cause extreme 
 fears of objects or situations in themselves harmless or 
 
320 The Child 
 
 harmful to a very slight degree. Familiar cases, of these 
 are the uncontrollable fear of cats that some persons have; 
 the fear of crossing an open space or staying in a closed 
 room; the fear of pronouncing a certain word; the fear 
 of a bunch of grapes, ad infinitum. In such cases the 
 unfortunate victim usually recognizes the fooHshness of 
 fhe fear, but is unable to control it, and is of sound mind 
 in all other directions. The phobia lessens as general 
 health improves, and often gives way to another. In 
 some instances it may be fought and conquered, but in 
 others it persists intermittently, varying with the general 
 state of health and worry of the patient. 
 
 The anxiety neuroses are also very common states, in 
 which the patient shows all the physical signs of fear 
 but has no definite thing in his mind of which he is 
 afraid. Here too the fundamental thing seems to be the 
 state of the nervous system. , We may almost say that the 
 strong, vigorous person cannot worry. Under the great- 
 est misfortunes and sorrow his buoyant nature reasserts 
 the fundamo^ntal goodness and joy of life. The neur- 
 asthenic, on the other hand, finds it equally impossible 
 not to fear even when every circumstance points to success 
 and happiness. > 
 
 Another morbid aspect of fears is seen in the night 
 terrors of children. These may rise from various causes, 
 some of them serious, and a physician should be con- 
 sulted if a child is subject to them. 
 
 As fear is so universal a factor, the proper treatment of 
 spontaneous fears and the pedagogic value of fear as a 
 motive are important topics. One of the most important 
 things in the education of the little child is to teach him 
 what objects are dangerous in the world about him. 
 If he is to be self-reliant and efficient he must be able to 
 deal with them in one way or another without serious 
 
Feelings and Emotions 321 
 
 harm, and probably there is no way so effective as allow- 
 ing the child to get slight hurts in order to make him 
 cautious on his own account. Only the hurt child 
 dreads the fire, knife, stairs, and other things, and the 
 unhurt child must forever be rash and a great burden 
 to those who so carefully .protect him. The time for 
 teaching these fears by slight hurts surely is while the 
 child is still at home under the mother's protection. 
 
 The instinctive fears of objects no longer dangerous 
 are harder to deal with. As we have already seen, fear 
 is fought indirectly by keeping the child in vigorous 
 health. Aside from this an attitude of courage and calm 
 on the part of parents is the best aid until the child is old 
 enough to understand the harmless nature of the object 
 in question. It is not always, and perhaps not usually, 
 wise to leave a child at the mercy of his fear of the dark, 
 or of whatever fear possesses him, for it may be so great 
 that permanent nervous injury is done him. It is always 
 well to encourage a child to overcome such fears, but if 
 he is not old enough or strong enough to do so, he should 
 certainly not be left the victim of unreasoning terror. 
 
 As the child becomes older and the objects of fear 
 become more numerous with the development of imagi- 
 nation and reason, and his desire for social approval, fear 
 becomes one of the most potent of educational forces. 
 Fear of physical pain we have already seen to be of 
 value in some cases, but fear in its milder forms — such 
 as fear of losing some privilege, fear of being disHked, 
 despised, and so on — is of far greater service. Many of 
 life's choices He between what the selfish self desires and 
 the social self denies, and in making the choice the factor 
 of fear in these milder forms is surely as powerful as that 
 of hope. To learn to fear aright, we may say in summary, 
 is one of the great lessons of life. 
 
322 The Child 
 
 Anger and fear are commonly considered instinctive 
 emotions, that is, certain objects, upon the first acquaint- 
 ance with them, will call out the same 
 
 ^*' feelings and expressions from all men. 
 
 Darwin observed that as early as the eighth day his 
 child wrinkled his forehead and frowned before crjdng, 
 as if angry; and in the second month Perez observed that 
 the child showed anger by pushing away with a frown 
 objects that he did not like. In the fourth month anger is 
 certainly shown; the face and head become red, and the cry 
 shows irritation. This is caused at first by delay in supply- 
 ing food; but two or three months later it will be called out 
 by any thwarting of desire, such as the dropping of a toy. 
 
 Anger at this early age, it must be noted, is simply 
 the instinctive rebelling against pain. It is wholly 
 unreasonable, and is best dealt with by diverting the 
 child's attention if the deprivation is for the child's 
 good. As a child gets a little older, especially if he is a 
 boy, he is likely to vent his anger by beating the person 
 or thing that offends him, or by throwing things at them. 
 Here, also, until a child can be reasoned with, diversion 
 of attention and the final sectoring of an expression of 
 afEection is the wisest method of treatment. 
 
 At best, only a few of the causes of anger can be enu- 
 merated. There is, in the first place, what may be 
 called an irascible disposition, with which some seem 
 to be born. Disappointments and vexations which 
 others would hardly notice result in violent outbursts 
 Causes of of temper. Personal pecuUarities of speech, 
 anger gait, dress — almost anything, in fact — may 
 
 lead to a hatred that is almost murderous in its vindic- 
 tiveness. When a child is so unfortunate in disposition, 
 only the most constant, temperate, and kindly training 
 in self-control will help him. 
 
Feelings and Emotions 323 
 
 There are, in some cases, physical conditions caus- 
 ing constant irritation which are reflected in this bad 
 temper. Hence, parents should first of all ascertain 
 whether the child is healthy. Fatigue is also a com- 
 mon cause of irritability. With older children, as with 
 younger, the thwarting of expectations is one of the 
 most common causes of anger. A child to whom a 
 promise has been broken, who has been "fooled," who 
 has been called home before he finishes his game, is 
 usually an angry child. Anger over a violation of justice 
 or principle is relatively uncommon in children. The 
 feeling of pain or the suffering of personal injury is usually 
 the underlying cause. 
 
 As to the method to be used in controlling anger, 
 we find the most conflicting theories. The natural 
 tendency is to express the anger in some Control of 
 way — to strike or bite or scratch, or at least anger 
 to say sharp words or to slam a door. Many men find 
 great relief in swearing, and others think vigorously what 
 they dare not say. In all these cases there is some vent 
 for the emotion, and usually it is some kind of reaction 
 against the person who caused the anger. Dr. Colin 
 Scott has collected cases of girls who, when angry,, would 
 picture themselves as dead, and the person who had 
 injured them as suffering from remorse. He advocates 
 this as a healthy outlet for an emotion which, if kept in 
 and allowed no expression, causes more and more resentful 
 brooding over the wrong. 
 
 It is true that nothing can be worse than to brood over 
 an injury, but expression of the anger is not the only 
 alternative for this. Anj^hing that keeps the mind off 
 the injury and uses up the energy is equally service- 
 able. A long walk, chopping wood, carpentry work, 
 embroidery — anything that is not so habitual as to be 
 
324 The Child 
 
 automatic, anything that forces one to attend to it, may be 
 the vent for anger. Then after a time the first strength 
 of the emotion passes away, and we can combat it by 
 reason and by the cultivation of love or pity in its place. 
 
 It is doubtful if anything but harm. comes from allow- 
 ing ourselves to express any bad emotion. The very 
 expression reenforces the feeling and makes it more 
 lasting. We can do naught but condemn the atti- 
 tude which is cultivated by picttaring one's self as the 
 injured party, the cause of remorse to others. One 
 may or may not have been injured when one has been 
 angered, but whether or not this is the case, the pose of 
 self -righteousness,, of the injured martjT, is the pose of 
 a prig and has nothing admirable in it. In short, to repress 
 the expression of anger, and to cultivate the expression 
 of love, is in large part to repress the anger and increase 
 the love, and is the best training in self-control. 
 
 Jealousy, Gesell tells us, is both one of the most primi- 
 tive and one of the most painful emotions. It seems 
 to be present even among invertebrate ani- 
 mals, and from them up to man it plays 
 an important part in shaping the development of the, 
 species. Among animals it appears in connection with 
 feeding, mating, and breeding, and serves as a corrective 
 to too great sociability or sympathy, with the" connected 
 danger of injury to the individual. 
 
 Among children it appears during the first year, espe-. 
 cially with regard to feeding and holding, and it may be- 
 come very acute in children of a year and a half or two 
 years of age. The child is not only jealous of other 
 children, but of any one who takes the attention of the 
 mother or nurse from himself. 
 
 School children have a wider range of jealousies, and they 
 are the motivation of much apparent cruelty, bullying, 
 
Feelings and Emotions 325 
 
 and teasing. The school system of rewards offers plenty 
 of occasion for jealousy, but clothing, school lunches, 
 toys, and other things do as well. The adolescent is still 
 more subject to this passion, and while it may take on 
 the sexual form it is by no means limited to this. 
 
 Among little children jealousy is shown in such ways 
 as stamping, screaming, fighting, or kicking, while with 
 children from six to twelve it is more likely to appear in 
 sulking, slandering, or threatening. The same is true of 
 youth. At all ages the jealous child is likely to attempt 
 to even the scales in any convenient way, playing a trick 
 on the envied person, snubbing him, making faces at 
 him. "If we cannot exalt ourselves we humiliate others, 
 and make ourselves worthy by making them feel cheap; 
 the net result is the same: a more non-irritating level." 
 
 Whether jealousy has any value, and if so how it should 
 be treated, are difficult problems on account of the great 
 intensity , and complexity of the feeling. Sutherland 
 believes that family life will never be kept up to its highest 
 level without a certain amount of sexual jealousy, which 
 both develops and preserves conjugal fidelity and monog- 
 amy. On the other hand, the danger in the instinct 
 appears in all sorts- of examples in which the sex factor 
 does not appear. Many distinguished men find it psy- 
 chologically impossible for them to praise or to assist 
 another distinguished man in their own line of work. 
 The backbiting among those in any given profession is 
 notorious, and is by no means limited to persons who have 
 themselves injured or slighted the backbiter. The young 
 doctor or lawyer just beginning practice must fight not 
 only indifference on the part of possible patients but hos- 
 tility from those in his own line. Any slight preeminence, 
 by that fact alone, brings a c'ertain amount of jealousy 
 of the capable person, with the allied unfriendly actions. 
 
326 T he Child 
 
 Again, the effect of jealousy both upon the subject' and 
 the object seems to be bad in many cases. Out of one 
 hundred and twenty testimonies given to Gesell, seventy- 
 six say they feel humiliated and shamed by an attack of 
 jealousy, and only a few testify to the good resulting 
 from their attempt to overcome the passion. Out of 
 two hundred and four persons testifying as to their atti- 
 tude toward a person jealous of them, seventy-nine felt 
 kindness or pity, but only twenty-three did anything 
 to allay the jealousy. The others, in about equal pro- 
 portions, shunned the person, felt dislike or contempt, 
 pride or tritunph. Thirty-two tried to aggravate and 
 torment the jealous person. 
 
 Altogether, even though we admit that jealousy, to some 
 degree, is almost inevitable in the life of every person, 
 it seems probable that it is naturally so intense that little 
 but harm can come from rousing it in its more primitive 
 forms, and that even in the higher forms of rivalry and 
 emulation great caution must be used. If the child's and 
 youth's mind can be fixed on raising himself to the desired 
 level, the worst efEect will be escaped, though even here 
 he may feel unworthy pangs when a rival succeeds; but if 
 his energies are directed to keeping others below himself, 
 there is no limit to the depths to which he may sink. 
 
 Gesell's suggestions as to the treatment of jealousy in 
 children are admirable. Jealousy is a sign of a wounded 
 self, and is most effectively cured by comforting, reassur- 
 ing, and restoring this self. In little children repeated 
 reassurances of the parents' love, of their equal love for 
 all their children, are the best preventive and cure. With 
 older children, added to this should be considerations 
 of ways in which the child may respect or congratulate 
 himself on what he is or has. The development of a 
 normal pride and self-respect for worthy qualities is the 
 
Feelings and Emotions 327 
 
 best preventive of morbid jealousy; and, conversely, the 
 parents who teach excessive humility and self -depreciation 
 are also preparing a fertile ground for jealousy and all her 
 ugly brood of sneaking meannesses. 
 
 In Ordahl's opinion, the higher emotions of rivalry and 
 emtilation may be safely used if they are restricted to the 
 field of action, but not in the field of revelation and insight. 
 
 Prominent among the pleasures that seem to have no 
 object, is the child's delight in being tickled. A summary 
 of Dr. G. Stanley Hall's investigation of this subject 
 follows. Most children and even adults have a tendency 
 to fuss with the skin, to rub it or scratch it, especially 
 if it has any slight bruise, roughness, or TicWing and 
 eruption that causes a feeling of uneasiness, laughing 
 -There seems to be a demand on the part of the skin, as 
 of the other sense organs, to be stimulated. This need 
 is satisfied by rubbing, and also, especially, by tickling. 
 The sensitiveness of the parts of the body varies more or 
 less, but this is the general order: soles, under arms, 
 neck, under chin, waist, ribs, and cheeks. Many children 
 can be thrown almost into fits by a little tickling, and 
 at some we need only point the finger to send them into 
 gales of laughter. Dr. Hall considers this great sensi- 
 tiveness a survival of ancestral experiences in tropical 
 lands, where the sense of touch must be very delicate to 
 escape the bite of poisonous insects. 
 
 Another source of merriment to children is found in 
 the animal world. Children, says Dr. Hall, have a closer 
 connection with animals than do adults, because the 
 organs common to men and animals, which in the adult 
 are atrophied, are relatively larger in the child. There 
 are over one hundred and forty of such organs, and they 
 furnish a larger background of common feeling than is 
 possible with the adult. The animals which are most 
 
328 The Child 
 
 often the cause of merriment are, in the order of fre- 
 quency, the dog, cat, pig, monkey, rooster, crow, chicken, 
 duck, ape, goose, sheep, cow, and horse. Children are 
 also prone to laugh at what is forbidden or secret. This 
 is due to a relief of tension. Dr. Hall thinks, and is inju- 
 rious on every accotmt. It lessens the restraint upon 
 social decency, and gives rise to wrong feehngs about 
 sexual subjects. It furnishes still another argument in 
 favor pf giving a child knowledge of such matters. 
 
 A crude sense of humor seems to rise at an early age, 
 showing itself in the love of practical jokes as well as in 
 puns and alliterations and conundrums and word riddles. 
 Kline and Colvin have pointed out the value of training 
 the sense of humor. It keeps the mental structure pliant, 
 and does much therefore to enable the individual to meet 
 obstacles with equanimity. 
 
 Out of nine hundred children 40 per cent remember 
 a Christmas or a birthday as the happiest day of their 
 Joys and lives; and 25 per cent remember an excur- 
 sorrows gjon or a picnic on account of the fun that 
 
 they had. Anything of a pleasing nature which introduces 
 novelty into a child's life delights him. 
 
 The death of some relative or friend caused the unhap- 
 piest day for 50 per cent of the children, while sickness, 
 physical punishment, or disappointment caused it for 
 35 per cent. In general, the greatest joys and sorrows of 
 a child at any time or age are connected with the satis- 
 faction or thwarting of his strongest interest. 
 
 The first expression of sjniipathy is purely imitative. 
 The baby of six months draws down his mouth when 
 Sympathy others cry, and laughs in response to laughter, 
 and pi^ jf James's theory of the emotions be true, 
 
 this instinctive reaction creates a corresponding state of 
 mind, at least to a slight degree, which 'is the basis of 
 
Feelings and Emotions 329 
 
 sympathy. As a child gro-si^s older, he learns more and 
 more by experience what states of feeling certain expres- 
 sions stand for, and is able to put himself into the other 
 person's place. Preyer records that in the twenty-seventh 
 month his son cried with pity at seeing paper dolls cut 
 in two. This first pity is, as we should expect, shown in 
 connection with physical things — hunger and cold, lack 
 of shelter and clothing. On the other hand, children 
 frequently laugh at deformity and sorrow. One of the 
 sad chapters in the lives of feeble-minded children is 
 that they can seldom be allowed to play with normal 
 children because they are badly treated. Such ill treat- 
 ment is not, however, so much a sign of cruelty in children 
 as of ignorance, and can usually be cured by showing the 
 child the real suffering that he is causing. 
 
 In the same way he can be taught kindness to animals. 
 It is certainly true that very often when children are 
 hurting animals cruelly and are laughing at their con- 
 tortions of pain, they do not see anything more than the 
 mere movements, as of a jumping-jack. Their fondness 
 for practical jokes shows this same characteristic. The 
 only cure for such lack of sympathy is a wide experience 
 and a constant exercise of the imagination in "putting 
 yourself in his place." When Marie Antoinette was told 
 that the starving peasants of France had no bread to 
 eat she a<^ked in all simplicity, "Then why do they not 
 eat cake?" She lacked the experience necessary for 
 sjmapathy. 
 
 It is commonly said that the child's first affection is 
 given to his mother and is based upon his physical depend- 
 ence on her and his pleasure in the warmth 
 and comfort he obtains from her. It is 
 difficult, however, to see how anything but the feeling 
 of dependence and of personal enjoyment can rise from 
 
330 The Child 
 
 this basis. Rather, we take-the ground with Dewey, that 
 sympathy which seeks an outlet in action is love, and 
 that antipathy which seeks an outlet in action is hate. 
 When our liking for a person depends solely upon his 
 usefulness to us, it is unworthy of the name of love. 
 
 To return to the baby, his first spontaneous caresses 
 are, naturally enough, given to the one who tends him 
 and whom he knows best — his mother. As he grows 
 older, the love of parents and of friends can show itself 
 more and morp in different ways, and his first responses, 
 which were to a large extent instinctive and vague, 
 also become more varied. His love for his parents deepens 
 and widens to include ■ friends and God. 
 
 Mothers sometimes lament the growth of their children 
 to manhood and womanhood, as if the bonds of love were 
 lessened thereby. This may happen where a child is 
 allowed to accept without any return the greatest sacrifices 
 from his parents. He is thereby taught selfishness 
 Selfishness and allowed to think that his good is distinct 
 in affection from his parents' and superior to it. It is 
 sometimes said that the most selfish persoii is the one 
 most tenderly loved. There is a certain truth in this. 
 
 Love is, in its very nature, active and self-sacrificing, 
 and increases in proportion to what it does. If it is 
 expended upon a selfish person who is believed to be 
 worthy of it, or if it is called out toward a sick or helpless 
 person, it finds ample room for growth. So when a child 
 is little, the parents' love is peculiarly tender, and it is 
 hard to have this love grow into a different, though 
 equally strong one, and still harder to train the child 
 to love by teaching him sympathy and service. 
 
 Love and service are, however, inseparable terms, and 
 so, even from babyhood, the little one should be allowed 
 and encouraged to do his best in helping about the house, 
 
F e elin gs and Emotions 331 
 
 in comforting his parents in their worries, and in cele- 
 brating their joys. 
 
 In every possible case some act expressive of his love 
 should be suggested, and with it, the loving word and 
 the caress. Anglo-Saxons are proverbially 
 reserved; in our fear of hypocrisy, we go to 
 the other extreme of reticence. Many a chUd can 
 remember each individual kiss that he has received from 
 parents who would give their lives for him if necessary, 
 and who do sacrifice many pleasures and luxuries. Such 
 restraint works a harm to the child in allowing him to 
 believe himself unloved in contrast to his more fortunate 
 companions who are kissed and caressed. He is not of 
 an age to understand the love that gives up comforts to 
 provide him an education, while leaving him without the 
 loving word and the kiss for which he longs. Parents 
 do themselves wrong in their children's eyes, and hurt 
 the children, by such methods. Is it not better to have 
 both the act and the word or caress? We understand 
 that words without deeds are vain, but why should we 
 not have words with deeds? 
 
 Finally, there is no better way to cast out hate, jeal- 
 ousy, and all their brood than by service; loving service 
 if possible, but any sort of service at first Love and 
 to which we can persuade the child. A service 
 forced kindness later becomes spontaneous if persisted in. 
 While it may only breed hypocrisy in a child to compel 
 him to treat kindly a child whom he dislikes, yet we can 
 very often call his attention to some interesting or lovable 
 or pitiable trait so that he will of his own accord help 
 the child and grow to like him. 
 
 Richter tells us to teach our children to love, and 
 they will need no ten commandments, and we have a 
 higher authority than his for the belief that the Law and 
 
332 The Child 
 
 the prophets are summed up in the commandments 1o 
 love God, and to love our neighbor. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Baldwin, J. Mark. Bashfulness in Children. Ed. Rev., Vol. 
 VIII, 434-441. (^ame as in Mental Development.) 
 Mental Development: Methods and Processes. See Index. 
 Macmillan, N. Y. f 1.75. 
 
 Bell, Sanford. Emotion of Love between the Sexes. Am. Jour. 
 Psy., July 1902. 
 
 Bergson, Henri. Laughter. Macmillan, 191 1, 200 pp. 
 
 Borgquist, Alvin. Crying. Am. Jour. Psy., 1906, 149-205. 
 
 Bowles, Mary E. Emotions of Deaf Children Compared with Emo- 
 tions of Hearing Children. Ped. Sem., Oct. 1895, 331-334. 
 
 Boyd, A. K. H. Concerning the Sorrows of Childhood. Atlantic 
 Mo., Vol. TX. 
 
 Brill, A. A. The Anxiety Neuroses. Jour. Abn. Psy., Vol. V, 
 1910, 57-68. Brief Bibliog. 
 
 Calvin, S. S. Educational Value of Humor. Ped. Sem., 1907, 
 
 517-524- 
 Campbell, Harry. Morbid Shyness. Brit. Med. Jour., Sept. 1896, 
 
 805-807. 
 Cannon, W. G. Physiological Changes Accompanying Fear and 
 
 Rage. Psy. Bull., Feb. 15, 1912. 
 Carpenter, E. Affection in Education. Int. Jour. Ethics, 1899, 
 
 Vol. IX, 482-494. 
 Compayr^, G. Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child, 
 
 165-208. First Emotions. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 Darwin, C. Biography of a Child. Mind, 1877. 
 Dugas, L. La timidile. Bailliere, Paris, 1898, 167 pp. 
 Falkenthal, K. Emotional Life of Children. Wellesley Coll, Psy. 
 
 Studies. Ped. Sem., Vol. Ill, 319-330. 
 F6r6, Ch. Pathology 0/ the Emotions. University Press, London, 
 
 1899. 525 pp. 
 Perrero, G. Cruelty and Pity in Woman. Monist, 1893, 220-234. 
 Gesell, Arnold. Jealousy. Am. Jour. Psy., 1906, 437-495. 
 
 Bibliog. 
 Groos, Karl. The Play of Man, 166-169, 232-237. Appleton, 
 
 N. Y., 1901. $1.50. 
 
Feelings and Emotions 333 
 
 Hall, G. S. Adolescence. See Index. 
 
 Education of the Heart. Kgn. Mag., Vol. XI, May 1899, 
 
 592-595; 599-600; 604-607; also Redlands Rev. Press, Kept 
 
 S. Cal. Teach. Assn., Dec. 21-24, 1908, 31-38. 
 Anger. Am. Jour. Psy., 1899, Vol. X, 516-591. 
 Fears. Am. Jour. Psy., 1897, Vol. VIII, 147-249. 
 Hall, G. S., and AUin, A. Psychology of TickUng, Laughing and 
 
 the Comic. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. IX, 2-40, 234-240. 
 Hall, G. S., and Saunders, F. H. Pity. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. XI, 
 
 534-591- 
 Hall, G. S., and Smith, T. L. Showing Off and Bashfulness. Ped. 
 
 Sem., Sept. 1903, 275-314- 
 Harrison, M. M. Child's Sense of Fear. Arena, 1896, 960-969. 
 Hartenberg, P. Psychology of Shyness. Paid., Vol. II, no. 
 Holbrook, A. S. Fear in Childhood. Barnes's Studies in Educ, 
 
 18-21. U. of Chicago Press, ChicagOj, 
 Janet, Pierre. Major Symptoms of Hysteria. Macmillan, 1907, 
 
 345 PP- 
 Kline, L. W. Nature, Origin and Function of Humor. Pop. ■ 
 
 Sc. Mo., 1908, 144-156. 
 Little, E. G. Night Terrors. Brit. Med. Jour., Apr. 19, 1899. 
 McNaughton, Jones H. Fear and Evolution of Child. Child, 
 
 1910, 109-115. 
 Maitland, Louise. Children's Attitude towards Ghosts. (Fear.) 
 
 Barnes's Studies in Ed., 64-67, 176-177. U. of Chicago 
 
 Press, Chicago. 
 Malapert, P. Le sentiment de la colore. Bull, de la Soc. Libre, 
 
 Jan. 1903, 241. Also Ann. Psy., 1902, 1-40. 
 Morse, Josiah. Psychology and Neurology of Fear. Am. Jour. 
 
 Rel. Psy., Monog., Sept.-Nov; 1907, 106 pp. 
 Mosso, A. i^eor. Chapter XL Longmans, N.Y. $1.75. 
 Oppenheim, Nathan. Textbook of Nervous Diseases. Section on 
 
 Psychasthenic Conditions. 
 Ordahl, Geo. Rivalry. Ped. Sem., 1908, 492-549. Bibliog. 
 Perez, B. First Three Years of Childhood, Chapter V. Bardeen, 
 
 Syracuse, fi.50. 
 Preyer, W. Senses and Will. Appleton, N. Y., 140-176. $1.50. 
 Ribot, Th. Psychology of Emotions. See Index. Scribner's, N. Y. 
 
 jSi.25. 
 Siviter, Anna P. 'Fear of Childhood. Kgn. Mag., OctobM 1899, 
 
 VoL XII, 82-87. 
 
334 The Child 
 
 Slack, H. W. Origin and Development of the Emotional Nature. 
 
 C. S. M., 1900, 96. 
 Stanley, Hiram. Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling. See Index. 
 
 MacmiUan, N. Y. $2.25. 
 Psychology of Pity. Science, Sept. 28, 1900. 
 Stevenson, A. Jealousy in Infants. Science, October 1892. 
 Stryker, Mabel F. Children's Joys and Sorrows. C. S. M., Oct. 
 
 1898, 217-225. 
 Sully, James. Studies of Childhood. Subject of Fear. 190-227. 
 
 Appleton, N. Y. $2.50. 
 An Essay on Laughter. Longmans, 1902, 441 pp. 
 Tuke, Hack. Dictionary of Psy. Medicine, article on Night Terrors. 
 Tyrrell, M. A. Fear in Home and Household. Nineteenth Cent., 
 
 1908, 447-453- 
 Varendonck, J. Phobies d'enfants. Rev. Psy., 1910, Vol. Ill, 
 
 5-45- 
 Vostrovsky, Clara. Children's Superstitions. Barnes's Studies in 
 
 Educ, 123-143. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 Whitney, H. M. Fear as a Religious Motive. Bibliotheca Sacra, 
 , Apr. 1906, 227-241. 
 
 Wilson, Geo. R. Sense of Danger and Fear of Death. Monist, 
 
 Vol. XIII, 1902-3, 352-369. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 
 
 1. Keep a record of the development in some indi- 
 vidual child of the movements described in this chapter, 
 (i) Impulsive movements. Note especially Observa- 
 the posture of the baby in sleep. When ^ons 
 does a child begin to sleep lying straight? (2) ReHex 
 movements. Note especially whether, in case of tick- 
 ling or of brushing away an object, the baby uses the 
 right hand or the hand on the same side of the body. 
 That is, is he right-handed from birth, and if not, when 
 does right-handedness appear? Note also the earliest 
 inhibitions of movements. (3) Instinctive movements. 
 Note especially to what degree the baby is impeded by 
 long clothes. Watch for a climbing instinct. If possible, 
 take instantaneous photographs of the nude baby's posi- 
 tions in learning these movements 
 
 2. Gather reminiscences from young people or adults of 
 any one of the following instincts: migrating instinct 
 (running away from home); hunting instinct; cave- 
 digging instinct; tent-living instinct; collecting instinct. 
 In all cases note : 
 
 (i) Age when the instinct developed. 
 
 (2) Length of time it lasted. 
 
 (3) Circumstances that called it out. 
 
 (4) Strength. How much could it withstand in the 
 
 way of inducements to other sports, commands 
 of parents against indtilging in it, etc. ? 
 (s) Is there any tendency to it now, such as hunting trips, 
 camping, etc.? After how long a period is this? 
 
336 The Child 
 
 With the discussion of movements we enter upon the 
 last stage of our subject — the child's doing. Here, as 
 Introduc- in other cases, we are not preserving a 
 *'"" strictly chronological order in our description, 
 
 for as a matter of fact thinking and doing go hand in hand 
 in mental development, each requiring the other in order 
 for it to get beyond the rudimentary stages. So close is 
 this connection that in the chapter on Perception we 
 were obliged to anticipate this phase of the subject by 
 discussing grasping in connection with seeing, and now 
 in considering movements we shall be referring constantly 
 to the stimulus to movement given by the senses. 
 
 In thus discussing feeling, thinking, and doing sep- 
 arately, we have been guided principally by the desire 
 to show clearly the continuity of the development of 
 each mental process from birth to maturity, showing, 
 for instance, how the character of conceptions and of 
 religious ideas develops as the child matures. In thus 
 abstracting each mental process from the others in 
 which it is embedded, we do as does the dissector, who 
 follows out before his class the course of but one nerve 
 or blood vessel, ignoring for the time the complex of 
 other nerves, blood vessels, and tissues that enmesh it. 
 Such a separation is imperative for purposes- of study, 
 but it is only preliminary to the attempt to see as a' 
 whole the living organism in which each nerve and 
 blood vessel plays its part. So now that the growth of 
 the child's' body and mind has been studied, as far as 
 the present state of child-study observations allows, 
 there comes at last the consideration of how he, with his 
 body as a tool, learns to express his thought; for in this 
 expression the whole childish self is most clearly revealed. 
 
 Precedent to the child's conscious and voluntary 
 expression of thought, however, is a stage during which 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 337 
 
 he has little or no control over his movements. The 
 activities at this stage do indeed express to us the baby's 
 condition and his traits as a member of the human race, 
 but he does not intend to express himself thus, and is 
 unable either to make or prevent his movements 
 voluntarily'.. 
 
 Impulsive movements are also called spontaneous, 
 random, or automatic. In the whole discussion of the 
 subject there is great variety both in the impulsive 
 terms used and in the meanings attached to movements 
 the terms. Some writers class as instinctive what 
 others call reflex, and others make instinctive move- 
 ments cover nearly the whole range of human activities. 
 In a book of this nature it would be useless and confusing 
 to discuss and weigh such conflicting claims. We shall 
 therefore imitate Tracy in using Preyer's classification, 
 making the same reservation that Tracy does — that 
 the use of Preyer's classification does not bind us to 
 accept his theory of will. 
 
 Impulsive movements are movements resulting from 
 changes within the motor center itself. They seem to 
 require no stimulus from outside, and no sensory ele- 
 ments. Many fetal movements are impulsive, and also 
 many of the movements present at birth, although their 
 variety is not great. There are stretchings and bendr 
 ings of arms and legs; spreadings and bendings of fingers 
 and toes; striking with the arms; stretching after wak- 
 ing; all sorts of grimaces; movements of the eyeballs 
 before the eyes are opened; crowings and babblings; 
 and the "accompanying mov^ents," such as move- 
 ments of the arms on hearing music or seeing bright 
 colors or tasting agreeable food. 
 
 The better the health and feeding of the child, the 
 more numerous and vigorous are the movements likely 
 
338 
 
 The Child 
 
 to be. Their general use is evidently that they serve 
 as exercises to prepare the muscles for later instinctive 
 Direction of ^^^ voluntary action, and Miimford believes 
 the move- that they are also vestiges of movements 
 ments ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.g useful in the bodily economy 
 
 but are no longer so. They are decaying instincts, so 
 to speak • 
 
 Why they take the particular form that they do seems 
 tO' depend upon the prenatal posture and the bodily 
 structure at the time of birth, as Trettien shows. The 
 arm and leg movements are at first always in line with 
 the body, that is, forward and back or up and down, 
 never out and in. In the case of the arms this seems to 
 be due especially to the shape of the chest and shoulders. 
 As the back straightens and the chest expands, side 
 movements become easier. With both arms and legs, 
 the up and down movement is also the most natural on 
 account of the habitual posture of tne baby. Trettien 
 shows the habitual positions of arms and hands at great 
 length, thus;! 
 
 Position 
 
 Male 
 
 Female | Average 
 
 Fingers — 
 
 83% 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 69 
 31 
 
 100 
 
 66 
 34 
 
 98 
 2 
 
 87% 
 4 
 9 
 
 65 
 
 35 
 
 96 
 
 4 
 
 68 
 32 
 
 92 
 
 8 
 
 85 
 
 Bent 
 
 Straight 
 
 7 
 
 67 
 33 
 
 98 
 
 Wrists — 
 
 Bent 
 
 Straight 
 
 Elbows — 
 
 Bent 
 
 Straight 
 
 Shoulders — 
 
 Bent 
 
 67 
 33 
 
 95 
 
 5 
 
 Straight 
 
 Arms 
 
 Laid in front 
 
 Laid at side 
 
 1 The tables are based on different numbers of children, varying 
 from 58 to 182. In all cases the tables are given in per cents. 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 339 
 
 The legs are habitually bent at the hips and knees, 
 the feet crossed, the soles turned toward the median 
 line and the toes curled down over the soles. The whole 
 body tends to assume the curve of the prenatal position. 
 With such an habitual posture for trunk, arms and legs, 
 and fingers and toes, what other movements are probable 
 except the stretching of the back, the unbending of arms 
 and legs, and the spreading of fingers and toes? 
 
 These movements, as we can easily see, foreshadow 
 the later movements — the arm movements those of 
 reaching and grasping, the leg movements those of 
 walking. We cannot so easily explain the extraordi- 
 nary grimaces which often possess the baby's face at 
 this time, but they probably mark the first paths of the 
 facial expression which is to come later. We find that 
 as voluntary movements increase, impulsive movements 
 decrease in the normal person. Numerous connec- 
 tions between the sensory and the motor centers are 
 formed by education and experience, so that the trend of 
 development is away from impulsive movements rather 
 than toward them. Yet Compayr^ maintains that some 
 persist even in the adult. 
 
 Reflex movements differ from impulsive in that they 
 require a peripheral stimulus to call them out, but, like 
 them, no attention or idea is necessary for Reflex 
 the performance. They are inherited, but movements 
 the baby performs them more slowly and imperfectly 
 at first than later. This is a decided advantage, for the 
 baby has no power to inhibit movements for some time 
 after birth, and if the reflexes were easily started, he 
 would be subject to convulsions. 
 
 Reflex movements may be called out even early in 
 the prenatal life by gentle stroking, by changes of tem- 
 perature, or by shock. After birth, they are numerous. 
 
340 . T he C hi Id 
 
 Most important of all is the group of periodic reflexes, 
 under which come the various actions necessary to 
 sustain life. To this group belong all the actions con- 
 nected with respiration. Breathing is itself a reflex act, 
 due to the stimulation of the air, and the cry of the 
 newborn child is caused by the spasmodic action of the 
 larynx when the air reaches it. At first the breathing 
 is very irregular and rapid, sometimes almost ceasing, 
 and then continuing with greater force and rapidity. In 
 the seventh week there are about twenty-eight respira- 
 tions to the minute; in the twenty-eighth month, about 
 twenty-two, but even then a stimulus which is insuf- 
 ficient to wake the sleeping child will cause a rapid 
 increase in the number of respirations. 
 
 Sneezing is possible even at birth, and with some 
 babies takes the place of the first cry. Preyer pro- 
 duced it on the thirty-eighth day by pouring warm 
 water on the baby's forehead; and oh the one hundred 
 and seventieth day by merely blowing in his face.. The 
 baby's eyes are always closed in sneezing. 
 
 Swallowing is present even before birth. Coughing 
 has been observed in the first hour; choking and hic- 
 coughing on the first day; yawning on the seventh day; 
 wheezing and snoring on the twenty-fourth day; and 
 sobbing not until considerably later, about the seventh 
 month in Preyer's boy. 
 
 Other important periodic reflexes are the heartbeat, the 
 contraction and relaxation of the arteries, the movements 
 of the bowels, and so on. Regurgitation, which occurs as 
 early as the first week, should also be mentioned here. 
 
 Among reflexes that are not periodic should be men- 
 tioned the group of eye-reflexes. In describing the 
 development of sight these were discussed, and so need 
 only be mentioned here. 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 341 
 
 The entire body reacts to get rid of unpleasant stimuli, 
 even from birth, although it requires a stronger stimulus 
 then than later. The pain-reflexes are the least developed 
 of all at birth. A baby can be pricked with a pin, even 
 until the Talood comes in some cases, without reacting. 
 
 But there is a stronger response to some other stimuli. 
 Within five minutes of birth the toes will spread out if 
 tickled, and, like the hands, will clasp any object laid 
 within them. The reflex handclasp is one of the most 
 remarkable for its perfection and strength. Robinson 
 examined sixty newborn children and found that within 
 one hour after birth they could all hang suspended from 
 a stick by their hands, for a time varying from two 
 seconds to one- minute. Twelve hung for one-half 
 minute and four for one minute without crying or show- 
 ing any signs of distress. The strength of grip increased 
 up to the third week, when several hung for one and 
 one-half minutes. Here there seems to be a distinct 
 survival of arboreal life habits, when the baby had to 
 cling to its climbing mother in order to preserve its own 
 life. All the arm reflexes are stronger at first than the 
 leg reflexes, and the arms are relatively more developed 
 than the legs. 
 
 Other reflex movements occur to escape persistent 
 stimuli. Preyer found that in tickling the temple the 
 baby usually used the right hand to brush away the 
 object; while Pfliiger maintains that, as a rule, the hand 
 on th^ same side is used. 
 
 At first, as mentioned above, a baby has no control 
 over its reflex movements; they must follow when the 
 stimulus is given, whether he wishes them or not. 
 Preyer dates the first inhibitions between the ninth and 
 twelfth months, when the child begins to show some 
 slight control over bowel movements; but, although 
 
34^ Ike 'Child 
 
 observations are lacking, one may fairly question whether 
 before this time there are not some inhibitions of arm 
 and leg reflexes or of those connected with respiration. 
 In all cases the control is irregular at first, and fails if 
 the child is tired, inattentive, or not well. 
 I Instinct is differently defined by different writers, and 
 the distinction between it and reflexes is by no means 
 Instinctive hard knd fast. Instinctive movements seem 
 movements to differ from reflex movements principally 
 in being more complex and in having a less developed 
 mechanism for their performance than reflexes have. 
 
 Instinctive acts are inherited, that is, there is an 
 inborn disposition to their performance, but they require 
 a stimulus to start them, and they may. be greatly modi- 
 fied pr even suppressed by training. They are acts 
 which have been serviceable to the race and are present 
 to a greater or less degree in every mertiber of it, but in 
 man they vary so in their manifestations that it is almost 
 impossible to know what actions have an instinctive 
 root and what have not. There are, however, certain 
 acts which are clearly instinctive. 
 
 In this list belong sucking, biting, chewing, grinding 
 
 the teeth, and licking. Sucking comes the nearest of 
 
 any of these to a reflex act, and is some- 
 
 centering times classed as one because brainless chil- 
 
 about the dren perform it as well as do the normal. It 
 mouth . ,1 , . , , . 
 
 IS usually complete at birth, but m some cases 
 
 has to be partially taught. It lasts in its full strength 
 until the first teeth come, but as we have already noted, 
 for a long time most objects go to the child's mouth 
 to be sucked and licked before the child feels that he 
 really knows them, and even the adult likes at times to put 
 something into his mouth to suck. Licking usually accom- 
 panies sucking, and is present even on the first day. 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 343 
 
 Biting and chewing are instinctive acts which may- 
 appear as early as the fourth month, before any teeth 
 are through. A baby will bite and chew his fingers, 
 his rattle, the glass he drinks from. Grinding the teeth 
 also appears to be a common occupation. It may be 
 done when but two teeth are through, but usually not 
 until about the ninth month, when four teeth are through. 
 
 At birth the ability of children to lift their heads 
 varies considerably. In some, even on the first day, 
 there is enough surplus energy to lift the head Holding up 
 from its support; in others, not until the the head 
 second or third week. The neck muscles are very small 
 at birth, and increase in their growth to maturity to 
 nine times their original size. At first the head, when 
 tmsupported, drops on the chest and rolls to one side. 
 Preyer maintains that the dropping is not due to mus- 
 cular weakness, but to lack of will, because even in the 
 first week the head can turn to follow a moving light. 
 
 Miss Shinn records that at the end of the first month 
 her niece could hold up her head unsteadily for a few 
 seconds, and by the end of the second month could 
 hold it steadily and continuously. Preyer 's records 
 date the act between the eleventh and sixteenth weeks, 
 while Demme's observations on one himdred and fifty 
 children place the event between the third and fourth 
 months for strong children; at four and one-half months 
 for moderately strong ones and in the fifth or sixth 
 month for weakly ones. 
 
 The child has a strong incentive to hold the head up 
 after the sixth or eighth week, for then convergence and 
 accommodation of the eyes are established, so that he 
 can see clearly. The attempts to raise the head not 
 only strengthen the neck muscles, but those of the back 
 and chest as well, so that they prepare the child 
 
344 The Child 
 
 for erect sitting, which follows almost immediately. 
 
 We have described the development of the reaching 
 and grasping instinct at length in the chapter on Sensa- 
 tion and Perception. 
 
 After the baby can see distinctly and has learned to 
 hold his head up, he is very likely to resent being laid 
 Sitting down in his crib, although before he was 
 
 erect ^gll satisfied with that Jjosition. Now he 
 
 insists upon a sitting position, where he can see the 
 fascinating world about him. This desire to sit up 
 comes between the second and fourth months as a rule, 
 and the baby will make all sorts of efforts to lift himself 
 by a supporting finger, -or by strain of the abdominal 
 muscles. He is very unlikely to succeed, however, 
 unless he is somewhat raised to begin with, for neither 
 back nor abdomen is strong enough alone. 
 
 A baby who thus wants to see but cannot sit alone, 
 should be provided with a cushioned support that will 
 support and yet yield to movements, so that he can 
 carry on his education without harm to himself. He will 
 alsp get practice in sitting in his bath and in laps, and 
 by some time between the fifth and eighth months will 
 be able to sit alone on a hard, smooth stirface. By the 
 eleventh month the baby's seat is firm, although when 
 reaching for things he sometimes tips over. 
 
 Both Preyer and Trettien insist that a baby should 
 rather be discouraged than encouraged to sit alone, 
 and that the back should at first be supported by a pil- 
 low. Preyer says that he should not be allowed to sit 
 up untU he has proved his fitness by raising himself with- 
 out encoiuragement from a prone to a sitting position. 
 
 The first sitting position is very awkward. Usually 
 the knees are bent and the soles turned toward each 
 other like a monkey's. 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 345 
 
 In learning to walk, there are several well-defined 
 stages. In the first place, long before the baby makes 
 any attempts to move from the place where 
 he is laid, his legs, as well as his arms, make 
 various movements. These are, as we have seen, imptil- 
 sive at first, but later they become a source of great 
 pleasure to the baby, and by the third or fourth month 
 he is kicking up his legs as much as his elaborate cloth- 
 ing will allow. The movements become rhythmic and 
 alternating, evidently an advance toward stepping, and 
 by the seventh month he will straighten and press 
 his legs against an opposing surface and, if held up, 
 begin to take steps. He also enjoys standing when 
 supported. He is still, however, very far from inde- 
 pendent walking, and goes through at least one pre- 
 liminary stage, and often two or three, which are usefvil 
 in strengthening the various muscles that will later be 
 used in walking. 
 
 When a baby is strong enough, if laid on his back 
 he will roU over on to his stomach, sometimes just for 
 love of the movement, sometimes acciden- 
 tally ill reaching for an object. Mrs. Hall's 
 baby turned from side to back in the ninth week, but 
 not from side to side until "the middle of the seventh 
 month, and Miss Shinn's niece began her career of rolling 
 near the end of the sixth month, and continued it with 
 increasing vigor up to the eighth month, when creeping 
 began. "She would now roll over and over in any 
 direction, not to get anywhere in particular, but just 
 for the fun of the thing. She varied the exercise with 
 the most lively kicking, the heels raised in the air and 
 brought down together with astonishing vigor and zest; 
 or with twisting about and getting on hands and knees, 
 or even on hands and feet, prattling joyously and having 
 
346 The Child 
 
 a beautiful time all by herself for as long as the authorities 
 would leave her alone." 
 
 Instead of rolling, some babies stumble upon hitch- 
 ing. They jerk themselves along from one side to the 
 other, backwards or forwards, in a most tmgainly fashion. 
 Where there is hitching it may precede creeping, or 
 may take its place. Trettien gives the following per 
 cents, based on returns from seventy-five boys and 
 seventy-five girls, to show the usual mode of locomo- 
 tion: Of the one hundred and fifty children, 60 per 
 cent of them crept, 30 per cent hitched, 7 per cent 
 rolled, and 3 per cent crawled, humped, made swimming 
 movements, etc' He does not note in how many of these 
 children both creeping and some other form of locomotion 
 preceded walking. 
 
 By the sixth or seventh month a baby begins to get 
 up on to his hands and knees, and now and then to 
 stretch or scramble for something that he 
 reepmg ^ants. Some time between the eighth and 
 eleventh months he begins really to creep. Here, also, 
 we find all sorts of odd ways. Of the babies Trettien 
 watched, 6 per cent crept backward at first. Both 
 Miss Shinn and Mrs. Hall record this. It is due to 
 the fact that the baby's arms are stronger than his legs 
 and are predisposed to push instead of to pull, so that 
 until he has learned to coordinate his movements he 
 pushes himself away from the object he wants, instead 
 of toward it. Much to his amazement and displeasure 
 he finds it moving away instead of approaching him. 
 However, he soons learns better. 
 
 The relative movements of hands and knees are almost 
 as varied as the nimaber of these meinbers will allow. 
 Some babies move with the opposite hand and knee 
 down at once, but just as many move like pacers, with 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 347 
 
 the hand and knee of the same side down at once. A 
 fairly large proportion use arms and hands alone, dragging 
 the body and legs; and almost as many go on hands and 
 feet instead of knees. Others crawl like snakes, with 
 the arms close to the sides and the legs almost straight; 
 and still others hump like worms, drawing the legs up 
 and then stretching the arms and body forward. In all 
 cases there are, of course, many unnecessary movements 
 made at first that are dropped by degrees. 
 
 We have already seen that even at birth the baby's 
 clasp is strong enough to support him hanging, and 
 that the first efforts to sit up are, as a rule, 
 preceded by pulling himself up from a lying "^ "^ 
 
 to a sitting position. The muscles of arms and hands 
 are relatively stronger than at any other time of life, 
 and we should naturally expect from this fact a stage 
 when the baby's desire to use them would be marked, 
 that is, a climbing stage. Preyer, careful observer 
 though he was, does not even refer to such a stage, 
 although he gives a detailed account of seizing. On the 
 other hand, all the accounts of learning to stand show 
 how important a factor is the ability- of the child to pull 
 himself to an erect position, and Miss Shinn and others 
 have observed and described the climbing stage. 
 
 It seems probable that climbing is a genuine instinct, 
 dating back to the time when men lived in trees, and 
 when strength of arm and grasp were essential for life. 
 But in babies the instinct is so promptly repressed by 
 fearftd mothers, and so impeded by the baby's clothes, 
 as is also his creeping, that the discouraged child turns to 
 some substitute instead of delighting in it as Miss Shinn's 
 niece did. Such repression must be a hindrance to the 
 development of the child's lungs and back, and therefore 
 must work direct harm to his health. It is doubtless 
 
348 The Child 
 
 often difficult for the mother to give the necessary super- 
 vision to the climbing if it is allowed, but it can be done 
 more frequently than it is, and should be planned for as 
 far as possible. 
 
 When not repressed, climbing begins at about the 
 same time as creeping, and is shown in the baby's attempts 
 to climb over the person holding him, to climb into 
 chairs and on to beds and table, and above all by his 
 insatiate desire to creep up and down stairs. In the 
 mounting process there is really little danger, if the 
 thing he is climbing be solid, for his grasp is very strong; 
 but in descending, the baby is likely to come head first 
 like any animal that goes on all fours, and not being 
 'properly proportioned for such a form of movement, he 
 falls. If a mother can be hard-hearted enough to let 
 him get a few bumps, he soon learns to come down back- 
 wards, and then most of his dangers are over. 
 
 Although the desire to climb lessens somewhat after 
 the baby has learned to walk, it is strong all through 
 childhood, as is seen in the love that all children have for 
 climbing trees, houses, and so on. 
 
 Even before the baby has begun to creep, we have 
 seen that he is getting exercises preparatory to walking 
 in his alternate kickings, in the steady pres- 
 sure of his feet against opposing objects, 
 and in the various half-standing positions that he assumes 
 when held in the lap or supported on the floor. He enjoys 
 these exercises, but still he shows no desire to assume the 
 erect position when left to himself, until he has been creep- 
 ing for some time. Mrs. Hall notes that in the thirty- 
 eighth week her boy pulled himself to his feet by the aid 
 of a finger, and stood for a minute; in the forty-eighth 
 week he pulled himself to a chair and stood for five min- 
 utes, holding on with one hand and playing with the 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 349 
 
 other, and two weeks later he stood so for half an hour. 
 Prayer's and Miss Shinn's records correspond very 
 closely with this, but all note that the baby does not 
 feel very secure on his feet as yet. Demme's records 
 show that vigorous children usually stand alone between 
 the fortieth and forty-second weeks; moderately strong 
 ones between the forty-fifth and forty-eighth weeks; and 
 weakly ones about the twelfth month. Trettien says that 
 the first standing alone may come at any time between 
 the seventh and sixteenth months, and the first walking 
 alone between the tenth month and the second year. 
 
 By the time that the child has become accustomed to 
 stand alone, he has usually been given some lessons 
 in walking and has been shown how to push a chair 
 ahead of him. A baby will at first support himself by 
 the wall or by the furniture in going for what he wants, 
 but for a long time will drop down to creep when he comes 
 to an open space. He can often walk well when sup- 
 ported by one finger, and alone when he thinks he is sup- 
 ported, for some time before he will walk alone if he 
 knows it. With most children there is a fear of falling 
 that hinders their walking. 
 
 Their self-consciousness is shown in very amusing ways. 
 One Httle girl who had always held on to her mother's 
 dress while walking, one day seized the scallops of her 
 own skirt and walked bravely off, performing a feat 
 closely analogous to the famous one of Self-con- 
 raising oneself by one's bootstraps. Pro- sciousness 
 fessor Hall's daughter chanced to walk alone * ^*'^***'^ 
 for the first time when she had a, pair of her father's cuffs 
 slipped over her arms, and for several days she could walk 
 very well with them on, but would not stir a step without 
 them. When a child is not being constantly urged to walk, 
 it is not infrequent for him to take his first independent 
 23 
 
350 The Child 
 
 steps without knowing it, in his eagerness to get some- 
 thing that he wants. But as soon as he realizes that 
 he is going alone, while he may be very proud of himself, 
 he promptly falls, and may not try again for some days 
 or even weeks. Then suddenly he walks alone again, and 
 each day makes large gains, until, in a week or so, walking 
 is preferred to any other mode of locomotion. 
 
 The date when walking becomes well established 
 varies greatly. Preyer puts it in the sixty-eighth week 
 
 When walk- ^°^ ^^ ^°^'' ^^^- ^^^^ ^^ *^® sixty-sixth for 
 ing is hers, and others at various times between the 
 
 established twelfth and thirtieth or even thirty-sixth 
 months. Where there are a number of children in the 
 family,, walking will be learned sooner, and of course a 
 child can be taught to walk sooner than he wiU if left to 
 himself. This is not a wise thing, however, unless the 
 child is three or four years old, for a healthy child usually 
 wants to walk as soon as his muscles and bones are strong 
 enough to bear his weight. If he walks too soon, he 
 is likely to be bow-legged or knock-kneed. If, on the 
 other hand, a child has not learned to walk by the time 
 he is three and a half or four years old, a physician should 
 be consulted. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that when children first begin 
 to walk alone they want some object in their hands as 
 they walk. Is it partly because they derive some feeling 
 of support from it, and partly because they feel the lack 
 of the constant stimulation of the palms that they had 
 when creeping? 
 
 The first walk is very unsteady; not infrequently it 
 is more a run, a trot, or a waddle than a walk, and it is 
 usually pigeon-toed. Nevertheless, tindignified though 
 it be, it opens to a child a new world both of vision and of 
 movemeiit. He gets new views of things when standing 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 351 
 
 — views which are to persist through life; the freedom of 
 his hand allows his handling and fingering of objects to go 
 on at the same time that he is walking; and the exercise of 
 his legs leads to marked changes in the bodily development. 
 His appetite increases, his hours of sleep lengthen, and his 
 general health improves, especially if he is a sickly child. 
 His disposition is likely to become more amiable. 
 
 In describing these stages in locomotion we have pro- 
 ceeded as if the growth were continuous, but as a matter 
 of fact it is not. Some movement will Rhythms of 
 appear, be practiced for a day or two, and growth 
 . then be neglected for several weeks or even months. 
 Then suddenly it will reappear and be practiced dili- 
 gently until it is learned. Walking is likely to be inter- 
 rupted by the beginning of speech, and vice versa, so 
 that the two processes of learning to walk and of learning 
 to speak, which stretch over several months, have periods 
 of waxing and of waning. 
 
 The relation between the age of walking and talking 
 and general intelligence has been studied by C. D. Mead 
 upon twenty-five normal boys and twenty-five normal 
 girls, and one htmdred and forty-four "schoolable" 
 feeble-minded children. He defines "walking" as taking 
 a step unassisted, and "talking" as using a word intelli- 
 gently, that is, associating the idea with the object. The 
 median normal child begins to walk at 13.54 months, 
 and to talk at 15.8 months. In walking, the range of 
 variation is from eleven to thirty months with 90 per cent 
 of the cases between eleven and seventeen months. In 
 talking, the range is from nine to twenty-five months with 
 90 per cent between ten and twenty-one. In both cases, 
 as well as with the sub-normal children, the girls learn at 
 an earlier age than the boys. 
 
 The median feeble-minded child begins to walk at 21.6 
 
352 The Child 
 
 months, with the extremes at twelve and seventy-two, and 
 go per cent between thirteen and fifty. He does not begin 
 to talk until 34.4 months, with the range between twelve 
 and one hundred and fifty-six months (but only one case 
 above one hundred and eight months). Ninety per cent 
 of the cases are between fourteen and eighty-f oiu- months. 
 
 These returns are extremely significant if they are 
 representative, as indicating that the limits of normality 
 in learning to walk and talk are not as great as was for- 
 merly supposed. They are still more emphasized by 
 data quoted from Ireland and Tredgold on idiots, showing 
 that the development is still later in this class of defectives. 
 ' The sexual instinct has already been discussed in a 
 previous chapter, and hence will only be mentioned 
 Sexual here. Closely connected with the instinct 
 
 instinct of sex is the parental instinct, which seems 
 
 also to be the center of a large group of acts which are 
 not commonly considered instinctive. We can hardly 
 Parental question that the care of the helpless young 
 instinct jg instinctive, but we do not usually look 
 
 upon teaching and philanthropy in all its forms as instinc- 
 tive. What we know of social evolution, however, seems 
 to point to the fact that altruistic activities in general 
 have beeii the outgrowth of the instinct to care for help- 
 less children. The original instinct has become so covered, 
 so varied, and so modified in its expressions, that it seems 
 a misuse of terms to call philanthropy instinctive; and 
 yet, within the genuine philanthropist there is some 
 impelling force that cannot be turned aside by reasons 
 or difficulties or even his own willing. He springs to 
 relieve the suffering even of the most worthless, as the 
 mother springs to snatch her child from danger. 
 
 From this standpoint, Mr. PhilUps's investigations 
 as to the existence of a teaching instinct do not seem 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 353 
 
 unreasonable. He found that girls play dolls and teacher 
 far more than boys do. Out of one hundred and five 
 teachers, fifty-one had desired from childhood to follow- 
 that profession; seventeen wanted to at the age of 
 twenty-three; twenty-four were forced to teach, but 
 soon grew to love the work; and only four heartily dis- 
 liked it. He concludes that teaching is probably a special 
 form of the parental instinct, manifesting itself, as that 
 instinct does, more strongly in women than in men. 
 
 Besides the instinctive movements already described, 
 on which most writers are agreed, there are mmierous 
 other groups of movements which one or a other 
 few writers class as instinctive. Among possible 
 these are the migrating instinct, which ap- instincts 
 pears in the desire that most children have to run away; 
 the hunting instinct; the burrowing instinct, appearing 
 in fondness for cave making; the swimming instinct; 
 the tent-living instinct; the collecting instinct or the 
 instinct for property. Most children show these ten- 
 dencies at some time in their development, and it seems 
 probable that they are genuine survivals of ancestral 
 traits. They are less definite in their form than the 
 movements _we have been discussing, and so lend them- 
 selves with especial ease to modification and are the 
 basis of education in the form of natural interests. (The 
 chapter on Nature versus Nurture discusses them.) 
 Still other acts often classed as instinctive are the expres- 
 sions of the instinctive emotions — laughing and crying, 
 the expressions of fear, anger, and ,so on, which have 
 already been considered, and finally we have such things 
 as language, imitation, play, constructiveness, workman- 
 ship, classed as instinctive at bottom. • The separation of 
 the learned from the unlearned factors, and a clear descrip- 
 tion of the latter, would be of much value to education. 
 
354 The Child' 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bernhardt, W. Natural Impulses. Am. Nat., 1897, Vol. XXXI, 
 
 582-587. 
 Black, J. W. Savagery and Survivals. Pop. Sc. Mo., Vol. XLV, 
 
 388-400. 
 Brooks, W. K. Study of Inheritance. Pop. Sc. Mo., Vol. XLVIII, 
 
 480-491, 617-625. 
 Bryan, E. B. Nascent Stages and Their Significance. Fed. 
 
 Sent., 1900, Vol. VII, 357-396. 
 Buckmann, S. S. Babies and Monkeys. Nineteenth Cent., Vol. 
 
 XXXVI, 727-743- 
 Compayrfi, G. Development of the Child in Later Infancy. Chapter 
 
 IV. Appleton, N. Y. $1.20. 
 Darwin, C. Biographical Sketch of an Infant. Pop. Sc. Mo., 
 
 Vol. LVII, 197-205. 
 Ellis, Havelock. Analysis 6f the Sexual Impulse. Alien, and 
 
 Neur., 1900, Vol. XXI, 247-262. 
 Emmons, B. E. Humane Instincts of Children. Jour, of Fed., 
 
 1900, Vol. XIII, 110-116. 
 Groos, K. The Play of Man. See Index. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 Hall, Mrs. W. S. First Five Hundred' Days of a Child's Life. 
 
 C. S. M., Vol. II. See Index. 
 McMillan, Margaret. Early Childhood, 27-47. Bardeen, Syracuse. 
 
 $1.50. 
 Marshall, H. R. Instinct and Reason. Macmillan, N. Y. 574 pp. 
 
 $3-50. 
 Mead, C. D. Walking and Talking in Relation to General Intelli- 
 gence. Ped. Sem., Dec. 1913, 460-48. 
 Mezes, S. G. Essential Differences between Man and Other 
 
 Animals. Texas Acad, of Sc, 1898, 23-27. 
 Mills, W., et al. Instinct. Science, N. S., 1896, Vols. Ill and 
 
 IV. 
 Moore, Mrs. Kathleen Carter. Mental Development of a Child. 
 
 Psy. Rev., Monog. Sup. No. 3, 1896. 
 Morgan, C. L. Swimming Instinct. Nature, 1901, Vol. LXIV, 208. 
 
 Instinct and Experience. Methuen, Lond., 1912, 299 pp.- 
 Oppenheim, N. Mental Growth and Control. Chapter V. Macmil- 
 lan, N. Y. $1.25. 
 Preyer, W. Senses and Will. Chapters on Impulsive, Reflex, and 
 
 Instinctive Movements. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 
Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive Movements 355 
 
 Reid, G. A. Prehensile Power of the Hands of the Human Infant. 
 
 Lancet, 1897, 1077. 
 Robinson, L. Primitive Child. N. Am. Rev., Vol. CLIX, 467-478. 
 Rowe, S. H. Physical Nature of the Child. Chapters II and XL 
 
 Macmillan, N. Y. $1.00. 
 Scripture, E. W. Arousal of an Instinct by Taste Only. Science, 
 
 N. S., 1899, Vol. IX, 878. 
 Shinn, Millicent W. Biography 0/ a Baby. Houghton, Mifflin, 
 
 Boston^ $1.50. 
 Swift, E. J. Heredity and Environment. Proc. N. E. A., 1898, 
 
 910-916; Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., 1898; N. W. Mo., 1898, 36-41. 
 Taylor, A. R. Study of the Child, 93-105. Appleton, N. Y. 
 
 $1.25. 
 Tracy, B. Psychology of Childhood. Chapter on Movements. 
 
 Heath, Boston. $0.90. 
 Trettien, A. W. Creeping and Walking. Am. Jour. Psy., 1900, 
 
 Vol. XII, 1-57. 
 Worthington, S. M. Inheritance of Mutilations, etc. Med. Rev., 
 
 1897. 
 Wundt, W. Human and Animal Psychology. 
 
 See also the individual studies and general books of reference. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 Growth in Control of the Body 
 
 1. To observe the increase in control of the muscles, 
 compare children two, four, eight, and fourteen years 
 Observa- old. Note the difference in ability to move 
 tions the fingers separately, either horizontally or 
 up and down, to stand still on tiptoe, and to thread a needle. 
 
 2. Have children of different ages sort out colors, and 
 note the differences in accuracy. 
 
 3. Have them tap a finger regularly, as long as they 
 can, and note the differences in regularity and in length 
 of time. In all these the fourteen-year-old child will 
 probably be little, if at all, superior to the eight-year-old. 
 
 4. Notice whether the brightest children of your 
 acquaintance are the quickest and the most accurate in 
 their movements. 
 
 5. Provide your children with simple tools, needles, 
 etc., of their own, and encourage them to make their 
 own toys, playhouses, etc., as well as articles for use 
 about the house. Show them how to use the tools, 
 and see that they complete whatever they begin. 
 
 6. If you are observing one child systematically, 
 give the tests mentioned in (i) at regtilar intervals, and 
 take pictures if possible. 
 
 Leaving now the exclusively physiological side of 
 the subject, we shall consider how, a child learns to use 
 Introduc- his body, and how much he improves from 
 *ion babyhood to youth. In many parts of our 
 
 country a revival of all sorts of hand work is shown by 
 classes in lace making, spinning and weaving, carpentry, 
 
 356 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 357 
 
 basketry, and so on. While there may be more or less of 
 the fad in this, it is nevertheless very suggestive to the 
 sociologist and to the educator, because it indicates a 
 feeling of the value of "handiness." 
 
 Whether we look at the matter historically or logic- 
 ally, we can see that in the end our civilization depends 
 upon our ability to control our bodies, especially our 
 hands. Without such ability, neither literature nor ma- 
 chinery nor any other expression of thought is possible, ■ 
 and it is still an open question how much the power of 
 thought itself is dependent for growth upon an organ 
 that is adaptable, like the lips and hands, and how far 
 it has created the organ by use. It is therefore valuable 
 to study how the baby learns to use that wonderful 
 organ of the mind, his body, and especially how both 
 child and adult learn to use their hands. 
 
 At birth a child has no power to make voluntary 
 movements of any sort. When an arm or a leg moves, 
 when his eyes close at a bright light, or ^j^^ jj^by's 
 when he starts at a loud sound, the move- control of 
 ment is a total surprise to him, something soy 
 that he can .neither prevent nor repeat. He gets, at 
 the most, vague feelings, without any knowledge of 
 their cause or connection with each other, or with other 
 feelings, and he does not as yet know the difference 
 between feelings arising from his own movements and 
 those due to outside stimtili, such as light and sounds. 
 
 But these vague feehngs become more distinct by 
 repetition, and as the connective fibers within the baby's 
 brain grow, the various feelings become associated with 
 one another. The eye sees the aimless movements of 
 the hand, and, after many accidental successes, is able 
 to guide the hand to the mouth. The first accidental 
 grasping of the breast in the aimless groping of the hand 
 
3s8 ' T he C hi Id 
 
 gives a basis of feeling for the intentional reaching when 
 the baby is hungry. 
 
 The wonderful change in a baby that usually occiurs 
 about the sixth month of his life is due very largely to 
 his discovery that he can move himself this way or that 
 as he pleases, and can direct his movements by bis eyes. 
 
 In the last chapter we traced the gradual increase in the 
 power to control the trunk and larger muscles of the body, 
 ■in holding up the head, sitting erect, rolling, creeping 
 walking, and grasping and holding. The smaller muscles 
 of the face are also controlled to a large degree in feeding, 
 talking, and in the various expressions of the emotions, 
 though the connection with instinctive movement is 
 very close here and it is difficult to know when the transi- 
 tion from instinctive to voluntary rnovement occurs. 
 
 Growth in muscular control depends not only upon the 
 normal development of the muscular system but equally 
 Neuro- upon that of the nervous system. So close 
 
 muscular is the relation between the two that under 
 sys em ^j^^ name of neuro-muscular system they are 
 
 frequently considered together. Again, mental develop- 
 ment is closely bound up with nervous and motor develop- 
 ment, for the material of knowledge, sensation, cannot 
 be acquired to any great degree without movement, 
 even when the sense organs theniselves are perfect. An 
 immobile eye or hand would lose a large part of its 
 use, and, in the course of time, of its sensitiveness as 
 well. The question of growth in motor control and its 
 value and significance for mental development is there- 
 fore an important one, and various tests have been made 
 to show the improvement with age. 
 
 First with regard merely to increase in the muscles, 
 we should note that the various muscular systems do 
 not all grow equally together, but sometimes one and 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 359 
 
 sometimes another is more prominent. Thus Tyler tells 
 us that at about four years of age the legs are growing more 
 rapidly than the other muscles, and Hall says that in the 
 adolescent growth leg growth comes first, then biceps and 
 back, and later still forearm. Puberty is a period of rapid 
 increase m strength as well as of rapid growth. 
 
 To what degree should there be systematic physical 
 training of the little child? A baby, as we have already 
 seen, is indefatigable in exercise if he is General 
 
 healthy, and if he is not trammeled by clothes body 
 
 or by his mother's fears he is likely to get control 
 
 an all round development. We know, however, that 
 both a baby's strength and dexterity can be greatly 
 increased if the parents put him through regular exercises, 
 but whether such work is necessary or even desirable is a 
 question, unless the child is evidently weak in some direc- 
 tion. After he can walk he acquires by degrees various 
 refinements of walking— jumping, hopping, balancing — 
 and in climbing still other forms of control are established. 
 Rather than formal training, we should advise that the 
 childish activities of play and imitation be such as to 
 use all parts of the body spontaneously. By the kinder- 
 garten age rhythmic movements are enjoyed, though 
 in very different degrees by different children, and rhyth- 
 mic plays and exercises become important educational 
 agencies. They shade over by degrees to dancing, which 
 Dr. Hall considers one of the most valuable forms of 
 training that we possess. 
 
 Dancing in this broad sense includes all emotion and 
 thought expressed in rhythmic motion. It demands 
 control of all the larger muscles of the body, and expresses 
 the whole self better than anything else. It again shades 
 over into the dramatic art with all its educational possi- 
 bilities. Both these forms of exercise have so many 
 
360 The Child 
 
 social and intellectual aspects that we shall reserve 
 discussion of them for other chapters. In general, we may 
 say that the child acquires the increasing control of his 
 body through his spontaneous play far more than through 
 any other agency. His toys are a large factor here. 
 
 On the side of formal education the control of the hand 
 is the most important single factor. The significance 
 Evolution °^ *^^ hand in the evolution of man can 
 of the hardly be overstated. McDougall tells us 
 
 ^^"* that the hand has, in phylogenetic history, 
 
 been successively used for locomotion, support, suspen- 
 sion, and at length for manipulation. Since man has 
 learned to walk erect and the hand has been freed from 
 its work of locomotion, few structural changes have 
 occurred, but great functional changes. In order to 
 become a real hand, it must lose its hair, so that the sense 
 of touch may become delicate. The skin must become 
 thinner, so that more delicate stimuli may be felt, and 
 the claw or hoof must give way to the short 'nail, so that 
 the tips of the fingers may be used. Again, the fingers 
 have become longer, especially the last joint, probably 
 the bands of muscles crossing the phalanges have become 
 narrower, so that the fingers move more freely and 
 independently of each other; the thumb especially becomes 
 opposed to the other digits, and the connections of hand 
 with brain become more complex. 
 
 We have already seen how the child's power to grasp 
 develops. Let us summarize briefly the various investiga- 
 Growth tions on other forms of hand or finger control, 
 
 of finger The power of hand grip is closely correlated 
 •^°° "^^ with mental vigor. Between eleven and six- 
 
 teen both boys and girls nearly double their dynamometer 
 grip, and there seems to be a parallelism between the 
 increase in the grip and the increase in weight. 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 361 
 
 Tests for the greatest number of taps in a given time 
 show, according to Bryan's returns, a steady increase 
 from six years to sixteen for boys, with a lowering at 
 fourteen for girls and a later rise. Gilbert fovind a 
 similar decline at twelve for both boys and girls, while 
 in the Chicago tests the greatest improvement for boys 
 occurred in the thirteenth year and for girls in the tenth, 
 thirteenth, and fifteenth years. Bolton found that in . 
 general the children bright intellectually could improve 
 most and resist fatigue best in tapping tests. 
 
 Tests for accuracy of finger movements, though of 
 very different kinds, all seem to indicate that from about 
 five years of age on, for two or three years, there is a 
 marked improvement in accuracy, while at puberty 
 there is little or no gain, and sometimes deterioration. 
 Tests for discriminating weights, however, show maximum 
 correctness of judgment at thirteen with girls and at 
 fourteen with boys. 
 
 Power to resist fatigue, measured by the ergograph, 
 seems to improve rather steadily from six to twelve; 
 then there is a sudden acceleration for two or three 
 years, and later a relative decline. 
 
 These data, meager indeed when we consider the 
 importance of hand control to the individual, show us 
 little of educational importance, except possibly that 
 about six and thereafter we can safely allow the child 
 to undertake tasks that we could not before. We still 
 have unsettled the important questions of when to begin 
 writing, the place of manual and industrial training, 
 of drawing and plastic art, of domestic economy. How 
 much hand control should a child have when he enters 
 school? We cannot say definitely. We know that under 
 the Montessori method four- and five-year-old children 
 can do everything involved in dressing and undressing 
 
362 The Child 
 
 (if the clothing unfastens in front), can carry a soup 
 plate without spilling the soup, can trace the insets and 
 sandpaper letters, and in many cases can write without 
 following copy. Kindergarten children do paper weaving, 
 string coarse beads, outline drawings with a coarse needle 
 and wool. Children are able to handle a fork and spoon 
 tolerably well, to cut with scissors, and so on. 
 
 The possibilities here are always bound up too with 
 the possible strain on the eyes. How closely ability to 
 make fine movements is correlated with visual abiHty to 
 follow those movements we do not know. Whether 
 small children perform all the acts above referred to 
 without overfatigue is still a matter of question. For 
 some time educators have been saying that writing 
 should not be learned before the child is eight or nine 
 years old, because it requires the use of delicate muscles 
 over which a little child cannot exercise control without 
 too great nervous strain. The Montessori system, how- 
 ever, does not seem to fatigue the children. Perhaps we 
 need here to define more closely what is meant by writ- 
 ing. Under the old method, by which the child was 
 required to use a ruled sheet and to write in small char- 
 acters, the strain was much greater than when he uses 
 free movements, and writes very large, without a line. It 
 is difficult to see why, in the latter case, there is any more 
 strain- than in his free drawing. We very much need some 
 careful observations of children from kindergarten age to 
 adolescence, in order to find out what hand activities they 
 indulge in spontaneously at different ages. 
 
 Turning from the consideration of age, however, there 
 is no question of the value of manual work in all its 
 forms, but this value differs greatly. We can only touch 
 upon these variations briefly. A subject has educative 
 value in proportion as it performs many functions in 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 363 
 
 one. Our curriculum is too crowded to allow of training 
 each part of the child by itself, and even if we could, 
 life demands complete functioning rather than abstract 
 activity. The earlier systems of manual training which 
 are still in use in many places, erred in making manual 
 skill nearly the whole consideration. They taught the 
 boy or girl no trade, made few or no useful things or 
 toys, but drilled on making square joints, using the tools 
 well, and little else. Also they paid little attention to 
 teaching the pupils hygienic positions in using the tools, 
 they strained the eyes, and had other bad physical effects. 
 
 The tendency now is, to a large degree, to replace 
 this work by various forms of industrial training and 
 domestic science. Siich work has the advantage of 
 preparing the, pupils for a specific trade, and thus satisfy- 
 ing pressing economic needs both for the child and the 
 commtmity. The training varies greatly in different 
 places. It is probably most developed in Munich, where 
 nearly every trade is taught. The half-time system, in 
 which a boy works in the 'shop a half day or a week, 
 and spends the other half day or week in school, two 
 boys "spelling" each other, has met with great success 
 in some places. 
 
 Such industrial training, however, can hardly be 
 taught below the grammar grades, and there is still the 
 question of what preparation shall be given for it in the 
 elementary school work. In general, the plan which 
 was followed under Dr. Dewey's guidance in the School, 
 of Education seems to justify itself best. It is, in brief, 
 that in these years the school should offer in carefully 
 chosen forms the typical activities of man, so that by 
 degrees the children shall come to an understanding of 
 the life about them. These activities focus about getting 
 food, clothing, and shelter — cooking, spinning, weaving 
 
364 T he Child 
 
 and sewing, carpentry, and their various modifications. 
 The making and furnishing of a doll's house, clothing 
 the dolls, and other occupations offer numerous possi- 
 bilities for the yoimger children. For the older, the 
 activities need to be on a larger scale, preparing some of 
 their own meals and clothing, or making a playhouse 
 for themselves. Every normal child loves such activi- 
 ties, and they are the natural centers from which, through 
 his social nature, he works out to an interest in natural 
 science and in other people and other times. The in- 
 stinct of imitation leads him to play at house, at hunt- 
 ing, at dressmaking, reproducing in miniature the life 
 about him. Thence he is led to question what people 
 did for clothes when they had no needles, how they 
 killed animals when they had no guns, and so on. 
 
 But, and here we connect with hand work again, when 
 a child thus begins to question how a certain people 
 lived or how a certain food is obtained or how a certain 
 machine runs, the best understanding is obtained by 
 his living the life, preparing the food, or making the 
 machine; and the association fibers of the brain are 
 most rapidly developed by this activity. A child has 
 but a small store of memories to fall back upon and 
 cannot construct in imagination with any accuracy such 
 a process as weaving, even of the simplest kind. He must, 
 at least in a crude form, go through the essential parts 
 of the process himself before he can have the feelings 
 and motor associations necessary for understanding it. 
 Still more, by doing it himself he is able to enter into 
 the feehngs and thoughts of the weaver. By planting 
 and raising wheat, he not only tmderstands fanning 
 better, but also the farmer. He is broadening his 
 sympathies, for the basis of all sympathy is ability to 
 put oneself in another's place, and we cannof do this 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 365 
 
 unless we have had the same experiences as he. This 
 strong plea can therefore be made for hand work in our 
 schools — that it will do away with the foolish notion 
 that the trades are of less worth than the professions, 
 and wiU train children to a genuine sympathy with all 
 workers, thus leveling the artificial distinctions of our 
 social life and helping to solve our labor problems. 
 
 Finally, on the side of action, only the actual doing of 
 a thing will develop the skill, accuracy, and importance 
 patience which are essential in the attain- °* action 
 ment of first rank in any profession. 
 
 From all sides it seems, therefore, that the expres- 
 sion in sensory form of any valuable thought is neces- 
 sary for the complete understanding of the thought as 
 well as for the broadening and strengthening of the feel- 
 ings and of the wiU. Accordingly, we would make an 
 earnest plea to parents and teachers to do their utmost 
 to give the children in their charge every opportunity 
 to express their ideas. This does not require the intro- 
 duction of expensive outfits in cooking, manual training, 
 and so on, so much as it does ingenuity in using the 
 materials at hand. Wonders can be done with a hammer, 
 saw, and jackknife, with an old stove and a few tin 
 pans, with a doll and some pieces of cloth, with weeds, 
 pliable twigs, and tough grasses, with sand, mud, and 
 clay. All these things are at hand for nearly every one. 
 The important thing is that the children shall become 
 accustomed to expressing their ideas. 
 
 From the side of. vocational guidance such work is 
 also of great value, for it reveals the individual interests 
 and abilities of children to a wonderful . 
 
 degree, and from the side of efificiency it 
 is probably more valuable still. The business world 
 has been greatly startled of late by the studies of 
 
365 The Child 
 
 Gilbreth, Emerson, Taylor, and others, which have shown 
 the great industrial wastes of our present systems. 
 These come in various places — in bad office systems, 
 bad bookkeeping, bad systems of letter and information 
 files — but quite as much in wastes in the movements 
 necessary for doing a piece of work. Studies of the 
 movements made in brick laying, for instance, showed 
 that nearly half of them were unnecessary, and that by 
 having the bricks on an elevation so that they could be 
 taken without stooping, a large amount of the brick 
 layer's time could be saved. The net result under the 
 efficient system was that he did three times the work 
 that he did before. Similar enormous gains were made 
 in coal Shoveling, loading pig iron, and in other forms 
 of work. 
 
 To the psychologist the significant fact here is that 
 the workmen who had been in such work for years had 
 never observed the waste, and that a large proportion of 
 them could never be trusted to stick to the better way. 
 While certain social factors contributed to this unwilling- 
 ness, another factor probably is that the efficient system 
 demands more constant attention than does the old one. 
 
 If, now, the school is to be of assistance in giving 
 hand control, siurely it can do some of its best work in 
 teaching children to make all their movements efficient. 
 There are wasteful and effective ways of holding a 
 book, using a pencil, erasing a blackboard; of walking, 
 sitting, standing; of driving a nail, sawing a stick, bor- 
 ing a hole. Housework offers no end of opportunities 
 for "making one's head save one's heels," and each one 
 should be utilized. Many of these ways are easy to be 
 seen even by children, if once they are alert for them, 
 and the gain in the course of a year is far greater than 
 most of us realize. 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 367 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Anderson, William S. Studies in the Effect of Physical Training. 
 
 Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., Vol. IV, 1899, 265-278. 
 Ballard, P. B. Handwork as Educational Medium. Sonnenschein, 
 
 Lond., 1910, 194 pp. Essay i, i-iii. 
 Berry, T. W. Pedagogy of Educational Handicraft. Blackie, Lend., 
 
 1909, 100 pp. 
 
 Bibliography on Industrial Education. Bull. No. 2 of Nat. Soc. for 
 
 Promotion of Ind. Ed., July 1907, 32 pp. 
 Bibliography of Physical Training. English Titles, 1905-11. 
 
 Phys. Dir. Soc, Y. M. C. A., 1912, 172 pp. jSi.oo. 
 Bogardus, E. S. Fatigue and Industrial Accidents. Am. Jour. 
 
 Soc, 1912, Vol. XVII, 512-539. 
 Bolton, T. L. Relation of Motor Power to Intelligence. Am. 
 
 Jour. Psy., July 1903, 351-367- 
 Book, W. F. The Psychology of Skill. U. of Montana Pub., 1908, 
 
 Vol. VI, No. I. 
 Burk, F. L. From Fundamental to Accessory. Ped. Sem., Oct. 
 
 1898, 5-64. 
 Bumham, W. H. Hygiene of Physical Training. Am. Phys. Ed. 
 
 Rev., 1909-10, Vols. XIV and XV. Series of Articles. Bibliog. 
 Busser, R. C. German System of Industrial Schooling. Phila. 
 
 Pub. Ed. Assn., 1913, 63 pp. 
 Carlton, Frank T. Education and Industrial Evolution. Mac- 
 
 millan, 1908, 320 pp. 
 Chambers, Will G. Motor Activity in Primary Education. Jour. 
 
 of Ped., 1905-6, 166-184. 
 Crichton-Brown, James. Growth: Somatic and Cerebral. Child 
 
 Study, 1911, 77-92; Child, 1911, 2, 1-16. 
 Crile, G. W. Phylogenetic Association. Bos. Med. Surg. Jour., 
 
 1910, 893. 
 
 Dearborn, G. V. M. Attention . . . and Physical Education. 
 Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., 1911, 26-40; 125-143; 186-199. 
 Physiology of Self Control. Mind and Body, June, 1912. 
 Moto-Sensory Development. Warwick and York, 1910, 212 pp. 
 Dopp, Katharine E. Place of Industries in Elementary Education. 
 U. of Chicago Press, 1903, 208 pp. 
 Industrial and Social History Series. Rand McNally and Co., 
 Chicago. (Readers for children summarizing in story form 
 the history of man, with suggestions to the teacher for hand 
 
368 The Child 
 
 work, etc. Those now published are The Tree-Dwellers; 
 
 Early Cave-Men; Later Cave-Men; Early Sea People. 
 
 Valuable.) 
 Emerson, Harrington. Efficiency. Engineering Mag. N. Y., 1912, 
 
 224 pp. 
 Twelve Principles of Efficiency. Engineering Mag. N. Y., 
 
 1912, 423 pp. 
 F6r6, Ch. Le main, la prehension et le toucher. Rev. Phil., 1896, 
 
 621-636. 
 Gesell. Normal Child and Primary Education. Section on the Hand. 
 Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study. Van Noste and Co., N. Y., 1911, 
 
 116 pp. 
 Gulick, Luther. Physical Education hy Muscular Exercise. 
 
 Blakiston, Phila., 1904, 67 pp. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence and Youth. See Index. 
 Hancock, J. A. Motor Ability. Ped. Sem., Oct. 1899, 9-29; 
 
 also Am. Jour. Psy., Oct. 1895, 308-313. 
 Harvey, L. D. Manual Training in Grades. Proc. iV. £. X., 1905, 
 
 121-134. 
 Hewitt, T. H. Handicraft as Factor in Mental Evolution. Child 
 
 Study, 1909, 83-92. 
 Hylan, J. P. Apperceptive Basis of Manual Training. Ed., 1906, 
 
 324-341- 
 Johnson, W. Smythe. Experiments on Motor Education. Studies 
 
 from the Yale Psy. Lab., 1902, Vol. X, 81. 
 Kent, E. B. Constructive Interests of Children. Colo. U. Studies, 
 
 1903. 79 PP- 
 Kerschensteiner, Georg. Continuation Schools. Sch. Rev., Mar. 
 
 and Apr. 191 1. 
 Three Lectures on Vocational Training. Chicago Commercial 
 
 Club, 191 1, 52 pp. 
 Trade Continuation Schools of Munich. Nat. Soc. Prom. Ind. 
 
 Ed., 68 pp. 
 Lancaster, E. G. Warming Up. Colorado Psy. Studies, No. 7, 1898, 
 
 16-29. 
 McDougall, Robert. Significance of the Human Hand. Am. Jour. 
 
 Psy., Apr. 1905, 232-242; Pop. Sc. Mo., Sept. 1904. 
 McKepzie, R. T. Exercise in Education and Medicine. U. of 
 
 Pennsylvania, Phila., 1909, 393 pp. 
 Major, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. Macmillan, 1906, 
 
 360 pp. Sections on Hand and Drawing. 
 
Growth in Control of the Body 369 
 
 Mead, Geo. H., et al. Report on Vocational Training. City Club 
 
 of Chicago, 1912, 315 pp. 
 Meyer, Max. Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior, 1910. 
 Moore, Mrs. K. C. Development of Movements. Fed. Sem., 
 
 June 1901, 231-238. 
 Mosso, A. Psychic Processes and Muscular Exercise. Clark 
 
 Univ. Pub., Dec. 1899, 383-395. 
 Miinsterberg, Hugo. Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. 
 
 Houghton, Mifflin, 1913, 320 pp. 
 Newton, R. C. Reawakening of the Physical Conscience. Pop. 
 
 Sc. Mo., 1907, 156-164. 
 Orr, Wm. Physical Training in the High School. Ed. Rev., 1906, 
 
 42-55- 
 Person, H. S. Industrial Education. Houghton,- Mifflin, 1907, 
 
 86 pp. 
 Physical Education and Improvement. Reports of National League 
 
 for London. 
 Rathmann, C. G. Mission of Manual Training. Washington 
 
 Univ., St. Louis, 1909, 23 pp. 
 Row, Robert K. Educational Meaning of Manual A rts and Indus- 
 tries. Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago, 1909, 248 pp. 
 Russell and Bowser. Industrial Education. Teachers College, 
 
 Columbia University Pub., 1913, 50 pp. $0.65 or Jjo.30. 
 Rutgers, Henry A. Psychology of Efficiency. Woodworth's Arch. 
 
 of Psy,, June, 1 910, 88 pp. 
 Sargent, D. A. Physical Education. Ginn, 1906, 311 pp. 
 Sargent, Walter. Fine and Industrial Arts in Elementary Schools. 
 
 Ginn, 1912, 132 pp. 
 Selden, F. H. Manual Training. Am. Sch. Bd. Jour., 1910, 69 pp. 
 Shepardson, Ed. Critique of Doctrine of Fundamental and Acces- 
 sory Movements. Fed. Sem., 1907, 101-116. Bibliog. 
 Smith, Theodate-L., and Brown, Emily F. On the Education of 
 
 Muscular Power and Control. Studies from the Yale Psy. 
 
 Lab., 1894, Vol. II, 114. 
 Snedden, D. S. Industrial Education. Man. Tr. Mag., Oct. 
 
 1908, 1-30. 
 Swift, E. J. Psychology and Physiology of Learning. Am. Jour. 
 
 Psy., Vol. XIV, 1903, 201-222. 
 Taylor, F. W. Principles of Scientific Management. Harper, 1911. 
 Tyler, John M. Growth and Education. Houghton, Mifflin, 1907, 
 
 294 pp. 
 
37° The Child 
 
 Watson, J. B. Behavior Monographs. Cambridge, Mass., 191 1. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 Wells, P. L. Tapping Tests. Am. Jour. Psy., 1908, 345-358; 437 
 
 483; 1909, 38-59 and 353-363- 
 Woodworth, R. S. Accuracy of Voluritary Movement. Macmillan, 
 
 1899, 114 pp. 
 Wright, W. R. Some Effects of Incentives on Work and Fatigue. 
 
 Psy. Rev., 1906, 23-34. 
 For current articles on all phases of physical work and training, 
 sports, etc., see the American Physical Education Review, edited by 
 Dr. J. H. McCurdy, Springfield^ Mass. $3.00. (Excellent also 
 for bibliographies in English.) 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 Imitation and Suggestion 
 
 1. Keep a dated record of some child's imitations 
 dtaring the first year. Note: , 
 
 (i) Their character. Compare the movements with 
 reflex and instinctive movements. Observa- 
 
 (2) Their relation to walking and talking. tio^s 
 
 Do they precede tjiese or not? If not, is 
 there a period of rest in the walking and talk- 
 ing when they begin? 
 
 2. Keep a similar record of some child between two 
 and seven years of age, or get observations on a number 
 of children, following Miss Frear's plan as given in 
 this chapter. 
 
 3. Try Mr. Small's experiment, or a similar one. 
 This is very easily done in any room where there is 
 gas or a coal stove by pretending to smell the gas, or 
 with other materials by pretending that meat is a little 
 tainted, or milk a little sour, or butter a little strong. 
 
 James says that "all consciousness is motor." To 
 understand better what this quotation means, let us 
 turn to the development of the nervous «^ji g^^. 
 system. We find here, that, in general, the sciousness 
 men with the greatest mental activity are '^ ^° °'^ 
 men with the best developed nervous system; and that 
 this is true all the way down the scale of Ufe. The 
 animal with little or no nervous system, like the oyster 
 or the clam, has little mental activity. We find also that 
 uniformly in the nervous system there is a connection 
 
 371 
 
372 The Child 
 
 between those brain cells that receive a stimulus and 
 those that send messages out to the muscles of the 
 body, so that every impression received tends to call 
 out some muscular response; in other words, "All con- 
 sciousness is motor." Every idea, even, is reflected in 
 the muscular system and so makes some change in the 
 body. This is shown in a multitude of ways. 
 
 1. Professor Mosso has made careful experiments to 
 find out what is the effect upon the body of stimulations 
 that arouse emotions, and also to discover the bodily 
 changes caused by changing ideas. He found that when 
 various substances were put into the mouth or when 
 the skin was touched or the eye stimulated, there was 
 always some corresponding change in the circulation and 
 respiration. He also found that mental work, such as 
 sums in mental arithmetic, changed the character of the 
 breathing and circulation. 
 
 2. Such facts as those of muscle-reading prove the 
 same thing. In muscle-reading there is always physical 
 contact between subject and operator. The operator 
 knows where an object is hidden which he wishes the 
 subject to find, and he keeps his mind fixed on the place 
 where the object is. This fixing of attention leads to 
 involuntary contractions of the muscles that guide the 
 subject toward the place, if he is sensitive enough to 
 perceive them. 
 
 3. The facts of hypnotism are too well known to 
 need description here. We mention hjrpnotism because 
 its essential characteristic is that the subject is in some 
 way given an idea which fills his consciousness, and 
 therefore must be carried out into action. What is called 
 the "control" of the hypnotist over the subject depends 
 entirely upon how well he can fill the subject's mind with 
 the ideas which he wishes him to act upon. 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 373 
 
 4. There are many facts in our everyday life that 
 illustrate the same thing. When there is no conflicting 
 idea in our minds we act upon any idea that comes 
 into it. If we see a pencil, we make marks with it; if 
 a pin is on the floor, we pick it up ; if we put on our hat, 
 we also put on our coat and gldves, and so on. 
 
 Habitual acts come under this head; the act once 
 started is finished because we have no opposing idea. 
 
 This carrying out into action of an idea that in any 
 
 way enters the miijd, depends, we have just said, on 
 
 the absence of conflicting ideas. This, in 
 
 , J J . , 1 r ■ Condition of 
 
 turn, depends upon the number of associa- imitative- 
 
 tions that one has with an idea, and the ness or sug- 
 
 amount of attention fixed upon the idea. 
 
 The more the attention is fixed, the more likely is the 
 
 idea to be carried out; and the fewer the associations, 
 
 the less likely are opposing ideas to rise. Children 
 
 have fewer associations than grown people, and hence 
 
 believe everything that is told them. Their attention 
 
 is also easily attracted. On both accounts, then, the 
 
 tendency is for them to carry out into action at once 
 
 anything that attracts them, and therefore children are 
 
 more imitative than adults. 
 
 Imitation means, in its widest sense, the copying of 
 some idea, received from some person or object, in the 
 form in which it was received. Thus one may imitate 
 the pose of a statue, the bark of a dog, the movement 
 or the voice of a friend. One may also imitate motives 
 as far as one knows them. 
 
 The questions immediately before us are these: 
 When does imitation rise, and when ebb? How strong 
 is its power over the child? What does he imitate? And 
 what use can we make educationally of this tendency? 
 
 Imitation is now usually classed as a genuine instinct. 
 
374 The Child 
 
 It is an inborn tendency common to all children, but 
 undeveloped at birth. At first, a child's acts are reflex 
 Rise of and involuntary, and not until between the 
 
 imitation ages of four and six months does real imita- 
 tion begin. From that time to the age of seven, 
 imitation is the principal means of education. This is 
 simply another and more specific statement of the fact 
 that all consciousness is motor. There is some bodily 
 change in answer to any stimulus, and in imitation the 
 body merely reproduces in the same form the stimulus 
 that it receives. 
 
 Preyer remarks that the very first imitations of the 
 baby are imitations of movements that he already knows 
 and does without any such stimuli. In the case of his 
 son, it was the pursing of the mouth, and occurred in the 
 latter part of the fourth month. Miss Shinn notes for 
 the same time some possible imitations of sounds, but is 
 dubious about their being true imitations. Even if there 
 are genuine imitations at this early age, they are infre- 
 quent, and the most patient encouragement of the child 
 will not call them out except to a very Umited extent. 
 The connective fibers between the sensory and motor 
 brain regions, which are essential before imitation can 
 occur, have not yet developed to any great extent, and 
 do not until about the ninth month, at which time imi- 
 tation becomes much more frequent. In the sixth or 
 seventh month there are some clear cases of imitation, 
 but even then they are relatively few, while from the 
 ninth month on, the baby imitates all sorts of movements 
 and sounds — combing his hair, shaving himself, and sweep- 
 ing and other household tasks. By two and a half years 
 the child is into everything, imitating his elders, and 
 wanting to help in every way. The great development 
 in the ninth month certainly has a close connection with 
 
Imitation and Suggestio', 
 
 375 
 
 the rise of creeping and language and the growth of 
 perception, but we lack observations which would reveal 
 the exact order of development and the causal rela- 
 tions between these processes. 
 
 In these first imitations, the child imitates most readily 
 the movements that he already performs reflexly or 
 instinctively. Beckoning or waving the hand in "bye- 
 bye" is one of the first imitations, and in the beginning is 
 only a repetition of the natural movements of the arms. 
 But even before such a voluntary imitation occurs, the 
 child is very likely to reproduce unconsciously move- 
 ments or soimds, such as a smile or a cough. Later hS 
 will also do this, but when, asked to do it, either does it 
 very poorly or not at all, and always hesitates for some 
 seconds before he can get the necessary movements started. 
 
 Imitation being well developed by the second year, 
 the question is of great interest as to what What a child 
 the child imitates and how he does it, and imitates 
 investigations have been made of which the following is 
 Miss Frear's summary: 
 
 What the child imitates: 
 
 1. Animals 
 
 2. Children 
 
 3. Adults 
 
 Kind of imitation: 
 
 1. Direct 
 
 2. Play 
 
 3. Idea 
 
 The characteristics imitated: 
 
 1. Speech 
 
 2. Action 
 
 3. Action, speech, and sound. 
 
 7 YEARS 
 
 10% 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 15 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 80 
 60 
 
 Now it is both interesting and important to notice 
 that 85 and 80 per cent of the child's imitations at three 
 and seven years, are of "grown folks," and this is still 
 
376 The Child 
 
 more important when we add, what is not given in the 
 table, that most of these are imitations of the teacher's 
 actions and speech. It seems difficult to overestimate 
 the influence of the teacher over the child less than seven 
 years old. After that age, imitation becomes less prom- 
 inent because, as -a child gets more ideas, he has more 
 things to choose from and is more likely to combine them 
 in ways of his own. 
 
 We should notice also that by the time the child is 
 three years old the direct imitation of movements and 
 sounds, which is his only mode of imitation at first. 
 Constitutes only 35 per cent, and at seven years only 
 IS per cent of his imitations, while play, which allows 
 change and invention, constitutes 50 to 80 per cent at 
 the two ages; and imitation of ideas, which includes 
 many plays, is the most important factor. This change 
 from imitation of movements to imitation of ideas in 
 play, is coincident with the development of memory and 
 imagination that we have already described, and with the 
 beginnings of questioning. 
 
 The large proportion of imitations of movements 
 marks once more the necessity, so often mentioned, of 
 giving children plenty of freedom for activity; while 
 the numerous imitations of adult activities strongly 
 emphasize both the social nature of the child and the ease 
 with which education can at this time introduce him 
 to the work of the world in a play form. The more 
 we study the children themselves the more do we become 
 impressed by the fact that a grown person who is unsocial 
 and lazy is one who has been warped from the natural 
 order of growth. 
 
 Deahl's returns from twenty-two boys' and sixteen 
 girls' schools (average ages of boys sixteen and of girls 
 seventeen) as to the -quahties of the leaders imitated by 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 377 
 
 the pupils show that imitation has a wide range. Size and 
 age alone may cause either a boy or girl to be imitated, 
 but wealth and position and school rank 'seem of little 
 importance. Among the boys, athletic prowess and such 
 qualities as courage and energy lead, and among the 
 girls, beauty and dress. Moral goodness is by no means 
 always present in the leaders. 
 
 Questionnaires issued to teachers asking whether they 
 imitated their own teachers for good or bad, and whether 
 and in what respects their pupils imitated them, showed 
 that four fifths of the teachers were imitated, the leading 
 points of imitation being in dealing with disorder, lesson 
 plans, use of illustrative material and devices, and in 
 slightly smaller numbers in personal mannerisms, tone 
 of voice. Four fifths of the same teachers believed that 
 the imitative pupils were those who profited most by 
 instruction. 
 
 Imitation has been classified in various ways. First, 
 there is the division into reflex and voluntary. In reflex 
 imitation one simply copies, involuntarily. Kinds of 
 any movement one happens to see. One imitation 
 child yawns, and then another; one coughs, then another. 
 Voluntary imitation, on the other hand, selects and tries 
 to imitate the copy, as in copying a drawing. This divi- 
 sion corresponds, in the main, to the distinction between 
 simple and persistent imitation. In simple imitation a 
 child repeats some movement without modifying it in 
 any respect. Usually he copies it only once, because he 
 does not get interested in the act,' and so is not stimu- 
 lated to repetition. Such imitation has little educative 
 value. In persistent* imitation, however, he does find 
 the copy interesting and is stimulated to repeat the 
 movement again and again. As a typical case of this 
 sort. Baldwin gives the illustration of his little daughter 
 
378 The Child 
 
 imitating him in taking the rubber of a pencil off and 
 putting it on again. She would do this for half an hour 
 at a time. 
 
 Here we must note one point which will save much 
 defective teaching if kept in mind. Are the children 
 Value of doing the same thing over and over in this 
 repetition repetition of the act? To us they appear to 
 be, because they get the same result, but if we examine 
 the acts more closely, we shall see that this is not the case. 
 The first time Helen tries to put the rubber on the pencil, 
 she probably does not succeed, although she tries very 
 hard. She keeps on experimenting, making different 
 movements with her fingers and the pencil, until she 
 happens to get it on. Then she pulls it off and tries 
 again; this time she succeeds more quickly and easily, 
 because she leaves out many unnecessary movements. 
 And so each time some movements are omitted and 
 better control of the rest is obtained until the child is 
 satisfied and stops. Each time the act is somewhat 
 different from what it was before, and each time the 
 child learnS something. The entire process of repetition 
 is the best method of self -education that could be devised, 
 and should not be stopped. 
 
 The writer has been told many times that there are 
 usually one or two songs or games which a child chooses 
 to play ten times, where he chooses others once. Often 
 we cannot see why he should like that particular song or 
 game so well, but it would seem that it must exercise 
 certain muscles and develop certain organs and so give a 
 deep satisfaction to the child who chooses. His choice 
 may not always be one that suits the majority of the 
 children, however, and so he cannot always be gratified. 
 
 This enjoyment is also due in part to the great enlarge- 
 ment of a child's range of actions. When a child sees 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 379 
 
 a new movement and begins to imitate it, he finds a new 
 self in his body that he has never dreamed of before. He 
 gets a large number of new and delightful feelings, and, 
 most glorious of all, he finds that he can get those feelings 
 as often as he pleases by simply making a certain move- 
 ment. He becomes master of himself through imitation, 
 and the delight obtained from this beginning of control is 
 the direct incentive to voluntary effort and to voluntary 
 attention. Imitation is the developer of will power. 
 
 It is not the thing that is accomplished by the move- 
 ment, but the feeling of the movement that delights 
 the imitative child, and so he repeats it vmtil satisfaction 
 he becomes thoroughly familiar with the feel- in movement 
 ing, and then discards that copy. So, also, he ^^ 
 is satisfied with any makeshifts in his imitation if only 
 they allow the right movements. Thus we find a little 
 girl of three years washing her doll's clothes without 
 water; ironing them with a cold iron; and mending 
 them when there are no holes. Another papers the 
 wall with imaginary paper and paste, using a clothes brush 
 for a paste brush to help out his imagination. 
 
 Because all the child wants is the new feelings in the 
 movements, we find also that aesthetic motives seem to 
 have little value in deciding what children shall imitate. 
 Repulsive things are as attractive as are beautiful. 
 Children imitate, deformities and disease. There are 
 numerous cases of children impersonating lame people, 
 htimpbacks, blind people, or drunkards, not at all in a 
 spirit of mockery, but just as they imitate everything 
 else. To show how strong this copy may be, we have 
 in mind a case of a Httle girl of five years who visited 
 a sick cousin. For more than a week after coming 
 home, she played she was sick. She made some bread 
 pills, which she took regularly, and every little while 
 
380 The Child 
 
 she would lie down, cover herself up, and act as her 
 cousin had acted. It is rather difficult to know what to 
 do in such cases, for we cannot prevent children seeing 
 such things, and we do not wish to repress the spirit of 
 imitation. Can we not make the children realize that 
 the humpback suffers most of the time because his 
 lungs, heart, etc., are pressed out of place by his curved 
 spine? And that the drunkard is himself wretched, and 
 the cause of wretchedness to others? That is, we should 
 replace the superficial knowledge of the child by a deeper 
 understanding, knd he will lose his desire to imitate 
 such things. 
 
 This leads us to another important characteristic of 
 imitation, — its social nature. We have said that through 
 Social value imitation a child makes acquaintance with 
 of imitation his own body and gets control of it; it is 
 equally true that by imitation he makes acquaintance 
 with objects and persons. When a child imitates the 
 movements of another person he reproduces thereby in 
 himself the same state of mind in part as that of the person 
 whom he imitates. We have seen, in our study of the 
 emotions, that if we assume a certain position, the corre- 
 sponding emotion is likely to come, and this is also true 
 when the movement is imitated. Our little copyist is 
 able to put himself in another's place by imitation, and 
 at first only by imitation. Imitation therefore is the 
 basis of sympathy as well as the developer of will and 
 attention, and the agency for giving us self-control. 
 Truly, it hardly seems possible to exaggerate its impor- 
 tance in the mental development of any child. 
 
 Therefore let a child imitate freely, and do not fear that 
 he will become a slave to outside influences. Rather, he 
 is laying the foundations for future originaUty because 
 he is gaining that knowledge of others and control of 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 381 
 
 himself without which no invention is possible. Imitation 
 is the germ of the adventurer's spirit, from which in 
 later life will bloom discovery, invention, and imagination. 
 
 The transformation from imitation to originality comes 
 as his improvement in his imitation increases, until the 
 original movement serves only as a hint for Relation to 
 starting. The factor of imitation is, no doubt, originality 
 still there, but is covered up more or less. This change 
 comes, apparently, when the child has imitated until the 
 act is easy, and hence requires so little attention that 
 he can expend the mental energy thus set free in adorning 
 the act, so to speak. Then imagination comes to the 
 fore, and suggestion is invaluable. The place of imitation, 
 accordingly, would seem to be in getting technique. It is 
 a great advantage to a child who is drawing to see how 
 to hold his pencil and how to make a clear line, and it 
 certainly does not interfere with his individuality. The 
 mistake that we all make lies here rather, — we insist 
 upon giving him an end to copy that is outside himself, 
 whereas the end should be the expression of his own 
 personality, and shotold be chosen by himself. At the 
 same time it is often true, no doubt, that a child does not 
 know what he wants to do, or wants to do a thing that 
 would harm him. In such cases suggestion must come in. 
 
 We are very much afraid nowadays — at least many 
 of us are — of destroying a child's spontaneity if he imi- 
 tates much. There can be no doubt that children have 
 been and are repressed far too much by school formalities, 
 book study, and so on, but free" imitation has nothing 
 to do with such repression. Free imitation is as much 
 a part of "free play" — the watchword of educational 
 individualism — as is invention or imagination. Once 
 more we would emphasize the fact that the development 
 of a child proceeds best when he can freely choose what 
 
 25 
 
■ 382 The Child 
 
 he will do, but we would also emphasize the other fac 
 of which we sometimes lose sight, that what a child thu; 
 freely chooses to do is almost invariably something tha 
 he sees going on in the life about him, and that the wises 
 educator is the one who so arranges the child's surround 
 ings that the things to hold his attention for imitatioi 
 are those which will best educate him. The child whc 
 persistently does not imitate ig usually the incipieni 
 criminal. He is the unsocial child. 
 
 Since the child of this age is so willing to take up ii 
 Importance imitation whatever the teacher may suggest 
 of the best kinds and modes of suggestior 
 
 sugges ion gome up next for our consideration. 
 
 Suggestion is used here in the sense of any thought 
 or act that may be acted upon by a person. Sugges- 
 tion then takes many forms, which may be graded accord- 
 ing to the degree of clearness in the idea suggested. 
 
 At the bottom of the list Baldwin puts what he calls 
 physiological suggestion. Examples of this are putting 
 Physio- ^ baby to sleep by patting it, by singing tc 
 
 logical it, by putting out the light, learning to lie in 
 
 sugges on ^^^ when not asleep, and so on. 
 
 In such cases, an association is formed between a 
 certain stimulus and a certain act, but the child has no 
 clear idea of the act that follows, and it cannot prop- 
 erly be called imitative. The forming of associations 
 here is, however, a very important matter, and one 
 that is absolutely under the control of the one who has 
 charge of the child, i£ the child is healthy. If a child 
 is healthy it is simply folly for its mother to accustom 
 it to constant attention and coddling in order to keep 
 it good humored, or to put it to sleep. Most babies at 
 first will go to sleep as readily if left alone in a qiiiet, 
 dark room as if sung to sleep by a bright light. So with 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 383 
 
 all bodily habits, especially after six months. By regu- 
 larly putting the child into certain positions, associations 
 are formed between them and definite bodily reactions, 
 and the reaction always follows. The extent to which 
 this is true is shown in odd examples. I have heard of 
 one httle girl who could not go to sleep unless she saw a 
 towel with a red border put under her pillow, and then 
 she would drop off at .once. Another had to embrace 
 a certain book on theology. 
 
 Let us now turn our attention to other methods of 
 offering suggestions and the advantages thus gained. 
 That suggestion is strong among school suggestion 
 children is shown in the experiments made through 
 by Mr. M. H. Small. He wished to see if '^""^ 
 he could not create real illusions by giving the children 
 the right ideas. Accordingly he tested a school of five 
 hundred children of all grades up to high school, in this 
 way: he took into the room a bottle of perfume with a 
 spray attached and also a perfimied card; he had two 
 or three children come to the desk and smell of each. 
 Then without the children knowing it, he substituted 
 water for the perfume, and a scentless card for the per- 
 fumed one. He then sprayed the water into the room 
 with every expression of enjoyment and was joined in 
 these by practically the entire room. Seventy-three per 
 cent of the childfen thought they could smell the per- 
 fume. He tried similar experiments with taste and sight, 
 deceiving respectively 88 per cent and 76 per cent of the 
 children. The deception wks greater among the yotmger 
 children than among the older. 
 
 Both before and since Small's experiments numerous 
 similar ones have been carried out by Lippmann, Lobsien, 
 Chomjakov, Kosog, Binet, Schnyder, Oppenheim, Ransch- 
 burg, and others, on children and adults, normal and 
 
384 The Child 
 
 morbid. In some cases suggestions were made to falsify 
 memory; in others, faint perceptions were used as in 
 Small's tests. The Aussage tests, already referred to in 
 the chapter on Memory, brought out this suggestibility 
 in somewhat different ways, but Stem states that it 
 lessens in the^ Aussage tests from 50 per cent at seven 
 years to 20 per cent at eighteen years, and 25 per cent at 
 fourteen years. 
 
 The percentages obtained from the various investiga- 
 tions difEer somewhat according to the method of putting 
 the question, but certain general statements may be made 
 as to the results in which they agree. 
 
 1. Most subjects look upon a question as a command, 
 whether they are adults or children, and endeavor to 
 give some sort of answer, rarely refusing or sajdng that 
 they do not know. This means that attention is focused 
 on the question and its answer, and, .consciousness being 
 thus narrowed, the subject becomes more suggestible 
 than before, and thus more easily impressed by the sug- 
 gestions in any direction. 
 
 2. Binet's suggestive questionnaires showed that even 
 when the questions were strongly suggestive of false 
 answers, the subjects blamed themselves and not the 
 questions, and that states of doubt were common. Choice 
 between two incorrect dilemmas also succeeds much more 
 often than suggestion of adding some small detail and, 
 much more, some large detail. But here habit also plays 
 a part. 
 
 3. Lippmann simimarizes the effects of his experiments 
 thus: 
 
 (a) The pure determinate question is the least suggestive. 
 
 (6) The yes-no and the complete disjunctive have little 
 suggestiveness, and the false suggestion has little. The 
 correct expectative question has more, and the questions 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 385 
 
 with false presuppositions and incomplete disjimctives 
 have most of all. 
 
 4. But if the questions are put in series, we must 
 remember that the Einstellung, or set of the subject's 
 mind brought about by the previous questions, has a 
 distinct influence, although we do not yet know how great 
 this is. 
 
 5. And, finally, the knowledge which the subject already 
 has and on the basis of which he answers, can be more 
 easily modified along the lines of his habitual associations 
 and his interests, and with regard to unimportant or small 
 details than in other ways. 
 
 This tendency to accept and imitate the attitude of 
 the teacher is due, as we have said, to the lack of conflicting 
 ideas in the child's mind, and so the most value of 
 essential thing in persuading is to prevent strong 
 the rise of these. "A strong will," says conviction 
 Guyau, "tends to create & will in the same direction 
 in others. What I see and think with sufficient energy, 
 I make everybody else see and think. I can do this just 
 in proportion as I believe and act my belief." The first es- 
 sential for success in teaching, therefore, is enthusiasm and 
 a conviction of the importance of the work. The next is 
 belief in one's own power to succeed, for thereby one gains 
 poise and the power to assert oneself calmly and authori- 
 tatively, both of which are n,ecessary to the teacher. 
 
 Beyond this, the teacher must make herself a model 
 fit for imitation by the child. Her position of author- 
 ity in the school fastens the child's atten- , 
 
 1 • • i-i 1 J- j^i i- J.1 J. Importance 
 tion upon her irresistibly tor the time that gf good 
 
 he is with her, and imitation of her is as breeding in 
 inevitable and unconscious as breathing. 
 First of all, she must "sit up and look pleasant." She 
 must carry herself well. It goes without saying that 
 
386 The Child 
 
 her dress must be neat, but it is equally important that 
 it should be tasteful. A teacher who wears ugly colors 
 or bad combinations of colors is a stimibling block to 
 thiese little ones, in a very real sense, for she is training 
 them to do the same thing. So also it is inexcusable 
 for her to use harsh, shrill tones in speaking or sing- 
 ing. She must modulate her voice so that it wiU be 
 ■low and sweet. 
 
 The degree to which all the physical peculiarities of 
 one person are imitated by others is greater than is 
 commonly appreciated. Coughs, stammering, hysterical 
 attacks, carriage, pecuHar gestures, and facial expres- 
 sion, all are imitated. The teacher who wears a worried 
 frown soon has a frowning school. 
 
 Less observable but more important is the effect 
 upon the child of the teacher's mental and moral atti- 
 Value of tude. Only from the standpoint of the 
 belief power of suggestion do we appreciate the 
 
 "* "^ ' full importance of believing that a child is 
 
 good, and of letting him know our belief. "Convince 
 the child that he is capable of good and incapable of 
 evil, in order to make him actually so." A child, and 
 even an adult, unconsciously to a large extent, imitates 
 the copy of himself that is held before him. Suppose 
 a child has misbehaved in some way. With a little 
 child, the chances are that his intention was not wholly 
 bad, and if we asstime that he was mistaken in his act 
 and not willfid, we can often change the intention. 
 Say, "Now see how others would misunderstand you, 
 though you did not really intend to do wrong," or "See 
 how you have hurt him, but you did not mean to," 
 and so on. The little recreant will find it harder not 
 to live up to this copy than to imitate it, as a general 
 rule. So, generally, when the selfish or narrow side of 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 387 
 
 a child's nature comes to the front in an act, do not 
 make it definite and clear cut to his consciousness by 
 talking to him about it, but rather emphasize first its 
 tmhappy results, and then the good results which rise 
 from another way of acting: Make the child conscious 
 of the good tendencies but not the bad, unless he is 
 evidently doing wrong with full consciousness of . it. 
 Then remonstrance and discussion are in place, as we 
 have already said. 
 
 Every movement of the teacher is a suggestion to 
 the pupil. If she expects bad behavior, she calls it 
 out by her attitude of suspicion. Her eyes, head, hands, 
 all declare her expectation, and give rise to ideas of 
 mischief that otherwise would not enter the child's 
 mind. In ti^e same way, we find that children usually 
 care most for the subject that the teacher likes. When 
 she loves nature and the beautiful, every suggestion is 
 of their attractions, and she can carry the pupils over 
 numberless obstacles by reason of their imitation of her 
 enthusiasm. Her own feelings, with their concomitant 
 actions, are reflected in her pupils. Such things are 
 "catching." 
 
 We see here also why a negative suggestion is less 
 valuable than a positive one. If I say, "Johnny, don't 
 put the beans in your nose," why is it less j^egative 
 valuable than to say, "Johnny, put the suggestion 
 beans in your pocket"? Evidently, in the ^*"* 
 first case, Johnny's attention is fastened on the beans 
 and noSe, and he is at the same time left inactive. The 
 natural thing is for him to act on the idea presented. 
 In the second case, his attention is fastened on a useful 
 idea, and he is given something to do. The different 
 methods of treating a child who gets hurt are in the 
 same line. Why is it better to make light of the injury? 
 
388 The Child 
 
 Evidently because this gives the child a good copy to 
 imitate. 
 
 In its wider bearings we can only refer to the possi- 
 bilities in imitation and suggestion. Social contagions 
 both good and bad have been studied and their laws 
 formulated. At the other extreme, the power of auto- 
 suggestion has been emphasized, perhaps overmuch. 
 The use of suggestion in the cure of disease and the 
 reformation of morals has been extolled, and along with 
 the bad much good has been done. 
 
 The still broader question of why we choose certain 
 acts and qualities for imitation goes back doubtless to the 
 question of interests and instinctive tendencies. There 
 are many more things that a child does not imitate than 
 that he does, but with regard to the things chosen imi- 
 tation is assuredly the master method of acquiring the 
 desired qualities. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bacon, John. Thoughts on Imitation. Paid., 1902, 4, 100-104; 
 
 160-163. 
 Baldwin, J. M. Mental Development in the Child and the Race. 
 
 Macmillan, N. Y., 1906, 3d ed., 496 pp; 
 Mental Development: Social and Ethical Interpretations. Mac- 
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 Mental Development: Methods and Processes. Macmillan, N. Y. 
 
 and London, 1895. 
 Suggestion in Infancy. Science, 1891, O. S., Vol. XVII, 113- 
 
 117. 
 Barrows, C. M. Suggestion without Hypnotism. Proc. of the 
 
 Society for Psychical Research, 1896, Vol. XII, 31-44. 
 Bell, J. C. Effect of Suggestion upon Reproduction of Triangles. 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., 1908, 504-518. 
 Bosanquet, B. Imitation. Mind, N. S., 1899, 167-175; Psy. Rev., 
 
 1902, Vol. IX, 383-389; answer by Baldwin, 597-603. 
 Brand, J. E. Effect of Verbal Suggestion upon the Estimation of 
 
 Linear Magnitudes. Psy. Rev., Jan. 1905, 41-49. 
 
Imitation and Suggestion 389 
 
 Chancellor, W. E. Class Teaching and Management. Harper, 
 
 1910, 342 pp. See Index. 
 Deahl, J. N. Imitation in Education. Macmillan, N. Y., 1900, 
 
 99 PP- 
 Dubois, Paul. Influence of Mind on Body. Funk and Wagnalls Co., 
 
 N. Y., 1906, 63 pp. 
 Self-Control. Funk and Wagnalls Co., N. Y., 1909, 337 pp. 
 Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders. Funk and Wagnalls 
 
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 Edgar, J. Individuality and Imitation in Children. Child Study, 
 
 Lond., Apr. 1908, Vol. I, No. i, 12-23. 
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 341 pp. 
 The Play of Man. Appleton, N. Y., 1901, 412 pp. 
 Guyau, J. M. Education and Heredity: A Study in Sociology. 
 
 Spribner's, N Y., 1891, 240 pp. 
 Harris, W. T., et al. Psychological Foundations of Education. 
 
 595-321. 
 Psychological Tendencies. The Stud^r of Imitation. Kept. 
 
 U. S. Com. Ed., 1896-7, 671-694. 
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 Vol. Ill, 30-47. 
 Hays, H. M. Hypnotism, its History, Nature, and Use. Fop. 
 
 Sc. Mo., Nov. 1905, Vol. LXVII, 590-607. 
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 Imitation, Report of Commissioner of Education on, 1896-7, 
 
 671. (Summary of Tarde, Royce, and others.) 
 James, Wm. Varieties of Religious Experience. Longmans, N. Y., 
 
 1904. 534 PP- 
 Talks to Teachers. Holt and Co., N. Y., 1899, 301 pp. 
 
 Keating, M. W. Suggestion in Education. A. and C. Black, Lon- 
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 Le Bon, G. The Crowd. Macmillan, N. Y. $1.50. (Shows the 
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390 The Child 
 
 Ledyard, Mary F. Imitation, Originality and Freedom. Proc. 
 
 N.E.A., 1899, 547-551- 
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 1898, 592-.595- 
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Imitation and Suggestion 391 
 
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CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Language 
 
 I. Keep a dated record of the order of development 
 of vowels and consonants; of "clicks," grunts, and other 
 Observa- sounds. 
 
 tioos 2. Note when gestures begin to be used 
 
 to get what the child wants. What gestures are used 
 by the child? What are first used? What are most 
 frequently used? 
 
 3. Note when the baby begins to understand speech. 
 Be careful here' not to confuse knowledge of the word 
 with knowledge of the gestures. To be sure that the 
 baby understands the word, it must be spoken without 
 gestures or any tmusual inflections. 
 
 (i) When does he know his name? 
 
 (2) The names of the people that he sees most fre- 
 
 quently? 
 
 (3) The names of any objects? 
 
 4. The beginnings of speech. Keep a record of the 
 first words used with meaning, speUing them as they 
 are pronounced and classifying them as they are used, 
 not as classified in a grammar. 
 
 Such a record can be made for children of any age. 
 ,5. Kefep a record of the color vocabulary from the time 
 when the child first names a color correctly. 
 
 6. Keep a record of the first sentences, noting the 
 order of the words. 
 
 7. Collect accounts of words and languages invented 
 by children. 
 
 ■ 392 
 
Language 393 
 
 One of the characteristics of man that has attracted 
 much attention and been the cause of much discussion 
 is his abiUty to use language, that is, to instinctive 
 communicate with others. In this, its most expressive 
 general sense, language is not limited to gestures 
 words, but also includes gesture, drawing, which origi- 
 nated in gesture and whence written language was 
 derived, and any cry that has meaning, whether it be 
 articulate or merely the cry of rage or pain. 
 
 Within a week after his son's birth, Preyer noted the 
 turning away of the head when the baby had sufficient 
 food. This is the forerunner of the shake of the head 
 in denial. In the sixth month, arm movements were 
 added to this, which looked like pushing away the 
 object, but they did not clearly have that purpose until 
 the fifteenth month, and then were probably imitated. 
 
 In the first turning away of the head, the movement 
 is expressive of the fact that the baby has had all that 
 he wants, but of course he has no intention of com- 
 municating with others by the movement. The move- 
 ment is as instinctive as sucking itself, and is important 
 here only because later it is used as a sign by which to 
 express thought. 
 
 During the first months of life there are a number of 
 instinctive movements which are also expressive and 
 which are the basis for later gestures and words. Among 
 them are the instinctive expressions of pain, weariness, 
 fear, anger, astonishment, joy, desire, and pride. These 
 are not all pressnt at birth, but appear before the end of 
 the first half year. 
 
 The first tears, which may express weariness, pain, 
 fear, or anger, appear between the twenty-third day 
 and the twentieth week. The characteristic transverse 
 wrinkling of the forehead in grief, appears early and 
 
394 T h'e Child 
 
 also the peculiar parallelogram-shaped mouth, and put- 
 ting up the lip. 
 
 The first smile sometimes comes even in the second 
 week, but is likely then to be only an impulsive grimace 
 and not expressive of satisfaction. By the end of the 
 first month Preyer found that it was always associated 
 with comfortable conditions, and in a few months arm 
 movements regularly accompanied it. Darwin puts the 
 first smile as late as the seventh week, and the first 
 laugh in the seventeenth week. Preyer puts the first 
 laugh at nearly the same date as the first smile. Later 
 the laugh also is accompanied by arm movements. It 
 became much more noticeable in his son in the eighth 
 month, and then was at times imitative. Laughter 
 passing into tears, he never observed in children less 
 than four years old. 
 
 The characteristic look of astonishment appeared in 
 Miss Shinn's niece in the sixth week, on tasting some 
 new food. This also is hereditary, and one of its impor- 
 tant factors, the horizontal wrinkles of the forehead 
 with wider opening of the eyes, is traced back by Darwin 
 to the attempt to see better the object causing the 
 surprise. 
 
 Fits of rage or anger, with stiffening of the body, 
 and striking out and. kicking, appeared as early as the 
 tenth month in Preyer's boy. 
 
 Desire is very early shown in the cry, and to this is 
 added, about the fourth month, the stretching out of 
 the arms to the thing wanted; and still later, the putting 
 of the hands together as if to grasp the object. Between 
 the eighth and twelfth months, pointing is gradually 
 developed from this. 
 
 Expressions of affection, such as kisses, pats, and 
 hugs, are imitated, and do not appear until about the 
 
Language 395 
 
 sixth month, at which time also a real gesture language 
 is likely to begin. 
 
 Gesture, or the sign language, is common to all men 
 and is used by animals almost as much as the inarticu- 
 late cry. It seems to be of almost as wide Voluntary 
 application as the cry. The dog's entire gesture 
 body is unconsciously eloquent of his mood, and even 
 consciously he makes a limited use of gestures in trying 
 to attract attention or to persuade man to do his wish. 
 When we come to man, we find that the natural sign 
 language is strikingly similar in all parts of -the earth. 
 An Indian can make himself understood anywhere that 
 the sign language is commonly used. Deaf-mutes who 
 have not been taught the conventional sign language, 
 and Indians ■ understand each other without difficulty. 
 
 We can hardly question that gesture, aided by a few 
 half-articulate cries, was the first language, and for a 
 long time was more prominent than speech in men's 
 communications. So we should expect to find, as we do, 
 that in each baby's development gestures come to have 
 significance before words do. 
 
 At about the same time that imitation begins, sig- 
 nificant gestures arise. The six-months-old child tugs 
 at his mother's dress when he is hungry, holds out his 
 arms to be taken up, and learns to wave "bye-bye" and 
 go through the various baby tricks. A little later he 
 begins to invent gestures. All kinds of begging and 
 coaxing gestures, attempts to attract attention, appear. 
 
 The Use of nodding to mean "yes" is not seen until 
 between the twelfth and fifteenth months, and is proba- 
 bly not hereditary, as shaking the head is, although 
 Miss Lombroso so classes it. It does not appear until 
 long after shaking the head does, and is probably 
 imitative. 
 
396 The Child 
 
 In this use of gestures the baby is at one with primi- 
 tive man, uncivilized peoples of to-day, deaf-mutes, and 
 Gestures the ^■phasic patients. There seem to be certain 
 primitive common or root gestures which all men who 
 language have no speech, or only imperfect speech, 
 use in expressing their thoughts, and it seems as though 
 reference to this natural language might settle some of 
 the disputes as to the appropriate gestures in discourse. 
 
 On the other hand, there are variations from these 
 common roots according to the nationality and ration- 
 ality of the person, just as there seem to be variations 
 even in the instinctive expressions of emotion, so that 
 we cannot press too far the theory of a imiversal sign 
 language. Savages and children use many more ges- 
 tures than adults of civilized races, and more pronounced 
 inflections. It is related of some savage tribes that they 
 can hardly understand each other in the dark. 
 
 Such language is much more closely confined to the 
 concrete than are words. The gestiu-e is essentially a 
 reproduction of the object or action, and does not lend 
 itself readily to the representation of class-ideas or trains 
 of reasoning. Uninstructed deaf-mutes, it is claimed, 
 have few ideas of the supernatural, and only the lowest 
 abstract ideas. The entire system of gesture, while 
 pleasing and universal, soon reaches its limit of develop- 
 ment and must give way to a system that has greater 
 mobility and power of adaptation. 
 
 It is supposed that there is some connection between 
 the sign language and the spoken word, but we have 
 Connection ^° ^^^^* knowledge of what it is. The 
 of gesture brain centers for control of speech and of 
 with words ^-^^ ^-^^^^ hsinA. are close to each other, and 
 presumably the exercise of either would stimtilate the 
 other through diffusion of the nervous excitement. 
 
Language 397 
 
 Considering language merely as a means of com- 
 munication, there v^ould seem to be nothing marvelous 
 in the fact that the word has come to be its Speech and 
 chief form. It is simply a case of the sur- ^^^ cry 
 vival of the fittest. Not only are the lips and tongue 
 more mobile than other muscles, and so better adapted 
 for expressing slight differences of sound and thus for 
 indicating many objects with comparatively small effort , 
 but their use leaves the hands free to do other work 
 at the same time that talk is going on. It would seem 
 inevitable, therefore, that the word should become the 
 especial means of communication as the demand for 
 communication grew, though at first it was carried on 
 merely by inarticulate cries and gestiures. 
 
 Cries and gestures seem to be to a large extent com- 
 mon to all men, and also to men and animals. The 
 cry of rage is easily distinguished from that of pleasure, 
 the cry of fear from that of attack. When we go be- 
 yond these, however, we approach speech. Buckman is 
 authority for the statement that fowls have twelve or 
 more different cries by which they warn and guide each 
 other; cats, six; rooks, six, and monkeys two hundred or 
 more, almost a language itself. We find also that many 
 animals can learn to imderstand us, no gesture or peculiar 
 inflection being used. Romanes quotes the case of a 
 chimpanzee who would follow her master's directions 
 into minute details about sticking a straw into the meshes 
 of her cage. Dogs also learn to follow directions. It 
 is related of one of Scott's dogs that the servants 
 used to trick him by saying in his presence that the 
 master would come home over the hill. The dog 
 would at once go the route indicated, never by any 
 chance taking the other path. There seems to be no 
 intrinsic reason for doubting the possibility of such things. 
 
398 The Child 
 
 This does not, of course, mean that animals can reason. 
 
 In all such cases it is difficult to separate tone and 
 inflection from the mere sound of the word. The former 
 are the more primitive. Most animals obey the tone 
 rather than the word. Idiots who cannot learn to 
 speak or understand words can be taught some things 
 by tone and gesture. This, perhaps, is pne reason why 
 music — mere tone- — has such a universal hold. 
 
 . From these rudimentary cries which man possesses 
 in common with animals, some philologists believe 
 Development *^^* human speech has developed through 
 of human refinement of the articulation. The reflex 
 speec ^y q£ gjjjQ^^QQ^ j;ljg volimtary cry of warn- 
 
 ing or threat, and the imitation of some sounds, thinks 
 LeF^vre, furnish the elements of language. Of these 
 elements animals possessed the first as well as man, but 
 man, with a more developed brain, distinguished and used 
 more words, through changes in intonation and in sounds. 
 Other philologists lay more stress upon the influence of 
 sex in developing language; while still others believe that 
 man speaks primarily because his lips, and tongue are 
 more mobile than those of animals. 
 
 Whichever factor may have been the leading one in 
 the race-origin of language, we can see that in the baby's 
 speech they all play some part. 
 
 It is indubitable that man now has a certain instinct 
 to speak — to communicate by soimds — though not to 
 speak any given language. It seems that a French child 
 brought up in an EngHsh family, or vice versa, learns 
 the adopted tongue as readily as the natives do. How 
 far the development of language would go if children 
 were left entirely alone is an interesting but unsettled 
 point. The cases of shipwrecked children are unsatis- 
 factory, because such children have had no companions 
 
Language 399 
 
 and so no incentive to invent a language. Long before 
 a child imitates, however, he babbles, and the sounds 
 that he thus instinctively makes are his unconscious 
 preparation for later speech. 
 
 The child enters life with a cry, which has been the 
 subject of much discussion. Some claim that it is a 
 •celestial cry — apparently a reminiscence of The first 
 the angel's song. So noted a man as Kant '^"ss 
 asserts that it is a cry of wrath at being introduced to 
 the hard conditions of this life. But we will satisfy 
 ourselves with the notion that it is simply a cry of pain 
 when the cold air rushes into the lungs and automatically 
 expands them. 
 
 The first cries are instinctive and to the child's own 
 mind are not expressive, although they usually indicate 
 bodily conditions, such as hunger or pain or pleasure. 
 Preyer notes the wail of hunger, the sharper loud cry 
 of anger, the crow of delight, the monotonous cry of 
 sleepiness, and the short, high-pitched yell of pain. 
 These are instinctive at first and are not intended to 
 tell others what his condition is. 
 
 The child cries at a bright light or a bitter taste, and 
 later at a loud sound, because there are certain arrange- 
 ments of nerve cells at birth that necessitate this response. 
 During the first month of life the sounds that the child 
 makes are for the most part vowels; d, do, a, are the 
 favorite ones, and there are variations of these and others 
 which adults find it difficult to describe. These sounds 
 are also frequently given on an inspiration and expiration, 
 making two-syllabled combinations like agoo. 
 
 The first consonant put with them is an indistinct 
 guttural or nasal, g or ngd, as Miss Shinn gives it. These 
 syllables are repeated by the baby again and again, 
 making reduplications, for which he has a fondness for 
 
40O The U hi Ld 
 
 some time after real speech has begun. Savage races 
 show the same fondness. 
 
 Wallace and Johnston have also attempted to show 
 that the order of development in baby speech, from 
 vowels to semi-vowels, nasals, and consonants, paral- 
 lels the development of human speech. 
 
 The first consonants that appear are m, p, d, I, and L 
 The first sound not a vowel was heard by Preyer on 
 First the forty-third day; the first ma, on the 
 
 sounds sixty-fourth day. On these facts Buckman 
 
 has based an ingenious theory as to the origin of lan- 
 guage. The combination ma-ma-ma is usually the first. 
 Vierordt states that generally the vowel in the crow of 
 pleasure is o; of pain, a. The latter very naturally, says 
 Buckman, although purely reflex at the start, is used 
 when the child is hungry or in pain, and becomes a way 
 of calling for his mother, who relieves htmger and pain. 
 Hence it becomes her name, "mama," and this root is 
 found in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, as well as in our 
 modem languages. 
 
 So again, pa or da, resulting in "papa" or "dada" is 
 a natural cry when the child is not as violently agitated 
 as by hunger, and becomes attached to the father. This 
 root also is found in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Kah, 
 on the other hand, is used to express strong disgust, as 
 when the child tries to eject disgusting food. It is made 
 by lifting the lips from the teeth, opening the mouth and 
 almost coughing, the same instinctive expressions that 
 animals employ. From it come the Greek koko? {bad), 
 KccKKTf (excrement), Latin caco, and similar words. 
 
 The la sound, on the other hand, is given in content- 
 ment, or pleasure, and gives rise to the Greek AaAJoa, 
 (to chatter), and the English lullaby. 
 
 From these instinctive utterances language first arose, 
 
Language -■ 401 
 
 thinks Buckman, constantly growing in fineness until 
 the marvelous complexity that we now use was attained. 
 Taine and Darwin bear out these remarks as to the first 
 sounds. With Taine's daughter ma was first given; 
 krauu to express disgust, and pa a little later. 
 
 Miss Shinn's records agree with these as to "mama." 
 "Dada" was also one of the first words, and signified 
 pointing out, seeing, exulting, admiring. "Nana" was 
 a wail of protest and refusal. Two other words, "kraa" 
 and "ng-gng" or "mgm," were used very early but were 
 imitations of words given to her to express disgust, and 
 disappearance. 
 
 The first exercise of the organs is not expressive of any 
 meaning. The baby enjoys exercising his throat, tongue, 
 and lips and so keeps it up for hours at a time. It 
 is an excellent training for the later speech, for, 
 although he can as yet imitate no sounds, he makes all 
 the sounds and gets flexibility and strength of the vocal 
 organs and lungs. Deaf-mutes, who make few sounds 
 as compared with normal children, are unusually subject 
 to throat and lung diseases. 
 
 The exact order in which the various sounds appear 
 must vary, although in the main the same, because the 
 shape of the mouth and the other vocal order of 
 organs differs and the child pronounces first sounds and 
 the easiest vowels and consonants. It is also ^^ * ®^ 
 noticeable that Preyer says that during the first year of 
 life the child pronounces all the consonants, even those 
 which later on he has to learn over again. We have 
 here a fact similar to what we have already noticed in 
 imitation, when the child involuntarily does easily and 
 well what he does slowly and imperfectly when the action 
 is voluntary. 
 
 Among the sounds made at this early stage are all 
 
402 The Child 
 
 sorts of gutturals and "clicks," which adults find it 
 difficult to speak and which correspond closely to Arabic 
 and Hebrew guttiirals and savage "clicks." 
 
 The 9rder for the appearance of the letters, as given 
 by Tracy, is as follows, beginning with the most diffi- 
 cult: r, I, th, V, sh, y, g, ch, s, e, f, t, n, q, d, k, o, w, a, h, 
 m, p, b. 
 
 Sully puts all mistakes in pronunciation under the 
 following heads: 
 
 1. Simplifications. 
 
 (i) A child naturally drops letters, and syllables that 
 are hard for him, especially if they are at the end of 
 Mispronun- the word, and, the inflection and rhythm 
 ciation are not altered thereby. At first he seems 
 
 to understand only the vowel sounds in what is said to 
 him, and in imitating a sound will get only the vowel 
 and inflection, with a vague surrounding of indistinct 
 consonants. Preyer's boy would respond in the same 
 way to "Wie gross?" "gross," and "o'ss." Again, in 
 trying to say "Putting my arms over my head," little 
 Ruth would get, " ii i i a owy i §ad," with hardly a distinct 
 consonant in it, but a ludicrously faithful reproduction 
 of my own tones. 
 
 In this dropping of syllables dance becomes "da"; 
 candle, "ka;" handkerchief, "hanky," "hankish," or 
 "hamfish," and so on. 
 
 (2) The accented syllable naturally is always the one 
 kept, whether it is at the beginning, middle, or end of 
 the word, for we speak it with more stress and voice, 
 and it must attract the baby's notice more than the 
 others. 
 
 2. Change of letters. 
 
 (i) Vowels are not omitted but are often changed. 
 (2) Consonants are not always dropped, but others 
 
Language 403 
 
 may be substituted for them when they are difficult. 
 In such cases the preceding or succeeding sound deter- 
 mines what shall be put in, giving a duplication. Thus 
 "cawkee," cofee; "kork," fork; "hawhy," horsie; "laly," 
 lady. In other cases p and 5 are dropped and others 
 substituted: "ieepj," sleepy. Where Z and r are replaced, 
 almost any substitute may be used, but w is a favorite. 
 
 (3) The consonants may be interchanged: "tsar," 
 star; "psoon," spoon; "hwgohur," sugar; "aks," ask; 
 "lots it," lost it. 
 
 With all these natural difficulties in speaking correctly, 
 it seems a pity to add further mispronunciations by his 
 elders, in the form of baby talk. Baby talk 
 is one form of endearing terms, but surely 
 the English language has a vocabulary of such words that 
 is far better than the usual run of baby words. We 
 hinder the child's speech by limiting ourselves to him. 
 We shotild rather encourage him to use our words, espe- 
 cially as the vocal organs grow less flexible as they become 
 more used to certain combinations of sounds, and so an 
 incorrect pronunciation may become habitual. An older 
 form of baby talk is found in many school books in the 
 names given to flowers, animals, geometrical figures, and 
 so on. , As a matter of fact, children learn the correct 
 names as easily as they do the silly, sentimental names, 
 and do not need to unlearn them later. 
 
 So far we have discussed only the making of articulate 
 sotmds. We have not yet reached language. For 
 language we must have not only a perfect Rise of 
 vocal and auditory apparatus, but ideas, *"*s speech 
 and desire to express them. During the first six months 
 the child seems to lack these, although Darwin noticed 
 in his boy different cries for hunger and pain at the age 
 of eleven weeks and an incipient laugh in the sixteenth 
 
404 The Child 
 
 week. But it may be questioned whether these were not 
 entirely involuntary and reflex. In the second six months, 
 however, persistent imitation of soimd and gesture arises. 
 The child voluntarily uses different cries and gestures for 
 different things, although his vocabulary of spoken words 
 is very small, or may indeed be nil, as in the case of 
 Taine's child. 
 
 Feldman, on comparing children, found that the first 
 word varied as follows : 
 
 Month: 14 15 16 17 18 19 
 
 No. of children: i 8 19 3 i i 
 
 These children first walked alone: 
 
 Month: 8-9 10 11-12 
 
 No. of children: 3 24 6 
 
 We have already seen that Mead's study of normal 
 children show that the median age for the first step is 
 13.54 months, and for the. first word, 15.8 months; for 
 abnormal, the median for the first step is 21.6 months, 
 and the first word, 34.4 months. 
 
 From this it appears that children walk before they 
 talk, and we may add that they understand before they 
 walk. 
 
 When the child is learning to walk he acquires no 
 more speech and may even go backward, but after that 
 The first the learning and understanding of words 
 vocabulary jg ygj-y rapid; A child tinderstands many 
 words before he speaks, even as early as eight months. 
 Striimpell's daughter enjoyed little stories told her in 
 her thirteenth month, though her own speech was very 
 imperfect. Another child of eight months knew by 
 name all the persons in the house, the parts of her 
 body, and most of the objects in the room, and under- 
 stood simple sentences. 
 
 It should be said here that children may differ within 
 
Language 
 
 40s 
 
 wide limits as to the time when they begin to speak, 
 and still not be abnormal. Perez, indeed, says that 
 "The more intelligent a child is, the less he uses words, 
 and the more necessary it is to him that words should 
 signify something to him, if he is to learn them; and 
 this is why he only learns words in proportion as he gains 
 ideas about objects." 
 
 The character of the first vocabulary is shown in the 
 following comparative table, which is given in per cents: 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 > 
 
 5 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 5 
 
 0, 
 
 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 J to m 
 
 ,°Oi2 
 
 Dewey. 
 
 I girl, 18 mos. . . . 
 I boy, 19 " ... 
 
 53 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 
 28 
 21 
 
 I 
 It 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 144 
 115 
 
 Tracy. 
 
 12 children, 19 to 
 30 mos 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 1-7 
 
 5400 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 I girl, 33 mos 
 
 I girl, Siyrs... . . 
 
 54-5 
 57 
 
 42 
 
 3-7 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 23 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 9.6 
 17 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 .006 
 .003 
 
 .006 
 .0009 
 
 642 
 1528 
 
 Wolff. 
 
 Boy's Dictionary • 
 
 8 
 22 
 
 to 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 215 
 
 Kirkpatrick. 
 
 Per cents of words 
 in English lan- 
 guage 
 
 60 
 
 
 II 
 
 5-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 These lists, as Dewey remarks, classify the words 
 according to their meaning for adults, an artificial method 
 for two reasons. At first one word stands for a sentence 
 in childish speech. "Water" — / want water. "All 
 gone" — The flower has disappeared, etc. Furthermore, 
 the child, like the savage, uses one word for many parts 
 fil speech. ' ' The htirt blooded. ' ' "It ups its false f eet. ' ' 
 
 1 This dictionary was made by a boy before his seventh year. 
 It does not, of Course, give his entire vocabulary, but only words 
 that for any reason he wished to define. 
 
4o6 The Child 
 
 "Can I be sorried?" etc. A carefvilly made vocabulary 
 would classify each word according to the child's use of 
 it, and so such classifications as these given here are but 
 rough and ready tests. Even so, however, they are 
 suggestive of characteristic differences between the child 
 and the man. 
 
 The idea of action is very prominent in all the first 
 language. Even with this artificial classification, the 
 percentage of verbs is twice as large in childish as in 
 adult speech, and less than i per cent of the nouns are 
 abstract. Here again we find the parallel between the 
 child and the race. The more primitive a language, the 
 larger the proportion of verbs, and it is very probable 
 that the first sentences consisted of but one word. An 
 interesting bit of evidence to show how recently the 
 different parts of speech have assumed deamess in man's 
 mind is the fact that the ancient Greeks, in writing, ran 
 all the words of a sentence together 
 
 Children vary greatly in the age at which they learn 
 to name colors, as well as in the ability to distinguish 
 Color the colors. Preyer's child at twenty months 
 
 vocabulary knew no color names. This seems to be 
 more a matter of opportunity than of inability to dis- 
 criminate. Sanford and Wolff say that the average edu- 
 cated adult uses only twenty-five color terms. Many 
 five-year-old children use only five, and the average two- 
 year-old but one. Pelsma's child, however, who often 
 saw her mother painting, used five at twenty-four months; 
 eleven at thirty-Six, and eighteen at forty-eight months. 
 But Pelsma does not attribute this large nimiber to any 
 unusual sensitiveness to color. 
 
 The number of different words, as well as the classi- 
 fication of them, varies greatly from writer to writer. 
 Whipple and Tracy, for instance, class each inflection. 
 
Language 
 
 407 
 
 except pliirals, as a separate word, believing that to the 
 child they are distinct ideas. Others do the opposite. 
 Most classify the words according to the child's use of 
 them, but this introduces an element of uncertainty, a 
 large personal factor, into the classification. We now have, 
 however, more than a hundred vocabularies, and are able 
 to outline the general course of development. The fol- 
 lowing table, taken from J. R. Pelsma's Summary of Chil- 
 dren's Vocabularisc {Ped. Sent. Sept. 1910, p. 347) sum- 
 marizes the residts. The twenty-six children of the first 
 four rows are different from the sixty-eight of the next two. 
 
 
 d 
 
 ll 
 
 Noun 
 
 Verb 
 
 Adj. 
 
 Adv. 
 
 Pro. 
 
 Prep. 
 
 CONJ. 
 
 Int. 
 
 
 ■0 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 ta 
 
 
 0. 
 
 
 tfi 
 
 
 tx 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H^. 
 
 g 
 
 ft^ 
 
 g 
 
 PS 
 
 
 fs 
 
 S 
 
 ffi 
 
 S 
 
 fS 
 
 
 !^ 
 
 p 
 
 Ei^ 
 
 
 !*; 
 
 
 Z 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 68 
 
 SI 
 
 7S 
 
 s 
 
 7.4 
 
 4 
 
 .s.s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 I.'! 
 
 76S8 
 
 4461 
 
 S8.3 
 
 IS88 
 
 20.7 
 
 708 
 
 10.4 
 
 .366 
 
 4.8 
 
 I.'JO 
 
 2.1 
 
 Il.'i 
 
 I.,S 
 
 20 
 
 0.3 
 
 LSI 
 
 1-9 
 
 .1 
 
 3 
 
 3628 
 
 2074 
 
 S7.4 
 
 776 
 
 21. S 
 
 417 
 
 II. 3 
 
 173 
 
 4.8 
 
 80 
 
 2.2 
 
 .■il 
 
 1-3 
 
 lb 
 
 0.4 
 
 42 
 
 I.I 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2298 
 
 1308 
 
 56.9 
 
 476 
 
 20.7 
 
 260 
 
 II.3 
 
 137 
 
 b.o 
 
 44 
 
 1.9 
 
 23 
 
 1.0 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 2d 
 0.2 
 
 33 
 241 
 
 I.S 
 
 0-2 
 
 .■so 
 
 io8go 
 
 6707 
 
 61.S 
 
 2063 
 
 19.0 
 
 1043 
 
 9.6 
 
 483 
 
 4-5 
 
 187 
 
 1.8 
 
 136 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 2-4 
 
 18 
 
 68 
 
 14403 
 
 8312 
 
 579 
 
 3023 
 
 21.0 
 
 ISSI 
 
 10.7 
 
 759 
 
 5.3 
 
 301 
 
 2.1 
 
 209 
 
 1-4 
 
 21 
 
 97 
 
 0.4 
 
 177 
 418 
 
 1.2 
 
 0-4 
 
 2S293 
 
 1S019 
 
 59-4 
 
 S086 
 
 20.1 
 
 2.';94 
 
 10.3 
 
 1242 
 
 4-9 
 
 488 
 
 I.O 
 
 34S 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.7 
 
 The range in the number of words as given by various 
 observers is large. Thus at twelve months seven cases 
 range from 3 to 24 words; at eighteen months, Range in 
 four cases range from 60 to 144 words; at vocabularies 
 two years, nineteen cases varied from 36 to 1,227 words; 
 at thirty months, five cases varied from 327 to 1,509 
 words. Pelsma's table for fourteen two-year-old children 
 gives an average of 518 words, and for three years, 1,209, 
 but he believes both these above the average, which he 
 puts at 1,149 for three years, and about 2,000 for six 
 years, though he does not state his grounds in either case. 
 He excludes inflected endings and grammatical variants 
 from his lists, and thus makes the numbers somewhat 
 smaller tha:n some observers. But Mead's fifty children 
 
4o8 The Child 
 
 did not begin to talk until 15.8 months. (See chapter on 
 Reflex and Instinctive Movements.) 
 
 It happens also that children living under ordinary 
 conditions sometimes invent words and even languages, 
 Invention The languages we shall mention later. The 
 of words words seem, in some cases, not to be the 
 result of imitation, but strictly original. Among such 
 cases are "memby," food; "afta," drinking; "goUah," 
 rolling things; "tonics," children; "diddle-iddle," hole; 
 "wusky," sea. 
 
 One child described by Mr. Hale invented names in 
 which the vowels denoted the size of the object as they 
 were higher or lower; for example, "lakail," an ordinary 
 chair; "lukull," great armchair; and "likill," little doll's 
 chair; "mem," watch or plate; "mum," large dish; "mim," 
 moon; and "mim-mim," stars. Deaf-mutes invent a few 
 words usually, and some invent many. Words for food 
 and drink are the most common. Hall has a selected 
 list of more than a hundred words invented by children 
 which seem to exclude imitation. 
 
 Besides the invention of words, children usually form 
 some words through the imitation of sounds or onomat- 
 opoeia, as Miss Shinn's niece imitated the mewing of a 
 cat and later used the sound for the cat's name. In this 
 respect, as well as in the invention of words, the natural 
 tendency is repressed by the fact that children have the 
 adult language before them to imitate, and so are saved 
 the trouble of inventing a new one. 
 
 Nevertheless, the tendencies which do crop out are 
 of great interest to the philologist, because the words 
 which children form either through invention or imita- 
 tion show curious resemblances to primitive tongues 
 and offer suggestions as to the origin and development 
 of language. For instance, Mr. Hale and various other 
 
Language 409 
 
 authorities who have studied the words and languages 
 invented by children, believe that in this tendency to 
 invent is seen the cause of the origin of diverse languages. 
 "Each linguistic stock must have originated in a single 
 household. There was an Aryan family-pair, a Semitic 
 family-pair, an Algonkin family-pair. And further, 
 it is clear that the members of each family-pair began to 
 speak together in childhood." 
 
 The age at which the first sentence is spoken will vary 
 as much as all other stages of language development. 
 To quote Preyer again, his son spoke the The first 
 first sentence near the end of the twenty-third sentence 
 month. The memorable utterance was "Heim mune," 
 which, being translated is, "Home, milk." Strumpell's 
 daughter, however, spoke her first word ■ in the tenth 
 month and used sentences as early as the seventeenth 
 month. Trettien makes the average from eighteen to 
 twenty months. Pelsma says that at two years his 
 daughter ased all parts of speech, and compound and 
 complex sentences. 
 
 The first sentences after the sentence-words already 
 mentioned commonly consist of a noim and adverb or 
 adjective, or two nouns with a verb understood. "Big 
 bird," "Papa, cracker, milk," etc. The verb makes 
 its appearance, says Sully, as an imperative first. The 
 order of the words varies, sometimes subject and some- 
 times predicate being put first. Apparently imitation has 
 little effect when an EngHsh chUd will utter a sentence 
 like this: "Out pull baby spectacles." I suppose that 
 the order depends upon the idea which is most prominent 
 in the child's mind, that being put first, as with adults 
 sometimes, for the sake of emphasis. Children as a rule 
 seem to have trouble in putting "not" in the right place; 
 and they also bring out their meaning by making two 
 
4IO The Child 
 
 opposing statements — "This not a nasty wow wow; this 
 a nice wow wow." This tincertainty of order is also 
 paralleled in primitive languages. 
 
 We all know the wonderftil things a child does, when 
 he tries to use inflections, in his attempt to make the 
 First use of language consistent with itself. Of course 
 inflections irregular verbs are made regular, plurals 
 are all formed alike, and so on, but he caps the climax 
 in his use of the verb be. As Siilly says, it is asking too 
 much of a child to expect him to say "Yes, I am," when 
 asked, "Are you good now?" and we can sympathize 
 with the little girl who, after much drill from her mother, 
 when asked if she was going out said, "I'm are." If a 
 child is asked, "WiU you be good?" why should he not 
 say, "I be good"; or, if that event occurred yesterday, 
 "I bed good"? "Am't I?" is surely as logical as "Isn't 
 he?" We find also an impromptu making of verbs 
 that is delightful.- "Bettern't you do it?" says the little 
 fellow. 
 
 "I" and "you" are stumbling blocks also. At first 
 the child speaks of himself by name, and is likely to 
 think "I" and "you" names like any other. So he 
 will say, "What am I going to do?" for "What are you 
 going to do?" The constant change from one to the 
 other, according to which person is speaking, is most 
 puzzling, and yet Tracy says the child has learned the 
 meaning by twenty-four months. Others assign dates 
 from sixteen to thirty months, a wide variation. This 
 is, of course, a gradual process. The child will use the 
 terms correctly, and then drop them for a time, to 
 resume them later. The free use of them is commonly 
 taken tq signify more sense of the child's own personality 
 than before. The development of speech is effectively 
 summarized in the chart found on the following page. 
 
Language 
 
 411 
 
412 The Child 
 
 After the child by his instinctive babblings and per- 
 sistent imitation has learned to speak words, he learns 
 Language to use them with a significance from con- 
 and thought stantly hearing one word used in connec- 
 tion with a given object. In so far as the same word 
 is used for different objects or situations, he is left help- 
 lessly struggling for the common meaning hidden beneath 
 all this diversity; and again, when different words are 
 used with the same meaning, as in the various forms of be, 
 he is led astray into seeking differences where none exist. 
 
 Hence comes the value of language as an aid in the 
 development of concepts, and as a revealer to us of 
 their growth in the child's mind. At first he uses words 
 in altogether too wide a sense. "Mamma," "bath," 
 "wow-wow," are applied not only to the particular 
 objects he knows, but to all that in any degree resemble 
 them. The child does not see differences distinctly 
 enough to mark off individuals unless there is some 
 striking characteristic to aid him. He rather associates 
 the word with the whole situation in which it is used, 
 and oftentimes with all the details of it. Thus, Romanes 
 gives the case of a child who saw a duck on the water, 
 and called it "quack." After that he called all birds 
 and insects "quack," and also all liquids. Still later he 
 saw an eagle on a piece of money and called it "quack" 
 again. Lindner's daughter, when asking for an apple, 
 was taught to say "apple," and thereafter used the word 
 as meaning eat. Another child used the word "ta-ta" 
 to say good-by; then when anything was taken away; 
 then for the blowing out of a light. Still another used 
 "hat" for anything put on his head, including a brush 
 and comb. Dipping bread in gravy is called a "bath." 
 The palate is the "teeth-roof"; the road is the "go"; the 
 star is the "eye"; all metals are "keys." 
 
Language 413 
 
 In all such cases we notice that the child is trying 
 to classify, and must use what he already has in . the 
 way of words to aid him. So also with rela- Expressing 
 tions — a much more difficult thing, and relation 
 one in which a child is likely to get confused. A child 
 will have a vague idea of quantity, but cannot at first 
 express or tinderstand too much and too little, too big and 
 too small. He may get them in one situation, but when 
 the same object that is too big for one thing is too small 
 for another, it is beyond him. Here is the root of his 
 trouble with "I" and "you." It is not surprising that 
 little George thought "the Doctor came and shook his 
 (WilUe's) head and gave him nasty physic, too." 
 "Buy" and "sell," "lend" and "borrow," "teach" and 
 "learn," are thus all pitfalls for him, and at first are 
 confused. Here again we can trace the race parallel. 
 Many people use "learn" for "teach" and we apply 
 "pleasant," "sore," etc., both to our feelings and the 
 object that causes them. Our abstract words also bear 
 unmistakable marks of .their concrete origin. "Spirit" 
 is "breath"; "wrong" is "awry," "twisted," or "bitter"; 
 "right" is "straight," and so on through the list. 
 
 In his hasty generalizing the child, makes many mis- 
 takes in his conclusions, and so a process of limiting 
 or correcting old concepts and of more Process of 
 carefully forming new ones begins. A good limitation 
 example of such limitation is given by Darwin. His 
 son called food "mum," sugar was "shu mum," and 
 licorice, "black shu mum." Such words as "teeth 
 roof" for palate, "eye curtain" for eyelid, "tell wind" 
 for weather-vane, show both generalization and limita- 
 tion. On the other hand, of cotirse, if the child's experi- 
 ence of a word is too narrow, he will make ludicrous 
 mistakes in over-limitation. Thus one boy said that 
 
 27 
 
414 The Child 
 
 the good Samaritan poured paraffin into the wounds of 
 the sick man. Oil meant only paraffin to him. The 
 child who entreated his mother to "buy him a brother 
 while they were cheap at the show because children 
 were half price," labored under a similar difficulty. 
 Perhaps also the strict insistence of little children on 
 exactly the same words in retelling a story shows their 
 feeling of a strangeness with words. ' When Mr. Two- 
 and-a-half-years is asked, "Shall I read to you out of 
 this book?" he answers, "No, but something inside of 
 it," because that is what he wants. 
 
 Love of nonsense songs, and of Mother Goose, and, 
 the making up of nonsense rimes mark this period also, 
 which may begin as early as three and a half years. A 
 little child will often sit by himself singing over lists 
 of words: mam, pam, tarn, sam, jam, etc., taking an im- 
 mense delight in it. Sometimes he will rime his answers 
 to your questions, or make all his conversation rhythmical. 
 
 With the process of -narrowing or limitation well 
 marked, the child's way is comparatively clear before 
 him. It is thenceforth the usual process of the forma- 
 tion of correct concepts as traced by Baldwin. An 
 object is first given which is both percept and concept. 
 When other objects are presented like this in some 
 respects, the same word is used for aU, until the child 
 fails to get what he wants by this common word, and 
 so is forced to make species and varieties to go under 
 the larger class. In the expression of the ideas he uses 
 the words that he knows, making new and quaint com- 
 binations, but little by little imitation teaches him the 
 conventional signs, and he drops the original forms. 
 
 During this first learning of language perhaps the 
 most important thing is that the child shall hear only 
 correct speech and cultivated voices. Baby talk is not 
 
Language 415 
 
 to be used, nor are harsh tones. Slovenly pronunciation, 
 or sharp or loud voices at this early stage will do irrep- 
 arable harm to the child's speech. 
 
 From three to seven years of age the child's language 
 interest is nearly if not quite as strong as before. He 
 loves to practice on new words, whether Child's 
 
 the meaning is or is not known; alliterations, speech 
 
 rimes, and rhythms are very attractive to him, and in 
 some cases like the one given by Wolff, defining is equally 
 so. Free expression now is greatly aided by dramatiz- 
 ing what he knows. He loves both to hear and to tell 
 stories. 
 
 From seven to twelve the love of words merely on 
 account of their sound persists, but words also acquire 
 value from their associations. In the latter part of the 
 period the sentence form becomes more complex, — the 
 subordinate sentences increase greatly and statements 
 become both more exact and concise. During the entire 
 period Dr. Hall believes that children should have much 
 opportunity to talk and relatively little to read and 
 write. Correct pronunciation and use of words are 
 best acquired now; the great myths and masterpieces of 
 the race are enjoyed, especially in story-telling. At the 
 same time, the mechanics of reading and writing must 
 be learned at this stage. 
 
 During this period we should also note the rise of 
 secret languages. Chrisman found that the curve 
 begins as early as five or six years of age; Secret 
 increases rapidly from nine to twelve; cul- languages 
 minates at thirteen, and declines to seventeen or eighteen. 
 
 There are many kinds of secret language, varying 
 from the easy "hog Latin," which only adds "gry" 
 to every word, to a very complex inflected language. 
 Frequently such a language lasts for fifty or sixty years 
 
4i6 The Child 
 
 and is passed down from one generation of children to the 
 next. In other cases the language is invented in whole 
 or in parts, and even a dictionary may be made, to 
 which jiew words are added from time to time. 
 
 The length of time such a language is used varies 
 greatly. In some cases the , interest lasts only a few 
 weeks; in others, ten or twelve years. Two children 
 who invented their tongue used it so constantly that 
 their parents made every effort to dissuade them from 
 it, but in vain. After two years, however, they gradu- 
 ally began to use English. In another case a man records 
 that he has spoken his secret language' to himself for 
 fifty years. That is, he thinks in it, and when he speaks 
 or writes translates into English. The motive for using 
 the language is, as a rule, the desire for secrecy. The 
 older children begin to employ it to keep secrets from 
 those not in their clique; another language is used in 
 another clique, and so on. The language is used in writ- 
 ing notes in school, and on all occasions where mystery 
 and secrecy are desirable. 
 
 Doran listed words which children could use intelli- 
 gently, choosing them at random from the dictionary, 
 Size of ^^'^ found that one boy of nine knew 6,031 
 
 child's words; one of ten at least 10,000; two of 
 
 ary twelve 22,000 and 28,400; one of thirteen, 
 26,300; two girls in second- and third-year academy 
 work, 22,000 and 26,000; one boy in fourth-year academy 
 work, 41,000; two junior college boys, 40,000 and 50,000. 
 His own English vocabulary he lists at about 100,000. 
 There is no way of knowing how representative these 
 returns are, but the writer himself believes that they are 
 probably above the average. The words do not of course 
 always represent new ideas, and the "intelligent use" is 
 an indefinite standard. 
 
Language 417 
 
 At adolescence the interest in words appears not only 
 in the love of certain sounds but in the great increase in , 
 slang, in the use of foreign terms, and in giang 
 attempts to define or use terms very exactly, precision, 
 Miss WilUams found in her returns (250) foreign words 
 little slang before eleven years, but a culmination at 
 fourteen. Conradi, on the basis of 295 returns, puts 
 the height of slang at thirteen, and of the reading craze 
 and precision in the use of words at fourteen. Both 
 Williams and Conradi attribute the rise of slang to the 
 feeling that the ordinary vocabulary is inadequate to 
 express the emotions of the adolescent. The use 
 of foreign terms, on the other hand. Hall condemns as 
 only an "affectation of superiority and love of mystify- 
 ing others." It seems to fade with the culmination of 
 secret languages, and may be connected with the rise 
 of secret societies. The sentence form seems to suffer 
 arrest for a year, but then becomes much more in- 
 volved and intricate. In Conradi's returns 50 per cent 
 take to poetry in the early teens and 28 per cent imi- 
 tate the style of some favorite author. Interest in 
 telling stories declines rapidly as interest in reading 
 increases. 
 
 Bullock's returns from two thousand, third- to twelfth- 
 grade children show that the average boy read in six 
 months 4.9 books in the third grade; 6.5 Children's 
 in the seventh grade, and then fewer, until reading 
 in the twelfth grade, or end of his high-school course, he 
 read only 3. According to Henderson's returns (2,989 
 children) fewest books were read at nine and most at 
 fifteen years. Kirkpatrick found a sudden rise in the 
 amount read at twelve years, which continues for at 
 least three or four years. Vostrovsky and Lancaster 
 have similar results. 
 
4i8 The Child 
 
 The reading tastes of children, according to these 
 various returns, show the following for boys: Stories 
 Tastes of adventure (including war) are popular 
 
 of boys at all grades, culminating in the eighth; 
 
 biography, travel, and exploration rise steadily_to the 
 ninth; fiction (juvenile) culminates about the eleventh 
 year. The boys want exciting stories, with a hero and 
 numerous incidents. Girls read more than boys. They 
 Tastes too, like biography and adventure, but 
 
 of girls want stories of great women. They read 
 
 more fiction and poetry and less history, science, and 
 travel. Hall says the high-school girl's reading is more 
 humanistic, cultural, and general; the boy's, more prac- 
 tical and vocational. 
 
 In general, adolescent youth should have free access 
 to the best literature and be encoiiraged to read freely. 
 During the time that his powers of expression lag behind 
 his power of feeling, expression should not be demanded, 
 but on the other hand spontaneous expression in 
 conversation, declamation, and debate shoiild be encour- 
 aged to the utmost. Most writers agree that formal 
 English grammar is a positive detriment both to appre- 
 ciation of literature and to the development of literary 
 expression. 
 
 The problem of learning to read is one that can be only 
 referred to here. Huey and Dearborn both give excellent 
 summaries of the mechanical and psychological factors 
 involved in the act. We wish merely to call attention 
 here to the fact that few people know how to read well. 
 Each individual can train himself to read far more rapidly 
 and easily than he does habitually, without sacrificing 
 accuracy. Huey's section on the psychology of reading 
 is illuminating here, and worthy the perusal of every 
 teacher of reading. 
 
• Language 419 
 
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Language 421 
 
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42 2 T he C hi Id 
 
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Language 423 
 
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 Stories and How to Use Them. Story Hour, Nov. and Dec. 
 
 1908, 7-14, and 7-10. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 
 
 I . Ask adults and children to name the first ten nursery 
 rimes that come into their heads. 
 Observa- Note the rhythms. 
 
 tions 2. Compare the rhythm and time of tunes 
 
 in your head with your heartbeat and breathing. 
 
 3. Notice what songs your children sing most spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 ' 4. Ask what song they like best, and notice whether 
 the liking is due to 
 
 (i) Season, as Christmas songs. 
 
 (2) Imitation. 
 
 (3) Permanent interest. 
 
 5. Try to get song composition from some child or 
 small group of children uninstructed in music. 
 
 6. Observe the spontaneous reactions of children to 
 music with a strong rhj^thm. 
 
 In going over the literature on rhythm we find various 
 discussions as to its fundamental nature, whether it is 
 Nature of inherited or not, and so on. It is on the 
 rhythm whole accurate enough for our purpose to 
 
 say that rhythm is a dividing into parts by a regular 
 succession of elements, whether they be movements, 
 sounds, Unes, colors, or what not. The division is marked 
 by the first or last unit in the group being made emphatic 
 in some way, while the others are unemphatic or unac- 
 cented; that is, they run along without attention being 
 especially called to them. The unaccented units may 
 
 424 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 425 
 
 apparently have almost any characteristics, so far as 
 their relations to each other go, so long as they have 
 the same lack of emphasis, but the instant that one of 
 them becomes more emphatic than the others the old 
 rhythm is broken up, or else is compUcated by a sub- 
 rhythm within it. We do not even need to make the 
 elements of a rhythmic group appeal to one sense, but 
 can alternate sights, sounds, and movements, and it may 
 be smells and tastes as well. 
 
 The accented unit may be made so in a great variety 
 of ways. The most common, of course, is by greater 
 intensity in the movement, sound, color, or what not; 
 but it may also be done by rest or omission — no move- 
 ment or soimd, or a dxoll or indifferent color. A higher 
 or lower pitch, a different color, or a different movement, 
 none of them requiring greater expenditure of energy 
 than the other units, but different from them and recurring 
 regularly also may give the necessary emphasis. To 
 state it again in the most general way, it would seem 
 that the essential relation in rhythm is that of one regu- 
 larly recurring accented unit, with any number and 
 variety of tmaccented units. 
 
 Before taking up rhythm as related to music, let us 
 first notice how general a thing it is and how it underlies 
 all mental activity. 
 
 Natural phenomena almost universally take a rhyth- 
 mical form. We have first the great sv«;ing of the worlds 
 in their cotirse about the center of the universe. Universality 
 in a rhythm never yet completed. Then we of rhythm 
 have the course of each world about its sun, of each 
 satellite about its world, and the rotation of the various 
 worlds upon their axes, making the rhythms of the year, 
 month, and day. In our sun there seem to be rhythms 
 recurring about every eleven years, causing our stm spots, 
 
426 The Child 
 
 and, it is seriously conjectured, affecting the harvests 
 of oiu- earth and resulting in disturbed atmospheric and 
 organic conditions which lead to our periodical money 
 -panics and outbreaks of crime and suicide. However this 
 may be, it is unquestionable that the yearly, monthly, 
 and daily rhythms seriously modify both the vegetable 
 and animal creation. Some plants have a daily rhythm 
 of growth and rest; most of them have an annual one; 
 all seek the sun. Even the moon influences the growth 
 of some plants. 
 
 In the animal world there are corresponding rhythms. 
 Growth is faster in summer than in winter, and we can 
 each observe annual rhythms in our mental moods 
 according to the seasons. Certain states of mind and 
 even trains of thought are likely to recur with each 
 season. "Spring poetry," so much laughed at, or some- 
 thing corresponding to it, is, I suspect, written by many 
 more people than are willing to acknowledge it. 
 
 The monthly rhythms seem to be especially con- 
 nected with the reproductive and nervous systems. 
 The period of gestation in various species of animals is 
 usually a month, or a number of days which is seven or 
 some multiple of seven. Disturbances of the nervous 
 system, recurrent insanities, abnormal cravings for 
 liquors and other stimulants, are also likely to have 
 a rhythm. 
 
 Weekly rhjrthms are less clearly marked, but as we 
 saw in the chapter on growth, there is a weekly rhythm 
 of growth which was probably the cause of the change 
 in our manner of living on Sunday. It has led to cer- 
 tain rhythms of thought and feeling. We sleep later, we 
 are hungry at different times, and we think differently. 
 
 The daily rhythm of sleep and waking is universal, 
 and it seems to be accompanied by one of growth. This 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and M usic 427 
 
 is a genuine organic rh)rthni, caused probably by the 
 rhythm of day and night, and cannot be easily changed 
 so that we shall sleep in the day and work at night. 
 
 There are many other bodily rhythms, of which we 
 will mention only a few: the pulse and heartbeat, 
 respiration, walking, and speech. Every Special 
 cell seems to have its own rhythm of alter- bodily 
 
 nate activity and rest ; the nervous system Aythms 
 
 sends out rhythmical stimuli, differing in different parts. 
 Thus the brain can send out only about thirteen per 
 second, and the cord about thirty-four. Fatigue is also 
 a rhythmical thing, a period of exhaustion alternating 
 with one of recovery. 
 
 Not only is every bodily process a rh5^hmical one 
 but every mental one as well. It is, however, still un- 
 certain what determines our tempo when „ 
 we listen to a monotonous stimulus like the determining 
 metronome, or when we voluntarily tap *|™5^^^ 
 with our finger. In the latter case the same 
 person varies greatly at different times in the speed of 
 tapping, and different subjects of course vary. Even when 
 he has an external stimulus like a metronome or clock, 
 the same subject may group differently at different times. 
 
 Dr. Bolton found that in listening to a series of uniform 
 clicks the most common grouping within the widest limits 
 was by 2's, when the rate of the clicks was moderate; 
 when fast, by the heartbeats. When the stimuli were 
 .795 seconds apart, the mind grouped by 2's; .460, by 
 3's; .407, by 4's. Usually he found that the breathing 
 accommodated itself to the rh3rthm instead of vice versa. 
 
 Various investigators have thought that the tempo 
 was set by some of the organic rhythms or automatic 
 bodily activities. It has been supposed that the time 
 for a double swing of the legs in walking, .663 seconds 
 
428 The Child 
 
 on the average, determines the group; or that the average 
 number of voluntary muscular contractions — lo to a 
 second — determines the rapidity with which stimuli may 
 come in order to be rhythmically grouped, this also 
 coinciding with the rate of nervous discharge of the 
 cortical cells; approximately to the number of syllables 
 which can be pronotmced in a second; and to the shortest 
 time in which we can get a complete simple perception, 
 such as distinguishing one color in a group of colors. 
 
 But the length of the rhythm is also unsettled. Investi- 
 gators differ, for instance, as to the length of ,the wave of 
 Length of attention, Lange setting it for Hght stimuli 
 rhythm ^t 3.4 seconds, Munsterburg at 6.9, and 
 
 Lehmann at 12.8. There is equal disagreement as to 
 the length for sound and electric stimtdi. The fatigue 
 wave seems to be irregular, and the respiration wave is 
 variously stated at from 2.5 to 4 seconds. The average 
 pulse rate is 72 for males and 80 for females. 
 
 With the organic rhythms varying within such wide 
 limits it does not seem probable that any one of them 
 always determines the rhythm involuntarily selected. 
 On the other hand, it may be that the one which happens 
 to be most prominent at a given time will, determine 
 the tempo then selected, at another time, another, and 
 at still another time the contractions of some group of 
 voluntary muscles. 
 
 The rhythms which we fall into most naturally are 
 well known. A 2 -rhythm or multiple of it is by far the 
 Most Uked most commonly chosen and liked. Triplett 
 rhythms ^nd Sanford asked persons to send in lists 
 of the first ten nursery rhymes that came into their heads, 
 and they foimd in these lists that by far the most common 
 was one with a stanza of four lines and four stresses, the 
 lines riming in couplets, such as, "Georgie Porgie." 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 429 
 
 Second came a stanza with the first and third lines of 
 four stresses a|id the second and third of three, like 
 "Mistress Mary." Then came three three-stress lines 
 and one four-stress, with the last line a repetition of 
 first, — "Hickory, dickory dock." 
 
 Grouping by s's is always rather difficult, and grouping 
 by 3's is not nearly so common as by 2's or some multiple 
 of 2. This we naturally refer to the fact that most of 
 our bodily movements are in 2's, such as walking, and that 
 even when one side alone is used, the opposition of flexor 
 and extensor muscles creates a rhythm. 
 
 The time limits for the rhythmical grouping of sounds 
 ■ have also been studied. We know that when soimds 
 follow each other at intervals of about .550 Time 
 
 a second (that is, slightly over one half a limits 
 
 second, varying shghtly for different adults) they are 
 grasped with the greatest ease and pleasure, and if the 
 sounds are alike objectively the listener tends to group 
 them into rhythms either of 2 or 4. If the listener is 
 not allowed to count he cannot grasp at once more than 
 six single impressions, but if the sounds are arranged 
 rhjrthmically, and with different times, he may grasp at 
 once five or six rhythmical units, each unit containing a 
 considerable nvimber of beats, some say as many as twenty- 
 four. With training, rhythms may be perceived in sounds 
 following at intervals as small as one fifth of a second, 
 or as large as three seconds, but beyond these limits it 
 is impossible for most adults to appreciate them. 
 
 P. F. Swindle (Inheritance of Rhythm, American 
 Journal of Psychology, April 1913, pp. 180-203) gives 
 some interesting data to show that rhythm is not inherited, 
 as is commonly assumed, and that the preferred tempo 
 and the most common rhythms are dependent upon the 
 bodily organism. Large members require more time than 
 
430 The Child 
 
 the small, and often it is necessary to make tentative 
 movements before actually doing the act. Again, we 
 are bilateral, and one side is always somewhat st-onger 
 or more skilled than the other. All these factors combine 
 to explain accent. Our inherited structure thus favors 
 two rhythms. 
 
 But his experiments' showed th^t if subjects are put 
 imder the appropriate conditions they can develop five, 
 seven, and more complicated rhythms, and that with 
 children, in whom the habits of two and three rhythms 
 are not so fixed, there is no greater difficulty in learning 
 five than six rhythms. The point is that life conditions 
 do not often demand movements in five rhythms. 
 
 Again, he had the rhythms learned in two ways, first 
 merely by counting and second purposely, by which he 
 means that attention was fixed on doing a certain series 
 of movements and at the same time the subject was 
 required to pronounce letters or numerals exposed, so as 
 to shut out counting. Series learned in the latter way 
 were much better remembered, and on this ground Swindle 
 criticizes Dalcroze, who allows his pupils to coimt, although 
 he says that good pupils do not. Swindle believes, how- 
 ever, that most of Dalcroze's pupils do count, and to a 
 large degree forget the rhythms learned. 
 
 Turning now to the value of rhythm, Wallaschek tells 
 us that the primitive song and dance were a practical 
 Practical necessity to prepare the tribe for needed 
 value of action or to maintain sldll in times of peace, 
 
 rhythm Tribes which play at war and hunting act 
 
 together better than those that do not. Again, it has 
 been supposed for some time that work songs have a 
 practical value in regulating the movements, and Margaret 
 Smith has made various laboratory tests which seem to 
 demonstrate the truth of this. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 431 
 
 She found that rhythms are very decided helps in memo- 
 rizing (this indeed we all know), that probably writing 
 in rhythms goes on better than without them, and that 
 heavier weights can be lifted to rhythms. 
 
 In fact, any movements which can be adapted to a 
 rhythm can be more readily learned and longer retained, 
 even spelling, and a teacher ought to encoiu-age children 
 to use this aid. 
 
 On the other hand, a word of caution must be given 
 here, that the time and character of 'the most favorable 
 rhythm seem to vary with different people. Miner, for 
 instance, tried an experiment to test the use of tapping 
 with the fingers while filling words into the blanks of a 
 poem. He found that the tapping was "a hindrance to 
 the brighter pupils and an aid to the duller, and that the 
 same was true when the rhythm was given by the metro- 
 nome at different rates, while the subject was sorting 
 out a pack of cards. That is, the dull pupil seems to need 
 a little external stimulus to jog his attention to its best 
 gait, while such a stimulus merely throws the attention 
 of the bright pupil off its more delicate balance. This 
 much, however, we can say with considerable confidence, 
 that when a pupil who is studying is seen making rh5d;hmic 
 movements with any part of his body, they are probably 
 of value to him. 
 
 But besides the rhythms already discussed there are 
 other life-activities which have developed and harmonized 
 our bodies and predisposed us to their Origin of 
 rhythms. It was inevitable that when man ^^^ dance 
 was wise enough to begin to play and to worship, various 
 forms of the dance should arise before any other art- 
 form developed. Could anything be more instinctive 
 and natural than for a man who had had a successful 
 hunt to act it over before his admiring fellows, imperfect 
 
432 The Child 
 
 word being helped out by gesture and act? Such recitals 
 by degrees became formalized into a certain dance, and 
 so we find among primitive peoples dances symbolic of 
 all their life-activities. Such dances serve the purpose 
 not only of preserving traditions but of arousing once 
 more in the youth the same high feelings as inspired the 
 men who did those deeds. The use of the muscles in 
 these old racial ways, usually more deeply and vigorously 
 than modem life demands, tends to revive the pristine 
 energy and zest which so many of us lack to-day. Danc- 
 ing that would be educative ought, then, to train the 
 young in these old national and folk dances so far as' it 
 can revive them, and if such are lacking there ought to be 
 a re-creation of them. At this point we see how very 
 closely dancing and the drama are connected. The 
 modem movement for children's theaters, in which 
 children are the actors, is but one form of this whole 
 tendency to recapitulate our race-life through our muscles, 
 and much of the drama is dandng in this very wide sense 
 which I am now discussing. Dancing but omits words 
 and usually adds external rhythm, becoming more highly 
 symbolic than acting. 
 
 In many of our schools children are acting out the vari- 
 ous activities which they see about them, — such as car- 
 Work pentering, shoemaking, and other trades,— 
 dances ^^ji tj^g greatest enjoyment. Why could 
 they not go a step farther and represent the most funda- 
 mental of these activities in dances? There might be, 
 for instance, the sower's dance, the reaper's dance, the 
 weaver's and spinner's dances, the hunter's dance, and 
 others symbolic of securing shelter, all typifying the great 
 fundamental needs of man for food, clothing, and shelter. 
 
 Again, another motive for the dance is love. In the 
 mating season many sorts of male birds show off before 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 433 
 
 the females, ' and in some cases there are fancy steps, 
 tentative flights, preening of feathers, and so on, which 
 are ludicrously like some of the exhibitions Love 
 
 in our ballrooms. Among savages there are dances 
 
 many forms of love dances, and in modem times, among 
 civilized peoples, degraded forms of the lov.e dance are 
 nearly the only ones known. Under the unhygienic 
 conditions of the ballroom, with its artificial stimulants 
 of excessive light and heat, and with the common use of 
 wines and other stimulants, such dancing is inevitably 
 bad and must be condemned by all thoughtful people. 
 But instead of banishing it, we ought to reform it. If our 
 assumptions are true, even these degraded dances appeal 
 to some of the most fundamental instincts, and those 
 instincts ought to be given a better outlet under good 
 conditions. The dance ought not to be confined to young 
 people, but shared by all. Whenever possible it ought 
 to be out of doors, and all the conditions should be such 
 as to normalize the relations between young men and 
 women, and deepen their mutual respect and admiration. 
 We are foolish and prudish not to recognize that much 
 of the attractiveness of dancing comes from the presence 
 of both sexes, and that it is an agency by which we may 
 accomplish much harm or good. 
 
 But though to-day the love dance has held the center 
 of the stage, in the history of dancing this phase has been 
 much less important than has the religious Religious 
 aspect. Just as men tended to formaUze dances 
 their daily occupations to dance and drama, so did they 
 their reactions to the great powers and mysteries which 
 surrounded them in nature. As far back as we have 
 any history of rehgion we find that dancing was always a 
 part of its ritual, and often the chief part. These dances 
 take various forms. Sometimes they are imitations of 
 
434 The Child 
 
 natural forces, such as the movements of the heavenly 
 bodies; sometimes they are sjmibolical of or accompany 
 the offering of sacrifices, and sometimes they are closely 
 connected with ancestor worship and are a symbolic 
 representation of the life and deeds of the great tribal 
 ancestor or totem. Or again, they may be propitiatory 
 in nature, prayers for rain or for deliverance from famine 
 and pestilence, or dances of thanksgiving. Oftentimes 
 they may be danced only by those initiated into the inmost 
 mysteries, and it is supposed that in some of the Greek 
 mystical brotherhoods an important part of the initi- 
 ation consisted in learning the symbolical dances connected 
 with their worship. , In the Old Testament dancing is 
 constantly referred to as a part of worship, especially on 
 occasions of great public rejoicing and thanksgiving, and 
 the early Christian church included it in its ritual. 
 
 And finally, one motive for dancing, and the chief one 
 to-day, is the play impulse. Any animal with superfluous 
 Play energy gambols and leaps, and when these 
 
 impulse movements are cadenced to external rhythm 
 
 we have dancing. 
 
 We find among many people a love of moving to rhythm, 
 and endless patience in working out the steps and move- 
 ments best suited to a given piece of music. Indeed, 
 many persons love music in proportion as they can find 
 motor expression for it, and care relatively little for its 
 melodic factors. This seems to be especially true of 
 children, and Jaques Dalcroze has made use of this fact 
 in working out his system of eurhythmies, which he 
 developed originally as an aid in teaching singing. He 
 found that he could hold the attention of his pupils better 
 and get a better use of the voice if he allowed them to 
 make movements, and by degrees he worked out a very 
 elaborate system which now has representatives both in 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 435 
 
 England and America, and which opens possibilities of 
 reforming not only modem music and dancing but the 
 opera and perhaps the drama. 
 
 Let me describe it as it is outlined in Dalcroze's Rhythm- 
 ische Gymnastik and in various articles. Dalcroze would 
 begin with six-year-old children, giving them Dalcroze 
 three half hours a week from six to twelve eurhythmies 
 years of age, and allowing them, if they desired, to begin 
 instrumental music at eight years. The first exercises 
 are very simple, — marching to pronounced rhythms, 
 beating simple times, and breathing properly and regu- 
 larly. Every lesson opens -with preliminary exercises 
 in breathing. There are also at the beginning of his 
 volume exercises which are avowedly only gymnastics, 
 given for the purpose of making the muscles flexible. 
 
 The fimdamental thing in these exercises is the asso- 
 ciation of notes to movements. The unit in his system 
 is the quarter note, or crotchet, which is always expressed 
 by one step forward; the half note is one step and a bend 
 of the other knee; the dotted half note is one step and two 
 movements of the other foot; the whole note one step 
 and movements. The smaller divisions of eighths, trip- 
 lets, and so on, are expressed by steps quicker in propor- 
 tion to their frequency; rests of various lengths seem to be 
 simply pauses in position, the movement being continued 
 after the rest; syncopation is expressed by a forward 
 step and a bow, and so on. 
 
 With this progress of the musical movement the arms 
 beat time and the voice carries the melody, when one is 
 introduced. In the beginning, however, all the rhythms 
 are given on only one tone, middle c, and Dalcroze asserts 
 that the constant hearing of this tone so fixes it in the 
 mind that absolute pitch is acquired. 
 
 The pupil begins then with the simplest exercises m 
 
436 The Child 
 
 marching and beating time, stopping and beginning at 
 the unexpected command and repeating until he can do 
 this automatically. He is trained here to listen to 
 rhythms and then to reproduce them from memory, and 
 by slow degrees exercises are introduced which make the 
 arms and legs independent in' action, and then the arms 
 independent of each other and of the legs and head, until 
 the advanced pupils may be carrying different rhythms 
 with the legs, each of the arms, the head, and perhaps 
 with the voice. The most complicated rhythms are 
 easily expressed, many far more complicated than are 
 now used in musical composition, and Dalcroze foresees 
 that his method may thus react upon musical composi- 
 tion. These of course come only at the end of the course 
 for adults, and are brought out chiefly in the exercises 
 in improvisation. 
 
 These exercises are carried on by Dalcroze, who im- 
 provises at the piano, the pupils realizing the improvisa- 
 tion. Here there seems to be great individual freedom 
 of expression allowed, and it passes naturally into plastic 
 expression, in which various combinations of movements 
 portray emotion. The group work is also a branch that 
 seems to have great artistic possibiUties. Here each 
 pupil follows a certain part of the music, so that the 
 whole group represents the harmony, giving us quite 
 literally visual music. 
 
 Dalcroze has not yet published that part of his work 
 which gives his method of tone training, but Blensdorf- 
 Eberfeld {Pad. Reform for Jan. 8, 19 13) takes it up. 
 As I understand it, Dalcroze does not consider this so 
 essential as the rhythmical training, and lays no claim 
 to especial originality here. 
 
 In the beginning all the exercises are given to middle c, 
 and when the training in tone discrimination begins the 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and M usic 437 
 
 name of do is given, and its relations to re and mi are 
 taught, with many exercises and in all the times and 
 rhythms previously carried out to one tone. At the 
 same time the position of the three notes on the staff is 
 given in three octaves. Each time a new tone is intro- 
 duced the beat is made very simple, and it is sung to la 
 until the tone is thoroughly learned. At first only the 
 whole steps are learned, and when the half step is intro- 
 duced much practice must be given on it, but after that 
 ever3^hing is easy and the pupil relatively soon can sing ' 
 the scales, at "first of course learning C major. Since 
 the pupUs have learned the absolute pitch for middle 
 c, or do, all the scales can be built up from C major by 
 simply teaching the varying placing of the half steps, and 
 drill is given until every major scale has been thoroughly 
 learned and all can be sung at command, from C sharp 
 around to C fiat. A pupil can thus at will place himself 
 in any scale by singing in thought first the key desired and 
 then giving it aloud and getting the starting tone. This 
 amazing mastery of the keys is said to be easily acquired, 
 and with it transposition has little difficulty. 
 
 Following this come exercises in intervals and accords, 
 by which Dalcroze means not merely the usual thirds, 
 fifths, and so on, but all the notes between as well. Here 
 are numerous exercises to bring out all the relations of 
 the tones, and finally reversal of the accords. Then 
 come the minor scales, on which a large part of the 
 third-year training is spent. 
 
 All this seems to have been worked out entirely from 
 the empirical side, and it still lacks adequate theoretical 
 expression. What little theory there is is as follows: 
 Men have confused thoughts and undefined emotions 
 because their bodies are undeveloped, are without natural 
 rhjiihmical expression. But sensations must be disciplined 
 
438 The Child 
 
 and impulse trained in order to develop any person- 
 ality or give it free avenues of expression. Many per- 
 sons have emotions which they cannot express in acts 
 because they lack bodily control or do not know how to 
 express them, and rhythmic gymnastics can help both 
 of these classes. Rhythmic movements are not primarily 
 either acting or dancing, but a means of freeing the mind. 
 They are inevitably beautiful and harmonious, and are 
 the basis of all art because. they give rhythmic expression 
 to our emotions. 
 
 Rhythmic bodily movement, therefore, is the germ of 
 art, the common source of all the musical arts on one 
 side and the visual arts on the other. The human body 
 is the point of departure for all forms of art, and we may 
 properly suppose that in porportion as it is harmonious 
 and rhythmical art will become high and noble. 
 
 Turning now to music, it seems probable that at first 
 language and music were not distinct, the cry being 
 Origin of the common root from which the two have 
 music developed in different ways. Music proper, 
 
 or melody, seems to arise first in connection with the 
 dance, and the dance in its original form was the reproduc- 
 tion of the activities of existence or, it may be, a propitia- 
 tion of the gods. Uniformly the dance takes a rhythmic 
 character. At first it is performed in silence, but as the 
 dancers are aroused they give vent to their feelings in 
 more violent movements, and in cries; the cries naturally 
 assuming a rhythmic character consonant with the 
 movements. Thus the rude song is bom, a song without 
 words, and in almost a monotone. 
 
 This theory fits in very well with what we can see of 
 children's natural musical tastes. The development of 
 melody and harmony is much later than the apprecia- 
 tion of rhythmical cries. Gumey says that the former 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 439 
 
 does not appear xontil four or five years. We should 
 expect kindergarten children, then, not to care so much 
 about singing the melody as about keeping time. 
 
 Small children are more easily terrified by loud sounds 
 than by almost anything else. Preyer and Perez note 
 that in the seventh and eighth weeks a child child's love 
 listened to the singing of lullabies with much °^ noises 
 pleasure, and showed an appreciation of piano playing 
 by his vigorous movements and laughter at the loud 
 notes. Children of six months show great enjoyment of 
 music; at nine months some will reproduce musical tones. 
 Perez also records the case of a child who sang himself 
 to sleep when only nine months old. By the age of a 
 , year some will reproduce tones quite perfectly. Sigismund 
 says that musical tones are imitated before spoken ones. 
 Noises of all kinds, even the unpleasant, appeal to children, 
 especially if there is any rhythniic arrangement, and they 
 delight in reproducing them as far as possible. 
 
 Children vary greatly among themselves and at dif- 
 ferent ages in their ability to distinguish tones. We 
 find the child who sings the scale in one tone Sensitiveness 
 from c to c; and another who can sing the *<* to'i^s 
 chromatic scale with ease. Whether any given child is 
 tone-deaf, or simply lacks training, can be told only by 
 experiment^ and, even if not up to the average, many 
 a child's ability can be improved by practice. Heilig'g 
 child was not taught music but often heard her mothei 
 giving music lessons. At fourteen months she sang the 
 whole scale alone and unprompted, and at fifteen and two 
 thirds months sang it descending as well as ascending. 
 At twenty-one months she sang seven songs, using la 
 instead of words. In the twenty-third month she began 
 to sit at the piano and play with the keys, and she 
 thus learned the scales, various chords, and some tunes. 
 
440 
 
 The Child 
 
 Monroe collected data from 161 children under six 
 years. He found that from four to five years 34 per cent? of 
 the boys and 59 per cent of the girls could learn the scale, 
 and that at six 41 per cent of the boys and 7 1 per cent of the 
 girls. The greatest diffictilties came in' perceiving the high 
 notes, and songs were better remembered than scales. 
 
 We might fairly question to what extent the difficulty 
 with these children was due to the limited range of the 
 Range of childish voice, which at six years is only 
 child's voice flye tones. We have no data for American 
 children, but the following table shows the range of 
 German children's voices. It embodies tests by Paulsen 
 on two thousand seven hundred and eighty-five boys 
 from six to fifteen years of age and two thousand two 
 hundred and fifty-nine girls from six to fourteen; and 
 by Gutzmann on five hundred and seventy-five children. 
 It shows the pitch of 75 per cent of these children at 
 each age, the half notes representing the boys' and the 
 quarter notes the girls. 
 
 4, .. !. . 1. L 
 
 i 
 
 1= 
 
 ^- 
 
 ^M 
 
 ■=t» 
 
 •s*^- 
 
 :^»: 
 
 1^0- -irirw 
 
 •zS-#- 
 
 ^ 
 
 AgeO 
 
 1-2 
 
 3-5 
 
 ■^■^ -!:)■•■ 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 In children from six to nineteen years of age, the 
 least sensitive age is six, when the least perceptible 
 difference of two tones is about one-quarter of a tone. 
 Thence to nine years there is twice as much gain in 
 sensitiveness as from nine to nineteen years; and after- 
 ward a more gradual gain, with a break and retrogression 
 at ten and at fifteen years. 
 
 The actual tastes of children seem to have been little 
 observed. Miss Gates had answers from two thousand 
 children, one hundred boys and one hundred girls for 
 each year from six to sixteen. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and M usi c 441 
 
 1. She found that 22 per cent of the girls and 12 per 
 cent of the boys of seven years like best lullabies and 
 baby songs, while 14 per cent of the girls and Songs liked 
 7 per cent of the boys like home songs the ^y children 
 best. " Home Sweet Home " is the favorite. Of the 
 seven-year-old boys and girls 43 per cent like school songs 
 the best; nature songs are the favorites. Twice as many 
 boys as girls like negro songs. "Suwanee River" and 
 "Massa's in the Cold, Cold Ground" are the favorites. 
 
 2. ReHgious songs are best liked by two hundred 
 and ninety-six girls and six hundred and ninety-six 
 boys at six years; 23 per cent of the girls and 6 per cent 
 of the boys at thirteen years; 27 per cent of the girls and 
 6 per cent of the boys at sixteen years, making an aver- 
 age of 18 per cent. "Nearer my God" is the favorite. 
 
 3. National songs are best liked by 13 per cent of the 
 girls and 18 per cent of the boys at seven years; 29 per 
 cent of the girls at twelve years ; 40 per cent of the boys 
 at eight years. "America" and the "Star Spangled 
 Banner" divide the honors here. Marsh gives this 
 table of "The one song he liked best in all the world." 
 The returns are from six thousand three hundred and 
 thirty-eight children. The table is given in percentages. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Grade 
 
 School 
 
 Sunday 
 School 
 
 Patriotic 
 
 Street 
 
 Home 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 43 
 39 
 29 
 12 
 
 7 
 6 
 II 
 9 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 II 
 8 
 10 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 29 
 40 
 42 
 30 
 15 
 48 
 60 
 58 
 65 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 10 
 10 
 12 
 12 
 21 
 10 
 
 14 
 26 
 
 25 
 25 
 
442 
 
 The Child 
 
 Girls 
 
 Grade 
 
 School 
 
 Sunday 
 School 
 
 Patriotic 
 
 Street 
 
 Home 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 43 
 43 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 13 
 i6 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 o 
 
 15 
 lO 
 
 II 
 15 
 .9 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 15 
 25 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 32 
 21 
 
 47 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 2 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 38 
 44 
 
 Boys and Girls 
 
 Grade 
 
 School 
 
 Sunday 
 School 
 
 Patriotic 
 
 Street 
 
 Home 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 ■••..•■ 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 ti 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 3 
 
 2 
 O 
 
 13 
 l6 
 
 9 
 H 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 i6 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 23 
 
 31 
 35 
 41 
 43 
 37 
 44 
 59 
 53 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 8 
 II 
 l6 
 17 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 9 
 5 
 7 
 
 ID 
 II 
 12 
 13 
 
 i8 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 27 
 
 33 
 41 
 
 Many reasons are given why the favorite piece is 
 liked. As children grow older, more say it is because 
 they like the music or words, and fewer because they 
 have associations with it, or it is nice, pretty, or sweet. 
 The associations ai'e of all sorts — of home, Christmas or 
 some holiday, with historical events, or simply with 
 smell or some other sense. A "very small percentage of 
 the favorites are movement songs, and as a rule major 
 keys are preferred to jninor. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 443 
 
 It is interesting to note the changes in taste with 
 advancing years. The school songs show these varia- 
 tions: boys and girls, 43 per cent in first Changes in 
 grade to 9 per cent and 16 per cent respec- t*ste 
 tively in eighth grade, and none in eleventh grade. 
 S. S. songs, boys, 10% in ist grade, to 16% in nth grade. 
 
 " " girls, 15% " "■ " 29% " 
 
 Patriotic songs show remarkable fluctuations in the 
 liking of the boys and girls, as the table indicates. Street 
 songs increase in number to the fourth grade; decrease 
 slightly- to the seventh and rapidly to the eleventh. 
 They then rise suddenly to 33 per cent in the eleventh 
 grade. 
 
 With the girls the curve is of the same nature though 
 of a smaller percentage, except that at the eleventh grade 
 it decreases to o instead of rising. 
 
 The percentage of home songs increases to sixth grade, 
 falls in seventh grade, and then increases gradually. 
 
 The subject of children's musical composition is one 
 that is not considered nearly as often as children's draw- 
 ings, and yet there would seem to be no rea- Songs by 
 son in the nature of the case why children children 
 should not be creators of songs as well as of landscapes. 
 The first musical productions are not distinct from 
 the beginning of speech. The child cries, howls, gtirgles, 
 and babbles, not only when he is hurt or pleased, but 
 just to see what sounds he can make. 
 
 Sometimes one set of sounds takes possession of him 
 for a time, and he will seem tmable to keep from repeat- 
 ing it. Perez gives a case of a little girl who repeated 
 "tira-tira" for two weeks. Children a little older delight 
 in nonsense rimes, in chain rimes, in alUteration, and will 
 make up all sorts of rimes and tunes for them. Children 
 of all ages experiment in producing noises not only 
 
444 The Child 
 
 with the vocal organs but also with any instruments 
 they can get hold of. At first their song is monoto- 
 nous, hardly to be distinguished from the speaking 
 voice, but by the age of four or five years the two are 
 well marked. 
 
 There seems to be a genuine impulse to musical expres- 
 sion in many children which, although modified by 
 imitation, is still a true originality. 
 
 William Piatt found that hiis children spontane- 
 ously crooned melodic phrases, put words to music, 
 imitated musical sounds, and so on, and both he 
 and Koenig believe that children should create 
 melodies from the beginning, just as they draw and 
 model. 
 
 So far as my knowledge goes, however, the only sys- 
 tematized work in this direction is that under the charge 
 of Mrs. Kern. Her account is so suggestive that it is 
 given here in full, with some of the songs. 
 
 Song Composition i 
 
 That music is an important factor in the growth of 
 the child's aesthetic nature is a fact generally conceded. 
 Is it, however, practically made use of? Is the nursery, 
 which we now realize must be artistic as well as whole- 
 some, furnished with the means of producing beautiful 
 sounds — failing the human voice, with the vox humana, 
 or other soft-toned instrument? 
 
 As early as he is shown beauty in color and form the 
 child, should have beauty in tone and melody given 
 him. There are no unmusical children. Interest in 
 musical expression is one of the natural resources of 
 the child, and unconsciously he will awaken to a melodic 
 
 iByMay Root Kern. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 445 
 
 conception through repetitions, in pure and gentle tone, 
 of melodies suited to his understanding. This process 
 cannot be begun too early. Having understood, the 
 child possesses a mental picture which he seeks to 
 express by humming or singing. This expression of an 
 aesthetic impulse is as natural to the child as his ex- 
 pression in color. Needing no utensil, it is simpler, 
 and would be more readily used were his early envir- 
 onment as full of tone as of color. The more he hears 
 of this music, the more he assimilates and the more 
 he has to express. And not alone through imitation. 
 If he be given a poetic phrase which touches his imag- 
 ination, he can give his own melodic conception of it; 
 and the awakening of this creative faculty brings a 
 joy which stimulates the growth of his whole aesthetic 
 nature. 
 
 There is nothing more precious to a child than his 
 own creation, and to preserve his melodic thought he 
 will wish to acquire a knowledge of the sjnnbols neces- 
 sary to express it. The basis for a study of the science 
 of music is formed by his desire to express various forms 
 of melodic thought. He realizes the necessity for the 
 controlled use of his fingers to express them beautifully 
 on the keyboard, and grasps the necessity of manual 
 drill. His whole study of the technique of piano playing 
 is illumined, and the proper relationship of idea and 
 its servant expression has been preserved. Problems 
 introduced by the growing intricacy of his concep- 
 tions—key relationships, transposition, harmony — are 
 mastered with a natural motive, and, led by his own 
 impulse, he is ready with open mind and heart to 
 receive, according to his capacity, the riches which 
 master-minds are still pouring into the music treasuries 
 of the world. 
 29 
 
446 The Child 
 
 In the school, a problem to be coped with arises from 
 the diversity of musical attaiimient in the groups. Chil- 
 dren from non-musical environment are to be handled 
 with others who are developed musically. To lessen 
 the chasm, much thought is given to creating a musical 
 atmosphere. The formal side of the work is made as 
 melodious as possible, and all technical exercises are 
 clothed in harmony. The children have weekly oppor- 
 tunity of hearing a short program of music by the best 
 composers, performed by friends of the school, by 
 teachers, or by pupils prepared through outside work. 
 The older children have heard short and simple talks 
 on the lives and work of the great masters, illustrated by 
 piano and vocal selections. A large part of each period 
 of work is spent in song-singing. The school has been 
 divided into two choruses, one ranging from six to eight 
 and a half years of age, the other from nine to thirteen. 
 These choruses have simg melodies learned by rote in 
 their group work, the older chorus having in its repertoire 
 songs by Franz Schimiann, Wagner, Reinecke, Hum- 
 perdinck, and some of the best English composers. In 
 connection with their work in Latin, they have learned 
 a Latin song of nine stanzas and a shorter Christmas 
 hymn; in connection with French, several chansons 
 populaires and two old French rounds. The latter, 
 being very simple in melody, have furnished a valu- 
 able exercise in concentration. There being in this 
 chorus a considerable proportion of children tmable to 
 sing a connected melody correctly, perfection in detail 
 is impossible. The special aims, other than famili- 
 arity with good songs and the memorizing of texts, 
 have been bodily poise, deep breathing, careful enitnci- 
 ation, and a pure quality of tone. A picked chorus of 
 twenty-five voices is now being arranged which will be 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 4^'j 
 
 trained to do some model singing for the benefit of the 
 school. 
 
 Owing to the wide differences in musical develop- 
 ment, it was difficult to find a common ground for the 
 work of each group as a whole. The technical work 
 founded on short, original phrases sometimes failed to 
 arouse interest in those children who but imperfectly 
 grasped melodic idea. The proposition, however, to 
 select a topic and write a complete composite song, 
 which should express the genius of the group, .brought 
 a unity of impulse at once. It was supposed that 
 the unmusical children would devote themselves to the 
 text and leave the musical setting to the rest. But 
 not so; the general enthusiasm awoke them to an over- 
 flow of musical ideas, and a firm .belief in their own 
 phrase as given. Whatever of novelty the songs possess 
 is owing to the odd intervals offered by these non- 
 musical children. It was necessary to harmonize them 
 attractively to gain their acceptance by the musical 
 members of the group, who, left to themselves, would 
 have given only the most obvious phrases and thus 
 produced more commonplace results. 
 
 After several successful songs had been composed, a 
 group of children between seven and eight years, below 
 the average in musical development, but having a strong 
 feeling for rhythm, wrote the following, which is saved 
 from monotony by the final phrase given by a boy almost 
 tone-deaf. He offered the phrase, which was repeated 
 on the piano as nearly as possible as he had given 
 it. He objected, however, saying what was played 
 was not what he intended to give. After repeated 
 attempts, the teacher succeeded in discovering what 
 he had persistently kept in his mind, but could not 
 express. 
 
448 
 
 The Child 
 
 CHRISTMAS MORNING 
 
 ^i 
 
 a=^^=:^ 
 
 EgJ 
 
 1. One win-ter morn Be-fore the dawn, We woke and 'twas 
 
 2. I had a doll And she was small, My broth - er 
 
 -M. 
 
 -fel 
 
 S=i= 
 
 Christ-mas 
 had a 
 
 The girls and the boys Quick 
 The ba - by, too. Had 
 
 ;i=?3 
 
 ■S=S= 
 
 ran to their toys, And all 
 some- thing new — A lit 
 
 be - gan to play, 
 tie dog named Spot. 
 
 ' It was at first thought that the six-year-old children 
 were too young to carry a thought through the several 
 periods (occurring but twice a week) required to finish 
 a song. At their request, however, they were allowed 
 to undertake the task, and evinced as much continuity 
 of thought and purpose as the older children. 
 
 In writing the texts for songs, the youngest children, 
 as soon as the idea of rhythm and rime is gained, insist 
 upon making consecutive lines rime as in the "Valen- 
 tine Song." They free themselves gradually, from rime 
 limitations, as: 
 
 "The children will go 
 
 Out in the snow 
 And have some jolly fun. 
 
 They '11 make big balls 
 
 While the snow falls, 
 Until a snowman's done." 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 449 
 VALENTINE SONG 
 
 winter '99. 
 
 m 
 
 :±^. 
 
 1. Val - en - tine's day is near ly here, We 
 
 2. I'll send my friend a val - en - tine, The 
 
 (iS: 
 
 =1: 
 
 iJE^ESE 
 
 m 
 
 Az 
 
 $q. 
 
 M 
 
 iv-> 
 
 ^ 
 
 =1= 
 
 z:i=Jp 
 
 hope the postman will bring lis cheer; We'll clap our bands for 
 pret-tiest one that I can find; My cons -in will send 
 
 ir- 
 
 -^ 
 
 1= 
 
 im 
 
 r 
 
 :^=f=ri 
 
 =t=^ 
 
 ^^3 
 
 1^=^ 
 
 :± 
 
 ^^t= 
 
 (I 
 
 m 
 
 joy when he brings The ros-es, and doves, and pretty things, 
 one to me, And then how hap-py we shall be. 
 
 
 ::*-_j*i 
 
 it: 
 
 4- 
 
 -;5l- 
 
 ■^=t:: 
 
 -(2- 
 
 -(2- 
 
 -|2- 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
450 
 
 The C'h i Id 
 
 And finally, able to conceive of the stanza; as a whole, 
 they realize that only a minimum of rime is necessary. 
 
 The twelve-year-old children completed two lines of 
 a stanza for a winter song, but the effort was then 
 abandoned, there being too much self-consciousness in 
 the group to admit of free expression. Later their 
 creative impulse triumphed, and they produced a song 
 for Lincoln's birthday : 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 ii 
 
 :4=^=tt 
 
 d(=t 
 
 1. 'Twas in a small log cab - in, One Feb-ru - a - ry 
 
 2. He rose to be a states - man Of ver - y great re- 
 
 :S 
 
 TS^mz 
 
 ei^ 
 
 fe 
 
 ■.:i=^ 
 
 day, A lit - tie Ltn-coln ba - by In a 
 
 nown, His wis - dom saved the Un - ion, And 
 
 — I — I — I- 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 m^z 
 
 -e- 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 451 
 
 =flt 
 
 ■e— 
 
 flt 
 
 small rude era - die lay; When at the age of 
 sla - v'ry he put down; 'Twas in the spring of 
 
 i: 
 
 :M= 
 
 ^ -: 
 
 m 
 
 j=d: 
 
 zmisb 
 
 ^- 
 
 Tt 
 
 -' — 5 — r — 
 
 twelve, By night he stud - ied law, And 
 
 six - ty - five That mes - sen - gers rode fast To 
 
 t 
 
 =3-=8F^= 
 
 m 
 
 
 I 
 
 ss^ 
 
 -^ — al- 
 
 -|S- 
 
 when the morning dawned a^new, A-gain took up his saw. 
 bring the news of L,incoln's death, — The noble life had passed. 
 
 i 
 
 i^^iB 
 
 i: 
 
 -•- —1- -•- -«• 
 
 -^- 
 
 —251— 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -^ -*- ••- -^ -<si— 
 
 (mi 
 
 --5)- 
 
 =? 
 
 S(3 
 
 -z*- 
 
 ztq: 
 
 P 
 
 -=f- 
 
4S2 The Child 
 
 The eight-year-old children followed the song on 
 Lincoln with a song on Washington. 
 
 Both of these songs' have been sung by the younger 
 chorus at the respective anniversaries for two years, 
 and are asked for at other times. It would be difficult 
 to find songs written by adtilts which would appeal to 
 the younger children's minds and hearts as do these, in 
 spite of their crudities. The simplicity of thought 
 and expression in the text, the sweetness and vitality 
 of the melodies, exactly suit their needs. Practical 
 trial for over a year has shown their preference for some 
 of these school songs to the best child songs written by 
 adults that have been presented to them. This applies 
 to children from six to nine years of age — a time when 
 they are not ready for involved idea or melody, and yet 
 resent singing about what Uttle dewdrop felt or little 
 pussy willow said. . . . 
 
 As Easter approached, the six-year-old children, 
 filled with anticipation of the day, asked to write a 
 song about it. One child gave the first line with its 
 melody; others quickly followed with the second and 
 third lines. The fourth, however, required persistent 
 effort before the reqioirements of rhythm and rime were 
 met. The children showed no diminution of interest 
 in wrestling with the problem. 
 
 EASTER SONG 
 
 winter, 'gg. 
 
 1 — — ,- j=Pl: 
 
 ^* 
 
 :± 
 
 e£4^±it^ 
 
 East - er day is coming soon, The rabbits will be here and lay: 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 -zi- 
 
 ¥ 
 
 In the gar-den we shall find Eggs to paint and give a-way. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 453 
 
 Attempts made by the youngest classes of this school 
 year have resulted equally Well : 
 
 SANTA CLAUS' 
 
 Autumn '99. 
 
 i 
 
 ±3 
 
 2=^=:^= 
 
 ^ 4-*— g=g: 
 
 trzrtd 
 
 San -ta Claus, San- ta Claus is coming.-ting - a - ling! The 
 
 :!^^=q=1; 
 
 — r Pi — ^ — ^- 
 
 rein - deer are rac - ing and the lit - tie bells ring; He's 
 
 i 
 
 Hy — N- 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 zjv-^^^v 
 
 5^ 
 
 • — ^ — — - — I ^ 
 
 bringing toys for lit-tleboys,And dolls for lit -tie girls, And 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 f3=^ 
 
 -w- 
 
 bring-ing for the ba - by A wool -ly lamb with curls. 
 
 The group composed entirely of musically developed 
 children was the last to produce a connected song. The 
 original scheme of work — the study of selected songs 
 with its detail, and the learning of symbols for their 
 own short melodic phrases — contented them. Emula- 
 tion, however, urged them to write, and they undertook 
 the task as imitators, thus with less exhilaration than 
 the others showed. 
 
 Later, a second impulse, more genuine than the first, 
 resulted in one of the best of the school songs: 
 
 iTo musicians these songs are unusually interesting from their 
 close resemblance to early folk songs and narrative ballads, especially 
 to the early German and English folk songs. "Santa Claus," 
 for instance, might be taken intact from an old choral, for its sim- 
 plicity, its movement, and the feeling for minor in the sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth bars. A. E. T. 
 
454 
 
 Spring '99. 
 
 The Child 
 BOAT SONG~ 
 
 m±i 
 
 1. The boat is rock - ing, rock - ing, While we're on the 
 
 2. The sun sets in the ev - ning.Andglit-terson the 
 
 5ft: 
 
 ±q:^=1=q=^=R 
 
 t=l=|i 
 
 ^ 
 
 r*^. 
 
 M^ 
 
 -i— al 
 
 -• — • 1 — •- 
 
 is 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 P=fi^=i^ 
 
 15: 
 
 ^IMfTJl^OIISZ 
 
 — ^^-t/ — 5"— y- 
 sea; The wind blows the sails gen-tly on, And 
 
 sea; Gulls dive un-der the wa - ter, Then 
 
 ^E 
 
 e: 
 
 -• — v- 
 
 -A — IS — N- 
 
 -t^ — ^ — IN — ^- 
 
 X 
 
 spray dashes up to nie. 
 fly in the air so free, 
 
 Liz 
 
 The lit- tie mermaids are 
 Swiftly up to their 
 
 qz 
 
 
 '^»~i. 
 
 
 ^B 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 455 
 
 5 
 
 IE 
 
 t=b 
 
 Float - ing far a - way; 
 the rocks so high ; 
 
 mz 
 
 ^, 
 
 --^ 
 
 ^=i 
 
 I 
 
 i=s 
 
 Deep, deep in the wa - ter, I see the sea-weed sway. 
 There they stay ill the dark-uess,Till niorning's glow is nigh. 
 
 ^" m n^ Sva. 
 
 « _.• * U-" M—m—M — L.\ I 
 
 M 
 
 •»r~«t~»i~ 
 
 — I-*- -•- -H- -•- '-J-* • 
 
 ®:; 
 
 -^— ■ 
 
 =^= 
 
 Composition work with the children has value in. 
 proportion to its being an untramtneled expression of 
 their own musical consciousness. The teacher's task 
 is to encourage through beautifying the child's thought 
 by harmonic background. A^ stenographic report of 
 the process of writing the text for a song by a group 
 eleven years of age is an illustration of the method of 
 procedure: 
 
 The following three lines had been made the week 
 before: 
 
4s6 The Child 
 
 The .icicles hang from the windows high, 
 And the wind goes shrieking and howling by; 
 The bright moonlight shines down on the snow, 
 
 Some one wanted an adjective for snow and suggested 
 "glittering," which was objected to on account of rhythm. 
 
 And one little rabbit goes jurnping below, 
 was suggested for the last line. Some of the children 
 objected to having the rabbit, saying that it was such 
 a cold night, he would not be out, and suggested instead: 
 
 And hunters through the woods do go. 
 Another child suggested that the hunters would not be 
 out at night; another insisted that that would be just 
 the time they wotild be returning from a deer hunt. 
 Some one wanted: 
 
 And hunters walking about below. 
 Another suggested substituting "Indians" for "hunt- 
 ers." Another suggestion was: 
 
 No flowers are blooming down below. 
 From time to time the teacher re-read the Unes, so that 
 they could get the rh5rthm, and, after a while, none of 
 the lines suggested after the first being regarded as equal 
 to the first, they went back to that. "Little," "lonely," 
 "hopping," and "father" were suggested as describing 
 the rabbit. "Lonely" was finally accepted as best 
 suited to the verse. "Himting" was substituted for 
 "jumping," as more suggestive, and the line as finally 
 accepted read: 
 
 And one lonely rabbit goes hunting below. 
 The teacher suggested that, as the first verse was about 
 night, the second be about the day. 
 
 Some of the children wanted a chorus. The teacher 
 suggested that this was not a jolly song, so that it did 
 not lend itself easily to a chorus; but if one appropriate 
 coxild be thought up, it could be used. None could be 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and M usic 457 
 
 thought of at the time, so the second verse was begun. 
 The first Hne suggested was: 
 
 As the day grows near and the night grows far. 
 "Comes," and finally "draws," was suggested in place 
 of "grows," and "passes" in place of "grows far." 
 "Passes away" was objected to on accoimt of the number 
 of syllables. 
 
 The teacher suggested that, as they were going frotti a 
 night verse to a day verse, it would be well to put the 
 night idea first. It was then given: 
 
 As the night disappears and the day draws near. 
 The next line was at once suggested: 
 
 Again the cheerful birds we hear. 
 The next two lines were suggested as : 
 Jumping about on the fleecy snow, 
 Hopping around doHhe snow birds go. 
 
 One of the children suggested that the snow birds are 
 about a house, and she wanted the song about a lonely 
 place on the mountains. The last two lines were objected 
 to on the ground that birds had just been mentioned. 
 The child who proposed the line said she was simply 
 telling what the birds did. Then this was opposed on 
 the ground that in the first verse the rabbit had been 
 doing about the same thing. 
 
 The teacher suggested that they refer again to the 
 rabbit and tell what became of him in the day. 
 
 And the same little rabbit goes hopping away, 
 For he 's found something to feed him that "day, 
 was suggested. "Same" was objected to, "little "suggested 
 in its place, and finally "gray" accepted. "For" objected 
 to, and "because" rejected, and finally "with" accepted. 
 One of the children wanted to suggest "manger" for "to 
 eat," sajring that French words were often used in a song. 
 The whole song, as finally accepted, read : 
 
4S8 
 
 The Child 
 A WINTER SONG 
 
 winter 1900. 
 
 i 
 
 _j^ > > 
 
 ^ 
 
 :i=tl 
 
 m 
 
 m^^:^^ 
 
 1. The i - ci-cles hang from tliewin-dows high, And the 
 
 2. As the night dis-ap-pears and tlie day draws near, A - 
 
 IS 
 
 I& 
 
 :Mt=T— 
 
 
 tt 
 
 u — in 
 
 / It 1 
 
 l> N 
 
 N 1 P 
 
 1 ^ N 
 
 fr\ a 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 •. ^ 
 
 V^ J • 
 
 ' *'- J 
 
 J - • 
 
 1 •■..^,rr 
 
 wind 
 gain 
 
 goes shriek-ing 
 the cheer - 
 
 • 
 
 and 
 
 ful 
 
 howl - ing 
 birds we 
 
 T 
 
 by; The 
 hear; And the 
 I 
 
 -1 
 
 gx^^-3 
 
 _J ^ J^ 
 
 — 1 — 
 
 .... 1 1 . , -I . .| . - 
 
 Ks) • - 
 
 • S 
 
 * 
 
 
 )tj i 
 
 r f 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 V-Vft ' ' 
 
 
 TJ'B.f Jl 
 
 r « 
 
 
 II 
 
 vi:!' f 1 
 
 
 
 
 ■11 • ' 
 
 
 •1 • 
 
 1 "•" 
 
 -»-• 
 
 
 -1- 
 
 Zt 
 
 -Jtf 
 
 bright moon - light shines down on the snow, And 
 lit - tie gray rab - bit ^oes hop-ping a - way, With 
 
 tcft 
 
 
 ^-^r 
 
 (S 
 
 m-- 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music . 459 
 
 -&-8,t K 
 
 — T" 
 
 — ^" 
 
 
 ». " 
 
 /f tt N r « 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ^ 1^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 r \ •" ,'' (fj r 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 ," ! .' 1 1 1 
 
 l!^ ) J ft* Lj 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 J S 
 
 J J 
 
 1 
 
 one lone - ly 
 some-lhiug to 
 
 rab 
 eat 
 
 bit 
 for 
 
 goes hunt-ing 
 the rest of 
 
 be - low. 
 the day. 
 
 
 / 7 ^-i~" r'~~ 
 
 
 — ^ — 
 
 T' " ^ -1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ca., .*'ttj 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ---P J 
 
 J 
 
 
 .i. 
 
 -•- 
 ^ 
 
 
 5 0,-^ 
 
 r 
 
 il 
 
 
 'rivtt ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 1 
 
 1 
 
 lipj-ftij a . 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 > 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 It " 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 * J 
 
 
 
 
 i{ ^ . 11 
 
 « « 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 The melody of this song was given without criticism , 
 by the four members of the group present, one musical 
 phrase from each child in succession, so that text and 
 song were completed in two half-hour periods. The 
 smaller the group, the less confusion arises from various 
 phrases being given at the same time. To avoid this 
 confusion it was at first attempted to give each child in 
 turn an opporttmity to offer a phrase, with the result 
 that none were offered. The work cannot be done 
 under formal restrictions. 
 
 As no record has been kept of rejected phrases in the 
 process of writing a song, only the method of procedure 
 can be given here. 
 
 After the children have selected their topic and written 
 their text, a musical setting for the first line is called for. 
 A quick response usually follows. If several phrases are 
 given, the children choose their favorite. The second 
 phrase, suggested by the first, follows readily. The third 
 usually presents more difficulty. It is unconsciously 
 realized that this in a four-phrase song gives the character 
 to the whole and should contain a climax, and it is criti- 
 cized and labored over, sometimes during several periods. 
 The final phrase is usually an obvious one; the readiest 
 
460 T he C hi Id 
 
 child gives it, and others remark it is just what they were 
 going to offer. Originality in a final phrase — as in the 
 Winter Song — is greeted with enthusiasm. 
 
 That composition work gives the children a grasp of 
 rhythm is shown by the way they handle it in mak- 
 ing their songs effective. A seven-year-group completed 
 a Snowman Song in 3 -pulse meastire rhythm and sang 
 it to the school. Later they felt that its flowing rhythm 
 was not suited to the requirements of the words, and found 
 by experiment that by using the more energetic 4-ptdse 
 the character of their melody became what was desired. 
 
 The twelve-year-old , children after completing their 
 rollicking Fourth of July song experienced a reaction. 
 They felt they had not expressed their highest musical 
 consciousness, and wished at once to begin a song into 
 which they would put their best effort. As the Fourth 
 of July song had met with enthusiastic approval from the 
 school, this impulse showed a normal growth and as such 
 was encouraged. That it was genuine was proved by 
 the children's slow and critical work, lasting through 
 the remainder of the spring quarter, restuned after the 
 summer vacation, and carried on through more than 
 pne half of the autumn quarter. They suggested and 
 directed the piano accompaniment at important points, 
 and, after the song was completed and sung to the school, 
 further embellished it by adding second-voice part 
 
 No claim is made that these are productions of genius, 
 any more than the average child's drawings are. The 
 point is that they compare favorably with his drawings, 
 and even with many school songs. Above all, they, 
 like all constructive wor^, cultivate the appreciation of 
 the details and beauties of a piece that can never be 
 reached simply by singing other people's productions. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 461 
 
 To discuss the various methods of teaching singing 
 in school and out, the songs for children, and so on, is a 
 task for the Specialist in music. We cannot, however, 
 omit Dr. Hall's plea for less technique in public-school 
 work and far more singing of songs, with something of the 
 historical setting of each song in order to rouse enthu- 
 siasm for it. Very few children will have much use for 
 singing by note, but all of them ought to know the national ■ 
 songs and certain great hjmins, love songs and lyrics, 
 and folk songs, together with the setting which has made 
 them significant in the national life. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Aikin, Wm. A. The Voice. Macmillan, 1900, 102 pp. 
 Barrett, Jean N. Popular Songs of the Day. Kgn. Rev., 1^08,42^-5. 
 Behnke and Browne. The Child's Voice. Chicago, 1885, 109 pp. 
 
 Voice, Song and Speech. Lond., 1904, 248 pp. 
 Bierbower, Austin. Are we Making too Much of Music? Ed., 
 
 1908, 361-363. 
 Bingham, W. V. Vocal Functions. Psy. Bui., 191 1, Vol. VIII, 
 
 317-320. 
 Bolton, T. L. Rhythm. Am. Jour. Psy., 1894, Vol. Vl, 145-238. 
 Brittain, H. L. Music and Morality. Int. Jour. Ethics, Vol. XIV, 
 
 1904, 48-63. 
 Brower, Josephine (ed.). Morris Dances. Gray, N. Y., 1909, 32 pp. 
 Bucher, E. Arbeit und Rhythmus. Teubner, Leipzig, 1909, 490 pp. 
 Burke, Thomas. Child Songsand Melodies. 0^^,1911,687-692. 
 Cady, Calvin B. Exigencies and Possibilities of Secondary School 
 
 Music. Proc. Mus. Teach. Nat. Assn., 1908, 148-164. 
 Campbell, M. R. The Musical Faculty of Feeble-Minded Children. 
 
 Child Study, 1899-1900, Vol. V, 29-36. 
 Carpenter, Estelle. Vitalizing of Child through Song. Proc. N. E. 
 
 A., 1907, 856-862. 
 Chamberlain, A. F. The Child. Scribner's, N. Y., 1906, 175-183. 
 Clark, J. Music in the High School. Proc. N.E. A., 1907, 862-86$. 
 Cooke, J. W. Music Instruction in Public Schools. Proc. N.E.A., 
 
 1910, 822-826. 
 
 Crane, Julia E. Mistakes of the Music Teacher. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 191 1, 794-802. 
 
462 The Child 
 
 Dancing, Folk. Bibliography, in Proceedings of Third Playground 
 
 Congress, 1909, 307-313. 
 Dewey, John. Psychology, Rhythm, 185-187. 
 
 Music. Ele. Sch.Rec, No. 2, U. of Chicago Press. JSo. 17. 
 Downey, June E. A Musical Experiment. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 Oct. 1897, Vol. IX, 63-69. 
 Fairweather, E. K. Psychological and Ethical Value of Music. 
 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1902, 621-625. 
 Farnsworth, C. H. Education Through Music. Am. Book Co., 
 
 N. Y., 1909, 208 pp. 
 Teaching of Elementary Music. Teacher's College Record, 
 
 1904, Vol. V, 1-57. 
 Fentress, L. L. Worth of Music in Education. Ed., 1908, 646-650. 
 Fletcher, A. C. Indian Story and Song from North America. Small, 
 
 Maynard & Co., Boston, 1906, 126 pp. 
 Foresman, Robert. Essential Characteristics of Music. Jour, of 
 
 Ed., 1907, 97-102. 
 Frere, M. C. Temple. Musical Rhythm and the ChUd. The 
 
 Child, Lond., Feb. 1913, 432-437. 
 Gates, Fanny B. Musical Interests of Children. Jour, of Ped., 
 
 Oct. 1898, 20 pp. 
 Gilbert, J. A. Experiments on the Musical Sensitiveness of School 
 
 Children. Yale Psy. Lab. Studies, 1893, 80-87. 
 Oilman, Benj. I. Experimental Tests of Musical Expressiveness. 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., 1892, Vol. IV, 558-576; Vol. V, 42-73. 
 Goodlander, Mabel R. Primitive Songs and Dances: A Second 
 
 Grade Assembly. Ele. Sch. Teach., 1908, 65-69. 
 Gulick, Luther. Heathful Art of Dancing. Doubleday, Page and 
 
 Co., 1910, 273 pp. 
 Gurney, Ed. The Power of Sound. Lond., 1880. Appendix B, 
 
 547-549- 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Chapter on Pedagogy of Music. Problems of 
 
 Education, Vol. I, 91-136. 
 Chapter on Dancing and Pantomime. Problems of Education, 
 
 Vol. I, 42-91. 
 Harris, T. J. Reports of over 1,600 cases tested with the Hartmann 
 
 series of tuning forks. Arch. Otol., 1897, Vol. XXVI, 1-25. 
 Hill, Cecilia. Children's World of Song. Parents' Rev., Vol. XXIII, 
 
 1912, 762-768. 
 Hofer, Mari Ruef. Music ill Kindergarten. Proc. N. E. A., \<)ii, 
 
 479-489. 
 
Rhythm, Dancing, and Music 463 
 
 The Defining of Music in Relation to its Expressive Use. 
 
 Teacher's College Record, 1904, Vol. V, 57-102. 
 Educational Use of Music for Children under the Age of Seven 
 Years. Proc. N. E. A., 1900, 397-402. 
 Howard, Frances E. The Child Voice in Singing. Novello, Ewer 
 
 and Co., N. Y., 1898, 138 pp. 
 Hughes, Percy. Method of STesting Relative Pitch. Psy. Rev., 
 
 Nov. 1902, Vol. IX, 603-609. 
 Ingham, C. B. Eurhythmies of Jaques Dalcroze. Child, Jan. 
 
 1913. 303-313- 
 
 Johnson, Martha E. Music and Physical Education. Proc. N. E. 
 
 A., 1907,940-942. 
 Kratz, H. Study in Musical Interpretation. Proc. N. E. A., 1900, 
 
 21-28. 
 MacDougal, Robert. The Structure of Simple Rhythm Forms. 
 
 Psy. Rev., No. 7, Jan. 1903, 309-412. 
 The Affective Quality of Auditory Rhythm in Its Relation to 
 
 Objective Forms. Psy. Rev., 1903, Vol. X, 15-36. 
 Music Imagery. Psy. Rev., Vol. V, 463-476. (Account of a 
 
 personal experience.) 
 Marsh, Florence. Musical Phases of Child Study. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 1896, 891-892. (Abstract of Hall and Marsh's Early Musical 
 
 Manifestations.) 
 Mason, D. G. Dissonance and Evil. Atlantic Mo., 1904, 226- 
 
 232- 
 Mathews, W. S. B. Music as Discipline and Culture. Music, 
 
 Vol. VI, 349-365. 
 Meyer, Max. How a Musical Education Should Be Acquired. 
 
 Ped. Sem., 1900, 124-131. (Account of Hooker's method.) 
 Mills, Wesley. Voice Production in Speaking and Singing. Phila. 
 
 and Lond., 1906, 282 pp. ' 
 
 Miyake, I. Researches on Rhythmic Action. Yale Psy. Lab. 
 
 Studies, 1902, Vol. X, 1-49. 
 Monroe, W. S. Counting Out Rhymes of Children. Am. Anthrop., 
 
 1904, Vol. VI, 46-50. 
 Tone Perception and Music Interest of Young Children. Ped. 
 
 Sem., 1903, Vol. X, 144-146. 
 Mott, F. W. Brain and the Voice in Speech and Song. Harper, 
 
 1910, 112 pp. 
 Myers, C. S. A Study of Rhythm in Primitive Music. Brit, Jour. 
 
 Psy., 1905, Vol. I, 397-406. 
 
464 The Child 
 
 Oldys, H. W. Parallel Growth of Bird and Human Music. 
 
 Harper's Mag., 1902, Vol. CV, 474-478- 
 Phillips, Paul C. Eurhythmies of J. Dalcroze. Am. Phys. Ed. 
 
 Rev., Mar. 1913, 142-146. 
 Piatt, W. Child Music. Simpkin Marshall, Lond., 1905, 37 pp. 
 Regal, M. L. The Study of the Appreciation of Music in the High 
 
 School of Springfield, Mass. »Proc. N. E. A., 1910, 803-808. 
 Sabine, W. C. Melody and the Origin of the Musical Scale, 
 
 Science, 1908, Vol. XXVII, 841-847. 
 Salter, S. Values in Vocal Music. Mus. Teach. 'Nat. Assn., 1907. 
 
 164-172. \ 
 
 Scott, W. E. D. The Inheritance of Song in Passerine Birds. 
 
 Science, 1904, Vol. XIX, 957-959. 
 Sears, C. H. Studies in Rhythm. Fed. Sem., 1901, Vol. VIII, 3-44. 
 
 Psychology of Rhythm. Am. Jour. Psy., Jan. 1902, 28-61. 
 Seashore, C. E. Suggestion for Tests on School Children. Ed. 
 
 Rev., 1901, Vol. XXII, 69-82. 
 Seashore, C. E., and Jenner, E. A. Training the Voice by the Aid 
 
 of the Eye in Singing. Jour. Ed. Psy., 1910, Vol. I, 311-320. 
 Sharp, C. J. English Folk-Song. Lond., 1907, 143 pp. 
 Sharp, Cecil. Music and Folk-songs in Elementary Schools. 
 
 Child Life, 1906, 79-83. 
 Smith, Margaret K. Rhythmus und Arbeit. Phil. Siudien, 1900, 
 
 Bd. 16, 197-305- 
 Squire, C. R. A Genetic Study of Rhythm. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 July 1901, Vol. XII, 492-589. 
 Taylor, D. C. Psychology of Singing. Macmillan,N.Y., 1908,373 pp. 
 Triplett and Sanford. Rhythm and Meter. Am. Jour. Psy., 1901, 
 
 Vol. XII, 361-387- 
 Uetzel, Wm. A. The School Orchestra. Jour, of Ed., 1909, 153. 
 Van Broekhoven, J. Music. Kgn. Mag., 1909, June, 309-315; 
 
 Sept., 5-6. 
 Wallaschek, R. Primitive Music. Longmans, Lond., 1893, 289 pp. 
 Weld, H. P. An Interpretative Study of Musical Enjoyment. 
 
 Clark College Monthly, 1911, Vol. I, 216-219. 
 The Mechanism of the Voice and Its Hygiene. Ped. Sem., 
 
 1910, Vol. XVII, 143-159. 
 White, R. T. Music in the Kindergarten Child. Child Life, 
 
 1910, VoLXII, 207-210. 
 For additional references on Dancing, see the chapter on Social 
 Aspects of Education. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 Drawing 
 
 1. Before reading this chapter, draw the story of 
 Goldilocks and the Three Bears. Then compare with 
 the pictures atid descriptions given in the Observa- 
 chapter. tions 
 
 2. Make a collection of drawings of the story of Goldi- 
 locks. Observe these precautions: 
 
 (i) Tell the story to the children just before they draw, 
 so that it will be vividly present to their minds. 
 
 (2) Give them as much choice in the material for 
 
 drawing as possible — crayon, black and colored 
 pencil, paints, large and small sheets of paper. 
 
 (3) Give them as much time as they want, but have 
 
 the pictures finished at one sitting. 
 
 (4) In the case of little children, label at the time any 
 
 ambiguous objects. 
 
 3. Make a collection of children's spontaneous draw- 
 ings, especially of the very first ones made by the child 
 of eighteen months or so. Note how much encouragement 
 the child received, and how much criticism and instruction. 
 
 4. Keep a dated record of the child's likes and dislikes 
 of colors and bright objects. 
 
 As far back as we can penetrate, ancient peoples always 
 had a love for bright objects, or for rare' or ciuious things, 
 and always loved to decorate themselves. j^^^g ^^^ 
 Among savage people of to-day there are beauty 
 the same desires. Many motives tmite to universa 
 strengthen these feelings, such ^s the desire for admir- 
 ation from the opposite sex, and the instinct of property; 
 
 465 
 
466 The Child 
 
 but there seems also to be a spontaneous love for bright 
 and glittering things, that is the germ of the assthetic 
 sense. 
 
 What the origin of artistic creation or expression was 
 is still much disputed. It is so divorced from practical 
 values, so apart from everyday life, that many have con- 
 sidered it a sort of excrescence that cannot be explained 
 by natural laws. It seems most reasonable, however, 
 to suppose that it was at first the occupation of an idle 
 hour when the primitive man's supply of food was abun- 
 dant, when he had rested, and when his mind recalled in 
 thought the previous experiences of the chase or of war. 
 Then, in the song and the dance, he reproduced the catch- 
 ing and killing of the prey; or with a sharp stone drew 
 them upon his himting knife. 
 
 Both of these interests appear in little children; they 
 love to hoard up bright things and to deck themselves 
 with them; they reproduce in play and sometimes in 
 drawing their own experiences, although this first drama, 
 song, or drawing is crude, and the love for it often inter- 
 mittent. To trace the character of the growth of these 
 interests is our present object. 
 
 The subject of children's artistic sense includes property 
 drawing, painting, modeling, music, and story-telUng. 
 Only drawing and music can be considered here, with 
 occasional references to the other branches of art, and it 
 should be understood that it is impossible to ascertain 
 what the child's development would be if he were entirely 
 free from adult influences. 
 
 The subject of drawing falls naturally into two chief 
 divisions, (i) appreciation and (2) construction. Under 
 the first we shall also include the various observations 
 on the color sense of children. 
 
 In testing the color sense it is necessary not to confuse 
 
Drawing 467 
 
 the child's lack of a color name with inability to discrimi- 
 nate the color or shade. Tests in which the selection 
 depends upon the use of color terms, either by the teacher 
 or the child, are therefore open to some question, and we 
 will omit them here, as there are niomerous others. Bald- 
 win's tests upon his child have stimulated various observers 
 to similar tests, using all colors and paying great atten- 
 tion to ithe luminosity. The most extensive tests are 
 those by Holden and Bosse upon two hundred children. 
 They placed square colored papers on a gray backgroimd, 
 and before beginning the experiment, made picking up 
 papers a kind of game, to give practice. The tests proper 
 showed that before the sixth month few children reacted 
 to any color, but in the seventh and eighth months most 
 of them reacted to red, orange, and yellow. At nine 
 months there was a slow reaction in some cases to green, 
 blue, and violet, and by ten or twelve months often an 
 equal reaction to all colors. In another test ribbons of ' 
 the six spectral colors were laid out, and the order in 
 which they were chosen was noted with babies from 
 seven to twenty-four months old. It was the same — 
 red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. With three- and 
 fotu--year-old children blue was the preferred color, and 
 from four to eight years this preference increased until 
 at eight it was preferred by nearly all. The red end, that 
 is, is nearly always preferred up to two years, but scarcely 
 ever at four; the blue end is preferred by one third of 
 the three-year-olds, and increases steadily to thirteen 
 years. Schuyten's tests on 4,242 four- to nine-year-old 
 school children do not show any such predominance of 
 one end. He used squares of spectral colors, and found 
 the following percentages of favorite colors, indicated 
 by the children pointing to the one they liked best. 
 Four- to nine-year-old boys: red, 26.2; violet, 20.7; blue, 
 
468 The Child 
 
 16.1; yellow, 14.2;. orange, 7.6; green, 5.7; black, 4.8; 
 white, 4.1. For girls the first four came in the same 
 order as for the boys, and then green, orange, black, and 
 white. For the ten- to fifteen-year-old boys the order was 
 blue, red, violet, yellow, green, black; orange, white; for the 
 girls, blue, red, violet, green, yellow, black, whitej orange. 
 
 Engelsperger and Ziegler tested two hundred six-year- 
 old children by the matching method, and found the 
 following order of frequency in discriminating: orange, 
 99 per cent; lilac, purple, and rose, 97 per cent; violet, 
 96 per cent; bright blue, 92 per cent; dark blue and blue 
 green, 91 per cent; dark yellow, 88 per cent; green blue, 
 85 per cent; dark red and bright yellow, 76 per cent; 
 dark gray, 75 per cent; light gray, 74 per cent; light yel- 
 low, 70 per cent; dark and light brown, 68 per cent; dark 
 and light green, 67 per cent; light red, 64 per cent; scar- 
 let red, 57 per cent. When colored objects were used 
 instead of paper squares, about the same results were 
 obtained. In still another test color preferences were 
 called for and were found to be much the same for boys 
 and girls, as follows: lilac, purple, 20 per cent; dark blue, 
 17 per cent; violet, 15 per cent; bright yellow and orange, 
 8 per cent each; light blue, yellow, green, dark red, and 
 white, s per cent each; scarlet, 4 per cent. Their color 
 aversions were as follows for boys: black, 48 per cent, 
 then light gray, light brown, dark gray, dark red, rose, 
 dark brown, and white. ^Jastrow collected data at the 
 Chicago Fair as to favorite colors of adults, and found 
 that blue was the favorite for men, and red for women, 
 with blue a close second (forty-five hundred records in all). 
 
 Miss Shinn summarizes the data on the color sense of 
 the first three years thus: for several months after birth 
 the child is probably insensitive to color; dviring the 
 second six months color sensations are felt, beginning 
 
Drawing 469 
 
 with the red end of the spectrum and progressing to the 
 violet end, with positive proof that all of them are per- 
 ceived before the eighteenth month. By the third year 
 the child has all the color perceptions of the adult and 
 can learn their names, but probably has no feeling for 
 color harmonies. At this age the "cold" colors may be 
 as well lilced as the "warm" ones. 
 
 Sully thinks that the love of flowers is the nearest ap- 
 proach of the child to pure aesthetic enjojrment, although 
 different qualities attract different children. With some 
 the enjoyment is almost entirely one of smell; with others, 
 a love of personal adornment. It seems to be much the 
 same with very small boys and girls, but later the boys 
 learn to despise their leanings toward such things. 
 
 In all this, the child follows, in the main, the race 
 development: bright or gaudy colors before delicate 
 ones, and the utilitarian value of objects before the 
 aesthetic. This appears again in the fact that few chil- 
 dren care about landscape beauty. "The sublimity of 
 mountain or of sea arouses only fear, and the beautiful 
 and lovely are lost in the child's interest in some detail 
 that appeals to him. 
 
 At first the baby acts like an animal with regard to 
 representation of objects. He thinks the reflection in 
 the glass is a real thing, as the animal does Love of 
 
 the well-painted picture, and as the savage pictures 
 
 thinks 'that his reflection in the water is his spirit-double. 
 
 At a very early age, even as early as eight months, some 
 children learn to recognize pictures, and they react to 
 them as to realities. The discrimination in such cases 
 may be quite fine. Miss Shinn's niece, when fourteen 
 months old, picked her father out of a group of nine, 
 although the face was scarcely more than one-fourth of 
 an inch in diameter. This recognition, however, is a 
 
470 The Child 
 
 very different thing from recognizing the picture as a 
 picture, that is, as a symbol or copy only, of no use in 
 itself. Children do not learn this nearly as readily. 
 Even at four years we sometimes see them trying to feed 
 the picture. One boy at this age saw a picture of people 
 going to church. The next day on seeing it he exclaimed 
 in surprise because they were not yet there. Miss Shinn's 
 niece, at the age of three, saw a picture of a chamois 
 defending her kid from an eagle, and put her hand between 
 them to defend the kid. At the age of two she tried to 
 lift the painted branch that lay across a lamb in a picture. 
 
 We see the same thing in the tendency to consider a 
 drama as a reality, in the confusing of the make-believe 
 Santa Claus with the real one, and so on. Only by slow 
 degrees does the child learn to take one object as rep- 
 resenting another, and as having no value in itself. The 
 use of symbols seems to be an acquired power, not a 
 natural one, and at first there is confusion of the symbol 
 with the reality for which it stands, in proportion as the 
 feeling is strong. We see this illustrated again and again 
 in adult life, in religious observances. > 
 
 Whether children at any given age recognize clearly 
 the difference between the picture and the object or not, 
 Children's their likes are interesting to us from the 
 preferences standpoint of schoolroom decorations. Dr. 
 O'Shea's observations, at first glance, are rather discotu-- 
 aging. He found that the children, as a rule, cared 
 nothing for the reproductions of classics. Colored pic- 
 tures, even the crudest chromos, and "cunning" pictures 
 — little children and animals playing — were always chosen, 
 except whei;i Santa Claus or the Mother and Child were 
 present. In many cases when asked what pictures were 
 in their schoolrooms the children would be able to name 
 only one or two out of a large number. The others. 
 
Drawing 471 
 
 apparently, had made no impression upon them. They 
 were over their heads figuratively as well as literally. If 
 this be true of children generally, the problem of school- 
 room decoration is hardly as simple as many people think. 
 
 We are wont to assume that, given the money and a 
 knowledge of classical painting and sculpture, a per- 
 fectly eqviipped school will result. I have been in several 
 schools that to the adult eye are wonderfully artistic in 
 their decorations, considering the scanty means at the 
 teacher's disposal. But how much do the children get 
 out of it? The same question might be asked about 
 matiy of our kindergarten rooms. 
 
 Now, we are not reduced to nothingness if we do pay 
 attfention to the children's tastes. There are the Madon- 
 nas, and the many beautiful pictures of little children. 
 In animal life the paintings of Landseer and Rosa Bonheur 
 make a good beginning, and there are many others. We 
 need not lower our standards of the aesthetic, but simply 
 change our subjects, < according to the interests of the 
 children. If this were carefully carried out, the pictures 
 in the eighth-grade room would be quite different in sub- 
 jects from those of the kindergarten, instead of both 
 reflecting only the teacher's tastes. 
 
 A more practical aspect of, the liking for pictures is 
 brought out by Mr. Lukeris. He says that children 
 are interested especially in pictures that have stories 
 connected with them, and frequently are interested in 
 them only when the story is told. He suggests, accord- 
 ingly, that the pictures in primers should stimulate the 
 child's curiosity and so arouse a keen desire to learn 
 how to read. 
 
 In considering childish creations or inventions, we 
 should properly include much more than their drawings, 
 but we can only touch upon these other things here. 
 
472 The Child 
 
 All such forms of activity are very closely related to play, 
 in so far as they are spontaneous, but in the adult, at 
 least, they are distinct from it in that they involve a 
 social aspect not essential to play. 
 
 . Dewey says that the artist differs from the artisan 
 in that he sees in his work its social value, and sees 
 himself as a mediiun for the expression of social forces. 
 That is, the shoemaker who appreciates the social possi- 
 bilities in shoes would become an artist. 
 
 The child at first makes no distinction between the fine 
 and the useful arts. Only by degrees does he separate 
 the value to himself from the general value; the useful 
 from the beautiful. His first activities are controlled by 
 his own enjoyment of them and not by any restilts that 
 are objectively useful to him or to others. This is play 
 par excellence. 
 
 Lay made some very interesting observations on twenty- 
 eight boys and twenty-eight girls of six years who had been 
 Chad's love in school eight weeks. Each was given a piece 
 of modeling of clay and told to do whatever he pleased with 
 it. Within ten minutes only the two stupidest children had 
 done nothing. The others were making things, and in an 
 hour they had made eighty-six objects. After an hour of 
 work most of them preferred to stay at their desks model- 
 ing to taking recess, and did not begin to show fatigue 
 imtil they had worked an hour and a half. The objects 
 modeled were such things as an altar, sausage, steamer, 
 hen, elephant, swan, pig, apple, milk can, bed. None seem* 
 to have made the human form, and Lay found no relation 
 to the children's picture books. As a rule, the better 
 pupils chose the more difficult objects, but some of the 
 poorer pupils showed unsuspected power in this field. 
 
 The most exhaustive study of children's drawings is 
 that of Kerschensteiner. He based his conclusions upon 
 
> / 
 
 "V 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 1 
 i 1 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 , ' ^ 
 
 V , 
 
 
 
 - . 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 ■ ., 
 
 
 "\ 
 
 i ) ffl <^ ^ \ 
 
 t EN PtCTDKI-.S-'' 
 
 Charaiicr I'n- .rnti 
 
 Scenes , 15 
 
 Fragments. Si 
 
 Interiors I 
 
 Series I 
 
 Houses "K 
 
 Trees n 
 
 CJui}cul.r Prr cents 
 
 Bears 68 
 
 Ciri 69 
 
 Bears and Girl 46 
 
 ^' About one hundred children from e:ich grade u-erc asked to draw the story of Goldi- 
 locks and the Three Bears, 'fhis series shows the average of each grade. 
 
 Plate I 
 
Drawing 473 
 
 three hundred thousand drawings of fifteen thousand 
 six- to fourteen-year-old children in the Munich schools, 
 chosen at random, and twenty-three hundred children 
 who showed special ability in drawing. These children 
 were all required to make drawings of certain specified 
 persons, objects, and scenes, and to decorate certain 
 objects such as a plate and book cover. His results are 
 in harmony with those in spontaneous drawing and may 
 be very briefly indicated thus: before the seventh year 
 94 per cent of the children draw what they know rather 
 than what they see, with little reference to proportion; 
 then comes a silhouette stage, positions being selected 
 so that two dimensions can express them; third comes 
 perspective, but few reach this stage without instruction, 
 and barely half can learn it before ten. At first there 
 is complete lack of ability to represent spacial relations 
 and various devices are resorted to, giving maplike effects, 
 turning the paper about, and so on, with, at about the 
 ninth year for boys and the twelfth for girls, some success. 
 Fairly perfect pictures rarely come before the fifteenth 
 year, and then only with the help of copies. Graphic 
 presentations of space are far better done by boys than 
 by girls. Decoration of surfaces seems to be quite dis- 
 tinct from drawing proper, and appears early. After 
 eight years boys and girls differ so markedly that they 
 should have separate classes. 
 
 When we consider what children ^spontaneously draw, 
 we have one valuable way of discovering their inter- 
 ests. Actually they seem to draw almost What 
 everything that they have ever seen, but children 
 certain prominent interests also appear. 
 The observations that have been made give these results : 
 Little children, as a rule, do not draw objects that are 
 before them. Of objects that were absent, 45 per cent 
 
474 The Child 
 
 drawn between five and six were hitman figures, 23 per cent 
 animals, 35 per cent plants and flowers, 32 per cent houses, 
 40 per cent still life, 5 per cent conventional design, 3 per 
 cent ornamental; between fourteen and seventeen years or- 
 nament and design rose to 8 and 37 per cent; human figures 
 made up 5 per cent, animals 10 per cent, plants 1 1 per cent, 
 and houses 4 per cent. These were drawings made in 
 school, and the same things appear in 1,232 spontaneous 
 drawings. If we put together all the pictures containing 
 human figures, they aggregate nearly three fourths of the 
 entire nimiber. Figures in motion are more commonly 
 drawn than figures at rest, and show greater ease. 
 
 Dr. O'Shea's observations also confirm these as re- 
 gards ornament. He foimd that children under five 
 never tried to draw the accessories of a figure; 50 per 
 cent of those eight years old tried, and- 87 per cent of 
 those sixteen years old. Miss Flanders's observations 
 show the same thing. 
 
 Mr. Lukens again presents for our consideration the 
 practical value of such spontaneous drawing. He advo- 
 cates it as a harmless method of inoculation against real 
 escapades. That is, he appears to think that the boy 
 who draws vividly the various scenes in the life of Dare- 
 devil Dick of Coyote Range will have no desire thereafter 
 to run away from home and live out some of the adventures 
 about which he has read. Possibly a good drawing of 
 himself smoking, swearing, etc., will take the place of the 
 reality, and he will escape the temptations of craps and 
 playing for keeps by picturing his defeat in them! 
 
 However this may be, there is little doubt that draw- 
 ing is often a good test of the child's understanding 
 of the words he uses. Doubtless you are familiar with 
 the child's pictorial rendering of " The Old Oaken Bucket" 
 — a circle for the well; three buckets, for the old oaken 
 
t:har,i,l,, P,r,,Nl, 
 1 Bears 6i; 
 
 54 Girl so 
 
 55 Ho;irs and f.irl jz 
 
 
 
 
 .' ) 
 
 
 
 . -' ! 
 
 4- — ? ; 
 
 
 
 -■'.,^-." 
 
 
 ■rf ."■■■. 
 
 
 .1 ■'" 1- 
 
 ■■"„-■': " u- '.';■■ "■' 
 
 f .;■' , r^' 
 
 ' - ■-.-""■.■.'<.. 
 
 !',■•- '^:'^- 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 M.-CUNn (iKAl)!' J-'lCTURb 
 
 C/uir.i,!.r P,r ,, h/j Chdr.ul.r Per cents CharcicUr Per cents 
 
 Scenes S8 Series o Bears 61 
 
 Fraguientfl S Housea 9J Girl 69 
 
 Interiors 1 Trees 65 Beais aad Giii J9 Plate 1\ 
 
Drawing 475 
 
 bucket, the iron-bound bucket, and the moss-covered 
 bucket; and a number of dots representing the "loved 
 spots that my infancy knew." Again, most sketches of 
 Jack and Jill show them as twin brothers. 
 
 In tracing the development of a child's drawing a very 
 . neat parallel has been worked out between it and speech, 
 thus: 
 
 SPEECH DRAWING 
 
 1. Automatic cries and reflex i. Automatic and aimless 
 or impulsive sounds. scribble. 
 
 2. Imitation of sounds, but 2. Scribbling localizations; im- 
 without meaning. itation of movement of hands. 
 
 3. Understanding of words 3. Same, with only simplest 
 without speaking, except such localization of features by scrib- 
 words as names. bling. 
 
 4. Repetition of words as mere 4. Copying from others to 
 sounds when said to him (brief see how to get right effect in 
 stage and of little importance), use of lines. 
 
 5. Use of words to express 5. Picture writing, illustrated 
 his thoughts. stories, etc. 
 
 6. Study of grammar and 6. Study of technique of 
 rhetoric. drawing. 
 
 Baldwin's observations on his daughter have been 
 confirmed by later observers, and may be given here 
 as illustrating the development outlined -bblin 
 
 above. Beginning with the nineteenth and 
 extending to the twenty-seventh month, he found that 
 the drawing was only the vaguest imitation of the move- 
 ment of his hand, no connection being recognized between 
 the hand work and the lines. Helen cotild identify the 
 copy, but not her own drawing unless she remembered 
 what she had been trying to make. The same di awing 
 would serve for a man or an animal, as she pleased. 
 Soi;netimes also a child will begin scribbling either aimlessly 
 or with the intention of inaking some object, and will 
 accidentally happen upon some imexpected form. He will 
 
476 The Child 
 
 then adopt this and copy it again and again. For instance, 
 a small boy happened to make curls that looked like 
 smoke, whereupon he exclaimed in glee, "Puff, puff!" and 
 made more. The only development here is in the freedom 
 of movement. The lines change from angular straight 
 lines to curves; instead of running all one way, reverse 
 movements with loops occur, although the lines are almost 
 always horizontal or sloping slightly to the right like ordi- 
 nary handwriting. As would be expected, the entire arm 
 is used at first, and later the wrist and finger movements. 
 
 In the twenty-seventh month Helen got the idea of 
 making each part of the figure, and from that time 
 . there was the attempt to make a copy, to 
 
 follow an idea or object. She saw the con- 
 nection between the pencil marks and the thing that 
 she wanted to make, and now directed her attention to 
 the marks instead of to the movements. This is the time 
 when drawing or the representation of an object really 
 begins. Up to this time the use of the pencil has been only 
 a form of exercise ; now, it is a new language. It shows one 
 interesting featvu-e in common with language, and that is, 
 that the first drawing tends to stand for all things. Thus 
 Helen first drew a man. Later, in drawing birds she put 
 into her drawing many of the marks which stood for a man. 
 
 In this early work, the children do not appear to 
 copy from the object, even when it is before them. A 
 Draw what child told to copy a man lying down, draws 
 they know jjjjn gs she draws other men, standing up. 
 She may notice later the discrepancy, but at the time it 
 does not trouble her at all. She draws the object as she 
 knows it, not as she sees it, because the picttire is a true 
 language to her. Thus she shows people through the 
 sides of the houses, and all the sides of the house, and 
 the legs of the chair, regardless of the actual appearance. 
 
Ch.ira.t.y P. r r,»/> 
 
 Scenes St 
 
 FragriK-nts 2, 
 
 Interiors 5 
 
 <.lu,r.„Ur 
 
 I'rr , 
 
 rnit 
 
 Hous.-s .... 
 Trfre 
 
 
 S 
 
 Bcvirs 46 
 
 (.'in 72 
 
 Bfiirs aih.l f^irl iK 
 
 
 LJ^-^ 
 
 " ^,t:^^"^ 
 
 Fi 
 
 r/K.Miii 
 
 C;Mr«c(.T F,ri,nli Ch.r. 
 
 acenes 1^4 ^t-rit 
 
 fragments 007 Ham 
 
 P.rtcnti Ch.tr.tacr Pirirnit 
 
 j bears 34 
 
 86 (^irl 77 
 
 z 'I'rees 85 Bears unj Girl 2J Plate 111 ' 
 
Drawing 477 
 
 A child has little or no technique, and so simplifies 
 many things until the drawing seems to be little more than 
 a symbol of the object; but that it is not symbolic to him is. 
 shown by his putting in striking details to identify particT 
 ular persons or things. He has no sense of proportion or 
 perspective. Men are taller than houses, birds and dogs- 
 are of the same size, and all appear in one plane. 
 
 Barnes thinks that this lack of unity in the picture is 
 due to the fact that the child thinks in very small tmits, 
 and fails to look at the picture as a whole. He draws 
 the outside of the house, then, going on with his story, 
 he shows the people doing various things inside the 
 house, forgetting about' the outside. It comes out 
 again in the fact that often a child will repeat some 
 detail in the story again and again without seeming 
 to notice the rest. One child drew twenty-six Johnnies 
 in "Johnnie Guck in Die Luft," and nothing else. , . 
 
 Roimia, however, criticizes this position. He says that 
 most children accopipany their drawing by a verbal, de- 
 scription either to themselves or the onlooker, and that 
 what seem to be gaps in the drawing are filled by the 
 words of the child. A drawing should never be considered 
 apart from the conditions under which it was drawn. 
 
 Almost without exception, the. first pictures are out- 
 lines or diagrams, not mass drawings. Whether they 
 are symbolic and conventional, or diagram- ^ . 
 matic, is a point of dispute. Sully thinks 
 that they very soon become conventional, that the 
 child adopts a certain outline for man, another for trees, 
 and sticks to it regardless of the various kinds of men 
 and trees that he knows. Lukens, on the other hand, 
 regards this, when it occurs, as a case of arrested develop- 
 ment and to be deprecated. If the child is allowed to 
 develop freely, he thinks that there will be a progress, in 
 31 
 
478 The Child 
 
 the production of natural effects. I am inclined to agree 
 with Dr. Lukens on this, and I feel sure that what Professor 
 Sully says is true, that many children are really led into 
 this conventionalism by our very methods of teaching. One 
 mass appearance represents apple trees, another pines; and 
 we teachers frequently do not know enough to appreciate 
 an individual apple tree when the budding Corot gives us 
 one, but condemn him to draw apple trees in general. 
 
 We have already seen that the object most often chosen 
 by the children is the htiman figvire. Schuyten, Lukens, 
 Drawing Levinstein, Barnes and others give the follow- 
 of a man jng order of development. In drawing this, 
 children begin with the full view of the head. At first only 
 eyes and mouth are put into it, and the body is a mere 
 jumble of lines. Later, arms and legs are added to the 
 head, and after a time a body appears, but even then the 
 arms may come out of the head for some time. Barnes 
 found that full faces predominated tmtil the age of nine, 
 and then profiles. In the transition stage, the profile may 
 be drawn with two eyes and ears. As we should expect, with 
 right-handed children the profiles and animals face to the 
 left and the child draws the animal from the head back. 
 
 In the drawing of horses, the observations of Miss 
 
 CaroUne Flanders' show these percentages: For first- 
 
 grade children, six to seven years 
 
 fyp\ old, 30 per cent turn to the right, 
 
 K::;/n JT" 6s per cent to the left, and laf 
 
 per cent to the front; 58 per cent 
 
 DiAGEAM II. In Drawing a „, , /^„ r 
 
 Horse Twenty-five Per 2-^6 profile; 12^ per Cent fullface; 
 
 Cent of the Children 25 per cent are ambiguous crea- 
 
 BETWEEN Six and Seven . /o t->- \ 
 
 Produce Ambiguous Crea- tUreS. (bee Diagram II.) 73 per 
 
 TUREs Like This. cent have eycs; sif per cent, 
 
 ^Unpublished data on 1,000 Chicago school children from kin- 
 dergarten through eighth grade. 
 
Fifth 
 
 Charaarr P.rcnit! Charac. 
 
 Scenes S4 Series.. 
 
 Pragincnts o Houses 
 
 Interiors 15 Trc<'S. 
 
 ul Charuiln- 
 
 o Bears . . . . 
 
 ■,5 Girl 
 
 77 Bears ami 
 
 64 
 
 I'-'!'.' 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 ,i ■ 
 
 rr,' 
 
 Li'..' i 
 
 f; . 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 if 1, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 /i . 
 
 :'"'' 
 
 
 
 
 Is... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scenes 61 
 
 Fragments 20 
 
 mteriors 17 
 
 Sixth Grade Picture 
 
 Char<2<:tfr Pi:r ccnti 
 
 Series o 
 
 Houses 58 
 
 Trees 59 
 
 Ch.iractfr Per cents 
 
 Bears 36 
 
 Girl 58 
 
 Bears and Girl 22, 
 
Drawing 479 
 
 nose; 60 per cent, mouth; 58 per cent, ears; 85 per cent, 
 tail; i6f per cent, mane; 3 if per cent, hair; 96 per cent, 
 legs, var5dng in nixmber from one to four. 
 
 Goldilocks was drawn by the kindergarten children, 
 22 per cent of the drawings facing left; 13 per cent, front; 
 36 per cent, right; 7 per cent, back. In the second grade 
 fewer faced front, and more sideways; and in the seventh 
 and eighth grades most faced to the left. Joints were 
 first drawn by fourth-grade children. 
 
 In the illustrating of stories. Earl Barnes fovmd that 
 freedom in drawing, as shown by the number of scenes, 
 increases up to the age of thirteen, and Drawing 
 then decreases to sixteen. All the children <>* stories 
 who declined to draw were over thirteen. Here again we 
 find the self-consciousness of adolescence, the feeling of 
 inability in the presence of new ideals. 
 
 In all cases, the children prefer large, distinct figures, 
 especially for the hero. In the story of Johnnie, the little 
 boy is often made much larger than the men who rescue ' 
 him. We have a nice analogy here in the Greek custom of 
 representing heroes and gods as larger than ordinary men. 
 
 We find a similar case in the exaggerations given to 
 details which are prominent in the child's mind. A 
 pair of glasses will dominate the entire picture; a watch 
 chain will spread over the whole front; vest buttons of 
 heroic proportions will appear, or some characteristic 
 attitude will be represented in its extreme. The child 
 is an unconscious caricaturist. One curious fact here is 
 that the catastrophe is not drawn nearly as often as the 
 scenes just preceding and following it. Earl Barnes lays 
 this to a sense in the children, like that in adults, which 
 leads them to enjoy most the suspense, and afterwards the 
 pleasure of rescuing the lucky hero. It seems that one may 
 fairly question this explanation, though it is difficult to 
 
480 The Child 
 
 ofEer a satisfactory one in its place. We can hardly think 
 the children would consider the catastrophe too difficult. 
 Perhaps it may seem too complicated to attract them. 
 
 The observations made by Miss Flanders upon one 
 thousand children from four to fifteen years old, who 
 ExDeriment ^ii'ew the story of Goldilocks and the Three 
 with story of Bears, confirm Professor Barnes's, and add 
 GoldUocks gQj^g further interesting details. Many of 
 the drawings were with colored chalks, which the children 
 preferred when given a choice, and with which they drew 
 better than with black and white. In the kindergarten, 
 most of the' children use lines instead of mass ; a few mass, 
 and a few both. In the first grade, where instruction 
 in drawing begins, the figures are almost equally divided 
 between the two; and beyond the first grade, mass is 
 used nearly always, showing the effect of instruction. 
 This again leads to the conclusion that children naturally 
 draw in line, even when given a meditim like crayon, 
 that lends itself to mass ; but that they can soon be taught 
 to see and draw in mass. 
 
 The effect of the teacher upon the children also comes 
 out very distinctly in these papers. Where the teachers 
 like drawing the children are freer in expression, improve 
 more rapidly, and enjoy the work better. 
 
 The gradual changes in the pictures from kindergarten 
 through eighth-grade drawings are shown in the series 
 Development running through this chapter. The figures 
 and scenes with each picture show the percentage of 
 children in the grade who drew essentially the same pic- 
 ture, and also the variations from it. The remarkable 
 thing about these pictures is their tiniformity of scene. 
 Why do the children choose a scene which is really so 
 little connected with the story? Why do they take a 
 landscape instead of an interior? 
 
( hur.ut.r P 
 
 Scenes 
 
 Kragments 
 
 interiors 
 
 Eighth Grade Picture 
 
 nts Charaa,y Per cciUs 
 
 52 Series 9 
 
 18 Houses 68 
 
 20 Treeu 64 
 
 Chara.tcr Per cents 
 
 Bears 27 
 
 Girl 56 
 
 Bears and GjrJ 14 Platg "^ 
 
Drawing 481 
 
 In the second grade, sky and grovind are shown as 
 meeting; before that, with a space between. There 
 were very few series of drawings, probably because the 
 children have not been shown how to draw in that way. 
 In the higher grades more detail appears in the drawings. 
 Throughout, the details are copied from what the children 
 see about them — a peculiar style of window; high stair 
 in front of the house; family portraits on the walls. The 
 totals of Miss Flanders's work are seen in the following 
 summary: 
 
 All the pictures have houses: 10 per cent in mass; 
 80 per cent in line; 9 per cent in both; 14 per cent trans- 
 parent; s per cent with doors; 12 per cent with knobs; 2 
 per cent with door panels; 69 per cent with windows; 
 6 per cent with curtains; 65 per cent with chimneys; 
 41 per cent with smoke. 
 
 Sixty-eight per cent have trees; 9 per cent in line, 
 73 per cent in mass, and 16 per cent in both; 34 per cent 
 have forests, and i per cent, flowers. 
 
 Sky and ground are shown by 65 per cent, ground alone 
 by IS per cent, and sky alone by less than i per cent. 
 
 .Bears are shown by 47 per cent; with bear shapes 27 
 per cent, human shape 20 per cent, animal shape 21 per 
 cent. Their faces are: profile 55 per cent, full 23 per 
 cent, double 21 per cent. Of features, 20 per cent have 
 eyes, 45 per cent tails, 9 per cent arms. 
 
 Goldilocks is drawn by 66 per cent. She is allowed 
 head, neck, body, skirt, and feet by 3i per cent; head, 
 body, and feet by sf per cent; head, skirt, and feet by 
 io4- per cent; head, body, skirt, and feet by 68-f per 
 cent; head and skirt by only 2^ per cent; full face in 
 2 2-f- per cent; doubtful outlines in 4i-f- per cent. 
 
 As to features, she is allowed eyes by 23^ per cent; 
 nose by 214- per cent; mouth by igf per cent; ears by 
 
482 The Child 
 
 I per cent, and hair by 47^ per cent; feet' by 76 per 
 cent; shoes by 33 ,per cent; arms by 50 per cent; hands 
 by 9^ per cent; fingers by sf per cent. 
 
 Certain conclusions are easily reached on the basis 
 of these facts. It is evident that drawing should begin 
 FiEures vs '^^^ the human figure as a whole and not 
 conventional with conventional designs, and should only 
 designs ^y (jggrees work up to the analysis involved 
 
 in the latter. The method of using drawing to illustrate 
 stories, scenes from child life, is to be commended instead 
 of a conventional cpurse in drawing. 
 
 Ruskin laments the devotion of the school to geo- 
 metrical forms. He says: "A great draftsman can, 
 so far as I have observed, draw every line but a straight 
 one. When the child longs to turn out men, dogs, cars, 
 horses, heroes, he is showing his freedom; but he is 
 bidden to draw a straight line, a curve, or the like. 
 When nature intended him to be as yet a player, an 
 artist only, the school seeks to make him a geometrician; 
 when he desires to make many lines, he is confined to 
 one; when he endeavors to produce a whole, it seeks to 
 make him produce parts only. Neither the child nor 
 primitive man begins with a geometric line — it is in a 
 scribble that the history of graphic art Ues hid." 
 
 These facts would also lead us to conclude that chil- 
 dren draw naturally in outline instead of in mass, and 
 that shadow, etc., shotJd be introduced by degrees as 
 the child learns to separate knowledge from sight. It 
 can hardly be said that all these children woidd use 
 outline naturally if there were not some reason for it. 
 Technique should be introduced slowly. Probably by 
 the age of nine most children will appreciate some help 
 in this direction. 
 
 Too often children are simply taught certain technical 
 
483 
 
 tricks, but are not taught to observe, with the result 
 that high-school boys and girls draw no better than 
 those in the third grade. Back of all drill in tech- 
 nique must be the observant and interested mind striving 
 to express an idea. So above all things we must take 
 care not to destroy a child's spontaneous love for draw- 
 ing by making him self-conscious and distrustful. The 
 ideal thing would be for us all to draw as easily as we 
 write, when it will serve our turn, and there is no reason 
 why we should not if given the proper training. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Allen, Daphne. A Child's Visions. Allen, Lond., 1912, 78 pp. 
 
 (Spontaneous drawings.) 
 Amberg, J. D. R. Drawing in General Education. Ed., Vol. XIV, 
 
 268. 
 Bailey, H. T. A First Year in Drawing. Report on Drawing 
 
 (Industrial) in s8lh Ann. Rept. of Mass. Board of Educa- 
 tion (1893 and 1894). 
 Baldwin, J. Mark. Mental Development, Methods and Processes, 
 
 50-57, 81-96. Macmillan, N. Y. $3.00. 
 Balfour, H. Evolution of Decorative Art. Rivington, Percival and 
 
 Co., 1893, 131 pp. 
 Ballard, B. P. What London Children Like to Draw. Jour. Exp. 
 
 Fed., Vol. I, 1912, 185-197. 
 Barnes, E. Studies in Education. See Index. U. of Chicago Press, 
 
 Chicago. 
 Study of Children's Drawings. Fed. Sem., 1893, 455-463; 
 
 Fed. Sem., Oct. 1895. 
 Barrett, H. V. Drawing in Elementary Schools. Mag. of Art, 
 
 Vol. VIII, 326-425. 
 Brown, E. E. Art in Education. Froc. N. E. A., 1899, 112-121. 
 
 (Pictures, tragic and comic, for the schools. General.) 
 Notes on Children's Drawings. U. of California Studies, 
 
 Vol. II, 1897, 75 pp. Bibliog. 
 Burk, F. L. Genetic versus Logical Order in Drawing. Fed. 
 
 Sem., 1902, 296-323. 
 Burnham, W. D. Hygiene of Drawing. Fed. Sem., 1907, 289-304. 
 
484 The Child 
 
 Clark, A'.' B. Child's Attitude toward Perspective Problem. 
 
 Barnes's Studies in Ed., 283-294. U. of Chicago Press, 
 
 Chicago. 
 Clark, J. S. Children's Drawing. Ed. Rev., 1897, Vol. XIII, 
 
 76-82. 
 Cooke, E. Art Teaching and Child Nature. Jour, of Ed., Dec. 
 
 1885 and Jan. 1886. 
 Coole, E. The A B C of Drawing. Special Kept, of Ed. Dept. 
 
 of Gr. Brit. London, 1897. 
 Dewey, John. Imagination and Expression — the Psychology of 
 
 Drawing. Kgn. Lib. Co., Chicago. $0.15. 
 Elementary School Record. Number on Art. U. of Chicago 
 
 Press, Chicago. ¥0.17. 
 Fitts, Alice E. ^Esthetic ' Problem in Kindergarten Room. Kgn. 
 
 Rev., 1909, 600-608. 
 iPitz, H. G. Freehand Drawing in Education. Pop. Sc. Mo., 
 
 . Oct. 1897, 755-765. 
 Gallagher, Margaret. Children's Spontaneous Drawings. N. W. 
 
 Mo., 1897, 130-134. 
 Haney, J. P. (ed.). Art Education in the United States. Am,. Art 
 
 Annual, N. Y., 1908, 432 pp. 
 Herrick, Mary A. Children's Drawings. Ped. Sem., 1894-6, 
 
 ' 338-339- 
 Hicks, Mary Dana. Color in Public Schools. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 1894, 906-915. 
 Art in Early Education. Ped. Sem., 1892, 463-466. 
 Hogan, Louise. Study of a Child. Harper's Mo., June 1898. 
 Kerschensteiner, G. Die Entwickelung der zeichnerischen Begabung. 
 
 Gerber, Munich, 1905, 508 pp. 
 Lay, W. A. Die Plastische Kunst des Kindes. Exp. Pad., Bd. 3, 
 
 1906, 31-54. 
 Levinstein, Sieg. Kinderzeichnungen bis zum 14 Lebensjahre. 
 
 Voigtlander, 1905, 119 pp. (Many drawings and bibliog- 
 raphy.) 
 Locker, J. ' C. With What Should Drawing Begin? Proc. Int. 
 
 Cong. Ed., N. Y., 1894, 491. 
 Lukens, H. T. Drawing. Proc. N. E. A., 1899, 945-951. 
 
 Children's Drawings in Early Years. Ped. Sem., 1896-7, 
 
 79-110. (Gives pictures. Good.) 
 McDougall, Wm. Investigation of Color Sense of Two Infants. 
 
 Brit. Jour. Psy., 1908, 338-352. 
 
Drawing 485 
 
 Maitland, M. L. What Children Draw to Please Themselves. 
 Inland Ed., Vol. I, 1895. 
 Eskimo Drawings. N. W. Mo., June 1899, 443-450. 
 Marsden, R. E. Early Color Sense. Psy. Rev., 1903, Vol. X, 
 
 297-300. 
 Mason, W. A. Psychology of the Object. Ed., 1894, Vol. XV. 
 Monroe, W. S. Color Sense of Young Children. Paid., 1907, 7-10. 
 Munsell, E. H. Measured Training of the Color Sense. Ed., 
 
 1909, 360-380. 
 Myers, C. S. Development of the Color Sense. Brit. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1908, 353-362. 
 Nagel, W. A. Color Sense of a Child. Jour. Comp. Neur. and Psy., 
 
 1906, 16, 219-230. 
 O'Shea, M. V. Children's Expression through Drawing. Proc. 
 N. E. A., 1897, '1015-1023. 
 Some Aspects of Drawing. Ed. Rev., Oct. 1897, Vol. XIV, 
 263-284. (General.) 
 Parker, F. W. Talks on Pedagogics. Chapter X. Flanagan, 
 
 Chicago. $1.50. 
 Partridge, Lena. Children's Drawings of Men and Women. 
 
 Barties's Studies in Ed., May 1902, Vol. II, 163-179. 
 Partridge, ! Sophia S. Children's Drawings. Paid., Nov. 1904, 
 Vol. IV, No. 3, 130-168. (This gives a comprehensive 
 bibliography on the subject.) 
 Pedagogical Seminary, 1891, 445-447. Notes on Children's Draw- 
 ings. 
 Perez, B. L'art et la poesie chez l' enfant. Alcan, Paris, 1888, 
 
 309 pp. 
 Plessy, . Typical Children's Drawings and Some Conclu- 
 sions. App. Art Book, Oct. 1901, Vol. I, 12-19. 
 Ricci, C. Summary of his work in Pedagogical Seminary, 1894-6, 
 
 302-307. 
 Rooper, T. G., Drawing in Infant Schools. In Selected Writings, 
 
 1907, 58-76. 
 Rouma, Georges. Le langage graphigue de I'enfant. Misch et Thron, 
 Brux., 1912, 288 pp. et bib. (Many drawings and sum- 
 maries of previous work.) 
 Runcinan, J. Drawing in London Board Schools, Mag. of Art, 
 
 Vol. VIII, 21-28. 
 Sargent, Walter. Experimental Pedagogy of Drawing. Jour. Ed. 
 Psy., Vol. Ill, 1912, 264-276. 
 
486 The Child 
 
 Sully, James. Studies of Childhood. Chapter on The Child as 
 
 Artist and The Young Draughtsman. 
 Taylor, E. J. Color Sense Training and Color Using. Blackie, 
 
 London, 1908, 88 pp. 
 Tucker, A. Winifred. Color Vision of School Children. Brit. Jour. 
 
 Psy., 191 1, 33-43. 
 Watt, H. J. .(Esthetic Appreciation in Children. Child Study, 
 
 1910, 1-13. 
 Wilson, Mrs. L. L. W. Picture Study in Elementary Schools. 
 
 Macmfllan, 1909. 
 Winch, W. H. Color Preferences of School Children. Brit. Jour. 
 
 Psy., 1909, 42-65. 
 Color Names of English School Children. Am. Jour. Psy., 
 
 1910. 453-482. 
 Wooley, Helen T. Color Perceptions of an Infant. Psy. Rev., 
 
 1909, 363-376. 
 Woolner, T. Value of Drawing. Mag. of Art, Vol. XY. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 Play 
 
 1. Get data from children of all grades in fall, winter, 
 spring, and summer as to the play that they like the 
 best of all. Observa- 
 
 2. Get data about clubs and societies that ^^°^^ 
 are formed and managed without adiolt encouragement 
 and aid. 
 
 3. Keep records as to the plays of little children. 
 
 4. Collect accounts of plays and games used in formal 
 education, stating the ptrrpose for which they are used 
 and how far they accomplish the purpose. 
 
 In taking up the subject of play we shall find many 
 connections with the topics previously discussed. Play 
 seems to be to a large extent the form in which Education 
 childish ideas express themselves. It is to ^ Pl*y 
 the child what his life work is to the man, and shows 
 therefore most clearly what his nature is when left to 
 himself. On this account observation of the free play of 
 children is of great assistance to a teacher in learning 
 their true characteristics. 
 
 Even from the earliest times there have been edu- 
 cators who differed from the Hinterschlag professor. 
 This worthy man knew of the soul only "that it had a 
 faculty called memory and cotdd be acted upon through 
 the muscular integument by the application of birch 
 rods." On the other hand, 2300 years ago Plato said: 
 "The plays of children have the mightiest influence on the 
 maintenance of laws — from the first years of childhood, 
 
 487 
 
488 The Child 
 
 their plays ought to be subject to laws, for if they 
 are arbitrary and lawless, how can children ever become 
 virtuous men, abiding by law?" Aristotle advised that 
 the children before five years of age "should be taught 
 nothing, lest it hinder growth, but should be accustomed 
 to use much motion — and this can be acquired by vari- 
 ous means, among others by play, which ought to be 
 neither too illiberal nor too laborious nor lazy." Luther 
 tells us that "Solomon did not prohibit scholars from 
 play at the proper time. A young man shut up (with- 
 out recreation) is like a young tree which ought to beai 
 fruit but is planted in a pot." 
 
 Locke asserts that "the gamesome httmor of child- 
 hood which is wisely adapted by nature to its age and 
 temper, should be encouraged, to keep up their spirits 
 and improve their health and strength. The chief art 
 is to make all that children have to do, sport and play." 
 He invented games for teaching reading, and suggested 
 others. Richter in his Levana says that "activity alone 
 can bring and hold serenity and happiness. Unlike our 
 games, the plays of children are the expressions of serious 
 activity, although in light, airy dress. Play is the first 
 poetical (creative) utterance of man." Schiller says, 
 "Man is man only when he plays." 
 
 Finally Froebel, in the Education of Man, says: 
 "Play is the highest phase of the child development — 
 Froebel on for it is self-attentive representation of the 
 P'^y inner Hfe from inner necessity and impulse. 
 
 Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man, at this 
 stage, and at the same time typical of human Ufe as a 
 whole, — of the inner, hidden, natural life in man and all 
 things. It gives joy, freedom, contentment, inner and 
 outer rest, peace with the world. It holds the sources 
 of all that is good. A child that plays thoroughly, with 
 
t^ lay 489 
 
 self-active determination, will surely be a thorough, de- 
 termined man, capable of self-sacrifice for the promotion 
 of the welfare of himself and others. The sponta- 
 neous play of the child discloses the future inner life 
 of the man. If the child is injured at this period, if the 
 germinal leaves of the future tree of his life are marred 
 at this time, he will only with the greatest difficulty and 
 the utmost efEort grow into strong manhood." 
 
 More recent study and observation have served only 
 to emphasize these utterances and to show in detail 
 their truth. Spencer tells us that all education, so far 
 as it is true, tends to revert to play, and Preyer compares 
 the child's play, in its value to him, to the work of the 
 learned man. 
 
 The distinction between play and work is a difficult 
 one to draw. It is evidently not merely in the acts, 
 nor in their result; to Tom Sawyer, white- piay and 
 washing the fence was the hardest sort of """^^ 
 drudgery, but he made it into play for his boy friends 
 and made them pay him for the privilege of playing at 
 it. Again, if a boy has to play marbles when he wants 
 to go to a fire, the play becomes work. We often say 
 that if we had to do as work what we play at — camping 
 out, making century runs, etc. — we should consider our- 
 selves much abused. It is not alone the amount of 
 effort, therefore, or the fact of having a definite end, 
 that makes an activity work instead of play. It seems 
 to be rather that the activity is pleasurable and sponta- 
 neous; that there is no external or internal compulsion 
 laid upon the player. Play in this sense includes all 
 truly artistic work. It is not the opposite of work but 
 the best way of doing work. It is working in the spirit 
 of love, instead of in the spirit of duty. And yet we dis- 
 tinguish such work from play in that it does, after all. 
 
490 The Child 
 
 go beyond itself in the artist's appreciation of the ethical 
 and social value of his art. 
 
 Shut out play from work, and we get weariness and 
 stupidity; we exclude growth, physical, intellectual, and 
 moral. The child who does not like play is abnormal. 
 He is sick or stupid. He ought not to prefer to sit in 
 his seat when the others are romping. Such a child is 
 very likely to exhibit some of the signs of nervousness 
 described in the first chapter, or signs of poor nutrition — 
 either not enough food or else not the right kind. A dis- 
 tinction should also be made between games and play. 
 All games are play, but not all plays are games. Games 
 are organized, systematized play, and involve more than 
 one child. 
 
 Groos, in his theory of play, considers the physi- 
 Theory of blogical, biological, and psychological fac- 
 Pl*y tors, in order to get a complete theory. 
 
 There are two principles to which we must refer for 
 a physiological theory of play, — -the discharge of surplus 
 I. The phys- ^^^rgy and the recreation of exhausted 
 iological powers. The first is likely to occur when, 
 
 s an pom through rest or disuse, any set of organs 
 has stored up more force than it needs, which force, 
 therefore, tends to find an outlet in any convenient 
 direction. The second happens when we are tired of 
 mental or physical labor, but still do not need rest, and 
 so turn to the change and recreation given by play. In 
 both cases, a play so begtm may be carried to the point 
 of exhaustion, because any movement set up in the body 
 tends to repeat itself and to produce a trance-like con- 
 dition which is irresistible. 
 
 The first overflow of energy is illustrated in the activity 
 of a little child in the morning, when he jumps and 
 skips from good spirits; the recreation, in his later 
 
Play 491 
 
 conduct, when he turns from one play to another. In 
 both cases, he may continue until he is tired out. 
 
 Such a theory is satisfactory for certain forms of' 
 play, but it leaves untouched the question of why the 
 svirplus energy and recreation take the particular forms 
 that they do, and must therefore be supplemented from 
 the biological standpoint. 
 
 We do not find the play instinct in animals that have 
 to support themselves from birth. It develops in pro- 
 portion as the animal is freed from the ™. 
 serious duties of Ufe. The highly developed biological 
 animals are the most unfit to provide for standpoint 
 themselves at birth, are the most plastic or educable, 
 and require the longest period of infancy or caretaking. 
 These animals are also the most playful. We do not 
 think of an oyster, and hardly of a chick, as playing. 
 But colts, puppies, kittens, are all playful, while the 
 child is the player par excellence, and play is a large 
 part of his training for life. 
 
 Patrick has discussed this point in his article on the 
 Psychology of Relaxation, in which he says that relaxa- 
 tion, recreation, play, etc., are found in those forms of 
 activity which put us on a somewhat lower phylogenetic 
 level than we usually live on. Very many forms of chil- 
 dren's play are reproductions of ancient activities, such 
 as all games of hunting, flight and capture, throwing, 
 hitting, etc. The child's musical instruments, the rattle, 
 horn and drum, are also those of primitive man; the jack- 
 knife once meant safety and food to its owner; the hobby 
 horse is the modem representative to the child of early 
 man's dependence upon the horse; fishing is a reverbera- 
 tion of racial activities, etc. 
 
 This is the same genetic point of view which Hall has 
 been presenting for years, according to which the child 
 
492 The Child 
 
 repeats in his own development the fundamental psychi- 
 cal and physical activities of the race. It differs from 
 the earlier presentation of the recapitulatory and culture 
 epoch theories in not insisting upon the same order of 
 reproduction, and in recognizing that in the psyche, as 
 in the soma, the early stages in the development of the 
 human being of to-day, while showing beyond question 
 traces of pre-human as well as primitive human history, 
 are also profoundly modified by the more recent history 
 of mankind. Just as the Anlage of the brain in the human 
 embryo appears very early and is strikingly greater than 
 in any animal, though at the same time there are gill-slits 
 showing our fish ancestry, so it is in the psyche. The 
 baby learning to throw a ball is recapitulating an early 
 stage of human history, but his psychical processes in 
 doing so are shot through also with the later stages and 
 with the social reactions of those about him. A game 
 like Prisoner's Base or a vacation camping-out is like a 
 hand-woven rug of a most intricate and many-colored 
 pattern, which has been passed down in the making from 
 generation to generation, so that the threads are not only 
 of different colors but of different strength, and the weav- 
 ing of differing skill in different parts. 
 
 The superfluous energy and the desire for recreation 
 find the easiest outlets through the channels of instincts, 
 and thus not only recapitulate race experience but serve 
 the useful function of being an important form of organic 
 exercise. It seems to be true that the spontaneous 
 actions of play are the same as those which the child 
 will need later to use seriously. We find plays varying 
 in different species of animals, according to their instincts. 
 Thus, a puppy plays vigorously at biting and fighting, 
 in his way, and so is trained for actual fighting later. A 
 kitten plays very differently from a puppy, but its play 
 
Play 493 
 
 serves equally well to prepare it for its life. Children, in 
 like manner, play according to the way their ancestors 
 have acted. The channels worn by ages of use are the 
 easiest ones through which superfluous energy can escape, 
 and so both the spontaneous and the imitative tendencies 
 tend to the reproduction of racial activities, hunting of 
 animals, sham fights, and so on. The believers in the 
 culture-epoch theory put here also the plays of tent 
 life, cave life, pastoral life, which most children go through 
 at some time. Some of the games based on the hunting 
 instinct are games of chase, like' tag; games of searching, 
 like hide-and-seek; games of hurling, like quoits. Based 
 on the fighting instinct are games of contest, like foot- 
 ball; and all that bring out emulation, like racing. 
 
 The element of imitation doubtless enters into all 
 these plays, but unless they appealed to some natural 
 tendencies they would not be imitated. In the various 
 kindergarten plays we find' an attempt to make this 
 tendency regularly serviceable in education. 
 
 Now all these plays which thus reproduce race activi- 
 ties are of value also because they provide a large amount 
 of exercise for the child, and so aid greatly in bodily 
 control. As they reproduce adult activities, however 
 crudely, they train the muscles for those activities. 
 The girl in her playhouse is learning how to handle the 
 household utensils carefully. The boy in his baseball 
 and running games gains a fieetness and readiness that 
 are serviceable in all but the most sedentary occupations. 
 There is no part of the body left tmdeveloped by the 
 plays of children. Ordinarily also, this exercise can be 
 secured in no other way. Gymnastics are not com- 
 parable with free play, for they exercise only certain sets 
 of muscles arid the same sets for all children, whereas 
 free play allows each child to exercise the least used 
 
494 The Child 
 
 muscles, and also relieves the strain of attention. 
 Further, because children do not especially enjoy gym- 
 nastics, they do them only under direction, and do not 
 get as much exercise as from free play. Gymnastics 
 are, of course, valuable when children do not get plays 
 that exercise all the muscles, or when they are deformed 
 or developed unsymmetrically; but, says one writer, the 
 finest type of physical man is not produced by the g5Tn- 
 nasia or the palaestra, but by games — rowing and running, 
 football and baseball, golf and tennis. The movement for 
 playgrounds in the city thus assumes as great an impor- 
 tance as the securing of gymnasia, especially because 
 the children do not get any of the natural opportunities 
 for exercise either in work or in play that the country 
 and village children get. 
 
 When we approach the question of the mental state 
 of the playing child, one of the most prominent factors 
 3. The psy- ^^ ^^ acceptance of an illusion, his playing 
 chological of a part. The girl who makes a doll out 
 s an point ^ ^ ^^^^^ pillow and the boy who plays 
 soldier, know that they are "making believe," and yet 
 accept the pretense with delight. Lange calls it a con- 
 scious self-deception, in which a period of illusion follows 
 a moment of readjustment. The combination of the two 
 is seen in laughing boys in a sham fight. 
 
 Groos beheves that the delight in the illusion is due 
 to the feeling of freedom in accepting the illusion and 
 joy in being the cause of it. The child is guarded from 
 error by the subconsciousness that he himself created 
 the thing, and so plays joyously with it as if it were a 
 reality. Such plays pass by slow transitions into artistic 
 creation and invention, in which the sense of unreality 
 is replaced by belief in their truth and their social value. 
 
 Much of what is called play in babies and little children 
 
Play 495 
 
 is rather an experimenting with the senses and motor 
 apparatus for the sake of the new feeHngs thus pro- 
 duced. Such plays are based directly upon the First play 
 instinctive demand of these organs for activ- an experi- 
 ity, and are lacking in the factor of illusion menting 
 which we have just mentioned. They serve the biological 
 purpose already mentioned. Numerous illustrations of 
 this might be given from every sense. 
 
 1. Touch. Very early in life 'a. baby enjoys stroking, 
 and seeks to put everything into his mouth. The latter 
 is done not only when the child is himgry but when he 
 has just been fed, and is enjoyed for the contact with 
 the lips and tongue. In the bath, he gets various sensa- 
 tions by splashing. The baby explores his body, handles 
 all he can reach, and in every way plays with the touch 
 sensations. 
 
 2. Temperature. The seeking of a stinging air, a 
 cool breeze, a hot svm, not so much to relieve any dis- 
 comfort as to enjoy them, are instances of play here. 
 
 3. Taste. The love of having something in the mouth 
 — candy, gum, a clove, an olive stone, tobacco — testifies 
 to the playful use we all make of touch. Even a stone 
 or a tasteless bit of beeswax satisfies some people when 
 they can get nothing better. In such cases the intention 
 is not, of course, to satisfy htmger, but simply to get new 
 sensations. 
 
 4. Smell. We do not find play so much in evidence 
 here, although sometimes children do play games that 
 call into use the sense of smell. 
 
 5. Hearing. We spoke at some length of hearing, 
 under the head of music. Here we have only to note 
 that these first sounds that are heard and produced 
 with so much pleasure are to the child a form of play. 
 He listens and reproduces, makes up rimes, and repeats 
 
496 The Child 
 
 his chain rimes,. Mother Goose, and so on, in a spon- 
 taneous enjoyment that asks for nothing more. He is 
 not limited to his own voice, but rattles and shakes and 
 tears anjrthing that he can get hold of, to satisfy his 
 insatiable ear. 
 
 6. Sight. The same is true of sight. Whether it 
 is merely the enjoyment of brightness and color, or the 
 more complex delight in forms and in objects, a child 
 is constantly seeking to produce a new experience or to 
 
 ■ repeat a pleasurable old one. 
 
 7. Playful movements of the bodily organs. AU this 
 play with the senses involves movement, but we find 
 the child also experimenting in all sorts of ways with 
 his hands and legs and head, putting them into all sorts 
 of positions and enjoying himself immensely. In course 
 of time he learns to run and walk, and then we can see 
 plainly his play in jumping, stamping, rowing, taking 
 difficult steps, climbing, and giving himself a thousand 
 tests of skill. He does not limit himself to his own 
 body, either, but takes possession of anything upon 
 which he can exercise his muscles. He tears paper, 
 shakes keys and all noisy objects, splashes water, and 
 so on. 
 
 Considerable observation has been made of children's 
 free play with a view to seeing just what they do when 
 Favorite left alone. Many nationalities and classes 
 
 plays have been observed with the interesting 
 
 result that children of the same age, whatever their 
 nationality or social class, play essentially the same 
 games and plays. The names may differ, but certain 
 characteristics are common to all. As we shoiild expect, 
 the plays of little children of the kindergarten age are 
 much more' imitative than those of older children. 
 Plajdng family and store are by far the most popular 
 
Play 497 
 
 both with girls and boys, and in these plays the home 
 life is reproduced, often with startling fidelity. Playing 
 church comes next to these, but it is played only about 
 one third as much as the others. 
 
 In observations made on twenty-nine kindergarten 
 children, five to six years old, it was found that in their 
 plays they divided spontaneously into four groups. 
 The first group consisted of the older boys. Their 
 plays contained much action and imagination. In 
 three months thirty-one dramatic plays were observed, 
 such as policeman, fireman, store. 
 
 The second group was made up of the older girls. 
 Their plays were also dramatic, but quieter than the 
 boys'. Playing house and school were the great favorites. 
 
 The third consisted of the smaller children and older 
 bashful girls. They played simple games, but spent most 
 of their time in rushing from one to the other of the other 
 groups as they -were attracted hf the games going on. 
 
 The fourth group consisted of the left-overs, listless 
 children, who did not seem to care for any game, and 
 spent most of their time in the swing. 
 
 AU these plays are imitative rather than inventive. 
 It is interesting to notice that usually the same play is 
 played on consecutive days, the interest shifting only 
 by degrees. Thus, if house is played on one day, it is 
 likely to be played for a while the next day. That 
 day another game may be introduced also, and this 
 will be likely to survive the next day, and so on. Some 
 plays are played almost every day, but what shifting 
 there is, is of this gradual nature. 
 
 The particular play chosen seemed to be selected 
 either because the children liked it very much, or be- 
 cause some child of strong personaUty forced his liking 
 upon the others even if they did not care for the play. 
 
498 The Child 
 
 The latter was not at all an uncommon occurrence. 
 
 Children below seven years of age rarely play games 
 unless stimulated by old^r children or by adults. Their 
 Character of P^^V^ ^^^ individualistic and non-competi- 
 plays of little tive. The question has been raised seriously, 
 children therefore, whether the kindergarten should 
 
 force cooperation upon its children; whether it is not urg- 
 ing them into a stage for which they are not yet ready. 
 Froebel himself, it is urged, says that boyhood, rather 
 than childhood, is the time when the unity with others 
 comes to consciousness, and that childhood is the time 
 for learning to perceive things as distinct. The feeling of 
 unity is vague, and the tendency is toward defining per- 
 cepts and ideas, making them distinct rather than related. 
 
 The kindergarten period, up to the beginning of the 
 second dentition, is especially the toy period. The plays 
 Play with usually center about some object upon which 
 *°ys numerous imaginings can be based, the doll, 
 
 the engine, etc. But it is not at all essential that the toy 
 should be elaborate. It is better for a child to be supplied 
 with plenty of material, such as blocks and sand, from 
 which he can make many things, and with some simple 
 toys, than to have expensive mechanisms which he cannot 
 shape to his will. He ought to be able to take any toy 
 to pieces and put it together again without injury to it. 
 
 Almost an3^hing will serve a child for a toy, when he 
 is left to his own inventions — flowers and leaves, twigs, 
 berries, grass, bits of glass and china, iron, doth, etc. — 
 anything that will serve as a peg for his fancy. 
 
 It is noticeable, however, that when children make toys, 
 they usually only copy — making sleds, hammers, axes, etc. 
 
 The universal toy is, of course, the doll, upon which 
 both the invention and imitation of the child expend 
 themselves to the utmost. We find from Dr. Hall's 
 
Play 499 
 
 article that children prefer dolls of certain materials, 
 thus: wax, 22 per cent; paper, 19 per cent; china, 18 
 per cent; rag, 17 per cent; bisque, 12 per 
 cent ; china and cloth, gyi per cent ; rubber, 8 
 per cent. But lacking these, they substitute: pillows, 
 4>^ per cent; sticks, 3 per cent; bottles, 2>^ per cent; 
 dogs, 2 per cent; cats or kittens, lyi per cent; shawls, 2^ 
 per cent; flowers, i per cent; clothespins, i per cent, to 
 say inothing of such things as toy washboards or wringers 
 in isolated cases. 
 
 Any size from 4 to 12 inches suits, but blonds with curly 
 hair and eyes that open and shut are preferred. Babies are 
 liked best before five years, and children after that time. 
 
 The mental qualities that are attributed to these first 
 children are as varied as the human nature that the 
 child knows. It is an interesting question how far a 
 child really believes that the doll can feel, be good, be 
 jealous, and so on, and how far she is conscious of its 
 lifelessness. In feeding a doll, for instance, i}4 per 
 cent maintain that the doll really is hungry and the 
 same number are in doubt; 2 per cent declare that the 
 doll never is hungry, while the great majority either 
 feed the doll or touch the food to her mouth and then 
 eat it themselves. In such cases there is a conscious- 
 ness of the play, although a child may be really dis- 
 tressed over the doll's cold or sickness. 
 
 Among the qualities ascribed to dolls the most com- 
 mon are: goodness, 27 per cent; cold, 24 per cent; 
 inability to love, 22 per cent; weariness, 21 per cent; 
 hunger, 21 per cent; badness, 16 per cent; jealousy, ?>% 
 percent; hatred, 7 per cent; ability to sleep, 37 percent. 
 
 The love of dolls appears to reach its height in the 
 ninth year, although strong from the third year to the 
 twelfth. Many girls play with dolls until they go into 
 
Soo The Child 
 
 long dresses and are ridiculed for their love of it; aifcd not 
 a few women confess to the existence of the passion.% Dr. 
 Hall questions whether this love is as closely coniAected 
 with the maternal instinct as we commonly suppose, cfcting 
 in proof of his statement the fact that many girls 1 who 
 were very fond of dolls do not, as women, care mucin for 
 children, and vice versa. This may be true in isoljated 
 cases, but stiU play is so evidently an imitation of the 
 mother, prompted by instinct, that we must have more 
 than a few contrary instances to invalidate this belief. 
 
 During the second dentition, when the association- 
 fibers of the brain are developing rapidly, the plays of 
 Plays of children undergo as marked a change as 
 
 older chil- do their other activities. There is first a 
 
 "* period of dramatic play, which serves to 
 
 connect the toy period with the next, and then the plays 
 involve much violent exercise and become highly com- 
 petitive in character and much more varied. Hide- 
 and-seek is played by only 8 per cent of boys seven 
 years old and by 55 per cent of boys ten years old. 
 
 The interest in traditional games — hide-and-seek, tag, 
 prisoner's base, fox and hounds — most of which involve 
 violent exercise and competition, reaches its height in the 
 tenth year. This is also the period when the love of 
 animals and the desire to possess them are most prom- 
 inent. If it is feasible, this desire should be gratified 
 and the. child taught to take the responsibility of feeding 
 them. Such a care is a valuable training in kindness and 
 imselfishness, and teaches a child to estimate more cor- 
 rectly the kindness of his parents in taking care of him. 
 
 Certain differences between boys and girls appear in the 
 ten thousand children observed. As a rule, the girls' 
 games are quieter than the boys'. They play a greater 
 variety of games, and they do not organize as the boys 
 
f i ay 
 
 SOI 
 
 do. Football and baseball are overwhelmingly the favor- 
 ites with boys, while with girls no one game has anything 
 like that popularity. Again, no girls took part Boys' and 
 in the play with the sandpile, except occa- girls' plays 
 sionally, and they do not organize societies as boys do. 
 
 The following tables show the relative prominence 
 of games and of clubs a,t different ages. The names at 
 the top indicate the authority for the figures given. 
 Percentages are given in all cases. The two figures 
 indicate the percentages at the two age limits. 
 
 Playing house 
 
 Playing school 
 
 Playing horse 
 
 Playing war 
 
 Play with dolls 
 
 With doU furniture . 
 
 With tea set 
 
 With doll carriage . . 
 
 With leaves 
 
 With flowers 
 
 Books and reading. . 
 
 Music 
 
 Cards 
 
 Checkers 
 
 Dominoes 
 
 Hide-and-seek — < 
 
 Ball 
 
 Baseball 
 
 Running games .... 
 
 Fox-hounds, foot- 
 ball, tag, etc 
 
 Games of rivalry. . . 
 
 Games with coop- 
 eration 
 
 Croquet 
 
 Rhythm and motion 
 
 r. R. Croswell 
 1,000 boys, 
 1,000 girls, 
 kindergarten- 
 high school 
 
 Boys Girls Both 
 
 6-5 
 7-A 
 
 1 6-2 
 
 5h-ia 
 4-s 
 
 o 
 1 
 
 3-i'a 
 «-^o 
 
 16-3 
 27-8 
 1 8-4 
 8 at 
 55 at 
 
 12-28 
 
 36i 
 5l 
 25-3 
 4-?o 
 
 4 
 
 26-23 
 8-/0 
 24-7 
 23-8 
 II- 
 
 lO-A 
 1 1-2 
 
 6-1 
 15-5 
 18-3 
 13-2 
 
 7 y- 
 
 10 y. 
 
 5-4 
 
 61 
 
 Z. McGhee 
 
 4,S66 children, 
 
 6-18 years 
 
 Boys Girls Both 
 
 12-3 
 
 2-9 
 
 31-21 
 
 42-65 
 
 25-41 
 
 3I-I 
 
 3-45 
 
 12-1 
 
 20-70 
 10-10 
 
 W. S. Monroe 
 
 2,000 children, 
 
 7-16 years 
 
 Boys Girls Both 
 
 40 
 
 65 
 70 
 
 Foot- 
 ball 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 Tag 
 50 
 
 31 
 
S02 
 
 The Child 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Boys' Plavs 
 (Neuro-Muscular. ) 
 
 Birth 
 o 
 
 Kicking. 
 Whole arm, body 
 and hand movements. 
 Dropping things. Blocks. 
 Plays, digging, piling, etc. 
 Running, throwing, cutting and fold- 
 ing. Swinging. 
 
 Shooting, guns, bows, slings, etc. 
 Knife work. Tools of increasing 
 complexity. 
 
 Machinery. 
 Sailing. 
 Rowing. 
 Swimming. 
 
 Gymnastics. 
 Indian Clubs, 
 etc. 
 
 Diagram 12. Luther Gulick's Table Showing the Aspects of Group Games 
 IN Boys from Seven to Eighteen Years of Age 
 
 (Used by permission of the Pedagogical Seminary.) 
 
Play 
 
 503 
 
 Clubs 1 
 
 Secret Societies: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Predatory: 
 
 THE 1 Girls. 
 
 GANG) Boys. 
 Social Clubs: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Industrial: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Philanthropic: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 Literary Art: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Musical: 
 
 Boys 
 
 Athletic: 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 8 yrs. 
 
 II yrs. 
 
 12 yrs. 
 
 13 yrs. 
 
 17 yrs. 
 
 3 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 78 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 Number 
 
 67 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 HI 
 
 104 
 
 28 
 187 
 
 59 
 
 22 
 II 
 
 65 
 
 28 
 
 69 
 406 
 
 Miss Ravenhill's study (made in winter and in school) 
 of the play preferences of 6,369 English children between 
 three and thirteen years of age has some very suggestive 
 features. Her general results as to the kinds of play 
 liked best at different ages agree with other studies 
 except that what she classes as "active social games" are 
 much in the lead from beginning to end, varying from 
 about 66 per cent at three to about 48 per cent at 
 thirteen. She, however, interprets this as due to the 
 fact that city school children are practically forced to 
 play such games on account of lack of room for indi- 
 vidual play, and believes that it should be discouraged. 
 The reasons for playing certain games in the early years 
 are predominantly subjective— because the child gets 
 
 iThe table is given in per cents; the totals in absolute numbers. 
 
504 The Child 
 
 physical or mental pleasure — at all ages with both 
 boys and girls. The benefits from plajdng the game in 
 the shape of acqviiring skill and sharpness rise slowly, 
 and more with boys than with girls. The naaximum 
 comes with boys in the twelfth year, 48 per cent giving 
 objective reasons, and in the same year with girls, but 
 with only 26 per cent of them. 
 
 The favorite toys are also considered by Miss Raven- 
 hill. With little girls, dolls lead overwhelmingly, the 
 curve reaching, its height at eight years, when 97.75 
 per cent say it is the best loved toy. Their second 
 choice, from three to six and at eleven, is a carriage for 
 the doll, and their third choice a doll's house. Up to 
 thirteen years the doll leads, but after the ninth year 
 balls take second place. 
 
 The first choice of boys of all ages is engines and trams, 
 but not necessarily mechanical ones, except at six years 
 when the favorite toy is a horse. The second choice 
 from three to eight is some kind of wheeled toy; from 
 nine to twelve a ball; and at thirteen a magic lantern. 
 Their third choice has a wide range. From three to 
 five years it is the ball; and again at seven the ball; 
 at eleven a magic lantern, and at twelve a cricket set. 
 
 The reasons for liking the toy fall into three chief 
 classes. The "make-believe" or dramatic instinct is 
 much less prominent than the other two, and is about 
 the same for boys and girls. It begins with 9 per cent 
 of the children at four years, reaches its height in 18 
 per cent at six, and then diminishes again to 9 per 
 cent at thirteen, with a fall to about 4 per cent at ten. 
 The enjoyment of the physical activity focused about 
 the toy is greatest at three, about 70 per cent for both 
 boys and girls. It diminishes somewhat irregularly 
 with the girls, with a sUght rise from eight to nine, and 
 
Play SOS 
 
 another from twelve to thirteen, ending with 32 per 
 cent. With the boys, rather curiously, there is a steady 
 diminution which is rather rapid to the tenth year (18 
 per cent) and is then very slow to about 16 per cent at 
 . thirteen. Some form of emotional satisfaction includes 
 the third set of reasons. With girls this begins with 
 31 per cent at three, and reaches its height in 6$ per 
 cent at twelve, with a fall to 48 per cent at thirteen. 
 With the boys it begins with 20 per cent at three, and 
 rises to 69 per cent at eleven, with a very slight fall 
 thence to 64 per cent at thirteen. 
 
 The psychological value of play has already been 
 touched upon in the theory of play, and so we will 
 emphasize here only its especial importance psycholoei- 
 for nervous children. Wisely directed play cal value 
 can often be made a cure for hysteria, ^ ^^ 
 chorea, stuttering, and other such nervous diseases, 
 where development of the muscular control, such as can 
 be gained in play, is a desideratum. 
 
 In the cities also, where children do not naturally get 
 the exercise that a country or a village child gets, it is 
 imperative that the exercise should be obtained through 
 play, not only because the , body is so developed, but 
 especially because, as we have already seen, the highest 
 mental and moral virtues cannot easily flourish where the 
 body is dwarfed. 
 
 Play is an important method of realizing the social 
 instincts, apd at this point we run across imitation 
 again. The younger animals in their play Social value 
 are always imitating the older ones in their °^ P^^y 
 hunting and fighting, carrying it to great lengths at times. 
 Children in their play with each other have a most 
 important aid to social development. 
 
 I. They gain flexibility of mind and self-control. 
 
So6 The Child 
 
 Plays qvdcken the various mental processes. Some 
 cultivate perception and close observation; others, imagi- 
 nation; others require quick and accurate judgment, 
 and so on. Many cultivate all of these to a marked 
 extent. Self-control is given by all games to a certain 
 extent, for a child learns to meet failure with equa- 
 nimity, but competitive games especially cultivate this. 
 In all cases where the play is not too intense, the whole 
 emotional nature is gladdened and made buoyant. 
 "Play is the recruiting' office and drill sergeant of all the 
 powers of the child." 
 
 2. They have endless opportunities for imitation 
 and invention. 
 
 The children in any group always divide into two 
 classes — the leaders and the led, the relatively inven- 
 tive and the relatively imitative — but there is more or 
 less changing of parts here. The imitative child may 
 come to school with a new or taking trick, and thus 
 become the leader temporarily. In both cases, each 
 child learns his own powers and those of the others as 
 compared with him. He gets a certain place in the 
 group, which he can change if he can develop the neces- 
 sary qualities. He finds the value of cooperation in all 
 games where sides are taken, and at the same time the 
 value of individuality and originality if one has ambi- 
 tions to be a leader. Baldwin says: "To exhibit what 
 I can do alone is to exhibit my importance as an ally. 
 The sense of my weakness in myself is a revelation to 
 me of my need of you as an ally. The presence of a 
 stronger than either is a direct incitement to quick 
 alliance between you and me against him. And the 
 victory gained by the alliance is both a confirmation to 
 us of the utility of social cooperation and a convincing 
 proof to him that society is stronger than the individual. 
 
Play 507 
 
 The spirit of union, the sense of social dependence as 
 set over against the spirit of private intolerance; the 
 habit of suspension of private utilities for the larger social 
 good; the willingness to recognize and respond to the 
 leadership of the more competent — all this grows grandly 
 on the playground of every school." 
 
 The classical example of the social value of play at 
 its best is given in the "Story of a Sandpile." The 
 story began when two boys, three and five "Story of a 
 years old, had a pile of sand to play in, and SandpUe" 
 extended over nine years, the play being resumed each 
 summer. The first two summers the play was of a 
 desultory character, digging, making things that were 
 soon destroyed, and so on; but by degrees it assumed 
 an organized character, children of the neighborhood 
 were drawn in, and a miniature village was made. The 
 village was laid out in streets; houses, barns, and other 
 buildings were whittled out, as were also people and 
 animals. Gradually a government was evolved, each 
 boy expressing the opinions and doing the work of the 
 doll-men who occupied his section of the village. Courts 
 were established, town meetings were held, and aU the 
 business of a town was transacted, although, of course, 
 crudely. The village thus became an excellent training 
 school in good citizenship. 
 
 The play was carried on only in the summer, but 
 while in their city homes through the winter the boys 
 would make new men and implements and get all the 
 mechanism of the town ready for the next svimmer. 
 They had set forms for their men, houses, etc., from 
 which they rarely deviated, although as they grew older 
 they saw the crudity of them. As the boys reached 
 adolescence, they began to lose interest in the village, 
 they became conscious of the observation of their play, 
 
So8 ■ The Child 
 
 and gradually the village became once more only a sand 
 pile, having served fully its educational function. 
 
 It seems hardly possible, in view of all these facts, 
 to overestimate the value of play, and here, as in so 
 many other cases, we see again the importance of educa- 
 tion following the leading of the child. 
 
 In conclusion, then, we may say that from the very 
 earliest time, play has been recognized as a valuable 
 means of education, and that to-day it is used system- 
 atically in many schools to develop the child when the 
 appliances of formal education fail. 
 
 At all ages, the social value of play is great, because by 
 it each child is made to see his dependence upon others 
 and his own use to them. Through it he is educated for 
 good citizenship in the world of work. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Theoretical and Educational Aspects of Play 
 
 Addams, Jane. Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. Macmillan, 
 
 1909, 162 pp. 
 AUin, A. Play. U. of Colorado Studies, Vol. 1, 1902, 59-73. 
 Appleton, Lilla E. Play Activities of Adult Savages and Civilized 
 
 Children. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1910, 94 pp. 
 ArroWsmith, John. Brain Development through Play. Paid., 
 
 1907, 52-64. 
 Austin, Alice. Children at Play. Outlook, 1912, 201-218. 
 Blow, Susan E. Symbolic Education, 111-1^5. Appleton. 
 Bolin, Jakob. Group Contests. Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., Vol. LIV, 
 
 288-294. 
 Bolton, H. C. Counting-out Rhymes of Children. London. $1.75. 
 Brown, T. Y. Boys' Games. Assn. Outlook, Feb. 1899, 9^-107. 
 Carr, H. A. Survival Values of Play. U. of Colorado Pub., Dept. 
 
 of Psychology, 1902. 
 Chamberlain, A. P. The Child, 10-27. W. Scott. 
 Chase, J. H. Street Games of New York Children. Ped. Sem., 
 
 1905, Vol. XII, 503-504. 
 
i^ lay 509 
 
 Compayre, G. Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. 
 
 Chapter on Play. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 Croswell, T. R. Amusements of Two Thousand Worcester School 
 
 Children. Ped. Sem., 1898-99, 314-371. (Very full account.) 
 Culin, Stewart. St^et Games of Brooklyn. Am. Jour. Folk Lore, 
 
 July to September 1891, 221-237. 
 Curtis, H. S. Playground Movement in America. Ped. Sem., 
 
 1909. 344-350. 
 Play Instinct. Kgn. Mag., 1901, Vol. XIII, 424-432. 
 Reorganizing the School Playground. Bull. U. S. Bur. Ed., No. 
 
 16, 23 pp. Free. 
 Felker, Allie M. Play as a Means of Idealizing. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 1898, 624-630. 
 Fiske, John E. Meaning of Infancy. Houghton, Mifflin, 1909, 42 pp. 
 Forbush, W. B. Social Pedagogy of Babyhood. Ped. Sem., 1900, 
 
 307-335- (Inspiring.) 
 Froebel, P. Education of Man. See Analytical Index on Play. 
 
 Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 Groos, Karl. Th Play of Man. Appleton, N. Y. $1.50. 
 
 The Play of Animals. Appleton, N. Y. $1.75. 
 Gulick, Luther. Psychological, Pedagogical and Religious Apsect 
 
 of Group Games. Ped. Sem., 1899, 135-151- (Suggestive.) 
 Psychical Aspects of Muscular Exercise. Pop. Sc. Mo., Octo- 
 ber 1898, Vol. LIII, 705-793. 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Dolls. Ped. Sem., 1896, 129-175. 
 
 Story of a Sandpile. Scribner's Mag., June 1888. 
 Howells, W. D. A Boy's Town. Harper, N. Y. $1.25. 
 Hutchinson, Woods. Play as an Education. Contemp. Rev., 
 
 1903, 375-394- 
 Kennard, Beulah. Play Life of Girls. Clark Con. for Child Welfare, 
 
 Vol. II, 1910,47-54. 
 Johnson, G. E. Play in Physical Education. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 1898, 948-954. (Good.) 
 Education by Plays and Games. Ped. Sem., 1894. (Review 
 
 of games of children over six years, with quaUties developed 
 
 by each. Good.) 
 Education by Plays and Games. Ginn, 1907, 234 pp. (The 
 
 most inclusive. Gives graded series.) 
 Play as Moral Equivalent of War. Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., 191 1. 
 
 291-301. 
 What to Do at Recess. Ginn, 1910, 33 pp. 
 
 33 
 
51.0 The Child 
 
 Lee, Joseph. Playground Education.- Ed. Rev., 1961, 449-471. 
 Play for Home. Ptay and Rec. Assn., 1913. 
 How to Start and Organize Playgrounds. Ibid. 
 Boston Playground System. N. E. Mag., 1903, N. S., Vol. 
 
 XXVII, 521-536. 
 Play as Medicine. Nat. Con. Char. Con., 191 1, 354-364- 
 Play as Antidote to Civilization. Playground, 1911, 110-126. 
 Sunday Play. Playground, 1910, 221-232. 
 Two^Kinds of Play. Am. Phys. Ed. Rev., 1911, 439-446. 
 McG&ee, "Zach. ■ Play Life of Some South Carolina Children. 
 
 Ped. Sem., Dec. 1900. (Children all ages. Good.) 
 .McKee, J. H. Developmental Influences of Play. Pediatrics, i8gg. 
 Mero, Everett B. (ed.). American Playgrounds: their Construction, 
 ■":'' Equipment, Maintenance and Utility. Am. Gjmih^ia Co., 
 
 1908, 270 pp. 
 Monroe, W. S. Play Interest's of Children. Proc> N. E. A., 
 ''. '■'■ ' 1899, 1084-1090. (Goc)d, but limited to summer plays.) 
 Normal Course in Play. Rept. Proc. 3d Am. Cong, of Playground 
 
 Assn. of Am., 1909; also separate volume, 288 pp. 
 Patrick, G. T. W. Psychology of Relaxation. Pop. Sc. Mo., June 
 
 1914, 590-604. 
 Pollock, Susan P. Ideal Play in the Kindergarten. Proc. N. E. 
 -'■'• .j4., 1898, 604-608. ' 
 
 Poulsson,- Emilie. From Play to Earnest. Kgn. Rev:, Vol. IX, 687. 
 Ravenhill, Alice. Play Iftterests of. English Elementary School Chil- 
 dren. Child, Dec. 1910,217-226; Child Study, 1911, 121-142. 
 Recreation'BihUography. Russell Sage Foun. Pub., 1912, 37 pp; 
 Reports of Playground Association of America. 
 Seeley, Levi. Play as an Educational Factor. Jour, of Ped., 1905, 
 ■"".' ' 100-112. 
 
 Sisson, Genevra. Children's Plays. Barnes's Studies in Edu- 
 '-•- .'-' cation. XT. of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Study of 29' kin- 
 dergarten children. Good.) 
 Stitt,-E. W. - Recreation as Cure for City Evils. Assn. Sem., 
 '■- : '•.igi2, 219-235. 
 
 Sully, James. Studies of Childhood. (Imagination in Play.) 
 ■'■ • ; .Appleton; N. Y. $2.50. 
 
 Winch, W. H. Psychology and Philosophy of Play. Mind, 
 :•;" V N. S., 1906, JVol. XV, 32-52; 177-190. 
 
 For recent movements, see also The Playground. Edited 
 from I Madisofl'Avenue, N. Y. Monthly, $2.00 per year. 
 
Play Sii 
 
 Toys 
 Allemagne, Henri R. Histoire des jouels. Hachette, Paris, 316 pp. 
 Bjurman, A. Toys and Games. Pub. privately, Maplewood, Mass., 
 
 1913- J0.75. 
 . Clargtie, Leo, Les jouets, histoire, fabrication. Quantin, Paris, 
 
 1894, 325 PP- 
 Jackson, Mrs. O. N. Toys of Other Days. Scribner's, 1908, 
 
 309 pp. 
 Johnson, G. F. 7^0315 and Toy Making. Lond., 1912, 160 pp. 
 Poulsson, Laura E. Thoughts for Toybuyers. Kgn. Rev., Dec. 
 
 1901, 190-6. 
 Schmidt, O. E., DoUs, Dead and Alive. Caton, 191 1, 42 pp. 
 Starr, Laura B. The Doll Book. Outing Pub. Co., 1908, 238 pp. 
 Swannell, M. Toymaking for Little Children. Child Life, Feb. 
 
 15. 1913, 51-55- 
 
 Wardle, Phyllis. Tools and a Boy. Kgn. Rev., 1901, Vol. XI, 
 267-270.- 
 
 Games and Plays 
 
 Alleii, Ahhie W. Home, School arid Vacation. Houghton, MifBiii, 
 1907," 220 pp. 
 
 Atigell, Emmett D. Play . . . Games for Kindergarten, Play- 
 ground, etc. Little, Brown, 19 10, 190 pp. 
 
 Bailey, Carolyn S. Rainy Day Plays. Kgn. . Rev., 1908, 30-33, 
 100-103. 
 
 Bancroft, Jessie H. Games. Macmillan, 1909, 456 pp. 
 
 Barker, J. S. Games for the Playground. Longmans, 1910,, 65 pp. 
 
 Cary, C. B. Plays and Games for Schools. Madison, 191 1, 86 pp. 
 
 Champlin, J. D., and Bostwick, A. E. Young People's Encyclo- 
 pedia of Games and Sports. Holt and Co., N. Y. $2.50. 
 
 Chesterton, Thomas. Organized Playground Games. Ed. Supply 
 Assn., Lond., 1901, 115 pp. 
 
 Dowd, Emma C. Playtime Games for Boys and Girls. Jacobs, 
 Phila., 1912. $0.75. 
 
 Elston, F. Organized Games. Arnold and Son, Leeds, 1904, 192 pp. 
 
 Gomme, Alice B. Children's Singing Games. MacmiUan, N. Y. 
 $1.50. (Pictures, directions, and music for the games.) 
 
 Hofer, Marie R. Children's Singing Games, Old and New. Flan- 
 agan, Chicago, 1901, 42 pp. 
 
 Kimmins, Grace T. Guild of Play Bpok of Festival and Dance. 
 3 vols. Curwen and Sons, Lond., 1907-10 (pictures, music, 
 dnd rimes), 5s. per vol. 
 
Si2 The Chtld 
 
 Lamkin, Nina B. Play, its Value and Fifty Games. Holbrook- 
 
 Barber Co., Chicago, 1907, 91 pp. 
 Lineoln, Jeannette E. C. Maypole Possibilities. Am. Gymnasia 
 
 Co., 1907, 56 pp. 
 Lucas, E. V. and E. What Shall We Do Now? Richards, Lond., 
 
 1900, 364 pp. 
 
 Murray, E. R., et al. Kindergarten Games. Child Life Sup., 
 
 1901, 169-184. 
 
 Neal, Mary. Esperance Morris Book. Curwen and Sons, Lond., 
 
 1910, 64 pp. 
 Newton, Marion B. Graded Games and Rhythmic Exercises for 
 
 Primary. Schools. N. Y., 1908, 1 10 pp. 
 Page, Mary B. Plays and Games of the Kindergarten. Ele, 
 
 Sch. Teach., 1909, 341-358. 
 Parsons, Belle R. Plays and Games for Indoors and Out. Barnes, 
 
 1909, 215 pp. 
 ■Reindorp, Jacques. Record of the Toolhouse Club. Low, Lond., 
 
 1911,238 pp. • 
 Scharlieb, Mary A. D. Recreational Activities of Girls during 
 
 Adolescence. Child Study, 1911, 1-14; Child, 1911, 571-586. 
 Smith, David E. Number Games and Rhymes. Teach. Col. Rec, 
 
 Nov. 1912, i-iio. 
 Stoneroad, Rebecca. Gymnastic Stories and Plays for Primaxy 
 
 Schools. Heath, 1907, 150 pp. 
 Stoudt, J. B. Pennsylvania German Riddles and Nursery Rhymes. 
 
 Jour. Am. Folk Lore, 1906, 113-121. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 The Child in a Democracy 
 
 AND now let us gather up the many threads and 
 view as a whole the pattern which we have been 
 weaving. We have considered the child in abstraction 
 from many standpoints — as a physical organism sub- 
 ject to diseases and needing numerous provisions in 
 the way of medical and dental care, good food, air, and 
 exercise. We have looked on him as a perceptive ani- 
 mal, as a motor being, as remembering, imagining, and 
 reflecting, as conscience stricken, worshipful, emotional, 
 artistic, musical, and playful. But the whole child, as 
 has been impUed from start to finish, is all these and 
 more than all these at once. The most significant thing 
 of all is that the growth of his personality in any direc- 
 tion is a matter of stimulus and reaction between himself 
 and his surroundings, and that for the child the "sur- 
 roundings" are primarily the people about him. He 
 gets his physical environment only as modified by per- 
 sons. The baby, as we saw, has no opportunity to sepa- 
 rate even his food from his mother; and thus from the 
 beginning persons are the most interesting things of all. 
 The later development of his personality through the 
 constant interactions between himself and others has 
 also been indicated at various places, and we have seen 
 that a large part of his moral training consists in making 
 these interactions of such a character that social approval 
 shall be bound up with the good and disapproval with 
 the bad. 
 
 513 
 
SI4 The Child 
 
 In a democracy this consensus of feeling and opinion 
 is of especial importance, inasmuch as it is the true 
 power of government — the power which determines 
 the casting of votes. 
 
 When manhood — or full — suffrage prevails, the success 
 of the government depends in the long run on the 
 interest, intelligence, and social virtues of those who 
 cast the votes. But these are the outcome of all their 
 previous training. The fathers of our country,' we 
 realize more and more, were ftmdamentally right in 
 their belief that only universal education could preserve 
 a democracy. 
 
 But, say some, it has not preserved our democracy. 
 We are in fact an oligarchy of the worst type. There 
 has been and still is too much truth in this point of 
 view, but there is still more in the more optimistic 
 standpoint that democracy is still alive and is now find- 
 irig worthy and permanent forms of expression and of 
 training. These are what we wish briefly to consider now. 
 I Self-control on the one hand and love of so'cial service 
 on the other are the two great virtues without which 
 a democracy cannot last. Neither virtue is acquired in. 
 a day, nor does either come by grace of human nature, 
 though both have their roots in instinct. From the 
 beginning of life both are developed in the give and 
 take of daily intercourse, if the family life is normal 
 and wholesome, and when the child enters school a 
 more formal training in both should begin. Here the 
 problem of the relation between teacher and pupil is 
 the paramount one. Should the school be an absolute 
 monarchy or a democracy? Is the teacher one of the 
 school or outside of it? 
 
 We have heard much of pupil self-government in the 
 last few years, both of its successes and its failures. 
 
The Child in a Democracy 515 
 
 The term itself covers many different things, from sys- 
 tems in which the pupils take entire control of the disci- 
 pline to those in which only one or two. unimportant- 
 features are given into their hands. In some cases 
 very complicated apparatus is introduced, such as all 
 the officials and methods of a city or state government. 
 To what extent are children capable of this, and how 
 far is it wholesome for them? Teachers considering 
 the introduction of some such system should get both; 
 sides of the question, as indicated in our references. 
 Our own opinion is briefly this: 
 
 First as to the teacher's attitude. A true teacher 
 has in mind only one thing, that is, the growth of her 
 pupils. She no more takes the attitude of a czar than 
 she does that of an outsider. Her business is to give- 
 each child just as much opportunity to control himself, 
 and to help others as he can possibly use, and to inter- 
 vene when he has reached the limit of his ability at any 
 given time, both to save the others from him and to; 
 save him from his own errors, which he will soon out- , 
 grow unless left to them. She will as far as possible 
 always enlist pupils in making the regulations necessary - 
 for the schoolroom management, but, she wiU precede 
 this by getting a spirit of friendly cooperation, and> 
 at certain points, when the children's judgment and 
 moral sense are still defective, she will take the control 
 into her own hands. The most important question that 
 she has to determine is how far the children in her room 
 are capable of self-government. 
 
 The answer to this question comes from observation. 
 We know that the period from seven to twelve years is 
 primarily one of individualism, if not of actual com- 
 petition. The spontaneous games of children at this 
 time are those in which each chUd has plenty of chance 
 
Si6 The Child 
 
 to go on alone, to emulate others. Teams are rarely 
 found, and the same is true of clubs and organizations. 
 At about eleven years, however, the curve for dubs 
 and societies begins to rise sharply and goes up rapidly 
 for at least six or seven years. This seems to indicate 
 a natural point at which self-government may be intro- 
 duced if other conditions are favorable. Undoubtedly 
 imder some teachers a large degree of self-government 
 will succeed even in the primary grades, but one may 
 fairly ask whether it is well to force the child too soon 
 into work for which he certainly has little natural desire 
 atthis time. We do not mean to say that in the primary 
 grq^es there should be no mutual help between teachers 
 and pupils. Quite the contrary. The wise teacher will 
 be laying here the foundations for the enlarged social 
 activities that properly belong in the grammar grades. 
 In the grammar grades we do believe that some form of 
 self-government is not only possible but desirable, but 
 it should be understood that this does not mean the 
 exclusion of the teacher. The teacher too is part of the 
 school, and her chief task in a self-govginment system 
 is to keep the ideals high without forcing the children 
 too much. The five and take between teacher and 
 pupils, the genuine training in the ideals of democracy 
 thus made possible, is the great gain in any self- 
 govenpment system. If the teacher stands to one side 
 and considers the discipline none of her business, the 
 plan is very Ukely to fail, for children and youth, even 
 college youth, are, as we have seen, still rather tmde- 
 veloped in the social virtues. Cliques are Ukely to 
 develop, rank injustice to appear, and the plan will 
 finally be rooted out as a failure, when the true failure 
 is the indifferent teacher. 
 Self-government in schools, from the grammar grades 
 
The Child in a Democracy 517 
 
 through the college, is in reality a training in self- 
 government, we might almost say a trial of self-govern- 
 ment. It must be admittedly incomplete to some degree 
 if we admit that pupils are morally immature, and it 
 must derive a large part of its inspiration an4 ideals 
 from the teacher if the teacher is truly a teacher and 
 the pupils, pupils. But as an instrument for teaching the 
 ideals and methods of democracy, for breaking down 
 the spirit of clique and caste, and for developing a sense 
 of social responsibility and a habit of socialized behavior, 
 it can scarcely be equaled. 
 
 The particular form that it assumes is relatively unim- 
 portant, except that with the grammar grades the form 
 shoidd be as simple as possible. 
 
 Coincident with the spread of self-government within 
 the schools has gone the enlargement of the school ideal 
 in all directions. We have already briefly indicated 
 how the school has taken up Hie work of medical inspec- 
 tion, and even the mother's work of feeding and bathing 
 the child. Now it is beginning to choose his vocation 
 and to train him for it, to say nothing of taking charge 
 of his play hours and vacation months. What does 
 this great movement mean? Is the child to be taken 
 out of the home entirely, and shall we end by having 
 public nurseries, as Plato suggested, to which children 
 will be entrusted as soon after birth as possible? The 
 Montessori schools take three-year-old children and 
 keep them all day, and day nurseries in our cities take 
 babies. 
 
 But such a fear is not justified. Rather, the child is 
 bringing the home to the school, as Ward points out, in 
 the great movement now going on to make the school 
 the social center. "America in the public school has 
 taken the child and set him in the midst as Jesus took 
 
5i8 The Child 
 
 the child and set him in the midst. The invigorating 
 atmosphere of the "child's unfoldment is the breath of 
 life. The light of the child's presence in the thought 
 of men and women enables them to see. The place of 
 the children's education, at the center of the neigh- 
 jborhood, has in its freedom from dogma, its democratic 
 foundation, its limitless aspiration, its vital character, 
 not only the most powerful dynamic possibility for 
 molding the future, but in its use by men and women 
 
 to-day the certainty, of developing . . . the 
 
 power to feel, to' suffer and enjoy in terms of the mem- 
 bership of the neighborhood." 
 
 In this larger use of the school plant — which, it should 
 never be forgotten, belongs to all of the people and 
 riot to the School B6aa:d:^are included not only evening 
 schools and vacation;. schools but also the use of thei 
 rooms for neighborlaood' gatherings of all sorts. Ward 
 says there should be at least three organizations, one 
 for adults, onefor young men, and one for yoxmg women, 
 arid the whole system should be under the direction 
 of either the school principal or his' assistant, who 
 should be definitely engaged and paid for this work, 
 while some of their clerical work should be passed over 
 to clerks. But the work soon spreads beyond these 
 narrow limits. In the cities classes and dubs of all 
 sorts spring up, children from crowded homes come 
 back to study, if only a qmet place and a sjfmpathetic 
 helper are provided. Voters meet to have their alder- 
 man explain civic policies; women meet to cook and sew; 
 young folks come to dance and sing, and the old folks 
 .often join them. There is a moving-picture outfit which 
 .displays everjrthing from the dangers of flies to 1;he 
 beauties of Italy. There is a stage with scenery and 
 costumes, and pageants and plays are performed. . There 
 
The Child in a Democracy ^ig 
 
 is a playground outside with a director, open all day 
 and all the year, fitted with apparatus for children and 
 youth of aU ages. There is the voting booth. In short, 
 this school is the community home, the heart from 
 which spring all the issues of life for old and young. 
 
 Nor is this only an ideal. First realized in Rochester, 
 it has been tried out with notable success in various 
 other cities, and in Wisconsin is being carried out on a 
 state-wide scale. The fundamental thing. for success, in 
 Ward's opinion, is simply that there shall be free discus- 
 sion and democratic control; not control and limitation 
 by the School Board but control by the citizens and use 
 of the school plant as they see fit. Thus organized, he 
 believes that this movement may be the regeneration 
 of. politics, to say iiothing of its beneficial effect upon 
 the school. 
 
 Of the many other movements for the welfare of 
 children we must briefly refer to the playground move- 
 ment, which has spread like wildfire over our country, 
 and on which New York city alone spent over fifteen 
 million dollars in ten years. The amount of good done 
 in opening play spaces to children, providing directors 
 for the play, preventing control by gangs and hoodlums, 
 and so on, cannot be "estimated. Not only is juvenile 
 crime lessened but the health is improved and the child's 
 right to joy protected. In Chicago notably, and in 
 many other places. as well, beautifully equipped build- 
 ings have been erected on the playgrounds for winter 
 use, and in many cases they have become. to greater 
 or less degree community centers. It seems unfortunate 
 that this should be done, however, when the school 
 buildings are available. Great sums of money have 
 thus been stink in buildings which might better have 
 been spent in equipment and entertainment. 
 
520 The Child 
 
 Another class of movements of great importance is 
 that of organizations for young men and women. These 
 base upon the tendency already noted to organize gangs 
 or dubs in early adolescence, and are of the most varied 
 character. Not only are there the great religious organi- 
 zations, the y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., Epworth League, 
 Y. P. S. C. E., the Catholic sodalities, the Jewish organi- 
 zations, and so on, but there are such national organiza- 
 tions as the Boy Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, and all the 
 college fraternities and sororities, and an infinite number 
 of local societies, — athletic, literary, dancing, and so on 
 indefinitely. The danger and the good of such organi- 
 zations are most obvious in the fraternities, and the 
 battle wages most fiercely about them, but the same 
 problems are met to some degree in every club. Who 
 are to be taken in and who left out? And how can the 
 one left out not be hurt and the one taken in not exalted? 
 If every one belongs to some club, nevertheless one dub 
 soon becomes more select, or there are ranks within the 
 dub, and some never get to the center. 
 
 That is, we seem to have here not a simple question 
 of dass caste, which faculties can repress at will, but 
 the much deeper question of the personal equation. 
 Faculties, if wise, can do much to prevent the exaltation 
 of false standards of selection, but no rules and regula- 
 tions will ever make a certain type of personality a 
 real member of a dub, while certain others instinctively 
 flod£ together. How to develop adaptability in the 
 first and to broaden the outlook of the last to the end 
 of greater liberality in both is a problem whose solution 
 will probably differ in different places. Young people 
 certainly cannot be expected to develop a very high 
 type of organization if left to themselves, but on the 
 other hand, faculty legislation too often legislates the 
 
The Child in a Democracy 521 
 
 very heart out of their organizations and so they die 
 while the young people are finding some other expression 
 of their social nature. 
 
 Of the numerous movements by adults to ameliorate 
 the conditions of child life, to improve child-labor laws, 
 conditions of living, and so on, we cannot speak here. 
 They too have a large literature, and are well summed 
 up in Dr. Hall's chapters on Preventive and Constructive 
 Movements. 
 
 Here we must conclude this study of the wonderful 
 child nature to which we look for the regeneration in 
 the race. So complex is it, so rich and so varied in 
 its forms, that not even the completest study could 
 fully describe it. This r&ume has done its part if it 
 has now and then given us a new glimpse of the little 
 child who stands wondering and innocent at the thresh- 
 old of life, or if it has made clearer to us the truth that 
 to love children wisely we must know them well. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Social Aspects 
 
 Baden-Powell, Robert. Scouting for Boys. Lond., 1910, 320 pp. 
 Educational Possibilities of Boy Scouts' Training. Nineteenth 
 
 Cent., 1911,293-305. 
 Baldwin, J. Mark. The Individual and Society. Badger, Boston, 
 
 1911, 210 pp. 
 Bates, E. W. Pageants and Pageantry. Ginn, 1912, 294 pp. 
 Bawden, H. Heath. Social Character of Consciousness. Ele. 
 
 Sch. Teach., 1904, Vol. IV, 366-376. 
 Blumenfeld, R. D. Boy Scouts. Outlook, 1910, 617-629. 
 Bonser, F. G. Chums: A Study in Youthful Friendships. Ped. 
 
 Sem., 1902, Vol. IX, 221-235. 
 Breckenridge, S. P., and Abbott, Edith. The Delinquent Child and 
 
 the Home. Char. Pub. Co., N. Y., 1912, 355 pp. 
 Bryant, Louise S. Bibliography of Social Service. Psy. Clinic, 
 
 Feb. 15, 1913, 263-268. 
 
522 The Child 
 
 Buck, Winifred. . Self-Governing Clubs. Macmillan, 1903, 218 pp. 
 Call, A. D. Education versus Crime. Ed., 1902, Vol. XXII, 
 
 587-663. (Study of the Elmira Reformatory.) 
 Camp Fire Girls. Doubleday. 
 Chancellor, William EstabrooK. Our City Schools, their Direction 
 
 and Management. Heath, Boston, 1908, 333 pp. 
 Chesley, A. M. Social Activities for Men and Boys. Y. M. C. A. 
 
 Press, N. Y., 1910, 304 pp. (An account of what a local 
 
 Y. M. C. A. can do.) 
 Chubb, Percival. Festivals and Plays. Harper, 1912, 402 pp. 
 
 Bibliog. 
 Clark, Kate Upson. Bringing up Boys. Crowell, 1899, 227 pp. 
 Collier, John. Moving Pictures: Survey, 1910, 80; Clark Con. 
 
 Child Welfare, Proc, 1910, 108; Child, 1911, 496-501; Play- 
 ground, 1910, 232-239. 
 Commons, J. R. The Junior Republic. Am. Jour. Soc, Vol. Ill, 
 
 1 1897-98, 281-296; 433-448. 
 Craig, Anne.T. Dramatic Festival. Putnam, 1912, 354 pp. 
 Cronson, Bernard. Pupil Self-Government — Its Theory and Prac- 
 tice. Macmillan, N. Y., 1907, 76 pp. 
 Curtis, Elnora W. Dramatic Instinct in Education. Fed. Sem., 
 
 1908, 299-346. Bibliog. 
 Dewey, John. The Educational Situation. U. of Chicago Press, 
 
 1902, 104 pp. 
 Psychology and Social Practise. U.of Chicago Press, 1901,42 pp. 
 The School and Society. U. of Chicago Press, 1899, 125 pp. 
 Dutton, Samuel T. Social Phases of Education in the School and in 
 
 the Home. Macmillart, Lond., 1899, 255 pp. 
 Dynan, Harriet. An Experiment in Civics in the Eighth Grade 
 
 Room. Child Study Mo., Vol. Ill, 1897-98, 87-94. 
 Folks, Homer. Care of Destitute, Dependent and Neglected Children. 
 
 Macmillan, 1902, 251 pp. (Historical.) 
 Forbush, W. B. The Boy Problem. Pilgrim Press, 1907, 210 pp. 
 
 Bibliog. i . 
 
 The Boys' Round Table. 6th ed., 1908, 188 pp. (An account 
 
 of the Knights of King Arthur.) 
 The Coming Generation. Appleton, 1912, 402 pp. 
 Fraternity alid Social Life in High Schools. Comm. Rept, 1909, 
 
 L. W. DeCash, Springfield, Mass., chairman. 
 Fry,. Emma S. Educational Dramatics. Moffat, Yard and Co.,' 
 
 1913, 69 pp. $0.50. 
 
The Child i-n a Democracy 523 
 
 George, Wm. R. The Junior Republic. Appleton, 1910, 326 pp; 
 Gill, John. System of Moral and Civic Training. N. Y. Pat. League, 
 
 1901, 152 pp. 
 Grice, Mary Van Meter. Home and School. C. Sower Co., Phila., 
 
 154 PP-. 
 Gurickel, John E. Boyville: Fifteen Years of Work with Toledo 
 
 Newsboys, 1905, 219 pp.. 
 Hale, H. O. Kinematograph in School. School World, 1912, • 
 
 361-364- 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Preventive and Constructive Movements, 
 
 Educational Problems, 191 1. 
 Hartson, Louis D. Psychology of the Club. Fed. Sem., 191 1, 
 
 353-414- 
 
 Herts, Alice Minnie. Children's Educational Theater. Harper, 
 1911,150 pp. 
 
 Hill, R. C. Secret Societies in High School. Ed. Rev., Vol. XLIH, 
 1912, 168-192. 
 
 Holman, H. Children and Cinematographs. Child Study, 1910, 
 99-108. 
 
 Hull, Wm. I. The George Junior Republic. Ann. Am. Acad. Poh 
 and Soc. Sc, Vol. X, 1897, 73-96. 
 
 Johnson, John. Rudimentary Society among Boys. Johns Hop- 
 kins University Studies,^ 2d series, Vol. 11. Also, in Overland 
 Mo., October 1883. (One of the best studies of spontaneous 
 organizations.) 
 
 Jump, Herbfert A. Motion Pictures. Rel. Ed., 191 1, 349-354; 
 Playground, 191 1, 74-84. 
 
 King, Irving. Social Aspects of Education. MacmiUan, 1912, 
 425 pp. Bibliog. (Excellent both for' content and ref- 
 erences.) 
 
 Langdon, U. C. Pageant of the Perfect City. Playground, 1911, 
 2-17. 
 Pageant of Thetford. Playground, igil, 302-318... 
 
 Law, M. W. Our Ishmael. Am. Jour. Soc, 1902-3, 8357851. 
 
 Lindsay, Ben. B. The Juvenile Court of Denver in Campaign, for 
 Childhood. Charities, N. Y., Nov. :i903". 
 The Beast. Doubleday, 1910, 340 pp. 
 
 McKeever, Wm. C. Training the. Boy. MacmiUan, 1913, 361 pp. 
 
 Mangold, Geo. B. Child Problems. Macmillan, 1910, 381 pp; 
 Bibliog; 
 
 Merrill, Lilburn. Winning the Boy. Revell, 1.908, 160 pp. . y 
 
524 The Child 
 
 Moving Pictures. Rev. of Rev., 1910, 315-320; Pub. Lib., 1911, 19; 
 
 Outlook, 1910, 541-542; World To-Day, 1910, 1132-1139; 
 
 World's Work, igio, 128-176. 
 Needham, Mary M. Folk Festivals. Huebsch, 1912, 244 pp. 
 Perry, C. A. Wider Use of School Plant. Char. Pub. Com., N. Y., 
 
 1910, 423 pp. (Excellent.) 
 Survey of Social Center Work. Ele. Sch. Teach., Nov. 1912, 
 
 124-133- 
 Policy and Standards of the National Board of Censorship of 
 
 Motion Pictures. Revised, May 1 91 4, People's Institute, 
 
 70 Fifth Ave., N. Y., 23 pp. 
 Puffer, J. Adams. The Boy and His Gang. Houghton, Mifflin, 
 
 1912, 187 pp. 
 Boys' Gangs. Ped. Sem., 1905, Vol. XII, 175-212. 
 PurceU, Helen E. Children's Dramatic Interest. Ele. Sch. Teach., 
 
 1907, 510-518. 
 
 Ross, E. A. Social Psychology. Macmillan, 1908, 372 pp. 
 Russell, Ernest. Most Popular Play in the World. -Outing, Jan. 
 
 1908, 463-479- (Puppet plays.) 
 
 Scott, Colin A. Social Education. Ginn, 1908, 300 pp. 
 
 Seton, Ernest Thompson. Boy Scouts of America. Doubleday, 
 
 1910, 192 pp. 
 Shaw, Clara. Experiments in Self-Organized Group Work. Soc. 
 
 Ed. Quart., Mar. 1907, 16-28. 
 Sheldon, H. D. Institutional Activities of American Children, 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. IX, 425-448. 
 American Student Societies. Appleton, 1901, 366 pp. 
 Simmel, G. Sociology of Secrecy and Secret Societies. Am. Jour. 
 
 Soc, 1906, Vol. XI, 441-498. 
 Stelzle, Charles. Boys of the Street. Revell, 1904, 96 pp. 
 Stowe, Lyman Beecher. School Republics. Outlook, Dec. 26, 
 
 1908, 939-948- 
 Swift, Edgar J. Some Criminal Tendencies of Boyhood. Ped. 
 
 Sem., 1 901, Vol. VIII, 65-91. 
 Talbot, E. S. Juvenile Female Delinquents. Alien, and Neur., 
 
 i902,Vol.XXin, 16-27; 163-175. 
 Thurston, H. W. Training for Citizenship in the Public Schools. 
 
 Sch. Rev., 1898, Vol. VI, 577-597. 
 Urwick, E. J. (ed.). Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities. Dent, 
 
 Lond., 1904, 320 pp. 
 Wallin, J. E. W. The Moving Picture. Ped. Sem., 1910, 129-142. 
 
The Child in a Democracy 525 
 
 Ward, Edward J. The Social Center. Appleton, 1913, 359 pp. 
 $1.50. (Wider use of school plant. Very complete account 
 of the Rochester method. Bibliography.) 
 
 Wild, Lena H. Training for Social Efl&ciency. Series in Ed., 
 from Oct. 1912 to Mar. 1913. 
 
 Young, Ella F. Some Types of Modern Educational Theory. U. 
 of Chicago Press, 1902, 70 pp. 
 See also Proceedings of the Conference for the Care of 
 Dependent Children, of the International Congress for the 
 Welfare and Protection of Children, of the National Associa- 
 tion of Social Centers, and of the Playground Association. 
 
 34 
 
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS IN REFERENCES FOUND 
 IN "THE CHILD" 
 
 Alien, and Neur Alienist and Neurologist 
 
 Ani. Acad. Pol. & Soc; Sc ' . .■ ;•.,■"/ 
 
 .... American Academy Political and Social Science 
 
 Am. Anthrop American Anthropologist 
 
 Am. Breeders Mag .-.■.•. 
 
 Am. Jour. Ed American Journal of Education 
 
 Am. Jour. Folk Lore 
 
 Am. Jour. Insanity 
 
 Am. Jour. Med. Sc. 
 
 Am. Jour. Phys 
 
 Am. Jour. Psy. 
 
 Am. Jour. Pub. Hygiene . 
 
 Am. Jour. Rel. Psy. 
 
 Am. Jour. Soc. 
 
 Am. Jour. Theol. 
 
 Am. Lib. Assn. 
 
 Medical Science 
 
 . Physiology 
 
 Psychology 
 
 . Public Hygiene 
 
 Religious Psychology 
 
 Sociology 
 
 . Theology 
 
 Library Association Magazine 
 
 Am. Mag The American Magazine 
 
 Am. Med . . Medicine 
 
 Am. Nat . .Naturalist 
 
 Am. Phys. Ed. Rev Physical Education Review 
 
 Am. Sch. Bd. Jour School Board Journal 
 
 Am. Sch. Home Econ. . . School and Home Economics 
 
 Am. Statis. Assn. Pub. . . Statistical Association Publications 
 Annales de-la Faculty des Lettres de Bordeaux .... 
 
 . , Archives of Otology 
 
 Archives of "Pediatrics 
 
 Archives de Psychologic 
 
 Archives of Psychology 
 
 Arch. Otol 
 
 Arch, of Pad 
 
 Arch, de Psy." ....... 
 
 Arch, of Psy. 
 
 Archiv fur die Gesammte Psychologie 
 
 Assn. Sem Association Seminar 
 
 Bibliotheca Sacra 
 
 Biometrika 
 
 Birm. Med. Rec Birmingham Medical Record 
 
 Bost. Nor. Sch. Gym. . .Boston Normal School of Gymnastics 
 Brit. Assn. Adv. Sc. British Association for Advancement of Science 
 Brit. Jour. Psy. . ... British Journal of Psychology 
 
 526 
 
Key to Abbreviations 527 
 
 Brit. Med. Jour British Medical Journal 
 
 Bull, de la Soc. Libre .... Bulletin de la Society Libre 
 
 Bull, of Nat. Soc. for Promotion of Ind. Ed 
 
 National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education 
 
 Bull. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C 
 
 C. S. M Child Study Monthly 
 
 Ch. Wei. Mag Child Welfare Magazine 
 
 Cleveland Med. Jour Medical Journal 
 
 Columbia Univ. Contr. to Phil., Psy., and Ed. 
 
 . Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education 
 
 Contemp. Rev Contemporary Review 
 
 Diet, of Psy. Med. . . . Dictionary of Psychological Medicine 
 
 Econ. Jour Economics Journal 
 
 Ed. Education 
 
 Ed. Rev Educational Review 
 
 Ele. Sch. Teach Elementary School Teacher 
 
 Eugenics Ed. Soc Eugenics Education Society 
 
 Eng. Rev English Review 
 
 Port. Rev Fortnightly Review 
 
 Gale's Psy. Studies Psychological Studies 
 
 Gr. Brit. Dept. Com. . Great Britain Department of Commerce 
 
 [nland Ed : . . . Educator 
 
 Int. Arch, f . School Hygiene 
 
 International Archives for School Hygiene 
 
 Int. Jour. Ethics .... International Journal Ethics 
 
 Int. Quart International Quarterly 
 
 Jour. Abn. Psy. .... Journal Abnormal Psychology 
 Jour. Am. Folk Lore .... Journal American Folk Lore 
 Jour. Am. Med. Assn. . Journal American Medical Association 
 
 .four. Am. Pub. Health Assn 
 
 Journal American Public Health Association 
 four, of Anthrop. Inst, of G. B. and Ire. ... . . 
 
 . Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 Jour, of Ed Journal of Education 
 
 Jour. Ed. Psy. . . . . Journal of Educational Psychology 
 
 Jour. Exp. Ped Journal of Experimental Pedagogy 
 
 Jour. Laryn., Rhin. and Otol 
 
 Laryngology, Rhinology, and Otology 
 
 Jour. Med. Res Medical Research 
 
 Jour. Nerv: and Ment. Dis. . ' . Nervous and Mental Diseases 
 Jour, of Fed. • : .' . , -. . . Journal of Pedagogy 
 
528 The Child 
 
 Jour. Ophth., Otol. and Laryn 
 
 Ophthalmology, Otology and Laryngology 
 
 Jour, of Phil., Psy. and Sci. Meth 
 
 Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods 
 
 Jour, of Phys Physiology 
 
 Jour. Prev. Med Preventive Medicine 
 
 Jour. Psychoasth Journal of Psycho-Asthenics 
 
 Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc Royal Statistical Society 
 
 Kgn. Rev Kindergarten Review 
 
 Lib Library 
 
 Littel's Liv. Age Living Age 
 
 Mag. of Art Magazine of Art 
 
 Man. Train. Mag Manual Training Magazine 
 
 Med. Mag Medical Magazine 
 
 Med. Rev Medical Review 
 
 Montreal Med. Jour Medical Journal 
 
 Mus. Teach. Nat. Assn. . Music Teachers' National Association 
 
 N. Am. Rev. North American Review 
 
 N. E. Mag New England Magazine 
 
 N.Y.Med. Jour 
 
 N. Y. Teach. Mon. . . . New York Teacher's Monographs 
 
 N. W. Mo Northwestern Monthly 
 
 Nat. Con. Char. Corr 
 
 . National Conference of Charities and Corrections 
 
 Nineteenth Cent 
 
 Ophth. Rec. . Ophthalmological Record 
 
 Paid. Paidologist 
 
 Parent's Rev 
 
 Pediatrics 
 
 Ped. Sem Pedagogical Seminary 
 
 Phil. Rev Philosophical Review 
 
 Phil. Studien Philosophische Studien 
 
 Pop. Sc. Mo Popular Science Monthly 
 
 Proc. Am. Assn. Adv. Sc .... 
 
 Proceedings American Association for Advancement of Science 
 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Proceedings American Philosophical Society 
 Proc. Assn. of Phys. Ed. . Association of Physical Education 
 Proc. Int. Cong. Ed. . . International Congress of Education 
 
 Proc. Int. Cong. School Hygiene 
 
 Proc. Nat. Assn. for Study and Ed". Excep. Ch 
 
 Education of Exceptional Children 
 
Key to Abbreviations 529 
 
 Proc. N. E. A National Education Association 
 
 Psy. Bull Psychological Bulletin 
 
 Psy.- Clinic ........ Psychological Clinic 
 
 Psy. Rev Psychological Review 
 
 Pub. Health Public Health 
 
 Pub. Lib Public Library 
 
 Rel. Ed. Religious Education 
 
 Rept. U. S. Com. Ed. Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education 
 Rev. Neur. and Psy. . . Review of Neurology and Psychology 
 
 Rev. Phil Revue Philosophique 
 
 Russell Sage Foun. . Publications of Russell Sage Foundation 
 
 Sch. Rev School Review 
 
 Soc. Ed. Quart. . . . Sociological Education Quarterly 
 
 Soc. Rev Sociological Review 
 
 Soc. of Soc. Hygiene .... Society of Social Hygiene 
 Teach. Coll. Cont. to Ed 
 
 Teachers' College Contributions to Education 
 
 Texas Acad, of Sc Texas Academy of Science 
 
 Trans. Am. Philol. Assn 
 
 . Transactions of American Philological Association 
 Trans. 111. Soc. C. S. . . . Illinois Society for Child Study 
 
 U. of Iowa Studies in Psychology 
 
 U. of Mont. Studies 
 
 West. Rev Westminster Review 
 
 Yale Rev 
 
 Yale Psy. Lab. Studies . . Psychological Laboratory Studies 
 Zeit. f . ang. Psy. . . Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Psychologie 
 
 Zeit. f . Psy. u. Physiol, d. Siimesorgane 
 
 . Zeitschrift fur Psychologie und Physiologie des Sinnesorgane 
 Zeit. f. pad Psy. u. exp. Pad 
 
 Zeitschrift ftir padagogische Psychologie und experimentelle 
 Padagogik. 
 
THE INDEX 
 
 Accommodation of lenses, 149. 
 
 Adding tests, 66. 
 
 Adenoids, 42, 72. 
 
 Adolescent, 90-100, 210, 278. 
 
 .^thetic interest, 115, 215, 438,- 444, 
 
 . 445, 46s, 466, 469. 
 
 Age, 29; physiological, 30-31; relation 
 
 of, to disease, 20. 
 Air, 44-4S. 71. 
 Altruism, 214, 215. 
 Ambitions of children, 211, 214. 
 American Federation for Sex Hygiene, 
 
 94. 
 Analogy, 244-245. 
 Anger, 105, 109, 322-324, 394. 
 Animals, 116, 327, 397, 500. 
 Anlage, 13, 137, 492. 
 Arithmetical reasoning, 251-253. 
 Association, 357, 364. 373. 382; early, 
 
 230; later, 231; reasoning by, 244. 
 Astigmatism, 6z. 
 Astonishment, 394. 
 Attention, 91, 229, 373, 428, 431. 
 A ussage, t&&-iS9, 384. 
 Automatisms, 273. 
 Awe, 105, I07i 263. 
 
 Babies, first consciousness of, 225; 
 
 range of vision of, 147. 
 Babyhood, interests of, 108-rio. 
 Baby talk, 403. 
 
 Barnes, on religious feelings, 261. 
 Bashfuiness, ' 319-320. 
 Beauty, universal love for, 465. 
 Behavior, 14. 
 
 Bergen, on religious training, 266. 
 Bible interests, 277. 
 • Binet, 74, 114, 232; 233. 251. 
 Biology, 95, 98-99. 
 Body, 236J baby's control of his, 357; 
 
 growth in control of the, 356-366; 
 
 growth of the, 18-32; relative propor- 
 
 tfons in child and adult, 19. 
 Boys, tastes of, 418. 
 Brain, 91. I37. 
 Breathing, 340. 
 Bronchial disease, 21, 37. 
 Bullying, 29i» 324. 
 
 Caprices, 120, 
 Caresses, 330, 33i. 394- 
 Cause, no, iii, 241-243, 264, 267. 
 Chicken pox, 39. 
 
 Child, active type (Masochism), 83; 
 contents of mind of, 116, 117, 163- 
 164; exceptional, 170; first vocabu- 
 lary of, 404-405; ideas of the, 238; 
 imitation in, 37S-38o; in a democ- 
 racy, S13-521; moral ideas of the, 
 292; nervous, 69; neurasthenic, 71; 
 passive type (Sadism), 88; religious 
 feeling and moral sense in the, 269; 
 retarded, 72; size of vocabulary of, 
 416; speech, 415; theological ideas 
 of the, 267-268; versus~man, 20. 
 
 Childhood, interests of early, 10; 
 interests of later, 112. 
 
 Child study, 9, IS. 16.. 
 
 Chorea, 72, 
 
 C^limate and growth, 28. 
 
 Climbing, 347. 
 
 Clothes, Z06, 236. 
 
 Clubs, 503. 520. 
 
 Collections, 112, 113. 
 
 Color, 115. 406. 
 
 Colored hearing, 191-194, . 
 
 Color sense, 314, 466-469. 
 
 Common diseases and defects, 36-so. 
 
 Comparisons, 226. 
 
 Conception and reasoning," 224-257. 
 
 Concepts. 115,225, 238, 412-413; incom- 
 pleteness of child's, 229; of growth, 
 235; of number, 234; origin of the, 
 228. 
 
 Conscience, 279, 289, 
 
 Consciousness,, 371,; at, birth, 140; 
 prenatal, 136. . . 
 
 Contents of children's minds, 116-117, 
 136. 163-166, 238-239. 
 
 Control of the body, growth in, 356-366. 
 
 Convergence of eyes, 148. 
 
 Conversion, 269-276. 
 
 Corporal punishment, 294. 
 
 Counting, in, 234. ■ 
 
 Courage, 290-291. 
 
 Creeping, 109, 346. 
 
 Criminal, 122, 289. 
 
 Cross-eye, 148. 
 
 Cruelty, 291, 324, 329. 
 
 Crying, 104, 393, 399. 
 
 Culture epochs, 121. 
 
 Curiosity, 89, 95. X04, 105, 254, 291. 
 
 Custom, 246. 
 
 Dalcroze eurythmics, 435. 
 Dances, love, 433; religious, 433; work, 
 432. 
 
 530 
 
The Index 
 
 53,1 
 
 Dancins;, 359. 424-461; origin of, 431. 
 Deaf children and fear, 317- 
 Death, 265, 266. 
 Deductive reasoning, 250. 
 Defectives, 351; mental, 72-76; moral, 
 
 76-77 » 301. 
 Defects, 36-50. 
 -Desks, 49. 
 Digestion, 43; disturbances of, 21, 37* 
 
 «4S. .- 
 Diphtheria, 41. 
 Diseases, 36-50; ability to resist, 29-30; 
 
 relation of age to, 29-30; symptoms 
 
 of. 38. 
 Docility, 290. 
 Dogma, 281. 
 
 Doing, feeling, and thinking, 9-i7' 
 Dolls, 498, 499- 
 Dramatic instinct, 359, 431-432, 497. 
 
 500, 
 Drawing, 393. 465-483; outlines, 477; 
 
 of, stories, 479- 
 
 Ear, diseases, 41; see also Hearing. 
 
 Education, periods of growth and, 29. 
 "Educational bearings, 254. 
 Efficiency, 365-366. 
 Embryo, development of, 10-11, 137. 
 Emotions," 91, 96. 112, 161, 177. 437- 
 
 ■ 438; feelings and, 313-332. 
 End, see Means. 
 
 Evil, conception of good and, 285-307« 
 Exceptional children, 166-170." 
 Experimenting by child, 241. 
 Eyes, diseases of, 41, first movement of 
 babies', I47i 148- 
 
 Farsight, 60. 
 
 Fatigue, 62-64, I9i. 323. 361; signs of, 
 68; variety and, 66. 
 
 Faults, 286, 298. 
 
 Fear, 13. 65, 104; 106-107. 109. 209, 
 293. 315-321; percentage of, 317- 
 
 Feeling, 88. 91. 95. 437-438; and emo- 
 tions, 313-332; thinking and doing, 
 9-17. . 
 
 Fighting; log, 291. 
 
 Finger control, growth of, 360. 
 
 Flowers, 469. 
 
 Food, 21-22, 37. 69, 70, 71. 88, 91. 109, 
 no, 139, 144-145; objects, 105-106; 
 relation of size to, 27. 
 
 Forgetting, 183-184. 
 
 Fraternities, 520. 
 
 Friendship, 119. 302. 
 
 Froebel on play, 488. 
 
 Games, no, 502, 
 Gastro-intestinal disease, 37- . 
 Gesture, 393. 395-396; connection with 
 
 words, 396; the primitive language, 
 
 396. 
 
 Girls, tastes of, 418. 
 
 God, child's images of, 264. 
 
 Good and evil, conception of, 285-307. 
 
 Good breeding, 302; in teacher, 385. 
 
 Grasping, no, 135, 153, 154. 
 
 Gregariousness, 108, 109, no. 
 
 Group study, 15. 
 
 Growth, 20-21, 27, 235, 426; at puberty, 
 go-91; and education, 29; in control 
 of the body, 356-366; of the body, 
 18-32, 26, 27; rhythms of, 25-26, 351. 
 
 Gymnastics, 493-494. 
 
 Habit, 173-176, 246, 287. 288, 289, 383; 
 importance of good, 176. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley, on contents of chil- 
 dren's minds, 116-117. 
 
 Hand, evolution of the, 360. 
 ■Hand graspi 68, 151, I53-I54. 341. 360, 
 
 Health, 288-300, 323, 337, 351; in rela- 
 tion to fear, 320, 321. 
 
 Hearing, 62, 72, 108, 138-139, 141, 14s. 
 158, 162, 314, 439; defects of, 60-77; 
 sight, and nervous system, 6,0-77. 
 
 Height, 18, 24, 25-26, 90. 
 
 Heredity, 72, 75. 77. 99. 103. 
 
 Heroism, 116, 117. 
 
 Historical sense, 234. 
 
 Home and school, 67. 
 
 Honesty, 296, 298. 
 
 Honor, 289, 297, 298. 
 
 Hope, 104. 
 
 Humidity, 47-48. 
 
 Humor, ,328. 
 
 Hunger, 13. 109. I39. 3I4' 
 
 Hygiene, 300, 301; instruction in, 93. 
 
 Hyperopia, 60. 
 
 Hypnotism, 372. . j , 
 
 Ideals, 29, 91, 119, 210-220, 289', 304; 
 the child's, 216. 
 
 Idleness, 96. 
 
 Illusions, 383. 
 
 Imagery, 178-183, 201, 232. < 
 
 Imagination,, in, 200-220, 229; and 
 reason, , 205, 240; and lying, 206; 
 memory and, 201. 
 
 Imitation, liO, 207-208, 272, 373. 374. 
 380, 381, 408, 493. 497.. 506; and 
 suggestion, 371-388; reflex, 377; 
 voluntary, 377. 
 
 Immortality, child's idea of, 265. 
 
 Impulsive, reflex, and instinctive move- 
 ments, 335-353* 
 
 Inattention, 68, 298. 
 
 Individual, studjr of, 15. ■ 
 
 Inductive reasoning, 247-248. 
 
 Infant mortality, 2 1 . 
 
 Infectious diseases, 38-41. 
 
 Inflections, first use of, 410. 
 
 Influenza, 41. 
 
 Inhibitions, 341. 
 
532 
 
 The Child 
 
 Instinct, zo6, Z22, 287, 30Z, 3i9f 321, 
 
 322, 325. 335-353. 373r 393* 398-399. 
 
 431. 4^2. 
 Instinctive movements, 342, 393; 
 
 impulsive, reflex and, 33S-3S3. 
 Intelligence, 74, 124, 351. 
 Interest, 67. 91, 103-125, 183, 473-474; 
 
 of babyhood, 108; of chiltUiood, iii- 
 
 112; of youth, 118; religious, Z12; 
 
 race versus individual, I2X. 
 Invention, iii, 203, 207-209, 381-382, 
 
 408, 471-472, 494, 506. 
 Irritability, 68. 
 
 Moral instruction in school, 303. 
 
 Morality, 96, 99, 113. 116. 118. 265, 
 269. 289. 300, 363; normality and, 
 287; religion and theology, 262. 
 
 Moral suasion, 306. 
 
 Motor control, 68. 91, xo8, no, 185, 
 33S-3S3. 371-372, 396. 493. SOS- 
 
 Mouthing, Z51-152. 
 
 Mumps, 39. 
 
 Muscular control, 358-359. 
 
 Music, 424-46 x; composition by chil- 
 dren, 443-444; origin of, 438. 
 
 Myopia, 60, Z47. 
 
 Jealousy, Z09, 324-327. 
 Joys and sorrows, 328. 
 Judgment, 225. 
 Justice, 293, 294-295. 
 Juvenile crime, 299; effect of play- 
 ground on, 30Z. 
 Juvenile offenses, 292, 298, 299. 30z. 
 
 Keller, Helen, Z77. 
 Kindergarten, z66. 
 
 Language, zzx, X17. 392-4x8; and 
 thought, 4Z2; conception and, 239; 
 secret, 4Z5-4X6. 
 
 Laughing. X04, 327, 328, 394, 
 
 Law, 246. 276, 289. 290. 487. 
 
 Learning, 184-X85. 
 
 Lies, 205-206. 209, 230, 290, 298. 
 
 Life-intensity, 29. 
 
 Literature, 96, xx6, xxg. 
 
 Locomotion. 345* 
 
 Love. 89, 96, 297, 329-330, 331. 433. 
 
 Manners, 302. 
 
 Manual training, 363, 
 
 Masochism, see Child. 
 
 Means and ends, xxx-xi2, xi8; adapt- 
 ing, 25X. 
 
 Measles. 40; German, 39. 
 
 Medical inspection, 43. 
 
 Memory, xx6, X72-194, 20X, 226; 
 and sex. x88; age and, X90; good, 
 xgx; educational apjilication to, X90; 
 forms, X92, X93, X94; images, X78, x8x; 
 organic, X73; si)an, x86; training, X89; 
 unusual conditions of, X9X. 
 
 Mental arrest, 73-74. 
 
 Mental work. 44-46, zx6; and fatigue, 
 64; best hours for, 66. 
 
 Milk, 21-23. 
 
 Milk stations, 22. 
 
 Mispronunciation, 402, 
 
 Modeling. 472. 
 
 Money sense, 2x3-2x4. 
 
 Monotony and fatigue, 66. 
 
 Montessori schools, 166-X70, 36Z-362. 
 
 Nationality, and growth, 24, 28; and 
 
 ideals, 2x7* 
 Nature, 98, 164* 165. 42S. 433-434; and 
 
 religion, 268, 278-279; versus nur- 
 ture, X03-X25. 
 Nearsight. 60, Z47. 
 Nerve cells, 399; change in, 61, 62; 
 
 germinal, 87. 
 Nervousness, 64, 69, 71, 72, 505. 
 Nervous system, X3, 91, X37, 270, 320, 
 
 358. 371* 426; sight, hearing, and, 
 
 60-77. 
 Neurasthenia, 71. 320. 
 Neuro-muscular system, 358. 
 Neuroses, 319. 320, 426. 
 Newborn chud, X38-X43. 
 Night terrors, 320. 
 Noises, child's love of. 439. 
 Nose, diseases of, 42, 47. 
 Number, concept of, 234; forms, X91- 
 
 194- 
 
 Obedience, 288-289. 
 
 Obstinacy, 298. 
 
 Occupations chosen by children. 2xx- 
 
 2x3. 
 Open-air schools, 46. 
 Order, law and. 246. 
 Organic memory, 173, 174, 225, 226. 
 Organizations, 520. 
 Originality, 380-38 x, 506. 
 Overwork in public schools, 64. 
 Overworry, 65. 
 Ownership, 292. 
 
 Pam. 287, 313. 314. 31S. 322; see also 
 
 Pleasure-pain. 
 Parental instinct, 352. 
 Perception, Z57, X62, Z73. Z74, 203, 
 
 225; sensation and, Z35-Z70. 
 Personification, xio, 203-204, 256, 264. 
 Persons, Z07, Z09-ZX0, IXS-X19, 237- 
 ^ 238. 513. 
 Pets, XZ2. 
 Phobias, 319-320. 
 Physical conditions, 300. 
 Physical exercise. 95, 97, 359, 500. 
 
The Child 
 
 533 
 
 Pictures, child's love of, 469-471; choice 
 of by children, lis. 470. 
 
 Pity, 328-329. 
 
 Play, 96, no, 112, 434, 487-S08; and 
 work, 489; Anglo-Saxon boys' plays. 
 502; boys' and girls', soi-502; 
 character of little children's. 498; 
 character of older children's, 500; 
 education in, 487; Froebel on, 4S8: 
 psychological value of, 505; social 
 value of, 505; theory of, 490. 
 
 Playgrounds. 300, 5i9< 
 
 Pleasure, 287, 313. 3i4. 3^5- 
 
 Pleasure-pain, 103-104, 
 
 Pneumonia, 21, 
 
 Possession, attitude toward, 292. 
 
 Posture. 48-50. . 
 
 Prayer, 280, 
 
 Prenatal consciousness, X36-138; pos- 
 ture. IS3, 338. 
 
 Primitive race activities, 112. 
 
 Pronunciation, 43, 402. 
 
 Property rights, 285, 292. 
 
 Protection, 106. 
 
 Psychical processes, 12. 103, 136, 427. 
 431, 477; gradation of» 13^ 14. 
 
 Psychology, genetic, 10. 
 
 Puberty, 90-100. 
 
 Punishment. 209, 289, 293-296, 305- 
 306. 
 
 Purpose, 243. 
 
 Puzzles, 232. 
 
 Questions, 89. 92,^ 97, m, 230, 254- 
 257, 267. 276, 384-38S. 
 
 Race interests versus individual in- 
 terests, 121. 
 
 Rachitis, 37* 
 
 Reading, 417-418. 
 
 Reasonmg, 115, 205, 224-257 arith- 
 metical, 251; deductive, 250; induc- 
 tive, 247. 
 
 Recapitulation, 10, 13. 103, Z2i, 432. 
 491-492. 
 
 Recollections, earliest, 176. 
 
 Reflex movement, 106, 151. iS3. IS4. 
 339i 342; instinctive, impulsive, and, 
 33S-3S3. 
 
 Reform, moral, 294- 
 
 Regularity, 246, 276. 
 
 Religion, 277-279. 4331 adolescent. 27S; 
 in babyhood, 276; in public schools, 
 280; of dhild, 264-265. 
 
 Religious sentiment and theological 
 ideas, 261-281. 
 
 Repetition, method of, 184, 185, 186; 
 value of, 378. 
 
 Retarded children, 72. 
 
 Revenge, 294* 
 
 Rhythm, iii. 116, 234, 359, 424-461; 
 special bodily, 427. 
 
 Rime, 414. 
 Rivalry, 65, 326-327. 
 Rolling, 345. 
 Rudimentary organs, 327. 
 
 Sadism, see Child. 
 
 St. Vitus' dance, see Chorea. 
 
 Sandpile, story of, 507-508, 
 
 Sanitation, 43. 
 
 Scarlet fever, 40. 
 
 School, and home, 67; nurses, 43 j open- 
 air, 46; overwork in the public, 64. 
 program, 66-67; use of the, 518; 
 work and growth, 29. ^ 
 
 School subjects, choice of, 117. 
 
 Scolding, 306. 
 
 Scorbutus, 37. 
 
 Seats, 48-49. 
 
 Secret languages. 4x5-416. 
 
 Self, 235-236, 410. 
 
 Self-abuse, 93. ' 
 
 Self-consciousness, 236, 349- 
 
 Self-control, 324. 506, 514. 
 
 Self-government, 514-517. 
 
 Selfishness, 330. 
 
 Sensation, 157, 172, 181; and memory. 
 172; and perception, 135-170. 
 
 Sense organs. 91, no, 117. 118, 137' 
 140, 165, 169. 
 
 Senses and the mental life, 161. 
 
 Sequences, 244-24^. 
 
 Sex, feelings and ideas of. 87-100; in- 
 struction, 92-100; memory and. 1S8; 
 differences in adolescents, 210; mani- 
 festations, 87. 
 
 Sight, 41, 68, 72. 137. 138, 140, 146- 
 150, 158, IS9. 160, 343; defects of, 
 60-77; hearing, and nervous system, 
 60-77. 
 
 Singing, 434-461. 
 
 Size, relation of food to, 27; relation of 
 mental ability to, 28. 
 
 Skin, gi; diseases, 41. 
 
 Slang, 417. 
 
 Sleep, 69. 71. 96. 
 
 Smell, 138, 139. 143. 162, 
 
 Smile, 314-31S, 394. 
 
 Sneezing, 340. 
 
 Social centers, SI7-S18. 
 
 Social instincts, 107-108, 208. 263. 376, 
 382, 388, 498, 503-506, 513-514- 
 
 Social training, importance . of early, 
 119. 
 
 Social world, no. 
 
 Solitude, 107-108, 206. 
 
 Songs, 441; composition of, 444-461, 
 
 Sorrows, 328. 
 
 Sound, sensitiveness to, 145; sight and, 
 158. 
 
 Sounds, first, 400; order of, 401. 
 
 Space. 223. 
 
 Speech, no, 236, 239-240, 392-418, 
 475. 
 
534. 
 
 The -Child 
 
 Stealing, 298, 299. 
 
 Strabismus, 146. ? . 
 
 Study, wasteful methods of, 66. 
 
 Subnormal children, 75, 35.1. , 
 
 Suggestion, 122, 273t 371-388. 
 
 Sunday schools, 280. 
 
 Symbols, 470. 
 
 Sympathy, 108, 291, 297. 328-329.-. 
 
 Talent, 123, ,;.i- 
 
 Talkingi no, 351, 
 
 Taste,, 138, 139. 144. 157. 162. 
 
 Teacher, 38s; and pupU, SI5-S-I7- ■ 
 
 Teaching instinct, 352. 
 
 Teasing, 29X1 29S, 325. 
 
 Teeth, 42-43. 
 
 Temperature sense, 150. 
 
 Tests of intelligence, 74. 124, 351, 361. 
 
 Theological ideas,, religious sentiment 
 
 and, 261-281. 
 Thiffking, feeling, and doing, 9-17. 
 Tickling, 327. 
 Time, sense of, 233. 
 Tones, 439-440. 
 Tools, 112. 
 Touch, 68", 91. 108, 138, 139. 140, 142, 
 
 ISO, 155-156, J57. 159-160, i6i.;i62, 
 
 i6St ,1^8, 234, 3i4i 327; active, I5i» 
 
 233; passive, 151. 
 Toys, 165, 360/491, 498, 503-504., ■ . 
 
 Training and interests, 120; social, 119, 
 Truants, '72, 298, 299. 
 Truth, attitude toward! 290. 
 Tuberculosis, 38. 
 
 Ventilation, 44-45, 47-48, "' 
 Vocabulary, child's first, ' 404-405; 
 
 color, -406, ra:;ig& in, -407 ; size - pf 
 
 cjtjild's, 416. 
 Vocations,! guidance, 124. ■'' 
 Vocations, 123-124 210-214, 5i7- - ■ v, 
 Voice, 440; change of, 91, / ,. . 
 
 Voluntary movement, 339, 357. 
 
 "Walking, 109, no, 345^ 348-^51. 
 
 Warmth, 106. 
 
 Weight, 18, 20-21, 23, 25-26, 90', 360; _ 
 average, 23 ; relations iji, gr-c^th 
 between ^height and» 25. ^ , 
 
 Whipping, 306. -^ , 
 
 Whooping cough, 39. -r 
 
 Will, 38^. ' 
 
 Winking, 147. . 
 
 Words, invention of, 408. 
 
 Work, 63, 66, 71, 4^30-431, 489-490, : 
 
 Worry, 65, 71. 
 
 Youth, interests of, xi8.