73 an ^' o ^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 1' H o^ ^ c5 PRIZE PUBLICATION FUND. Founded by the generosity of H.H, THE RAJA OF COCHIN, K.C.S.I., THE MAHARAJA GAJAPATI RAO, C.I.E., THE RAJA OF PARLAKIMEDI, and other Chiefs and Gentlemen of Southern India. PK 6991J?3G84"''"''*' '""^ Ishkashmi ,,Zebaki and YazghulamL J|#;SS9 PRrNTEDrN U.S.A. rSHKASHMI, ZEBAKF, AND YAZGHULAMr PRIZE PUBLICATION FUND VOL. V ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI AN ACCOUNT OF THREE ERANIAN DIALECTS BY SIR GEORGE A. GRIERSON, k.c.i.e., ph.d., d.litt. LL.D., P.B.A. VICE-PKESIDENT OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY PRINTED AN"D I'UBHSHED BY THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY AM) SOLD AT 74 GKOSVENOE STREET, LONDON, W. 1 1920 '". ' n- / STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, HERTFORD. \ ia:^ CONTENTS PAGE vii Preface Introduction . . ... .1 I. Alphabet 9 II. Phonology . H in. Formation of Words and Composition. . 21 Indexes of Words 23 IV. Inflexion 29 A. The Article ...... 29 B. Nouns Substantive and Adjective . 29 C. Pronouns 37 D. Verbs 49 V. Indeclinables 57 IsHKASHMi Story 59 Ishkashiii-English Vocabulary 69 English-Ishkashmi-Zebaki-Wakhi-Yazghdlami Vocabulary 105 A Short List of Yazghulami Words . . .127 Words in other Pajiir Dialects . . . .128 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026915441 PREFACE The genesis of this work and tlie materials on ■which it is founded are described at length in the introductory remarks, and need not be repeated here. I cannot, however, send it forth on its journey without recording my great indebtedness to Sir Aurel Stein. Not only has he honoured me by entrusting to me a portion of the valuable materials collected by him on his epoch-making journey of exploration, but, in the midst of other and far more important labours, he has also found time to read and criticize the first draft of the Introduction, and to place at iny disposal geographical information, gathered from personal observation of the little-known country in which Iskasmi has its home. He has thus conferred upon my efforts an authoritj- far greater than I anticipated when I first undertook the preparation of these pages. GEOKGE A. GRIERSON. Camberley. March 1, 1917. ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, and YAZGHULAMI 1. Sir Aurel Stein, on his return in the spring of 1916 from his third Central-Asian Expedition (1913-16), made over to me a quantity of linguistic materials collected by him on the rapid journey which,- in September, 1915, had carried him across the high mountain ranges west of the Pamirs, and through the chief alpine valleys drained by the uppermost Oxus.^ These materials relate chiefly to the Eranian language spoken in that portion of the main Oxus, or Ab-i-Panja Valley, which lies between Wakhan (Wa;)^an) and Gharan (Faran), at the great northward bend of the river, and which from its central village, takes the name of Iskasm.^ 2. The principal tongues of the valleys adjoining the Pamirs, — apart from Turki, which is spoken by the Kirghiz occupying the Pamirs proper at the head-waters of the main Oxus branches and their tributaries, — are the "Ghalchah" (Talca) languages known as Waxi, Sarikoli,^ and Su7ni (Shaw's " Shighni "). These have been illustrated in detail by Shaw in his well-known papers in JASB., xlv (1876), pt. i, pp. 139 ff., and xlvi (1877), pt. i, pp. 97 fF. Yud7a, a dialect of Munjani, ^ For a brief account of the journey, see Sir Aurel Stein's preliminary report, "A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia,'' in the Geographical Journal, 1916, xlviii, pp. 210 ff. ^ Sir Aurel Stein informs me that the proper pronunciation of ^'Ishkashim" is "Iskasm", with a final ?Ji- vowel. The language is "lakasml", in which the m is a consonant. ^ As used by Shaw, Geiger, and others, this name is spelt " Sariqoli ", or its equivalent, but Sir Aurel Stein informs me that this is wrong. He says, "I think ' Sarlkoli ' is the more correct spelling. The etymology (Turki) may be doubtful, but I certainly always heard the o short, and the h just like an ordinary Indian Ic. I made repeated enquiries into the name, and found that it has a much wider application among the Kirghiz than is usually supposed. For the name, cf. my Ancient Khotan, i, p. 23, note." B 2 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMl [3 and belonging to the same group, has been briefly described by Biddulpli, under the name of Yidghah, in his Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, pp. cliv ff. The accounts of the first three have been summarized and investigated by Tomaschek in liis Centralasiatische Studien. II. Die Pamir- Dialelde (Vienna, 1880), and those of all four by Geiger on pp. 287 fF. of vol. i, ii, of the Grundriss der Iranisclcen Philologie. Besides the above languages, Geiger has also given a brief description of Ya7nobi, spoken beyond the Oxus in the uppermost valley of the Zarafsan River, far to the north-west of the Pamirs. According to Geiger and others, Ya7nobi also belongs to the same group, but this is denied by other Eranian scholars. In addition to these, I have myself, with the help of the authorities in Citral, collected specimens of several Pamir languages. For our present purpose, I may here mention that these included lists of words in, and trans- lations into, Munjani, Yud7a, and Zebaki. 3. Sir Aurel Stein's new materials include a list of words and a story in Iskasmi, a list of words in Wa;;^i, and a shorter list of words in Yaz7ulami. The Wa^^i ^ist forms a valuable check, and also a supplement, to the vocabulary of that language prepared by Shaw, but, as this form of speech is fairly well known, it need not detain us further here. Suffice it to say that all the Wa;)(i words collected bj^ Sir Aurel Stein are included in the vocabularies appended to this work. The Iskasmi list and story, dealing, as they do, with a language hitherto almost unknown, are more important, and will be examined with some minuteness in the following paces. The story is a version of the Sarikoli tale which was given by Shaw on pp. 177 tf. of his first paper, and of which a translation into Su7ni was given bj' Geiger on pp. 331 ff". of the GIF. Tlie Iskasmi version is a translation made from the Su7ni version, and not from the orio-jnal 4] INTRODUCTION 3 Sarikoli. It was secured by Sir Aurel Stein, together with tlie Lists of Words in Iskasmi and Wa;)^i, in the course of his marches through the Russian portion of the Iskasrn tract, September 7-9, 1915, from Qazi Qadam Sah, Qazi of Russian Wa;)(an. Sir Aurel Stein describes him as an exceptionally intelligent man for linguistic and other local inquirJ^ As he lives at Sit;)(arv in Lower Wa;)(an, his mother tongue is Wa;)^i ; but he spent all his youth as a talihu'l-'ihn in Iskasm village, and spoke the language quite as fluently as Wa;)(i. In order to ensure accuracy, the translation was simultaneously checked by a born Iskasmi named Daulat Qadam. 4. The River Wardoj, which is formed by the junction of two streams rising in the Hindukus, approaches, but does not join, the River Oxus near where that body of water takes its great bend to the north. One of these streams comes from the Dorah and the other from the Nuqsan Pass, both leading into Citral. The village of Sanglic lies in the valley leading to the Dorali Pass, and gives the name " Sanglici " to the dialect spoken there and also in the valley leading to the Nuqsan Pass, as well as along the lower course of the combined Wardoj, where it passes into the main Bada;)(;san Valley. Where the two head-waters meet to form the Wardoj lies the small town of Zebak, and hence the dialect is also known as " Zebaki ". The tract of Zebak is one of the most polyglot spots in this part of Asia. Not only lias it its own local dialect, but Persian, Waxi, and Suvni are all in use, and Turki is probably known to many. Further north-east, separated from Zebak by a re- markably easy saddle forming the watershed, lies the small but relatively fertile tract of Iskasm, the dialect of which closely resembles Zebaki. In fact, a com- parison of Sir Aurel Stein's Iskasmi with my Zebaki materials shows that the two, together with Sanglici, are all slightly varying forms of one and the same 4 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [4 language, which we may call " Iskasmi ". Our materials for the study of Sanglici are of the scantiest, being confined to a short list of words given by Shaw as an appendix to his first paper; but even this is sufficient to show that, after allowing for differences of spelling, it is practically the same as Iskasmi. Sir Aurel Stein, to whom I am indebted for the revision and correction of the foregoing geographical remarks, here adds : — " The linguistic unity of the district comprising Iskasm, Zebak, and Sanglic reflects in a striking manner the ethnic and political connexion which since early times has existed between these mountain tracts. It results itself from well- defined geographical facts. We have here an interesting illustration of the observation well known to students of geography that defiles in valleys often form more important ethnic and political boundaries than watersheds, when these are crossed by relatively easy passes and routes. " As far as local tradition and scanty historical data allow us to go back, the tract comprising the upper Wardoj Valley, which drains into the Kokca Eiver of Badaxsan, and the tract of Iskasm, extending from the main Oxus where it makes its great bend northward, have always formed a separate small hill chiefship or canton, distinct from Badaxsan on the west and from Waxan, the territory of the uppermost Oxus Valley, on the east. The reason for the separation of the Zebak-Iskasm tract is that, whereas the broad spur which descends from the Hindukus' towards the Oxus at Iskasm and divides it from the Wardoj drainage is crossed by a remarkably easy saddle, there are in the river valleys both towards Badaxsan and Waxan narrow defiles to be passed, which form serious barriers. The same is the case northward. There the succession of gorges, known collectively as Tiiran, through which the Oxus tumbles in cataracts on its course to lSu7nan, was for a distance of three trying marches wholly impassable until quite recent years, except on foot and even then only with serious difficulty. Iskasm- Zebak as well as Waxan were ruled as distinct chiefships usually by relatives of the Mirs of Badaxsan, being held on a kind of feudal tenure from the far more important 4] INTRODUCTION 5 and powerful principality of Badaxsan. This time-honoured arrangement was duly noted by Marco Polo when he passed here, about 1278-4 a.d., on his way to 'Vokhan' and the 'Pamier'.' This and other early references to the Iskasm- Zebak tract have been discussed by me in Serindia, the detailed Eeport on my second Central-Asian expedition, now in the press." " At present the Zebak tract and the greatest portion of Iskasm, being south of the Oxus, are included in the Af7an province of Badaxsan. The few Iskasm villagas north of the river are under Eussian administration, belonging to the wide area known officially as the ' Pamir Division '. Iskasm, on the right or northern bank of the Oxus, is reckoned to extend upwards to the rocky defiles above the village of Namadgut and downwards to the hamlet of Malwac, where the gorges of Taran are entered. The high glacier-crowned main range of the Hindukus forms the great natural boundary on the south, both for Iskasm and Zebak. Westwards, the big mountain spur separating the head-waters of the Wardoj and Kokca Eivers fulfils the same function in the direction of Munjan. The exact position of the boundary in the lower Wardoj Valley, leading north-westwards into Badaxsan, cannot be indicated at present." My Zebaki materials were prepared at Citral by Khan Saliib Abdul Hakim Khan. As will be seen from the following pages, there are a few points of difference in pronunciation between it and Iskasmi, but the two are closely related dialects of the same language. Even the few differences that do apparently exist would probably be still fewer if the spelling of the Zebaki specimens had been as consistent throughout as has been that employed by Sir Aurel Stein for Iskasmi. To the east of Zebak lies the hill tract of Munjan, the language of which is Munjani. We have already seen that the Sanglic Valley leads south, over the Dorah Pass, ^ This was quite correctly recognized by Sir Henry Yule in his comments on the record of the great Venetian traveller ; see The Boole ofSer Marco Polo, 3rd ed., pp. 170 ff. ^ Cf. Stein, Serindia, i, pp. 61 ff. 6 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [5 into Citral. Having crossed the pass we come into the Leotkuh (commonly called Lutkho) Valley, belonging to Citral. Here the language is Ytidya, the only one of the Pamir languages — apart from Wa;)(;i, which is spoken by the large Wa;)(i colony in Northern Hunza territory (Guhyal) — that has crossed the Hindukus to the south. It is a dialect of Munjani. We thus see that Iskasmi is bounded on the west and south by Munjani and its dialect Yud7a. 5. Sir Aurel Stein adds : — " The Iskasmi country has to its east the uppermost Oxus Valley, or Waxan, and to its north §u7nan. The narrow gorges of Taran, separating Iskasm from Su'/nan, afford room for only a very scanty population, and this, having been directly dependent, politically as well as 'economically, on Badaxsan, speaks Persian, though also acquainted with §u7m. To the east of Waxi and Su7nl, Sarikoli is spoken in the Chinese portion of the Pamir territory. North of Su7nan lies Eosan, ruled usually by relatives of the old chiefs of iSu7nan. Its language is EosanI, a dialect of 8u7ni. North, again, of Eosan lies Darwaz, now administered from Buxara, of which the language is Tajik!, lying beyond the purview of this work ; but between Eosan and the Vanj tract of Darwaz lies the long, narrow valley of Yaz7ulam (called ' Yazdum ' in local speech), now also under Buxara regime." Its language, Yaz7ulami, is separated from Iskasmi by Rosani and Su7ni and so far as the list of M^ords collected by Sir Aurel Stein 'shows, has little in common with it. The inhabitants of Yaz7u]am are difficult of approach, and have long been on bad terms with their more powerful neighbours of Eosan and Darwaz. The latter used to look upon thein as robbers and semi-infidels (Kafirs), a result probably of the loner- continued feuds between the chiefs of these territories, which enabled the Yaz7ulamis to prey impartially on the people of either side as occasion afforded. The use of the term "Kafir" does not imply any connexion with 7] IN'TKODUCTION 7 the Kafirs who inhabit the country south of the Hindukus, and linguistic evidence lends no sanction to such a theory. On the contrary, the Yaz7ulami language clearly belongs to the Talca group, and is nearlj' related to Su7ni, with which some of the most commonly used words agree, rather than with Wa;)(i or Iskasmi.^ 6. As regards the relationship of Iskasmi to the other Talca languages, it can be said definitely that it agrees more closely with Munjani and Yud7a than with Wa;)(i, Su7ni, or Sarikoli. It would take up too much space to work this out at length, but a perusal of the Vocabulary, in which the corresponding words in all the cognate languages are given, will show this ; and those who may find such a comparison laborious will see the connexion plainly brought before their eyes in the comparative tables of pronouns in §§53 fF. 7. As the materials brought home by Sir Aurel Stein do not pretend to be in any way complete, I have in the following pages supplemented them, so far as I could, from my own Zebaki materials. I have, throughout, carefully distinguished the two sources, so that there will nowhere be any difficulty in recognizing what rests on his authority and what on mine. The Zebaki materials suffer under the disadvantage of not having been recorded by a trained philologist. There are hence numerous inconsequences in the spelling, especially in the representation of the vowels, so that a certain reserve ' e.g., Yz. mie, S. meB, but Is. roz, W. r^iodr, a day; Yz. mdat, S. mest, but Is. md, W. mi2i, the moon ; Yz. x''"''> S. jcSr, but Is. remuz, W. ir, the sun. Since this was written, a much fuller account of Yaz7ulami, from the pen of the late M. R. Gauthiot, has appeared in vol. viii (1916), pp. 239 ff. of the Journal Asiatique. It altogether confirms the above remarks. As Sir Aurel Stein's materials were collected independently, I have retained them in the present work. I take this opportunity of expressing my great regret on receiving, simultaneously with the number of the Journal Asiatique that contained his article, the news of the untimely death of this valued scholar- explorer. It is an irreparable loss to Eranian studies. 8 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [8 must be exercised in assuming the exact sound of any Zebaki word. 8. In regard to the general character of the Pamir languages, attention has been called by previous writers to the remarkable way in which ancient words have been preserved almost unchanged. Such words cannot be what in India are called " tatsamas ", for the languages have no literatures to account for their artificial survival or resuscitation in modern times. Examples are: \^.tiirt, a ford, compared with Skr. tirtha-; Mj. asti, a bone, compared with Skr. astlii- ; Yd. ksira, milk, but Prs. sir, compared with Av. -^^sira-. Skr. ksira- ; Yd. trusna, thirsty, but Prs. tis, thirst, compared with Av. tarsna-, Skr. trma-. In Is. we have an, other, as compared with Skr. anya- ; az, I, compared with Av. azdnn ; urk, a wolf, but S. luurj. Yd. ivury, compared with Av. vdhrka-, Skr. vrka ; tras, fear, compared with Skr. trasa- ; and others, including the interesting word remuz, the sun. The origin of the last is obscure till we see the Zb. form of the same word, which is ormozd, and which preserves the 0. Prs. a{h)urama3ddh- almost letter for letter. In other Eranian languages the word appears only in the name of the town Hormizd, vulgo "Hormuz". The identification of the sun with Ahuramazda finds a parallel in Yz., which preserves Av. nniOra- in iniO, a day. The same peculiarity is observable in the neighbouring Dardic languages spoken south of the Hindiikus, wliere, for example, we liave Khowar asm, but Prs. ars, a tear, compared with Av. asru-, Skr. asru- ; dro-^um, silver,^ but Prs. dirham or diram, compared with Greek hpa^fj-y] ; Kalasa, kakaivak, Skr. krkavdku, a cock, and others. 1 Sir Aurel Stein writes about this word, "the term drakhma is found in the Prakrit of the Kharosthi documents of the Srd-ith centurjf a.d., which I discovered at ancient sites of the Taklamakan and Lop deserts, and of which Professor Rapson, together with MM. Senart and Boyer, s preparing an edition." 10] ALPHABET 9 9. The following contractions for language-names are used in this work : — Ar. = Arabic. Sg. = Sanglicl." Av. = Avesta. Skr. = Sanskrit. Is. = Iskasmi. S. = Sarlkoli. Mj. = Munjani. W. = Waxi. 0. Prs. = Old Persian. Yd. = Yiid7a. Phi. = Pahlavl. Yn. = Ya7nobI. Prs. = Persian. Yz. = Yaz7ulami, E. = Rosani. Zb. = Zebaki. S. = DU7nI. I. ALPHABET 10. Several systems of spelling have been used for recording the sounds of the Pamir languages. All are based on customary transliterations of the Persian alphabet, but special signs have had to be invented for special sounds. The most scientific system is that employed by Geiger in the GIP., but in one or two cases, such as the representation of the w-sound by v and of the v-sound by tu, it is not adapted to the needs of English readers. I have therefore followed the system adopted by me for other connected languages, and the special signs used respectively by^Shaw, by Geiger, and by me are shown in the following table : — Shaw d dh gh 9 kh khh th sh sch skh EIGEK Griekson d SI. a S S y y ? 7 X X X X e e s s ? s s s Geigeb Grieeson i i c c c ts 3 j j dz V w IV V 10 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [10 Shaw 2: ch ts j dz w V Tlie sound of d is that of the aiu in " pawn ". That of 8 is tlie tJi, in " this ". That of 7 is the sound of the Arabic yahi. That of 7 is the softer sound of jain, resembling that of tlie German g in " Tage ". That of ^ is the sound of ch in the German " ich ". That of ^ is the sound of ch in the German "ach". That of is the sound of th in " think ". That of ^ is the English sh in "shine". That of s is a sound intermediate between that of x ^^^ that of s, the tongue being placed considerably further back than in the latter, and the sibilant consequently coming from the back of the palate, instead of from the front. It appears, there- fore, to be much the same as the Indian cerebral .?. The sound of s is described as the German ch of " ich ", sibilated so as almost to resemble an English sh. The s is unlike x; for, while the former is an attempt to sibilate ^^ the latter is an s pronounced at the back of the palate, with the tongue curled back (Shaw, JASB., xlvi, p. 98). The sound of 1 is that of the Persian j. The letters ts and (fe are afFricatse, as in Pasto, some- thing like an English ts and dz, respective!}-. The other letters present no difficulty. They are sounded as in Persian. Besides these we occasionally come across an Indian cerebral t, in words such as Is. at, eight; Zb. cut, small. These are evidently borrowed from India. 13] PHONOLOGY, — VOWELS 11 II. PHONOLOGY A. Vowels A. General 11. The phonology of the Pamir languages has been dealt with in considerable detail by Geiger in GIP., pp. 293 ff. I shall, therefore, confine myself to supple- menting what he there says by adding references to Iskasmi and Zebaki. Geiger's work is sure to be in the hands of everyone who may read these pages. B. Original Short Vowels 12. In Is. and Zb. there is the same confusion in the use of vowels that obtains in the other Pamir languages. •Geiger remarks (p. 293) that so far as the scanty materials permit a general statement to be made, an original a seems to be best preserved in Mj. and Sg. If we take the examples given by him, it will be seen that Is. and Zb. cannot be classed in this respect with the other two. We have : — Av. yara-, Skr. khara- ; but Is. x^r, Zb. yur, an ass. Av. Skr. panca ; but Is. Zb. piunz, live. Av. Gasman- ; but Is. Zb. bam, an eye. Av. basta-, Prs. bast, Is. vust, bound. Av. hapta, Is. Zb. uvd, seven. Av. asta, Skr. astau, Is. di, Zb. 6t, eight. The cerebral t in Is., wliich should also probablj' appear in the Zb. form, points to an Indian origin. The general statement as regards Mj. and Sg. is, however, as Geiger admits, not based on sure grounds. Taking Is. and Zb. alone, it may be noted that Is. often has 4, where Zb. has a. Thus, Is. dust, Zb. dast, a hand ; Is. frid, Zb. ferat, he asked ; Is. riii, Zb. rdi, three. In Is. the infinitive termination is -uk, while in Zb. it is -ak. 13. Similarly, original i and u are liable to change. Thus :— 12 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMl [14 Av. spis, Is. spul, a louse. Av. nurdm, at once ; Is. Zb. ner, to-day. Av. dv/ySa, Is. udoyd, a daughter. But u is retained in the following : — Av. buza-, Is. vuz, Zb. tvuz, a goat. Av. v/ SU-, Is. Zb. siicZ, he went. Av. supti-. Is. suvd, the shoulder. C. Original Long Vowels 14. Original a is often represented by ■&. Thus : — Av. piOiha-, Is. 2311, Zb. pilcZ, a foot. A v. brdta, Is. vrwd, Zb. ivarud, a brother. Av. cadvdro, Is. ts'^fur, Zb. tsaftir, Sg. safor, four. Av. •;/ va-^s-, Prs. ifas, Is. tl^, grass. Occasionally it is represented by I, as in : — Skr. ndsd, nasta-, Is. mfe, Zb. iiife, a nose. Skr. phdla-, *sphdla-, a ploughshare ; Prs. supdr, Is. icspir, a plough. Original -i is shortened in : — Av. visaiti-, Zb. wiSt, twenty ; W. and Yd. have ivtst, and S. vist. The Is. form is not available. Original d remains as u in : — Av. /l^(,-, Prs. Is. Zb. xU{/> ^ pig 5 the Is. and Zb. words being perhaps borrowed from Prs. Av. duma-, Is. dumb, a tail. But it becomes I, through il, in : — Phi. dut, Is. c^ii, smoke. Cf. Baloci dlt. Av. dura-. Is. Zb. dw', far. Cf. Baloci dir. In this connexion we may add : — A v. vohuni-, Prs. x'"'^''; Sg. vain, Is. iven, blood. D. Original Dipldhongs 15. For original diphthongs we can quote : — Av. -^aeha-, Is. x'*'^''') sweat. Av. v' vaen-, Zb. vlmbin, I see. 17] PHONOLOGY, — VOWELS 13 Skr. Icapota-, Is. kuwid, a dove. Av. daeva-, Is. lew, a demon. Av. gaoSa-, Is. yol, Zb. ydl, an ear. E. B,-voivel 16. I have noted the follovs^ing instances of an original 7'- vowel : — Skr. jiirsta-, Is. frut, Zb. ferdt, asked. Av. ardsa-, Skr. rhm-, Is. x^irs, a bear (borrowed from Prs. •)(irs). Av. hdvdza-, Is. wuz-duk, long. Av. Icardta-, Is. /ceZ, a knife. Av. Icardta-, Skr. /crta-, Is. Mi, Zb. /cai, made. Av. mardta-, Skr. 7n.rto, Is. Zb. mul, dead. F. Miscellaneous 17. Aphseresis of the vowel tt occurs in : — Av. ustra-. Is. stur ; but Zb. ustur, a camel. Apocope of i occurs in the Zb. termination -n, for -nti, of the 3rd pers. plur. of the pres.-fut. tense of Zb. verbs. I do not know the corresponding termination in Is. Syncope of a occurs in : — 0. Prs., Av. \/ bar-, ride ; Is. wroJc, but Zb. verdJc, a, horse, if this is the correct derivation. It may, perhaps, be referred to Av. aurvata(-ka-), strong, mighty. Prothesis of ii occurs in : — Av. duyha, Is. uddyd, a daughter. Skr. phdla-, *sphdla-, a ploughshare ; S. S2')ur, but Is. usplr, a plough. With these we may possibly compare the ivu- in Zb. wujinjdk, Yd. jinkoh, a woman. I am unable to account for these instances of prothesis. The meaning of the w^ords prohibits the suggestion that the u or w^i represents an original vi-. 14 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [18 Svarabhakti. — Consonants come together quite freely in Is., while a si)arabhaJcti-vo\re\ seems to be more common in Zb. Thus : — Is. ivrok, Zb. verak, a horse. Is. vrWd, Zb. wariid, a brother. Is. fri, Zb. ferl, good. Is. trds, fear. Sometimes, when a conjunct consonant is initial, the first member is dropped, as in : — Av. Qrdyo, Is. rWi, Zb. rdi, rd, three. S. *d''vusk,^ Is. voks, a snake. We have vowel-contraction in Zb. som, Prs. sawam, I become; Zb. to, thee, Av. tava, and similar cases. B. Semivowels and Consonants A. The Semivowels y and v (w) 18. Ok'iginal initial y is retained, and is not changed to j in : — Skr. yuga-, Is. yoy, a j-oke. Prosthetic y is not so common as in the other Pamir languages. Tlie only example I have come across is in Av. haet'U-, Is. yetik, a bridge, in which the y is substituted for the original It. The letter y sometimes occurs where other Pamir languages have 7 or i, as in Is. yau, W. zau, provisions ; Is. y^>'2, Sg. yw, W. 7(7,2;, S. zes, fuel. On the otlier hand we have Zb. yuzd, S. zezd, he ran. 19. Original v is preserved, except when initial before dr or 9r, when it is vocalized to u. Thus : — Av. v/ vaen-, Zb. vinum, I see. Av. vafra-, Is. varf, snow. Av. daeva-, Is. lew, a night-demon. Av. vdr-. Is. ur-naduk, rain. Av. vdhrka-, Skr. vrka-, Is. urk, a wolf. > See Geiger, p. 29S. 22] PHONOLOGY, — SURD CONSONANTS 15 As in the case of y, prosthetic v (iv) is not common. Thus :— S. loo-xt, but Is. at, Zb. ot, eight. S. luaz, but Is. Zb. az, I. • S. wuvd, but Is. Zb. uvd, seven. We have, however : — Av. asi-, Is. ivastuk, a bone. In tliis case the Yd. form is yestoh, vsrith prosthetic y, and similarly, in other cases, Is. has prosthetic v (w), where other languages have prosthetic y. Thus : — Av. dp-, W. yupk, Mj. ydoya, Yd. yauy ; but Is. wek or vek,.Zh. wek or lue, water. Cf. Ormuri iv"-k. W. ya-^^. Is. ve^, a twig. B. Surds 20. As in other Pamir languages initial surds are preserved, but initial c becomes fs. Thus : — Av. kdrdta-, Is. kid, ktd, Zb. kal, done. Av. kardta-. Is. kel, a knife. Av. tava, Zb. to, thee. SIcr. paksman-. Is. pdm, wool. Av. pd5a-. Is. 25tt, Zb. pud, a foot. Av. cadtvdro. Is. ts°-fur, Zb. bafur, four. Av. Gasman-, Is. Zb. fecw?i, an eye. 21. As Geiger (p. 299) points out, an initial surd is sometimes changed to a spirant, as in : — Av. kafa-. Is. ■)( ^. co'nd f 26. The spirant x is preserved in : — Av. xP-ra-, Is. x'**'", Zb. x^''"' ^-n ass. 18 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [27 The spirant 6 is not preserved, but is changed to d (cf. § 25) in :— Av. giida-, Is. yud-drga ; but 8. ja6, dung. The spirant / is preserved in : — Av. kafa-. Is. -^afuk, foam. 27. The group ^r is preserved in : — Av. su^ra-. Is. sior^, red. The existence of Yd. surk-oh renders it unlikely that the Is. word is borrowed from Prs. The group dr loses its initial 6 in : — ■ Av. Ordyo, Is. riii, 7A:i. rdi, rd, three. The only example noted of the group fr is : — Av. vafra-, Is. varf, Mj. varfa, Yd. verf-oh, snow. 28. The group -^m becomes 'ym in : — Av. tao-^ma-. Is. teym, seed. The group -^t becomes yd in : — Av. V tac-, Phi. tdxtan, Is. toyd, he went ; Zb. a-tayd^ he entered. The group ft becomes vd in : — Av. supti-, Is. suvd, the shoulder. Av. hapta, Phi. haft, Is. Zb. livd, seven. Again, note in the above examples, the presence of the dental sonant. E. Nasals and Liquids 29. As in other Pamir languages, n, m, and r are usually retained. Thus : — Av. nairya-, Is. nark, Zb. na7\ male. Av. V vaen-, Zb. vinum, I see. Av. maiSya-, Is. med, the waist. Av. ndman-. Zb. nem, a name. Av. raoyna-, Is. reyn, butter. Av. dura-, Is. Zb. dlr, far. 30. For the group nt we have : — ■ Av. dantan-, Is. ddnd, Zb. ddndak, a tooths 32] PHONOLOGY, — SIBILANTS 19 But in Zb. -nti, the termination of the 3rd pers. plur. of verbs, becomes n, as in : — Av. hardnti, they bear ; Zb. -^aren, tliey eat. No information is available as to the corresponding form in Is. The group rt becomes I (see § 22). The following are examples, two of which have already been given in I 22 : — Av. mdrdta{-ka-), Skr. tnrtaka-, Is. muluk, a corpse ; Zb. malak, a man. Av. kdrita-, Skr. krta-, Is. kul, kul, Zb. kal, done. Av. kardta-, Is. kel, a knife. As for the group rd, I have not noted any example. The Is. for " heart " is avzuk, which does not seem to have anything to do with Av. zdrdd- (? cf. W. pilzilv, p'^zuw). Nor have I noted any example of the group dr. As for m it becomes r in the only two cases noted : — Av. darana-, Is. dlr, a ravine. Skr. t(,rana-, Is. war-uk, a lamb. F. Sibilants 31. Original s and z are as a rule retained, whether initial or medial. Thus : — Av. sarata-, Is. sard, cold. Av. dasa, Zb. dos, ten ; Is. dah is borrowed from Prs. O. Prs. dasta-, Is. dust, Zb. deist, a hand. Av. V zan-. Is. zas, zus, Zb. zdt, a son. Av. azdin. Is. Zb. az, I. In the following medial s has perhaps become ts: — Skr. ndsa, nasta-, Is. nits, Zb. nits, the nose. 32. Initial s is retained in : — ■ Av. V SU-, Zb. Som, I go, I become ; Is. Zb. kod, gone, become. Medial s becomes I, as in S. Thus : — ■ Av. gaoSa-, Is. 'yol, Zb. ydl, the ear. Av. -^SvaS, Is. -xol, Zb. ■)(al, six. 20 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [33 Av. maeSa-, Is. mel, a sheep. Av. spiS, Is. spul, a louse. Av. nisasta-, Is. nulust, Zb. naldst, seated. The sounds of i and 7 in other Pamir languages are sometimes represented by Is. y. Thus : — W. zau, Is. yau, provisions. S. zez, W. yuz, Is. yuz, fuel. On the other hand we have Zb. yuzd, a. zezd, he ran. 33. The group ;j(S is generally represented by ;>(, as in S. Once it is represented by s, as in S. Thus : — Av. -^Svas, Is. -^ol, Zb. ■^(al, six. Av. -^Svipta-, Is. x^'-'W^) milk. Av. x^^P'i ^^- *'^^i night. The Is. ^urs, a bear, is evidently borrowed from Prs. ■)(irs. 34. Indian st is represented by t, and Av. str by t. Thus :— Av. asta, Skr. astau, Is. di, Zb. ot. Zb. oi should probably also be ot. Av. musti-, Skr. musti-, Is. ')?ii6(!, a handful. Av. pistra-. Is. ptii, gi-ound parched grain. The group sm, as elsewhere, becomes on : — Av. Gasman-, Is. Zb. tsdm, an eye. Skr. paksman-, Prs. pasm, Is. ^^ain, wool. 35. I have not noted any example of the group sk (Sk). For st we have : — Av. staora-, Is. s'Htcr, a calf (elsewhere, an ox, yak, etc.). Av. Skr. asti, Is. dst, Zb. dst, he is. Av. basta-, Is. iiilsi, bound. Av. ast-. Is. tvastick, a bone. I have no example for sp. Is. safed, white, is borrowed from Prs. The Is. word for " horse " is ivrok. The groups sy and sr, as elsewhere, become s. Thus : Av. syava-, Is. sw, black. Av. sraoni-, Is. ^iiiy, the hip. 38] FORMATION OF WORDS 21 Av. sruta-, Is. Sud, heard. Av. asm-, Is. asik, a tear. G. The Aspirate 36. Initial h disappears : — ■ Prs. hazdr, Zb. azdr, a thousand. Av. hapta, Is. Zb. iivd, seven. Initial hv (Av. hv-, x"-, 0. Prs. Hiv-, Prs. x^-) becomes X, as in : — Av. -^aeha-, Skr. sveda-, Is. ;)(a'ir, sweat. Av. ■/ x"'^'''' ■'■^- x'^*""''"^' ^^- x'^'''*™' •'- ®^^- Note, that, in Yz., Av. hvar- becomes Yz. xwr, sun. H. Miscellaneous 37. (1) Dropping of Consonants. — There seems to be aphseresis in Is. rust, W. karust, a fur robe (of. I.s. kurust, skin). We have syncope of i in Is. yezd, Zb. yed, he said (Av. V vac-. ; see Horn, GNPE., 1072). Consonantal apocope occurs in Is. and Sg., and, in Zb., it is so common as to be apparently almost optional. Thus ; Zb. pud, Is. pu, a foot ; Is. yuz, Sg. yu, fuel ; Prs. hec. Is. he, anything ; Zb. tdt or td, a father ; Zb. ^itdkak, stale, or std, a daughter ; Zb. wek or we, water ; Zb. x'^ren or x'^'^s, we eat, and many others in Zb. (2) Prothesis. — Concerning prosthetic y and v, see § 18. (3) Metathesis. — As instances of metathesis, we may quote : — PH. ta^r, Prs. tal-^, Is. trus, bitter. Av. vafra-, Is. varf, snow. III. FORMATION OF WORDS AND COMPOSITION A. Formation of Words 38. The materials available are too scanty to allows us to consider the formation of words with anything like the completeness attained by Geiger on pp. 308 ff". of the GIP. (1) The suffix -i, forming abstract nouns is no doubt as common in I,s. as in other Pamir languages, but the only 22 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [39 example I can give is Zb. sauddi, trading, and this is probably borrowed. I have not noted any instance corresponding to the feminine suffix S. -dns, W. -unj, unless it occurs in Zb. xoujinjak, a woman. The -/ca-suffix is very common. Thus, Is. urives or urwes-ak, a fox ; Av. haetu-, Is. yeti-Jc, a bridge ; Av. kafa-, Is. ^af-uk, foam ; Av. nairya-, Is. nar-k, male ; Is. wro-k, a horse ; Is. vml, dead, mul-uk, a corpse ; Av. asm-, Is. dsi-k, a tear ; Av. ast-, Is. %uast-uk, a bone ; and many others. It will be observed that the junction- vowel varies, but that it is most often u. In Zb. the vowel is most often a, as in ddnd-ak,a, tooth; ver-dk,& horse; §ta, Md-k, or sitd-k-ak, a daughter. In sitd-k-ak the suffix is duplicated. This suffix is also used to form the infinitive and the perfect participle of verbs, as in Is. -^ar-uk, to eat ; Zb. kan-ak, to do ; Is. molust-uk, Zb. naldst-ak, having seated oneself ; Is. sud-uk, Zb. sud-dk, having become. (2) The only adjectival suffix noted is -na (W. S. -a7i, S. -ind, -and), indicating possession, as in Is. pddsd-na, of or belonging to the king. (3) As alreadj' stated, the infinitive is formed by the addition of the -/i;a-suffix. The past participle follows the lines of the other PamTr languages, and need not detain us here. The perfect participle, as also already stated, is formed with the help of the -/ia-suffix. In the case of the infinitive the suffix is added to the present stem, as in Zb. deh-dk, to strike ; but, in the case of the perfect participle, it is added to the past participle, as in Zb. ded-dk, having struck. In one case the -ka of the perfect participle is irregularly added to the present base, viz. in Zb. is-dk, not *d'yad-dk, having come. B. Composition 39. As in other Pamir languages, the genitive usually resembles a iatptcrusa compound, as in Id'l sanduq, a 40] INDEXES, ERANIAN 23 ruby-box, i.e. a box of rubies ; durr -^urjln, a pearl-sack, i.e. a sack of pearls. But the Persian order is sometimes used instead, as in sanduq la'l and -^uj-jin durr. 40. I have noted the following prepositions used as verbal prefixes : — Av. Skr. d in Is. a-pu-^t-dn, they listened ; I,s. a-toyd, Zb. a-tayd, he entered, compared with Is. tdyd, he went. Av. Skr. ni, in Is. nulust, Zb. naldst, he sat down. Av. paitiS, in Is. poviutsuk, to clothe ; Zb. picmetsav, clothe ye ; Av. paitismu-^ta-, Phi. patono-^tan (Horn, Grundriss, 160). Perhaps Av. Skr. apa occurs in the Is. word p)edin, set thou alight; but I do not know the derivation of this word, and its very meaning is doubtful to me. Indexes of the Words quoted in §§ 10-40 (For Old Persian, Avesta, and Sanskrit, the order of words is that customary for these languages. For other languages the order is that explained at the beginning of the Vocabulary appended to this work, consonants only being taken into account.) Eranian *duta-, 22, 24. *gandhuma-, 23. Old Persian a{h)uramazddh-, 8. ^ bar-, 17. dasta-, 24, 31. Pahlavi dut, 14. taxr, 37. haft, 28. td-^tan, 28. patmoxtan, 40. AVESTA aurvata(-ka-), 17. ast-, 19, 35, 38 (1). ap-, dp-, 19. asti, 35. apa-, 40. asm-, 8, /35, 38 (1). araSa- 16. azdm, 8, 31. 24 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI aMa, 12, 34. a-, 40. dp-, see ap-. uMra-, 17. /ca/a-, 21,-26,;38(1). kardta-, 16, 20, 30. forsto, 16, 20, 22, 30. gav-, 23. gu0a-. 26. (/aosa-, 15, 23, 32. yura-, 12, 26. XOTj)-, 22, 33. -^Sira-, 8. XS'was, 32, 33. ysvipta-, 33. caOvaro, 14, 20. casman-, 12, 20, 34. jan-, 23. jaini-, 23. V tec-, 28. tona, 17, 20. tarSna-, 8. tao-xma-, 28. dantan-, 30. dardna-, 24, 30. (iasa, 24, 31. v/ c^a-, 24. (^tt78a, 13, 17, 24. duma-, 14. dura-, 14, 24, 29. daeva-, 1,5, 19, 24. ^^rai/o, 17, 27. paitiS, 40. paitisviiiyta- , 40. pa8a-, pdBa-, 14, 20, 25. panca, 12, 22. piMra-, 34. -J hand-, 23. V6ar-, 17. haranti, 30. 6asto-, 12, 23, 35. hdvdza-, 16. v/ kV, 23. 6uta-, 23. ^uza-, buza-, 13, 23. &?'ato, 14, 22, 23. nairya-, 29, 38 (1). ndvian-, 29. ■wv, 40. nisasta-, 32. nuram, 13. maiSya-, 25, 29. mdrdta-, 16, 22. msrsta (-ka-), 30. miOra-, 8. V'muc- + i^aitis, 22. musti-, 34. mae.sa-, 32. Vvac-, 37. i/t^axs-, 14. vafra-, 19, 27, 37. I'a?'-, 19. vdhrka-, 8, 19, 22. visaiti, 14. I'ohuni-, 14. V'me;i-, 15, 19, 29. raoyna-, 29. sardta-. 31. su^ra-, 27. suj-iti-, 13, 22, 28. staoni-, 35. s^/i, 13, 32. sydva-, 35. sruta-, 35. INDEXES, — SANSKRIT, ISHKASHMI 25 Sanskrit sraoni-, 35. V^u-, 13, 32. ^/zan-, 31. zdvdd-, 30. hapta, 12, 28, 36. anya-, 8. aj)«-, 40. asm-, 8. astau, 12, 34. asii, 35. asthi-, 8. a-, 40. -w-rana-, 30. rksa-, 16. kapota-, 15, 22. hrkavdkxi-, 8. /crta-, 16, 30. ksira-, 8. khara-, 12. godhuma-, 23. tirtha-, 8. ISKASMi tt(io7c^, 13, 17, 24. a7i, 8. apu-^tdn, 40. ttr/c, 8, 19, 22. iirnaduk, 19. urwes, urwesak, 38 (1). uspir, 14, 17. asi, 35. ft,^, 14. asi/^, 35, 38 (1). d;;, 12, 19, 34. atoyd, 40. wcZ, 12, 19, 28, 36. Au-, 14. haetu-, 18, 38 (1). hvar-, 36. Vx^a^-, 36. X^aeSa-, 15, 25, 36. trsna-, 8. trdsa-, 8. nasta-, 14, 31. ■?ias(x, 14, 31. ■Jii-, 40. paksman-, 20, 34. panca-, 12. prsta-, 16. phdla-, 14, 17. tnusti-, 34. mrta-, 16. mrtaka-, 30. yuga-, 18, 25. w/ot-, 8, 19, 22. *sphdla-, 14, 17. sveda-, 25, 36. avzuk, 30. az, 8, 19, 31. dlild, 24. c?aA,, 24, 31. dumb, 14. ddnd, 30. c^w (far), 14, 24, 29 ; (a ravine), 24, 30. durr, 39. dws«, 12, 24, 31. dti;, 14, 22, 24. /ei, 21. M 17. 26 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI fnit, 12, 16. rii, 23. 'yuddrga, 26. ryol, 15, 23, 32. yundum, 23. yivzd, 23. r^eM, 37. he, 37. M, 16, 20, 30. kuL 16, 20, 22, 30. kurust, 37. /wwoid, 15, 22. xafnk, 21, 26, 38 (1). ;x;^<•5f, 14. xoi, 32, 33. X'U'in, 33. xair, 15, 25, 36. XttT, 12, 26. ^urjin, 39. xarWc, 38 (1). ■^arum, 36. X^M's, 16, 33. la'l, 39. fey, 15, 19, 24. 7?ied, 25, 29. ??ie^, 32. mul, 16, 22, 38 (1). muluk, 30, 38 (1). mut, 34. nulust, 32, 40. niUustuk, 38 (1). 'Tie?', 13. 7UM-/i;, 29, 38 (1). wfe, 14, 31. pu, 14, 20, 25, 37. pedin, 40. ^)ac?sana, 38 (2). 2}dm, 20, 34. pomubibk, 22, 40. ^-il«0, 12, 22. p>ut, 34. ™i, 12, 17, 27. reyn, 29. remtoz, 8. ?nt.s(;, 37. safed, 35. sanduq, 39. s^wZ, 13, 32. sa?'cZ, 31. stt^'x. 27. stwd 13, 22, 28. su, 35. kih, 22, 33. siic^, 13, 32, 35. siiduk, 38 (1). Sinj, 35. sitttr, 17. s« 25. Yz. -^vor, 36. W. itto, 24. W. pei, 21. W. p^sttw, pilziiv, 30. Yz. mi^, 8. S. spur, 17. Persian ars, 8. IxLSt, 12. dirhain, diram, hec, 37. liasCir, 36. X%, 14. X'M.?!, 14. XiTS, 16, 33. warud, 14, 17, 22, 23. verak, 17, 38 (1). wist, 14. wuz, 13. zai, 31. ND YtiDfA. Mj. varfa, 27. Yd. verfoh, 27. Yd. twis^, 14. Sg. 2/xl, 18, 37. Mj. ydoya, 19. Yd. ynuy, 19. Yd. 2/estoA., 19. GUAGES W. tilrt, 8. S. wox^, 19. S. wurj, 8. W. wisi, 14. S. vtst, 14. S. wuvd, 19. S. -(ws, 19. W. yax, 19. W. ?/wjj/t-, 19. W. zato, 18, 32. S. zez,l8, 32. S. iesd, 18, 23, 32. paSm, 34. supdr, 14. .s7r, 8. sai'am, 17. /((/x, 37. (■(>,' 8. ■was, 14. 41-8] the article 29 Dardic Languages Khowar, asru, 8. Kalasa, kakawak, 8. Khowar, dro-^um, 8. Other Languages Baloci, dir, 14. Greek, Spa^M, 8. Baloci, dit, 14. Arabic, taqsim, 22. Ormuri, ic^k, 19. Arabic, waqt, 22. IV. INFLEXION A. The Article 41. The indefinite article is indicated by the numeral luak or wok, one, as in (12) ^ ivak kud dyad, a dog came ; (37) tvok ddam nulustuk, a man has sat down. There does not appear to be any occurrence of the definite article in the story. No doubt the demonstrative pronouns are used with this force when it is required. In Zb. the numeral %vok is also used for the indefinite article. Occasionally we find instances of the Prs. yd-e- wahdat, wliich in Zb. is weakened to -e. Thus, armdn-e, a longing. Sometimes both tvok and -e are used, as in wok bdzargdii-e %vod, there was a certain merchant. B. Nouns Substantive and Adjective 42. Gender. — I have not traced any signs of distinction of gender. 43. Nmnher. — Throughout the story the plural nomi- native is everywhere the same as the singular. Moreover, when the noun is inanimate, the nominative plural governs a singular verb. Thus : — • (8) wev der ztinduk sud, their bellies became hungry. (11) ar-tvadak tsam kur Sud, both eyes became blind. (17) i tsaTTi tdza su, his eyes will become restored. ' Here and elsewhere the numerals refer to the paragraphs of the Iskasini story. 30 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [44 But, in the story, der and tsam are the only two inanimate nouns that occur in the plural. One instance occurs of an animate plural noun in tlie nominative : — (12) do ddam-dn sdwul hid, the two men went (on) the road. Here the sufBx -dii belongs to sud (sud-dn, they went), and is not the sign of the plural of ddam. It will be observed that here the plural nominative is the same as the singular, but that, with an animate subject, the verb is in the plural. In Zb. a plural is formed by adding -ui or -en. Either seems to be used indifferently. Thus tdt, a father ; tdt-ai or tdt-en, fathers : indl, property ; nndl-ai, properties. I consider that the form in -en is the original, and that -ai stands for -e, a development of -en, by apocope of the final consonant, which is verj^ common in Zb. (see § 37, 1). The plural forms occur for both animate and inanimate nouns. Tlie phiral termination is often dropped, or, in other words, the plural may optionally have the same form as the singular. This is the general rule when the noun is in agreement with a numeral, or with an adjective indicating plurality. Occasionally, in Zb., we find a periphrastic plural, as in hamrah, a friend ; plural, liamrali-gan. 44. Case. — The vocative is the same as the nominative. The accusative is generally the same as the nominative, as in : — (6) tio ^e bdm kitr Icun, do thou make thine own eye blind. (16) wak tabib avlratu, bring ye a physician. Tills form of accusative is common in cognate accusatives, as in : — (3) safar-dn sud, they went a journey ; and in nominal verbs, as in : — (13) kiid u-an kiUal kal, the dog did leadino- him, i.e. led him. 44] DECLENSION 31 Sometimes the accusative is formed by adding -i to the nominative. As shown by Zb. (see belowr, §§ 48-9), this is really the termination of the oblique case, the use of which, in Is., is confined to the accusative. Thus : — (13) wi dimib-i nad, he grasped its tail. (19) i gul gap-i sud, he heard all his talk. (27) wa xvuz-i zoyd, he took the goat. (27) i tal-^a-i zoyd, he took its bile. (33) -y^azina-i-yaib-i isafak talapuni, I demand a hidden treasure from Your Honour. (Here the first i in ^azina- i-yaib-i is izdfat.) Note that in the frequently recurring word ambi, a cave, the final i is part of the word, and is not the sign of the accusative. There is a general oblique case, which in the singular is always the same as the nominative. As explained above, it originally ended in -i, which has been dropped. For the plural oblique see below (| 47). The oblique case may be used by itself for almost any case, as in the following : — (12) wak roz, td vuzer, nulust, he sat for one day till evening. (19) saliar tsa ivadak -^lot, at dawn he arose from there. (33) wak dzd ambi dst, in a certain place there is a cave. The genitive is usually expressed, as in other Pamir languages, by simply prefixing the governed to the governing noun thus : — (15) pddsd -)(an, the king's house. (21) pddsd qusldq, the king's town. (24) pddsd udoyd tsdm, the king's daughter's eyes. The reverse order sometimes occurs, that of Persian being followed. Thus : — (5, 9) wak lav gdla, a piece of bread. (33) durr x'^rjln and also ^urjin durr, a sack of pearls. 32 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [45 (33) la'l sanduq and also sancl'wq la'l, a box of rubies. The force of the genitive may be given by converting the governed noun into an adjective of possession by adding the suffix -na (see § 38, 2). Thus : — (16) pddSd-na wak udoyd ktir siidtik, a daughter of the king has become blind. 45. Other case relations are indicated with the aid of prepositions and postpositions added to the oblique form. The following are prepositions : — dar, in. ta, until, up to. jpa, in, into. tar, to, into, on to, up to. 'po, in. ba, from. The following are postpositions : — ha, to, for. dzd, near to, to (place) = had, after. Hindi pas. dariin, among, within, sar dza in front of. vis, below, underneath. Sometimes a noun may be governed by a preposition and a postposition at the same time, the two forming a compound, with the noun between. Thus : — • pa . . . hun, below. po . . . darun, inside. 46. The following are examples of the use of these prepositions and postpositions : — (16) pddsd dar yazab sud, the king became in anger, i.e. became enraged. (19) nakwa kur p)a avibi be viid, tliis blind man, who was in the cave. (18) )(e dfist pa kid du, (if) he put his hand into the pool. (12) td vuzer nuhcst, he sat till evening. (21) tar pddsd qusldq sud, he went to the klno-'s town. (13) tar amhi luan wud, he took him into the cave. (18) tar cendr wan sdmhu, (if) he smear it on to the plane-tree. 47] POSTPOSITIONS 33 (31) tar ta-xt nid, sit down on to the tVirone. (15) az-im ner tar pddsd )(dn-um, vud, I was to-day in the king's house. (14) -^urs tsa urwes frut, the bear inquired from the fox. (18) isa kul velc zdnzu, (if) he take water from the pool. The preposition tsa often drops its final vowel, as in :— (10) is'-x^ sdr ivah tsdin kif, from thine own head pierce an eye. So : — (7) is'-wadak, from there, thence. (28) sahar pddsd ha xobar sud, at dawn news came to the king. (34) htd amhi ha, he went to the cave. (35) ^nan pddSd ha ussitm, shall I take this off to the king ? (34) x^ x^ruk hd avul, pomutsuk ha mus avul, he obtained (food) for his own eating, he obtained clothes for putting on. (17) tu ondl darun wok kahut vwz dst, among thy cattle there is a blue goat. (20) xS dust ded kul darun, he put his own hand within the pool. (29) pddsd dzd-dn dyad, they came near (to) the king. (18) amhi sar dzd ivak sabs cendr dst, in front of the cave there is a green plane-tree. (20) cendr vis sud, he went beneath the plane-tree. The preposition pa combines with i, it, into pi. We thus get pi bun (for pa i bun) wak kul dst, below it there is a pool (18). (33) po wa amhi darun wak ^y^rjln durr dst, within that cave there is a sack of pearls. 47. In the plural the oblique case is generally the same as the nominative. Sometimes it ends in -dw or -d, corresponding to the W. -aw, S. -iw, and Yd. -ef. Examples of the oblique plural are : — 34 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [48 Accusative. — (25) agar mun lodoyd tsdin taza kul-ut, if (i.e. when) thou hasfc made my daughter's eyes restored. (21) pddsd -^e wazir-dw gvZ kill, the king assembled his viziers. Oblique case. — (8) cand roz sdwal-dn to-yd, they went along the road for some days. (16) pddsd ^e luazir dar yazctb sud, the king became in anger with his viziers. (18) tar xe tsdm sdmhu, (if) he smear (it) on his eyes. (16) pddsd -^e xuazlr-d ha "yezd, the king said to his viziers. (22) tsa %vazlr-d%v frut, he inquired from the viziers. 48. In Zb. the declension of nouns closely resembles the above. The oblique case, singular and plural, ends in -a, -e, or -i. These can all be used as terminations of the oblique case, but there is a tendency to use -a most often for the genitive, and -i most often for the accusative, although in each case either of the other two terminations may be used instead. As in Is. this termination is very often dropped, so that all these cases— accusative, genitive, and oblique — then have the same form as the nominative. On the other hand, the genitive sometimes adds its termination to the oblique form in -i, instead of directly to the base. Thus, the oblique case of sal, a year, is sdl-i, and from this a genitive, sdl-i-a is formed, as in am verdk tsamend sdl-i-a dst, of how many years (i.e. how old) is this horse ? 49. As examples of these Zb. forms we may quote : — vuts-a zdt avi-a i-^d-i-a naddk, the son of the uncle has married this (person)'s sister. Here ruts-a is genitive of vtits, an uncle ; am-a is genitive of avi, this; and i-^d-i is the accusative of i-^d, a sister ; the -o., being the pronominal suffix indicating " he ", the subject of naddk. yii -xdtir gdl-i (nom. gdla)-S dud, thou gavest (dud-e), bread for him. 50] ZEBAKl DECLENSION 35 .lea ti zat-i Idyiq-am nasi, I am not worthy for (i.e. to be) thy son. Here zdt-i is the oblique singular of zdt a son, governed by the preposition ka. Nast-am, I am not. zin-a ka verdk-a dam deh, put the saddle on the horse's back. Here zin-a is the accusative, and verdk-a is the genitive. ao ka took verdk-a sar, pa u darayt-a vis, naldstak, he is seated on a horse under that tree. Here verdk-a is in the oblique case, governed by ka . . . sar, and similarly darayt-a, governed by pa . . . vlL The termination -e is merely a variant of -i, and examples of it are unnecessary. In my materials it occurs only in paradigms, and not in connected sentences. As examples of the dropping of the termination in Zb., we may quote : — ba payao we neivar, draw water from the well. Here we is in the accusative. Its full form is wek, ace. wek-i, so that not only has the termination of the accusative, but also the final consonant has been dropped (see § 37, 1). wok naukar qivd, lie called a servant. Here naukar is in the accusative. ka tvds wand, bind with a rope. Here was is in the oblique case. So many others. The plural follows exactly the same lines, the terminations -a, -e, and -i being added to the nominative plural. All this shows the origin of the Is. termination -i of the accusative and of the genitive construction. In Zb. the terminations of the oblique case are in process of disappearance, but the -i is still more or less preferred for the accusative. In Is. this accusative termination -i is the only one that has survived, and it, too, is falling out of use. In the genitive and the oblique case the termination has altogether disappeared. 50. Adjectives. — Adjectives call for few remarks. In both Is. and Zb. they are immutable, changing neither for 36 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHDLAMI [51 r 1^ r '. '. '. \ 1' 8 S iS -g 'S '2 2 S S "a r ?^ o £ § -s 'S 1 § '§ i§ l§ to It^ • ■ • - s 1-^ l(S> io ^ -a Sh ?^--s § s !« 1 a: IS » •^ ',2 r-O S ^-i -O -t.o. o „ .1 'g s le ,§ '.-s ^ 'g § ro -s -a a,'? -^ -^ s ^ CO Its ?- 1*^ Si o 1 1 ■§ *| 1 1 § 1 -§1 : « '^ . '3 id -* ^ •S.T^ XUO.IJ paAiojjog Sanglici. 1 Iskasmi. 1 Zebaki. UIOJJ JSj p3M0J |§ •| -aog § ~ iS e^ '~ o -^ TO. y 's ■ij uio.ij paA\o.i.ioa 'bJO a a o „ CO tj .,, . ra JS "^ (a r— "a Th r— * CO 52] PRONOUNS 37 gender nor for nymber. The adjective precedee the qualified substantive. Tlie Is. materials give no example of the comparative degree. In Zb. the Prs. suffix -tar is used to form both comparative and superlative, as in Zh. fen-tar, better or best, the thing v^^ith which comparison is made being put in the oblique case, governed by tsa, from. Occasionally we come across an adjective used in the Persian manner with izafat, as in Is. (33) ^azina-e-yaib, a hidden treasure. The same sometimes occurs in Zb., and in both cases is evidently mere borrowing. 51. A comparative list of numerals appears on p. 36. The Is., W., and Yz. forms are those collected by Sir Aurel Stein ; the Zb., Mj., and Yd. forms are taken from my materials, and the others from Shaw and Geiger. C. Pronouns 52. The following are comparative tables of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd personal pronouns. The Is. forms are those collected by Sir Aurel Stein. The Zb., Mj., and Yd. forms are taken from my materials, and the others are from Shaw and Geiger. No forms are available for Sg. and Yz. Each of these pronouns has two forms of the genitive — an ordinary genitive, corresponding to our "my", "thy", "his", etc., and a genitive absolute, formed in Zb. by adding -nen (or -nan) or, after a consonant, -en (or -an) to the simple genitive. The genitive absolute corresponds to our " mine ", " thine ", " his ", " hers ", " ours ", " yours ", and "theirs", respectively. No forms of the genitive absolute are available for Is. The corresponding termina- tions in other languages are W. S. -an, S. -end, -nd. It is parallel to the adjective of possession (Is. -na, W. S. -an, S. -ind, -and) used as a genitive of nouns, as described in §§38,2; 44. ' 88 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [53 CD CO O a S si S .>.. S e s e e s s s; s o 't; 1^ 1^ 1^ '^ ™ r- r-i r-a r-i •^ c- C C- O m » i ^ i ^ O ^ ^ o' ^ 3 S S S fS t:-" ^ c- c- o ■S 1 ^§ i % t ^§ s s s g s "x ^2 =0 CO co^ cc O «> r^ C^ O § § 1 § Ix! g ^ S P ^^X S S !0 X S c- r-> jO rO r^ !3 ?: c- ?: ? X i 10 10 ic 10 10 s s s s s c* a Its M I— 1 § s s s " s § 1 ^ G O C- C- Cv.. Oj. Oi. cv.. ou. 'bio ^??; o o o o .a 3 3 55] PRONOUN OF SECOND PERSON 39 3 O a o u a) P-i in "i. 1 XXX X IS IS '8 IS S § '~' S g g ?- o § S 8 « ^ ^ >! ^ 'TS •• fO c c* e- ?- 'T3 IS IS IS IS IS ^ ^ ^ i cy ^ Oi !>- ^ -to -V-i -K> -to -Kj fO r^ fO ^ fO ? ?: ?: ?: ? !5 i:3 c3 e e -io "to -to -to -to l-H 5- g 'o '? ? ^ § -co ^05 ^CO ^CO ^ T* 18 IS IS IS IS S ^5- ?^ S "i -^ :S -^ O 'C^ ■"-' *f?J •'?-' s S s S s s s s s s lo -fo -w -s:* 10 ">< s. S cS ^e -« s s ^ , V ? o 5s 1 1 ■12 5. ?> ;i ;s ^ ^ .^ -^ « IS s s iS e -Ki HO -to -W! -K3 OD 00 Co CO CO 1=3 o 5 ;p ^ ^ §^ >H o 1 § e o -♦o ^ ^ -so -to § S 8 - S g s ? s g s IfH IS i5 s 'S^s^ •■i-. o s 2 s^ le'iQ ^ s is" r=i o 2 ^« o o -w C* ^^^ 1^ t^ s 2 ^y rt ?e e- c- *^ 03 c- IS s tf-H lO i> r> > ''>' lO lO lO 'O lO lO -to -s- -lo to so -to -to -sj -to -to IS G -^ X ^3 le XX^ X s s s s -^ s^ S c? s s s -to -*o -t-j "to ■+0 -W CV,. so CC aj ^ r^ r^ [m 1^ =« S -ti c n ^ S -ti c s ^• . • O c3 a) 0) ^ ,. O ^ ^*;2; fi o o o 31? QOOO 02 ^ 40 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [57 P^ .-J ^ o a CM. •"t^ ■ -^ • -s* cv" ■ r^ 'r^ ^11 1 >H see s « S ?^ S s pj i-»s _ r* . r, ^. £ ^3 ::i X/2 ^ T . ? o" ^ hL ^+^ '-^ "-^ '^ S ^ ^ ;d :::> ::^ z^ Z Z <>■ r!" •:^ (^ (^ '^ "o ■=_ i ! -M e ■s 7 ?" •^O ^- :l>- Xj- ^' 1 cS :-^ -.^ -^ -c^ o ■- ■~ -c^ •~ 03 ^1^:^=1 i^ 5 li :^. ;i i „. ^ ~ <-. <>^ t?^ ^ <>^ (v ^ r^ ;^ ">< s ^ ^ o 7 o o o ;^ ;:^. ^ ;i ^ e s e « S S S S r £ ?i ;»i ?^ ^ ?2 ?=^ =^- ^- =^ ^ Its ro ^.^ ■■0 1 55 ^ S S ^ >H O 8 ^ - § fi ? e => ~ :^ ^ 5. c^^ c- ~ ^ ^ ,rJ ^) ^ c S ^ le '■+--- ,^ jo3 e g -^ w""*^ • 5 •^^ -^ ^ ^ • -^ '^ ^ '-+L '-^-^ S ^ 2 ^S ^ g g 'S .- s' g ~ o- ^^ '^ c-i ^ ^ ^C} ^ (y -^ 'S 1e ,3 r-s" e e ^ e 1 cS ■?• 1^ ■^ ^ -^ -^ "^ r^ rO ,<. ,^ ^ -^ rO c^ '~J cv •r- o o c* c- ia> ^,^~ ^O 3i ^ 5^ 5D N] o IS IS IS ^ tS- c^ ? ? a ?-, ?^ ^ §2 ■e 'e '^5 ^^ 'e S le "'K -o icS ^ .^ c^. ,^ CVi- * l-H ^ w ^ ^ -^ r-' O' s CO _C -^ ^ CO =s •^ 'm 5 -^ n c 5-1-^ d c — ' a fl";?^ ft O O 2 o , • O e3 (U ^ CO E 54-8] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 41 54. The following are examples of the use of the pronoun of the 1st person in Is. : — (6, 25) as tu-hd ckiyuvi, I will give to thee. (30) az zus, I (am thy) son. (35) az ^adak ^aru7n, nedum, I myself will eat, I will sit. (5) ivah lav gala inum-bd dai, give to me a piece of bread. (24) inum-bd hukm be 6u, if the order be (given) to me. (26, 33) muvi-bd izum, bring to me. (25) agar mun udoyd bam tdza kul-ut, if (i.e. when) thou madest my daughter's eyes restored. 56. The following are examples of the use of the pronoun of the 2nd person in Is. : — • (6) tu ye bdm kicr kun, make thou thine eye blind. (29) x^ 'U'doyd tu-bd dayum; tu ^us-wa-^t sul, (if) I give to thee my daughter, wilt thou be pleased? (32) ciz talapi tu, what dost thou demand ? (6, 10, 25) az tu-hd dayum, I will give to thee. (33) Id'l sanduq gul mum-bd, durr -^urjln gul tu-bd, the box of rubies is all for me, the sack of pearls is all for thee. (17, 26) tu mdl darun wak kabiU vuz dst, in thy flock there is a blue goat. (22) ner-bd dah roz tamu^-bd qardr vtud, ner tamu^ zanum,, the agi-eement for you was ten days up to to-day, to-day I will kill you. 58. The following are examples of the use of« the pronoun of the 3rd person in Is. : — (IS) wa cendr nasu, (if) he grasp the plane-tree. (20) wa cend?' nad, he grasped the plane-tree. (27) wa vuz-i zoyd dyad, he took the goat (and) came. (13) ktvd ivan kutalk/Cd, wad ; tar ambi wan wud, the dog led him (and) took him away, (and) took him away into a cave. 42 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [59 (18) tar cendr wan sdmbu, (if) he smear it on the plane-tree. (33) ivan zdnz mum-ha, izum, take it (and) bring it to me. (4) i der zunduk sud, his belly became hungry. (17) agar . . . i korost zdnz,itsdm tdza su,\l he takes its skin, his eyes will become restored. (18) i tsdm siyat Su, his eyes will become restored. (19) i gul gap'i sud, he heard all his talk. (27) i tal-^d-i zo-^d, he took its bile. (28) i uddyd isdm siluat sud, his daughter's eyes became well. (38) i der kanddr kid, he made his belly pieces (i.e. he tore it in pieces). (13) ivi dumh-i nad, he grasped its tail. (8) wev der zUnduk sud, their bellies became hungry. 59. As in the other Pamir languages, free use is made of pronominal suffixes. A comparative table of those in use is given on the page opposite. When these suffixes consist of more than one letter, the initial vowel is dropped after another vowel ; or, more correctly speaking, the initial vowels of these suffixes do not really form part of the suffixes, and are only inserted, for the sake of euphony, when the suffix follows a consonant. Sometimes, if a suffix is added to a word ending in i, the vowel of the suffix is retained, and a, y is inserted between the two vowels so as to prevent a hiatus. Thus (38) ham-digari-y-dn. No information is available as to the forms of the suffixes for the plurals of the 1st and 2nd persons in Is. The forms given for Mj. and Yd. should be taken with some reserve, as the materials from which they are furnished ai"e rather scanty. The Yn. forms are borrowed from Persian. As regards Zb. it will be remembered that this dialect is fond of rejecting a final consonant (§ 37). This accounts 59] PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES 43 03 m i5 o !z; o p-l 1^ ,o o c 1^ -t^ lo ?- t?~ c3 1 s 1 ^:o 'M ^ f-i \A o 2 <>" g- r^"^ f-i 1^ 3 t S ■!> 1 ,^ o 0) >-^ ^ c-s cS c3 f* -t^ ?^ Q ?> 02 e § « !^ !5 <^ "?< "iS> ■cS> -4^ iJ > c3 O ,-■ fO e C^ ice ■■W ' w ;^ ■1 — i c 3 fO" r^ s^^ ■t:^" S i (—. >o ■5 „ li-H __ ^ !.> (-^ ■<^ r— ( j-^ c4 'o ^ • ^ ■» qT <4> POi ^ 1 Ic^"" ' N 1 » c5 1 •a:) I ^ •^ ^ r-S irH ? s c-J t^ ^CQ cy 1C3 „ Oj. cv.. 3 .-^ ^ ^-^ o 5^ h- ( '•^ C? 'y 1 o &J0 a o CD bio a o bi] ; 'So G 3 P-( 3 Ph c 3 c CO m Ph C/3 p-i ■^ CO Ph 1-H IM CO 44 TSHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [60 for the duplicate forms -en, -e ; -ev, -e, and so on. In Zb. the suffix of the 3rd person singular is -a, but it is very often omitted, so that we here see, as usual, the origin of the fact that Is. does not — at least as far as the story shows — use any suffix for this person. 60. As in other Pamir languages, these suffixes are most often employed to indicate the person of a past tense of a verb. Thus, Is. cqm-^t-dn, they listened. But they are separable, and ai-e most commonly attached, not to the verb, but to some other word in the sentence. Thus, (35) az-im lev sud, for az lev sitd-im, I became mad. When this occurs the suffix may be repeated several times in the sentence, as in (2) do ddam-dn safar-dn sud for do ddam safar sud-dn, two men went a journey. 61. Other examples of the use of these suffixes in Is. are the following : — (15) az-im ner tar ^jad^a y^dn-um sud, to-day I went into tlie king's house. Here the suffix occurs twice — as -Im (exceptional for -im), and as -um. (14) t%i-t hum, dzd tvtid, (in) what place wast thou ? For tit . . . wud-at. (18) ai tu-t 'ptuUa befdm-at vuduk, O king, thou hast become foolish. Here the suffix occurs twice ; for tu . . . b'efdm vuduh-at. (3) tsand roz-dn Mwal stod, for some days they went along the road. • (7) fs' -wadak-dn toyd, from there they went on. (29) pddsd dzd-dn dyad, they, came near the king. (36) dyad-dn, apu-^-dn, they came, the}? listened. (38) ham-digar-i-y-dn keu kid, they made trouble to each other. Here hum-digar-l is the accusative of ham- digar, and y is inserted before the -an for the sake of euphony. Sometimes these suffixes are used instead of the verb substantive. Thus : — (30) tu-t tdt, thou art (my) father. 63] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 45 62. In Zb. these suffixes are employed not only to indicate the subject of the verb, but also in a wider way. Thus, in az-im yd zdt ha fai taziana dedak-ann-a, I have beaten his son with many stripes; the subject "I" is indicated by -iin and -am, and the object "him" (i.e. the son) is indicated by the suffix -a. Bedak-am-a accordingly means " I have beaten him ". Again, in apnit-a wod-am, the subject " he " is indicated by -a, and the indirect object " for me " is indicated by -am. The phrase is therefore literally, " lost-he was-for-me," i.e. I lost him. 63. Dem,onstrative Pronouns. — In Is. the proximate demonstrative pronoun appears under two forms. The first is nakiva, this. The base nak- also appears in S. nak-yam, this way, and nak-dds, thus ; in Yn. nah-it, this very (sg. ace.) ; and perhaps in S. ik-yam, this very. I connect the Is. S. and Yn. forms with Skr. ena-, Phi. Prs. in, to which the -/ca-suffix has been added. The affiliation of the S. form to this group is doubtful. It is more probably to be referred to Skr. ayam, Prs. e, also with the -/ca-suffix. The other form appears in man, this (ace. sg.), and miv, their. This also occurs in W. yem, this ; S. yam, this {sg. obi. mi, pi. nom. moS, obi. mef) ; s. yem, yam, this (sg. obi. mi,,pl. maB, obi. mef) ; Mj. ma, this (pi. obi. maf); Yd. mo, wem, this (sg. pbl. man, pi. obi. maf) ; Zb. has am, this. The following examples of this pronoun occur in the Is. story : — (17) agar nakwa vuz avirl, if he finds this goat. ., (19) nakiua kur pa ambi be vud, this blind man who was in the cave. (35) man padsd ha ussum, shall I take away this to the king ? (23) waJc roz miv guna ba fak tilapum, I ask from Your Honour (pardon for) the fault of these for one day. 46 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [64 64. The remote demonstrative pronoun is tva, that, etc., the same as the 3rd personal pronoun. Thus : — (33) po tva ambi darun, inside that cave. Another remote demonstrative pronoun found in Sir Aurel Stein's list is dlr, that. With this we may compare S. sg. obi. di, this (pi. nom. duh, obi. def) ; S. di, of this (PL nom. dad, obi. def). Geiger (p. 320) compares the S. and S. forms with the Pasto de, tliis. I am unable to account for the final r in the Is. form, unless the latter is a dative. 65. In Zb. the personal pronoun of the 3rd person is used as the remote demonstrative. When used as an adjective any of the forms ao, u, or ivo may be used for any number or case, but the two latter have not been noted in agreement with a nominative. 66. Reflexive Pronoun. — The reflexive pronoun in Is. is -^ad-alc, self, in which the -ak is the -/ca-suSix. We may compare the emphatic termination -aO in S. y(Lib-a6, self. Wi.th ^adak we may compare W. -^ut, S. ;)(?i, S. -^u, -^uh-ad, Yd. koyali (so Biddulph, ? ^oyah). As an example for Is., we have : — (35) ao ^adak ^(liniin, neduin, I myself will eat, will sit. 67. Sir Aurel Stein's list also gives fak, self, a word which I have not found in this sense in the story. In form it resembles S. filk, S. /■?(,/,;,, all, but does not agree in meaning with these words. The nearest form in this sense that I have met is the Dardic (Gawarbati) phu-ka, self. I have no suggestion to make as to its derivation, unless it is connected with Skr. sva- (through *spa-, *hpa-, *pha-), self, with the Dardic change of v to ^J and the -/.'rt-suffix. In this case tlie word would be bori-owed from Dardic. The word fak occurs twice in the story, and in each case seems to mean " Your Honour ", much as, in Hindi, dp means both "self" and "Your Honour". Thus :— 69] RELATIVE PRONOUN 47 (23) wale roz miv gxona tsa fak tilapum, I demand from Your Honour (pardon for) their fault for one day. (33) ■^azina-e-'yaih ba fak talapum, I demand from Your Honour a hidden treasure. 68. The Is. word for " own " is )(e. As usual it always refers to the subject of the sentence and means "my own", "thy own", "his own", etc., according to the context. The corresponding words in the other Pamir languages are Zb. x^, Mj. -x^ai, Yd. x'we, W. S. ^u, ^- x^' Yn. x'^'P'^. X^P'''- ^^^ word occurs very frequently in the story. A few examples will suffice : — (6) tu -^e bain kur kun, make thine own eye blind. (10) is' --^e sdr wak tsdm kif, pierce an eye from thine own head. (7) fn xe tsdm kift, Good pierced his own eye. 69. Relative Pronoun. — In all tlie PamTr languages the force of the relative pronoun is most generally expressed by the help of a verbal adjective in (W.) -ung ov (S.) -enj. Thus (Shaw, JASB. xlv, p. 169), W. cini skot-ung x^^9' the person who breaks the cup. As has occurred in many languages, there is also a tendency to employ the base of an interrogative pronoun with the force of a relative. Thus, in the story, we have tee or fee or za (cf. Yd. fei, what ?) used as relatives in : — (18) tse-rang kur be vioni, whatever kind of blind man who there may be, equivalent to "if there be any kind of blind man ". (19) nakwa kur pa ambi be vud, this blind man who was in the cave. (34) he clz nus vud, za wadak paidd na su, tliere was not anything which is not manifest there. As in the first example, fee or fee may practically have the force of " if ". Similarly : — (24) mum ha hukm be su, if there be an order (given) to me. Zb. uses the Prs. ki as a relative. 48 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [70 70. Interrogative Pronouns. — In Is. kudum is " who ? " and kum or clz is "what?'.'. So ktim dzd, what place? is used t6 mean " where ". The corresponding words in other Pamir languages are : — Who ? — Zb. kdi, Mj. kedeva, Yd. kedi, W. kui, S. cot, S. cdi, ci, Yn. ka-^^ (obi. kai). These all go back to the old pronominal base ka-. What?— Zb. tsiz, Mj. ste{l), Yd. ci (Biddulph, tsi), W. Mz, S. tseiz, S. kd, clz, biz, Yn. cd. These may all be compared with Prs. ci, clz. Examples of the Is. forms are : — (14) tu-t kum, dzd vud, where werest thou ? (16) clz -xobar dst, what news is there ? (32) clz talapi tu, what dost thou demand ? 71. Other Pronominal Forms in Is. : — wak, a certain (see the article, § 41). cand, band, some, several. be-rang, whatever kind of. he clz, anything. ham-digar, each other. He, in he clz, is the Prs. hec, with apocope of the final consonant (| 37). The other forms call for no remarks. The following are examples : — (8) cand roz sdwal-dn toyd, for some days they went (along) the road. (14) cand tua^t Su-^t, some time passed. (3) band roz-dn ^dwal &iid, for some daj^s they went (along) the road. (32) band roz bdd sak dyad, after several days Bad came. (18) be-rang kitr be viinl, whsntever kind of blind man who there may be. (34) he clz 7itts viid, za wadak paida na iu, there was not anything that is not manifest there. (38) ham-digar-i-y-dn keu kid, they made trouble to each other. 76] VERBS 49 D. Verbs 72. As in other Pamir languages the conjugation of the verb is founded on two principal bases — the present and the past. On the present base are founded the present- future tense, derived from the old present, and other connected tenses. The past base is the past participle. From it the past tense is formed by the addition of the separable pi'onominal sufHxes described in |§ 69 fF. A perfect participle is formed by strengthening the past participle by the addition of the -/ca-suffix (see § 38, 3). A perfect tense is formed from the perfect participle, as in the case of the past tense, by the addition of the separable pronominal suffixes. In all this Is. is in accord with the other Pamir languages. 73. The materials for illustrating the conjugation of II verb are confined to the verbal forms found in the story brought home by Sir Aurel Stein, and are necessarily incomplete. I shall do my best to complete them by the free use of my Zb. materials. 74. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person, but when there are a number of singular subjects to one verb the latter is sometimes in the singular instead of in the plural. Thus, in 36, we have ^urs, lew, urk, urwesak dyad-dn, the bear, the night-demon, the wolf, (and) the fox came, with the verb in the plural ; but, in 14, we have wak -^(urs, wak urk, wak urives, wak vayd dyad, a bear, a wolf, a fox, (and) a nightmare came, in which the verb is in the singular. 75. Verb Substantive. — The only form of the present tense of the verb substantive occurring in the Is. story is dst, he is. Thus : — (33) wak dzd ambi dst : po wa ambi darUn wak ^urjin dii,rr dst, wak sanduq Id'l dst, in a certain place there is a cave : within that cave there is a sack of pearls, there is a box of rubies. Similarly, in several other passages. 50 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AJCD YAZGHtJLAMI [V6 76. In Zb. this tense of this verb is conjugated by adding tlie separable pronominal suffixes to the 8rd person singular. Thus : — SiNonLAR Plural 1. dst-im. dst-en. 2. dst-ai. dst-ev. 3. cist. dst-en. Similarly, S. lias yost-avi, S. yast-a'm, I am, and so on, and Mj. hast-am, etc., wliile Yd. has astet for all persons of both numbers. Zb. has also the word -et, used as a suffix, to signify "is", as in raqqdsi-et, it is dancing; feri-t, he is good. With these we ma}' compare the termination of Yd. astet. 77. The past tense of the Is. verb substantive is vud, was. It takes the pronominal suffixes like any other past tense, so that we get : — Singular Plural 1. vud-im or vud-uon. ? 2. vud-at. ? 3. viid. 1 vud-dn. No forms occur for the plural. The 3rd person plural is given on the analogy of other verbs occurring in tlie story. 78. The corresponding Zb. paradigm is : — Singular Plural 1. wod-im. wod-en. 2. ivod-i. tvod-av. 3. ivod-a, luod. wod-en. The suffix differs from Is. in the 2nd person sino-ular: but otherwise, so far as they can be compared, the two agree very well together. In other Pamir languages we have : — Mj. via, Yd. vio, W. tit, or hilmilt, S. vild, S. vod, Yn. vuta, he was. It will be seen that the two forms of 82] CONJUGATION 51 W. have entirely different bases. The origin of the Mj. and Yd. forms is doubtful. 79. The following are examples of this tense in Is. : — (15) az-im (for az-im) ner tar pddSd '^(an-um vud, to-day I was in the king's house. (14) tu-t hum dzd vud, where wast thou to-day ? (19) nakwa kur pa ambi tse vud, this blind man who was in the cave. (22) ner-ha dah roz tamu-f^-ha qardr vud, (up) to-day your agreement of ten days was. (34) he clz nus vud, there was not anytliing. From the same root we have a 3rd person singular present, vuni, he becomes, and a perfect base ; vuduk, has become, in : — (18) tse-rang kur tse vuni, if there be any kind of blind man. (18) tu-t pddsd hefam-at vuduk, thou, king, hast become (i.e. art) foolish. 80. Like the Prs. sudan, the root Sio-, go, is also used to mean "become". This verb will be dealt with under the head of the active verb. 81. The Active Verb. — I commence by giving, in the folding table opposite, all the verbal forms that I have been able to collect from the Is. story. To these I have added, between marks of parenthesis, all the Zb. forms available in my own materials. On this table are based the remarks that follow. 82. Infinitive. — In Is. this ends in -uk added to the present base, as in ^ar-uk, to eat, food ; pomuts-uk, to clothe, clothing. Thus, ^e -^aruk-ba avul, pomubulc-ba mus avul, he obtained (food) for eating, he obtained clothes for putting on. In Zb. the infinitive ends in -ak, as in deh-dk, to strike ; su-dk, to go, to become. In W. it ends in -ak or -an, and in S. S. in tao. In Yd. it ends in -ak. 52 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [83 83. Conjunctive Participle. — The Pamir languages have no conjunctive participle, such as is common in India. Instead, tlie two verbs are simply put in juxtaposition, as in Is. (27) zoyd dyad, he took, he came, i.e. having taken he came, he brought, equivalent to the Hindi le dya. 84. Present-Future. — This tense, founded on the ancient present, has the force both of a present and of a future. It sometimes has the force of a present subjunctive. In Is. the terminations in the singular are as follows : — 1. -um. 2. -i, i. 3. — , ov -i. No materials are available for the plural terminations. In other Pamir languages the terminations are as follows : — Zb. Mj. Yd. W. S. S. Yn. Sing. 1. -em, -inn -um -em -am -am -(:(»i -dm 2. -s, — -% -it -I — -^, -I — 3. -'(, -ai -i -I'; -d -(/ -d -tist, -ci Plur. 1. -en -am -em -an -am -am -Im 2. -an -af -ef -it -id -id -tl 3. -en -at -et -%n -m -in -dr We may safely assume that, in the plural, the-Is. forms closely resemble those of Zb. The resemblance of the singular forms in IJj. is also marked. No information is available regarding Yz. 85. The following are examples of the use of this tense TV' m is. (6, 10, 25, 29) az tu-hd daywm., I will give to thee, (24) p(aUd udoyd tsam id:a knnum, I will make the king's daughter's eyes restored. 88] PRESENT CONDITIONAL 53 (35) Tnan pddSd-ha ussutn ? az -^adak ^aricm, nSdiim, shall I take tliis away to the king? I myself will eat, (and) will sit down. (23) ivak roz miv guna tsa fak tilcvpum, for one day, I demand from Your Honour (pardon for) their fault. (33) x^izlna-i-yaib-i ba fak takqntm, I demand a hidden treasure from Your Honour. (27) 7ie?' tamw^ zanum, to-day I will slay you. (29) tiL ^us-ivcixtt sill, wilt thou be happy ? (30) clz talapi tu, what dost thou demand ? (17) agar nakivu vuz avirijcorost zdnz,i bam taza su, if he finds this goat, (and) takes the skin, her eyes will become sound. (24) viuvi-bd hukvi tse 6u, if there be an order to me. (33) -^oh ho, it becomes well, i.e. good ' (34) he clz nils vud, za ivadak j^aidd na su, there was nothing that does not become manifest there. 86. Present Conditional. — The present-future has the force of a present conditional, but the conditional force is emphasized by the addition of the letter -ic. In Zb. -a, and in W. -o, is added with the same effect. Examples of the present conditional in Is. are : — (18) wa cendr nas-u, y^e dust pa kid dii (for de-u), tsa kid vek zdnz-u, tar cendr wan sdinbu, isa cendr zdnz-u, tar y^e tsdm sdmb-u, (if) he grasp that plane-tree, put his hand into the pool, take water from the pool, smear it on the plane-tree, take it from the plane-tree, (and) smear it on his eyes. 87. Imperative. — The 2nd person singular of the imperative is the same as the present base. The 2nd person plural adds -aw or -uw. In Zb. the only termination of the 2nd person plural is -av; in Mj. and Yd. it ends in -e; in W. it ends in -it; in S. S. in -id, and in Yn, in -t, thus following the present- future, 54 LSUKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [89 88. The following are examples of the use of the imperative in Is. : — Singular 2. — (5, 9) luak lav gala mum-ba dai, give me a piece of bread. (26, 33) mum-bd izum, bring to me. (10) ts'-xS sdr tvalc bam kif, pierce (i.e. tear out) one eye from thj' head. (6) tu ^e tsdm kur ki07i, make thine eye blind. (31) tar ta-^t nid, sit down on the throne. (37) wok cirdy pedin, light a lamp. (28, 33) su, go thou. (33) luan zdnz, take it. Plural 2. — (16) ivak tabib aviraiv, izmiiw, find ye (and) bring ye a physician. (28) ivanitw, izmuxv, call ye (and) bring. 89. Past Tense. — This is simply the past base or past participle, with the separable pronominal suffixes added to indicate number and person. As already explained (§ 60) these are most often added, not to the verb, but to some other word in the sentence. It will be remembered that, in Is., there is no suffix for the 3rd person singular. For this person, tlieref ore, the bare past participle is employed. The same procedure is followed in all the Pamir languages. A list of all the Is. and Zb. past participles known to me will be found in the table opposite p. 51. For the pronominal suffixes in the various languages, see § 59. 90. The following are examples of the use of the past tense in Is. : — Singxdar 1. — (35) az-im lev sud, did I become (i.e. am I) mad ? Singular 2. — (25) agar mun itdoyd bam tdza kid-ut, if thou madest my daughter's eyes sound. Singular 3. — (_12) wak kud dyad, a dog came. Similarly dyad in many other places. 90] PAST TENSE 55 (34) sud, ambi-bd atoyd, he went, he entered into the cave. (38) urJc atoyd, the wolf entered. (34) ^e-)(aruh bd avul, po'mutsuJc-bd inus avul, he found (food) for his eating, he found clothes to put on. (30) ^e ibdoyd fn-bd dud, he gave his daughter to Good. (20) cendr vis sud, wa cendr nad, ^e dust ded kill darun, tar cendr sdmbud, tar -^e tsdm sdmd, i isdm tdza sud, he went below the plane-tree, he seized the plane-tree, he struck (i.e. put) his hand into the pool, he smeared (it) on to the plane-tree, he smeared (it) on to his eyes. His eyes became sound. (11) fri frin. Good remained (where he was). (14) ^urs isa urwes frut, the bear inquired from the fox. (22) tsa wazirdw frut, he inquired from the viziers. (5, et passiTn) yezd, he said. (7) fri -)(S bam kift. Good pierced his own eye. (38) i der kanddr kul, he made his belly pieces (i.e. he tore it to pieces). Kul or ktd is frequently used to make nominal compound verbs, as in (37) at kul, he opened ; (38) trds kul, he feared ; (13) kutal kul, he led ; (21) gul kul, he made assembled, he called together. (27) kut, i talxd-i zoyd, he flayed (it), he took its bile. (19) sahar tsa wadak ^^tt, nust, at dawn he arose (and) went forth from there. (21) ba loadak yut, toyd, he arose (and) went from there. (34) ^ut ba wadak rawdn hid, he arose (and) set out from there. (38) ^ah mul. Bad died. (13) wi dwnb-i nad, he grasped its tail. (12) wak roz td vuzer nulust, for one day he sat (there) till evening. (31) tar ta-xf, nulust, he sat down on the throne. (4) i der zunduk hid, his belly became hungry. Similarly, hid, he became, in many other places. 56 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI [91 (20) ce7idr vis sud, he went below the plane-tree. Similarly, Slid, he went, in many other places. (19) i gid gap-i sud, he heard all his talk. (14) caiid tua-^t su^t, some time passed. (11) kdc toyd, Bad went away. (21) ba xvadak ^ut toyd, he arose and went from there. (13) kud wan kutal kid, tvud, the dog led him (and) took (him) away. (27) tar pddsd udoyd bam vust, he bound (it) on the king's daughter's eyes. (27) iva wicz-i zoyd dyad, he took the goat (and) came. (37) -xiirs cirdy zoyd, the bear took a light. Plural 3. — (36) x^"''^' ^^'^'■'^ '^'>'^^, urwesak dyad-dn; apu-)(t-dn, the bear, the night-demon, the wolf, (and) the fox came ; they listened. (29) pddSd dzd-dn dyad, they came before the king. (38) haon-digar-i-y-dn (see § 59) keu k^ol, they made trouble to (i.e. invited) each other. (2) do ddam-an safar-dn Sud, the two men went (on) a journey. Here the sufE.x; -dn is repeated. (3) band roz-dn sdwal sud, for some days they went (their) way. (7) b'-tvadak-dn toyd, they went on from there. (8) cand roz khval-dn toyd, for some days they went (their) wa}'. 91. Perfect. — The base of the perfect tense is the perfect participle, which is formed by strengthening the past participle by the addition of the -/uU-suffix, -it being employed as the junction-vowel. Thus, mtlust, he sat down ; mdustuk, he has sat down. The perfect base is formed in the same way in Zb., but the junction-vowel is a or d, as in ouddstak, he has sat down ; naddk, he has taken. Both in regard to Is. and Zb. the materials in regard to the junction- vowel are scanty, and it may be that in both languages it is really determined by sympathy with the preceding vowel of the 95] INDECLINABLES 57 past participle. In Mj. the perfect tense does not seem to be used. In Yd. 7 is added, as in ii-7-em (Biddulph, £i-g-evi), I have beaten. W. adds k without a junction- vowel, while S. S. add j (derived ^rom k), also without a junction-vowel. Yn. adds y. In Is. the bare perfect participle forms the 3rd person singular of the perfect tense. For the otlier persons separable pronominal suffixes are ernploj'ed, as in the past. The following ai'e examples of the 3rd person singular of the perfect tense in Is. : — (87) ivok ddavi nulushik, a man has sat down, i.e. is seated. (16) pddsd-na wak udoyd kiir suduk, a daughter of the king has become blind. See also the example of vuduk in § 79. V. INDECLINABLES 92. Adverbs. — ner, to-day ; ner-ba, up to to-day ; inga, then ; dzd, a place ; in kiovi dad, where ? wadak, there ; ba wadak or is -wadak, from there, thence ; var, a door ; in ba var, from the door, i.e. from inside (a dwelling). It is unnecessary to give any examples of the use of these. The vocabulary gives references to the passages in which they occur. The negative is na or nus, not. Nus- occurs in Zb. under the form nas. An Is. example, containing both forms, is : — (34) he clz nus vud za ivadak paidd na su, there was not anything that is not manifest there. 93. Prepositions and Postpositions. — These are dealt with in §§ 45 ff. 94. Conjunctions. — agar, if ; ca, and. 95. Interjections. — ai and e, ! %o6, well ! Of these ai is used contemptuously (17, 18) ; and e respectfully. ISHKASHMI STORY (An acute accent, as in wddalc, indicates stress.) 1. Wale ddam fri iMak sale. One man good one bad. 2. Do ddam-an safar-dn £ud. Two men-they journey-they went. 3. Isand roz-dn sdwal £ud. Some days-they road went. 4. / der zHnduh sud. His belly hungry became. 5. Nek (or fri) Sak-hd r^ezd, " wak lav gala Good (Good) Bad-to said, " A piece bread 'mum-bd dai." me-to give-thou." 6. Sale lyeM, " tu ^e bam lenr kiln ; az Bad said, " thou thine-own eye blind niake-thou ; I tu-hd daywin." thee-to I-will-give." 7. Fri yS tsdm leift ; is-wddak-dn to'yd. Good his-own, eye pierced; from-there-they went. 8. Gand roz sd'iual-dn toyd. Wev der Some days' road-they went. Their bellies Mnduk sud. hungry became. 9. Fri ryezd, '' wale lav gala mum-bd dai." Good said, > " a piece bread me-to give-thou." 10. Sale yezd, " is-xS sdr luale fedm kif ; Bad said, "from-thine-own head an eye pierce-thou ; az inga tu-bd dayum." I then thee-to I-will-give." 60 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YAZGHULAMI 11. Ar-vddak tsain kur sud. Sak toyd, fri Both eyes blind became. Bad went, Good frin. remained. 12. Wak roz One day 2 td vuzer nuhcst. Sab sud. Y till evening he-sat. Night became. kud dyad. dog came. A 13. Wi dumh-i nad. Kud wan kutdl kid Its tail (ace.) he-grasped Dog him leading did ivud. Tar amhi %van ivud za took-away. Into a-cave him he-took-away and sab hid. night became. 14. Cand waxt su-^t, ivak -^y'TS, v:ak urk, urdc Some time passed, a bear, a wolf, a unves, wah vdyd ayad. Xurs tsa fox, a night-mare came. The-bear from urives frut " tu-t kum dza vud ? " the-fox asked, " thou-thou what place wast?" 15. Urtves yezd, " az-wn iier tar imdm -^an-um The-fox said, " I-I to-day to the-king's house-I vud." was." • 16. Xiirs yezd, " ciz -^abar dst?" Urues yezd, The-bear said, " what news is?" Tlie-fox said, 'pddid ^e icazir dar ynzab sud. the-king his-own viziers in auger became. Pd'dsd-na wak udoyd kur suduk : Kinff-beloncrino'-to a daughter blind has-become; ■pddsd- ^e ivazird-btl' ye~d, " irak tablb king his-own viziers-to said, •'' a physician dviratv izviiiw." find-ye bring-j^e," ISHKASHMI STOEY 61 17. Urh 'yezd, " ai ndfam pafdSd, tu vicU ddrun The-wolf said, " foolish king, thy cattle among vxdc kahut vuz dst ; agar naJcwa vuz dvirl a blue goat is ; if tliis goat he-finds i korost zdnz i isdm tdza su." its skin he-takes lier eyes renewed will-become." 18. Xurs yezd, " ai tu-t pd'dsd be-fam-at The-bear said, " thou-thou king foolish-thou vuduk. Anibi sar-dzd wak sabz hast-become. The-cave in-front a green cend'r dst. Pl-bun luak kid dst. plane-tree is. Below-it a pool is. 'Ke-rang kur tse vun% wa Of-whatever-kind blind-man who may-be he cendr nasu, ^e dust pa the-plane-tree may-grasp, his-own hand into kul du, tsa ktd vek zdnzu, the-pool may-put, from the-pool water may-take, tar cend'r luan sdmbu, tsa ou-to the-plane-trce it may-smear, from cend'r zdnzio, tar -^e tsdm the-plane-tree may-take, on-to his-own eyes sdinbu, i isdnn siydt su." may-smear, liis eyes well will-become." 19. Nakwa kur pa ambi tse vud, i This blind-man in the-cave who was, his gtd gap-i sud. Scthar tsa ivadcdc all talk (ace.) heard. At-dawn from there -yut nust. he-i'ose he-went-forth. 20. Cendr vis &ud. iva cendr The-plane-tree below he-went. He plane-tree 62 ISHKASHMI, ZEBAKI, AND YA2GHULAMI nad, -^e dust ded kill darun, grasped, his-own hand put the-pool within, tar cendr sambiid, tar x^ on-to the-plane-tree he-smeared, on-to his-own tsdm sdmd. I tsdin tdza sud. ej^es he-smeared. His eyes renewed became. 21. Taa wadaJe x.iit toyd. Tar pd'dsd From there he-arose he-went. To the-king's qusldq snd. Pddsd ye wazird'w town he-went. The-king his-own viziers (ace.) gid kid. assembled made. 22. Tsa wazirdw fi'ut, " ner-bd dah roz From the-viziers he-asked, " to-day-to ten days tamuxj-hd qard'r vud. Ner tamu-^ you-to agreement was. To-day you zaniim." I-will-kiU." 23. Frl yezd, " e pddsd, luak roz iniv gund Good said, " king, one day of-these the-fault tsa fak tilAininn." Pddsd yeM, from Your-Honour I-demand." The-king said, "xob." " Well." 24. Fri jeM, " inum-hd hukm, tse Sii, Good said, " me-to order which may-become, pdd&d uddyd tsdvi tdza kttnum." king's daughter's eyes renewed I-will-make." 25. Pddsd, yezd, " agar mun itdoyd isain tdza The-king said, "if my daughter's eyes renewed kiihit, az tu-bd dayuvi." thou-madest, I thee-to will-give." ISHKASHMI STORY 63 26. Fri