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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003064775 
 
// 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK 
 
 OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
Farm Live Stock 
 
 OF 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., Etc. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 "INDIAN AGRICULTURE"; "THE RURAL ECONOMY AND A,GRICULTURE 
 
 OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND," ETC. ETC. 
 
 f^irir (Ebiiioit, xtbmli anb tnlux^eb 
 
 LONDON 
 CROSBY LOCK WOOD AND SON 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1893 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY CHAPLIN, M.P. 
 
 FIRST BRITISH MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 APPOINTED UNDER THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE ACT 
 
 IN RECOGNITION OF THE INTEREST HE HAS TAKEN IN PROMOTING THE 
 
 WELL-BEING OF THE 
 
 LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
[original dedication.] 
 
 TO 
 
 Professor John Wilson, f.r.s.e., etc. 
 
 WHO FOR THIKTY-ONE YEARS 
 
 MOST ABLY FILLED THE CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 
 
 THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED, 
 
 AS A TOKEN OF THE AUTHOR'S GRATITUDE TO HIM AS A TEACHER 
 AND RESPECT AND ESTEEM FOR HIM AS A FRIEND. 
 
 [Emeritus-Professor Wilson died at Tunbridge Wells in March 1888.] 
 
 [second dedication.] 
 TO THE PATRONS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Jnstitute of Scottisb ^eacbers of agriculture 
 
 (fifty in number) 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 JWORLIDGE, in the Proemium to his Systema 
 , Agricultures, 1681, says: — "This is an Age wherein 
 to commend or extol an Ingenious Art or Science, might 
 be esteemed a Needless Labour, especially in a , Country 
 so highly improved in everything ; but that we find the 
 more Noble, Advantagious, Useful, or Necessary, any Art, 
 Science, or Profession is, the stronger Arguments are 
 framed against it ; and more particularly against the 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Preface, page ix, line 17. "Sunol," Plate XLV. (A) 
 should be "Sunol," Plate XLIX. (A). 
 
 Plate I. B., page 15. frimogenius should be primigeiiius. 
 
 "Xo A^icarttrreassume the rOle ot "^Re^vain arid 
 more pedant sort of persons, despising the worth or value 
 of what they are ignorant of" By some it is denied that 
 
[original dedication.] 
 
 TO 
 
 Professor John Wilson, f.r.s.e., etc. 
 
 WHO FOR THIKTY-ONE YEARS 
 
 MOST ABLY FILLED THE CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 
 
 THIS "WORK IS INSCRIBED, 
 
 AS A TOKEN OF THE AUTHOR'S GRATITUDE TO HIM AS A TEACHER 
 AND RESPECT AND ESTEEM FOR HIM AS A FRIEND. 
 
 [Emeritus-Professor Wilson died at Tunbridge Wells in March 1 888. ] 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 JWORLIDGE, in the Proemium to his Systemd 
 , Agricultures, 1 68 1, says: — "This is an Age wherein 
 to commend or extol an Ingenious Art or Science, might 
 be esteemed a Needless Labour, especially in a Country 
 so highly improved in everything ; but that we find the 
 more Noble, Advantagious, Useful, or Necessary, any Art, 
 Science, or Profession is, the stronger Arguments are 
 framed against it ; and more particularly against the 
 Rustick Art and its infinite Preheminences and Oblecta- 
 tions, by the vainer and more pedant sort of persons 
 despising the worth or value of what they are ignorant of, 
 who judge it below their honour or reputation to take any 
 notice of so mean a profession ; that esteem the Country no 
 other than a place for Beasts as Cities for men." 
 
 History repeats itself, and after the lapse of more than 
 two hundred years we find still prevailing the same 
 spirit of antipathy to Agriculture so quaintly described by 
 Worlidge. It is a misfortune, though perhaps more for 
 humanity than for Agriculture, that men who have received 
 a liberal education, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, 
 in science, literature, and philosophy, so frequently when 
 referring to Agriculture assume the r61e of "the vain and 
 more pedant sort of persons, despising the worth or value 
 of what they are ignorant of" By some it is denied that 
 
VIII PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 Agriculture is an art, or if it be, it is one of such inferior 
 order that it must not be put on the same platform with 
 other arts ; although of all arts it is undeniably the oldest 
 and the most widely distributed, as well as the most im- 
 portant, the most indispensable, the most interesting, and 
 the most elevating. With another school of philosophers 
 it is not a science, though in each of its varied and 
 numerous branches it involves the most complicated 
 scientific processes. Agriculture can afford to smile at 
 such pedantry, and excuse it on the plea of ignorance, 
 as was done in olden times. She has also the consola- 
 tion of knowing that, in spite of the modern philosopher's 
 ingratitude to, and want of appreciation of. Agriculture 
 (in which he contrasts unfavourably with his prototype of 
 Egypt, Carthage, or Rome), yet not a day passes without 
 repeated acknowledgment in deed, if not in word, of his 
 absolute dependence upon her for his very existence ; an 
 undeniable proof that in this respect, in spite of all his 
 assumed airs of superiority, the pedantic philosopher is 
 in no superior position to the most humble toiler in the 
 farmyard or the field. 
 
 This new edition of Farm Live Stock of Great • 
 Britain has been practically re-written, and the infor- 
 mation contained in the earlier issues has been greatly 
 increased and extended. Besides a chapter on the Sheep 
 Dog, several useful appendices have been introduced, one 
 of them containing illustrations and descriptions of the 
 consecutive phases of the various Motions of a Horse. The 
 characteristic features of the work have been maintained 
 and emphasised, — chief among these being brevity of 
 expression and copious pictorial illustration. The ency- 
 clopedic character of the work has been improved by 
 the addition of numerous footnote references to reliable 
 authorities, where the subjects mentioned can be found 
 discussed in greater detail. 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. IX 
 
 Not only have a large number of illustrations been added, 
 but the general average of the plates as works of art has been 
 very considerably raised, owing to a marked improvement 
 having taken place in the execution of the zincotype 
 blocks, for which it was found necessary to go to the Vienna 
 artists to secure the best results in half-tone printing. It 
 has also been possible to secure a larger number of photo- 
 graphs of the most perfect kind, as originals for new plates 
 to replace inferior ones. By permission of the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society, Charles Reid, of Wishaw, the well-known 
 Scottish animal photographer, was enabled to secure for 
 the work a considerable number of pictures of champion 
 and first-prize animals. Though important advances have 
 been made in the art of photography, not only in this 
 country but also in America, — as may be seen by referring 
 to the reproduction of a photograph by Schreber & Sons, of 
 Philadelphia, of "Sunol," Plate XLV. (A),— yet there is much 
 to learn in the matter of placing the animal before the 
 camera, so that the length of the hind-quarters may fully 
 appear and yet no part be out of position or out of propor- 
 tion. A reference to Plate XLII. (A) will show a horse in 
 perhaps the best position represented, and yet the great 
 depth and substance of the animal could have been brought 
 out better had the camera of the photographer been raised 
 twelve or fifteen inches higher, to reduce the amount of 
 " daylight " under the horse's belly. 
 
 It is hoped that the new edition — so much enlarged 
 and improved as compared with the two previous ones — 
 will be found useful by schoolmasters and others engaged 
 in teaching Agriculture under the County Councils ; and 
 that the illustrations produced from photographs of picked 
 specimens of live animals, chosen as typical representatives 
 of the different breeds to which they belong, will be of 
 special value as a means of instruction, as well as for 
 awakening the interest of the youthful agriculturist of the 
 
X PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 country, in the herds and flocks by which they are sur- 
 rounded, and for developing their powers of observation. 
 
 If agricultural literature has hitherto failed to secure 
 the attention of some of those ''wise" men who despise 
 Agriculture, but who, by going to the country, themselves 
 show that they do not quite " esteem it no other than a 
 place for beasts," it is to be hoped that the pictures 
 presented in this volume may induce many such to under- 
 take a course of study which would create in their minds 
 intelligent ideas of the processes of nature, of the rural 
 work of man, and, above all, of the actions and dispositions 
 of the animals which are constantly displayed before them. 
 Such "wise" men would then be able to enjoy during a 
 change to the country relaxation and resuscitation of 
 mind, as well as attain the meaner and less elevating object 
 of the restoration of the animal constitution. 
 
 ROBERT WALLACE. 
 
 The University, 
 Edinburgh, January 1893. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 IN bringing out the Second Edition of this work it has 
 been necessary to introduce numerous changes which 
 are beh'eved to materially add to the value of it as a Text- 
 book for Students of Agriculture, and at the same time to 
 increase its interest to the general reader. Besides the 
 addition of numerous electroplates in the body of the letter- 
 press, loo pages of illustrations have been introduced. 
 These have been executed by Angerer &G6schl of Vienna, 
 and are derived, with only two or three exceptions, from 
 photographs taken from life of picked specimens of the 
 various breeds of live stock in the British Isles. It is true 
 that the photographs in certain instances fail at times to do 
 justice to the animals ; and in the specimens of pigs, for 
 example, they are defective on account of the awkward 
 positions the animals usually assume while standing, and the 
 constancy of their motion while they remain on their limbs. 
 The amount of labour expended in securing loo photo- 
 graphs of typical animals of the various breeds is more than 
 one could at first imagine ; and I must ask to be excused 
 if I have had to accept and reproduce photographs which 
 do not represent a few of them in their best light. Photo- 
 graphers do not, as a rule, seem to understand the import- 
 ance of giving both the hind and forequarters of the beasts 
 an equal prominence ; and, again, all lenses are not alike 
 good in maintaining a proper proportion between the 
 dimensions of the limbs and of the body. 
 
XU PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Though the plates, as they at present stand, do not 
 quite reach the standard which I feel confident can be 
 ultimately obtained by reproducing photographs taken 
 from life, yet a sense of satisfaction is derived from the fact 
 that the pictures do represent real life. Though the balance 
 of parts may be more or less defective, there are present 
 the natural expression and the little differences of form and 
 features which distinguish one breed from the other. 
 
 The eye has been so long educated to look at drawings 
 of animals which have been improved by the pencil of the 
 artist till they are quite unreal and unnatural, that I can 
 easily realise an amount of dissatisfaction being expressed 
 at the method of reproduction adopted in this work. I " 
 feel confident, nevertheless, that pictures reproduced as 
 the following have been will grow upon the observer as 
 works of art, and will prove of special value as a means of 
 instruction. 
 
 The letterpress of the work has been revised and greatly 
 extended. Short sketches of the histories of the various 
 breeds have been added — full enough to give a general 
 interest, and, it is hoped, to encourage special research into 
 the exhaustive records which are from time to time referred 
 to in footnotes. I have endeavoured to acknowledge in 
 suitable terms the sources of much of my information, but 
 I should also add that I am indebted to the " Stock," 
 " Herd," or " Flock " books relating to the various breeds. 
 I would also refer my readers to the following works, which 
 treat generally of farm stock, and which discuss fully various 
 subjects of interest which could not conveniently be dealt 
 with in an exhaustive manner in the following pages : — 
 
 (i.) Youatt's various works on Live Stock, including 
 the "Complete Grazier."* (2.) Coleman's "Cattle, Sheep, 
 and Pigs of Great Britain." (3.) Low's " Domesticated 
 
 [* The new edition of this work, re-written by Dr Fream, is now in the 
 press, and (I am informed) nearly ready for ^whMcaXion.— January 1893.] 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xiii 
 
 Animals of the British Isles," 1845. (4.) The same; with 
 a selection of illustrations produced from the collection of 
 100 oil paintings mainly by W. Shields, R.S.A., belonging 
 to the Agriculture Department of the University of 
 Edinburgh, and presented by the author, who was for over 
 thirty years Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy 
 in that University. (5.) Pringle's " Live Stock." (6.) 
 Warfield's "Cattle Breeding." (7.) Sheldon's "Dairy 
 Farming." (8.) "Polled Cattle;" and (9.) "Hereford 
 Cattle," by Macdonald and Sinclair. 
 
 Without naming any, I desire most heartily to thank 
 all who have been good enough to lend me assistance in 
 the accomplishment of the work entailed in the reproduction 
 of this volume. I have, as has always been my wont, 
 discontinued the use of the prefix Mr. I trust that each 
 authority named will fully understand that this is done 
 from no lack of courtesy, but because I believe that in a 
 book of this sort, it is right and proper to name men as 
 authorities and not as private individuals. R. W. 
 
 Edinburgh, April 1889. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THE object of this volume is to lay before the student, 
 in the shortest possible form, the many interesting 
 facts about Farm Live Stock which ought to be known 
 to every one who takes an interest in this branch of the 
 extensive subject of Agriculture. 
 
 The defect of some text-books on this subject is, that 
 they are too voluminous, so filled up with much unnecessary 
 book-makers' padding that it is often a waste of time to 
 read them. The most skilful farmers are not usually of a 
 
XIV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 literary turn of mind, and consequently much valuable 
 information, the result of years of successful experience, is 
 constantly being lost. 
 
 I was struck with the concise, clear, and thoroughly 
 business-like style of "The Chemistry of the Farm," by 
 R. Warington, F.C.S., published in Morton's " Handbooks 
 of the Farm " series ; and I have endeavoured, as nearly as 
 possible, to make my production fill the same position on 
 the subject of Farm Live Stock as has been secured in that 
 of Agricultural Chemistry by the volume named. The 
 subject-matter has been selected and arranged with the 
 main object of making it a students' text-book, containing 
 all that is necessary in this special branch for the important 
 examinations of the Royal Agicultural College, Cirencester; 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of England ; The Highland 
 and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; The Royal Agricul- 
 tural Society of Ireland ; and The Surveyors' Institution.* 
 
 This accounts for the unusual number of intricate, 
 though very necessary calculations, which occur here and 
 there, and which will require much close attention and 
 study. It is hoped, however, that all those of the farming 
 community who may think the book worthy of their 
 patronage may find the time taken up in reading it pro- 
 fitably spent ; as, besides a record of the many common 
 facts known almost instinctively to many practical men, 
 it contains descriptions of the causes, prevention, and 
 remedies of the common diseases of stock given in the 
 ordinary language with which a farmer is familiar. 
 
 R. W. 
 
 * Since the first edition of this work was published, arrangements have 
 been made by which the Edinburgh University now grants the degree of B.Sc. 
 in the Department of Agriculture. The Examinations in connection with it 
 should also be included in the above list. The Agricultural Colleges, other 
 than the R.A.C., in Great Britain and her Colonies should also be mentioned ; 
 and as the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland has withdrawn its diploma, 
 the reference to it may be regarded as out of date. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction . . . . . . . i 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Principles of Breeding ..... 4 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Wild Cattle ..... .15 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Breeds of Domestic Cattle— The Shorthorn . . 26 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Breeds of Domestic Cattle— The Longhorn, Hereford, 
 Devon, and Sussex . . . . . .41 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Breeds of Domestic Cattle^ The West Highland, 
 Welsh, and- Shetland . . . . -So 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Polled Breeds ....... 56 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Milking Breeds of British Cattle — The Ayrshire, the ' 
 Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney), 
 AND THE Kerry . . . . . -69 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 The Breeding and Management, and the Grazing of 
 
 Cattle ....... 83 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 House-Feeding of Cattle . . .100 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Dairying— Pasture AND Food . . . . .115 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Dairying— Cows and their Management . . .128 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Pigs . . ..... 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 The Horse— The Fossil Horse— The Wild Horse— Cart 
 Horses — The Clydesdale, the Shire, and the 
 Suffolk Punch ..... 
 
 154 
 
 175 
 
CONTENTS. XVli 
 
 FAGK 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 The Horse — The Thoroughbred — Hackney — Cleve- 
 land Bay — Yorkshire Coach - Horse — American 
 Trotter — The Ass and the Mule . . , 194. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 The Horse — Breeding and Breaking . 212 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 The Horse — Management of Farm Horses . . .221 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Sheep — British Breeds ... . 230 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Management of Sheep on Cultivated Land and Low 
 
 Country Pasture— The Ewe and Lamb . . .257 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Management of Sheep — Feeding . . 270- 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Management of Sheep — External Parasites . 277 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Management of Sheep — Internal Parasites 285 
 
 b 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Management of Sheep — Diseases .... 290 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Sheep Dogs . . . . . . ' . 299 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 Two Typical Examples of the Stocking of Farms in 
 Southern and Midland England . . . 306 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 Live Stock Societies . . . . .321 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 Names of Prominent Breeds of British Live Stock, with 
 THE Dates of the Establishment of the Various 
 Breeders' Societies, &c. ..... 324 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 The Regular Progressive Movements of the Horse . 326 
 
 Index 333 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 A Hayfield in Gloucestershire, Frontispiece. 
 I. A. The Wild White Cattle at Chillingham 
 
 Park, Northumberland, . . 15 
 
 B. Skull and Horn Cores of the Bos Urus 
 
 OR Primigenius, .... 15 
 c. Wild White Cows — Cadzow Forest, 
 
 Hamilton, . . . ■ iS 
 
 1 1. Wild White Bull Calves— Cadzow Forest, 
 
 Hamilton, ..... 20 
 
 III. C HARTLEY Park Wild White Cattle, . 22 
 
 IV. Wild White Cattle in Vaynol Park, 
 
 near Bangor, .... 24 
 
 V. Champion Shorthorn Bull, " Mario," . 26 
 
 VI. A. Shorthorn Heifer, "Bracelet," . . 34 
 
 B. Booth Shorthorn Bull, " Royal Stuart," 34 
 
 VII. A. Bates Shorthorn Bull, . . . 36 
 
 B. Bates Shorthorn Cow, . . -36 
 
 VIII. A. Aberdeen Shorthorn Bull, . . 39 
 
 B. Mixed Booth and Bates Heifer, . . 39 
 
 IX. a. Longhorn Bull, . . . .40 
 
 B. Longhorn Cow, . . . .40 
 
 X. a. Hereford Bull, . . . .43 
 
 B. Hereford Heifer, . . . -43 
 
 XI. A. North Devon Bull, . . . .46 
 
 B. North Devon Cow, . . . .46 
 
 XII. A. Sussex Ox, . . . . .48 
 
 B. Sussex Bull, ..... 48 
 
 XIII. West Highland Bull, ... 50 
 
 XIV. A. West Highland Bull, . . -51 
 B. West Highland Heifer, . . -Si 
 
XXX 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 
 XX. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXV. 
 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 iCXVIII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 XXXIII. A. 
 B. 
 
 XXXIV. A. 
 
 B. 
 
 Black South Wales Cow, 
 
 Black South Wales Bull, . 
 
 North Wales Bull, . 
 
 Black North Wales Cow, . 
 
 White Bull— Castle Martin Breed, 
 
 Shetland Cattle, 
 
 Glamorgan Bull, 
 
 somerford park white polled cattle. 
 
 Norfolk White Polled Cow, 
 
 Norfolk White Polled Prize Bull, 
 
 Norfolk and Suffolk Red Poll Cow, 
 
 Norfolk and Suffolk Red Poll Bull, 
 
 Champion Aberdeen-Angus Bull, 
 
 Champion Aberdeen-Angus Cow, 
 
 Galloway Bull, 
 
 Galloway Heifer, 
 
 Ayrshire Bull, 
 
 Ayrshire Two-year-old Heifer, 
 
 Ayrshire Cow, . 
 
 Jersey Bull, 
 
 Jersey Cow, 
 
 Jersey Bull, 
 
 Alderney Cow, 
 
 Guernsey Bull, 
 
 Guernsey Cow, 
 
 Kerry Cow, 
 
 Kerry Bull, 
 
 Dexter Kerry Cow, . 
 
 Dexter Kerry Bull, . 
 
 Pure • Pneumonia, as seen in Pleuro- 
 pneumonia, 
 
 Broncho-Pneumonia, as seen in "Corn 
 Stalk" Disease, . 
 
 Small White Yorkshire Sow, 
 
 Large White Boar, . 
 
 Berkshire Boar, 
 
 Tamworth Sow, 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 XXXV. Suffolk or Small Black Pigs, 
 XXXVI. Clydesdale Stallion, "Prince of Car 
 
 RUCHAN," .... 
 XXXVII. a. Clydesdale Stallion, "Darnley," . 
 
 B. Clydesdale Stallion, ''The Prince of 
 Wales," . 
 
 XXXVIII. A. Clydesdale Stallion, "Prince of Albion," 
 
 B. Clydesdale Mare, " Moss Rose," . 
 
 XXXIX. Shire Stallion, " Hitchin Conqueror," 
 
 XL. Shire Mare, " Chance," 
 
 XLI. Shire Mare, " Lockington Beauty," and 
 
 Foal, " Merville," 
 XLI I. A. Suffolk Punch Stallion, 
 
 B. Suffolk Punch Filly, 
 XLI 1 1. Thoroughbred Horse, " Grand Flameur, 
 XLIV. A. Thoroughbred Horse, " Foxhall," 
 
 B. Shetland Pony Stallion, "Laird of 
 Ness," 
 XLV. A. Hackney Stallion, " Rufus," 
 B. Hackney Mare, " Ladybird," 
 XLVI. Hackney (in a 2-Wheel Cart), 
 XLVII. A. Half-Bred Gelding, . 
 B. Cleveland Bay Horse, 
 XLVI 1 1. A. Coaching Stallion, . 
 B. Coaching Mare, ■ 
 XLIX. A. American Trotter Mare, . 
 B. American Trotter Stallion, 
 L. A. Poitou Mule, . 
 B. Jack Donkey, . 
 LI. a. Border Leicester Ram, 
 B. Border Leicester Ewes, 
 LI I. A. English Leicester Ewes, 
 B. English Leicester Ram, 
 LIII. A. WensleydaleEwe, . 
 
 B. Wensleydale Shearling Ram, 
 LIV. a. Lincoln Ewes, . 
 B. Lincoln Ram, . 
 
 XXI 
 
 PAGE 
 164 
 
 180 
 184 
 
 184 
 185 
 185 
 
 I go 
 
 190 
 
 191 
 193 
 193 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 195 
 199 
 199 
 199 
 201 
 201 
 203 
 203 
 207 
 207 
 209 
 209 
 231 
 231 
 232 
 232 
 233 
 ,233 
 234 
 234 
 
XXll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 
 LV. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LVI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LVII. 
 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LIX. 
 
 
 LX. 
 
 
 LXI. 
 
 
 LXII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXIII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXIV. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXV. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXVI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXVII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXVIII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXIX. 
 
 
 LXX. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXXI. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXXII. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 LXXIII. 
 
 
 LXX IV. 
 
 
 LXXV. 
 
 
 Devon Long-wool Two-shear Ram, 
 
 Devon Long-wool Ewes, 
 
 CoTswoLD Ram Lamb, . 
 
 Two-shear Cotswold Ram, . 
 
 Kent or Romney Marsh Ewes, 
 
 Kent or Romney Marsh Shearling Ram 
 
 Roscommon Two-shear Ram, 
 
 Vermont Merino Rams, 
 
 Vermont Merino Ewes, 
 
 Merino Crosses with Scotch Blackface, 
 
 Southdown Ram, ... 
 
 Hampshire Shearling Ram, . 
 
 Shropshire Ewes, 
 
 Shropshire Down Ram, 
 
 Suffolk Ewes, .... 
 
 Suffolk Ram, .... 
 
 Oxford Down Ram, . 
 
 Ryland Ram, .... 
 
 Somerset and Dorset Horn Ewes, 
 
 Somerset and Dorset Horn Ram, . 
 
 An East Country Cheviot Ram, 
 
 A West Country Cheviot Ewe, 
 
 Scotch Blackfaced Highland Ewes. 
 
 Scotch Blackfaced Mountain Ram, 
 
 Herdwick Ram, 
 
 Two-shear Lonk Ewes, 
 
 Two-shear Lonk Ram, 
 
 Improved Welsh Mountain Ram, 
 
 Welsh Mountain Ram, 
 
 Exmoor Ram, . 
 
 ExMOOR Ewe, . 
 
 Shearing Sheep at Overshiels, Stow, 
 
 WOLSELEY Sheep-shearing Machine, 
 
 Collie Dog, " Steeple Jack," 
 
 PAGE 
 
 235 
 23s 
 236 
 236 
 236 
 
 237 
 238 
 
 239 
 240 
 240 
 241 
 241 
 243 
 243 
 245 
 
 245 
 246 
 246 
 248 
 248 
 249 
 249 
 251 
 252 
 252 
 254 
 254 
 256 
 256 
 265 
 267 
 302 
 
ELECTROTYPES. 
 
 White Cow with Black Points, .... 
 
 Typical Ideal Specimen of Aberdeen-Angus Cow, 
 
 Professor W. O. Williams's Intratracheal Injection Syringe, 
 
 Small Biting Ox-Louse ( Trichodectes scalaris). 
 
 Large Sucking Ox-Louse {Hcematopinus eurysternus). 
 
 Ox Warble Fly, Maggot, and Chrysalis, 
 
 Breathing Tubes of Warble Maggots, 
 
 Skull of Ox, illustrating Dishorning, &c., . 
 
 Bistoury, ... ... 
 
 Self-acting Cow-Milker, ..... 
 
 Trochar and Canula, .... 
 
 Cow-Breeches, .... 
 
 Model Sides of Bacon, ..... 
 
 Shelter Shed on Wheels for Pigs, . 
 
 Forty Points of a Horse, ..... 
 
 Forms of {a) the Scapula and (p) the Humerus of a Clydesdale 
 
 (Figs. I, 2), 
 
 Shire Stallion charging in Loose Box, 
 Side View of a Lambing Pen, .... 
 
 Net Breeches for a Ewe, ..... 
 Sheep Drenching-Tin, ..... 
 
 PAGE 
 25 
 
 59 
 89 
 91 
 91 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 133 
 133 
 139 
 148 
 
 157 
 168 
 179 
 
 189 
 
 239 
 260 
 262 
 289 
 
 Progressive Movements of the Horse (six illustrations), 326 to 331 
 
 MAPS. 
 
 Orographical Features — British Isles, .... xxiv 
 
 Distribution of Cattle, . . . . . -83 
 
 Distribution of Sheep, . . . . . , . 230 
 
 Distribution of Agricultural Population, .... 306 
 
KEY TO THE FIGURES 
 
 Indicating the Locality of each Breed of Cattle on Map 
 showing Orographical Features. 
 
 NAME OF BREED. 
 
 1. Orkney and Shetland. 
 
 2. Aberdeen-Angus Black Poll. 
 
 3. West Highland. 
 
 4. Hamilton, or Cadzow Park Wild White. 
 
 5. Ayrshire. 
 
 6. Galloway Black Poll. 
 
 7. Chillingham Park Wild White. 
 
 8. Shorthorn. 
 
 9. Somerford Park White Polled. 
 
 10. Chartley Park White Polled. 
 
 11. North Wales Black, or Anglesey. 
 
 12. Vaynol Park White Breed. 
 
 13. South Wales Black, or Pembroke. 
 
 14. Variety Castle Martin White. 
 
 15. Glamorganshire. 
 
 16. Devon. 
 
 17. Hereford. 
 
 18. Longhorn. 
 
 19. Red Poll. 
 
 20. Sussex. 
 
 21. Kerry. 
 
Prflg 'Wbilctae:^ I'arm.Zu-c Stock 
 
 BRITISM ISISE 
 
 JqTtTT P Ht^^rwmmt^A. Cu 
 
 Me ffed figures refer to /oca/ities of c/mrent Breeds of Catt/e - See ki/ on opposite pagte 
 
FARM LIVE STOCK 
 
 OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A PROPER knowledge of the habits and treatment of 
 "^ the animals of the farm is, without doubt, the most 
 important branch of a farmer's education. It is the one, too, 
 which is found to offer the greatest difficulties to men who 
 take to the profession of farming late in life. In fact, few 
 men who, as boys, have not been intimately associated with 
 animals, can ever hope to attain the first rank as judges or 
 managers of stock. For the same reason we never find a 
 really first-rate shepherd in a hill district — the place where 
 .superior knowledge and intelligence are most wanted — who 
 has not as a boy seen, and assisted in, all the many little 
 details of the management of a flock. He drinks in the 
 information, as it were, with his mother's milk, and does 
 not realise in after-life that he was not born with much of 
 the knowledge he possesses. 
 
 It is not only a knowledge of animals that a boy gains 
 by associating with them, but also an interest in them. 
 They are the playthings of his youth, and the objects of his 
 affection as he grows in years. A first-rate judge and prize 
 winner — it does not matter in what class of stock — is in- 
 variably found to spend much of his time gloating over the 
 points of his favourite beasts. It is only in this way, and 
 
 A 
 
2 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 not from books, that a man can ever master the details of 
 structure and the peculiarities of breed and constitution, 
 and obtain that knowledge which can alone lead to victory 
 in the show-ring. 
 
 A servant intrusted with the management of stock 
 must make his charge his hobby if he is to be successful in 
 his avocation. A man is quite as happy in the enjoyment 
 of one hobby as of another, provided it be of his own choice ; 
 and it is much better for himself on account of his own 
 comfort, as well as of the permanency of his employment 
 and amount of remuneration for the same, if the hobby is 
 that by which he wins his daily bread. One of the weak 
 points in the present system of education, so far as agri- 
 cultural labourers are concerned, is, that no adequate pro- 
 vision is made for their learning, while young (the time 
 when all the deepest and most lasting impressions are 
 formed), the business by which they live. 
 
 Agriculture — more particularly in the stock branch — 
 is not like an ordinary trade or profession, which admits of 
 hard and fast rules being laid down, and of being learnt in 
 so many years, even after a man reaches maturity. Its 
 principles, whether as they are required by the farmer, 
 or by the labourer, have to be taken in little by little, 
 through a long period of time, which must embrace a con- 
 siderable proportion of the boyish days. The knowledge 
 must come, as it were, instinctively. It cannot be learnt 
 by rote. It would be wrong to deny the necessity of giving 
 every working man in the kingdom a good plain education. 
 Putting aside all considerations of sentiment towards our 
 fellow-men, and the necessity of having every one educated 
 who is to have a voice in the government of the country, 
 there is an undoubted advantage in having work performed 
 by the aid of that intelligence which accompanies education. 
 But what calls loudly for a protest is the virtual prohibition 
 of boys learning, at the only time when they can do so 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 perfectly, the one branch of their business by which they 
 themselves shall live and in time rear families. 
 
 The present system is much too one-sided. It is the 
 extreme into which we have fallen after a long period of 
 deficiency in the branch which now receives too much 
 attention. Youth is entirely spent in the acquiring of book- 
 learning ; interests and inclinations which must develop 
 are led into channels far away from the employments of 
 the future life ; work, when it has to be done, is performed 
 as a drudgery and with a heavy heart ; the frame is not 
 trained, as it is being built up by Nature, to dexterity and 
 efficiency, nor yet is it strengthened and enlarged by that 
 practice which always precedes efficiency. Why should 
 not our educational system provide for the training of our 
 labouring classes in both its branches, manual and mental, 
 when this would conduce so much to their future happiness 
 and the public good ? 
 
 In treating our subject, " The Principles of Breeding" 
 will be discussed first ; the different kinds of stock — cattle, 
 pigs, horses, and sheep — will be taken up in order ; and a 
 number of farm-stocking and other calculations will be 
 given. 
 
 Darwin's work on " Animals and Plants under Domes- 
 tication " treats of nearly all the trustworthy principles of 
 breeding that have yet been propounded, so that in this 
 branch originality to any large extent must not be ex- 
 pected. The writer, however, avoids repeating anything 
 which he has not been able to verify in an experience 
 which has extended over more than a quarter of a century. 
 
CHAPTER I.— PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 Family Resemblance — Heredity — Darwin's Theory of Pangenesis — Weis- 
 mann's Continuity of Germ-plasni Theory — Force of Inheritance — Consti- 
 tutional Weakness — Imagination — Crossing and "In-and-in Breeding," 
 including Line-Breeding — Atavism in Pure Breeds and in Crosses — 
 Domestication — Barrenness. 
 
 'T*HE strong family resemblance which is seen both in 
 the human species and amongst animals related to 
 e^ch other is a direct consequence of the existence of the 
 first law of breeding, which is not at all times constant, but 
 holds good as regards general characteristics, — viz., that 
 " like begetslike," " or tends to produce like." Other laws 
 are in operation at the same time ; consequently, when we 
 come within the immediate spheres of their action, this 
 and various other laws have to be modified to harmonise 
 with surrounding conditions. The infiuence of a parent, 
 as such, in his or her first function, is not always exerted 
 under exactly the same conditions, and we have differences 
 between individuals, alike in many respects, which distin- 
 guish them from one another. 
 
 To the uneducated eye, every member of a herd of 
 Galloway cattle, or of a flock of Southdown ewes, looks 
 exactly like its neighbour, and a townsman stares when he 
 is told that some shepherds know individually every mem- 
 ber of a flock of perhaps two or three hundred sheep. 
 
 Heredity, so well expounded by Charles Darwin, is the 
 perpetuation of like characteristics in parents and offspring. 
 Variation, on the other hand, is the production of unlike 
 characteristics. To provisionally explain why like tends to 
 produce like, Darwin propounded the theory of Pangenesis. 
 He assumed that gemmules, retaining the characters of the 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 5 
 
 original cells, are shed from every cell in the body ; that 
 the gemmules are aggregated in the reproductive cells ; and 
 that by this means the characters of the original structure 
 are transmitted from generation to generation. 
 
 Professor Weismann,* elaborating the theory of the 
 continuity of germ-plasm, advanced by Francis Galton, 
 maintains that there are two distinct classes of cells in- 
 volved in the structure of the reproductive germ-cells, — 
 the one being the origin of the body, or soma, the other 
 being exclusively for the development of reproductive 
 germ-cells, which, though associated with the body, are 
 nevertheless, in everything, except in the matter of protec- 
 tion and nourishment, independent of it. The reproductive 
 germ-plasm in any germ-cell is therefore supposed to be 
 derived from the parent germ-cell, and not from the in- 
 dividual in which it was produced. This theory practically 
 excludes the possibility of the continuance in a breed of 
 the results of any change arising in the individual which 
 does not originate in the cells exclusively devoted to the 
 perpetuation of the species. Any change in, or influence 
 exerted upon, the body of the immediate parent could 
 not, according to Weismann, be reproduced in the young. 
 Although we are not in a position to actually disprove 
 this theory with which the name of Weismann has become 
 familiar, we are not prepared to accept it, as the great mass 
 of negative evidence is against it. If it were' accepted, we 
 should have to believe that no form of disease which affects 
 the bodily structure alone is capable of being inherited. 
 
 The force of inheritance is strongest in old and well- 
 established pure breeds, but even among the best a very 
 inferior animal (as the American "scally-wag" among 
 cattle) may appear at times. This degenerate .specimen 
 
 * Translations of Weismann's essays were published by the Clarendon Press, 
 Oxford, in 1889. (New edition, 1891-92.) " The Germ-Plasm : A Theory of 
 Heredity," published by Walter Scott Limited, London and Newcastle. 
 
6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 should never be allowed to breed. It is by getting rid of 
 all such inferior, or even moderately good, animals that our 
 breeds are improved. Weeding by the hand of the breeder, 
 or " artificial selection," acts much in the same way among 
 domesticated animals as the law of the " survival of the 
 fittest " does among wild ones. A well-bred, though plain- 
 looking bull, if he has no deformity, or no very objection- 
 able points, usually breeds much better and more uniform 
 stock than a handsome one without a good pedigree. In 
 selecting, it is much more important to have the sires than 
 the females good, because, besides the greater potency 
 usually possessed by the male, one bad sire may affect a 
 large number of offspring, whereas an inferior female only 
 influences her own young, which are comparatively limited 
 in number. 
 
 The quality of the sire becomes a most important 
 matter when taken in connection with the fact that " the 
 influence of the first male by which a female produces 
 young may frequently be seen in her future offspring by 
 different sires." Every one knows that should his English 
 terrier bitch be "lined" for the first time by a Dandie 
 Dinmont, she will years after throw puppies with some of 
 the Dandie characters. The same rule holds, though per- 
 haps not to such a marked degree, with certain of the 
 larger animals. For this, and the other reasons which 
 induce breeders to keep good stock rather than bad, a 
 mongrel bull should not be put to good cows. The best 
 bred animals are often, nay usually, far from perfect in some 
 point. It is most important if a bull (or sire of any breed) 
 with a special defect — say a hollow, or weakness behind the 
 shoulder, — has been used, that all succeeding sires should 
 be specially strong in that particular point, whatever it was, 
 else there might in time be a general defect established 
 in the whole race of descendants. Males are more variable 
 than females ; for example, in a mountain breed of sheep, it 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 7 
 
 is much easier to select a large number of ewe lambs than 
 of ram lambs good enough to be exhibited in a show-yard. 
 
 Animals with constitutional weaknesses amounting 
 to unsoundness should not be used for breeding.* Defects 
 resulting from accidental injuries are sometimes transmitted 
 to the young, — especially when disease follows an injury,^ 
 and may, or may not, be hurtful. The tendency to bony 
 exostoses on the leg bones of a horse, from the parents 
 contracting these through hard work on the road, would be 
 a case of the first kind. The following is an illustration of 
 the second : — A black spaniel bitch, belonging to Com- 
 mander Harrison, R.N., had the tip of her tail caught in a 
 door ; white hairs grew from the injured part, and she bore 
 various puppies with white-tipped tails afterwards, though 
 she had never done so previous to this time. 
 
 Imagfination sometimes comes into play in breeding, 
 especially with regard to colour. , The colour of any 
 object at which an animal looks while conceiving, or during 
 the early stages of pregnancy, sometimes governs the 
 colour of the young, as the following examples testify :-(- — 
 («.) A well-lighted cowshed, with white-washed walls, is 
 believed to have an influence in making the calves lighter 
 in colour, (b.) A pure-bred Ayrshire cow at Auchenbrack, 
 Dumfriesshire, gave birth to a dark dun calf, the same 
 colour as her mate, which was a cross from a Channel 
 
 * "In France all entire horses, whether kept at the Government haras or 
 by private persons, must be examined and passed as fit for service, and no others 
 can be used. The percentage of unsound stallions in France has fallen from 
 5.84 per cent, in 1S80 to 2.93 in 1890, the continuous decline, accompanied 
 by an increase in the number of entire horses, proving the wisdom of the 
 system of inspection. " 
 
 t This influence was known to the ancients, vide the thirtieth chapter 
 of Genesis, in which appears a description of Jacob's practice of pilling rods 
 of green poplar, hazel, and chestnut to produce white strakes, so that the 
 flocks conceiving before the rods might bring forth cattle ringstraked, speckled, 
 and spotted. It is interesting to note that it was the time of conception 
 which was considered the important time in this connection. 
 
8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Islands cow. The peculiar dun was not an Ayrshire 
 colour, (c.) It is recorded of M'Combie of Tillyfour that 
 he succeeded in preventing his black Polled Angus cows 
 from breeding red calves by putting up a high black fence 
 round the paddock, in which he mated them as they came 
 in season, thus preventing their seeing the red cattle of his 
 neighbours, (d.) One of the most remarkable instances of the 
 influence of imagination on the colour of cattle has within 
 the last few years been closely studied at Glamis in Lord 
 Strathmore's Polled Angus herd, numbering about thirty 
 cows of the most highly prized strains of blood. As the 
 results of the experiment are so interesting, and as the 
 facts have not hitherto been published, we give them in 
 detail.* The cows with bull-calves were annually sepa- 
 rated from the cows with heifer-calves when turned out in 
 May, and the herd was thus grazed in two divisions of 
 about equal numbers (which for convenience we shall term 
 A and B), but from year to year the cows forming these 
 divisions varied with the sexes of their calves. It was 
 observed for a number of years that about 20 per cent, of 
 the calves produced by the cows of division B were " badly 
 marked " in colour, — viz., red, or black-and-white, — while the 
 colour of the calves of division A was uniformly black, as 
 it ought to be. The same well-bred bulls were put to the 
 two divisions, and changed from one to the other from 
 time to time. The field in which division A grazed was 
 located so that no cattle of broken colours could be seen 
 by the animals at pasture in it, while the field in which 
 division B was kept adjoined two other fields, in one of 
 which up till 1890 were pastured black steers, and in the 
 other Ayrshire cows, displaying a great variety of broken 
 colours. The black polled cows of division B were within 
 
 * Compiled from information supplied by A. Ralston, factor on the 
 Glamis estate, by whose instructions the experiment was carried out by Henry 
 Lindsay, bailiff, Earl of Strathmore's home farm. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 9 
 
 smelling distance and within full view of the cattle in the 
 two fields in question (being separated merely by a wire 
 fence), and in consequence from two to four badly-marked 
 calves were born annually. In 1890 both of the fields 
 adjoining division B were occupied by red-and-white cattle, 
 with the result that six pure-bred Polled Angus calves 
 came badly marked, some being black-and-white, and 
 others red. Some of the cows which bore badly-marked 
 calves were three or four months gone in calf before they 
 were brought in contact with cattle of other colours than 
 their own, from which it may be inferred that the influence 
 of imagination is not confined to the period of conception. 
 One of the red calves had a black fringe round his 
 muzzle, and a black stripe along the back. This red calf 
 developed into a pure black bull, with a reddish fringe 
 round the muzzle, and a reddish stripe along the back. In 
 1 89 1 the adjoining fields were intentionally stocked with 
 black cattle exclusively, and all the calves of 1892 were 
 for the first time for several years of pure Polled Angus 
 colour, like the colour of the sires and dams, and of the 
 calves of division A, which bred always true to colour. 
 Only one calf had a small patch of white upon it, but this 
 is a common occurrence in the best-bred black polled cattle. 
 The fact that the sires of the badly-marked calves of 189 1 
 were the same as the sires of the black calves of 1892 
 makes the results of this interesting experiment all the 
 more interesting. 
 
 In the case of the colour of the crosses derived from 
 two or more distinct breeds, reversion to some ancient 
 ancestral form plays an important part. Certain colours can 
 be, as a rule, depended upon to produce in the young other 
 and altogether different colours from those of the parents ; 
 for instance, a black Galloway cow and a pure white 
 shorthorn bull almost constantly throw a very dark roan 
 or blue- grey. A light roan bull might give the same result 
 
lO FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 as a white ; but a dark roan or red will get either black or 
 red calves, which are not so much desired. In the same 
 way, when Ayrshire cows are crossed with a shorthorn, a 
 light-coloured bull, as compared with a dark one, throws 
 more of the shorthorn character into the colours of the 
 calves, which bring the highest prices, as they are usually 
 reared for fattening purposes. All constancy in colour is 
 lost in crosses other than first crosses. 
 
 Crossing and " In-and-in-Breeding." 
 
 The crossing of families not related to each other 
 usually gives increase of vigour and larger size, though 
 sometimes the distance between the characters of these 
 families is so great that the result is somewhat like a cross 
 between two distinct breeds. For this reason many breeders 
 at one time objected to mingling the blood of Booth and of 
 Bates shorthorns, but the benefits resulting therefrom have 
 been found to outweigh the disadvantages. 
 
 Too close " in-and-in-breeding," or pairing of animals 
 related to each other, causes great loss of constitutional 
 vigour, loss of size and fertility, and sometimes malforma- 
 tion — as in the case of a pig bred at Twiglees, Lockerbie, 
 which at birth lacked a number of the vertebral segments. 
 Pigs show the bad effects of consanguinity sooner than any 
 other farm animals. Darwin points out that this is perhaps 
 on account of their comparatively solitary habits when in a 
 state of nature. Gregarious animals do not suffer so much ; 
 they have been more accustomed to it, and Nature has 
 accommodated herself to the circumstances. 
 
 Shorthorn cattle have proved to be not so much the 
 worse for in-and-in-breeding as most other stock. The dis- 
 tinct type peculiar to them has undoubtedly been formed 
 and fixed by in-and-in-breeding. The most prominent ad- 
 vantage of in-breeding is this stamping of family characters 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. II 
 
 or types, and it cannot well be dispensed with in the for- 
 mation of new breeds or the improvement of old ones. 
 
 " Line-breeding " is a modified form of in-breeding 
 which is steadily becoming more popular as the evil results 
 of close-breeding become better understood. Animals be- 
 longing to the same "line" of descent are bred together, 
 but close relationships are strictly avoided.* 
 
 Crosses between two distinct breeds mated the 
 proper way make the best fattening animals. The sire, in 
 virtue of his greater potency, should be of the more im- 
 proved breed as regards beef-producing qualities, unless 
 both are equally good ; for example, the shorthorn bull 
 breeds well with cows of milking breeds, or of slow matur- 
 ing sorts, as Kerry, Ayrshire, West Highland, or Galloway. 
 Crossing in any other way is unsuccessful. Of late years, 
 since the Polled Angus breed has been so much improved 
 farmers cross shorthorn cows successfully with Angus bulls. 
 
 In farm stock it is considered that the male contributes 
 specially to the external form, the female more to the vital 
 and internal organs. This does not belie the fact that a 
 calf has often a very strong likeness to its mother in ex- 
 pression, if not in form. 
 
 With a thoroughbred horse on a mare of another breed, 
 the resulting offspring has generally a symmetrical appear- 
 ance. A cross bred the other way is often strong and use- 
 ful, but plain, usually about the hind quarters and the head. 
 
 Sheep come under the same rule as cattle. Rams of 
 any of the improved varieties of Leicesters or Downs may 
 be used with advantage, under certain conditions, to put to 
 ewes of the various mountain breeds. 
 
 * By this means constitutional vigour is ir.aintained, and uniformity of 
 type is given to the progeny. The advantages of in-and-in-breeding are 
 secured without the ultimate correlated disadvantages, but the rate at which 
 a desired type can be reached by line-breeding is slower than that of in-and- 
 in-breeding. Only the impatient and the inexperienced are now found to 
 follow the more dangerous headlong course. 
 
12 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The first cross between two breeds is, in character, 
 usually intermediate between them ; but after the first cross 
 it cannot be predetermined how the tendency may run. 
 
 The first cross is the strongest : after-crosses get smaller 
 and weaker, and the more so the longer crossing is con- 
 tinued, especially if close-breeding be practised, necessitating 
 the going back now and then to one of the pure breeds for 
 a sire to infuse new vigour. This so far explains the suc- 
 cess of crossing mongrel cows with a pure shorthorn bull. 
 
 Atavism, or " throwing back," or " reversion," is the 
 appearance in an animal of some character which the im- 
 mediate parents had not, but which existed in its ancestors. 
 
 This may occur in two classes — (i.) In Pure-bred Stock. 
 (2.) In Cross-bred Stock. 
 
 1st. Reversion in Pure Breeds. — The aboriginal species of 
 domestic cattle and sheep no doubt had horns for defence 
 and attack ; now many are without them, though they yet 
 exist in the cases of most mountain breeds at home and 
 abroad. Sometimes a ram of a polled breed, such as the 
 Cheviot, develops small horns. In cattle this is also the 
 case, as imperfectly formed horns at times appear in both 
 Red and Black Polls. 
 
 Sheep, for their better protection when wild, were origin- 
 ally brown or dingy black. Now and then in the best 
 flocks reversion is shown by the appearance of a black 
 sheep ; and so frequently is this correlated with poor 
 quality, that it has become proverbial to describe the un- 
 fortunate member of a family as the " black sheep." 
 
 2nd. Reversion in Cross Animals. — This is much more 
 common. When two distinct, improved breeds are crossed, 
 the offspring has a strong tendency to revert to one of the 
 pure forms, or rather to an inferior ancestor of one of them ; 
 and this lasts for generatfons. The young often assume the 
 colour of one parent, and in time change it for that of the 
 other. The calf from a black cow by a red bull is often born 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 1 3 
 
 red or brown, becoming black afterwards ; and the mouse- 
 coloured foal of a chestnut mare may become chestnut. 
 
 "The act of crossing in itself gives an impulse to- 
 wards reversion," as seen by characters appearing in the 
 young that had not been seen in either pure breed for 
 generations. Calves are sometimes produced white with 
 dark ears, like the ancient wild cattle, when a red shorthorn 
 bull is put to West Highland cows. 
 
 Cross-breds are often wilder and more restless than 
 pure-breds.* This is noticed particularly in sheep and 
 cattle. Cross sheep are not so easily fenced, and a dairy 
 of cross cows is much more difficult to train to stand for 
 milking in the field than pure shorthorns. 
 
 Domestication increases the fertility of animals, if they 
 are properly bred and not overfed. Sheep being in an im- 
 proving condition at the time of conception, the number of 
 doubles or triplets is increased. In a flock of ewes the 
 largest number of twins is "got" the first few days the ram 
 is let out. The first-born of most animals run slightly more 
 to the female than to the male side. 
 
 Barrenness or uncertainty may be induced by the 
 following causes : — isi. Over-feeding in the case of either 
 sex, thus loading the reproductive organs with fat. The 
 remedy in the case of over-fat animals is judicious starving, 
 and plenty of exercise or work in the case of cattle and 
 horses. Some foods induce uncertainty in breeding more 
 readily than others. Sugar, molasses, and linseed are 
 amongst the worst ; but these are, nevertheless, often used 
 to prepare beasts for show or sale, because they produce a 
 smooth and glossy coat of hair, as well as lay on fat. These 
 foods would not do damage if given in moderation with hay 
 or straw ; it is when supplied in addition to a full feed of 
 
 * This rule refers to pure breeds of the same degree of wildness. If a wild 
 and a docile breed are mated, the progeny will be intermediate in wildness. 
 
14 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 other concentrated food that they do injury. Foods for 
 breeders should be particularly rich in phosphates, and 
 should have more albuminoids to fat-formers than in the 
 case of fattening animals ; such foods are — beans, peas, 
 lentils, gram, &c. Very fat animals do not come often in 
 season, and, consequently, cattle settle better and feed faster 
 as they approach what the butchers designate " fat-ripe." 
 
 2nd. Too low condition, especially if associated with ex- 
 posure to cold and wet, as in the case of cattle wintered in 
 the open air on poor food, or of heavy milking cows " sucked 
 down" by a large calf, or perhaps by two calves. This 
 occurs most frequently in heavy milking breeds when the 
 calves run constantly with their mothers. 
 
 'i,rd. Constitutional weakness from in-and-in-breeding. 
 
 ^ih. Being a free-martin or dumb-martin, that is, a 
 heifer born one of a pair of twins, the other being a bull. 
 In this case- the external as well as the internal organs of 
 generation are imperfectly formed and contracted, and 
 there is usually also more or less of a masculine appearance 
 about the head. 
 
 Horses do not conform to this rule, but twins from a 
 mare are very rarely seen, — because when they do occur 
 they are usually prematurely born, or die if they come 
 to full time.* The female twin among sheep is quite 
 fertile. 
 
 * From the Live Stock Journal. — " Last year(i89i) we announced that Mr 
 B. A. Posford, of Falkenham Hall, Suffolk, had sold for exportation the twin 
 Suffolk colts Romulus (2185) and Remus (2199), foaled on April and, 1890, 
 sire Wedgewood (1749), dam Smart (1732). The dam brought them up, and 
 they had no milk or artificial food. Mr Posford sold them in May 1891 to Mr 
 G. H. Hebden, who took them to New South Wales. Mr Posford has in his 
 stud twin colts this year (1892), these having been foaled on May 3rd, out of a 
 Shire-bred mare by Captain X (9012), the property of Mr W. Wilson, Reydon 
 Hall, Oxford. One of the foals is a colt and the other is a filly ; they are both 
 good, strong foals, and as large as many single ones. The dam appears to be 
 a good mother, and there is every prospect of the colts doing well." This is 
 evidence that twin foals do sometimes survive. 
 
A. — The Wild White Cattle at Chii.lingham Park, Northumberland. 
 The Property of the Right Hon. The Earl of Tankerville. 
 
 B. — Skull and Horn Cores of the Bos urus or primogenius, in the Grierson 
 Museum, Thoknhill, Dumfriesshire. 
 
 Width of Skull below the Horns, 12 inches ; Width on the Crown, 8| inches ; 
 Length of Horn Cores, 27 inches; Girth close to the Roots, 15!. 
 
 C. — Wild White Cows— Cadzow Forest, Hamilton, 
 l"he Property of His Grace The Duke of Hamilton, K.T. 
 
CHAPTER II.— WILD CATTLE. 
 
 Aboriginal Cattle of Great Britain — Bos urus or primigenius —Anoihtt 
 Distinct Species, Bos longifrons — Relationship of Bos urus to Wild Park 
 Cattle — The Home of the Forest Cattle — Domesticated Animals — The 
 Wild Cattle at Chillingham Park — Bos Scoticus — The Hamilton or Cadzow 
 Park Cattle— Chillingham Cross— The Chartley Herd— The Vaynol Park 
 Herd — White Cattle in the Zoological Gardens. 
 
 T^HE Aboriginal Cattle* of Great Britain, in common 
 with those of the continent of Europe, belonged to 
 the Bos itrus or, to use the more recent and more common 
 name, the Bos prirnigenius. Although it has been asserted 
 that the original colour of this species was black or mouse 
 brown, it is now pretty generally believed that the 
 original colour was white, with black or brown points, such 
 as may be seen in the more or less degenerate reprer 
 sentatives of the species in the parks of Chillingham, 
 Hamilton, Chartley, and Vaynol — the only places in the 
 United Kingdom, with the exception of the Zoological 
 Gardens in London, where wild cattle exist. In his 
 pristine form the wild bull of the forest approached to the 
 size of an elephant, as may be gathered from the enormous 
 dimensions of a considerable variety of remains dug up 
 from time to time and preserved. 
 
 Another distinct species, the Bos longifrons, with small 
 and slender form, short horns, and hair of a dark colour, 
 was found to be the prevailing domesticated bovine animal 
 before, and up to, the date of the Roman conquest. Its 
 descendants are now to be seen, after crossing to a greater 
 
 * For an exhaustive account see " The Wild White Cattle of Great 
 Britain" by the Rev. John Storer. Cassell & Co. To this excellent work 
 the Author is indebted for part of the historical matter adopted. 
 
1 6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 or less extent with the Bos urus, in the Scotch West High- 
 land, the Welsh, the Devon, the Sussex, the Kerry, and the 
 old Irish breeds. 
 
 There is a strong presumption that the ancient forest 
 cattle, the descendants of the Bos urus of Caesar, were the 
 immediate progenitors of the wild park cattle of the present 
 time, and also of the many herds which in comparatively 
 recent years existed in various parts of the United Kingdom. 
 As population increased and encroached upon the vast 
 forests which covered the surface of the country, the 
 numbers of wild cattle declined with those of wild beasts 
 generally, and, to preserve them from extinction, the great 
 lords enclosed and protected the decreasing remainder. 
 The small numbers and the confinement within restricted 
 areas subjected them to an undue amount of in-and-in- 
 breeding, and the large majority of the herds in question 
 have bred themselves out and disappeared ; while those that 
 remain, by their diminished size, refined bone, and in some 
 instances a tendency to barrenness, show that whatever 
 they may have gained by it they have also suffered from 
 close interbreeding. 
 
 The home of the forest cattle, at least during the 
 latter period of their freedom, was the north of England 
 and Scotland, more especially the dense forests covering 
 the hilly regions. It is supposed that they were all horned 
 and of one race, of a similar colour — white, or at times 
 creamy white, with black or dun points, — though some of 
 their domesticated descendants are without horns. 
 
 Domesticated animals of a similar type to the wild 
 forest breed were also to be seen in ancient times, and were 
 noted for their milking qualities. 
 
 The wild cattle in Chillingham Park,* the property 
 
 * First brought into public notice by Landseer's famous picture of the 
 "Dead Bull." A description of the hunt, which ended in the death of the 
 subject of the picture, together with many valuable details of the Chillingham 
 
WILD CATTLE. 1 7 
 
 of the Earl of Tankerville, are said to be the most charac- 
 teristic descendants of the forest breed * though they only 
 differ in minor points of detail from those in Hamilton Park 
 — anotherwell-known herd representative of the Bos Scoticus. 
 Storer gives it as his strong opinion that these cattle were 
 not so persistently in-and-in-bred for hundreds of years as 
 is usually supposed ; but that until not very long ago fresh 
 blood was brought from other herds, and that in this way 
 their existence has been prolonged. Dr Ramage in " Drum- 
 lanrig and the Douglases ( 1876)" quite unintentionally con- 
 firms this view by saying " there is a tradition that about 100 
 years ago the whole stock " (meaning the Drumlanrig herd 
 of white cattle) " was sold and driven off to Chillingfiam." 
 
 One of the visible indications of the close-breeding which 
 has nevertheless taken place in this herd is the presence of 
 a rash (no doubt of a scrofulous character). A tendency to 
 barrenness points to the same cause, the rate of annual 
 increase of the breed being only one in five. 
 
 It has recently been noticed that some cows live to a 
 great age, one which died in December 1891 being eighteen 
 years old. 
 
 At one period the bulls possessed a mane which devel- 
 oped with maturity, but decreased with old age. It is also 
 noticed that the tendency to show black spots on the skin, 
 especially about the neck and head (and to a greater degree 
 amang the Hamilton than among the Chillingham cattle), 
 also increases with age.f Black or dark brown and white, 
 
 herds may be found in an interesting brochure, by the Earl of Tankerville, 
 " The Chillingham Wild Cattle. Reminiscences of Life in the Highlands, 
 1891," printed at the Surrey Comet office. 
 
 * RUtimeyer in " Domestic Cattle of the Ancients, '' says of the Chillingham 
 breed (after examining the bones from the Swiss lake dwellings, and comparing 
 them with the skeletons of cattle of the present day), that it is " the purest type 
 that he has found of the original Bos." 
 
 + A parallel to this is to be noticed in the dark spots which develop on the 
 cars of Border Leicester ewes as they grow old. 
 
1 8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and also black calves assuming a brown tinge, have from 
 time to time been dropped in both herds named, but these 
 have been destroyed to maintain uniformity. In this 
 example of atavism is clearly seen the link connecting the 
 white with the allied black or dark breeds. The skins are 
 thin, and under the white hair they are white in colour, and 
 thus differ in a most important characteristic from the dark- 
 skinned and white-haired animals belonging to the Zebu 
 race or humped cattle of India — the Bos Indicus — the skins 
 of which are mostly jet black, though some are of a yellowish 
 or nut-brown colour. 
 
 Storer says : — 
 
 " The tongues of the ChiUingham cattle are slate-coloured above, 
 and of a reddish-brown colour on the under side ; the teats of the cows, 
 unlike those at Chartley, are white ; and although the muzzle is black, 
 the under Up is white." And again : " Besides the red ears, a faint 
 line of red hair exists, as if drawn by a, pencil, immediately above the 
 dark and hairless muzzle." Quoting from Lord Tankerville, he adds : 
 " In form they are beautifully shaped. They have short legs, straight 
 back, horns of a very fine texture, thin skin, so that some of the bulls 
 appear of a cream colour ; and they have a peculiar cry, more like that 
 of a wild beast than that of ordinary cattle." 
 
 In 1891 Lord Tankerville writes: — 
 
 " These peculiarities of colour and markings are very uniform and--- 
 distinctive in the wild herd. They are pure white when first calved 
 and licked clean by their mothers, but become of a more creamy white 
 colour afterwards. The horns are white, with black tips ; the hoofs 
 and noses are black ; the eyes are fringed with long eyelashes, which 
 give them depth of character ; their bodies are symmetrically formed ; 
 and their fine shoulders enable them to trot like match horses with 
 amazing rapidity." 
 
 The average weight of the cattle killed between 1862 
 and 1889 was, for bulls, 560 lbs. ; for cows, 420 lbs. ; and 
 for steers, 570 lbs. ; and the flesh is of specially fine flavour 
 and quality — the lean muscle being mixed or marled with 
 fat. The proportion of offal to carcass is remarkably 
 small. 
 
WILD CATTLE. 1 9 
 
 Naturally these cattle are wild and timid, and try to 
 escape from the presence of man. They are, however, 
 extremely ferocious and dangerous when in close quarters 
 and at bay. 
 
 Their instincts are essentially those of wild animals. 
 Their keenness of scent, and the habit they possess of hid- 
 ing their young for a few days after birth, are good illustra- 
 tions of the fact. Domesticated cattle which have recently 
 been reclaimed from the wild condition, such as West 
 Highlanders and members of the South Wales breed, 
 have retained this instinctive habit for generations. 
 
 The number of the pure herd has recently varied from 
 73 (in 1890) to 66 (in January 1892). 
 
 Experiments in crossing some of the wild cattle with 
 pure-bred shorthorns were begun in 1875, and are yet being 
 carried on. At first a wild bull was mated with two high- 
 bred shorthorn heifers, but owing to the failure of the first 
 female cross to breed all subsequent crossing has been be- 
 tween wild females and shorthorn bulls. A steer resulting 
 from the latter union was exhibited at Smithfield in 1888, 
 and was placed third in a good cross-bred class. He was 
 sold at £6$ when within six weeks of four years old, his 
 live weight being 16 cwts. 2 qrs. 24 lbs. ; his dead weight, 
 87 St. 10 lbs.; loose tallow, 11 st. 4 lbs.; and hide (very 
 thin), 6 St. 4 lbs. He received no food but grass till within 
 three or four months of the time he was exhibited. 
 
 In 1889 another cross-bred steer, three years and eight 
 months old, gained the third prize in his class at Smithfield. 
 He weighed 18 cwts. 2 qrs. 5 lbs., and his dressed carcass 
 scaled 96 stones. The beef of both animals was pronounced 
 to be of exceptionally good quality. Lord Tankerville says 
 that— 
 
 " The practical results which have TDeen obtained by blending the 
 blood of the wild cattle with high-bred shorthorns has been, in both the 
 first and second crosses, to materially improve the shape of the animal, 
 
20 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and particularly to develop the loins and most valuable beef-producing 
 parts, as well as to increase the size and weight. In addition to this, 
 an increased aptitude to fatten and to attain early maturity is very 
 pronounced. These are the quah ties transmitted by the shorthorn, 
 while the contribution of the wild parent is seen in increased vigour and 
 constitution, with lightness of bone, together with improved gait, which 
 is due to the finely laid shoulders of the wild animal. The colour may 
 be said to be unchanged, with the exception of the nose and ears. In 
 the former the black has given place to the flesh-colour or mottle, 
 whilst the latter shows a broader fringe of red." 
 
 The Hamilton or Cadzow Park* cattle, which num- 
 bered 44 in the spring of 1889, and 38 (consisting of 22 
 cows, II bulls, and 5 one-year-old queys) in June 1892, are 
 less timid than they were a generation ago, and are not 
 nearly so shy as those at Chillingham ; nevertheless, they 
 cannot be driven from one field to another, but have to be 
 trapped within a narrow space shut off by folding gates 
 when they require to be moved. When seriously disturbed 
 they show their nervous excitement by passing faeces of an 
 abnormally liquid character ; and, if the cows are suckling 
 calves, by the derangement or death of a number of the 
 calves, due to the heated and poisonous milk produced 
 under the influence of fear. 
 
 When the animals are shot (the method adopted in 
 killing them) the carcasses dress to about the same weight 
 as those at Chillingham,. both being smaller than an average 
 specimen of the Ayrshire breed. The smaller-sized cows, 
 killed in their natural condition after breeding, weigh as 
 little as 16 stones. 
 
 In contrasting the two breeds, it is found that the 
 Hamilton cattle, as compared with those at Chillingham, 
 stand higher on their legs ; their horns are lo\yer set on the 
 head, and are mostly inclined downwards through a part of 
 their length, lessening the space left between the ear and 
 the horn ; and the hair on the body is purer white, or less 
 
 * Said to be a remnant of the primeval forest of Caledonia. 
 
Pl.ATK 11. 
 
 h X 
 
 IiJ u. 
 
 o 
 
 c Q 
 
 Q W 
 
 < X 
 
 J o 
 
WILD CATTLE. 21 
 
 creamy. The jet-black tips of the horns, the dark eyes 
 and black eyelashes, the black muzzle and surrounding ring 
 of black hair, and the black knee-caps, hoofs, and stockings 
 almost reaching the knee in front, give a more definitely 
 marked appearance to the animals than the less prominent 
 and less varied red-brown points of the Chillingham breed. 
 It is well authenticated that till quite recently the Hamil- 
 ton cattle were without horns. One old servant on the 
 estate in 1889 recollected that the late Duke Alexander 
 would not allow any calves that tended to grow horns to be 
 preserved. 
 
 There is sufficient evidence indeed to show that the 
 points and characters of the various herds of wild cattle 
 have been kept constant or altered to suit the wishes of 
 individual owners by artificial selection, — viz., by destroy- 
 ing those that did not conform to a certain standard. 
 How far the present horned condition, or the late polled 
 condition of the Hamilton cattle, can be attributed to 
 this cause cannot now be determined.: There is a tradition 
 that a West Highland bull broke into the park, and that 
 through his descendants, by selection, the cattle reacquired 
 horns. 
 
 The numbers were reduced in 1866 by rinderpest to 
 thirteen cows and a bull. In breeding up the existing 
 herd, it has been impossible to kill off all animals with 
 imperfect markings, so that in appearance the cattle are 
 not now so uniform in type as it will be possible to make 
 them within a few years. No doubt the herd has also suf- 
 fered on account of closer in-and-in-breeding than before, 
 due to the reduction of the numbers. This is to be in- 
 ferred from the low condition of its members during winter 
 in spite of the liberal feeding and care bestowed upon 
 them. The constitution in this instance seems to have 
 suffered more in the matter of hardiness required to resist 
 the inclemency of the weather than in the powers of breed- 
 
22 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ing, as no fewer than twenty-one cows out of a total of 
 twenty-seven brought forth calves in 1888. 
 
 Hamilton-Chillingham Cross. — For the purpose of 
 infusing new blood, a Chillingham bull was imported in 
 1886, and put to a selected number of cows. The products 
 of the cross show some points of great interest to breeders 
 of stock. Of six calves, the first product of this connec- 
 tion, four were almost pure white. In place of the black or 
 red markings seen in their parents, they had extremely 
 small fringes of coloured hairs, — not more than a quarter 
 inch broad on the tips of the ears, — and these four animals 
 were in consequence destroyed as unsatisfactory. One of 
 the two remaining was black, and the other was red in its 
 points like the sire. 
 
 In the following year, 1888, two well-marked bull calves 
 were secured, and they have already exercised a salutary 
 influence on the herd. So successful has the cross already 
 proved to be that in 1891 all the cows, nineteen in number, 
 were put to a half-bred Chillingham bull. Fifteen calves 
 were born of this union, but only six possessed the charac- 
 teristic markings of the Hamilton herd. Of the remainder 
 eight were white, or nearly so, and one was black. The 
 appearance of the crosses indicates a marked development 
 of constitutional vigour and hardiness. They show a 
 decided increase in size, and also in the amount and quality 
 of hair, as compared with the pure-bred cattle. The heads 
 are also larger, and the horns stronger and more upright, 
 resembling the horns of the Chillingham herd. There is 
 little doubt but that the step taken at Hamilton is one in 
 the right direction, although the practice of killing off the 
 badly marked calves may keep down the total number of 
 the herd for a few years. Storer had, after a careful study 
 of the whole question of breeding, excellent grounds for 
 making the assertion, that he was of opinion "that no 
 wild herd, if imprisoned in a park, and interbred for 
 
Plate III. 
 
WILD CATTLE. 23 
 
 several hundred years without a cross, could be in exist- 
 ence now." 
 
 The Chartley Park* Herd, in Staffordshire, belonging 
 to Lord Ferres, now (1892) forty-one in number, dates 
 back for nearly six and a half centuries to 1248-9.! The 
 cattle in form, substance, and general appearance strongly 
 resemble the longhorn breed, which at one time was largely 
 represented in the English Midlands. The colour of skin 
 and hair, including the udder and the tip of the tail, is 
 white. The teats are black, and so are the points corre- 
 sponding to those of the Hamilton cattle, but not quite so 
 extended. The horns, which are long, white with brown or 
 dark tips, descend in the manner of the horns of the long- 
 horn breed. From the crown between the horns hangs 
 down a top-knot of long white hair. 
 
 The herd further resembles that at Hamilton in not 
 being so wild as the herd at Chillingham. The animals, 
 however, exceed those of both the northern herds in size 
 and substance, conspicuously in the weight of the fore- 
 quarters. Black calves are at times dropped by cows of 
 this breed, but are destroyed for the reason already stated 
 in connection with the other breeds of wild cattle, viz., to 
 preserve the characteristic colour markings. The average 
 annual number of calves reared is ten, and the agents 
 (John German & Son) say they " do not think that there 
 is much deterioration in the character of the herd, owing to 
 in-and-in-breeding," although "no other blood has been 
 imported." 
 
 In Vaynol Park, near Bangor, is another herd of wild 
 white cattle, with black points, which in 1892 numbered 
 fifty-five, including twenty calves and two bulls. The 
 following extract from The Field shows their origin to be 
 Scottish : — 
 
 * An area of nearly 1,000 acres in its original natural state. 
 + Sir Oswald Moslay's " History of Tutbury," 1832. 
 
24 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 " The herd at Vaynol Park, belonging to Mr Assheton Smith, was 
 introduced there by him in 1872, when he purchased a portion (twenty- 
 two) of the herd then owned by Sir John Orde of Kilmory, Argyle- 
 shire, from whom, in August 1886, he purchased the remainder, thirty- 
 two more. This stock was originally at Blair-Athol, Perthshire, and 
 in 1834 was sold to the Marquis of Breadalbane, Taymouth, and to 
 the Duke of Buccleuch, Dalkeith. When the herd at the latter place 
 was broken up, the late Sir John Orde purchased the only survivor, 
 and transported it to Argyleshire. This was used with Kyloe (West 
 Highland) cows carefully selected. After some few years this bull and 
 Lord Breadalbane's Taymouth bull were exchanged, and the latter was 
 used with good results until 1852, when a West Highland bull calf 
 was bought, and this sire was supposed to have much improved the 
 stock." 
 
 No fresh blood has been introduced since the transfer 
 of the ancestors of the herd to North Wales. The number 
 of calves is an indication that the cows are now normally 
 fertile, although Sir John Orde, writing in June 1887, says 
 that he made an attempt, although it proved unsuccessful, 
 to introduce the Hamilton blood (through two bulls, which 
 met with accidents, and were incapable), because he believed 
 the herd had slightly declined in fertility, and had deteri- 
 orated in bone and horn. The type of the Vaynol cattle is 
 very much that of the West Highland, with the substantial, 
 well-formed body on short legs. The horns are inter- 
 mediate in length, between the Hamilton and Chartley 
 horns. Though the members of -the herd trot off to a 
 distance, should any one attempt to come to close quarters 
 with them, they are not nearly so wild as the Chillingham 
 cattle, and make no attempt to escape from the view of 
 people at a distance. These animals are fed with hay 
 during severe weather in winter, and are thus to some slight 
 extent domesticated. 
 
 In the end of 1890 a heifer of this breed was captured 
 after considerable difficulty, and sent to the Zoological 
 Society's Gardens in London, where she was mated with 
 a young bull from the Chartley herd. A fine strong bull 
 
Plate IV. 
 
WILD CATTLE. 
 
 25 
 
 calf has been born of this union, perfectly white, with jet- 
 black nose and ears. " Both the adults and the calf are 
 wonderfully tame, and will lick or feed from the hand, or 
 allow any one to pat or stroke them without exhibiting fear 
 or anger." It would thus seem that the common belief in 
 the untamable nature of the wild white cattle of this country 
 is unwarranted. 
 
 Cross-bred Cow, showing reversion in colour to the colour of the ancient wild cattle : 
 eferred to on page 55. Draiuii by IMrs Blackburn. 
 
CHAPTER III.— BREEDS OF DOMESTIC CATTLE— 
 THE SHORTHORN. 
 
 Points generally applicable to Cattle kept for Beef Production — The Shorthorn 
 — Colour — Horns — Descent from the Old Tees-Water Breed — Milking 
 Qualities — Inferiority of White Specimens— Tradition relating to History — 
 Charles and Robert Colling — Milking Powers lowered by " In-and-in- 
 Breeding " — Influence of Change of Country or Locality on Constitution — 
 Two great Branches of Shorthorns, " Booth and Bates " — The Booths — 
 Thomas Bates — Comparison of Booth and Bates Cattle — Commingling of 
 Booth and Bates Blood — Recent Breeders — Aberdeen Shorthorns. 
 
 T3RITISH Cattle in common with other Eiiropean cattle 
 are scientifically classified under the designation Bos 
 taurus. 
 
 Before describing the distinguishing characteristics of 
 the different breeds it will be well, in order to avoid repeti- 
 tion, to brieily state the general points, applicable to those 
 kept for beef production. 
 
 General Points. 
 
 Head broad between the eyes, flat across the crown 
 (with a few exceptions in polled breeds) and down "Ca&face, 
 which should be neither " dished " nor Roman, and of 
 medium length ; muzzle broad, full, distinct, and dewy ; eyes 
 large, full, and clear ; horns none, or varying in length, colour, 
 and strength, according to breed, set on the crest of the 
 head ; ears full and sensitive, well covered with hair, and 
 varying slightly in position in the different breeds. 
 
 Neck lengthy, full at the " neck-vein," or where it joins 
 the body, broad (muscular in the male), but fine, and 
 tapering towards the head — to which it should join without 
 thickness or chokiness — and straight from the shoulder top 
 
 N.B. — For a list of the various herd-books see Appendix C. 
 
i'LATE V. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — GENERAL POINTS. 2/ 
 
 to the roots of the horns, excepting when it rises into the 
 crest of a bull. 
 
 Body long and deep, equally balanced before and behind ; 
 back broad throughout its length, and straight from the top 
 of the shoulders to the tail-head ; the frame well and 
 equally covered with flesh, not patchy on the hooks, tail- 
 head, rump, shoulders, or other parts (when prime, a little 
 pit may be felt on the point of each hook). The trunk, 
 looked at from any point, should resemble as nearly as 
 possible a parallelogram ; the under and upper lines straight 
 and parallel ; brisket projecting well forward, and wide, 
 making the fore-legs stand well apart ; tail thin, set on well 
 back (but not too high), and falling perpendicularly. 
 
 Skin moderately thick (not papery), loose, and mellow 
 or mossy to touch ; hair soft and abundant, covering all 
 parts well. 
 
 Shoulders laid well back over the ribs, so that the 
 natural depression behind them in the region of the girth 
 line should not be too pronounced ; broad above, between 
 the upper edges of the shoulder blades. 
 
 Chest full, wide, deep, and massive. 
 
 The Fore-arm and Leg straight and short ; muscle large 
 and broad ; leg-bones strong, though fine and flat (abnor- 
 mally small bone shows tendency to diminished size) ; legs 
 well under the body ; hoofs clear and oily. 
 
 Hind Quarters full and well packed, lengthy from the 
 hook bones to the tail-head, neither of which should rise 
 above the back level ; thighs broad, thick, and well down 
 towards the houghs ; twist or inner thigh full and large. 
 
 Ribs well sprung and deep, filling up deficiency behind 
 the shoulder and in front of the hooks. 
 
 Fore Flanks and Hind Flanks full and deep. 
 
 The Lines of the body flowing, not sharp or abrupt, 
 with a general balance of parts to please the eye. 
 
FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 
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 Oi 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE^-THE SHORTHORN. 29 
 
 A Brief Historical Sketch of Breeds mainly valued 
 for Beef Production, together with their char- 
 acteristic Points and Qualities. 
 
 The Shorthorn. 
 
 Is the most widely distributed and numerously represented 
 of all British breeds, not only in the United Kingdom and 
 her colonies, but also in the United States of America. It 
 has among its many good qualities a marvellous power of 
 adaptation to climatic and other local surrounding con- 
 ditions. In connection with the general form above 
 described the following special characteristics are worthy 
 of notice. 
 
 In colour the breed is represented by roans and reds of 
 various shades, light and dark, and also by red-and-white as 
 well as wholly white specimens. The last-mentioned and 
 also the light or yellowish-light reds are out of fashion with 
 American buyers, who, on account of their numbers, tend to 
 regulate custom in such things. Brindled colours are not 
 seen in pure-bred shorthorns, and the same may be said of 
 black. The skin, including that of the inner ears, is of a 
 creamy-white or yellow colour. The . nose, palate, lips, 
 and eyelids should be flesh-coloured, and free from dark 
 markings. A bright red nose is indicative of ' delicacy, 
 just as black is considered to denote impurity, — this, too, in 
 spite of the acknowledged fact that black or dark noses 
 existed in some of the best strains of blood mentioned in 
 the early records of the breqd. " Foljambe," a descendant of 
 the famous bull " Hubback," had, on the authority of Bates, 
 a dark nose ; and another good bull was designated the 
 " black-Dosed." It is also further recorded by Allen that 
 at one time "farm stock was nearly all black-nosed." 
 
 The characteristic horns are short and blunt, more or 
 
30 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 less curved in a downward direction, of a waxy yellow 
 throughout (free from black tips), laterally flattened, and 
 set on wide apart. 
 
 It is essential that the masculine or the feminine 
 characteristics should be naturally represented in individual 
 specimens of each sex. 
 
 Shorthorns are descended from the old North-East 
 of England breed, variously designated the " Durham," 
 "Tees-Water," "Yorkshire," or " Holderness." It was 
 probably originally formed several centuries ago by cross- 
 ing the aboriginal British cows with large-framed bulls 
 imported from the Continent — Holland .and Denmark. 
 The dark noses referred to were no doubt due to their re- 
 lationship with the ancient white cattle. Early shorthorns 
 were good milkers, and it may be presumed they in part 
 inherited that quality along with the shortness of horn from 
 their Continental ancestors. 
 
 The "Alloy" strain, which was represented by thir- 
 teen animals of good appearance at the retiring sale of 
 Charles Colling, was descended from the produce of a red 
 cow (Lady), which had one-eighth part of Galloway blood, 
 repeatedly in-and-in-bred with the best shorthorn bulls. 
 The distinct Galloway characteristics rapidly disappeared 
 in the full flood of shorthorn blood ; still the animals re- 
 tained a roundness of form, roughness of coat, heaviness 
 and uniformity of flesh, and deficiency in their milking 
 powers not usually found in the shorthorns of that time. 
 
 The colours of the early shorthorns were much like 
 those now prevailing. Among red varieties the yellowish- 
 red is waning before the deep or darker red colours. This 
 yellowish tint seems to have been more or less correlated with 
 good milking qualities possessed by early shorthorns, and to 
 have disappeared with the increasing tendency in the breed 
 to produce fat, acquired at the expense of their milking 
 powers. The fact that the light red non-pedigreed short- 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SHORTHORN. 3 1 
 
 horn cow with a slightly orange tinge is, as a rule, more 
 highly appreciated by dairy people than the dark red, goes 
 to support this view. The milking shorthorns (not pedi- 
 greed, though well bred) necessary for the milk supply of 
 Edinburgh and other large centres of population in the 
 north of the kingdom, are largely drawn from Cumberland! 
 They are excellent milkers, and possess, in many cases in 
 a marked degree, the light red or yellowish-red which is 
 held to be associated with milking powers. Thornton's 
 " Circular " says that in the Lake district " the yellow roan 
 and red were " (in the early part of this century) " looked 
 upon as the pure breed, the dark red being held in no 
 favour." The colour of " Hubback," the famous bull from 
 which all the best shorthorns have been bred, was " yellow- 
 red and white ; " and Carr, writing of the first of the Straw- 
 berry tribCj says they were " of that yellow-red and white 
 hue, which, though out of favour at the present day, was 
 then the prevailing colour of the shorthorn." 
 
 That colour is to some degree an indication of milking 
 qualities is beyond reasonable doubt. A careful inquiry 
 among " town " dairymen, whose cattle are treated by forc- 
 ing in a manner calculated to try the weak points of all 
 constitutions, shows that it is a pretty widely accepted be- 
 lief that white shorthorns are not so hardy nor so good as 
 milkers as those of other colours.* The fact that a white 
 cow may in a rare and special case be second to none in a 
 whole herd as a milker does not interfere with the general 
 belief in the principle laid down. It is a parallel to the old 
 story of the black sheep of a flock being either conspicu- 
 ously good or exceptionally bad. 
 
 This point is of special interest when considered in con- 
 nection with a statement made in Thornton's "Circular" 
 (1869) in reference to the effects of the Collings' system of 
 
 * Storer, in speaking of the cattle of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 says : — " The white cow is despised and charged with delicacy." 
 
32 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 breeding, that " in all cases of close affinity there was a 
 tendency to white, with red ears and spots." Is it possible 
 that many of the pale cattle of the present time are suffer- 
 ing not from the effects of close-breeding of recent date, but 
 from the effects of it in the past, in virtue of the relaxation 
 of the intensive accumulation of good qualities which are 
 associated with judicious in-breeding when recently carried 
 out ? If this be so, we have one explanation of the decided 
 preference of American and other purchasers for roan or for 
 dark colours. It may also be that light-skinned cattle are 
 more liable to suffer from sunburning in the United States, 
 where solar influences are more powerful^ than in this 
 country.* 
 
 Little is known of the breed, except from the uncertain 
 authority of tradition, down to the early part of the eigh- 
 teenth century, though it is only right to infer that long 
 before this time great care, and even skill, had been be- 
 stowed upon it. The earliest records show that purity of 
 breed was fully appreciated, and this important fact could 
 not have been universal without previous experience and 
 attention. Though the first volume of the " Shorthorn 
 Herd Book " was not published till 1822, yet, for well-nigh 
 a century before that date, pedigree records, of a more or 
 less imperfect kind, had been kept of a few of the best 
 bulls. 
 
 Charles and Robert Colling,! who have been called, 
 rather misleadingly, " the founders of the shorthorn breed 
 of cattle," did much to improve the quality and to extend 
 the fame of this hitherto local breed by what may be termed 
 Bakewell's | method of breedings which might be briefly 
 defined as a persistent system of " in-and-in-breeding " with 
 
 * This subject of the importance of the natural colouring of the skins of 
 cattle is exhaustively dealt with in the Author's work on Indian Agricul- 
 ture. Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. 
 
 t Charles, born 1750, died 1836; Robert, born 1749, died 1820. 
 
 X Robert Bakewell, bom 1725, di«d 1795. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SHORTHORN. 33 
 
 specially selected and carefully mated animals of good 
 blood. The brothers, though admittedly excellent judges 
 and managers of stock, yet owe, in a great measure, their 
 success and the name they have handed down to posterity 
 to their methods of bringing their animals to the notice of 
 the public. Two famous beasts — the " Durham Ox," with 
 a live weight of fully i^ tons, and the " White Heifer that 
 travelled," which weighed considerably over i ton — were 
 carried about the country for a number of years, and 
 exhibited as marvellous specimens of the wonderful 
 breed with which the name of Colling became familiarly 
 associated. 
 
 The hiring out of bulls, a common practice of the 
 present day, though new at their time, kept the Collings 
 in communication with the best breeders. Intent upon 
 the improvement of the external form and the increase of 
 fattening powers in their stock, they were no doubt satisfied 
 •with the results of the cross with the in-and-in-bred Colling 
 bulls, that had acquired, in virtue of consanguinity, an 
 intensified power of impressing their qualities upon the 
 ordinary shorthorn of the country. And, finally, the sales* 
 held respectively by the brothers circulated their names 
 and distributed their famous strains of blood among the 
 important breeders of shorthorns. 
 
 Though in-and-in-breeding has admittedly done much 
 to raise the standard of the shorthorn breed, there is a 
 strong presumption that close-breeding of itself, apart altOr 
 gether from its tendency in this case to develop flesh, has to 
 do with the acknowledged lowering of the power of milk 
 production. It is a well-established fact, that persistent 
 in-breeding leads to impotency in the matter of conception. 
 It is true that shorthorns are not so liable to suffer in this 
 
 ' That by Charles at Ketton in 1810, and that by Robert at Barmston 
 Farm in 1818, besides a displenishing sale at the latter place in 1820, after 
 Robert's death. 
 
 C 
 
34 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 way as some other classes of stock ; yet Charles Colling 
 must have felt the tendency when, after trying his cow 
 "Phoenix " with good bulls without success, he fell back, as 
 a " last resort," on a bull which was one-fourth Galloway 
 and three-fourths shorthorn, and attained his end. This 
 was at one with the common custom of, putting a good 
 country or common bull to a well-bred stock of cows which 
 have through close-breeding become weak in their powers 
 of reproduction. It is admitted that close-breeding lowers 
 the power of animals to produce young, and it is not 
 wonderful to find it also impairing the power of providing 
 sufficient milk to support them should they come into exist- 
 ence. It would be extraordinary if the reproductive system 
 were spriously affected as regards its first functions, and left 
 in a normal condition in the matter of what should follow 
 at a later period. 
 
 There were several circumstances in the management of 
 the early shorthorns which made it possible to carry in- 
 breeding to its greatest length with the minimum of bad 
 results. Animals were kept in moderate condition and in 
 a natural state. Their food was mostly grass in summer, 
 and hay or straw in winter. The system of letting out on 
 hire lent renewed vigour of constitution through change of 
 air, food, and general surroundings. The influence of such 
 change as a precaution towards the preservation of health 
 is universally admitted in the human species ; and in the 
 matter of consanguinity, it has been shown that the offspring 
 from the marriage of cousins is not associated with either 
 mental or physical weakness if the individuals in question 
 have been reared in parts geographically distant from each 
 other. The shipment of cattle to America and other 
 countries, and the return of their progeny, has unquestion- 
 ably increased their constitutional vigour. The same remark 
 applies to the more frequent transfer and return of short- 
 horns to Scotland and Ireland, The influence is not one 
 
FLATE VI. 
 
 A.— Shorthorn Heifer, "Bracelet," 4030. 
 The Property of Her Majesty The Queen. 
 
 B. — Booth Shorthorn Bull, "Royal Stuart," 40,646. 
 Bred by Booth, of Warlaby, Northallerton. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SHORTHORN. 35 
 
 which shows itself merely in the members of a race of 
 descendants, but it is conspicuous in the individual. Num- 
 bers of highly-bred barren cattle, exported to America 
 at low prices, have been foUnd to conceive without diffi- 
 culty after the change. 
 
 It may be safely asserted that nearly all the well-bred 
 shorthorns which have become famous within the period of 
 which there is any written history* of the breed, have been 
 descended more or less directly from a few famous bulls, 
 notably " Hubback" (calved about 1775), the father of the 
 improved shorthorn, and his much in-bred descendants 
 "Favourite" (252) and "Comet" (i55).t 
 
 In "Animals and Plants under Domestication," Darwin 
 says of " Favourite " (who was himself the offspring of a 
 half-brother and sister from " Foljambe ") that he " was 
 matched with his own daughter, grand-daughter, and great- 
 grand-daughter, so that the produce of this last union, or 
 the great-great-grand-daughter, had fifteen-sixteenths, or 
 93.75 per cent, of the blood of ' Favourite ' in her veins." 
 
 The two great branches of the shorthorn breed, the 
 " Booth " and the " Bates,"]: had a common ancestor 
 in " Hubback." This animal had a marvellous power of 
 stamping his special characteristics upon his offspring, and 
 moreover, was possessed of certain qualities, now highly 
 appreciated among shorthorns, Which were not prominent 
 features of shorthorns before his time, — viz., low legs, com- 
 
 * George CuUey, who wrote on the agriculture of Northumberland, and 
 also "Observations on Live Stock, 1786," is one of the first historians of 
 the breed. He was an intimate friend and adviser of the CoUings, and an 
 enthusiastic disciple of Bakewell. 
 
 t These were descended from " Studley bull " (626), calved in 1737. 
 
 J Though not here dealt with in detail, there are other important branches 
 of shorthorn blood in the United Kingdom : for example, Collings families of 
 shorthorns exist, which neither Bates nor Booth ever possessed. There are 
 also the Wilkinson shorthorns, well known in Scotland ; the Mason families, 
 highly appreciated in Scotland, England, and Ireland ; and the Knightl y 
 strains, famous for their milking qualities. 
 
36 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 pact form, and moderate size ; * a wonderful aptitude for 
 laying on flesh, which, contrary to the results of the usual 
 law of in-breeding, he seems to have inherited from his 
 dam ; and, to the touch, a superior quality of skin and hair. 
 
 The name of Booth has been associated with the 
 breeding of shorthorns since 1777 in the person and in the 
 descendants of Thomas Booth,' the father of Richard and 
 of John Booth, and through the latter grandfather to Thomas 
 C. Booth of Warlaby, Northallerton, and great-grandfather 
 of Richard Booth, the present representative in the direct line. 
 
 It was not till some time after the Collings' career that 
 the name assumed the importance which it ultimately' 
 attained in the shorthorn world. " Killerby," " Warlaby," 
 and in earlier times " Studley," were the centres from 
 which the various members of the Booth family distributed 
 their surplus stock to all quarters of the globe where short- 
 horns are to be found. The Bo9ths, like the Collings, con- 
 tinued the system of in-and-in-breeding, and also that of 
 letting bulls out on hire for a time to distant parts of the 
 British Isles — a practice which has been acknowledged as 
 of much advantage when the system of close-breeding is 
 adopted. 
 
 Thomas Bates (1775 to 1849) of Kirklevington.t in the 
 Vale of Cleveland, got the progenitors of his best cattle from 
 the Collings. He was a man of means, and had an educa- 
 tion! superior to that of his farmer neighbours. His cattle 
 
 * Various records of the weights of largerboned and coarse-fleshed early 
 shorthorns, prior to the days of high pressure in feeding, put the dressed 
 carcasses at over 150 imperial stones. 
 
 + A rather over-drawn and laudatory account of the cattle bred by him is 
 to be seen in a book published in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, N.E. Farmer Office, 
 and entitled "The History of Improved Shorthorn or Durham Cattle and of 
 the Kirklevington Herd, from the Notes of the late Thomas Bales, with a 
 Memoir by Thomas Bell of Brockton House, Eccleshall, Staffordshire." 
 
 J He spent a number of years at the University of Edinburgh, with the 
 original intention of going in for the Church. 
 

 ■ i^T«fSasS!S9S?j 
 
 ^■^•iWiiB-v , 
 
 ' *-'-K.-^ '^"^1 
 
 A.— Bates Shorthorn Bull, "Duke of BarringtoNj" 15, 52,745. 
 
 Bred by H. J. Sheldon, Brailes, Shipston-on-Stour. 
 
 The property of T. Holford, Castle Hill, Cerne. 
 
 'ffiHr--' 
 
 B. — Bates Shorthorn Cow, "Duchess of Leicester U." 
 Bred by T. Holford, Castle Hill, Cerne. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SHORTHORN. 37 
 
 breeding was carried out more for iiis own pleasure, and to 
 establish a distinct breed and name, than for profit. His 
 name is most familiarly associated with the " Duchess " 
 tribe, for which was claimed all the qualities, including that 
 of milk production, which the shorthorn breed possessed. 
 The " Oxford " and " Duchess " tribes are the two important 
 branches of the Bates blood ; and these are most intimately 
 related through frequent intercrossing by bulls taken from 
 the one to the other. Even a more perfect system of in- 
 and-in-breeding was followed by Bates, and continued by 
 his successors, than in the case of the Colling or of the 
 Booth cattle. The colours of Bates cattle are red, red and 
 white, and roan. It is asserted by Bates breeders that 
 white specimens more rarely appear in this than in the 
 Booth line ; so it would seem that the tendency to white- 
 ness through close^breediftg is overbalanced in this instance 
 by some other influence — possibly the greater attention of 
 Bates breeders to select dark-coloured bulls for service. 
 The " Stan wick" cow, which was the mother of all the best 
 of the Bates breed, was a yellowish-red roan. Though good 
 milking power has always been considered a point of im- 
 portance in Bates cattle, the fact that the common non- 
 pedigreed shorthorns surpass them in this particular quality, 
 is an indication of the influence of close-breeding on the 
 alimentary section of the organs involved in reproduction. 
 
 In comparing Booth with Bates cattle, we find that 
 the Booth breed exhibits a greater number of light-coloured 
 specimens — white, and light roan ; a thicker and less silky 
 skin ; a more substantial and massive frame, more deeply 
 covered with flesh ; the head and neck set on lower, and 
 the style and expression more sombre, than in the case of 
 its stately rival. The best specimens of the Bates bulls 
 possess a wonderful presence, given by the arched crest and 
 stylish head. The breed is particularly liable to the defect 
 of a hoUowness, or falling away, at the heart girth ; this is 
 
38 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 made all the more apparent by the high neck and the fre- 
 quently perpendicular shoulders. 
 
 Commingling of Booth and Bates blood is strongly 
 objected to by some, on the ground that the strains are now 
 so distinct that the drawbacks of an ordinary cross with 
 animals of entirely different breeds are liable to appear. It 
 is acknowledged that, where inter-breeding does take place, 
 the most successful match is a Booth bull with a Bates cow. 
 This result implies that Bates cattle have suffered more 
 from in-and-in-breeding than Booth cattle, because had 
 consanguinity not been carried too far, we should have 
 expected greater potency to remain with the Bates which 
 are most in-bred. In America the prices paid for Bates 
 cattle have been quite phenomenal.* There, as in our 
 Australian colonies. Bates cattle are much preferred to 
 Booths. 
 
 It would be impossible to enumerate all of the many 
 hundreds of breeders who have followed in the lines laid 
 down by the Booths and by Bates. 
 
 A few of the more prominent breeders of Booth cattle 
 — in addition to the Booths of Warlaby,t whose herd, though 
 not often represented in the show ring, still maintains the 
 position of excellence to which it was raised by its late 
 owners, Richard and T. C. Booth — are, T. H. Hutchinson, 
 Manor House, Catterick ; Thomas Willis, Manor House, 
 
 * When in Canada, in 1879, the Author saw in the possession of M. H. 
 Cochrane, Compton, Prov. Quebec, the famous "Duchess" cow, which at 
 that time had (speaking from memory) bred stock sold at ;^27,5oo, and which 
 lived to add over ;^2,5oo to that enormous figure. At the New York ^ills 
 Sale, in 1873, ninety-three cows and heifers averaged £y'T)\. 8s., and sixteen 
 bulls averaged ;^403. i6s., making a total of ;^8o,o5i. gs. Fifteen specimens 
 of the Duchess tribe of T. Bates averaged ;^3,679. i8s. 
 
 t The second Killerby herd was sold off in October 1886, after the death 
 of its owner, J. B. Booth ; and we may be excused for adding, from personal 
 experience, on one of the wildest days of wind and rain that recent years have 
 seen. 
 
Plate VI : I. 
 
 A. — Aberdeen Shorthorn Bull, "Field Marshal," 47,870. 
 
 
 ■*>'.^. 
 
 B. — Mixed Booth and Bates Heifer, "Augusta IV." 
 
 Ill 1884 First at the Royal Show, and Champion Prize of ;^5o at the Highland Show for the hest Femalt 
 
 Shorthorn. Sold to HorE, Bow Bark, Ontario. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SHORTHORN. 39 
 
 Carperby, Bedale ; Robert Thompson, Inglewood, Penrith ; 
 E. Heineman, Lamorby, Kent ; Lord Polwarth, Mertoun, 
 St Boswells ; W. Talbot Crosbie, Ardfert Abbey, Ireland ; 
 R. Welsted, Ballywalter, Ireland ; Hugh Aylmer, West 
 Dereham Abbey, Norfolk ; the Duke of Northumberland, 
 Alnwick Park, Northumberland ; R. Pindar, Whitwell, 
 Oakham ; Alfred Darby, Little Ness ; Geo. Yeats, Studley, 
 Ripon ; H. Fawcett, Old Bramhope ; and Christopher 
 Cradock,* Hartforth, Richmond. 
 
 Bates breeders of similar rank to the foregoing are less 
 numerous, but are well represented by the Earl of Feversham, 
 Duncombe Park, Helmsley ; the Hon. Victor Cavendish, 
 Holker Hall ; the Earl of Bective, Underley Hall ; T. 
 Holford, Castle-Hill, Dorset ; Philot L. Mills, Park, Rud- 
 dington Hall, Notts ; H. J. Sheldon, Brailes House, 
 Warwickshire ; Joseph Harris, Calthwaite ; Herbert Leney, 
 West Farleigh, Kent ; Evan Baillie, Filleigh, Devon ; Sir 
 John Swinburne, Capheaton^ Newcastle-on-Tyne ; C. R. 
 Lynn, Stoxton ; and Col. Gunter, M.P., Wetherby. In 
 addition to the herds of the breeders named, those belong- 
 ing to H.M; the Queen, at Windsor, and H.R.H. the 
 Prjince of Wales, at Sandringham, containing some of 
 the most celebrated specimens of Booth and Bates short- 
 horns now living, should not be forgotten.-f- 
 
 The Aberdeenshire shorthorns — with which the names 
 of Cruickshank, Sittyton (whose herd was dispersed in 1 890) ; 
 William Duthie, Collynie ; W. S. Marr, Upper' Mill ; S. 
 Campbell, Kinellar ; and J. Bruce, Inverquhomery, are 
 intimately associated — have been rapidly growing in the 
 favour of North American importers, and in importance in 
 the show-yard. Though "Mario" (51,713), who took the 
 Champion prize at the English Royal Agricultural Society's 
 
 * This gentleman still possesses the descendants of the old "Cherry" tribe, 
 perhaps the only tribe mutually " recognised " by Booth and Bates breeders, 
 t Scotch shorthorns are equally well represented at Windsor. 
 
40 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Show in 1888, could not be selected as a typical shorthorn, 
 nor meet the touch of a South -country breeder with per- 
 fect satisfaction, yet he had much of the substance and 
 quality that butchers appreciate. It will be interesting to 
 mark the career of these North-country cattle. They have 
 arrived at their present position by another course than that 
 of persistent in-breeding, and it remains to be seen if the 
 constitutional gain is not thereby of greater value than we 
 at present anticipate. Much of the Booth blood has no 
 doubt been from time to time absorbed by the northern 
 breeders, but this does not necessarily imply close-breeding ; 
 and, moreover, the animals selected had the invigorating 
 influences of the change of climate and surroundings. 
 Cruickshank, writing on this question, makes some remarks 
 well worthy of notice and consideration. He says : " Aber- 
 deenshire breeders have in nearly all cases been tenant 
 farmers, who are dependent on their skill and success for 
 their daily bread ; their customers have generally been their 
 own neighbours, who are raising cattle for the butcher, and 
 hence the breeders have been pulled up in any course which 
 has been proved to result from an error of judgment by the 
 most imperative of all necessities." — From a private com- 
 munication addressed to the Author. 
 
Pl.ATK. IX. 
 
 .,':?av-. 
 
 A. — LoNGHOKN Pull. 
 ^Va^ the Property of His Grace The Late Duke of Buckingham and Chanmios. 
 
 
 _^»,,l>■,l_' -'- , ,1 
 
 B. — LONGHORN Cow. 
 
 Was the Property of His Grace The Late Duke of Buckingham and Chandos. 
 
CHAPTER IV.— BREEDS OF DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE 
 LONGHORN, HEREFORD, DEVON, AND SUSSEX. 
 
 The Longhorn Breed^Low on its Habitat — Bakewell — General Points — 
 Colour — Distribution of Hereford Cattle — Relationship to other Breeds — 
 Points of Special Interest — Origin of the Colour of the Modern Hereford 
 — Benjamin Tomkins — ^John Hewer — Herefords poor in Milking Qualities 
 — Herefords as Work Oxen — ^The Devon Breed : Two Branches — The 
 North Devon — Early History — The Somerset Type — The South Devon — 
 The Sussex Breed — Low's Explanation of their Geographical Position 
 — The Cattle of the Interior — Similar Conditions in India — The Sussex 
 Breed — Size — Influence of Soil and Climate — Bullocks as Work Oxen — 
 Distribution of Breeds in this Country and in India. 
 
 The Longhorn Breed. 
 
 A S now seen in this country, tlie Longhorn breed is a 
 ^^ remnant of a breed which at one time held a posi- 
 tion of considerable importance as a milking breed and as 
 a producer of large carcasses of coarse beef ' 
 
 Low, in his " Domesticated Animals,'' says, " The true 
 longhorns seem to have been the inhabitants of the western 
 parts of the British Isles." In early times they were spread 
 not only over Ireland, but throughout the English Midlands 
 and the northern counties, extending in virtue of their 
 hardiness on to the exposed hilly regions. The district of 
 Craven in Yorkshire has been specially mentioned, in the 
 records of the early improvement of the breed, as noted 
 for the production of good specimens, though Low says 
 " Lancaster was the nursery of the breed." 
 
 Robert Bakewell of Dishley, Leicestershire, the great 
 originator of the system of improvement of live stock by 
 
42 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 in-and-in-breeding, selected the longhorn among cattle 
 upon which to carry out his operations. His object was to 
 increase the rate at which they come to maturity, to improve 
 the quality of flesh, and to reduce the size and coarseness 
 of bone. In this, so far as his own cattle were concerned, 
 he succeeded admirably, but at the sacrifice to some extent 
 of the powers of milk production. 
 
 He died at the age of seventy, in 1795, without trans- 
 mitting the secrets of his system, or recording the lessons he 
 had learnt from the experiences of his extensive breeding 
 experiments, and consequently the work which he had 
 begun so well was not carried to a successful issue. The 
 breed which he made famous has been, since his death, 
 seriously worsted in competition for public favour by its 
 shorthorn rival, which has threatened it with extinction. 
 The unique characters which are peculiar to the longhorn 
 breed will, however, retard or prevent their disappearance, 
 by creating a demand for them as more or less fancy 
 animals. The Herd Book, established in 1880, has now 
 been discontinued. 
 
 In general points, including size, form, and mildness of 
 disposition, they strongly resemble shorthorns. They differ 
 from the latter in being coarser in bone and in the quality 
 of their flesh, in now possessing, in spite of Bakewell's early 
 success, less aptitude to fatten or come to maturity, and 
 in the greater length and strength of horn. The long, 
 irregularly shaped, sweeping horn forms the most, striking 
 difference, and one the origin of which is not easily ex- 
 plained. It would seem that the longhorn inherited its 
 horn-development from the Bos primigenius, through its 
 more immediate ancestors the wild forest cattle, as repre- 
 sented in the Chartley Park breed — probably from a variety 
 with exceptionally long horns. The shorthorn, on the other 
 hand, no doubt derived its characteristic form of horn from 
 its imported European ancestors. 
 
ri.ATE X. 
 
 A. — Hereford Bull, "Rare S'.'Verfign." 
 The Property of the Right Hon. The Earl of Coventry. 
 
 B. — Heueford Heifer, " Pkimkl'se." 
 Chnmpion Hereford at Birmingham and London, i838. 
 The Propertj' of EnwAKD CauoiCk, Caratioc, Ross. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE HEREFORD. 43 
 
 The colours of the longhorn may be said to be those 
 of the shorthorn with " brindles " added. There is also a 
 decided tendency to the appearance of a white ridge along 
 the back. 
 
 The Hereford Breed* 
 
 Is not only one of the most picturesque, but also one of the 
 most valuable, and, in a cosmopolitan sense, one of the best 
 known British breeds. Although in this country it is dis- 
 tinctly a local breed, yet in America and Australia it has 
 become widely distributed and highly and justly appreci- 
 ated. It appears that all the highest authorities are agreed 
 that on at least one side of its ancestral descent the Here- 
 ford breed is closely connected with other British breeds — 
 such as the Welsh, the Devon, and the Sussex — which still 
 possess certain characters in common with the breed under 
 consideration. 
 
 The points of special and peculiar interest in the Here- 
 ford are, that the face and the forward part of the back, as 
 well as the throat, belly, inside and lower parts of the legs, 
 and the tip of the tail are white, the greater part of the 
 body being red or brown, varying from a light to a dark 
 shade. The shoulder is particularly neat, and well covered 
 with flesh ; and the twist is also good. The great defect 
 of the Hereford breed is its want of internal fat in propor- 
 tion to its external appearance when ready for the, butcher 
 — i.e., it is defective in internal " making-up." The setting 
 on of the tail is also frequently defective as compared with 
 that of the shorthorn. The muzzle is flesh coloured ; and 
 the horns are black tipped, of medium length, and in the 
 female they incline slightly upwards. 
 
 * All the more interesting points connected with the breed and its history 
 have been focussed in the work on "Hereford Cattle" by Macdonald and 
 Sinclair. Vinton & Co., London. 
 
44 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 There is a strong presumption that the original breed 
 was" self" or " whole " coloured, being brown or red, shad- 
 ing off into black on the head and points. A breed (small 
 in numbers) of this description has been associated with 
 Montgomeryshire.* 
 
 The modern Hereford is also pretty certainly related 
 to the ancient white forest cattle of Wales, from which it 
 originally inherited the tendency to develop and perpetuate 
 the " broken " coloured character exhibited in the white 
 markings. The special form of these markings, according 
 to what seems the best authority on the subject, was given 
 by the introduction from Flanders, by Lord Scudamore(who 
 died in 1671), of a number of white-faced cattle of superior 
 size and quality, and also by a red Yorkshire bull with a 
 white face which was used in the Hereford district soon 
 after 1750. The circumstances which gave rise to these 
 historical records, and also the natural tendency in the ori- 
 ginal red Hereford to sport back to the white ancestor, — as 
 is even now the case with such decidedly distinct and dif- 
 ferent breeds as the Scotch polls, — are sufficient to account 
 for the bald head and white underline and extremities of 
 the Hereford. 
 
 Benjamin Tomkins (born 1745, died 1815) occupies in 
 the history of the improvement of this breed a correspond- 
 ing place to that assigned to Bakewell in regard to long- 
 horns, and to the brothers Colling in connection with 
 shorthorns. Tomkins adopted Bakewell's system of in- 
 breeding, and it is recorded that the best of his famous 
 herd sprang from two cows and one bull. 
 
 * A number of these so-called smoke-faced Herefords were till recently in 
 the possession of the Aylesbury Dairy . Company, on the farm near Horsham, 
 but were disposed of for beef at the sale in 1888 to make room for the present 
 Sussex herd. They were handsome animals, and in all respects resembled 
 Herefords, with the exception of the colour of their extremities, which were 
 almost black. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE HEREFORD. 45 
 
 The name of Hewer will be for ever associated with 
 the history of the improvement of Hereford cattle. Mac- 
 donald and Sinclair say " that the difficulty is to find a 
 single animal of note at the present day that does not inherit 
 Hewer blood." The reference is made to John Hewer, 
 whose active career as a breeder extended over seventy 
 years, from 1803 to 1873. The influence of the Hewer 
 cattle was exerted upon surrounding breeds by the system 
 of letting out bulls, a practice which had then become pre- 
 valent among the owners of superior herds of various breeds. 
 In the early history of the breed, the names of Galliers, 
 John Price, Jeffries, Skyrme, T. A. Knight, and Yeomans, 
 also occupy a prominent place. 
 
 Herefords as milkers have never been in the first rank. 
 Although an effort is now being made to develop their 
 milking powers, yet as a breed they cannot be classed as 
 dairy cattle, though it is claimed that the milk is of superior 
 quality. The practice of allowing the cows to suckle their 
 calves has prevented the improvement of the breed, by the 
 artificial selection of the best milking cows from which to 
 breed bulls. 
 
 The main object for which the breed was kept fifty 
 years ago, was the supply of work oxen for land cultivation. 
 The chief function of the Hereford of the present day, viz., 
 the production of the finest quality of grass-fed beef, was 
 during last century quite a secondary consideration.* In 
 certain parts of Gloucestershire and the surrounding district, 
 bullocks (frequently Herefords) are kept as work animals, 
 and though used mostly in working land are also employed 
 in the cart. Earl Bathurst still employs some thirty 
 selected Herefords in the working of his home farm near 
 Cirencester. When out of work they form a feature of 
 interest in the adjoining park. 
 
 * Hereford bullocks have been largely, bought by graziers in the Midland 
 counties of England for at least a century. 
 
46 farm live stock. 
 
 The Devon Breed 
 
 Is primarily divided into — (i) North, and (2) South Devons, 
 The North Devon is the original true and hardy type 
 belonging to the elevated region in the north of Devonshire. 
 As represented by the best specimens, this division of the 
 breed is unsurpassed for compactness and symmetry of 
 form. It is smaller than the Hereford or the Sussex, two 
 breeds to which it is allied. The colour of hair is a deep 
 blood-red, and of the skin orange-yellow ; inside the ears it 
 is orange-red. The yellow is specially noticeable by its 
 appearance round the eyes and muzzle. A small patch of 
 white hair is a common marking on the belly in front of the 
 udder of the cow or the scrotum of the bull. At times it 
 extends till it reaches the forelegs, and by this it may be 
 recognised as corresponding in a liinited extent to the white 
 under-line of the distantly related Hereford. The white hairs, 
 sometimes mixed with the natural red brush of the tail, and 
 also in patches on the body, are further proofs of thfe tendency 
 to develop white markings. The head is adorned, in the 
 case of the female, with particularly elegant, creamy-white, 
 sharp-pointed, black-tipped horns of medium length, haying 
 a good elevation at the junction with the head, and curving 
 upwards. In the bull, as compared with the cow, they are 
 shorter in proportion to thickness, straighter, and less raised. 
 The shoulder is specially neat and well formed, the barrel 
 joining on behind, with scarcely a depression at the region 
 of the heart-girth — a defective point in many breeds. The 
 quality of the beef is excellent. 
 
 The early history of the breed is lost in obscurity. 
 Francis Quartly and the brothers Japies and John Quartly, 
 of Holland, North Devon, filled the position in the improve- 
 ment of this breed which the Collings did in that of the 
 shorthorn. After them may be mentioned John Tanner 
 Davy (the original compiler of the " North Devon Herd 
 
Plate XJ. 
 
 A. — North Devon Bull, " Lord Wolsei.ey," 2063. 
 First at the Royal Shows at Newcastle in 1887, and Nottingham in ] 
 The Property of the Right Hon. Lord Falmouth. 
 
 B.— North Devon Cow, " Fairmaid," 9351 D. D.H.I'. 
 
 A Royal Winner in 18B8. 
 
 The Property of Sir W. R. Williams, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple, North Devcn. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE DEVON. 47 
 
 Book"), James Davy, Mogridge of Holland, Merson, Halse, 
 Tapp, and Turner. 
 
 The Somerset type of North Devon has in recent years 
 been coming to the front and growing in favour, on account 
 of the larger size, due to the richer and deeper soil and 
 better climate which prevails in that region. With the 
 increase of size of bone there is a tendency to coarseness of 
 figure, and Somerset breeders strive to counteract this by 
 using bulls reared in the north of Devonshire. A parallel 
 example to this is to be seen in numbers of the Ayrshire 
 breed reared away from their home conditions and highly 
 fed. The horns of the Somerset type are more inclined to 
 droop than those of the original North Devon. There is 
 a growing demand for these cattle, not only in America 
 and Australia, but also in our South African colony. 
 
 The South Devon, or South Hams division of the 
 breed, differs materially in form from either of the types of 
 North Devon. The members of it are larger, coarser, and 
 not so deeply coloured as the North Devons. They per- 
 ' haps acquired these differences, to some extent, and also 
 their greater milking powers, by crossing with Channel 
 Islands cattle. 
 
 Being originally a mountain breed, the Devon is hardy, 
 strong, and active. It was long famous for supplying useful 
 oxen for farm work, but its employment in this way is now 
 much restricted. 
 
 As a breed for milk production, it has been, and still is, 
 inferior. The cows give but a small quantity of rich milk, 
 and tend to go dry early ; still many of the dairies in the 
 counties of Somerset and Dorset are filled with Devon cows 
 of the larger type. 
 
 The Sussex Breed 
 
 Ranks among the largest classes of British cattle. It be- 
 longs to the old race which gave origin more or less directly 
 
48 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 to the West Highland, the various Welsh breeds, the Here- 
 ford, and the Devon. To the latter it bears a very striking 
 resemblance, and no doubt it possesses this in virtue of a 
 collateral descent from the ''red cow" that at one time 
 occupied the southern districts of England. The influences 
 of the soil and climate of the weald country has con- 
 siderably modified the form and character, which, it may be 
 presumed, were at one time similar to the Devon. The 
 horns are longer, stronger, and more irregular in form, with 
 a strong similarity to the style of the horns of the longhorn 
 breed. The colour is dark red, though not, as a rule, of so 
 deep a shade as that of the North Devon. The Sussex is 
 also superior to the Devon in size and strength, but with 
 this it sacrifices something of the neatness which belongs to 
 the latter. The cows are inferior milkers. 
 
 The bullocks of the breed, which combined in a marked 
 degree strength and activity, supplied an excellent class of 
 animals suitable for working the heavy land of the weald 
 on which they exist in Sussex and the adjoining counties. 
 It is not at all certain that it was an improvement in prac- 
 tice to discontinue altogether the employment of oxen in 
 favour of horses in working some of the heavier classes of 
 soils. It is quite certain that the land suffers much more 
 from the trampling of horses than from that of work cattle, 
 and in consequence there are some clayland districts where 
 cattle may yet be seen in the plough. 
 
 Low aptly explains why representatives of the cattle 
 belonging to the ancient Celtic inhabitants of these islands 
 were preserved in certain parts. Wherever the region was 
 difficult of access to the invaders, as in the case of 
 mountainous tracts or large areas of forest, there the original 
 inhabitants found shelter- and safety for themselves and 
 their cattle. Thus in the hilly localities we have preserved 
 the Scottish West Highland, the Welsh, and the Devon ; 
 and in the instance before us, the dense forests of the weald 
 
Pl.ATK XII. 
 
 ■-•***: 
 
 A. — Sussex Ox, Grandsire, W. S. Forster's Famous Bull, "Gulusmith,, 
 Won the Breed Cup at Islington in i8S6. 
 The Property of W. S. Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone. 
 
 B.— Sussex Bull " Gondolier," iooi. 
 
 First Prize, Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Warwick, 1S92. 
 
 The Property of W, S. For:^ter, Gore Court, Maidstone. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE SUSSEX. 49 
 
 afforded the necessary security for the ancestors of the 
 Sussex breed. 
 
 The cattle of the accessible parts of the interior of 
 the country were either supplanted altogether, or much 
 altered in form and character by imported blood. 
 
 In India exactly the same condition of things exists, 
 where the small, dark-haired, and inferior breeds have been 
 driven away into remote and out-of-the-way corners ; and 
 the more valuable tracts of country, the highways of con- 
 quering armies, and more recently of trade and commerce, 
 have been supplied, probably repeatedly, by importations 
 of the larger and finer white-haired varieties. The parallel 
 is not quite complete, as in some of the breeds in this 
 country emerging from obscurity (and notably among these 
 is to be found the Sussex) are animals of great size and 
 substance and wealth of constitution. 
 
 T) 
 
CHAPTER v.— BREEDS OF DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE 
 WEST HIGHLAND, WELSH, AND SHETLAND. 
 
 The West Highland — Habitat and Descent — The Bullocks— Points of Form 
 and Colour — The Wild Nature ^Crosses — ^^Importance of a Hardy Consti- 
 tution — Welsh Cattle — Varieties^The South Wales or Pembroke — Points 
 — ^Feeding and Qiiality — As Milkers^North Wales or Anglesey — Com- 
 pared with Castle Martin — Cows as Milkers — The Bullocks — Herd Books 
 — Suitability of Welsh Cattle for America — Ancient White Breed — The 
 Glamorgan Breed — The Old Gloucester Breed — Orkney and Shetland 
 Cattle — Peculiar Case of Atavism. 
 
 The West Highland Breed, 
 
 /^R, to be more accurate, the South- West Highland 
 
 ^^ breed, belongs to the Western Islands of Scotland, to 
 Argyleshire, and the adjoining counties. 
 
 It is the remaining selected representative of the 
 different varieties of Scottish mountain cattle, the semi- 
 domesticated "descendants of the ancient breed of the 
 forests. At one time, before the land was stocked with 
 sheep, it occupied the wild pastures of the true Scottish 
 Highlands. The mild or " open " character of the climate 
 of the extreme west, along with the careful selection in 
 breeding followed by the Dukes of Argyle, all tended to 
 foster that superiority of quality which has enabled it to 
 successfully supplant the inferior sorts inhabiting the inland 
 uplands. This is the hardiest of all British breeds, and from 
 an artistic point of view the most picturesque. 
 
 The bullocks are, when three or four years old, highly 
 and justly appreciated as park cattle in all parts of the 
 
Plate XIII. 
 
 
Plate XIV. 
 
 A— West Highland Bull, "Calum Riabhach," 
 
 Champion at the Highland Centenary Show in 1884, and other Prizes. 
 
 Bred by His Grace The Duke of Athole, K.T., the Property of the Right Hon. Lord Kinnaird 
 
 B.— West Highland Heifek, "Lady Flora." 
 The Property of the Right Hon. The Earl of Southesk, K.T. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE WEST HIGHLAND. 5 I 
 
 kingdom, where their long and elegant black-tipped horns, 
 the variety of colour of hair, and the long and silky, shaggy, 
 and uncommon appearance of their coats, render them 
 objects of universal interest and admiration. As beef-pro- 
 ducers they are, while young, slow in coming to maturity, 
 but the ultimate product is unsurpassed in quality in the 
 leading markets of the kingdom. 
 
 Points. — The body is massive, well-formed, well-fleshed, 
 and supported on low and powerful limbs. From the under 
 part of the neck is suspended a dewlap, and on the top of it 
 is a hairy fringe or mane. The colour varies from black to 
 a creamy-yellow or white, through all shades of dun, red, 
 brown, and at times brindles. Black has been thought to 
 indicate hardiness, though some of the lighter-coloured 
 animals with the tendency to an orange tint of skin feed 
 better under forcing or artificial treatment. 
 
 The calves are allowed to follow their mothers, and are 
 not handled or subjected to close contact with man. They 
 consequently develop wild instincts and practices. The 
 cows do not excel as producers of large quantities of milk, 
 although the quality of it is good. When they are milked 
 by hand the flow of milk does not continue late in the 
 season. 
 
 West Highland cows cross admirably with bulls of 
 most British breeds. Full advantage can thus be had of 
 the good qualities of the breed, even under the. system of 
 early maturity, without necessitating the sacrifice of the 
 native hardiness of constitution, so invaluable in a moun- 
 tainous country, in the endeavour to induce early maturity 
 in the pure breed. Unless the constitution is maintained, 
 advantage cannot be taken in an upland country of the 
 supply of natural food, which costs little, and cannot be 
 utilised except as food for such animals. The cost of pro- 
 ducing a four-year old Highland bullock on his natural 
 food, is very much less than the cost of producing a stall- 
 
52 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 fed animal of the same weight at two years old, because the 
 food of the latter is costly to grow and costly to buy. 
 
 To substitute the early maturity animal, either by im- 
 portation or by modifying the existing breed by in-and-in- 
 breeding, for the rear West Highland ox in his home 
 quarters, would lead to a loss of profit to the farmer, and the 
 loss to the community of the natural cattle-food of the 
 district. 
 
 Welsh Cattle, 
 
 Although usually spoken of as consisting of a number of 
 distinct breeds, are yet closely allied to each other, and 
 interbred without the results of cross-breeding appearing. 
 The two best known breeds, each with .a Herd Book of its 
 own, are — (i) the South Wales, Pembroke, or Castle Martin 
 black breed, in which at times white specimens with black 
 points are born, resembling in many respects the extinct 
 forest breed of Wales described by Low ; and (2) the North 
 Wales or Anglesey black breed. In addition to these, there 
 is (3) the Glamorgan breed. 
 
 The South Wales black breed is sometimes subdivided 
 into — (a) Castle Martin, and (d) Dewsland breeds. 
 
 Points.^ — Although the prevailing colour is black, white 
 markings on the belly, or white hairs in the brush of the 
 tail or other parts of the body, now and then appear. A 
 russet, chocolate, or brown-black colour is considered good. 
 
 The horns are long, yellow, and black-tipped. As in 
 many instances already noticed, the horns of the male are 
 not only lower set, but they are stronger and shorter than 
 in the female. In their long though straight coats of hair, 
 arid, their hardiness of constitution, South Wales cattle 
 strongly resemble West Highlanders. As ought naturally 
 to follow under the circumstances, they have no great apti- 
 tude to fatten at an early age. When allowed to come to 
 
A. — Black: South Wales Cow, "Lenora I.," 245. 
 
 At one time in the Herd of the Right Hon. The Earl of Cawdok, Stackpole Court, 
 
 Pembroke, South Wales. 
 
 B. — Black South Wales Bull, " Zulu," No. 129. 
 
 At one time in the Herd of the Right Hon. The Earl of Cawdor, Stackpole Court, 
 
 Pembroke, South Wales. 
 
Plate XVI. 
 
 '-■s V^*^ ""^^ 
 
 A. — North Wales Bull, "Tom." 
 The Properly of Captain J. C. Best, Vivod, LlangoUtn. 
 
 B. — Black North Wales Cow. 
 The Property of Colonel Platt, Llanfalrfechan, North Wale: 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — WELSH. 53 
 
 maturity they finish admirably, both as regards internal fat 
 and external condition. 
 
 As milkers they are superior dairy cattle. This quality, 
 in common with the instinctive practice of hiding their 
 young, they possess by descent from the white forest cattle 
 of Wales. Calves are, as a rule, only left with their mothers 
 for a few days, or in special cases two or three weeks, When 
 they are weaned and reared on skim milk, with some addi- 
 tional food to raise the standard of feeding. 
 
 The North Wales or Anglesey black cattle resemble 
 in many respects the South Wales breed. From Anglesey 
 they extend southward along the coast till they meet and 
 mingle with the South Wales breed. From the latter they 
 differ in being smaller, and in having shorter legs, heavier 
 heads, thicker necks (denoting good constitution) ; thicker, 
 shorter, and whiter horns ; finer and more silky coats of 
 wavy hair (neither curly nor bristly), thinner skins, and a 
 better touch. The colour most highly appreciated is black, 
 though there is a greater tendency to white markings. They 
 are not naturally so wild as South Wales cattle, but more 
 resemble the shorthorn in disposition. 
 
 The cows are good milkers, but probably not quite 
 equal to the Pembrokes. As beef producers they are the 
 better of the two, having broader backs and better flanks 
 and thighs. There is a tendency in the breed to , be high 
 at the rump and tail-head and slack at the loins, but these 
 defects are being eliminated by selection. 
 
 The bullocks have been long and highly appreciated as 
 grazing cattle in the English Midlands under the name of 
 " Welsh Runts." They weigh at four years old 50 to 60 
 stones of dressed beef, which ranks in the London market 
 with the best Scotch. Heifers have also been sent in con- 
 siderable numbers to graze in Kent, Leicester, and North- 
 ampton. Each of the breeds has a Herd Book, and the 
 cattle are improving rapidly under the greater care devoted 
 
54 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 to their selection. They have begun to be appreciated in 
 America, and, on account of their wealth of constitution 
 will no doubt grow in favour. American ranchers have 
 been taught a severe lesson by the death of immense num- 
 bers of their cattle, and have been shown the absurdity of 
 breeding stock too fine and too soft on the exposed prairies 
 of the Far West. Had they been fortunate enough to select 
 Welsh or Highland cattle, and been contented to manufac- 
 ture beef at a slower but surer rate, they might have saved 
 themselves the serious consequences of disaster. 
 
 The ancient white breed of the Principality is now 
 being rehabilitated, by selecting and mating together those 
 specimens of the South Wales breed which have " thrown 
 back " in the matter of colour to their forest ancestors. In 
 every other respect they are distinctly Pembroke cattle. 
 Their colour is chiefly white, but there are frequently black 
 spots over the body. The muzzles, ears, and eyelashes are 
 black, and the feet and fetlocks should also be black, though 
 this detail is not yet quite fixed. Charles Mathias, of 
 Lamphey Court, to whom the bull shown in the accompany- 
 ing plate belongs, is endeavouring to raise this off-shoot of 
 the South Wales breed to a position of importance. 
 
 The Glamorgan breed has narrowly escaped extinction 
 by the encroachments of the early maturity shorthorns, 
 Devons, and Herefords. It is one of the most ancient in 
 the country, and is supposed to have been formed from the 
 old Welsh breed by crossing with imported Normandy 
 cattle. The cows are good milkers, but the fattening pro- 
 perties of the breed are defective. In colour the bulls are 
 black, with a white belly and a line or ridge of white along 
 the full length of the back. The cows are similarly marked 
 with white, but on the body they vary from black to a deep 
 brown or red. The tail-head is liable to be too high, like 
 that of the other Welsh breeds. 
 
 The members of the only remaining herd of the Old 
 
Plate XVII. 
 
 \ 
 
 \0^ 
 
 E 
 
 
Plate XVIII. 
 
 A. — ^Shetland Cattle. 
 The Property of the Most Hon. The MaR(juis of Londonderkv, K.G. 
 
 .•-'aftt' 
 
 =- »-T^'^'-^" 
 
 B. — Glamorgan Bull. 
 The Property of J. T. Davies, Tyla Gwyn, Pontlanfra-ith, Mon. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — ORKNEY AND SHETLAND. 55 
 
 Gloucester breed of cattle, belonging to the Duke of Beau- 
 fort at Badminton, are identical in their special points with 
 those of the Glamorgan breed. This fact leaves no reason- 
 able doubt but that the two breeds had a common ancestry. 
 
 Orkney and Shetland Cattle, 
 
 According to Low, belong to the Norwegian race, and 
 
 are different from the race found on the Scottish mainland, 
 though identical with that of Iceland. More recent autho- 
 rities do not indorse this opinion. 
 
 A distinction is drawn between the cattle on the two 
 groups of islands, although it is well known that crossing 
 has gone on between the two varieties. 
 
 These island cattle are small, and, as a rule, irregular in 
 their appearance and points, though the best of them may- 
 be called handsome. They lay on flesh readily, and pro- 
 duce excellent beef. They are also good milkers. The 
 colours of hair are extremely various — usually broken, and 
 of a light shade. The horns are short, irregular in form, 
 and insignificant. 
 
 These cattle are hardy, and able to withstand the cold 
 and trying weather they have during generations been 
 accustomed to. They cross well with good bulls of other 
 breeds, but the attempt to improve the breed by importing 
 alien blood has not proved a success. 
 
 The facts relating to the following interesting cases of atavism in connection 
 with cattle descended from this breed have been supplied by Professor Black- 
 burn : — "About thirty years ago Mrs Blackburn got, at Roshven, Moidart, 
 N.B., a pure Brittany bull and cow, but after some years there was a 
 difficulty in securing a pure Brittany bull to keep up the stock, and a young 
 bull — a cross between a Brittany and a Shetland— was bought. A very 
 considerable proportion of the progeny of this bull by the pure Brittany cows 
 were pure white, with black ears and points like the wild white cattle — not 
 albinos." As white with black points is a combination of colour unknown in 
 either of the pure breeds from which the cattle sprang, its repeated appearances 
 can only be explained as instances of reversion. See illustration, p. 25. 
 
CHAPTER VI.— POLLED BREEDS. 
 
 Somerford Park White Herd — Milking Powers — The ' ' Missing Link '' — 
 Blickling Hall and Woodbastwick White Polled Herds— Red Polls— How 
 Descended — Points — Improvement — Low on the Breed — A Herd Book 
 — The Aberdeen-Angus Breed — Home Locality — Relationship to other 
 Scotch Breeds — Absence of Horns — Black and other Colours — Buchan 
 Cattle — Breed of the present Day — ^In-and -in-Breeding — Hugh Watson — 
 William M'Combie — Recent Performances of the Breed — Characteristic 
 Features — Compared with the Galloway — The Polled Herd Book — The 
 Galloway Breed — Distinctive Characters — The Head — Origin of Polled 
 Condition doubtful — Connection between the Galloway and the West 
 Highland Breeds — Additional Proof of the Influence of the Galloway in 
 Crossing — Galloways as Dairy Cattle — The Establishment of a Galloway 
 Herd Book — Galloway Crosses with other Breeds. 
 
 White Polls. 
 
 T^HE Somerford Park White Herd, located in 
 Cheshire, and numbering about 35, contains the chief 
 representatives now extant of the domesticated, hornless, 
 direct descendants of the ancient forest cattle of this country. 
 In general appearance (including colour) they strongly re- 
 semble the Chartley cattle, the great difference being the 
 want of horns. In some minor details the resemblance is 
 striking,— for example, both breeds have the top-knot of 
 long white hair, the white tail, the udder with usually black 
 teats, and black spots, most numerous about the neck and 
 head. The milking powers of certain members of the 
 breed are exceptionally good. The herd averages daily 
 over three gallons of milk each when in full flow at pasture, 
 but individual cows appear now and then which give, when 
 " in bloom," as much as fourteen quarts at a milking, or 
 seven gallons in the day. The best specimen of the present 
 time yields six gallons daily when she is in full profit. 
 
Plate XIX 
 
I'l ATE XX. 
 
 A.— Norfolk White Polled Cow, "Blickling Jenny.' 
 
 B.— Norfolk White Polled Pkize Bull, '" To.m. ' 
 
 The Property of the Most Hon. Constance, Marchioness Dowager of Lothi-\n 
 
 BlicWing Hall, Aylsham. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — POLLED. 57 
 
 When not giving milk the cows are not deficient as beef- 
 producers. The breed, appl-oaching in size to the short- 
 horn, is well fleshed and massive, with the exception of the 
 hind-quarters, which are rather light in proportion to the 
 fore-quarters and trunk. They possess this defect in 
 common with our wild cattle and with the cattle of India ; 
 but the whole style of the animals is striking and attractive, 
 the head being specially handsome. The rudimentary 
 mane present in the bull when in full coat is not only an 
 ornament, but also an additional indication of the connection 
 of the breed with the ancient '' wild beasts " of the forest. 
 This is one of the most interesting breeds of British cattle, 
 as it forms (with the remnants of the Norfolk polled whites) 
 the " missing link " between the wild cattle and the breeds 
 under domestication, and supplies a connection between the 
 horned and polled varieties. It also tends to prove the 
 existence of a superior power of milk production in the 
 aboriginal race of our island, or at all events in the do- 
 mesticated branch of it. 
 
 The Blickling Hall Herd and the Woodbastwick 
 Herd, both in Norfolk, are what remain of an old Lanca- 
 shire breed of domesticated white cattle with black or brown 
 ears, which were first taken to Gunton Park. They have 
 been crossed with shorthorns and red polls, which has 
 changed their external form ; nevertheless they are said to 
 have visibly degenerated in size, though they are yet 
 animals of good dimensions. In milking qualities and in 
 their powers of breeding they are not defective. 
 
 The Red Polls, 
 
 Or the Norfolk and Suffolk breed, are descended within 
 comparatively recent times from the original horned Norfolk 
 breed and the dun or mouse-coloured polled cattle of 
 Suffolk. The latter, though coarse and ill-formed in appear- 
 ance, was noted for very superior milking power, which is 
 
58 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 maintained in the new breed, though not in the perfection 
 that ancient records would have us believe belonged to the 
 old. By going still further back, we find that polled bulls 
 were introduced into the district referred to for breeding 
 purposes from the original white breed of the country, and 
 also from the Galloway breed, the latter being brought south 
 with the annual droves of grazing bullocks from Scotland. 
 About the beginning of this century the deep blood-red 
 specimens were collected by some, and owing to fashion 
 changing in favour of red, and to its being intensified and 
 perpetuated by close-breeding and selection, it has steadily • 
 supplanted the original colour of the breed. 
 
 Points. — The head is small, neat, and well and "cleanly" 
 joined to the neck. In general appearance and refinement 
 of parts the breed strongly resembles the Polled Angus and 
 the North Devon. 
 
 Improvement. — The rate at which the red poll has come 
 to the front and has taken its place among the most im- 
 portant breeds in this country is quite remarkable. 
 
 Low, writing in 1845, after giving the breed under the 
 name of Polled Sufifolks a poor character in respect of 
 almost every quality except that of milk production, sug- 
 gested the great probability of its immediate extinction. 
 Recent years have seen not only improvement in quality, 
 but a large extension of the numbers of good herds and of 
 first-rate animals. 
 
 The existence of a well-conducted Herd Book will 
 stimulate interest in, and firmly establish, the best strains of 
 blood which ought to be devoted to milk production as well 
 as to the laying on of flesh. 
 
 Black Polls. 
 The Aberdeen-Angus Breed, from Aberdeenshire,* 
 
 * We are indebted for much historical matter to the exhaustive worli on 
 Polled Cattle by Macdonald and Sinclair, Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh. 
 
Plate XXI. 
 
 A. — Ndkfolk and Suffolk Red Poll Cow, " Emblem," L. 3,2782. 
 The Property of Lord Amherst, Didlington Hall, Brandon, Norfolk. 
 
 B. — Norfolk and Suffolk Red Poll Bull, "Didlington Davyson II.," 657. 
 The Property of Lord Amherst, Didlington Hall, Brandon, Norfolk. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — ABERDEEN-ANGUS. 
 
 59 
 
 Forfarshire, and the district largely embraced within the 
 adjoining counties, is most probably the result of the 
 amalgamation of a number of very different, local, polled 
 and also horned breeds, associated with careful selec- 
 tion and in-and-in-breeding, together with, it is asserted, 
 the infusion, within comparatively recent times, of a greater 
 or less degree of alien blood. In common with the only 
 
 Typical ideal Specimen of Aberdeen-Angus (from the 
 Herd Book, 1889). 
 
 ^"3^ 
 
 Index of Points. 
 
 1. Forehead and Face. 
 
 2. Muzzle. 
 
 3. Nostril. 
 
 4. Eye. 
 
 5. Ears. 
 
 6. Poll. 
 
 7. Jaws. 
 «. Throat. 
 9. Shoulder. 
 
 TO. Chest. 
 
 IT. Bosom ([or Brisket). 
 
 12. Fore Ribs. 
 
 13. Back Ribs. 
 
 14. Crops. 
 
 15. Loins. 
 
 16. Back. 
 T7. Hooks. 
 
 18. Rumps. 
 
 19. Hindquarters. 
 
 20. Thigh. 
 
 21. Twist. 
 
 22. Tail and Setting on. 
 
 23. Udder. 
 
 24. Under-line, 
 
 25. Flank. 
 
 26. Legs and Bone. 
 
 27. Hough. 
 
 28. Forearm. 
 
6o FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 other domesticated breeds of the Scottish mainland, the 
 Galloway, the West Highland, and the Ayrshire, there is 
 a strong probability, if there is not absolute proof, that it 
 originally descended from the native wild cattle of ,the 
 country. The difference of climate and surroundings, to- 
 gether with the influence of artificial selection by man, and 
 probably the importation of fresh blood from abroad, are 
 sufficient to account for the difference of existing appear- 
 ances in all those allied varieties. 
 
 The absence of horns, and the prevailing almost 
 uniformly black colour, although ranking among the most 
 persistent characteristics of the Northern Scotch polls, were 
 by no means uniform features in olden times. Black animals 
 without horns did exist a hundred years ago and more, 
 but long after the beginning of this century very many of 
 the cattle from which the existing breed sprang had horns. 
 Their colours were extremely variable; some were yellow, 
 red, or brown ; others brindled (red and black, sometimes 
 with white mixed or broken in an irregular flaked fashion), 
 black and white, " belted " and " rigged " — the latter black 
 with a white or brown stripe along the back. Certain herds 
 had a brown ring round the muzzle associated with the 
 brown ridge. According to the early records, the largest 
 and best varieties of the polled cattle were to be found in 
 the low country. The smaller horned cattle which re- 
 seftibled the old Highland breeds occupied the up- 
 lands. 
 
 Buchan cattle, about half of which were polled at the 
 end of last century, ju.stly claimed superiority. They did 
 so as far back as the time of the Romans. They have been 
 represented from time immemorial by two polled breeds 
 possessing good milking powers, but of very different size. 
 These were locally termed " humlies," while the early Polled 
 Angus variety were named " doddies." In the " General 
 View of the Agriculture of Angus," published in 1813, it is 
 
Plate XXII. 
 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — ABERDEEN-ANGUS. 6l 
 
 stated, with regard to the general stock, that " little atten- 
 tion was then paid to the selection of the males or females 
 by whom the breed was propagated." The good qualities 
 of the cattle of the present day, we may therefore conclude, 
 have been either developed in recent years, or have been 
 obtained by selection and moulding from the superior herds 
 of those proprietors who, before the time referred to, took 
 an interest in the improvement of live stock. 
 
 The Aberdeen-Angus of the present day. occupies 
 among Scotch cattle very much the same position that the 
 Devon does among English breeds for quality of flesh, 
 refinement of type, perfection of symmetry, and, it might 
 be added, for the excellent flavour of its marbled beef; yet 
 it must not be forgotten that these qualities, like those 
 of all British breeds, however distinct and however per- 
 manent they may be, are the results of the commingling of 
 blood of various kinds. No single breed is pure if we go 
 back for but a few generations. 
 
 It is recorded that less than one hundred years ago cross- 
 ing was carried on with Ayrshire, Guernsey, Fife,* short- 
 horn, and Galloway cattle. How much of this blood has 
 been maintained in the best animals of the present day is 
 a matter for conjecture. It is true that the well-known 
 attempt by Lord Panmure to introduce a Galloway cross 
 was not attended with success ; but, on the other hand, 
 there is good reason to believe that the very extensive and 
 successful use of shorthorn bulls in breeding grazing cattle 
 for the southern markets, led to the incorporation of short- 
 horn qualities into the breed during the early years of its 
 improvement. 
 
 At times very distinct shorthorn characters appear by 
 atavism in polled cattle of good blood and long pedigrees, 
 
 * The Fife horned breed is now extinct. They were large black cattle, 
 rather slow at coming to maturity at an early age, but unsurpassed as grazers 
 after they were three years old. 
 
62 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and disappear in the next generation.* The use of a short- 
 horn bull on virgin polled heifers has also been accredited 
 with the power of stamping shorthorn qualities upon their 
 future calves by bulls of their own breed. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding has been adopted to fix the good 
 qualities which have from time to time been spontaneously 
 produced by nature under the influences of the tendency to 
 change brought about by crossing. In the matter of con- 
 sanguineous relationships, the Aberdeen-Angus is not an 
 exception to the rule which applies to the shorthorn and 
 other well-known breeds. 
 
 Hugh Watson, of Keillor, in Forfarshire (born 1789, 
 died 1865), was the Colling of the northern polled breeds, 
 carrying out the principles laid down by Bakewell and his 
 followers. _^ ; 
 
 It was reserved for William M'Combie, of Tillyfour 
 (born 1805, died 1880), to make the breed known to 
 the outside world. After a long and successful showyard 
 career, he eclipsed all the previous performances of the 
 breed by carrying off two champion prizes Of £100 each 
 at the Paris International Exhibition in 187.8-^(1),' For 
 the best group of foreign cattle; and (2) For the. best 
 group of beef-producing animals — both bred by the 
 exhibitor. 
 
 During recent years no breed has been so successful as 
 the Polled Aberdeen-Angus in competing for the highest 
 honours at the London and Birmingham Christmas fat 
 shows,' and at similar "expositions" in America. 
 
 In this country the names of Clement Stephenson, New- 
 castle ; George Wilken, Waterside of Forbes ; and Robert 
 Walker, Altyre (agent to Sir W. G. Gordon Gumming, 
 
 * The Author remembers having seen a black and white cow of this kind 
 some years ago, which had well-developed horns, and quarters unmistakably 
 like those of a shorthorn. Her immediate ancestors as well as her descendants 
 were animals of the pure type, and of superior quality. 
 
Plate XXIII. 
 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — ABERDEEN-ANGUS. 63 
 
 Bart, of Altyre) — are closely associated with these 
 honours.* 
 
 As a breeding herd of old standing, that of Sir George 
 Macpherson Grant at Ballindalloch occupies the premier 
 position in Scotland. 
 
 Standard of Excellence for Aberdeen-Angus Bull. 
 From the Herd Book. 
 
 " Registered Pedigree. 
 
 Colour. — Black. White is objectionable, except on the under-line behind 
 the navel, and there only to moderate extent ; a white cod is most undesir- 
 able. 
 
 Head. — Forehead broad ; face slightly prominent, and tapering towards the 
 nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; distance from eye to nostril of 
 moderate length ; eye mild, full, and expressive ; ear of good medium size, 
 well set, and well covered with hair ; poll well defined, and without any 
 appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws clean. 
 
 Throat. — Clean, without any development of loose flesh underneath. 
 
 Neck. — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate crest (which increases 
 with age) ; spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck vein. 
 
 Shoulders. — Well laid in, covered on the blades and on the top, which 
 should be on a line with the back, and moderately broad. 
 
 Chest. — Wide and deep. 
 
 Bosom (or Brisket). — Standing well out between the legs, and moderately 
 covered with flesh and fat. 
 
 Ribs. — Well sprung from the back bone, arched and deep, neatly joined to 
 the crops and loins. 
 
 Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ; hook bones 
 moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered ; rumps long, full, level, 
 and rounded neatly into hindquarters. 
 
 Hindquarters. — Deep and full ; thighs thick and muscular, and in propor- 
 tion with hindquarters ; twist full. 
 
 Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back, and 
 hanging at right angles to it. 
 
 Under-line. — As nearly as possible straight ; flank full and soft. 
 
 Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed ; hind legs slightly inclined 
 forward below the hocks; forearm muscular; bones fine and clean. 
 
 Flesh. — Even, without bumps or patchiness. 
 
 * Full details of the wonderful showyard performances of this breed on both 
 sides of the Atlantic up to 1886 may be seen in Auld's work, " The Breed that 
 Beats the Record," by Aldine Co., Detroit. 
 
64 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Skin. — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with 
 thick and soft hair. 
 
 General Appearance. — Gay, well-bred, and masculine.'' 
 
 [With the exception of those relating to sex, the points of the female are 
 identical with the above.] 
 
 Only a few characteristic features call for special 
 mention. The normal colour is black, but the rusty 
 brown referred to in varieties of the old breeds, and also 
 white patches of moderate dimensions about the udder and 
 belly, are tolerated. Though to appearance an animal of 
 thiS) breed looks small, yet owing to its short legs and com- 
 pact rounded form its weight classes it among the larger 
 breeds. The hook bones are not so wide or prominent, 
 and the quarters not so square as in the shorthorn. The 
 absence of patchiness and the equality and levelness of flesh 
 are proverbial. The milking qualities are low as regards 
 quantity, the result of breeding for beef and the prevailing 
 custom of suckling the calves. 
 
 As compared with the Galloway, the breed weighs 
 heavier at an early age owing to its greater rapidity in com- 
 ing to maturity, though a difference in the size of breeding 
 stock is not marked. The bones are finer, the skin thinner, 
 the hair shorter and more silky, and the poll more pointed 
 than in the Galloway. 
 
 The first volume of the " Polled Herd Book " was 
 published in 1862, and the second in 1872. After the pub- 
 lication of the fourth volume the Galloway portion was 
 withdrawn, to be published separately ; while the Polled 
 Cattle Society, which was established in 1879, has since its 
 formation superintended the registration of the Aberdeen- 
 Angus breed. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — TIlE GALLOWAY. 65 
 
 The Galloway Breed 
 
 Derives its name from a district in the south of Scotland, 
 comprising Wigtonshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcud- 
 bright. At one time it was the most prevalent breed in 
 Scotland south of the Forth and Clyde. 
 
 Distinctive Characteristics. — Though Galloways are 
 now polled and of a black colour, with a brown tinge on 
 the tips of the hair, particularly at that stage when it is long 
 and inclined to be curly or woolly, yet within the last 
 hundred years -many animals of pure blood had horns of 
 considerable length, and not a few were red-brown in colour. 
 These characters even now appear in specimens bred from 
 the best strains. White patches oh the udder and belly, and 
 also belted markings, are common, and are not seriously 
 objected to unless they are large or prominent. 
 
 This tendency to reviert to white oh the-under-line, which 
 is most pronounced when two animals of very distinct types 
 are mated together, indicates the .descent from the ancient 
 wild cattle, a condition similar to that already pointed out 
 in the case of other breeds. 
 
 The head of a Galloway should be wide and short — a 
 long head is one of the prominent characters by which a 
 black Galloway cross can be distinguished from a pure bred 
 animal ; the distance from the eye to the nostril short ; the 
 forehead broad and Square between the eyes, carrying the 
 width well up to the crown, which shbuld be low and rounded, 
 not peaked like the crown of the Polled Angus. The ear, 
 resting on a short shank, is set on rather farther back than 
 in most breeds, and should point upward and' forward. The 
 lobe or flap should be wide, rounded at the top, and abund- 
 antly fringed with hair. 
 
 The origiii of the polled condition is veiled in doubt. 
 It may be said that the early written history does not even 
 
66 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 speculate upon its cause. It is known that this character- 
 istic was preferred by the English buyers who, since a time 
 soon after the union of the crowns of England and Scotland 
 in 1603, have carried bullocks of the Galloway breed to 
 graze in the southern counties, especially Norfolk and 
 Suffolk. The injury which half-wild cattle with horns were 
 capable of inflicting upon one another, and possibly upon 
 the men in charge of them, during a walk of some hundreds 
 of miles, seems .to be a sufficient excuse for the preference 
 of the southern drovers for the condition of hornlessness, 
 which was taken into their calculations in the purchase of 
 their droves, and a higher price was given to secure it. It 
 would not be possible to induce the polled condition as an 
 hereditary character, but once present, it could be carried 
 to perfection by selection. No doubt a tendency, however 
 slight, was inherent in the original horned Galloway, and 
 passed down through the line of descent from their remote 
 ancestors ; but the comparatively sudden change which 
 took place in the matter of losing the horns seems to point 
 to a stronger and probably an imported influence. 
 
 , The Galloway and the West Highland breeds are uni- 
 versally considered to be descended from the same original 
 stock. The former are said to be "Highlanders without 
 the horns.": This admission associates them directly with 
 the wild forest cattle. GaUoway crosses by a West Highland 
 bull have been put with pure-bred Galloways, and the best 
 judges of Galloway cattle have been unable to distinguish 
 the crosses from the puric specimens. 
 
 Galloways are known to possess great power of stamp- 
 ing certain characters upon theircrossed descendants-^ for 
 exahiple, the colour and the polled condition. They did 
 not acquire this quality, as improved cattle have usually 
 done, by close-breeding on both the male and the female 
 side. Close-breeding has only been practised within recent 
 years, as may be gathered from the wonderful hardiness of 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
 Galloway Bull, "Camp Followed," 5042. 
 
 F.rst Prize, Highland Society's Show, Inverness, 1852. 
 
 I'he Property of James Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie. 
 
 Galloway Heifer, "Tinv V. of Drumlankig," 11,931 
 
 First Prize, Highland Society's Show, Inverness, 1S92. 
 The Properly of Leonard Pilkington, Cavens, Dumfries. 
 
DOMESTIC CAT'lLE — THE GALLOWAY. 6^ 
 
 constitution possessed by the breed, and also from their 
 being, as a rule, rather slower than some in coming to 
 maturity. No great so-called " improver " ever rose to do 
 work like that of the Collings upon the Galloway breed. 
 The old breeders knew well that to improve them on the 
 lines adopted by shorthorn men, to increase their size and 
 shorten the period spent in coming to maturity by close- 
 breeding, meant ruin to the constitution of the breed in the 
 matter of withstanding the cold and inclement weather to 
 which they are exposed under natural conditions in their 
 native district. It is impossible to obtain excellence in 
 regard to rapid maturity by the usual course, in-and-in- 
 breeding, and retain the hardihood necessary in mountain 
 cattle. This country already possesses an abundance of 
 breeds that fatten quickly, and it would be a misfortune if 
 a breed of animals which now produces the finest quality of 
 beef, often on inferior food and under adverse climatic 
 surroundings, were thoughtlessly and ignorantly sacrificed 
 in the rush for early maturity. 
 
 We have not yet seen the final results of the system of 
 in-and-in-breeding which has been going on more or less 
 closely for a hundred years ; but the time may come when 
 it will be necessary to go back to such breeds as the Galloway 
 to recruit the ebbing strength of some of the greatest 
 sufferers from the consequences of the practice. Tubercular 
 disease, which is so prevalent and on the increase, is one of 
 the signs that should warn breeders of the peril of a heed- 
 less course of inter-breeding. 
 
 As dairy cattle Galloway cows are not noted. The 
 quality of the milk is excellent, but the quantity is, as a 
 rule, deficient. Individual instances of cows' giving large 
 quantities of milk occur, though calves are generally allowed 
 to follow their mothers ; but, as a breed, they have never 
 been managed like dairy cattle. The rage for the extension 
 of dairying 'during the last half-century has brought about 
 
68 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 a great diminution in the numbers of this breed, and an 
 increase in the deeper milking Ayrshire. It is asserted, 
 too, that in spite of increased attention during that period, 
 the best animals of the present day show no improvement 
 on the best specimens of former times. 
 
 The establishment of a Galloway Herd Book in 
 1877* has given an impetus in the direction of improve- 
 ment. 
 
 A Cross, bred from a Galloway cow by a bull of one 
 of the favourite flesh-producing breeds, such as Shorthorn 
 or Hereford, is usually an excellent butchers' animal. t The 
 prevailing colour of calves produced by a shorthorn bull, 
 especially if he be white or light in colour, is a blue-grey, 
 or uniform mealy roan, polled, and much more like the 
 Galloway than the shorthorn. At times the colour is black, 
 sometimes red or patchy. 
 
 The Hereford crosses are also, as a rule, polled, with 
 white heads and red or dark grey bodies. Both crosses 
 produce beef of the finest quality ; the Herefords, the 
 smaller animals, being perhaps the finer of the two. The 
 progeny of a Galloway bull on cows of other breeds are, 
 on the average, distinctly inferior, though an in-bred and 
 specially well-bred bull of this breed, has been known to 
 become the sire of cattle out of shorthorn cows that have 
 nearly equalled the performances of crosses from Galloway 
 cows. Galloway crosses from Ayrshire cows are slow and 
 unsatisfactory feeding animals while young, though they 
 are good light-weight butchers' beasts when finished. 
 
 * The editor is the Rev. John Gillespie, Mouswald Manse, Dumfriesshire, 
 who is also the writer of a valuable article on The ■ Galloway Breed of Cattle in 
 the " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1878." 
 
 t The champion ox at the Smithfield Club Show, 1892, was a cross 
 between a Galloway cow and shorthorn bull, which at the age of 1,250 days 
 weighed 2,276 lbs., an average daily gain from birth of 1.82 lbs. 
 
CHAPTER VII.— MILKING BREEDS OF BRITISH CATTLE 
 —THE AYRSHIRE— THE CHANNEL ISLANDS (JERSEY, 
 GUERNSEY, AND ALDERNEY)— AND THE KERRY. 
 
 Introduction — The Ayrshire Breed — Habitat — Early Records — Ayrshires of 
 the Present Day — Breeds imported for Cirossing^Influence of Locality on 
 the Breed — Points of an Ayrshire Cow — The Typical Characters of Milk- 
 ing Cows for various purposes — Bullocks and Crosses — The Channel 
 IslandsBreeds — The Jersey — Origin — Unimproved Form— Association with 
 Druidical Remains — Remnants of Ancient Civilisations — Purity of' Jersey 
 Cattle — Revival of the Breed — The Jersey Island Herd Book — American 
 Demand —Distinguishing Points — Docility of the Cows, — Produce Yields 
 — The Guernsey — Compared with the Jersey — Effects of Climate — Guern- 
 sey Butter — Inferiority of Islands Cows for Cheese-making — The Alderney 
 — The Old and New Forms — ^The Kerry Breed — Other Cattle in Ireland 
 — Points of the Common Kerry — The Dexter Kerry — Kerry Crosses — 
 Sale of Kerries in England. 
 
 INTRODUCTION.— Though certain strains of cattle 
 already described— notably the Welsh, and the red 
 polled breeds — are good milkers, yet they could not be 
 properly classed among those essentially kept for milk 
 production. We shall find, on the other hand, that some 
 of those which are distinctly and unmistakably milking 
 breeds are nevei-theless capable of producing excellent beef. 
 The shorthorn occupies a unique position in this connection, 
 as non-pedigreed dairy cows of this breed are more nume- 
 rous, taking the United Kingdom as a whole, than all the 
 cows of the special dairy breeds to be described put 
 together. 
 
 The Ayrshire Breed 
 
 Has come into prominence in comparatively recent times. 
 
 Its natural habitat was Cunningham, or the upper of 
 the three divisions of Ayrshire — Carrick, Kyle, and Cun- 
 
70 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ningham — occupying that part of the county which lies 
 north of the river Irvine. 
 
 The records* of the early history of the breed fix the 
 date of the beginning of improvement -from 1750 to 1780. 
 Before that time the native progenitors of the Ayrshire were 
 small, inferior, irregularly shaped, short and irregularly 
 horned, dark animals, of a black, black-and-white, or brown 
 colour, but hardy, and suited to the humidity and inferiority 
 of the district in which they were placed. The descriptions 
 of this early condition of the breed appear to indicate its 
 relationship to the Bos longifrons. 
 
 The Ayrshire of the present day, however, is very diiifer- 
 ent, the change having been brought about by crossing with 
 other breeds, and by subsequent careful selection, in addition 
 admittedly to the natural tendency which soil and climate 
 have to develop or maintain certain qualities or charac- 
 teristics. 
 
 The breeds definitely, mentioned as having been 
 imported and used in crossing with the native cattle are 
 the Teeswater, or early shorthorn, and the Alderney,-f- 
 besides " stranger cattle " of unknown or unrecorded breeds, 
 which were imported by Dunlop of Dunlop, " Orr of Bar- 
 rowsfield, and other dairy farmers." The resemblance of 
 the Chillingham Park wild cattle to the Ayrshire breed — 
 in horn, in colour, and in form — points to the possibility of 
 there having been an introduction into the Ayrshire breed 
 of blood from some direct descendants of the wild forest 
 
 * Colonel' Fullarton's " Survey of Ayrshire " ; Alton's " General View of 
 the Agriculture of the County of Ayr, 181 1 " ; Alton's " Dairy Husbandry of 
 Ayrshire, 1825 " ; Low's " Domesticated Animals," 1845 ; Farrall's Essay on 
 the Ayrshire Breed of Cattle in the ' ' Transactions of the Highland Society 
 for 1876." Ortelius, writing in 1573, speaks of a superior class of oxen in 
 Carrick ; but his remarks, no doubt, refer to the ancestors of the Galloway 
 breed, not to Ayrshire cattle as the term is now understood. 
 
 + Probably more correctly termed the Jersey, as cattle were sent to Scot- 
 land, according to Colonel le Couteur, by two successive governors of Jersey — 
 Field-Marshal Conway and Lieutenant-General Andrew Gordon. 
 
Plate XXV. 
 
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DOMESTIC CATTLE— THE AYRSHIRE. 7 1 
 
 breed. The improvement in the milking qualities was no 
 doubt largely due to the cross, whatever it was. To it also 
 may in some measure be safely attributed the distinct 
 tendency among improved Ayrshires to become lighter in 
 colour than Ayrshires of a generation ago ; indeed, the 
 result is a most natural one to expect when the broad 
 lines of the facts before us are considered. 
 
 A little, inferior, dark-coloured, poor-milking breed of 
 cattle is found in a given district ; it is improved in size and 
 in milking qualities by crossing with an imported breed, 
 which gives greater variety of colour and a greater admix- 
 ture of white. During subsequent selection, carried on with 
 the main object of increased milk production, it is most 
 natural to suppose that the animals possessing large pro- 
 portions of new blood would be favoured and preserved on 
 account of form, size, and good milking qualities ; and that 
 along with these would be associated the tendency to white- 
 ness, one of the correlated original attributes of the imported 
 blood. 
 
 There are indications that although the Ayrshire is now 
 accepted as a pure breed, all the characteristics contributed 
 by the various breeds employed in its formation have not 
 yet been thoroughly distributed andblended. Proof of this 
 may be seen in the fact that the strains of Ayrshires which 
 are most successful as prize-winners in the "eild "* classes 
 (for bulls and heifers), seldom produce animals which are 
 very successful when shown " in milk." 
 
 These cows may give as much milk as those belonging 
 to the strains celebrated for' producing successful winners 
 in the classes for animals in milk, but their udders are rarely 
 symmetrical enough to enable them to carry off the prizes, 
 although they possess an advantage over the others in style 
 and in a more perfect form of body. 
 
 * " Eild " or " yeld," the Scotch expression to indicate cattle, whether male 
 or female, that do not yield milk. 
 
72 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Some of the improved breed, when reared under cir- 
 cumstances of soil and climate suitable for beef production, 
 fall away from the true Ayrshire characteristics, assume 
 strong bones, heavy and fleshy forequarters and chest, and 
 also decline in milking powers ; but changes such as these 
 are usually dependent upon local surroundings, and have 
 been already fully explained. 
 
 The best preventive of the worst results of the tendency to 
 coarseness through high feeding is to arrange that the heifers 
 shall calve at two years old in place of three years, the ordi- 
 nary calving time of the breed. Should the calf arrive when 
 the quey is two years old, her milking powers become better 
 developed, and the tendency to produce flesh is checked. 
 
 The following are the points of the Ayrshire cow 
 and their values in judging in the show-ring, taken from a 
 report by a committee of the Herd Book Society. The 
 points of the bull differ from those of the cow only in the 
 masculine characters, which, according to the general rule, 
 ought to be distinctly defined. 
 
 " I. Head short ; forehead wide ; nose fine between the muzzle 
 and eyes ; muzzle large ; eyes full and lively ; horns wide set on, 
 inclining upwards, . . . . . . .10 
 
 2. Neck moderately long, and straight from the head to the 
 top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at 
 its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically towards 
 
 the shoulders, . . . . . . .5 
 
 3. Forequarters — shoulders sloping ; withers fine ; chest suffi- 
 ciently broad and deep to ensure constitution ; brisket and whole 
 forequarters light ; the cow gradually increasing in depth and 
 width backwards, ....... 5 
 
 4. Back short and straight ; spine well defined, especially at 
 
 the shoulders ; ribs short and arched ; body deep at the flanks, . 10 
 
 5. Hindquarters long, broad, and straight ; hook-bones wide 
 apart, and not overlaid with fat ; thighs deep and broad " [but thin 
 of flesh on the inner thigh or twist] ; " tail long, slender, and set 
 
 on level with the back, . . . . . .8 
 
 Carry forward . . -38 
 
Plate XXVI. 
 
 A. — Ayrshire Two-Year-Old Heifer, "Nellie of Barcheskie." 
 
 First at the Dumfries Union Show, 1888. 
 
 The Property of And. Mitchell, Barcheskie, Kirkcudbright. 
 
 B.— Ayrshire Cow, "Bertie II. of Clockston," 3217. 
 The Property of Sir Mark J. Stewart, of Southwick, M.P. 
 
DOMESTIC CATTLE — THE AYRSHIRE. 73 
 
 Brought forward . . -38 
 
 6. Udder capacious, and not fleshy, hinderpart broad" [and 
 rounded like the side of a cheese]. " The whole firmly attached 
 to the body ; the sole nearly level, and extending well forward ; 
 milk veins well developed ; teats from 2 to 2^ in. long, equal in 
 thickness, and hanging perpendicularly ; distance apart, at the 
 sides, equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to 
 about one-half of the breadth, . . . . ■ 33 " 
 
 [Small teats are now considered most objectionable, both in 
 the market and the show-ring.] 
 
 " 7. Legs short in proportion to size ; bones fine, and joints 
 firm, ......... 3 
 
 8. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close, woolly 
 hair, . . . . . . . . .5 
 
 9. Colour red, of any shade, brown, or white, or a mixture of 
 these — each colour being distinctly defined. Brindle, or black 
 and white is not in favour, . . . . . .3 
 
 10. Average live weight in full milk about loj cwts., . . 8 
 
 11. General stylish appearance a.nA xno\&ca.&cit, . . .10 
 
 Perfection, \od" 
 The Ayrshire is unquestionably the most important 
 and the most typical example of a milking cow in the 
 British Isles. She shares with the Kerry the credit of being 
 able to yield a greater return of dairy produce on poor land 
 and inferior food than any other cow. She is essentially a 
 cheese-dairy cow, on account of the comparatively small- 
 sized butter globules of the milk and the abundance of 
 curd-making material which it contains. The Channel 
 Islands breeds supply, on the other hand, the true butter- 
 dairy cows, owing to the large- sized globules which the 
 specially rich and highly coloured cream contains. In the 
 same way the milking shorthorn is the typical cow for 
 towns' dairying, for the supply of large quantities of milk 
 of moderate quality for immediate domestic use, and for the 
 accumulation of beef of second quality as a bye-product 
 during the latter portion of the milking period. 
 
 Ajrrshire bullocks feed well after they are three years old, 
 
74 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and so do crosses with the shorthorn bull even at an earlier 
 age, and produce excellent beef; but Ayrshire steers are 
 not often met with, as the bull calves are usually sold for a 
 few shillings as " slinks " (newly born calves), and killed 
 when a day or two old. Many are never allowed to drink 
 milk, but are killed immediately after birth, and sent for 
 consumption into the large centres of population. 
 
 There is a Scottish Ayrshire Herd Book and also an 
 American Herd Book, which, no doubt, tend to improve 
 the quality of the breed, and also to maintain its purity. 
 
 Channel Islands Cattle — 
 Jersey,* Guernsey, and Alderney. 
 
 These cattle have for many years been imported into 
 England under the generic name of Alderney, although the 
 animals from that island have been throughout the least 
 important. The misnomer is supposed to have originated 
 either from Alderney cattle having been the first sent to 
 England, or through English officers being stationed in 
 Alderney, and thus identifying all the kindred breeds by 
 the name most familiar to themselves. 
 
 The Fowlers, who have been the great exporters of 
 stock from the Islands, perpetuated the custom by naming 
 all their cattle from the Islands " Alderneys." 
 
 The Jersey.-f 
 
 This is the most numerously represented and most 
 important of the three breeds, which at some distant date 
 
 * Articles on Jersey cattle appear in the 1880 Report of the Agricultural 
 Department, Washington, and the Journal of the Royal Agriculluriil Society, 
 2nd series, vols, xiv., xvii. , and xxi. 
 
 t For much information the Author is indebted to the exhaustive treatise 
 on the history of the Jersey breed of cattle by John Thornton, being the intro- 
 duction to the first volume of the English Herd Book of Jersey Cattle, 1880. 
 
Plate XXVII. 
 
 A.- Jersey Bull, "Distinction's Pride," i486, I.H.B., H.C. 
 
 First Prize, Royal Agricultural Society's Show, War\*ick, 1892. 
 
 The Property of James Blyth, Wood House, Stansted. 
 
 B. — Jersey Cow, "Pontorson." 
 The Property of Lord Rothschild, TringPark, Herts. 
 
CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE. 75 
 
 sprang from a common origin, in which the Brittany breed of 
 the adjacent French coast participated. Some specimens of 
 these animals so strongly resemble Channel Islands cattle, 
 although very inferior in milking qualities and the develop- 
 ment of good dairying appearances, that they have been 
 sold in large numbers in this country as Islands ckttle, to 
 the detriment of the good name of, and. injury to the trade 
 in, the genuine animals. The " whole " or " self " colour- 
 ing, and the light shades which prevail in the improved 
 Jersey are of comparatively recent date, and have been 
 encouraged by the American buyers, who are partial to 
 them. 
 
 The original unimproved Jerseys described by the early 
 writers * were variously coloured, " commonly red or red 
 and white, occasionally cream-coloured or cream mixed 
 with white, black with a dingy brown-red about the nostrils 
 and on the back ridge," and also " black, and black and 
 white." 
 
 Thornton calls attention to the similarity of colouring, 
 and to the correspondence in the appearance of the older 
 forms of the Brittany, Kerry, Welsh, Cornish, Shetland, and 
 Ayrshire breeds. He further points out that these are 
 usually located in the vicinity of ancient Druidical remains, 
 and that there is a strong presumptiori that they are the 
 most direct descendants of the small-sized, shorthorned, 
 dark-coloured descendants of the Bos longifrons which, 
 being the earliest domesticated of the aboriginal cattle of 
 Great Britain, was, no doubt, the milch cow of the Druids. 
 This is a most ingenious and feasible suggestion. They are 
 found clinging to existence on the fringes of civilisation in 
 out-of-the-way corners, where they and the associated 
 Druidical remains would naturally meet with least inter- 
 
 * Thomas Quayle, author of "The General View of the Agriculture, &c., 
 of the Islands on the Coast of Normandy, 1812." Garrard on "Varieties of 
 Oxen common to the British Islands. " 
 
y^ FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ference during the many disturbances which overwhelmed, 
 altered, and destroyed the features of the more accessible 
 interior of the country. 
 
 Jersey cattle have been bred pure for a longer period 
 than any of our British varieties, on account of the importa- 
 tion of foreign cattle to the island being forbidden by law. 
 In 1789 the " Act of the States of Jersey " detailed severe 
 prohibitive penalties against the fraudulent importation of 
 cattle from France, which effectually enforced the already 
 long-standing regulations dealing with the trade. 
 
 During the first three decades of this century Jersey 
 cattle degenerated. 
 
 The great revival of the breed was brought about 
 by the formation, in the autumn of 1833, of the Jersey 
 Agricultural and Horticultural Society, to the efforts of 
 which, through its stringent regulations with regard to the 
 qualities which an animal must possess before receiving 
 the stamp or decoration of merit, is due, in the first instance, 
 the marked improvement which took place soon after that 
 time. 
 
 The Jersey Herd Book, begun in 1838, no doubt 
 materially contributed to this gratifying result, and the 
 unshapely form of the old-fashioned Jersey was speedily 
 changed to that of the symmetrical and handsome creature 
 of the present time. 
 
 The milking qualities, always good, were also improved 
 by the careful selection of bull calves from the best milking 
 cows. 
 
 About 1853 a demand sprang up in America for 
 Jersey cattle, and one leading endeavour of the Board of 
 the Agricultural and Horticultural Society has since 
 been, owing to the increase of this demand, to encourage 
 breeders to keep, at least for a time, their best stock in the 
 Island, so as to secure the retention of a share of the best 
 blood. 
 
Plate XXVIII. 
 
 A. — Jersey Bull, "Queen's Messenger," 1206, E.I. H.B. 
 
 The winner of many Prizes. 
 
 Sold by Geo. Simpson, Wray Park, Reigate, to Dr A. Meadows. 
 
 B.— Aldfrney Cow, " Beauty," 76. 
 
 First in the Heifer Class at the Royal Show, 1886 ; and First as a Cow in 1887. 
 
 The Property of P. Herivel, Magistrate, Alderney. 
 
CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE. "JJ 
 
 The following are the points in which Jersey cattle 
 differ materially from the general form and characteristics 
 of the Ayrshire, already stated in detail : — 
 
 Points taken from the Descriptive Part of the Ratio Scale 
 for Cows and Heifers in the fersey Herd Book. 
 
 1. Muzzle dark and encircled by a light colour — what is 
 termed " mealy mou'ed " in Scotland. 
 
 2. Horns small, crumpled ; yellow, with black tips. 
 
 3. Ears small and thin, and of a deep yellow colour 
 within. 
 
 4. Chest broad and deep. 
 
 5. Hide thin and mellow, and of a yellow colour. 
 
 6. Teats yellow. 
 
 7. Hair fine and soft, and of various, usually though not 
 invariably, whole colours — ^fawn, silver-grey, dun, cream, or 
 white, in addition to rare specimens which are more or less 
 black. 
 
 The whole form is handsome and deerlike, and the 
 shades of colour being bright and uncommon. Jerseys are, 
 irrespective of their milking powers, favourite park cattle. 
 
 The milk, though not usually abundant, is noted for 
 a large proportion of cream of peculiarly rich quality and 
 colour, which makes the cows favourites in many private 
 household dairies throughout the country. A few are also 
 kept in ordinary farm dairies, where specially rich milk is 
 wanted or where butter is the manufactured product, to 
 ' make the churning of the cream more easy, and to give the 
 Jersey tint and flavour to the butter. 
 
 The cows are extremely docile, owing to their being 
 constantly tethered at pasture in the Island, while the bulls 
 are remarkable for their bad temper and ferocity. No- 
 doubt this is one explanation of the old custom which 
 involved the destruction of bulls before they were three 
 
78 FARM LIVE STOCK. _ 
 
 years old, as a precautionary measure of' safety .to .h.u|nan 
 life. Another reason advanced to account for, this practice 
 is that the bulls, while young, had' so many, mws put to 
 them that they became used-up and worthless. 
 
 The general average of produce during the best part 
 of the milking season may be. stated at lO to 12 quarts of 
 milk per day, yielding from 7 to 9 lbs. of butter per week, 
 although it is not unusual to find individual cows in this 
 country which will double the average ; and in America, 
 owing to the extraordinary system of cramming with milk- 
 and butter-producing-foods, some even treble it. In reach- 
 ing the extraordinary height of butter production, amount- 
 ing to over 30 lbs. for a single cow per week, the life of the 
 animal is frequently sacrificed by over-forcing in the effort 
 to reach a record which will afford a good trade advertise- 
 ment for the sale of the descendants of her living produce. 
 
 The Guernsey. 
 
 This is a larger, stronger-boned, and coarser animal in 
 appearance than the -Jersey. • Lts outlines ai'e not so regular 
 or symmetrical, but in addition to good milking qualities — 
 the sole possession of the Jersey beyond its good looks — 
 the Guernsey' adds no ' mean capacity for beef production 
 when not giving milk. Themeat'is not of first-rate quality, 
 being yellow in the fat like that of the Jersey. 
 
 The colours of Guernsey cattle are more " broken " 
 than those of the Jersey, patches of white appearing on the 
 predominating light yellow, brown, or fawn. The muzzle 
 is flesh-coloured. 
 
 The climate of the island is not so genial as that of 
 Jersey, and consequently the cattle are hardier, and more 
 inured to cold and exposure on their arrival in England 
 than those from Jersey. The latter becoine acclimatised in 
 a few years, and their descendants are likewise hardier, but 
 
Plate XXIX. 
 
 A.— Guernsey Bull, "Climax," 14, E.G.H.B. 
 
 Winner of seven First and one Champion Prizes. 
 
 The Property of The ExrREss Dairy Company Limited, College Farm, Finchley. 
 
 B.— Guernsey Cow, "Ladybird IL,"388, E.G.H.B. 
 
 Winner of two First Milking Prizes at the Dairy Show of the B.D.F.A. 
 
 " The Property of The Express Dairy Company Limited, College Farm, Finchley. 
 
THE KERRY BREED. 79 
 
 they also lose the refined delicacy of skin and form, and 
 become stronger in frame and altogether coarser. 
 
 Guernsey butter is considerably deeper in colour than 
 Jersey butter. This quality, along with the possibility of 
 selling the calves at a better price than Jersey calves, owing 
 to the thin condition of the latter, has raised the Guernsey 
 in favour with dairy farmers. A further inducement is the 
 greater weight of the animal, as compared with the Jersey, 
 as it gives better results when dry and fed for beef. But in 
 estimating the various qualities of the breeds some overlook 
 the fact that five Jerseys can be kept on about the same 
 amount of food as four Guernseys or three shorthorns. 
 
 For cheese-making purposes, the milk of the Islands 
 cows, owing to the large size of the cream globules, is 
 inferior to the milk of the Ayrshire or shorthorn. 
 
 The Alderney. 
 
 This animal in its genuine form corresponded much to 
 that of the Jersey. It is darker than either of the other 
 varieties, the hair being usually dark brown or black, and 
 -the nose, tongue, and teats black. There is a tendency in 
 this as in the other Islands breeds to become lighter in 
 colour. 
 
 The Kerry Breed, 
 
 From the mountainous region in the south-west of Ireland, 
 is the only pure remaining Irish breed. 
 
 The predominating cattle of Ireland are shorthorns, 
 the blood of which has been more or. less mingled with that 
 of the ancient Irish breed, which at one time, to a large 
 extent, belonged to the longhorn. The last twenty-five 
 years has seen an enormous improvement in the feeding 
 qualities of the general run of Irish bullocks brought over 
 
8o FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 in large numbers, and sold at fairs and markets in both 
 Scotland and England. 
 
 In some secluded districts, such as a poor tract of 
 moory and unreclaimed land lying to the west of Cork, the 
 old Irish milch cow, a breed anterior in time to the longhorn 
 in the island, is yet to be seen in a form which does not 
 appear to be much chatiged by the introduction of foreign 
 blood. These animals are thin fleshed and slow to feed, 
 but yield on inferior fare a considerable quantity of poor 
 milk. Their horns are of medium length, thin and " spaley." 
 The hair, usually brown, has single white hairs more or less 
 mixed with it, and a ridge of white along the line of the 
 backbone : a characteristic which is common among Irish 
 cattle other than shorthorns or their best-bred descendants. 
 The longhorn breed possessed it, and, when Low wrote, 
 it was an acknowledged point of the Kerry, though 
 it has disappeared from the best Kerry blood of recent 
 years. , 
 
 The Kerry is " the poor man's " or the Irish cottier's 
 cow, especially in cold and inferior districts ; but the breed 
 also possesses the power of beef production in an eminent 
 degree. 
 
 Points. — The true Kerry colours are orange skin with 
 black hair, though specimens with red-brown hair do occur 
 in the purest blood, but more frequently in the Dexter 
 variety than in the other. White patches also appear from 
 time to time, but stringent regulations against white mark- 
 ings passed by the Royal Dublin Society exclude from 
 entry in the Kerry and Dexter Herd Book all Kerry bulls 
 which are not pure black, with the exception of a few grey 
 hairs about the organs of generation in animals of excep- 
 tional merit, and all cows and heifers which have white on 
 any part of the body, with the exception of the udder. In 
 general outline the Kerry has much in common with the 
 Jersey, and also with the Ayrshire, though in size it is, 
 
Plate XXX. 
 
 A. — Kerry Cow, "Flora." 
 First at the Royal Show in 1887 ; First at the London Dairy Show in 1885, and again in 1887. 
 The Property of Martin J, Sutton, of Reading. 
 
 -^•^ Ntoi* ^ <,** 
 
 B. — Kerry Bull, "Paddy Blake." 
 Was the Property of the late Lord Clonmeli,. 
 
THE KERRY BREED. 8l 
 
 under its home conditions, smaller than either of the two. 
 Its spare form indicates its superiority in milking rather 
 than in beef production. The horns are fine and waxy, 
 yellow or white, with sharp black tips, curving gracefully 
 upward. 
 
 The Dexter variety, though now distinctly, in the 
 breeders' acceptation of the term, a pure Kerry, whatever 
 may have been its origin, is a much more compact, more 
 substantial, and lower-set animal than the Kerry proper. 
 Its toes turn in after a peculiar fashion, and it tends to walk 
 over the outer digits, especially in the case of the hind feet. 
 The leg-bones are shorter and more substantial, the neck 
 thicker and shorter, the horns heavier, not so elevated and 
 airy, and the head heavier and not so deer-like as in the 
 case of the original Kerry. 
 
 Low, in 1845, states the prevailing belief as to its origin 
 to be that it was introduced (whether through crossing or 
 selection was not known) by one Dexter, an agent of 
 Maude Lord Hawwarden ; but a considerable amount of 
 doubt exists as to the accuracy of, the statement. The 
 Author, while travelling in Kerry some years ago, found 
 that the word " Dexter " was used in a generic sense with 
 reference to all diminutive animals, even to men if low-set 
 and bandy-legged ; and also that the term was in the first 
 instance applied to short-legged sheep kept by a resident 
 Coastguard oflficer. 
 
 Kerries cross remarkably well with other breeds ; 
 with the British flesh-producing breeds for fattening cattle, 
 and with the milking breeds — Channel Islands and Ayrshire 
 — for dairy cattle. The cross animals, when at a little dis- 
 tance, often strongly resemble West Highlanders. This is 
 additional evidence of the common origin of the breeds. 
 
 Kerries have in recent years attracted great atten- 
 tion in England as fancy cattle, and have on more than one 
 occasion been specially -taken notice of by Royalty. James 
 
 F 
 
82 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Robertson, of Malahide, near Dublin, has, as a recreation 
 and a change from the ordinary routine of business, been 
 largely instrumental in bringing the breed into prominence 
 by exhibiting good specimens of it at the Royal Agricul- 
 tural and the London Dairy shows, and also by carefully 
 selecting the young and undeveloped members of the purest 
 and best sorts at the Killarney and other western fairs, and 
 shipping them when they come into sale condition to supply 
 a growing demand in this country. 
 
Plate XXXI. 
 
 A.— Dexter Kerry Cow, "Rosemary." 
 
 Never beaten but by "Irisene," 
 
 The Property of Martiw J. Sutton, Reading. 
 
 't^dSS*'*'**^'*" 
 
 P. — Dexter Kerry Bull, "Paradox," at Four Years Old. 
 The Property of Martin J. Sutton, Reading. 
 
Trof. WaUa,cei> Farm. Live Sfjpck 
 
 IMTISg I§IiES 
 
 XhsXSiubui^li. QeogcapldcaL LLStitiile 
 
 Johu.'&fcoiii^linn.BW Si Co 
 
CHAPTER VIII.— THE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 
 AND GRAZING OF CATTLE. 
 
 Breeding and Management and the Grazing of Cattle — Calves— Methods of 
 Rearing^^Diarrhoea — White Scour — Treatment of the Growing Calf — 
 Ringworm — Lice — Grazing Cattle — Early Maturity — Points of Feeding 
 Animals — Grazings in this Country — Symptoms of Disease in Grazing 
 Cattle — Acorn Poisoning — The Warble Fly. 
 
 T N a system of good management it is essential to 
 employ stock of good quality, though for ordinary 
 purposes not necessarily belonging to the strains of blood 
 most run upon, and, consequently, commanding the highest 
 prices. Dealing in fancy animals and fancy prices, is more 
 or less a special business involving some degree of specula- 
 tion, and requiring special skill and an abundance of spare 
 capital, such as the ordinary farmer does not possess. 
 
 A calf should have its mother's milk, and that only, 
 for the first three or four days. " Beastings '" or colostrum — 
 the milk secreted during the few days after calving — is the 
 best food for the calf, and it is unfit for other purposes. It 
 frequently contains streaks of blood, especially in the case 
 of heifers of the first calf. Butter can be made from " green 
 milk " rather sooner than cheese, but it is a mistake to use 
 milk from a newly calved cow for any purpose than that of 
 feeding calves, until it becomes normal in composition and 
 will boil without coagulation. 
 
 In rearing, calves maybe — (i) tied by the neck ; (2) 
 kept in small cribs singly ; or (3") let run together, loose, in 
 a large, dry, well-ventilated place. When loose they are 
 liable to suck each other about the navel, which produces 
 
84 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 enlargement and often rawness of the part. To prevent 
 this, calves are sometimes muzzled by putting on a bridle 
 with sharp spines projecting upwards from the nose, to prick 
 other calves and prevent them standing to be sucked. It 
 is a good practice to give artificial food, such as finely 
 ground cake, immediately after the meal of milk, to take up 
 the attention of the calf until the strong instinctive desire 
 to suck passes off. Hay-racks and small boxes for cake 
 should be fitted up on the side of the wall of the crib or 
 calf-house at convenient heights. 
 
 Concrete makes the best floor for all cattle houses, being 
 easily cleaned. There should be sufficient fall into open 
 channels in preference to covered drains, to prevent urine 
 stagnating in pools. The channels should be regularly 
 swilled out to prevent the occurrence of sour or putrid 
 odours, which are specially objectionable in a calf house. 
 Three common methods of Rearing Calves: — 
 isi Method. — Allowing the calf to suck its mother. This 
 is the most natural way, and produces the best calves, but is 
 expensive, and the calves grow up wild unless frequently 
 handled. There is a greater mortality when foot and mouth 
 disease breaks out among sucking calves than among hand- 
 fed ones, as a change to healthy milk cannot be made if the 
 mother becomes affected, and the virus of the disease in 
 such milk acts as a blood-poison to the calf Bulls and 
 pedigree show-stock, especially in beef-producing breeds, 
 are often allowed to suck, usually foster-mothers. Less 
 milk given in this way suffices, as compared with hand- 
 feeding, and " farrow " cows giving little milk may rear good 
 calves. Two calves are often fed at the same time by one 
 cow when she yields a plentiful supply of milk. After the 
 first two are weaned, another pair may be put to the cow, 
 and finally a single one as the flow of milk lessens at the 
 end of the season. Sometimes the last of the milk is 
 drawn away by hand, and is richer in cream than the first 
 
THE BREEDING, ETC., OF CATTLE. 85 
 
 part. A cow which suckles a calf is none the worse for 
 milking purposes in the following year, although some 
 dairymen are prejudiced against cows which have been so 
 treated. Should a cow be sucked for a number of years, the 
 milking qualities are liable to be impaired. 
 
 2nd Method. — Giving full milk alone, newly drawn from 
 the cow, when the milk is about 90° F. A calf is taught to 
 drittk from a pail by giving it a finger and keeping its lips 
 down in the milk, so that while sucking the finger it draws 
 in the milk. In a few days it will drink without the finger. 
 An ordinary shorthorn calf should receive for a day or two 
 a daily allowance of f gal. of milk divided into three meals. 
 The calves of smaller breeds require smaller quantities. 
 Milk should be given in moderate amounts at first, to en- 
 courage the calf's instinctive desire to satisfy the cravings 
 of hunger to develop, and thereby train it to drink freely. 
 Increase should consequently be. gradual. Some calf- 
 rearers only feed twice a day, although it is better to do. so 
 three times. The amount should be increased to 2 gallons 
 by the end of the fourth week, and to 2\ at three months ; 
 then the calf may be weaned by gradually reducing the 
 amount. Some continue to feed with milk for six or even 
 nine months, in the case of pedigree stock, including young 
 bulls, which require to develop quickly to suit show and 
 market purposes. Dry cake and long food are also given 
 in gradually increasing quantities when the calf is old 
 enough. This method is expensive, and therefore not much 
 practised. Fattening calves should have as much milk as 
 they will drink, and they should also be kept quiet and in 
 the dark. 
 
 j,rd Method. — Giving the full milk of the mother for a 
 few days, and finishing with fortified skim milk or milk sub- 
 stitute. The calf at birth should be rubbed with straw, or 
 simply covered up with straw, to keep it warm until it dries, 
 and the cow should not be allowed to lick or even to see it, 
 
86 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 as this unsettles her when the calf is at last removed. Many- 
 allow the calf to suck for three or four days and then take 
 it away ; but the cow is apt to fall off in milk, the flow of 
 which does not always return to the full extent. When the 
 calf is a week or ten days old, the new milk may be 
 gradually reduced, and skim milk, made up to a proper 
 proportion by artificial substitutes, such as boiled gruel, 
 given at a temperature not exceeding blood heat. It is a 
 good practice to begin with a tablespoonful of boiled linseed 
 until the stomach is accustomed to digest solids ; a larger 
 quantity would cause indigestion. An excellent mixture 
 to follow the linseed, as the calf grows older, is half and 
 half linseed meal and pea meal, also given after cooking. 
 Linseed cake ground to meal may be used in place of 
 linseed meal, and may then form two-thirds of the mixture. 
 Oatmeal is a good ingredient, but it is more liable to pro- 
 duce acidity if the feeding is not well and regularly attended 
 to. Cotton-cake should not be used ; it kills young calves, 
 as they cannot digest it. One gallon of skim milk per day 
 with mixed meal, gradually increased to one pound and 
 then to two pounds, is enough for an ordinary calf before 
 weaning. In the last stage, sweet whey is sometimes 
 substituted for milk, or one quarter of the meal may be the 
 Lactina preparation. Calves are fond of the latter, but it 
 seems to be rather dear, and the cooking of it requires 
 great care that the water to be used in mixing is quite 
 boiling, else calves fed on it scour and get thin in condition. 
 Much less milk than that stated above is often made to 
 suffice. The milk from one Ayrshire cow, aided by 
 artificials, has been known to rear sixteen calves in one 
 season ; and in the summer of 1884, a good shorthorn cow, 
 in the neighbourhood of Horsham, supplied all the milk 
 given to twenty-four shorthorn cross calves. This is carry- 
 ing the use of milk substitutes rather far, when separated 
 milk is to be had at extremely moderate prices. However 
 
THE BREEDING, ETC., OF CATTLE. 8/ 
 
 useful substitutes may be, when an animal is a few weeks 
 old, there is no doubt that to follow Nature's plan of 
 feeding mostly on milk in the early stages of the life of a 
 calf is the most economical. 
 
 A deadly diarrhoea, which often assumes a contagious 
 form, is not uncommon amongst calves. It usually appears 
 where the sanitary arrangements are defective, but it may 
 also be induced when this is not so, if the cows are too 
 highly fed, or if the food is impure or inferior to such 
 a degree that the system becomes fevered, so that an ab- 
 normally large proportion of albumen is present in the 
 milk. The albumen becomes precipitated in the calf's 
 stomach, and is made hard and indigestible by the acidity 
 which develops. The irritation throughout the alimentary 
 canal, no doubt intensified by some alkaloid poisoning, 
 induces death within a few hours. 
 
 Treatment must be directed towards the restoration of 
 the normal condition of the cow, and while this is pro- 
 gressing, to. treating the milk so that the excess of al- 
 buminoids and other deleterious matters is rendered 
 innocuous. This may be to some extent accomplished by 
 a favourite local but successful method of " burning the 
 milk " by stirring each pailful with a red-hot bar of iron. 
 
 White scour (associated with Tympanitis or " hoven " 
 from .indigestion) often breaks out even in sucking calves, 
 when they begin to eat hay. A young calf's stomach is too 
 small, and it is also in other respects unsuited for digesting 
 such food. Green forage or silage, in place of hay, is better; 
 but when a calf is a few weeks old hay of fine quality may 
 be used in moderate quantities. In the case of hand- fed 
 calves the milk should be given oftener than twice a day. 
 The undigested curd produces a light colour of faeces, the 
 acid in the stomach having expelled the whey, and made 
 the curd hard and cheesy. 
 
 Remedies. -^\x\ y6w!\% calves, diet by feeding often and 
 
88 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 reducing the quantity of food supplied at each meal, giving 
 boiled starch and less cream if the milk be rich. Administer 
 a stimulant and purgative, such as a mixture of powdered 
 rhubarb and magnesia, 4 drachms, along with 15 to 30 
 grains of ammonium carbonate, two or three times daily in 
 flour gruel. Two to 4 oz. of castor oil may at times be substi- 
 tuted for the rhubarb and magnesia ; and, when calves are 
 older, 4 to 6 oz. of Epsom salts, and J oz. of gentian and 
 ginger powder, may be given. 
 
 All calves should be taught to eat linseed-cake before 
 weaning, in order to make the change as slight as possible 
 at tha,t time ; and each may be allowed i lb. per day all 
 summer, especially when the land is subject to anthrax or 
 black-leg. The cake keeps the animals thriving all the 
 time, and they are in consequence less liable to contract 
 disease. A seton put into the dewlap is also widely believed 
 to be a preventive, although the reason of its success is not 
 satisfactorily explained. Castration should be performed 
 when the calf is about a month old ; if much older, the 
 animal ceases to thrive for a time. ' When the operation is 
 not performed till strong masculine characteristics develop, 
 the resulting steer (then called a " seg ") is reduced in 
 market value, owing to its bull-like appearance and coarse- 
 ness of flesh. 
 
 Bulls should be taught to lead before they are a ye&r 
 old, either by " bulldogs " or " humbugs," or by a ring put 
 through the gristle dividing the nostrils. At a year they 
 may serve heifers or small cows, but if not quite large 
 enough should not be allowed to take an advantage, say on 
 a hill side or slope, as a bull, under such circumstances, is 
 liable to fall and injure his back. Bulls are now more docile 
 than of old, in a great measure owing to their being more 
 gently treated. While at service they should be maintained 
 in good store condition, and each may have daily, accord- 
 ing to size, up to 6 or 8 lbs. of mixed meal or bruised grain. 
 
THE BREEDING, ETC., OF CATTLE. 
 
 89 
 
 With this they are usually more sure, and 
 get better calves than when fed on cake. 
 
 Calves should be housed for the 
 winter early in October, when cold nights 
 come, to save flesh and to prevent 
 " hoose," or to render it less severe. 
 
 Treatment of " husk " or " hoose " 
 (which is denoted by the unthriving 
 appearance of the animal, a husky cough, « 
 and a discharge from the nostrils) : keep 
 warm, feed well, and give turpentine (J 
 oz. to I oz.), soaked into dry meal, and 
 then mixed with cold gruel ; repeat once, 
 or perhaps twice, after an interval of a 
 few days. When given in this way the 
 risk of choking from turpentine is reduced 
 to a minimum. 
 
 Another effectual remedy is Intra- 
 tracheal Injection, consisting of-^ 
 
 100 parts. 
 2 parts of each. 
 
 Olive Oil, 
 
 Oil of Turpentine, . 
 Chloroform, . 
 Pure Carbolic Acid, 
 
 The sharp point of the syringe is 
 thrust through the skin and the wall of 
 the trachea (windpipe) in the middle of 
 the neck, and 2 to 4 drachms of the mix- 
 ture are injected into it. The operation 
 may require to be performed three times, 
 with an interval of three days between 
 two operations. 
 
 Young cattle are particularly liable 
 to ringworm in winter if in poor condi- 
 tion, as imported Irish often are. White 
 scaly patches without hair appear (most 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 ii 1" 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 II 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ^1 
 
 1 
 
90 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 abundantly about the head and neck) as the result of the 
 growth of a vegetable parasite {Trichophyton tonsurans), 
 which may be destroyed by the application of one or 
 ■other of the following dressings : — Red mercurial blistering 
 ointment made up with a double supply of lard ; paraffin 
 oil ; carbolic oil ; hot lime made into a thin paste and 
 spread on with a flat-pointed stick ; or even treacle smeared 
 carefully over the surfaces of the affected parts. The last 
 destroys the organism, by excluding the air which is neces- 
 sary for its existence ; the other substances directly poison 
 it. The inside walls of the cattle-shed must be whitewashed 
 with fresh lime after an outbreak of ringworm, otherwise 
 the cattle wintered in it the following year will be affected. 
 The organisms producing ringworm also adhere to gates 
 and rubbing- stones in the fields, and are in this way 
 transferred to fresh lots of cattle in succeeding seasons, 
 if preventive means are not taken. 
 
 Lice of two common species appear on British cattle — 
 (i) the large, or broad-bodied, or sucking ox-louse {Hcema- 
 topiniis eurysternus), which lives by piercing the skin and 
 sucking blood ; and (2) the small or biting ox-louse 
 {Trichodectes scalaris), which has biting jaws in place of a 
 sucking mouth, " and feeds on the decaying portions of the 
 cuticle and hairs," and not on blood. Both are insects with 
 six legs, and both do injury by causing irritation, the suck- 
 ing one to the greater degree. If cattle of any age are 
 allowed to become too lean, kept too hot in a close house, 
 or fed for a time on insufficient food, as barley-straw or 
 flying-bent {Molinia), or any other inferior hay, they are 
 liable to become infested with lice (usually both varieties 
 together), most abundantly, about the rump, head, neck, and 
 shoulder tops. Lice may be destroyed by one or two dress- 
 ings, well rubbed in, of train oil, sour buttermilk, black soap, 
 or any of the various carbolic dressings. Paraffin oil is 
 effectual, but requires special care in application. Anything 
 
GRAZING CATTLE. 9 1 
 
 which would injure the cuticle or poison the animal in the 
 event of its licking the skin, which it should do regularly, 
 must be avoided. Serious losses have at various times 
 occurred among stock through poisonous dressing, such as 
 blue mercurial ointment, being applied to the skin. 
 
 Small Biting Ox-Louse Large Sucking Ox-Louse 
 
 ( Trichodectes scalaris). {Hmmatofinus eurysternus). 
 
 {After Drawings made by Professor Allan- Marker, Cirencester.) 
 
 Weak cattle, or those of a soft temperament (usually 
 kept back from feeding by their neighbours and thriving 
 badly), should be removed and placed apart. 
 
 In the case of young ca.ttle, a moderate amount of cake 
 may be continued, say i or 2 lbs. dually, during the first 
 winter, if straw is the fodder used. If plenty of good roots 
 is given, the cake may be reduced or omitted. 
 
 Grazing Gattle. 
 It is more difficult to judge of the quality or value of store 
 cattle than of fat ones. The most important rules for guid- 
 ance in this matter cannot be learned by reading. A man 
 must come to understand animals instinctively through long 
 experience, and intimate connection- with them, to be able 
 
92 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 to judge of the possible outcome from the appearance at 
 anytime. In buying, one ought to learn how the -beasts 
 have been kept for some months previous to the time in 
 question, and never take those from a better climate or 
 which have been accustomed to better food than is to be 
 had in their new quarters. Cattle moderately fed, and not 
 kept too warm in winter, are generally acknowledged to 
 have done better when the end of the grazing season comes 
 than those which have been well fed but kept in close byres, 
 when the hair tends to fall or rub off too early in the season, 
 leaving them too little of their natural hirsute protection when 
 turned out to grass in spring. Those that lie out all winter 
 often in the end do best, if not too lean at the beginning of 
 the season ; the extra constitution gained by being out and 
 living under more natural conditions enables them to make 
 up more than the winter's loss of flesh. To those not fed 
 on cake during winter, a few pounds per day, given for five 
 or six weeks before they go out, affords a good start, and 
 " comes out " afterwards in " extra condition." Cattle at 
 three or four years old come more quickly to maturity than 
 two-year-olds, and " kill better " than they look, having 
 more internal fat, and being " better made up," though 
 they do not necessarily lay on a greater average of beef in 
 a given time during the period of their existence. Three- 
 year-old grazing cattle are now difficult to procure unless 
 from poor land, high or cold districts, where it would not 
 pay to force by artificial feeding, and where breeds exist in 
 which maturity is slowly reached. 
 
 Early Maturity. — The propriety of making beasts prime 
 at two years, or of allowing them to be three or even four 
 years old before finishing, must be determined entirely by 
 the quality of the natural products of the farm, the climate, 
 and the tendency to the laying on of flesh in the animals 
 suited to those surroundings. It would be absurd, and it 
 would never pay, to try to force a Galloway or West 
 
GRAZING CATTLE. 93 
 
 Highlander to maturity at two years, when kept in its native 
 conditions. Time must be allowed for the purpose of over- 
 coming local natural disadvantages. It would be an equally 
 bad practice, with a good climate and the best of food at 
 hand, where animals of a breed accustomed to mature 
 rapidly would do best, to keep them a year longer than 
 necessary. A large proportion of food (and in this instance 
 expensive food) is burnt up to supply the waste of the 
 system ; so that keeping animals till three years old, when 
 by proper management they could have been fat at two, 
 increases the loss by at least one-third of food substance 
 used up in maintaining animal vitality. 
 
 The points of a good feeding animal are very much 
 those already described, under general points applicable to 
 all flesh producers. M'Combie says, the following denote 
 slow feeders : " Deep neck ; thick legs [' trousery '] and tail ; 
 thick skin, with hard hair and hollow eyes." 
 
 Grazings in this country may be divided into three 
 qualities — (i) First-rate pasture, which is rented at 3 
 guineas, 4 guineas, or in some instances (which are admitted 
 not to be numerous) even 5 guineas per acre. The extent 
 of this land is not great, and much of it is annually let by 
 auction. It is found in Leicester, Nottingham, Somerset 
 (the marshes), the fen land in Lincoln and Cambridge shires, 
 on parts of the Old Red Sandstone of Herefordshire, and in 
 many small areas along the banks of rivers. These pastures 
 are capable of feeding large bullocks without cake, and 
 often less than an acre per bullock is sufficient. Sometimes 
 an extra sheep per acre is put on. Sheep eat numerous 
 weedy plants in pasture which cattle reject, for example, 
 ragwort {Senecio Jacobcea), knapweed {Centaurea nigra), 
 and oxeye daisy {Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). The 
 grass season, in England, is from about ist May till the 
 beginning of November. At first, if the growth of grass 
 is backward, a little hay may be given with advantage. 
 
94 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Thistles, nettles, and all large weeds should be cut regularly 
 before seeding, and tufts of coarse grass also mown. Dung 
 can be either spread or carried off to prevent the growth of 
 dark green " tathy " patches. It is considered a sign of 
 good land to have a perfectly even surface, and a very close 
 cover, which should not be allowed to become too long. 
 Very fine pasture has a velvety feeling under foot. Two 
 lots can be made prime fat on the same land in one season 
 — the first going off by the first and second week of July, 
 having gained, without receiving cake, from 8 to lo stones 
 of beef The land is allowed to clean by resting for ten days. 
 
 The second lot of cattle not being so far forward or so 
 good in spring as the first, would, while the best cattle 
 occupied the best pasture, be kept on pasture slightly in- 
 ferior to it. These require a few lbs. of cake, as the grass 
 begins to fall off in quality at the end of September and in 
 October. Some graziers think it pays to give cake to cattle 
 even on the best pasture throughout ' the whole season, but 
 this must entirely depend upon the rent of the pasture and 
 the relative prices of cake and beef 
 
 A few rough beasts (perhaps one to four or five acres) 
 kept to clear off rough grass, run out all winter, and do re- 
 markably well, if sheltered from cold winds, and if a little 
 fodder be given in times of storm. 
 
 The Shelter necessary is either natural — as trees and 
 depressions in the ground, or artificial — as stone walls, 
 hedges, and shelter-sheds. In Leicestershire, straw is some- 
 times thrown under the hedges to make a comfortable bed 
 for cattle in summer. 
 
 (2.) Second quality pasture, suited for feeding the lighter 
 breeds or smaller animals, is rented at from £2 to £2. los. 
 per acre. If these are being finished they should have cake 
 all the time (beginning with 3 or 4 lbs., and ending with 6 
 or 7 lbs.) given in troughs moved regularly from time to 
 time to different parts of the field, to distribute the manure 
 
GRAZING CATTLE. 95 
 
 equally. By giving cake, beef is produced faster, and of 
 better quality ; the land is also gradually improved by the 
 increased amount and value of the droppings, and will 
 consequently " carry " more stock. 
 
 (3.) Third quality pasture, rented at from nearly £2 
 down to a few shillings per acre, is only useful for keeping 
 store cattle or sheep, or, in some localities, dairy cows. The 
 land is often good, but the climate unsuited for fattening- 
 beasts. Besides hill and mountain lands the various downs 
 belong to this class. 
 
 Symptoms unnatural to healthy Cattle at Grass, and 
 which may be seen without handling them : — 
 (i.) An animal away by itself, if accu.stomed to go with 
 others, and perhaps cowering behind a 
 wall with its back up. 
 (2.) „ „ not stretching itself on being quietly raised. 
 (3-) .) » with hair standing on end, " staring." 
 (4.) „ „ showing the absence of lick-marks on the 
 
 hair. 
 (5.) „ „ with saliva flowing from the mouth. 
 (6.) „ „ not feeding or chewing the cud for any 
 
 length of time. 
 (7.) „ „ thin in condition of body. 
 (8,) „ „ blown out by gas formed through stoppage 
 
 of digestion. 
 (9-) )> .-. with a peculiarity in the movement of the 
 head or limbs. 
 (10.) „ „ with quick breathing, or a cough. 
 (11.) „ „ with hollow sides consequent upon want of 
 food. 
 The hollow condition of a heifer '' a-bulling," from want 
 of settling to feed, must not be mistaken for disease. She 
 then stands quietly while another of the herd jumps upon 
 her, and she in turn tries to jump on others, which, how- 
 ever, do not stand. 
 
96 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 In addition to visible signs, the extremities, includ- 
 ing the horns, may be cold, and the skin tight and cold to 
 the touch ; the temperature may also rise from the normal 
 state (ioo° or 102° F.) to 105" or 106° in the more ordinary 
 forms of disease, such as pleuro-pneumonia or foot-and- 
 mouth disease, or even to 1 10° in a case of rinderpest. 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia is a highly infectious disease of the 
 lungs of cattle, and, on post-mortem examination, is charac- 
 terised by more or less pleurisy, accompanied by pneumonia, 
 which causes consolidation of the lung substance, and in 
 section presents a marbled appearance. On the examina- 
 tion of a microscopic section, the blood-vessels and air 
 tubes are seen to be completely filled with an inflamma- 
 tory coagulated exudate. The country has been freed 
 from the disease by the energetic action of the Board of 
 Agriculture, under the able direction of the first Minister 
 of Agriculture, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin. Some 
 authorities, who have had experience of the success of 
 inoculation as a preventive of the disease, believe that the 
 end might have been accomplished at less, cost, though pro- 
 bably not so quickly, had the systems of inoculation and of 
 slaughter been judiciously practised together.* 
 
 Broncho-pneumonia t is a disease which has recently 
 been brought into prominence in this country, owing to its 
 frequent recurrence among live cattle imported from Canada 
 and the United States of America, and on account of its 
 having been repeatedly mistaken for pleuro-pneumonia. 
 The difference in the post-mortem appearances and in the 
 actual seats of the two diseases makes it extremely unlikely 
 for any one versed in morbid anatomy to mistake the one 
 for the other. In pleiiro- pneumonia contagiosa the true 
 
 * For a description of the practice of inoculation, see the Author's work on 
 "The Agriculture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand." 
 
 t For complete details of appearances, &c. &c., see Williams's " Principles 
 and Practice of Veterinary Medicine," 8th edition. Menzies & Co., Edinburgh. 
 
Plate XXXII. 
 
 
GRAZING CATTLE. 97 
 
 seat of the disease is not in the bronchial tubes, although 
 the smaller of these become gorged, as already stated. 
 
 Broncho -pneumonia is not a " specific " disease like 
 pleuro-pneumonia contagiosa, but one which originates 
 spontaneously when animals are exposed to cold and wet,* 
 especially after being heated, as cattle are during transit by 
 rail and sea. It may fitly be compared with influenza in 
 the human species, not of the epidemic type, but of the old 
 and familiar form of a severe cold. It is termed "corn- 
 stalk disease" in America, because it appears in autumn, 
 when the cornstalks are past their best, and beginning to 
 decay. The true seat of the disease in broncho-pneumonia 
 is the air passages, largfe and small. Although the lung- 
 parenchyma, through which the multitudinous ramifications 
 of the air tubes pass, naturally become congested, it is not 
 subject to such changes as are found in a case of pleuro- 
 pneumonia contagiosa. It is very different with' the 
 bronchial tubes, more especially the smaller of them. The 
 columnar cells forming the epithelial lining of the air 
 passages desquamating, or, in common language, peeling 
 off, indicates the seat of the disease. As the alteration of 
 structure does not extend to the blood-vessels, nature may 
 in time repair the injury, if death be not induced at the 
 acute stage of the disorder. 
 
 Not only is the fibrinous exudate of pleuro-pneumonia 
 absent in the air passages, but pus and degraded epithelial 
 debris take its place, and are expelled from the lungs by 
 the act of coughing in a manner corresponding to expecto- 
 ration in a human being. The differences described are 
 readily determined by the aid of the microscope, but there 
 is a plainly visible characteristic difference in "Cos. post-mortem 
 
 * Vide a treatise by Dr Frank S. Billings on "cornstalk" disease, in which 
 the cause is attributed to a micro-organism which is found on the leaves of 
 maize ; but as the organism is probably one of the commonest kind, there is 
 not sufficient proof that it is actually the cause of the injury. 
 
 G 
 
98 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 appearances in the two diseases, which under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances is sufficient to guide the observant practitioner. 
 
 Acorn poisoning takes place when large quantities of 
 green acDrns are blown down early in the season from oak 
 trees- growing in pasture. Serious loss from death often 
 occurs among young stock through the irritation produced 
 in the stomach and bowels due to their consumption of im- 
 mature acorns as food. After a storm of wind the cattle 
 should be moved to pasture away from oak trees, and the 
 fallen acorns must be collected (for the use of pigs during 
 winter) before the animals can be safely returned. 
 
 Yew tree leaves at certain periods of the year are deadly 
 poison to cattle and horses, and the same remark may be 
 applied to the foliage and pods of the laburnum. 
 
 2 I 3 
 
 I. Ox Warble Fly; 2. Maggot; 3. Chrysalis. 
 
 (After Drawings by Miss Orinerod. ) 
 
 The Warble Fly or Bot Fly {Hypoderma bovis, De 
 Geer) is the source of great discomfort to cattle, and of 
 enormous annual loss, estimated at millions of pounds, to 
 the farmers of this country. Miss Ormerod, who has so ably 
 brought its evil consequences and the means of prevention 
 before the British public, says : — 
 
 " It is a two-winged fly, upwards of half an inch in length, so banded 
 and marked with differently coloured hair as to be not unlike a humble 
 bee. The face is yellowish ; the body, between the wings, yellowish 
 before and black behind ; and the abdomen whitish at the base, black 
 in the middle, and orange at the tip. The head is large, the wings 
 brown, and the legs black or pitchy, with lighter feet." 
 
 The female possesses a long ovipositor, with which 
 
GRAZING CATTLE. 
 
 99 
 
 Breathing-Tuhes of 
 Wakble Maggot 
 magnified. 
 
 during summer she most probably pierces the skin and 
 plants an egg, which " is oval and white, with a small brown- 
 ish lump at one end." 
 
 Subcutaneous irritation begins in early winter. The 
 young warbles are placed with the head down and the tail 
 up in connection with breathing tube'^, which open on the 
 surface of the skin. They are easily de- 
 stroyed, and the earlier the better, by the 
 application of some liquid such as Mac- 
 Dougall's Dip or strong salt brine, which 
 will run down the tubes and poison the 
 inmates ; or the mouths of the tubes may be 
 closed up by some sort of greasy material. 
 If this were largely practised, the injury 
 resulting from the flies existing in such 
 enormous numbers might be undone in a 
 few years. The flies can be prevented from striking by 
 applications, rubbed in once a week along each side of the 
 backbone (the favourite seat of attack), of such things as 
 train oil, or a mixture of linseed oil, sulphur, and carbolic 
 acid. Paraffin and kerosene are useful only for a short 
 time, as the smell goes off rapidly. 
 
 Mercurial ointment, unless applied with great caution, 
 and in the smallest possible quantity, is liable to produce 
 poisoning, through the animals licking it off 
 
 As the weather becomes warm, the maggots force them- 
 selves out from beneath the skin and drop to the ground, 
 where' they assume the chrysalis form, of a dark colour. 
 The fly appears in about three or four weeks if the season 
 is warm and favourable. If a united and strenuous effort 
 were made by owners of cattle in all parts of the country 
 to get rid of this painful and irritating pest, it might, though 
 with some difficulty, be as entirely stamped out as pleuro- 
 pneumonia or foot-and-mouth disease. 
 
CHAPTER IX.— HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. 
 
 Methods of Housing — Dishorning — Time to House! — Regularity in Feeding — 
 Roots — Concentrated Food — Necessity for Grooming — Amount of Food 
 to give — M 'Combie's Method of Feeding — Cost of Feeding per Week — 
 Lawes and Gilbert's Exijeriments — Calculation showing Food and return 
 in Beef — Conclusion dealing with the Relations of Live Weight to Dead 
 Weight — Function of Live Stock. 
 
 nPHERE are three common methods of arranging 
 cattle in a house to feed : — 
 
 isi, Tying by the neck in a byre, either in stalls or with- 
 out divisions between them. 
 
 2nd, Putting them in loose boxes, one in each. 
 
 3^13^, Leaving them untied, several together, in a shed, 
 with an open door and an open or partially covered court. 
 
 In a byre, they may be arranged, if in more than one 
 row, either with the heads turned towards a passage up the 
 centre of the house, or with the heads to the side walls, with 
 or without a feeding passage in front. It is a mistake to 
 have double stalls more than 7^ feet wide, even when the 
 cows are large ; for smaller animals, 7 feet is sufficient ; and 
 for Ayrshires, 6 feet. Six feet is long enough for the largest 
 stall, with 2 ft. 6 in. of additional space in front for a manger 
 to hold fodder. When the stall is too long the animal lies 
 down in its droppings, and becomes matted with dung on 
 the thighs and legs. The manger (or feeding trough, of 
 glazed earthenware, say, 18 inches wide) should be placed 
 low down, so that it will not interfere with the animal in 
 rising, or prevent the head resting comfortably during sleep. 
 The bottom ought to slope towards the stall, so that cake 
 when given may be within easy reach, to prevent the animal 
 trying to place its fore feet in the trough. The space in 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. lOI 
 
 front, a foot in width, in addition to the trough, provides 
 room for bulky fodder, which is so liable under other 
 circumstances to fall down and be trodden. 
 
 Ventilation is of paramount importance, and can be 
 secured by an arrangement of holes in the walls near the 
 floor level, together with openings in the roof. Where the 
 heads are close to the wall, it is well to have a i|-inch drain 
 pipe through it, low down between the cows in each double 
 stall, and inclining upward, so that the current of cold air 
 passes over them. 
 
 Boxes (each lo feet square, to hold one) are best for all 
 kinds of stock except young "stores," and might be more 
 generally adopted if it were not that the expense is great, 
 owing to the amount of surface area taken up. Litter (cut, 
 if convenient, to lengths of 6 or 8 inches) is given to each 
 animal in a box, at the rate of 20 lbs. per day, while for 
 those kept in open yards a sufficient amount is 40 lbs. each. 
 In a byre it is not positively necessary to allow any,although 
 cattle keep rather cleaner behind with it than without it, 
 and if properly attended to it also protects the leg joints of 
 heavy cattle from injury on the floor. 
 
 Open sheds, with uncovered courts, may be — 
 
 \st. Large, sufficient to accommodate ten, twelve, or 
 more animals, and sometimes designated " Reeds " ; 
 
 2nd, Small (called " Hummels " in some parts), to con- 
 tain from two to four animals in each. 
 
 Sheds, with open courts, are most comfortable for stores 
 or for feeders in very hot weather. The great objections 
 to them are — (i.) The loss of manure by rain-washing, 
 which, however, may be in a great measure prevented if 
 the water from the eaves of the houses adjoining the court 
 be removed, so that it is unnecessary to provide any outlet 
 drainage, and an ample layer of litter be spread on the 
 floor. [Contrary to the general belief, surplus moisture 
 tends to rise to the surface through the animals puddling, 
 
I02 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and a comparatively dry layer is found at the bottom 
 of an open courtyard.] (2.) The extra straw required for 
 litter; and (3.) Strong cattle bullying, and consequently 
 starving the weak ones. 
 
 Dishorning should be practised on all cattle that 
 are to be housed in this way, as they persistently torment 
 each other, and frequently inflict severe injury by horning 
 their neighbours. When the horns are well developed and 
 strong, the sharp tops are frequently nipped off by a pair 
 of powerful shears. This method is quicker, more simple, 
 and less painful, because shorter in duration, than that of 
 sawing the horn, but the bruised condition in which the 
 wounded horn-core is left is objectionable, as it is liable to 
 lead to serious after-consequences. In the case of calves 
 and young animals, the budding horns should be wholly 
 removed by a knife getting well down underneath the base 
 of the core of the horn. When the operation is delayed 
 for twelve months or more, a fine saw, such as is used for 
 severing the bones in butchers' meat, should be employed, 
 the animal having been thrown in the usual way with 
 hobbles or ropes, and made fast. The operation is not a 
 pleasant one to witness, but the pain, though acute at the 
 time, is over in a few minutes ; the temperature as a rule 
 does not rise above normal, unless in the case of a limited 
 number of animals, in which suppuration takes place ; and 
 the opening into the frontal sinuses made by cutting through 
 the hollow base of horn-core is closed by clotted blood, and 
 the wound heals and skins over in a few days. When the 
 work is properly and skilfully executed, the pain and bleed- 
 ing are reduced to a minimum, the gain to the owner is 
 distinctly appreciable, and the reduction of the sufferings 
 of the animals from the savage dispositions of their stronger 
 companions is enormous. It is estimated that no less than 
 two hundred thousand cattle and horses are killed annually 
 in the United States of America by " horning" or " hooking," 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. 
 
 10.3 
 
 Skull and Horn of an Ox, to illustrate the operations of 
 '* Dishorning," "Half-horning," and "Tipping." 
 
 Illustration* exhibiting a triangular section of the Frontal Bone excised to "show the 
 bony structure behind ; the Right Horn removed, as it ought to be, in dishorning ; 
 and the Left Horn bisected to show its internal parts. 
 
 Fig. I. — I. Blood-vessels; 2. Cut made in "Half-horning;" 3. Cut made in "Dis- 
 horning;" 4. Bony Walls of Frontal Sinuses ; 5. Position of Spinal Column ; 6. Skin ; 7. 
 Part from which the Right Horn has been excised ; 8. Frontal Bone (Forehead) ; g. Orbit 
 of Right Eye; 10. Orbit of Left Eye; 11. Brain Cavity (2^ inches in this case from the 
 Wound made in Dishorning) ; 12. Frontal Sinuses (or Cavities in the Skull containing air, and 
 opening into the Nasal Cavity); 13. Region where the Trunk Nerve and the two main 
 branches of the Artery enter for the supply of the Horn ; 14. Bony Horn-core (insensitive 
 when healthy, but extremely painful when diseased or congested) ; 15. Corium, a sensitive 
 membrane, corresponding to the true skin; 16. Insensitive Horn; 17. Cut made in "Tip- 
 ping." 
 
 Fig. 2. — I. Bone; 2. Sinus; 3. Skin; 4. Section made by "Dishorning." 
 
 Fig. 3. — Section made by " Half- horning.'" 
 
 Fig. 4. — I. Horn ; 2. Corium ; 3. Bony Horn-core ; 4. Section made by " Tipping." 
 
 * Aftera Drawincr by C. Ward, M.R.C.V.S., made under the direction of Prof. W. O. Williams. 
 
I04 FARM LIVE' STOCK. 
 
 which must be accompanied by a serious amount of suffer- 
 ing on the part of the unfortunate victims. It is a relic of 
 barbarism of the worst kind, for which there is no excuse, 
 to shut up in a close place, where escape is impossible, a 
 number of fully armed beasts to deliberately maltreat and 
 maim each other. This is a matter which is well worthy 
 of the consideration of the Society for the Prevention of 
 Cruelty to Animals. Polled cattle have been appreciated 
 on the American prairies because of the immunity enjoyed 
 from the enormous losses resulting to cattle from goring 
 by their horned neighbours, and because horns are liable to 
 become frost-bitten and diseased, and the animals bearing 
 them worthless in consequence. 
 
 Dishorning is practised chiefly as a preparation for the 
 shutting of cattle in confined courts, but it is capable and 
 deserving of great extension, more particularly in the Irish 
 branch of our live stock trade, owing to the close proximity 
 of animals during shipment, and to the evil dispositions 
 which they display when collected from all parts, of the 
 country, and formed into herds, the individual members of 
 which are strangers to one another. It has been estimated 
 upon good authority that there is an average loss of 5 s. per 
 head, due to horn wounds and bruises during transit, on 
 Irish cattle brought over to this country. With us the 
 operation is almost exclusively confined to steers, but in the 
 United States of America, where it has become deservedly 
 popular in recent years, even high grade Channel Islands 
 and other horned cows are artificially polled in the manner 
 indicated, without any perceptible injurious results. It is 
 somewhat anomalous that by the laws of Scotland and 
 Ireland dishorning is legal, while in England it is illegal. 
 
 Cattle should be housed in the north by the end of 
 September. In the south they should be taken in before 
 the beginning of November. It is a fatal error to leave 
 feeding beasts out at night in early winter without proper 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. 105 
 
 protection from the inclemency of the weather. Not only- 
 do they lose flesh rapidly, but when housed they take a 
 considerable time to recover from the shock or " backset " 
 received before they begin to thrive. A man at 15s. or i6s. 
 per week can tend thirty to forty bullocks tied in stalls if 
 the food be close at hand. He can undertake the feeding 
 and management of sixty to seventy if they are untied. 
 
 Regularity in feeding is of the first importance. Too 
 much should not be given at one time, and any food that 
 is left should be carefully removed. Each supply of food 
 ought to be consumed before the animal leaves the feeding- 
 trough. This allows time for rest in which to chew the 
 cud and to prepare for the next meal. All changes of 
 food should be made gradually. Liberal allowances of 
 turnips given without due preparation are liable to produce 
 scour. Clover, if wet and in excessive quantity, produces 
 hoven and often death, from rupture of the rumen, 
 or more usually from suffocation induced by the pressure 
 of the distended stomach suspending the action of the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 White and yellow turnips should be consumed first, 
 as swedes are sweeter and keep better for winter and spring 
 use. With fattening cattle one can never return with 
 success to an inferior food, therefore, in the gradation of 
 changes in food materials, whether roots, cake, meal, or 
 long fodder, the last to be used should always be the most 
 attractive to the animal's palate. Of the various roots 
 mangels keep best, and are best for spring use. Roots 
 should be stored in good time in autumn, for if exposed to 
 frost they are injurious to all classes of stock, especially 
 when kept in the house. Roots are usually only given in 
 quantity sufficient to supply water to the system — i cwt. 
 per day to an ox is about the limit, while f cwt. is often 
 enough. Potatoes should not be washed (as earth, in this 
 instance, acts as a corrective or aid to digestion), nor given 
 
I06 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 in large quantities, as they are, on account of their starchy 
 nature, difficult of assimilation. 
 
 Roots may be given whole to amuse the animals, sliced 
 to save waste of energy (as some bullocks, with a specially 
 anxious or greedy disposition, are liable to leave their 
 troughs in a disagreeably wet condition, owing to the escape 
 of saliva while consuming whole roots), or pulped and mixed 
 with chaff the day before, and left to ferment slightly, to 
 raise the temperature in cold weather. Some feeders think 
 cattle like the mixture best when newly prepared, while 
 others object to the practice except with young store beasts, 
 saying that the quality of flesh in cattle coming into prime 
 condition is reduced in market value by giving pulped roots. 
 
 The concentrated food should be chosen according to 
 what is cheapest in the market, and may consist of a selec- 
 tion from the following or other common food stuffs: — 
 Cotton or linseed cakes, maize meal, " Indiana " or " Pais- 
 ley" meal, wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, gram, lentils, 
 and linseed, ground into a fine state of division to be more 
 easily digested. Whole grains, which have escaped the 
 action of the teeth,* come through cattle undigested. All 
 the above substances may be given dry, spread on the chaff 
 in the feeding-troughs ; the rough and the short food are 
 then consumed together. When the fodder is inferior, as 
 in the case of barley straw in Norfolk, the chaffed straw and 
 the nleal may be mixed in a heap on the floor, and boiling 
 water sufficient to wet it, though not to drain away, thrown 
 over it. By covering up the heap and leaving it till next 
 day the whole mass is well cooked, and made palatable and 
 more digestible. -f- A little locust bean meal may be added 
 
 * In the Western States of America, pigs, two to each bulloclc, are often 
 kept solely on Indian corn which they pick out of the droppings of cattle. In 
 other cases, when the corn is bruised, they eat the dung. 
 
 t For full details of the wonderful success of this system of feeding, see a 
 lecture by the Author, printed in Wie Journal of the Newcastle Farmets' Club 
 for 1886. 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. 107 
 
 to the mixture to sweeten it, but not too much, otherwise 
 it causes the animals to neglect the unsweetened food. 
 
 Treacle is a good fattener, and may be used, when cheap 
 (£$ or £6 per ton), as a relish. It is useful in moderate 
 quantities, say i to 2 lbs. daily to each animal, for main- 
 taining the digestive organs in a healthy state, and it is 
 quite as effectual, when necessary, in restoring them to a 
 natural condition, if given once or twice in quantity, 6 to 
 8 lbs., mixed with a little hot water to undo its viscosity 
 and make it flow easily. Cane sugar* is, if possible, better 
 liked by cattle than treacle, and it is more easily manipu- 
 lated, but it is too expensive for ordinary feeding. As a 
 rule, the best mixture of concentrated food is half cake and 
 half meal. Some prefer giving pure cake for one feed in 
 the day to make greater variety in the food. Having begun 
 with a little, say 2 lbs. per day if given for the first time, 
 good feeders gradually increase every few weeks, as a fixed 
 quantity of concentrated food gradually loses its full effect ; 
 8 or 10 lbs. per day is a good final amount to reach 
 with an ordinary bullock near the finish ; more than 10 lbs. 
 leads to a distinct waste. The return after a certain point 
 is passed is in inverse proportion to the amount supplied. 
 Much forcing of young animals, even for fattening, is under 
 ordinary circumstances a mistake, and it is infinitely worse 
 in the case of breeding stock. It is best simply to keep 
 them thriving throughout. Heifers feed faster than bul- 
 locks, especially when young. The great drawback is their 
 coming in season and not feeding for a day or two each 
 time they do so, and, if loose, keeping others that jump on 
 them from settling to feed properly. The ancient and ex- 
 cellent practice of " spaying" or de-sexing heifers for feeding 
 purposes has been to a great extent discontinued in this 
 country ; but it is clearly one of those simple old-time prac- 
 
 * See a paper by Sir J. B. Lawes in ^'^ Journal of the Royal Agricultvral 
 Society of England, 1885. 
 
I08 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 tices the revival of which would lead to an important con- 
 servation of wealth to the owners of grazing cattle. 
 
 Tied-up cattle ought to be groomed regularly, espe- 
 cially about the rump, shoulder-head, and neck, or generally 
 such places as they cannot conveniently or at all reach with 
 the tongue to lick. They should be kept quiet, and at a 
 uniform temperature of about, but not over, 60° F. If the 
 hair be very rough when they are first put up (as is often 
 the case when the animals are left during the first part of 
 the winter in a strawyard, until room is made in the stalls 
 by the sale of those which finish first), the back, half-way 
 down the ribs, the thighs, and the tail, may be clipped bare. 
 This removal of hair prevents excess of sweating, which 
 naturally takes place at first on cattle being introduced into 
 a warm shed from an open court : and they can be more 
 easily kept clean, and, consequently, feed faster ; but in 
 some markets where the practice is not understood the 
 appearance produced might be a drawback in selling. 
 
 A heifer or bullock which would yield 40 to 45 stones 
 of dressed beef, if put up to increase I4'4 lbs. of beef per 
 week,* should receive on an average 6 lbs. of a mixture of 
 cake and meal per day (beginning with 4 lbs. and finishing 
 with 8 lbs.), f cwt. roots, ij stone straw (partly chaffed), or 
 when expedient a limited portion of this replaced by hay of 
 equal money value — a small foddering once a day — but it 
 will not pay to give fattening cattle hay worth £4 or ;^5 
 per ton. 
 
 The following was M'Combie's method of feeding. — 
 
 At 6 A.M., or earlier, half the artificial mixture was given ; 
 
 in about an hour, when this was eaten, one-third of the 
 
 * Classes are provided at Chicago for cattle under a year old, an example 
 not followed at Smithfield. The greatest daily gain in weight is made by 
 calves under a year old, and the Chicago results show that a shorthorn calf 
 weighing 993 lbs. at the age of 335 days had gained 2-96 lbs. daily; a Here- 
 ford, weighing 934 lbs. at 330 days came next, having gained 2 '83 lbs. daily. 
 The weight of the calves at birth are here included. 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. IO9 
 
 roots ; at 12 o'clock another one-third of the roots ; at S P.M. 
 half the mixture of cake and meal ; and at 9 P.M. the re- 
 maining roots, and perhaps a little rough hay in the racks. 
 Uncut straw was provided during the day as well as chaff. 
 Depending on the condition of the store animal at first, 
 three to five months may be taken to finish prime, and an 
 increase of from about 15 to 28 stones may be made by this 
 method of treatment. 
 
 Calculation showing Cost of Feeding per Week. 
 
 ^ r 3 lbs. cake* and 3 lbs. meal, or 42 lbs. a week, at 
 4 J §d. per lb. . . . . 
 
 v\i cwt. roots, or 5^^ cwts. per week, at 4d. per cwt. 
 ^ [ ij St. straw, or 8| st. per week, at i^d. per st. 
 Attendance, ..... 
 
 Cost of producing I4'4 lbs. of beef. 
 Or about Js. 6d. per imperial stone of 14 lbs. 
 
 s. D. 
 
 = 24 
 
 =• I 9 
 
 = I I 
 
 o 6 
 
 * Cake or meal at id. per lb. = £g, 6s. 8d. per ton ; at |d. per lb. = £j ; 
 at |d. per lb. = £6, 14s. 6d. ; roots (consuming value) at 4d. per cwt. = 6s. 8d. 
 per ton ; straw and litter averaged at ijd. per st. = £1 per ton. 
 
 Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr Gilbert showed by experi- 
 ment many years ago that it required from 12 lbs. to 13 
 lbs. of dry substance of food to produce i lb. of increase of 
 live-weight in oxen ; but their more recent investigations 
 make this amount of food too high by a few pounds, and 
 the proportion is more correctly stated at 9 or 10 lbs. of dry 
 food substance to i lb. of increase. 
 
 Applying this reduced rule (of say i lb. live-weight per 
 10 lbs. of dry food) in the following calculation, we arrive 
 at the results shown below : — 
 
no FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Calculation showing the amount of Food consumed and the 
 resulting product in lbs. of Beef. 
 
 (i.) Concentrated Food — 
 
 Cake 3 lbs. — 12 p. c. water 1 average, 13 p. c. water, 
 Meal 3 lbs. — 14 p. c. water/ leaving 87 p. c. dry. 
 
 6 lbs. per day, or 42 lbs. per week. 
 100 : 87 : : 42 : 36'5 
 
 (p. c. dry). (lbs. natural cake (lbs. dry cake 
 and meal). and meal). 
 
 Dry cake and meal, ' . . . = 36'5 lbs. 
 (2.) Roots — 
 
 f cwt. = 84 lbs. per day, or 588 lbs. per week 
 — 8g p. c. water, leaving 1 1 p. c. dry. 
 100 : II : : 588 : 64-68 
 
 (p. c. dry roots), (roots, natural), (total dry roots). 
 
 Dry roots {say) . . . . 64-5 lbs. 
 (3.) Straw — 
 
 ij St. per day = 17*5 lbs. per day, or I22'S lbs. 
 per week — 14 p. c. water, leaving 86 p. c. 
 dry. 
 100 : 86 : • i22"5 : io5'5 
 
 (p. c, dry). (lbs. straw, natural), (lbs. dry 
 straw). 
 
 Dry straw {nearly) . . . . io5'5 lbs. 
 Total dry food, . 2o6'5 lbs. 
 
 2o6'S -H 10 = 20'6 Jbs. increase of live-weight. Live-weight 
 brought to dead-weight at 70* p. c. = 100 : 2o'6 : : 70 : i4'4 lbs. 
 of dressed beef laid on per week. 
 
 Conclusion. — Since artificial feeding stuffs became so 
 reduced in price, the value of the life of the well-bred 
 animal has been proportionally increased, as will be noticed 
 
 * Warington gives 60 p. c. as the proportion of dressed beef from a prime 
 fat bullock's fasted live-weight, and Lawes says 50 p. u. from a store bullock if 
 killed at the time of putting up to feed. The ordinary butchers' animal, it 
 should be remembered, is only "moderately fat," and will not give more than 
 57 p. c. of dressed beef. The increase of dead-weight during the late stages of 
 fattening may be approximately estimated at 70 p. c. . / 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. Ill 
 
 when it is realised that the price paid for the flesh of a year- 
 old store bullock, costing 4s. 3d. per stone live-weight, is 
 equivalent to nearly 8s. 6d. per stone, estimating it at 50 
 per cent, dead to live-weight. 
 
 The practice of selling fat and store animals, and even 
 at times horses, by live-weight has long been successfully 
 carried on in America, and in this country it is making 
 slow, but sure, progress. It is now made possible by the 
 facilities which Government has offered through passing an 
 Act which makes the erection of machines for weighing live 
 stock compulsory in all places where tolls are charged. 
 The scales form a ready means by which the farmer can 
 satisfy himself of one of the most important factors in 
 the question which he puts to himself: viz., how much 
 money his beasts are worth. This is an extremely im- 
 portant point gained, as without such help the farmer 
 with his slender experience in the market is placed 
 at a great disadvantage by the middleman with his 
 wide experience. No one believes that a knowledge 
 of the weight of an animal will alone indicate its value, 
 but that, along with a settled conviction of the quality 
 indicated by the breed of the bullock and the state of for- 
 wardness of his condition, makes the calculation not only 
 easy, but reasonably certain to show accurate results. The 
 elaborate and excellent handbook of computing tables by 
 Sir John Lawes* now supplies a key to the farmer in the 
 estimations pertaining to the weight and value of his live 
 stock. It may be roughly estimated that bullocks which 
 are in prime fat condition will yield 60 per cent, of dressed 
 beef from their "fasted live-weight." -f- Three-year-old 
 stores should give 56 per cent., two-year-olds 53 per cent, 
 and one-year-olds 50 per cent. 
 
 * Published by the Royal Agricultural Society, 12 Hanover Square, London. 
 
 t The expression " fasted live-weight " in America means that an animal 
 has consumed no food for twelve hours; but the British acceptation of the term 
 is here adopted, viz., that the fast has lasted for twenty-four hours. 
 
112 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 When cattle are weighed at home, allowance should be 
 made in accordance with the following data for the loss which 
 is sure to occurwhilethey are being taken to market. Sir John 
 Lawes estimates the loss by fasting twenty-four hours at 
 about 5 to 5^ per cent, of the gross live-weight =50 to 55 
 lbs. on an ox weighing 1000 lbs. John Swan & Sons, of 
 Edinburgh, from their extensive experience in weighing 
 their live cattle, estimate the loss at about Sf to 7 per cent. 
 = 80 lbs. from a bullock of 1400 lbs., or if come by rail a 
 long distance in addition to fasting, the loss would amount 
 to 100 lbs. The difference is easily accounted for by the 
 greater rapidity at which a bullock, is " emptied " when 
 excited by travelling. The less of original total live-weight 
 may fairly be estimated at 5 up to about 7 per cent, accord- 
 ing to the treatment the animal has undergone during the 
 period of fasting. 
 
 The following table shows the relative proportions and 
 prices of animals in various stages of development at the 
 Edinburgh sales in the spring of 1889 : 
 
 
 Store Cattle. 
 
 Fat 
 Cattle. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 year old. 
 
 years old. 
 
 years old. 
 
 
 Estimated percentage dead to fasted 
 
 
 
 
 
 live-weight, .... 
 
 5° 
 
 S3 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 Price per imp. stone of fasted live- 
 
 
 
 
 
 weight, . . . . 
 
 4s. 3d. 
 
 4s. 2^d. 
 
 4s. I^d. 
 
 4S. 9d. 
 
 Price per imp. stone, or estimated 
 
 
 
 
 
 price, dressed. 
 
 8s. 6d. 
 
 7s. iijd. 
 
 7s. 4i<i. 
 
 7s. lod. 
 
 The figures show that at these rates the market price of 
 the flesh of young animals is higher than the market rate 
 of beef on an animal ready for the butcher. This is most 
 distinctly so in the case of one-year-old cattle. The flesh 
 of two-year-olds approaches more nearly in price to prime 
 beef, and in the case of three-year-old store cattle, which 
 are well forward, but not quite ready to send to market. 
 
HOUSE-FEEDING OF CATTLE. II3 
 
 the tendency has carried the price of rough beef below that 
 of butchers' beef It must be admitted that these figures 
 and relations vary from time to time with the condition. of 
 the market, but as they stand they go to show the extent of 
 the advantage that the breeder possesses over the feeder. 
 
 So long as the price paid by the feeder does not exceed 
 the market rate of dressed beef he ought not to complain, 
 as it has been shown that the production, if that be done 
 entirely by the use of the best food materials, can be 
 most economically accomplished during the last stages of 
 fattening. 
 
 When the animal is young and growing it requires more 
 exercise to keep it in health, and there is in consequence 
 greater waste of food substance than when it is finally shut 
 up to finish. Against this must be put the fact that the 
 food consumed by the young and growing portion of the 
 stock of the farm is or ought to be the least costly. Again, 
 in comparing the two sets of figures — {a) the price of the 
 estimated beef on a store animal, 8s. 6d. per stone, with (b) 
 the cost, 53. 6d., of producing one stone of beef during the 
 last stages of fattening, it should not be forgotten that (a) 
 represents the cost plus the feeder and middleman's profit, 
 while {b) is simply the net cost. 
 
 Should an animal in store condition be slaughtered, the 
 beef being unfinished will naturally bring a low price. It 
 is therefore, as previously stated, the life of the animal which 
 is valued, in the light of the prospect of what it will ulti- 
 mately produce when the fattening process is completed. 
 
 The market value of life in this sense varies according to 
 quality, as the value of beef varies for the same reason, and 
 we find well-bred animals selling at higher prices, weight 
 for weight, than ordinary beasts — the presumption as re- 
 gards their possible performances is worth so much more 
 to the purchaser. 
 
 The dead weight of a fat animal can be approximately 
 
 H 
 
114 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 estimated by measurement. One of the most simple 
 and useful of the various rules employed in making the 
 calculation is the following : — Multiply the square of the 
 girth in feet by the length in feet, and by '24, or "25, or 
 •26, according as the animal is thought to be in moderate, 
 in medium, or in prime condition. The answer should be 
 the weight of the dressed carcass in imperial stones. 
 
 The great function of live stock on a farm is not the 
 making of so much profit on so many stones of beef — as this, 
 unless side issues and secondary advantages are estimated, 
 is frequently absent — but (a) the formation of a home 
 demand for the crude, bulky, and unmarketable farm pro- 
 duce, and {b) the making of farm-yard manure to maintain 
 the fertility of the land. 
 
 The Author's attention has been called to a most ingenious little instrument, 
 a " Live Stock Computer," patented by G. H. Meire, Eyton-on-Severn, 
 Shrewsbury, which gives at sight the values of animals : — (i) by comparison ; 
 (2) at a live-weight price ; and (3) at carcass price. 
 
CHAPTER X.— DAIRYING— PASTURE AND FOOD. 
 
 Conditions, Suitable and Unsuitable — Best Dairying Localities — Cow Pasture 
 — Water Supply — Natural and Artificial Herbage — Weeds — Extent of 
 Dairy Land — Data for Calculating the Amount of a Cow's Food — Plan of 
 Arrangements for Feeding loo Cows on 300 Acres — Winter Dairying — 
 House Feeding for a Town Milk Trade — Buttermaking without a Churn. 
 
 /CONDITIONS, suitable and unsuitable.— The climate 
 ^^ is the only limit to success in dairying in this country, 
 and that on account of wet and cold on the higher of the 
 hilly regions. All other difficulties — such as deficient rain- 
 fall and clay-soil (for example, the heavy clays near London) 
 — that were at one time (and not so long ago) thought to-be 
 unsurmountable, can be overcome by adapting to the pre- 
 vailing circumstances one of the many varied systems which 
 are practised. There is in adopting a system of manage- 
 ment a choice — (i) of "soiling," viz., keeping the cows 
 entirely indoors and carrying all food, whether green or 
 otherwise, to them; or (2) pasturing during summer; be- 
 sides many combinations or variations of the two plans. 
 
 Dairying is more remunerative in some localities than 
 in others, owing to the presence of favourable conditions ; 
 but the absence of some of these does not necessarily exclude 
 the practice of dairying as a successful industry. The dis- 
 tricts in this country of most renown in this respect are — 
 parts of the counties of Cheshire, Derby, York, Leicester, 
 Gloucester, Somerset ; and in Scotland, Wigton, Kirkcud- 
 bright, Ayr, Renfrew, and Lanark. Such places possess 
 the soil and the climate suitable for growing good grass, 
 which is the best and cheapest main supply of food for dairy 
 cows — grass being used for summer, and hay for the winter 
 
Il6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 months. Roots were at one time considered indispensable, 
 and it was thought that if roots could not be profitably- 
 grown, dairying need not be attempted ; but now that the 
 aroma and flavour of the products are more looked to, for 
 reasons to be explained later, they are not so popular, and 
 the success of silage in many places too high for the growth 
 of roots has increased the feeling against them. 
 
 Extremes of either heat or cold are disadvantageous, 
 but these are not so great in this country, except on high 
 cold mountain-ranges, but that they can be easily overcome 
 by providing shelter. Summer shelter is necessary for pro- 
 tection against the sun and flies in warm weather, and from 
 wind and rain while stormy, and this may be got from tall 
 hedges, belts of plantation, high stone walls, or cheap low- 
 roofed shelter-sheds. The winter shelter given is usually 
 by housing, except in a few of the milder districts, — as in 
 Cheshire, where cows lie out all winter, and where the shel- 
 ters provided in summer prove valuable. Extreme cold 
 reduces the flow of milk ; and excessive heat, with its 
 varibus accompanying irritations, lowers both quality and 
 quantity. There is no animal product of the farm so easily 
 affected by adverse circumstances as milk. Materials for 
 its secretion are only provided by the cow after every other 
 want of the animal system has been supplied ; consequently, 
 the maximum of milk production can only be attained when 
 the cow is free from all annoyances or discomforts, so that 
 she may settle to the consumption of a proper quantity of 
 food, and obtain the necessary rest and quiet to make the 
 best use of it. Moderate exertion, as browsing in a field, 
 is advantageous to animals which are to be retained as dairy 
 stock from year to year, as it keeps the limbs and the con- 
 stitution generally in a sound and healthy condition, and 
 prevents the tendency to run to fat, as cows do if tied up 
 all the while. An immediate reduction in the quantity of 
 milk follows any excess of exertion ; this may occur through 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. 11/ 
 
 the cows " startling," and running frantically from the gad- 
 fly {Tabanus bovinus), and the little grey horse fly or cleg, 
 also from one of the Tabanidce [Hminatopd), which appears in 
 July ;* it occurs also when they are in season ("for bulling"), 
 or if they are hunted in any way, or even driven a longdis- 
 tance to pasture, especially if not allowed to go at the slow 
 pace natural to a cow. More food is necessary under these 
 circumstances to make good the extra waste of the system, 
 and all is deducted from what should have gone, under 
 more settled conditions, to the formation of milk. The milk 
 secreted is also inferior in quality, being poor in heat -pro- 
 ducers, especially butter-fat (cream), and more liable to 
 spoil in keeping or in the manufacture of its products. This 
 is supposed to arise from the presence of an alkaloid which 
 appears in the systems of all animals that are excited or 
 over-heated, — as in a fit of bad temper, or after being 
 hunted. 
 
 The amount of milk given by a cow in the morning as 
 compared with that in the evening (twelve hours elapsing 
 in each case after the previous milking), varies with varying 
 conditions. When cows lie out all night, and when day and 
 night are both mild, there is usually more milk at the even- 
 ing meal than in the morning. When the nights are cold 
 this is more marked ; but should the nights be warm and 
 comfortable, and the days too hot and the cows unsettled, 
 there will be a greater yield of milk in the morning. In 
 moderate weather cows feed more by day than by night, 
 
 * " Cattle on hot summer days are driven almost frantic by flies, thin-skinned 
 young animals suflering more torment from their attacks than older ones. The 
 Americans call this season of the year ' fly-time,' and as galloping madly over 
 sun-baked pastures is not good for hojrses' feet, and there is nothing like peace 
 and quiet for cows, it is best in fly-time to keep such animals in their stalls 
 and sheds by day, and to turn them out only at night, when the horse-flies 
 cease from troubling and the gad-flies are at rest. The plague of flies is worse 
 in wooded districts and least in pastures near the sea, where the delicate 
 Channel Islands cow may, in fly- time, be seen in Sussex tethered during the 
 day." 
 
Il8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and the result of this is immediately seen in the milk pro- 
 duction. 
 
 A cow-pasture is better to be undulating than flat, 
 provided that the banks are not so steep as to cause acci- 
 dent. It is a mistake to have pasture all thoroughly drained 
 as if it were arable land, unless indeed it be arable land 
 that is soured by stagnant water. It ought to be sufficiently 
 dry to enable cows to walk over the surface without break- 
 ing and poaching it, but the hollows should be left moist 
 enough to encourage the growth of food-plants and grasses 
 different from those which occupy such land when it is 
 thoroughly dried. These moist parts, in conjunction with 
 the dry land, provide a variety of food, during the whole 
 grass-season, and are particularly serviceable in a very hot 
 summer, and at all times in autumn. Deep drains are 
 better than open surface-drains, where the land is good 
 enough to warrant the expense of their construction. Large 
 open ditches, especially with steep banks, are most objec- 
 tionable in cow-pastures, as there is always the danger 
 among horned cattle of their being pushed or horned (Scotch 
 — dunched) into them. 
 
 The water supply is of great importance, as animals 
 yielding daily such large quantities of fluid produce require 
 to drink deeply. The smallest inconvenience from want of 
 water is seen immediately in the diminished flow of milk. 
 The water must be pure as well as abundant, as with con- 
 taminations from decaying organic matter, more particularly 
 if it be of animal origin, the milk and its products do not 
 keep so well, and are liable to objectionable tastes and 
 smells ; moreover, outbreaks of typhoid fever have been 
 traced to the contamination by sewage of cows' drinking 
 water. A pure running stream, with a hard bottom and 
 gradually sloping sides, is the best possible watering-place ; 
 but where drainage or river water is not plentiful, rain 
 water should be safely stored in ponds or in underground 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. II9 
 
 tanks in times of rain against the dry season, and in such a 
 way as to preserve its purity. A stagnant pool into which 
 cows can walk and stand is undesirable. Their solid and 
 liquid excreta are dropped into it, and it soon becomes 
 filthy. Cows are fond of standing in water in hot weather, 
 but the habit is not only injurious, inducing rheumatism if 
 animals go into it while heated by running, but it also involves 
 a waste of feeding time, which results in a loss of produce. 
 Cows stand in water for the double purpose of cooling them- 
 selves and of escaping from their insect enemies. 
 
 Natural herbage from good old pasture, being a mix- 
 ture of the best matured grasses and leguminous plants, 
 yields the finest quality of dairy produce ; grass forced by 
 high manuring or by irrigation is watery and imperfect; 
 and when that or " seeds " grass is used alone, perhaps 
 because there are fewer varieties of plants represented in 
 such cases, there is often a difficulty in the manipulation of 
 the products, more especially in the case of cheese. Young 
 grass possesses one special advantage over old pasture, in 
 coming earlier in the season, and it is good for encouraging 
 the flow of milk in conjunction with old pasture. There are 
 many hill grasses and plants, on which mountain sheep live, 
 that must not be considered inferior for dairying ; as light 
 hardy cows often do well on wild-looking pasture in upland 
 districts, rented at from 6s. to los. per acre, if a wide area 
 is given, so that the cows may have ample choice of food — 
 say between 3 and 4 acres of pasture, and the aftermath of 
 2 acres of meadow cut for hay. The meadow should pro- 
 duce a little over 2 tons of hay, or sufficient fodder for a 
 small cow during winter, without roots or any artificial food, 
 till after calving-time in spring. Subsequent to this time 
 each cow requires mixed meal and cake to the value of 20s. 
 to 253., to keep up the flow of milk until the grass grows 
 sufficiently to support her. 
 
 Of weeds that give a taste and smell to milk or butter. 
 
I20 . FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 the different species of garlic {Allium) are perhaps the worst 
 arid one of the most common, besides being very difficult 
 to be got rid of Garlic mustard {Alliaria officinalis), and 
 several other varieties of wild mustard, also camomile 
 ■{Anthemis) and ivy {Hedera), give a taste to milk. As 
 several of the latter grow mostly in the shade and shelter of 
 fences, the injury may be minimised by frequently cutting 
 .the weeds found in such places. The roots of water-hem- 
 lock or cowbane are poisonous, but they are not very access- 
 ible, and, moreover, the plant is not a common one in 
 pasture. Buttercups {Ranunculacece) are thought by some 
 to give a rich golden tint to butter, and by others to pro- 
 duce an acrid taste in milk and its products. Most probably 
 both ideas are wrong, although the first was at one time so 
 prevalent that the familiar name of John Buttercup was 
 given to the dairyman. Grass-butter in May and June, the 
 buttercup season, is naturally yellow, when cows go on good 
 pasture, even when free from them. The change to the 
 yellow colour is rapid at this season, forming a marjced con- 
 trast to the colourless " house-butter " of winter and spring. 
 Cows while grazing do not, if they can avoid it, eat the 
 flower stalks and heads of ranunculus, though cases of 
 poisoning have been traced to the consumption of acrid 
 species. Buttercups are said to be an indication of good 
 soil, but they appear abundantly on both good and bad 
 pasture, and the fact is in a great measure to be accounted 
 for by animals neglecting them as much as it is possible for 
 them to do while browsing, through a preference for grass 
 and other natural herbage. As a rule, the quality of land 
 is not indicated so much by the presence or absence of 
 weeds as by their size and habit of growth ; for instance, a 
 well-developed thistle [Cardims), or a large cowslip {^Primula 
 veris), will not grow on poor land ; sniall and inferior speci- 
 mens only, though often in great abundance, are to be seen 
 there. 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. I'2I 
 
 Extent of Dairy Land. — Three acres of good grass 
 (rented at 30s. to 40s. per acre, including taxes) is sufficient 
 to provide for the keep of each cow during both summer 
 and winter ; rather more than an acre could be cut for hay, 
 and the remainder along with the aftermath of the hay land 
 could be grazed. 
 
 About one-tenth of an acre of roots is often made to 
 replace a portion of the grass area. If, however, roots are 
 given without concentrated food in autumn, before cows go 
 dry, more milk is produced, but the cows are thus reduced 
 in condition and rendered more difficult to winter. There 
 is a danger during spring of milk-fever, if roots are provided 
 along with a full supply of hay, if the latter be of very fine 
 quality. 
 
 The average return of a well-managed dairy of good 
 shorthorn cross-cows should be about 550 gallons of milk 
 under the treatment described, with the addition of some 
 artificial food in spring. Really good Ayrshires on such 
 land are not far behind them in milking power. The ordi- 
 nary Ayrshire on poorer land should give about 450 gallons 
 or upwards. Pedigree-shorthorns do not, as a class, even 
 taking only milking strains, milk so heavily as their crosses 
 and non-pedigreed, though often well-bred, relations such as 
 are usually found in English dairies. 
 
 When the "soiling" system, and higher feeding and 
 farming generally, are adopted, the average individual yield 
 of milk may be raised by 1 50 gallons or more per cow, which 
 will repay the extra labour should conditions necessary for 
 such a system be present. 
 
 Data for calculating the amount of cows' food in a 
 mixed system of summer pasturing and soiling. — As in 
 
 the grazing example, 3 acres go to one cow, but the grain 
 grown is sold, if it is not thought advisable to use it as con- 
 centrated food, which in the other case had to be bought. 
 
122 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Each cow requires, besides summer pasture, 2 tons of straw 
 and hay for fodder, amounting to 25 lbs.* per day during 
 the six winter months, besides concentrated bought food 
 given in spring, such as cake and meal, which might cost 
 from £1 to £2, or more if cake is continued on the grass. 
 In addition the following roots and forage crops may be 
 given at the various seasons throughout the year : — 
 
 (i.) One-third of a cwt. of roots per day for four winter 
 months (eighteen weeks), given mostly when cows are dry 
 = 2 tons 2 cwts., or i acre for ten cows — swedes 15-ton 
 crop, mangels 27 tons — average 21 tons per acre. 
 
 (2.) One-half cwt. of rye per day for three weeks in 
 April = 10 cwts. per cow in twenty days, or i acre for ten 
 cows, with a 5 -ton crop. 
 
 (3.) One-quarter cwt. per day of crimson clover, rape, 
 vetches, &c., for twenty-one weeks in summer = 37 cwts., 
 nearly, per cow, or roughly five cows to i acre, with a 9-ton 
 crop. 
 
 (4.) One-half cwt. cabbages per day for ten weeks in 
 autumn = 35 cwts. per cow, or fifteen cows per acre, with a 
 26^-ton crop. 
 
 Plan by which 100 Cows can be fed on 300 acres. 
 
 100 acres of arable land farmed on a 4-course rotation. 
 150 „ permanent pasture grass. 
 50 „ permanent grass-meadow, cut for hay. 
 
 * Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr Gilbert in their pamphlet on " Experiments on 
 Ensilage (1886)," Harrison & Sons, page 28, give 25 lbs. of " dry substances " 
 of food as the daily amount necessary for an ordinary cow. 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. 
 
 123 
 
 Annual Crops on the Arable Land. 
 
 (i.) 25 Acres. 
 
 Wheat or Oats, followed by 20 
 acres winter catch-crops and 5 
 acres winter fallow. 
 
 (4.) 25 Acres. 
 
 " Seeds" cut for hay, 20 acres 
 latter-math pastured, and 5 acres 
 cut for forage. 
 
 (2.) 25 Acres. 
 
 Roots and forage crops follow- 
 ing catch crops, &c. 
 
 (3.) 25 Acres. 
 
 Oats, as a "nurse" for the 
 grass "seeds." 
 
 Analysis of Root and Forage Crops, including Catch Crops. 
 
 10 acres 
 6§ „ 
 
 roots, 
 cabbages. 
 
 10 „ 
 20 „ 
 
 rye. 
 
 vetches, clover, and rape. 
 
 46I acres 
 
 Total root and forage crops. 
 
 Winter Catch Crops and Fallow Root, Green, and Forage Crops 
 after a Grain Crop. | in the Regular Rotation. 
 
 5 ac. cleaning for mangels to 
 
 
 be sown next spring. 
 
 10 ac. roots (5 ac. mangels 
 
 — 
 
 and 5 ac. swedes). 
 
 IG ac. trifolium and vetches. 
 
 61 „ cabbages. 
 
 10 „ rye. 
 
 8i „ vetches and rape. 
 
 20 ac. Total catch crops. 
 
 25 ac. Total. 
 
 The above totals make 45 acres of root and forage crops in- 
 
 cluding catch crops, but 46I acres are required, and can be made 
 
 up by taking a second cut from 5 acres of " seeds " lands, which 
 
 is an equivalent of i§ acres of vetches. A second cut of " seeds " 
 
 should give 3 tons per acre, or one-third of a good vetch crop. 
 
124 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Winter dairying, with the exception of the special 
 object of milk supply, is little practised in this country. 
 One of the great causes which has led to the ever-increasing 
 importation of butter into England, is the reluctance of 
 dairy-farmers to change . their system of management in 
 accordance with the change in the tastes and requirements 
 of consumers. Fresh butter is now sought for not only 
 during summer, but throughout the year, in large and 
 uniform samples. For two conspicuous reasons the British 
 butter makers are unable to compete with foreigners — ist, 
 a steady supply is not to be had all the year round, because 
 the great bulk of home-made butter is produced during the 
 months when grass is abundant, and when it is supposed 
 that butter can be made at a minimum cost; and 2nd, 
 there is no means of securing those large uniform samples 
 which alone can find a place in the great market centres. 
 British dealers found a difficulty in securing, from the 
 Continent, a supply sufficient to meet the vast increase in 
 the demand for butter; and after a vain effort had been 
 made to awaken the farmers of this country to the fact that 
 a large extension of winter-dairying was the only means 
 left to save them from a still keener competition, attention 
 was turned to our Australasian colonies. So in 1891,* 
 Andrew Clement, of Glasgow, the largest wholesale dealer 
 in dairy produce in Scotland, was forced in the interests of 
 the trade to pay a visit of inspection to Australia and New 
 Zealand, with the object of stimulating trade, and of 
 making business connections. It is only necessary to refer 
 to the 1892 report of Wilson, the Victorian Government 
 dairy expert, to appreciate the rate at which the fresh 
 butter export trade is growing : — 
 
 " In 1889-90, 400 tons of butter were exported, averaging 9d. per lb.; 
 in 1890-91, the quantity exported was 1,000 tons, averaging io|d. per 
 
 * In 1 89 1, the amount of foreign dairy-produce imported was valued at 
 over ;^i4,ooo,ooo. 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. 125 
 
 lb. ; while for this season the quantity exported will be 2,143 tO"S, the 
 average price being is. per lb." 
 
 He estimates that 3,000, tons will be sent, away next 
 season (1893). The result of the development of this new 
 industry is that British farmers are losing the slender foot- 
 ing "they had in the butter market, and in spite of the 
 improvement in the quality of butter brought about by the 
 instruction in dairying provided by County Councils 
 throughout the length and breadth of the country, the price 
 of the home-made article is steadily declining. The farmer 
 loses his trade connection at the end of each grass season, 
 and he has to begin afresh in spring to establish himself 
 against the foreigner, who keeps up a steady, supply at all 
 seasons of the year. Winter dairying, no doubt, entails 
 more trouble, and involves the employment of a larger 
 amount of capital, and a greater annual expenditure than 
 the old system of summer dairying, but the annual total 
 produce is largely increased ; and if there is not much profit 
 to be derived from that portion which is made during 
 winter, nevertheless, by maintaining a steady supply 
 throughout the year, a higher price can be secured for the 
 less expensive summer-made produce. 
 
 Richard Barter, St Anns Hill, Cork, a pioneer in this 
 system of dairying, has — 
 
 " Found from carefully kept records that cows calving in December 
 and January give the largest return of milk — for say ten months in 
 milk — as there comes on a second spring of milk, when cows get the 
 grass at the end of April and May, and they yield during the summer 
 nearly as well as if calved in March." 
 
 Associated with the increased supply of winter produce, 
 co-operation for manufacturing and marketing purposes is 
 in the great majority of small holdings an absolute 
 necessity to success. The co-operative creamery system 
 has proved a great success in the south and west of Ireland, 
 and at the same time an immense advantage to small 
 
126 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 holders, who individually are powerless to secure a market 
 connection. 
 
 House Feeding as practised in the Production of Milk for a Town 
 
 Milk Trade. 
 
 When good non-pedigreed milking shorthorn cows are 
 kept at all seasons in the house, and fed to the highest 
 degree possible, the yield per cow can be made double that 
 obtained under the natural system described — the produce 
 can be raised from 550 to 1,100 gallons. This system is 
 not compatible with calving down the cows a second yean 
 Animals at their prime, viz., after the third or fourth calf, 
 are selected, which after milking on an average for nine 
 months go directly to the butcher, without being put quite 
 dry — when the yield of milk is naturally reduced, so that it 
 would not pay to keep them longer. This is a severe drain 
 upon the supply of our best milch cattle, and it has unques- 
 tionably, since the, great increase of the milk trade in towns, 
 tended to reduce the numbers of cattle in this country. 
 
 The cost of food per cow per day is as follows : — 
 
 7| lbs. cake and meal, "| , ^ . , 
 2 lbs. treacle, | (^6. los. per ton), 
 
 = 
 
 s. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 6h 
 
 ^ cwt. brewers' grains. 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 f cwt. roots (^i per ton, towns' prices), 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 lbs. oat straw {£2 per ton, semi-do.), . 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Refuse straw for litter, 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 Labour, tending, and milking (3 times), 
 Total cost per day, 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 In summer the turnips, straw, treacle, and part of the 
 brewers' grains are replaced by grass from sewage meadows 
 or by green forage — frequently rye-grass forced by dress- 
 ings of nitrate of soda. The cost of this should be rather 
 under its equivalent of winter food. 
 
DAIRYING — PASTURE AND FOOD. 1 27 
 
 The yield per cow while in milk will average 4 gallons 
 per day =1,105 gallons in nine months. As each cow is 
 replaced at the end of that time by a " green " or newly 
 calved cow, the average of milk given annually per stall is 
 raised to 1,460 galls. The reduction in value of the cow 
 may be estimated at £6 or ;^8 between the " laid in '' and 
 selling price, a sum now too large to be balanced by the 
 value of the manure. 
 
 Buttermaking without a Churn. 
 
 A remarkable characteristic appeared about seven 
 years ago in a cross-bred cow, the property of William 
 Lind, Belford. The cow, now (1892) eleven years old, 
 was got by a pure-bred shorthorn bull, it is believed, though 
 of the breed of the dam there is no absolute certainty, out 
 of an Ayrshire cow. During the first two years that the old 
 cow was in profit there was nothing unusual about the 
 quality of the milk, but after the birth of her third calf she 
 produced milk of special richness, the cream of which was 
 readily made into butter by stirring with a thirel-stick for a 
 space of time not exceeding five minutes. For the past 
 seven years no churn has been used, and in warm weather 
 the cream sometimes forms butter without stirring.* 
 
 * The Author had a sample of the milk sent to Edinburgh for microscopi- 
 cal examination in 1890, but nothing unusual was discovered except that 
 the fat globules were found to be remarkably large. The total return of 
 produce sold in that year, the last in which a record was kept, amounted to 
 £},<). los., made up of ^^33 received for new milk sold at is. per gallon, and 
 £(). los. for butter of excellent texture and flavour at is. per lb. When the 
 animal was at full profit the yield amounted to 28 quarts of milk in the day. 
 The heifer calves of this cow, three in number, by shorthorn bulls, have been 
 reared, and two of these have inherited their mother's peculiarity. Had this 
 remarkable animal been born in America she would most probably have been 
 selected as the founder of a new and unique breed of dairy cattle, not merely 
 on account of the peculiarity exhibited in the cream, but also owing to the 
 excellence and abundance of the produce. 
 
CHAPTER XI. — DAIRYING — COWS AND THEIR 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Treatment of Dairy Cows — Milking — Milking Machines — Period of Lactation 
 — Gu^non's Escutcheon Theory — De-sexed Cows — How to put a Cow 
 Dry — Three Points with regard to Purchased Food — Effects of Common 
 Food Stuffs — Hoven — Good Permanent Grasses as Food — Breeding and 
 Calving for the First Time — Signs of Pregnancy — Of Parturition — Calving 
 — Protracted Labour — Premature Labour — Means of Preventing Abortion 
 — Straining — Cow Breeches— Protrusion of the Vagina — Milk Fever — 
 Trembling or Loupin' 111 — Weed — Inflammation of the Udder — Choking 
 — Lameness. 
 
 T^REATMENT of Dairy Cows.— It is of the utmost 
 importance to have the cows, the byres, and every- 
 thing connected with them, kept scrupulously clean, not 
 only because the produce is so easily injured by the 
 presence of any impurity or odour, but on account of the 
 necessity for perfect health and comfort in the animals to 
 attain the maximum of production. Sufficient and well- 
 regulated ventilation maintains the temperature at a few 
 degrees below 60° F., and prevents cows losing their hair 
 and becoming too bare and susceptible to cold when turned 
 out for water in winter or to grass in spring ; it also keeps 
 the atmosphere pure and sweet. This may be aided by 
 swilling the gutter daily with water, where means admit of 
 the practice. Regular grooming during winter is necessary 
 with cows, as with all animals that are tied up, and are 
 thus prevented from rubbing or licking their skins, or 
 being licked by others on itchy parts. General comfort is 
 synonymous with more produce or better condition, with a 
 given amount of food. March and April is . the usual 
 calving time for cheese- or butter-making summer dairies, 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 12Q 
 
 SO as to have cows coming to their "flow"' within two 
 months on getting a full supply of grass — May, June, and 
 July are the three best months for abundance. Heifers 
 calve, usually, a month later. Pedigreed cows being more 
 or less precarious breeders, are permitted to calve at any 
 time; but the best period is soon after the New Year, to 
 give the young ones as much time as possible to grow 
 before the grass comes, and to secure at the same time an 
 advantageous position by being early in the regulation 
 herd-book-year. Where milk is sold, more cows than in 
 the case of other systems, are " calved-down " in autumn, to 
 provide for the winter demand, owing to the necessity of 
 maintaining as far as possible a uniform supply. Cows go 
 to pasture for good either before or after ist May, accord- 
 ing to the climate, having been gradually prepared by a 
 short daily run over young grass, which is usually early. 
 The amounts and varieties of forage crops sometimes given 
 while cows are being milked have already been stated. 
 Three or four pounds of cake, supplied to each animal 
 daily while on pasture, no doubt increase the amount of 
 produce ; but unless in special cases, where the pasture is 
 insufficient or needs manure, it is a question if the practice 
 pays when dairy produce is at ordinary prices, because 
 cows thus treated are more difficult to support in winter, 
 and they also show the approach of old age more rapidly. 
 
 Milking is usually done twice a day, in the house if 
 possible, as cattle are there more at rest in the shade and 
 free from flies ; moreover, milk is kept cleaner, especially 
 in wet weather, when rain would wash impurities into the 
 pail from the skin. All dirt adhering to the udder (more 
 usual in winter than in summer) should be wiped or, if 
 necessary, sponged off" to prevent taint in the milk. The 
 only sufficient excuse for open-air milking is when cows 
 pasture at a great distance from the farm buildings ; and, 
 again, if cows are milked in a very close warm byre, they 
 
 I 
 
130 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 run the risk of being chilled when turned out at night in 
 autumn. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to milk three times a day 
 when the vessel is hard and swelled as it frequently is soon 
 after calving ; when there is an excessive secretion and milk 
 running from the teats ; or when warm mid-day milk is 
 wanted in a local trade. More milk can thus be got on the 
 whole, but the additional expense debars the practice, un- 
 less when the cow's comfort or the circumstances of trade 
 urgently demand it. 
 
 Cows are kept in the house over night when autumn 
 frosts and cold or stormy weather come on, to prevent the 
 quantity of milk falling off rapidly, except in those districts 
 where cows are wintered out of doors, with the result that 
 they quickly go dry and cease to give milk. For the first 
 few nights of indoor life the yield is less, but it increases 
 as the animals become accustomed to the change, and 
 remains pretty constant for a few weeks. 
 
 During winter they are let out only once daily, or, what 
 is better, twice if their fodder has been salted, to drink 
 water and to lick their skins. When the ground is frost- 
 bound and slippery, water should be carried to them. A 
 walk of a quarter of a mile to the water before drinking, 
 and the same in returning, prevents shivering, which fre- 
 quently occurs when cold water is given in the house. The 
 exercise also keeps the limbs in good condition, and helps 
 to maintain the constitution of the cow in a healthy state. 
 
 Cows acquire the habit, especially if going on the same 
 pasture from day to day, of finding the way towards the 
 milking-place generally at the right times. The hours for 
 milking should be regularly kept, and should divide the 
 twenty-four hours into two equal parts. Each cow knows 
 her stall in the byre, and if not disturbed will usually go 
 directly to it, unless she be tempted at times to steal food 
 from a neighbour's allowance by the way. 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 131 
 
 If COWS are constantly milked by one person for a 
 length of time, they often " keep up their milk," or " do not 
 lefit down," should another milker be introduced. It is a 
 usual rule in dairies to change the milkers regularly to 
 avoid this chance of loss. This custom has other advan- 
 tages : it apportions each milker a fair share of " stiff" or 
 difficult cows, as well as of those easy to milk, and prevents 
 an inferior milker " putting the milk off," or " drying " cer- 
 tain cows, by bad milking carried on continuously. 
 
 Milking should be performed as quietly, quickly, and 
 thoroughly as possible. If all these requisite conditions 
 are not attended to, the quantity of milk soon falls oif. 
 One of the greatest difficulties of the dairy farmer is to 
 find good milkers. A cow must not be struck or excited 
 in any way ; as, in addition to the small quantity of milk 
 given, the quality is so injured at times, that it has been 
 known to affect the milk of a whole dairy when mixed 
 with it. 
 
 A calf takes about three or four minutes to suck a cow 
 dry. Milking by hand should come as near this as 
 possible. A good man (or a woman in Scotland) milking 
 ten cows (a usual and ample number) will finish the work 
 in an hour if it is done by contract, except for a week or 
 two at the height of the grass season when the full flow of 
 milk is on. When milking is done in the ordinary way, 
 with no special inducement for haste, nearly two hours are 
 taken up. An hour and a half may be stated as a good 
 average time for a full milking. 
 
 A milker should sit on a stool close to the animal, and 
 hold firmly between the knees a " handy " or pail, large 
 enough to contain all the milk, thus doing away with the 
 necessity of rising to empty a portion of it into the receiv- 
 ing or carrying can before the operation is finished. The 
 arm next the cow's hind leg should be placed close to it, 
 to be ready to press back should she attempt to kick. To 
 
132 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ensure safety from kicking some nervous milkers tie the 
 hind legs together at the houghs. If this were always done 
 without pain to the animal, there would be no objection 
 to the practice; but there is the risk of careless milkers 
 doing it roughly, and thereby irritating and chafing the 
 skin. It is better to " dry milk " or handle young cows 
 for some weeks before calving to break them in, and by 
 gentle treatment coax them to stand quietly. Special care 
 is necessary immediately after calving, while the udder is 
 hard and painful. Sometimes a nervous or wicked cow, or 
 one with sore teats from cow-pox, raw from the attacks of 
 flies, hacking from exposure to cold east winds or chilly 
 nights in summer with heavy dews, will stand in no other 
 way than with a man holding her head with a finger and 
 thumb in her nostrils. After a time, in many cases, the 
 presence of a person near the shoulder is sufficient, without 
 holding, showing that if care had been bestowed at first 
 this unnecessary expense and trouble might have been 
 avoided. Sometimes an intractable cow is secured by 
 " bulldogs " or " humbugs " put in the nostrils, and by a 
 rope attached tied to the railing in front. 
 
 There is no " right" and " wrong " side of a cow on which 
 to milk. In double-stalled byres the milker places himself 
 between two cows, milks one from the right side, and then 
 turns round and takes the other on the left. It is well to 
 train a cow, especially a show animal, so that she can be 
 milked from either side, as this tends to keep the udder 
 more evenly balanced. When this is not attended to, as 
 in an ordinary dairy of common cows, it usually grows 
 heavier on, and hangs to, the milking side. The near-hind 
 and far-fore, and far-hind and near-fore teats, should be 
 milked together alternately. 
 
 Cows with very small teats, especially when swelled after 
 calving, are very difficult to milk, and tiring for the hands 
 of the milker, as only the forefinger and thumb can be used. 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 1 33 
 
 Others are " stiff " to milk, from the passages of the teats 
 being small. These can be widened by inserting a form of 
 bistoury, which opens like a glove-stretcher. The cutting 
 surface is on the outside of the thinner of the blades, and 
 after inserting the closed instrument well up into the pass- 
 age of the teat, the incision is made by ,X«iite-__,„=_=.— 
 opening and suddenly withdrawing it. "^^""^""""^^ 
 When this operation is overdone, milk bistouky. 
 
 flows without the action of milking, and loss results. A 
 safer method of improvement, in ordinary hands, is that of 
 using a small cone of metal or wood (in preference to ivory, 
 sometimes recommended), which is left in the canal of the 
 teat to distend it between milking times. The cutting 
 instrument is sometimes used, but not often successfully, 
 when a cord forms at the neck of the teat, through the con- 
 traction or growing up of the milk diaphragm, usually the 
 result of suppuration. Sore teats should be well greased, 
 
 1 he J ersey Creamer Co s Self Acting Low Vlilker — Price ts.dd. 
 
 before and after milking, with vaseline. If the skin of a teat 
 is very tender, the milk may be withdrawn for a few days by 
 a silver milking-tube or syphon, while the sound teats are 
 being milked. A piece of red yarn or tape ought to be tied to 
 the tube to prevent its being lost if dropped among the litter. 
 Milking Machines are, as a whole, more or less unsatis- 
 
134 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 factory, as the sucking and boxing action of the calf, which 
 encourages milk-secretion, has not yet been perfectly imi- 
 tated. There are many varieties, but in the mechanism of the 
 most successful of them one or other of two principles is 
 usually adopted. In the case of the first, which is the least 
 costly and complicated, the milk flows by gravitation 
 through perforated syphons inserted into the teats. The 
 self-acting cow-milker affords immense relief to an animal 
 suffering from galled teats or a swollen udder, and ought to 
 be more extensively used in this connection. 
 
 In the second class of milker referred to, suction is 
 adopted, in imitation of the natural action of the calf, 
 through the creation of a vacuum by means of an exhaust 
 pump or a descending column of water in a close pipe. The 
 most promising of those before the public in this country 
 leave little room to doubt that a brief space of time will 
 lead to the development of a serviceable machine, which 
 will be all the more appreciated by the farming community 
 as labour difficulties become more intense. The leading 
 defect at present is that the teats become dark and swollen, 
 owing to the interference with the circulation of the blood, 
 especially in autumn, when the milk does not flow so freely 
 as in summer. 
 
 The usual period of lactation is between nine and ten 
 months, giving the cow a rest of two or thr.ee months to 
 prepare for the next milking period. Cows naturally take 
 this time, more or less ; but they are to a considerable 
 extent affected by the kinds and quantities of food given, 
 and by the general treatment. Some continue to yield 
 milk till the next calving, but they do not produce so 
 abundantly the following year. 
 
 M. Guenon's " Escutcheon " or " Milk-Mirror " 
 theory * holds that the extent of surface of the udder and 
 
 * The system was instituted by Mons. Francois Guenon, of Lisbourne, the 
 son of a poor gardener, and a great student of Nature as represented in the 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 135 
 
 thighs that is covered with hairs turning up and out, in 
 place of down like the rest of the body, is an indication of 
 the amount of milk the cow will give. If the surface covered 
 by the reversed hair is large and broad above the udder, 
 extending far on to the thighs, the cow should be a good 
 milker ; and if it be broad and smooth up near to the setting 
 on of the tail, the flow should last well out at the end of the 
 season. Great attention is paid to the escutcheon theory in 
 America and in France, where it has been studied for over 
 sixty years, but it is little regarded in England. The ex- 
 planation seems a very doubtful one, viz., that the arteries 
 supplying the udder terminate in the skin, in the region 
 covered by the escutcheon, and turn up the hairs. If there 
 is a large area thus marked, it is supposed to indicate that 
 there are many terminations, and consequently large arteries, 
 devoted to the supply of milk-producing blood to the 
 udder. The size of the milk-vein, carrying away the refuse 
 of the blood which passes through the udder in the process 
 of milk secretion, is a much more reliable indication of the 
 " depth " of a cow's milking capacity. 
 
 Robertson, the Canadian dairy-expert, enumerates as 
 follows the leading points by which to judge a cow : — 
 "(i.) A long udder lengthwise of her body, and very elastic ; the 
 
 vegetable and animal kingdoms. As far back as 1814, while tending the 
 household cows, he believed he could trace a relationship between the yield of 
 milk and the form of the ' ' gravure " or escutcheon. After making further in- 
 quiries, which tended to strengthen his belief, he began business as a cattle- 
 dealer in 1822, and dealt in cows of different nationalities. The result of his 
 long and careful observations led him to classify animals in three groups accord- 
 ing to size — large, middle, and small : the signs he divided into eight classes, 
 and each of these classes into eight orders. From an intimate knowledge of 
 their variations, he could indicate the quantity and quality of milk a cow would 
 give daily, and the length of time she would continue to give a good yield. In 
 
 1837 he stated his results before the Bordeaux Agricultural Committee, and in 
 
 1838 to the Agricultural Society of Aurillac. His views were accepted after 
 test trials of the system, and by the few who have undertaken the great labour 
 01 mastering the details it is pronounced to be an excellent guide in the selec- 
 tion of cows possessed of good dairying qualities. 
 
136 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 elastic quality means room to make milk. (2.) A soft skin— a mellow 
 skin, covered with mossy, silky hair ; the skin, if coarse or harsh, 
 mean§ sluggish digestion inside, and that means an expensive cow that 
 does not digest her food or thrive well. (3.) A cow should have a large 
 roomy barrel, with broad ribs wide apart, for holding plenty of good, 
 rough, bulky, cheap feed ; it should be filled twice a day. (4.) The 
 milk-veins under the cow's belly should be prominent ; prominence is 
 a far more important indication than actual size would be. (5.) Firm 
 muscles in the abdomen mean good constitution ; they are the best 
 evidence of endurance and thrift that can be found in a cow, and 
 endurance to stand the strain of giving milk continuously is what is 
 wanted. (6.) A cow should have broad loins with long rumps, a 
 rather long lean neck, with clean-cut face and prominent eyes." 
 
 De-sexed or "spayed" cows will milk constantly for 
 years, and give, on the aggregate, a larger yield than cows 
 which calve annually in the usual way. They are specially 
 suited to outlying districts in the colonies, where there is 
 grass all the year round, and where settlers' single cows are 
 many miles from a bull. The milk resembles that of farrow 
 cows, being richer than when cows have been some months 
 pregnant ; but the great gain is in the conservation of the 
 food and energy necessary to produce a calf 
 
 The best method employed in putting a cow dry, 
 to avoid the risk of losing a quarter through suppuration, is 
 to stop milking, smpar the udder with tar (see page 151), 
 and reduce the quantity of food. Milking once a day, every 
 second day, or after a few days, when the vessel swells up, is 
 now found to be a mistake. The action of milking encour- 
 ages the secretion of milk which would otherwise never form, 
 and only retards the drying process. Bleeding from the 
 jugular vein on either side of the neck is at times adopted, 
 and a dose of 16 oz. of Epsom salts is not infrequently ad- 
 ministered. This is the only time that salts may be given to 
 a cow in milk, as they most effectually reduce the flow, and 
 to a great degree permanently for the season. These extreme 
 measures are most applicable to cows giving a considerable 
 quantity of milk, or that have been put to grass. Inferior 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 1 37 
 
 fodder should be used up when cows are " out of profit " 
 or "resting" from the duties of milk-production. If the 
 fodder be very bad, a few roots' require to be given in 
 addition, or it might be necessary to sprinkle it with 
 treacle-water from a rose-can if the taste and smell are not 
 so attractive as they ought to be. 
 
 There are three points with regard to which a 
 farmer should satisfy himself before choosing food stuffs : — 
 1st, That the price, according to feeding value of the food 
 which he selects, is as moderate as that of any equivalent 
 material he could find in the market. This rule is too often 
 neglected by the farmer, and accounts for the prices of cer- 
 tain well-known feeding-stuffs being at times far above their 
 real feeding values. Farmers in this country are slow to 
 learn and loth to make changes, especially in matters where 
 scientific advice should be called in to determine the quality 
 of a new material, and they consequently suffer from the 
 results of this state of inactivity when they come into com- 
 petition with the much more progressive foreigners. 
 
 2nd, He should employ those foods that do not produce 
 a disagreeable taste in milk or butter — such as cabbages, 
 mangels, and the more common meals and cakes — and 
 avoid as far as possible the use of turnips. Swedes are not 
 quite so objectionable as common turnips, which when given 
 to cows induce a disagreeable taste and smell in their milk 
 and its products. The proper time to use turnips in dairy 
 management is when the cows are dry, or in a case of 
 necessity, as when other descriptions of succulent food are 
 not available, in small quantity immediately after milking, 
 being it is thought at that time less injurious. It is 
 asserted that cutting off the crown of the bulb close to the 
 base of the leaves is a preventive of the worst results. Palm- 
 nut cake or meal, unless given in small quantities, flavours 
 milk, but not very objectionably. 
 
 2rd, He should use the proper foods to suit the condi- 
 
138 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 tion under which an animal is placed ; for example, cotton- 
 cake given in quantity to cows in calf will at times cause 
 the death of most of the calves when they are about ten 
 days old. Three pounds per day may be given with safety 
 — undecorticated cake, if the animals are on grass, as it 
 possesses astringent properties, and counteracts the tend- 
 ency to excessive looseness of the bowels. Decorticated 
 cake, ground into a fine state of division on account of its 
 being hard to chew if in lumps, is better given in winter, or, 
 if in summer, on the pasture, mixed with maize-meal. 
 
 Effects of a few common Food Stuffs. — Bean-meal, 
 perhaps to a greater degree than anything else, increases 
 the flow of really good milk.* Meals of leguminous seeds, 
 when consumed by animals in large quantity, have a bind- 
 ing or costive tendency, being deficient in oil. Bran 
 counteracts this tendency, and is itself excellent for encour- 
 aging milk-production. Treacle is now increasingly used 
 to fulfil the function of bran. Brewers' grains, costing 4d. 
 to 5d. per bushel (a full allowance for one day), are also 
 " opening " or loosening to the bowels, and greatly increase 
 the flow of milk, but its quality is very poor unless the 
 animal is otherwise liberally fed. When used freely, grains 
 injure the breeding powers of cows, and are in consequence 
 of most service in town dairies, where the fattening-off pro- 
 cess is associated with milk-production. A small quantity 
 of malt dust in a mixture gives it relish, and as a food it is 
 also a good milk producer. Clover, green and wet, unless 
 in small quantity, is a most dangerous food to give to cattle 
 not accustomed to eat it, as it produces hoven, especially 
 in the case of cows which are ravenous feeders. Clover 
 should consequently be given dry, and be begun gradually. 
 
 Hoven is the disorder which is induced on the suspen- 
 sion or retardation of the function of digestion. It may be 
 
 * Bean-meal has also been given with satisfactory results, when, for som 
 unknown cause, the curd would not adhere in the cheese-press. 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 1 39 
 
 acute, due to some sudden ailment, and dangerous to life ; or 
 chronic, the result of a derangement of long standing. In 
 the acute form digestion stops, and gases are evolved in the 
 process of fermentation which sets up in the food contained 
 in the stomach of the animal, more especially if the food be 
 of a green and succulent nature. Pressure is thus brought 
 to bear upon the diaphragm, which is unable to act, and 
 ultimately the animal, if not relieved, dies of suffocation. 
 
 Treatment. — In the case of eild cattle, i oz. of turpen- 
 tine soaked into dry meal, and administered in cold gruel 
 or cold water, may overcome the disorder if given in good 
 time. As turpentine permeates the whole system and 
 flavours the milk, cows " in profit " should be drenched 
 with 2 quarts of hot beer, or a pint or more of whisky made 
 into hot "toddy." In a case, of urgency, instant relief is 
 secured by puncturing the rumen with 
 a trochar and canula, at a point on the 
 left side equally distant from the ante- 
 rior spine of the ilium, the transverse trochak and can;;la. 
 processes of the lumbar vertebrae, and the last rib. The 
 canula is left in the wound for a little to form a free vent for 
 the escape of gas. On its withdrawal, the wound in the 
 stomach contracts on account of the opening having been 
 made when that organ was greatly distended. A clean 
 pocket-knife may be used for the operation in a case of 
 extremity ; but as there is nothing left on its removal to 
 preserve the channel, a portion of the food blown from the 
 stomach by the force of the escaping gas is liable to lodge 
 under the skin, and in course of time to produce a suppurat- 
 ing sore. The chronic form of the ailment should be treated 
 by the administration of repeated doses of salts with 2 oz. of 
 a mixture of ground gentian and ginger, or of treacle along 
 with \ oz. of carbonate of ammonia or turpentine* as tonics. 
 
 * Turpentine should not be used too frequently. See page 289 for the 
 results of turpentine poisoning. 
 
I40 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 A mixture of good permanent grasses and other 
 plants, grown on soil naturally fertile, but in a state of 
 Nature, is by far the best food for making the most perfect 
 dairy products. Grass or forage crops from highly man- 
 ured land or irrigation meadows, although they may in- 
 crease the quantity, diminish the quality of milk, and more 
 particularly its products, and make it often much more 
 difficult to manipulate in manufacture. The remark relat- 
 ing to quality also applies to cakes and most other foods 
 given to cows while on the grass. If there is not an 
 objectionable taste or smell, the natural conditions are 
 changed in some other way, — a change which would be 
 observed, for example, in the altered texture, in the keeping 
 power of the butter, or in a greasy condition of the cheese. 
 
 Breeding, and Calving for the first time. — The 
 ordinary dairy farmer should not buy but breed his own 
 stock if possible,- paying the greatest attention to selecting 
 the calves of the best milkers to rear for bulls and heifers. 
 When this is done there is less risk from imported disease ; 
 and as a farmer is able to breed better cattle than he can 
 buy, he can with care produce animals of better quality 
 than are to be found in the market. The milking powers 
 of a herd may be vastly improved within a few years by 
 this means. To fill up the places of cast cows, — those that 
 have become old, or have proved unlucky or unsuitable, — 
 young heifers, to the number of between one-fourth and 
 one-third of the total of the dairy, should be available each 
 year. Whether it is a good practice to " calve-down " 
 heifers at a little over two years, or a little over three years 
 old, is mainly a question of feeding. If cattle are kept in 
 thin condition, as the ordinary Ayrshire is in its native 
 county, the best results are obtained by calving at " three- 
 years-off." At two years an animal, if poor, is too small, 
 will not milk satisfactorily the first season, and is very 
 likely to " miss the bull '' and remain farrow during the 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 141 
 
 second. If heifers are well fed, and made to calve at two 
 years off, as in'the case of Channel Islands cows and well- 
 bred milking shorthorns, then the natural development and 
 growth, which continue even for years afterwards, are led 
 into the lines of milk production ; and the organs which are 
 then most active are not allowed to become atrophied from 
 want of use, or gorged with fat in the attempt of Nature to 
 rid the circulatory system of a superabundance of fatty 
 material. Nature indicates the proper course to be fol- 
 lowed by well-fed animals if not over-fat coming in season 
 sooner and more regularly than those in poor condition. 
 Very fat cows are most uncertain breeders, and when this 
 difficulty is overcome they usually produce small calves. 
 
 The usual period of gestation is, in round numbers, nine 
 calendar months. Lord Spencer's table [vide R.A.S.E. 
 Journal, 1838) establishes the average period for healthy 
 cows at 280 days. 
 
 Signs of Pregnancy. — i. A cow does not come in sea- 
 son when pregnant, otherwise she should do so at intervals 
 of about three weeks.* The exceptions to this r^le are, 
 that extremely poor, or, on the other hand, very fat " eild " 
 cattle may not come " a-bulling " so often, while some few 
 continue to bull although they are in calf. This latter 
 peculiarity has been noticed during the early stages of tuber- 
 culosis, the disease affecting the organs of reproduction. 
 
 2. The right side of the belly becomes enlarged, and 
 after a time the calf, in the form of a hard lump, can. be 
 felt with the hand near the flank; and seen to "jump" or 
 " quick " at times, especially when the cow drinks cold 
 water. 
 
 Signs of approaching Parturition. — i. Enlargement 
 and firmness of the udder and teats. 
 
 2. Fluid may be drawn from the teats of a more milk- 
 
 * In summer oestrum returns about the nineteenth day ; in winter its recur- 
 rence is slower by twenty-four or even forty-eight hours. 
 
142 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 like character and less watery than that found in the teats 
 of " eild " cows. 
 
 3. Loosening and enlargement of the hinder parts, as 
 the external portions of the organs of generation, and relaxa- 
 tion of the pelvic ligaments. Large heavy cows find it 
 difficult at this time to rise or walk about. These three 
 indications frequently last for days. 
 
 4. Within a short time of calving, which may extend to 
 a few hours, a cow becomes restless, lies down and rises 
 frequently, and whisks her tail, as if in pain. 
 
 5. The right side becomes flatter when the calf passes 
 into the pelvic bones as labour begins. 
 
 Calving. — It is wrong to assist a cow too soon, and it 
 is equally bad to leave her in difficult labour until she is 
 worn out and the pains become weak. The head and legs 
 of the young within the mother are doubled up, and it 
 assumes the form of a ball enclosed within a bag called 
 the " amnion," " clean," " fcetal-membrane," or "after-birth." 
 The bag contains a slimy fluid, in which the calf floats, and 
 which lubricates the passage when the membrane is broken. 
 When assistance is given, the hand and arm should be well 
 rubbed with carbolic oil before being inserted. The right 
 position for the calf is with its head and fore-legs " forward," 
 in the position of a man diving, the head and neck being 
 stretched out so that they rest upon the limbs. When the 
 hind legs appear first, there is frequently considerable diffi- 
 culty in giving birth to the calf, but it is not so necessary 
 to turn the calf before pulling as in the case of many other 
 false presentations. 
 
 The cow should lie on her side during the operation 
 (although in some districts she is made to stand in the 
 fashion portrayed in the tomb-paintings of ancient Egypt), 
 and the pulling, which is done by the fore-legs, should not 
 be straight, but inclining slightly towards the houghs of the 
 cow, one man distending and freeing the os vagina with 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. I43 
 
 his hands. A cow should, as a rule, be made to rise im- 
 mediately after calving to prevent after-straining. If the 
 animal is exhausted, and there are no symptoms of 
 straining, she may be overlooked and allowed to rest for a 
 few minutes. She should have a small drink (say i gallon) 
 of cold water with a little oatmeal thrown into it, and this 
 may be repeated every few hours until thirst is quenched. 
 It is an unnecessary precaution and a mistake to warm the 
 water, as a cow often will not drink it. All thatis neces- 
 sary in this connection is to beware of giving too much at a 
 time to chill her. 
 
 In protracted labour stimulants are necessary, as one 
 pint bottle of whisky, a quart bottle or more of beer, or 
 half-an-ounce of carbonate of ammonia. A mouthful of 
 cold water is also beneficial. 
 
 Common Causes of Protracted Labour. — i. False 
 presentations. 
 
 2. Death or deformity of the calf, at times necessitating 
 the cutting up and removal of it in pieces. Sometimes it 
 becomes mummified, and remains in the animal for years : 
 the cow coming '' a-bulling," but being unable to breed. 
 At other times it rots, and comes away from time to time 
 in small pieces or as putrid matter. In such a case the 
 animal is liable to get into a very lean condition and poor 
 state of health, and may even die of blood-poisoning. 
 
 3. Disease, or abnormality of any of the internal repro- 
 ductive organs. 
 
 The " cleansing " hangs for a time after the calf is 
 born, but should drop within a few hours. Treatment — 
 Give opening food stuffs, as linseed (made into tea), bran- 
 mashes, and treacle. 
 
 Abortion. — When a cow calves before her time she is 
 said to " cast," " slip," or " pick " calf The calf is usually 
 dead, but it may be alive and continue to live if so early 
 even as the seventh month. In any case, the loss to the 
 
144 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 owner is great, as there is usually no adequate preparation 
 by the cow for milking. 
 
 Causes of Premature Labour. — i. Eating ergotised 
 grass in autumn. 
 
 2. Injury, as from horning by other cattle, hunting by 
 dogs, crushing through narrow doorways, shaking and 
 bruising on a railway journey, &c. 
 
 3. Walking through a dung heap, or over boggy or soft 
 land, and getting strained. 
 
 4. Very cold or foul water, or too many frosted turnips, 
 especially if given in the house while the animal is not 
 moving freely about. 
 
 5. Superpurgation, either natural or induced by physic. 
 
 6. Any contagious febrile disease of a serious character ; 
 for example, infection arising from association with newly 
 aborted cows which are affected with contagious abortion, 
 or from bad animal smells. 
 
 The last is perhaps more common and dangerous than 
 all the others put together, because its work is done unseen, 
 and it often cannot be easily avoided even when its pre- 
 sence is detected. 
 
 Indications of approaching labour are usually seen for 
 some days, or even a week or two, before the crisis comes. 
 A cow should be removed from amongst the others when- 
 ever these are noticed. By taking the temperature the 
 attendant on the outlook for signs of premature labour may 
 receive warning of the approaching danger before any ex- 
 ternal evidences appear. The normal temperature of a 
 cow in a byre is not over 102° F., even when kept too warm 
 and without proper ventilation, but it goes higher as abor- 
 tion approaches if the affection is of a contagious nature. 
 Quiet, and proper dieting" may sometimes avert an impend- 
 ing attack, if the calf be not dead. 
 
 In cases of abortion the after-birth usually adheres firmly 
 to the button-like connections (cotyledons) with the uterus. 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 14S 
 
 and part of it often remains rotting for weeks. The cow 
 then falls off in condition, and if she is not attended to there 
 is danger of absorption of the foetid matter into the circula- 
 tion, blood-poisoning, and death. Should the opening- food- 
 treatment not succeed in two or three days, the bulk of the 
 membrane left is sometimes removed by the hand, which 
 should be well smeared with carbolic oil before being intro- 
 duced to sever the connections. Tepid water, containing 
 I per cent, of pure carbolic acid, should be injected to wash 
 out the uterus and vagina twice a day. The operation 
 necessary for the removal of the effete body is not to be 
 recommended at any time, but it is most dangerous if rapid 
 decay of the " cleansing " is going on, and putrid matter is 
 present. The points of attachment to the uterus are left 
 more or less in the condition of open sores, by which poison 
 may enter the blood. Cows which have been thus treated 
 do not readily conceive in the following season. 
 
 Means of Preventing Abortion. — i. Cut over the seed 
 stems of such grasses in the pasture as are liable to the 
 attacks of ergot. 
 
 2. Prevent cows from being frightened or injured in any 
 way. 
 
 3. Whitewash the inside walls of byres twice each year 
 with newly .slaked lime, and disinfect frequently with car- 
 bolic acid, chloride of lime, or hot flour of lime. 
 
 4. Remove all decaying animal matter that is within 
 reach of the cows. 
 
 5. Have the floors of the stalls as nearly level as 
 possible. 
 
 6. Remove at once from among the cows any animals 
 that have aborted, and those that threaten to do so. 
 
 7. Get rid of all such unlucky specimens before another 
 calving season comes round. 
 
 Professor W. O. Williams, writing on the Prevention 
 of Epizootic Abortion, says : — 
 
 K 
 
146 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 " Professor Nocard, of the Alfort Veterinary School, who has made 
 the study of epizootic abortion in cattle a speciality, formulates the 
 following measures for its prevention : — 
 
 " a. Every vi^eek the cow-shed floor should be thoroughly cleansed 
 (if unpaved, the soil should be scraped), and sprinkled with a solution 
 of sulphate of copper (10 drachms to if pints of water). 
 
 " b. The individual treatinent of the cows is more complex, and 
 should consist of — 
 
 " I. Vigorous vaginal injections of the following fluid (with a horse 
 enema syringe), which ought to be tepid : — 
 
 Distilled or Rain Water, . . 35 pints. 
 
 AlcohoUt36° ; '. '. }°feachiiss. 
 Bichloride of Mercury, . . . grs. 75. 
 
 Dissolve the mercury in the alcohol and glycerin, mix them thoroughly 
 with the water, and keep the fluid in a wooden vessel away from animals 
 and children. 
 
 '' 3. Every morning, when cleaning the cows, with a sponge dipped 
 in the fluid, carefully dress the vulva, anus, and anterior surface of the 
 tail of all of them. 
 
 " 3. When a cow aborts, she should be delivered at once by hand, 
 and the foetus and its envelopes immersed in boiling water, or destroyed 
 by fire. 
 
 " The uterine cavity should then be irrigated with 12 to 15 pints of 
 the above fluid, by means of a long piece of india-rubber tubing passed 
 into the organ by the hand. , 
 
 " The intravaginal or intra-uterine injection always causes, especially 
 in young cows, apparently violent expulsive efforts, but these in reality 
 do no harm. As to the cows in which the contagium has already 
 reiached the interior of the uterus, nothing can be done. The treatment 
 does not produce any good effects until the second year. In the first 
 year there are always some abortions, though they are less numerous. , 
 
 " Nocard has obtained the best results from the employment of this 
 method, and he is of opinion that a single vaginal injection, given at 
 the commencement of the treatment, will establish asepsis, but only 
 when the daily sponging of the vulva, anus, and tail is strictly carried 
 out." 
 
 Though Professor Nocard has undoubtedly earned the 
 credit of having carried this important investigation further 
 than any one else, yet we must not consider the matter 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 147 
 
 finally settled. The time has now arrived when a series of 
 exhaustive experiments, conducted under the direction of 
 veterinary experts of Her Majesty's Government, or of one 
 of the leading Agricultural Societies, should be instituted. 
 
 "Pressing," "straining," or "after-pains," produc- 
 ing inversion of the uterus, are very frequent after diiificult 
 parturition, being caused by injury to or irritation of the 
 parts involved. The injection of laudanum and carbolic 
 ojl — carbolic i to 20 of oil — if done early, suffices to allay 
 it. Carbolic oil, used alone in the first tried proportion of 
 I to 7, has been known to increase the irritation where a 
 scratch existed, and to drive the cow almost frantic. 
 
 When the displacement of the uterus is noticed before 
 it protrudes to any great extent, it may be easily replaced 
 by closing the hand (to prevent injury by the finger-tips) 
 and pressing it back gently but firmly. If necessary, the 
 uterus may be washed previous to replacement, tepid water 
 being used on account of its producing less pain than a 
 cold application. The hand is not withdrawn until the 
 normal position of the uterus has been secured. The most 
 effectual way to prevent its reappearing externally, is to stitch 
 across from hip to hip with clean white tape or wire drawn 
 through three holes made by a pen-knife in the skin on 
 each side, the tape passing over the lips of the vulva to give 
 support. The treatment appears cruel, but is the only 
 effectual means in serious cases. The dangerous remedy, 
 amputation, is the only one open when the ailment is 
 allowed to go very far. To ensure safety, before any symp- 
 toms of pressing appear, and also in mild cases after it has 
 begun, cow-breeches are of great service, but they are of little 
 value when the pressure is intense, as they cannot be put on 
 sufficiently tight to resist the effects of severe straining. 
 
 Cow-breeches are made of strong leather, in the form 
 illustrated in the accompanying figure, the four ends being 
 fitted with strong canvas terminations which are not here 
 
148 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK, 
 
 shown. They are put on to prevent the sudden expulsion 
 of the womb after calving, and openings are made in the 
 leather for the escape of the solid and liquid excrement. 
 The tail of the cow rests in the bifurcation of the two 
 upper ends ; these cross over the back, and are carried for- 
 ward and tied to a strong band or girth fastened tightly- 
 round the body in the region of the 
 heart, while the other ends, conducted 
 past the udder (one on each side), cross 
 on the belly and are similarly fastened 
 below. 
 
 Protrusion of the Vagina (or the 
 " body " in common language) occurs 
 both before and after calving, when some 
 animals that are in high condition and 
 well fed lie down. The proper treat- 
 ment is to bathe the protruding organs 
 to clean them, and wash with a solution 
 of chloride of zinc to stimulate the 
 relaxed parts and to prevent the develop- 
 ment of objectionable odours. The floor of the stall should 
 be a little higher at the hind than at the fore feet of the 
 animal, and the food given should be concentrated rather 
 than bulky. 
 
 Milk-Fever or Parturient Apoplexy occurs not so 
 much in fat cows, as is usually supposed, as among cows 
 that are being well fed, and are full-blooded and thriving 
 rapidly at the time. Many fat cows are in this condition, 
 but very many that die of milk-fever cannot be said to be 
 fat. Deep milkers are more liable to it than othei-s, but 
 only in the case of cows of more than one calf It usually 
 appears within three days after calving, but sometimes, 
 though rarely, before it. Digestion is suspended, there is 
 high fever, with pressure of blood on the brain, and 
 consequent loss of power. 
 
 Cow-Breeches. 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. I49 
 
 Treatment. — In severe cases there is little chance of 
 recovery unless bleeding is early resorted to. Eight lbs. of 
 warm treacle and a teaspoonful of saltpetre (nitrate of 
 potash) should be given as soon as practicable. This drench 
 acts more quickly than Epsom salts, and is more suitable 
 for a cow in milk. Stimulants (a pint of whisky, or if not 
 at hand an equivalent in strength of beer) are indispens- 
 able ; turning three or four times a day should be practised ; 
 together with friction, ironing, or a mild blister (mustard or 
 jturpentine) applied to the back, and cold water to the 
 head ; and the milk should be very frequently drawn. 
 The application of white of egg rubbed on the back is a 
 favourite remedy with some. Milk-fever is sometimes in- 
 duced by giving cows their own milk to drink at first, when 
 it is of little value, especially if the milk is not mixed with 
 an equal amount of water. With cows in poor or weak 
 condition, however, this is a good and safe practice. 
 
 An attempt at prevention is better than remedial treat- 
 ment, though at times all precautions fail, and it is difficult 
 to see why. It is advisable to restrict the amount of food 
 for some time before calving, as by shutting up at night 
 without a supply of food, and to keep the bowels open by 
 bran or grass. Green food supplied in moderation is less 
 to be feared than that which is hard, woody, and less easily 
 digested, such as rye-grass hay which perhaps has been 
 over-ripe when cut. If the udder is large and painful, 
 milking should be done regularly, even ten days before 
 calving. Should these preventive measures not prove 
 sufficient, as would be shown by one cow of a number 
 similarly treated becoming affected, the animals most likely 
 to become ill may be bled and physicked a day or two before 
 the calf is expected, or merely physicked with treacle or 
 14 to 16 oz. of Epsom salts followed in fourteen or fifteen 
 hours by a pint of linseed oil to counteract the secondary 
 costive tendency of the salts. This may be repealed. All 
 
ISO FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 the foregoing treatment is directed to the reducing of the 
 plethoric condition of the blood, and the keeping of the 
 digestive system in good order, without at the same time 
 doing anything to permanently reduce the natural flow of 
 milk after calving. 
 
 The most acute symptoms of trembling or loupin' ill 
 in cows are much like those of milk-fever, though the cause 
 is quite different. The disease, which is local and infre- 
 quent among cattle, is described under sheep at page 292. 
 
 Weed. — Lean cows often go down and are unable to 
 rise within a few days after calving, if exposed to cold, 
 especially to draughts, and are as helpless as regards ability 
 to rise as those suffering from milk-fever. The great 
 difference as compared with milk-fever is, that there is no 
 fever and no pressure of blood on the brain, and the 
 animal often eats and drinks normally, and will even milk 
 heavily for a time. The method of nursing is the same, 
 only part of the treatment is varied to suit the difference of 
 conditions — bleeding, or the application of cold water to 
 the head, for example, being unnecessary. Weed may be 
 altogether prevented by keeping a cow in warm and com- 
 fortable quarters after calving, and by covering the back 
 with a sheet for a few days- 
 Inflammations of the Udder. — isi, Udder-Clap is an 
 affection which attacks cows that have given milk, but are 
 at the time yeld or dry. Heifers with fleshy udders, but 
 which have never bred, have been known, but rarely, to 
 take it. It is thought to be induced by the " striking " of 
 a fly, and that the irritation thus produced sets up in- 
 flammation, which is followed by suppuration. It appears 
 usually in or after hot weather in August, one-quarter of 
 the vessel swelling and becoming painful. If not promptly 
 treated two or more quarters may become affected, high 
 fever may be set up, and a hind limb may become involved. 
 At times the enlargement extends along the belly and 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 151 
 
 down the fore-legs. Death is sometimes the result in acute 
 cases ; and when this is averted, at least the loss of one- 
 quarter of the udder, and from one-third to one-half of the 
 value of the animal. 
 
 The Remedial Treatment is to give a dose of salts, rub 
 and foment the udder, and draw the quarter every day 
 until pus disappears. Should the disease be too far gone 
 for mild measures, or if daily attention cannot be paid, the 
 teat may be either cut off by the neck, or a good opening 
 made with the knife in the fleshy udder close to it. The 
 only subsequent difficulty would be from attacks of flies on 
 the wound, unless the weather become cold for a few days. 
 This form of disease is effectually prevented by rubbing the 
 vessel, at least three times, at intervals of two or three weeks, 
 with a mixture consisting of Archangel-tar, two parts, and 
 butter or grease, one part. By beginning in June, the fly is 
 kept off", and moreover the tar acts as a stimulant, although 
 the grease dilutes it sufficiently to prevent blistering. 
 
 2nd, Common Inflammation, ''garget" or "hard udder," 
 appears when cows are in milk, and have been badly 
 managed or injured in some way, the gland being swelled 
 and hard, red, hot, and painful. It most frequently follows 
 " overstocking," " hefting," or " mismealing " (viz., stopping 
 milking for a time to enlarge the udder and increase the 
 show of milk in preparation for sale or exhibition) ; or it 
 may result from exposure to cold immediately after 
 calving — it is then spoken of as catarrh of the udder, weed, 
 or garget. 
 
 The Treatment is to apply mustard to the back, and to 
 rub the udder with iodine ointment, lard, or goose-grease to 
 stimulate and soften the part ; to milk frequently, and foment 
 with hot water ; or, in extreme cases, to use bran poultices, 
 slung up against the udder by means of a broad band of 
 strong canvas passing over the back, and give linseed oil or 
 treacle to open the bowels. 
 
152 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Impaction of the Rumen or first stomach is not un- 
 common, when cattle are in poor condition, and the 
 functions of digestion consequently weak. It may be 
 caused by unsuitable food, as when cattle are fed solely on 
 cut straw and pulped roots ; when much use is made of 
 dry concentrated rich food such as cotton-cake or bruised 
 grains ; or it may occur when cattle are turned out to 
 benty land on the hills in spring. Treatment. — Withhold 
 bulky food, and support the animal with gruels, which 
 digest without being cudded like long food ; give stimulants, 
 such as carbonate of ammonia, and repeated doses of oil or 
 treacle to keep the bowels open. 
 
 Persistent impaction may be caused by something hard 
 lodging in the stomach, such as a piece of old shoe leather, 
 which some animals are fond of picking up and chewing. 
 This can only be got rid of by cutting a hole into the 
 stomach on the left side, removing the foreign substance, 
 and giving very little food for a few days until' the wound 
 heals. 
 
 Choking is most frequent when cattle are fed on whole 
 potatoes or small turnips. If an animal is permitted to 
 elevate its head, a piece of the unchewed root is liable to 
 slip over the throat, and to lodge in the gullet, which 
 spasmodically closes before it, and the proverbial " lump in 
 the throat " becomes a dangerous reality. A " probang " is 
 not a safe means of relief unless in very skilled hands, the 
 gullet being so easily ruptured if force is applied. The 
 most simple and effective practice is to keep the mouth 
 open by introducing a wooden gag like a large bit, to pre- 
 vent the formation of gases in the stomach, and to avoid 
 choking by saliva which then runs from the mouth in 
 place of into the windpipe ; a little oil and sulphuric-ether, 
 sufficient to lubricate the part, may also be given with 
 advantage. To drench a choking animal with salt and 
 water is a barbarous and dangerous practice (although the 
 
cows AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 1 53 
 
 violent coughing which is set up, may help to relax the 
 muscular contraction of the gullet), as the gullet being 
 closed the solution must find its way into the windpipe 
 and bronchial tubes, and produce great irritation and 
 discomfort, if not organic disease. Choking may be pre- 
 vented by keeping down the heads of the animals while 
 feeding on roots in their stalls by letting drop on the 
 backs of their necks a long pole, about three inches in 
 diameter, hinged to and suspended from the rail support- 
 ing the upper ends of the stakes to which the cattle are 
 tied. 
 
 Lameness is generally produced by casual injuries, by 
 something hard, such as a small stone, picked up and fixed 
 between the digits, or by scalding in wet seasons. A hind- 
 leg can be held up for examination and treatment, by a 
 man on each side standing close, to the cow, and lifting by 
 means of a stick, about the length and strength of a one- 
 horse whipple-tree, which is placed across between them in 
 front of the animal's hough. A strip of strong canvas, 
 drawn backward and forward between the hoofs, should be 
 used to clear away all dung, earth, or other foreign matter 
 which may have lodged there, to admit of a thorough 
 examination of the part, and to prepare for a footrot- 
 mixture, or some other acid stimulating dressing, which 
 should then be applied by means of a thin splinter of 
 wood. 
 
 Cows or bulls which are not allowed much exercise, be- 
 come lame through the hoofs not being naturally worn by 
 walking, so that they grow long and turn up at the toes. 
 The overgrowth of horn may be removed by sawing, fol- 
 lowed by the using of a pair of long-handled powerful 
 shears for dressing or finishing. 
 
CHAPTER XII.— PIGS* 
 
 Pigs — Sus scrofa and Sus Indicus — General Show Points of Improved Breeds 
 — The Bacon-curer's Pig — Changes in Feeding and in Curing — Dis- 
 tinguishing Characteristics — Yorkshires — Large, Small, and Middle 
 Breeds — Scotch White Pigs — Black Breeds — The Berkshire — The Essex 
 — The Tamworth or Staffordshire Breed — General Management — The 
 Breeding Sow and her Treatment — Fattening Pigs — Feeding — Cooked v. 
 Uncooked Food — Warington's Estimates of Dead and Live-Weight — 
 Berkshire Crosses and their Yield — Cost of producing One Stone of Pork 
 — Number of Pigs kept in a Dairy — Diseases of Pigs. 
 
 "DIGS are divided into two groups — Sus scrofa and Sus 
 Indicus. 
 
 The latter, or Chinese pig, is by far the more improved 
 (refined) of the two, from the modern breeder's point of 
 view. 
 
 The Scrofa, the European pig, is sprung from and re- 
 sembles the wild boar. As compared with the Indicus 
 type, it is longer, leaner, narrower, coarser in bone, in hair, 
 and, in short, in every way ; the nose is longer and the 
 forehead narrower, but these defects in form are correlated 
 with a hardier constitution. 
 
 Improved pigs in this country are usually divided into 
 two classes, White and Black, but the chocolate-coloured 
 Tamworth deserves now to be mentioned as a third class. 
 
 The Whites prevail in Scotland and the north of 
 England ; the Blacks in southern England. Between the 
 two, in central England and Wales, are to be /ound the 
 russet colours and combinations of the three colours, the 
 result of crossing. All have been improved by crossing 
 the native Scrofa pigs with specimens of imported Indicus, 
 and by selection. The Berkshire and Essex breeds, fof 
 * For a list of the Herd Books see Appendix C. 
 
PIGS. ISS 
 
 instance, were improved about half a century ago by the use 
 of a number of imported pigs belonging' to an Italian breed, 
 the Neapolitan, which had been dashed with Indicus blood. 
 Improved breeds possess a much greater tendency to 
 fatten, and they have more symmetrical forms, but they are 
 not so active and hardy in constitution as the older kinds. 
 Close-breeding is shown by want of sufficient hair, barrenness, 
 or deformity of structure. There are many mixed or small 
 local breeds in Britain, but only a few of the leading ones 
 need be described. 
 
 POINTS APPLICABLE TO ALL IMPROVED BREEDS. 
 
 (^Show-yard Standard^ 
 
 In judging, it is best to begin at the feet and legs, as 
 these are most important, on account of their having to 
 carry the weight when the animal is fat and heavy. 
 
 'Wye. feet should be small and neat ; the legs perfectly 
 straight, fine boned, and fleshed down as far as possible in 
 both fore and hind quarters; the buck broad before and 
 behind, not drooping too much at the rump when the 
 animal walks. 
 
 Pigs are all liable to arch in the back and droop at the 
 rump when standing. 
 
 The back-line should be straight, and it should extend 
 over the neck ; the belly-line parallel, and continued below 
 the jole ; the ribs well sprung and deep ; the neck thick and of 
 medium length ; the ears, in most, not too large or flapping; 
 the head small, broad between the eyes ; the nose short ; the 
 under jaw shorter than the upper; the cheeks v^xy full ; the eye 
 not too small, quick, but mild ; the tail\on%, and a tuft of long 
 hairs on its tip ; the body well covered, all over, with flesh, 
 and of a rectangular shape from all points of sight, deep and 
 wide before and behind ; the skin medium in thickness, and 
 covered with an abundance of hair. 
 
156 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Though the points enumerated are those looked for at 
 shows, it has been most forcibly pointed out by Sanders 
 Spencer * one of the most successful breeders of white pigs 
 in England, and also by those interested in the bacon-curing 
 trade, that the most economical pig to breed, and con- 
 sequently the one which ought to be encouraged in the 
 show-yard, should be long in the body, a good medium 
 depth in the ribs, light in the neck and forequarters, and 
 heavy and deep behind in the hams or gammon ; or, as 
 A. W. Shaw of Limerick has tersely put it : " What is really 
 wanted is a pig that is neat in the head, light in the neck 
 and shoulders, deep in the heart, thick in the loin, stout in 
 the thighs, and short in the legs," — the reason being that 
 changes in the curing trade and pork market have resulted 
 in certain parts of the animal being of greater value per lb. 
 than other parts, as will be seen from the accompanying 
 plate after an original diagram exhibited by A. W. Shaw. 
 The shoulder and neck being of least value, it is shown 
 that it is a waste of food substance to transform it into flesh 
 of inferior quality, if by selecting anirnals with tendencies 
 to greater development in the more valuable parts a greater 
 amount of material on the higher division of the scale of 
 market values can be produced. 
 
 A great change has within comparatively recent times 
 come over the system of feeding pigs, as well as of curing 
 their carcasses. A generation ago it was the custom 
 to kill pigs about two years old, at enormous weights, 
 after the flesh had become coarse. The method 
 of curing left the lean portion gorged with salt, hard, 
 indigestible, and uninviting : then it was an advantage to 
 have a large proportion of fat to lean. Now, however, the 
 systems of mild-curing renders the flesh sweet and juicy, 
 and all efforts are directed towards the production of as 
 
 * Paper read at the Irish Conference of the British Dairy Farmers' Associa- 
 tion, May 1887, by S. Spencer, Holywell Manor, St Ives. 
 
PIGS. 
 
 IS7 
 
 Model Sides of Lacon. 
 
 
 Current Prices 
 
 
 Current Pri 
 
 No. 
 
 per lb. 
 
 No. 
 
 per lb. 
 
 I. Streaky Quarter - 
 
 I id. 
 
 10. Fillet 
 
 lod. 
 
 2. Rib Quarter 
 
 iid. 
 
 II. Shoulder- 
 
 6d. 
 
 3. Middle Quarter - 
 
 - SW. 
 
 12. Prime Streaky - 
 
 iid. 
 
 4. Ham Quarter 
 
 8M. 
 
 13. Thin Streaky 
 
 s:-d. 
 
 5. End of Neck 
 
 ■ 7Ad. 
 
 14. Flai:k 
 
 6id. 
 
 6. Middle of Neck • 
 
 8}d. 
 
 15. Middle of Gammon - 
 
 lid. 
 
 7. Thick Back and Sides 
 
 lod. 
 
 16. Knuckle of Gammon 
 
 7d. 
 
 8. Prime Back and Ribs 
 
 lid. 
 
 17. Fore-End - 
 
 6d. 
 
 9. Loin - . - - 
 
 lod. 
 
 
 
 Reproduced from the paper mentioned in footnote, page 15G. Though the prices are not 
 changed they fairly represent current rates, M'hich \ary according lo local circumstances in 
 different places, or localities of the same place. 
 
 American pork or bacon may be known by the roots of the hairs or 1 iristles being arranged 
 in groups of two or three hairs together, while the hair on the skins of pigs reared in the 
 British Isles is more regularly distributed. 
 
IS8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 great a proportion of lean to fat as possible. The large in- 
 crease of the consumption of fresh pork has also encouraged 
 the demand for young, lean bacon ; and, on the other hand, 
 the change of fashion which has put young and tender pork 
 on the market has helped to increase its consumption. 
 
 The best quality of pork is produced in moderately 
 cold weather. The low temperature renders the flesh firm, 
 it is also produced at a slower rate in cold weather, and is 
 in consequence more mature. There are striking differences 
 in the market requirements in the great pork consuming 
 centres of the United Kingdom. For the Newcastle trade, 
 pigs weighing from 5 to 9 stones are in best demand ; for 
 Birmingham, they require to be of medium weights — 10 to 
 1 5 stones — and for Bradford and Manchester, heavy weights 
 of from 14 to 20 stones, are in most demand. There has in 
 recent years been a tendency to boom small porkers, as there . 
 has been a run upon small-sized cattle and small-sized sheep. 
 Carcasses of moderate dimensions are no doubt more easily 
 manipulated, and more easily disposed of in a limited busi- 
 ness or to people with small families ; but there is no question 
 that for excellence of quality, the flesh of a pig weighing 
 20 stones is much finer and more mature for the purpose of 
 making into bacon than one of half the weight. A large 
 proportion of the pork consumed in the populous centres 
 is eaten fresh, or made into sausages. The flitches or 
 middle portions consisting of the sides and belly, weigh- 
 ing from 18 to 28 lbs, are frequently salted for four or five 
 days, and sold as bacon. 
 
 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 White Breeds. 
 
 The Large Yorkshire is the largest breed of pigs in 
 the United Kingdom, and one of those most directly 
 descended from the original pig of the country, and, it is 
 
Plate XXXIII. 
 
 A. — Small White Yokkshike Sow, "Pride of Oxford." 
 In 1878 First at Bristol, also Two Champion and Ten other Prizes. 
 Bred by Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, St Ives, Hant=, 
 
 B. — Large White Boar, "Holywell Windsor." 
 The Winner of many Prizes. 
 
 Bred by Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, St Ives, Hants. 
 
I'IGS— WHITE BREEDS. 1 59 
 
 asserted, without its having been crossed with foreign blood. 
 It has been vastly improved within recent years, but still it 
 inclines, even in its modern form, to exhibit the points of 
 the wild pig, viz., a hardy constitution, more or less droop- 
 ing hind-quarters, large head, long nose, large overhanging 
 ears, strong bone, flattish sides, and, when the great length 
 and weight of the Yorkshire are taken into account, pro- 
 portional narrowness as compared with the Berkshire. 
 The size to which the animals are now reared has been 
 much reduced within the last generation, but this is more a 
 matter of change in the system of management than a 
 change in the character of the breed. It was no uncommon 
 sight at the Royal Agricultural Society's shows a: few years 
 ago to see large Yorkshires estimated to weigh over 50 
 imperial stones, or as much as a bullock.* 
 
 The tendency to early maturity, arrived at by care in 
 breeding and good feeding and management, has yet left 
 as an attribute of the breed the property of lean flesh pro- 
 duction as against fat production,— a quality which con- 
 tinues to find favour with bacon-curers and the public 
 taste.-f- It is thought that the general improvement of the 
 large breed of White Yorkshires was initiated by crossing 
 with improved Leicestershire white pigs, which had them- 
 selves been improved by Bakewell, who applied to pigs the 
 system of breeding already explained under cattle. 
 
 The Small Yorkshire is descended on one side from 
 the same native ancestors as the large Yorkshire, neverthe- 
 less the two breeds resemble each other in nothing but 
 colour. The small breed is noted for its refinement and 
 
 * Sanders Spencer's toar, Sampson VI., winner at the Royal Society^s 
 shows at Carlisle and Derby, weighed' 9 cwts. as he walked.' 
 
 t Referring to the foreign trade, Sanders Spencer, writing to us in 18S9, 
 says that during the last four years breeding pigs (boars especially) have been 
 sent by him to many important centres of bacon curing in Ireland, Canada, 
 Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and quite recently to Russia, where 
 the Government are assisting in the establishment of bacon-curing factories. 
 
l60 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 beauty, its small bone, and its great tendency to fatten, — 
 qualities which have been acquired through its ancestors 
 crossing with Chinese pigs. 
 
 The small white occupies among white pigs the position 
 which the Southdown sheep holds among the Down breeds. 
 It is not, when bred pure, so much a tenant's pig as a 
 landlord's or a gentleman's pig. It produces excellent 
 fattening animals by crossing with common pigs, or even 
 with the Berkshire. It has been used for crossing in the 
 improvement of inferior breeds. 
 
 Points. — The body is rounded, plump, and symmetrical; 
 the head small ; the ears small, erect, and inclining forward ; 
 the face excessively " dished " ; and the nose straight while 
 the animal is young, but becoming much contracted and 
 quite turned up after a time like the nose of a pug dog. 
 
 The leading drawbacks to the breed are the small 
 number of young usually produced at a birth, and the 
 general delicacy of constitution, necessitating extra care 
 and attention, especially while y-oung. Both points of 
 weakness are no doubt due to close-breeding ; but in the 
 matter of hair the animal does not seem to have suffered 
 in at least one of the ways in which the injury from in- 
 breeding usually shows itself, the small breed being famous 
 for a profusion of long and silky hair. Its refined character 
 of flesh suits it best for producing porkers, but the want of 
 a due proportion of lean flesh to fat, besides a want of 
 balance of parts in the animal according to the demands of 
 the bacon-curing trade, excludes it from being a favourite 
 with bacon-curers. 
 
 The Middle-bred Yorkshire is the product derived 
 from crossing the large and -the small Yorkshire breeds. 
 As might have been expected, in accordance with the 
 general laws and principles of breeding, the small and so- 
 called improved breed has stamped its likeness more 
 distinctly on the produce of the cross than the large and 
 
PIGS — WHITE BREEDS. ' l6l 
 
 less refined Yorkshire. The middle breed is little more 
 than a large variety of the small white, being only slightly 
 modified in form through its relationship with the larger 
 animal. Theoretically, it ought to combine the good 
 qualities of the two distinct breeds, but as yet the want of 
 uniformity of type and the uncertainty as to the character 
 of its progeny are not fully overcome. 
 
 The recent changes of fashion in the market have been 
 rather in favour of those qualities which are produced in 
 the most perfect form by the large white and the Tamworth 
 breeds as against the quality for which the small breed is 
 prized, viz., that of producing at a rapid rate quantities of 
 over-fat meat. Had the middle breed taken more after the 
 large than the small variety, it might have secured even a 
 greater share of good favour than has fallen to it. 
 
 Sanders Spencer, of Holywell Manor, St Ives, the most 
 • extensive breeder and exporter of white pigs in this 
 country, describes and compares the three Yorkshire breeds 
 as follows : — 
 
 "The Large White should have a good-coat of straight white hair 
 of fine quality, and a white skin, with sometimes a blue spot or two. 
 This last characteristic is being bred out by those who have a con- 
 nection with the foreign trade. The foreigner looks upon it as an 
 indication of cross-breeding, although it is not necessarily so,' as large 
 white pigs of the purest strains will occasionally throw a pig with a 
 few spots. Nevertheless many of the so-called ' large whites ' which 
 have been exported have had a cross of Berkshire blood, which in- 
 dicates its presence by the appearance of black spots, both on skin 
 and hair, in the second generation. 
 
 In size, the large white pig cannot be too large, unless size is 
 gained at the expense of quality. The head should be of fair length, 
 and wide between the eyes ; the jowl light ; the lower jaw slightly 
 curved ; the ears inclined forward ; the shoulders no wider than the 
 hips ; the ribs well sprung ; the carcass deep ; the flank thick ; the 
 quarters lengthy ; the gammon, or second thigh, reaching to the houghs ; 
 the legs straight and well apart, and possessing no more bone than is 
 sufficient to support and transport the carcass. 
 
 Improved large white pigs are ready for the butcher at any age, 
 
 L 
 
1 62 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and if properly fed and allowed sufficient exercise they will furnish 
 bacon of the quality now most in demand. They are not only prolific, 
 but they are excellent mothers, and rear large litters. A sow bred at 
 Holywell Manor, and sold to Mr Hawes of Derby, reared 48 pigs as 
 the produce of four farrowings. 
 
 The Middle White is a shorter, thicker, and more compact pig. In 
 the matter of quality (except that the carcass is not quite so lean) it is very 
 similar to the large white. In comparing the points of the two breeds 
 in detail, the head of the middle-bred pig is shorter and heavier ; the 
 ears more upright, or pricked ; the nose more turned up ; the legs 
 shorter ; the hair more abundant, finer, and softer. It is not quite so 
 prolific as the large white, nor does it make such rapid growth when 
 young, altliough it fattens as quickly when it reaches the age of six 
 months. 
 
 The Small White is now but very little bred in this country. The 
 enormous increase in the demand for lean bacon has led to a complete 
 change in the form and style of pig sought for by feeders within recent 
 years. The small white, when well grown, will convert meal into pork 
 at less cost than any other breed of pig, but it grows slowly when 
 young, and the sows rear but small litters, although they are often, 
 prolific. The form of a small white is much like that of the middle- 
 bred, only on a smaller scale. The ears are pricked, and the jowl 
 heavier. Blue spots are looked upon as a sure indication of a cross 
 having been introduced by one of the large varieties. 
 
 Lincolnshire Lop Ears are large and rather coarse 
 pigs, but they are good feeders. They have long straight 
 noses, with an abundance of curly hair. They are often a 
 little heavy in the forequarters, and in this they do not 
 tend to conform to the fashion of the times. 
 
 The Common White Pigs of Scotland possess some 
 of the characteristics of the large Yorkshire,— for example, 
 long noses and long legs, — but they are hardier than pigs 
 of the improved pure breeds. They are slower feeders than 
 south-country pigs, but milk well, and breed excellent 
 crosses by the improved Berkshire or the Yorkshire boar. 
 The cross, when fat, or large enough to weigh 12 stones of 
 dressed pork, yields about i stone less offal than the pure 
 Scotch pig. 
 
I'l.ATR XXXIV. 
 
 A. — Berkshire Boar. 
 The Property of RussELi. Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirenceste 
 
 B. — Tamworth Suw. 
 Bred by R. N. Nethorpe, Scawby, Brigg 
 
pigs— dark breeds. 1 63 
 
 Dark Breeds. 
 
 The Berkshire is black, with a pinkish skin ; a Httle 
 white on the nose, the forehead, feet, and the tip of the 
 tail ; the nose straight, but the face more or less depressed, 
 " dished," as is the case with all pigs. In size it is inter- 
 mediate between the small and the middle-bred Yorkshires. 
 
 Defects that are frequently met with in Berkshire pigs 
 are : — The quarters drooping on account of being too short, 
 and the tail in consequence too low set ; the ribs flat, 
 causing deficiency of girth ; the skin furrowed, with deep 
 wrinkles down the sides ; the flank light, and the animal 
 leggy ; the absence of white on the tail indicating the 
 presence of Essex or other black blood ; the kair, when too 
 hard and strong showing want of breeding, when not 
 abundant (especially in the boar) want of constitution. 
 
 Berkshires are universal favourites where the climate is 
 suitable — the boars being valuable for crossing with common 
 stock. They are widely distributed throughout both 
 England and America. Crosses by the Berkshire boar on 
 white pigs are often partially red in colour, showing the 
 relationship of the breed to the chestnut-coloured native pig, 
 from which the Tamworth has also sprung. The produce 
 of a Berkshire sow by a white boar is almost invariably white, 
 though dark colours frequently appear in after-crosses. 
 
 The Essex pig is much like the small Yorkshire and 
 Berks pig, but is altogether black. Though not so widely 
 known, it is well bred, and possesses excellent points, 
 including a compact symmetrical figure and a small well- 
 formed head. Like other varieties of the same black type, 
 Dorsets, Devons, Shrops, it has become by natural selec- 
 tion well suited to local conditions. All thesis breeds aie 
 improvements on the old forms of the localities which 
 give the names. 
 
 The Tamworth or Staffordshire Breed, from the 
 
1 64 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 neighbourhood of Birmingham, seems to be the most direct 
 descendant of the aboriginal pig of the country. If crossed 
 with the imported Neapolitan and Chinese pigs, which were 
 used in the improvement, or more correctly the refinement, 
 of all the other breeds of this country, the influence of the 
 cross has not been so distinct, as may be seen from the 
 natural activity or restlessness of the Tamworth, the greater 
 length of snout, and the greater tendency to grow a large 
 proportion of lean bacon. In this respect the Tamworth 
 resembles the large Yorkshire, and is in its improved form 
 a favourite with bacon-curers, who object to a great pro- 
 portion of fat, a heavy jowl, and excessive breadth of back. 
 The common uncared-for specimens of the breed are un- 
 doubtedly leggy, ungainly in appearance, and slow maturity 
 animals, but these defects have within the last ten years 
 been, greatly modified, it is said, by crossing with the York- 
 shire breeds. The improved pigs still retain the great 
 length of snout and hardiness of constitution of the original 
 breed, and are through selection attaining the power to lay 
 on flesh rapidly. The great function of the Tamworth 
 breed as a bacon producer, ought to be to breed crosses by 
 animals of the Berkshire or Yorkshire breeds. By this 
 means good pigs for fattening purposes can be secured. 
 The colour of the breed is reddish or chestnut, sometimes a 
 tawny gray with black spots. This is a breed which has 
 come but recently from local obscurity into public favour, 
 and is likely to have a successful career in the immediate 
 future. Separate classes for Tamworths have been formed 
 for the last eight years at the shows of the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society. 
 
 General Management. 
 
 The Breeding Sow should be lengthy rather than 
 short, yet not out of proportion, and should possess the 
 characteristic points of her breed. She may be put to a 
 
Plate XXXV. 
 
 Suffolk or Small Black Pigs. 
 
 The Property of Her Grace The Duchess of Hamilton, Easton Park, 
 
 Wickham Market, Suffolk. 
 
PIGS — GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 165 
 
 young boar for the first time when large enough to breed, 
 say at six months old. If she is not impregnated (in 
 common language if she is " missed "), she will come in 
 season again in exactly three weeks. The period of a sow's 
 gestation is sixteen weeks. Breeding swine should run out 
 till farrowing time is near, to save expense, and to get 
 plenty of exercise and abundance of green food. There 
 ought to be six or eight pigs reared in the first litter, and 
 ten to twelve or even more in each after-litter if the sow has 
 teats enough. It is not a good practice to permit a brood- 
 sow to suckle more pigs at a time than the number of her 
 teats, as the weak ones are invariably kept back by the 
 strong, starved and stunted in growth, so that they do not 
 pay to feed if they do live. A bad milker, or one which 
 kills or eats her young, ought to be fattened off. Sows 
 kept to breed pigs for fattening pay best if fed for bacon 
 after the second or third litter is weaned. Pigs are usually 
 weaned when about six or eight weeks old, and a sow 
 comes in season for the first time after breeding (according 
 to condition) about three days to one week after the pigs 
 are removed. Forty-six to fifty weeks are thus occupied, 
 according to the age of weaning. A sow may be made to 
 have five litters in two years, in place of two litters in one 
 year, by beginning to feed the young on milk at two or three 
 weeks old, gradually thickening the milk with oatmeal por- 
 ridge,and, after a little, turning the mother out during the day 
 and feeding her liberally. She should then take the boar be- 
 fore the pigs are weaned, when they are about five weeks old. 
 When milking very heavily, an animal is not in that condition 
 in which she is most likely to come in season or conceive. 
 
 All pig-houses should be warm in cold weather. No 
 animal of the farm is more injuriously affected by cold or 
 damp than the pig. " Sows " should be managed so as to 
 have the young born when the weather is mild, and ready 
 at the season of the year when there is most food for them. 
 
1 66 . FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 A few days before farrowing, a sow should be put by 
 herself into a place the floor of which is about lo feet square, 
 fitted round with strong planksplacedhorizontally, projecting 
 8 or 9 inches from the wall, and elevated the same distance 
 from the floor, to prevent the sow lying close to the wall 
 and smothering the young pigs by overlying them. The 
 planks also form a protection from cold in frosty weather. 
 One section should be floored by a raised wooden platform 
 of I -inch boards to keep the bed dry. The person who is 
 to attend at farrowing should take charge of the sow from 
 the time she is separated from the others, and the place 
 should be well littered with straw. The sow takes up straw 
 in her mouth to make a bed within a few hours of farrowing. 
 The operation of farrowing may extend over hours, but the 
 sow requires no assistance : she is very sick and quiet, and 
 should lie all the time. It is a rare occurrence to see a pig 
 dropped while the sow is standing. When restless, she is 
 very troublesome and liable to crush the young pigs. Some- 
 times they are put at once into a warm basket to be safer 
 than by the mother's side. They should have a suck as 
 soon as possible, and be watched day and night for three 
 days. A safety-lamp may with advantage be left hanging 
 at night after this for some time. The food of the mother 
 should be sloppy, and for the first two or three weeks after 
 farrowing largely composed of sharps and bran, but after- 
 wards made more nutritious by the addition of barley-, oat-, 
 wheat- or rye-meal. If whey is given to the mother without 
 being boiled or soured, it is liable to induce diarrhoea in the 
 young pigs. Young pigs grow very quickly during the first 
 few days. The ones which maintain possession of the teats 
 nearest the forelegs are usually the largest and strongest. 
 Each has its own teat or teats, although they steal from 
 each, other whenever an opportunity occurs. They cannot 
 draw milk at all times, but only when the sow permits it. 
 She then lies flat on one side, and utters every now and 
 
PIGS — GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 167 
 
 then a subdued grunt, while the young ones suck with an 
 avidity pecuharly their own. 
 
 Fattening Pigs. — A farmer or dairyman should breed 
 his own pigs, for then he secures the whole profit and 
 reduces the risk of importing hog-cholera (the bane of the 
 pig-breeder's life), or other diseases, which, as in the case of 
 foot-and-mouth disease, might extend to his cattle. Young 
 pigs vary much in price — 12s. to 30s., or more, at weaning — 
 I guinea being a good average, and leaving a satisfactory 
 profit to the breeder. A pig-house to hold five or six pigs 
 ought to have a southern aspect, and stand in a sheltered 
 and dry position, and consist of an inner compartment and 
 outer court, severally 8 to 10 feet square. Six pigs of 12 
 stone estimated dead-weight each, have ample room to feed 
 at one time from a trough 8-feet long. It is better to feed 
 in the outer court rather than under cover, as pigs then 
 keep the place they select to lie on cleaner, by leaving their 
 droppings in the court. There are great differences in 
 individual pigs in the matter of cleanly habits. Some 
 deposit their solid excrement in one corner of the sty, 
 while others drop it anywhere, but when the house is 
 constructed on a good principle cleanly habits are those 
 most likely to be formed. No bedding is required if the 
 floor be smooth concrete with a fall inside of 2 inches 
 towards the doorway, and if it be swept out every day. 
 The outer court floor should have a greater fall into a sink- 
 hole in the centre over a covered drain if water be available 
 to swill it daily. In the absence of an abundant water 
 supply, the drainage of the pig-sties should be carried ofl" 
 by an outside surface channel. Another serviceable floor 
 is made by paving a layer of movable open-jointed bricks 
 above a layer of dry sand, which drinks in the liquid that 
 finds its way into the open joints. Feeding-troughs are 
 best made of fire-burnt clay, with a division for each pig, 
 to prevent the weak being driven out and starved by the 
 
1 68 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 strong. At dairy- factories, where fifty or sixty pigs are 
 placed in one large house and fed from long troughs, a 
 number of weak ones are always kept back till the others 
 are satisfied, and in consequence do not thrive. Male pigs 
 are castrated when about four weeks old and after fasting 
 for 12 hours, but not during frost. Those for breeding are 
 turned into a yard or field, and left to grow for a few months. 
 A ring is put through the gristle above the nostrils to 
 prevent their exercising the instinctive habit of digging, or 
 grubbing up the surface in search of roots and. the larvae of 
 insects. Mangel-wurzels, turnips, cabbages, clover, vetches, 
 or silage may be given uncooked and alone, or with a limited 
 supply of other food. 
 
 Pigs going at large at a considerable distance from the 
 homestead should be provided with a shelter shed. A con- 
 venient form is shown in the accompanying figure, capable 
 
 Shelter Shed on Wheels for Pigs. 
 9' X 5' X 3' to the Eaves, costing about £3. 
 
 of accommodating five or six well-grown pigs. It can be 
 easily moved to a new site when necessary, and placed so 
 that the one opening shall be on the lee side to secure warmth. 
 Feeding. — After weaning, which should be done gradu- 
 ally, as before described, pigs can be fed for months on sour 
 whey as the only food, and do fairly well. Any skim-milk 
 used should also be soured by being put into a tank or barrel 
 tainted with the natural acidity which arises in a vessel left 
 unwashed after containing milk, as milk in a sweet condition 
 induces constipation. It pays well, while feeding with these 
 or with buttermilk, to thicken the food, which by itself is too 
 liquid, with meal, boiled or steamed. A mixture of meal is 
 
PIGS — GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 169 
 
 best, and may contain beans, peas, gram, lentils, vetches, 
 wheat (including bran, germs, and pollards), barley, oats, 
 maize, or Indiana — the refuse from corn-flour works, viz 
 the outside or most nutritious part of the grain. The 
 selection should depend on what possible ingredients are 
 cheapest in the market at the time. Small and inferior 
 grain is usually selected. Costiveness is avoided by mixing 
 bran with the food. The dung of a thriving pig should be 
 soft and unformed. Roots are also frequently given, such 
 as mangels, turnips, carrots, parsnips, as well as small 
 potatoes and cabbages. All roots should be cooked for 
 fatteners, and raw potatoes ought never to be given to a pig 
 of any kind. A little common salt is a necessary seasoning. 
 Any "fallen" flesh (as that of a hors6 or other animal of 
 the farm) strengthens the boiled mixture and improves its 
 flavour; but if too much flesh is used (as at a slaughter- 
 house), or if the other foods are given without enough of 
 meal, the pork will be soft and inferior. Leguminous seeds, 
 particularly, solidify the flesh. Maize consumed alone is 
 an unthrifty food-stuff", although when cheap it forms a 
 suitable ingredient in a complex meal-mixture. All cooked 
 food should be given slightly sour and cool, but not cold. 
 Some extensive breeders disapprove of boiling the meal in 
 prepar^-tion for pigs, and prefer to give it dry or soaked 
 with cold water. Important experiments conducted in the 
 United States of America have shown results decidedly in 
 favour of uncooked food. Uncooked meal should be given 
 in a much drier condition than boiled meal, else it is liable 
 to be swilled through the stomach too rapidly. Fattening 
 pigs are usually fed at least three times a day, but it is better 
 to feed four times, and when they are newly weaned, five or 
 six times daily. As much food as is eaten up at once, and 
 no more, should be given. A few coal ashes or earth thrown 
 now and then into the outer yard for the pigs to eat improves 
 their powers of digestion. Sometimes pigs are washed or 
 
I/O FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 brushed once a week. When kept perfectly clean they will 
 not roll in the mire, unless for the sake of coolness in hot 
 weather. They seem to go into mud for the purpose of 
 cleaning themselves. The mud adheres to the skin, cakes 
 as it dries, and in falling off carries scales and dirt with it. 
 
 Warington says that " 83 per cent, of the fasted live- 
 weight of a pig (fattened for pork) should be butchers' 
 carcass;" and also that "91 per cent, of the increase from 
 100 lbs. to 200 lbs. will be carcass." About 5 or 6 lbs. of 
 rheal consumed by a pig should produce i lb. of increase of 
 live-weight. Pigs are the most economical meat-producers 
 on the farm. They consume more food per lOO lbs. live- 
 weight than either sheep or oxen, and have much greater 
 capacity in the intestines for assimilation, although their 
 stomachs are small. They consequently require a good 
 proportion of concentrated and digestible food. 
 
 Crosses between the Berkshire and Scotch pig will, 
 if properly fed and skilfully managed in summer when the 
 weather is mild, weigh 6 stones dead-weight each at four 
 months old; and at six months, 12 stones. The average 
 age at which pigs are killed, is probably about seven months. 
 They are usually disposed of for small bacon when they 
 dress to 12 or 14 imperial stones, and sell at from 6s. to, at 
 times, 7s. 6d. per stone. A good twelve months' pig should 
 weigh 24 stones, about 16J score, or 14 lbs. less than i lb. 
 of increase per day, for the last six months (182 days : 168 
 lbs.); while for the sixty-one days, between four months 
 and six months, it lays on i'377 lbs., or roughly, i^ lb. per 
 day, of dead-weight (61 days : 84 lbs.). 
 
 A pig lays on flesh fastest when from about 9 stones to 
 12 stones weight, and will then consume about 10 lbs. to 
 1 2 lbs. of meal, and increase over 2 lbs. live-weight, or nearly 
 2 lbs. dressed pork, per day. It is thus most profitable to 
 kill when a pig is estimated to weigh about 12 to 14 stones 
 dead-weight. Any of the improved breeds should do about 
 
PIGS — GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 171 
 
 the same as the above. It is the usual practice to give pigs 
 rather more time to grow, and to allow them to run freely 
 about while young. This permits of their being fed upon 
 home-grown green food. At eight months old, after being in 
 closer confinement for the purpose of feeding off, they ought to 
 reach the weight of 1 2 stones. The flesh of pigs fed entirely 
 under cover is soft and inferior as compared with that of 
 those which have access to open air and to sunlight and heat. 
 The hair on the latter also develops better, and the animals 
 are altogether more healthy both in look and in reality. 
 
 The price of mixed pig-meal, exclusive of grinding, 
 should not average more than ^d. per lb. (£4. 13s. 46. per 
 ton), which gives the following cost of producing a stone 
 (14 lbs.) of pork, with labour estimated at 7s. 6d. for each 
 1 2 -stone pig: — 
 
 Cost of producing a Stone of Pork. 
 
 Labour y^d., and cooking food i|-d., . 
 
 £0 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 14 lbs. X 5 lbs. = 70 lbs. grain at ^d. = 2s. iid.; 
 
 
 
 
 Er^o, 83* : 100 :: 2s. iid. : 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Grinding grain per ton 8s., and carriage, say 
 
 
 
 
 6s. 6d. = 14s. 6d., or per stone of pork, 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 Average price of a young pig, ^i, is.= 
 
 
 
 
 3 stones live-weight = 2^ stones of pork 
 
 
 
 
 at 6s. = 153. 
 
 
 
 
 2 1 s. - 1 5 s. = 6s. for the life ; 6s. -f-i 2 (the num- 
 
 
 
 
 ber of stones) = cost of life per stone, 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 £0 
 
 S 
 
 34 
 
 Deduct for offal is. per £1 of the price (12 
 
 
 
 
 stones at 6s. = ^3. 12s.), viz., 3s. 6Jd.-f 12 
 
 
 
 
 (stones), 
 
 
 
 
 
 3i 
 
 Average cost per stone, .... 
 
 .£0 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * The rule which adopts 83 p. c. of dead to live weight is here taken in 
 place of the one showing 91 p. c. of increase of carcass, as the calculation is 
 intended to indicate the average cost of producing pork at all- stages in the 
 life of the pig. 
 
172 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 This calculation leaves a net profit to the producer of 
 IS. per stone, or i2s. per pig, in addition to the manure. 
 The great advantage in feeding pigs is in the utilisation of 
 light or inferior grains which cannot be marketed unless at 
 a price below their feeding value, small or injured potatoes, 
 or the refuse produce from the dairy, more especially whey 
 and butter-milk It ought to be possible to secure a greater 
 price for separated-milk in large towns or on rail than id. 
 per gallon, which is more than its full value for feeding 
 pigs. It is a fact, nevertheless, that the consumption of 
 skim-milk in the large centres of population has greatly 
 decreased since milk-separators have been so generally 
 introduced, and since the full-milk trade has expanded to 
 the working classes. 
 
 One gallon of sweet-milk-whey is worth Jd., and is 
 equivalent in value to i lb. of meal if given in pig-feeding 
 along with solid food. It is usual to estimate 550 gallons 
 of milk as a good average yield per cow in a well-conducted 
 summer-dairy. One gallon of milk weighs 10 lbs. 4 oz., 
 and I lb. of curd is removed in ch'eese-making from i gallon 
 of milk, leaving about ^-^ of the original weight as whey, or 
 say 495 gallons, which, calculated at |d. = 20s. 7|d., or 
 roughly, £1 per cow. When meal for pig-feeding was rated 
 at |d. per lb., whey per cow was estimated to be worth 30s., 
 and would be so again should a rise take place in the prices 
 of grain stuffs. 
 
 The number of pigs which may be kept in connection 
 with a dairy of 60 cows, when sufficient meal is supplied to 
 make good pork, is about 70 — if they are killed at six 
 months old weighing about 12 stones each (50 being 
 finished off in the summer half-year, and 20 in spring and 
 autumn) — in addition to 10 young breeders and a boar. 
 The extra pigs reared but not required to feed should be 
 sold at five or six weeks old. 
 
DISEASES OF PIGS. 1 73 
 
 Diseases of Pigs 
 
 Are not so numerous as in the case of most animals, but 
 pigs are much more difficult to treat when ill than other 
 farm stock. If fat, a pig should generally be killed on the 
 first symptoms of ailment appearing, if the flesh is fit for 
 food, as, at the best, no improvement in condition need be 
 expected for a time. 
 
 It is a difficult matter to administer a drench to a pig. 
 A ready and simple appliance to use is an old shoe with 
 the toe cut off, pressed well into the mouth to keep the 
 jaws open. The drench is poured into the shoe and 
 passes into the throat of the animal from the opening made 
 at the toe. 
 
 Fat pigs suffering from the effects of heat on the way 
 to market are much relieved by bleeding close under the 
 root of the tail by means of a pen-knife. 
 
 By improper housing, or exposure to cold and wet, pigs 
 readily contract rheumatism, inflammation, and catarrh. 
 
 Diarrhoea often accompanies bad feeding. The treat- 
 tnent is, change to good food; give a purgative (Epsom 
 salts 3 oz.) and 5 or 6 drops of oil of peppermint. 
 
 Foot-and-Mouth Disease is got by contagion from 
 cows or other farm animals, to which pigs can also com- 
 municate it. It is not dangerous to life, though it leads to 
 a heavy loss through retarding progress in growth and in 
 improvement of condition. The hoofs slough off, and the 
 animals cannot move about for a time. Salicylic acid 
 lotions or carbolic acid and glycerine — \ dr. of acid to 10 
 or 12 oz. of glycerine — are applied to the feet, Epsom salts 
 (2 to 3 oz.) administered, and sloppy food or milk given. 
 
 Scrofula. — Tubercles usually form in the lungs, and the 
 animal after a time dies of consumption. This is oftenest 
 seen when pigs are in-and-in-bred, but it is also encouraged 
 
174 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 by exposure to cold and wet. It may be in a great measure 
 prevented by importing fresh healthy blood. 
 
 Protrusion of the Rectum is liable to occur when 
 flesh is too abundant in a pig's diet. The treatment is 
 simple, viz., to wash the parts well and return them to 
 their proper position ; to introduce stitches, crossing the 
 anus from hip to hip, and to feed altogether on milk and 
 treacle for a time. 
 
 Measles, also called "pig typhoid," is the most common 
 disease among swine. It is accompanied by a red rash, a 
 cough, and fever, and the animal ceases to feed. Treatment 
 — keep warm, open the bowels with castor or linseed oil, 
 and the skin with sulphur (i oz. daily), and act on the 
 kidneys with 2 drs. of sweet spirits of nitre. 
 
 Hog Cholera or Swine Fever is the great scourge of 
 the breeder or rearer of pigs not only in America but also 
 in this country. It is most contagious, and destructive of 
 life. Through the application of the system of stamping 
 out by the immediate slaughter of all in-contact animals as 
 soon as it is discovered, it is believed the country might be 
 freed from the disease, although it is admittedly a more 
 formidable enemy to tackle than pleuro-pneumonia or foot- 
 and-moti'di disease. 
 
 Symptoms. — Costiveness in the first, and diarrhoea in the 
 later stages, dulness, shivering, great thirst, and listlessness, 
 the skin being covered with red and black patches. 
 
 Treatment. — Slaughter without delay, and burn the 
 carcasses by the aid of a few ounces of paraffin oil. Wash- 
 ing out and white-washing contaminated places must be 
 resorted to, and disinfectants liberally used to destroy all 
 germs of the disease. 
 
CHAPTER XIII.— THE HORSE— THE FOSSIL HORSE- 
 THE WILD HORSE— CART HORSES— THE CLYDES- 
 DALE, THE SHIRE, AND THE SUFFOLK PUNCH. 
 
 The Horse — Early History — Fossilised Remains — Sub-genus Equus and Asinus 
 — Evidence of the Existence of a South American Wild Horse — Przeval- 
 sky's Wild Horse —Effects of Climate — Farm Horses — Clydesdales — 
 Prices and Pedigrees — Points of a Clydesdale — The Shire Horse — Differ- 
 ences between Shires and Clydesdales — Names and History — Quotations 
 from Walter Gilbey— The Shire Horse Society and Stud Book— The 
 Suffolk Punch — Its Origin and Characteristic Points.* 
 
 "T^HE early history of the horse is written only on the 
 ■*" pages of the rocks and of ancient deposits, if we 
 except the pictures of the horse carved by "cave-dweller" 
 artists upon horns and antlers. Remains of the ancestor 
 of the domestic horse have been found in the Swiss lake- 
 dwellings, showing that it must not only have existed but 
 have been of service to man. at a very remote period. 
 Before the horse was captured and domesticated, he was 
 evidently used as a source of food, as in many early paleo- 
 lithic stations the bones of the horse with those of the 
 reindeer have been found in quantity. In some of the bone 
 deposits in France as many as 20,000 to 40,000 skeletons 
 are represented in a single place. The primitive horse here 
 referred to was a diminutive animal of between 13 and 14 
 hands high. 
 
 Fossilised remains from the Eocenes in North America 
 exist of animals resembling specimens of the EguidcB, and 
 variously estimated to have been about the size of a fox or 
 a sheep. 
 
 The most ancient forms had four toes on the fore-foot 
 
 * For a list of the Stud Books see Appendix C. 
 
176 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and three on the hind-foot, all touching the ground. More 
 recent species exhibit three toes on both fore and hind- 
 limbs, with an increase of size in the central, as compared 
 with the lateral toes', but still all formed for action in 
 walking. Those of a later date have the two lateral toes 
 functionally useless, and carried up from the ground with 
 the middle toe well developed. In the horse of the present 
 day, as well as in that of the fossiliferous remains of 
 Pleistocene and recent times, the lateral toes are still further 
 reduced, being represented by splint bones, which do not 
 appear external to the skin. 
 
 The true horse is in scientific language termed Equus. 
 It is distinct from another sub-genus of the family EquidcB, 
 viz., Asinus, to which asses and zebras belong, and which 
 are represented by seven well-known genuine wild forms. 
 Asinus is distinguished from Equus by the absence >of 
 warts or callosities on the hind-legs, by the contracted as 
 compared with the rounded and well-developed hoofs, and 
 by the long hair of the tail being confined to a terminal 
 bunch. 
 
 Wild Horses. — All horses met with in a wild state are 
 generally supposed, with one exception, to have broken away 
 from civilisation. This implies that no species of horse now 
 living existed in America prior to the Spanish " invasion," 
 but an amount of evidence worthy of our consideration 
 exists which goes a long way to establish the assumption 
 that herds of wild horses roamed over the plains of South 
 America before communication had begun between Europe 
 and the New World. It appears that on the map of 
 Sebastian .Cabot, "Pilota Mayer" of Charles V. of Spain, 
 which was executed prior to 1 546-47, the objects of interest 
 discovered by Cabot in 1527 on the east coast of South 
 America are represented by drawings. In the upper 
 reaches of the river La Plata, which was first explored at 
 the period referred to, the horse is given with other 
 
THE HORSE. 1 77 
 
 animals which are known to have existed in that region. 
 It is therefore probable that herds of native horses held 
 possession of those plains now included in the territory of 
 the Argentine Republic and of Paraguay, and that the wild 
 horses of the present day in that region are their descendants 
 crossed with imported Spanish horses. It is regarded as 
 impossible that in the short space of twenty years which 
 elapsed between the discovery of Peru and the time of 
 Cabot's explorations in the La Plata, horses could have 
 broken away in Peru and penetrated the "vast forests of the 
 Andes" so rapidly as to reach these southern plains in time 
 to be observed by the explorer. Professor Angelo Heilprin* 
 says, " It would appear not exactly improbable, from certain 
 references contained in old narratives, that at least in South 
 America the animal still lingered on even after the advent 
 of the Europeans." John Lawrence also remarks,-)- " The 
 non-existence of the horse in America, previous to its dis- 
 covery by Europeans, has, however, been disputed, but I 
 recollect not by whom or upon what grounds." In W. H. 
 Flower's recent work on the " Horse," an independent refer- 
 ence is made to Cabot's supposed discovery, which is 
 regarded as possible in the light of the fact that forms 
 undistinguishable from Equus caballus, so far as their 
 osteological structure is concerned, "existed in America 
 before its introduction by the Spaniards." Whether 
 Flower's information is reliable or not, " it is- certain," says 
 Professor Cope, " that man was contemporary with species 
 of Eqims on the North American Continent."! 
 
 Przevalsky's wild horse, § Equus Przevalskii, is now 
 at least the only genuine one. It was found in the deserts 
 
 * In "Distribution of Animals," 1887. 
 
 + In the " History and Delineation of the Horse," 1809. 
 
 % See the May (1892) vol. of Wallace's Monthly, Rialto Buildings, Chicago, 
 to which the Author is indebted. 
 
 § See a notice of it, Nature, 21st Aug. 1884, and also in Nicholson's 
 "Manual of Zoology," 7th edition. 
 
 M 
 
178 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 of Central Asia by the famous traveller whose name it bears, 
 and was described in 1881. In colour it is "whitish grey, 
 paler and whiter beneath, and reddish on the head. The 
 legs are reddish to the knees, and thence blackish down to 
 the hoofs." Its head is large and heavy in proportion to its 
 small stature. The long hairs of the tail begin half-way down 
 from the base, being intermediate in appearance between 
 the tail of a domesticated horse and that of the ass. The 
 ears are horse-like, but there is no forelock, and only a short 
 erect mane. It has warts on the hind-legs as well as on 
 the fore-legs, and its hoofs are broad and rounded. In 
 disposition it is timid, shy, and difficult of approach, and so 
 it has been rarely seen. One specimen exists in a museum 
 in St Petersburg. 
 
 A horse can endure great extremes of cold and heat. 
 When the ground is covered with snow it scrapes with its 
 fore-feet to get at its food,* showing that its ancestors 
 probably belonged originally to a cold country, where the 
 habit would be acquired as a matter of necessity. "Arabs " 
 have come to great perfection under very different condi- 
 tions of temperature and climate. 
 
 FARM HORSES- 
 CLYDESDALES, Shires, and Suffolk Punches. 
 
 British work horses are usually classed as belonging to 
 three breeds, — the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk 
 Punch. 
 
 * European caUle do not scrajje rtith their feet. Nevertheless, West High- 
 landers are enabled to get at food covered up by snow when other breeds would 
 starve. 
 
FARM HORSES — CLYDESDALES. 
 
 179 
 
 Forty Points of a Horse.* 
 
 1. Hoof. 
 
 2. Coronet. 
 
 3. Heel. 
 
 4. Fetlock or Pastern Joint. 
 
 B. The Pastern. 
 
 5. Cannon-Bone. 
 
 6. Back Sinew or Tendon. 
 
 7. Hough. 
 
 8. Point of Hough. 
 
 9. Second Thigh. 
 
 10. Haunch or Lower But- 
 
 tocks. 
 10 to 20. Quarter. 
 
 11. Stifle. 
 
 12. Sheath. 
 
 13. 14. Flank. 
 
 Hip Joint. 
 
 Root of Tail or Dock. 
 Rump. 
 Croup. 
 Loins. 
 
 Point of Hip Bone. 
 Back. 
 
 22. Girth or Chest Mea- 
 surement. 
 Withers. 
 
 24. Shoulder Blade 
 
 i^capula). 
 
 25. Crest. 
 Poll. 
 
 Forehead. 
 Muzzle. 
 Nostril. 
 
 30. Jaw. 
 
 31. Throat or Windpipe. 
 32 Neck. 
 
 33. Point of Shoulder. 
 
 34. Shoulder. 
 
 35. 35. Front Ribs and Short 
 
 Rihs forming the 
 Barrel. 
 
 36. Chest or Breast. 
 37 to 34. True Arm 
 
 {Humerus). 
 
 38. Elbow. 
 
 39. Arm (so-called) or Fore- 
 
 arm. 
 
 40. Knee. 
 
 41. Chestnut. 
 
 A. SideBone.t 
 
 B. Ring Bone. 
 
 Seats of Common Diseases. 
 
 C. Wind-gall. 
 
 D. Splint. 
 
 E. Spavin. 
 
 F. Thorough-pin. 
 
 G. Curb. 
 
 H. Capped Hough. 
 
 *_For fuller details vide ** The Exterior of the Horse," by Armand Goubaux and Gustave 
 Barrier, translated from the French by Simon J. J. Hardger, V.M.D. Published by Lippin- 
 cott Co.j London and Philadelphia, at 30s. 
 
 t Side-bone is the result of the ossification of cartilege, and its seat is confined to the 
 coffin bone or the largest bone of the foot. Ring bone is of a similar nature, but it ultimately 
 involves one or both of the adjoining articulations. 
 
l8o FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 THE CLYDESDALE HORSE. 
 
 History. — There is little doubt that like most of our 
 well-known breeds of live stock, the Clydesdale is the result 
 of the successful union of selected specimens from various 
 other breeds, none of which possessed the good qualities in 
 the same degree of efficiency as are now common among 
 well-bred Clydesdales. Prolonged care in breeding has 
 admittedly had its influence in raising the standard of 
 quality. In connection with the origin of the breed, little 
 credence is now given to the story told in 1810 by Aiton,* 
 one of the early writers on the agriculture of the south of 
 Scotland, who also doubted the accuracy of the report which 
 he merely chronicled, to the effect that " one of the Dukes of 
 Hamilton imported from Flanders, about the nliiddle of the 
 seventeenth century, six fine black stallions, which he kept 
 at Strathaven Castle for the use of his tenantry and vassals.'' 
 It would seem that the Upper Ward of Lanarkshire has, 
 long been famous for a breed of powerful draught horses, 
 the character of the soil for producing frames of superior 
 size having no doubt been the chief primary cause of its 
 distinction in this respect. After the union of the crowns of 
 England and Scotland in 1603, an important droving trade 
 in cattle and horses sprang up between the two countries, 
 which continued for over two centuries until it was checked 
 by the development of the railway systems of the country. 
 The Scotch cattle drovers going south with their herds of 
 store bullocks, frequently brought back with them choice 
 specimens of English colts and fillies, so that in this way 
 the original stock of the country, before the name of Clydes- 
 dale was used with reference to the breed, would be blended 
 with English blood, by animals some of the ancestors of 
 which had been imported perhaps a century before from the 
 Continent of Europe. The splendid success as a sire of a 
 
 * Alton's " Report on Ayrshire." 
 
Plate XXXVI. 
 
FARM HORSES — CLYDESDALES. l8l 
 
 black Flemish stallion imported from England by John 
 Paterson, of Lochlyoch, about 1750, is strong presumptive 
 evidence that the mares to which this horse was put were 
 nearly enough related to him to prevent the appearance in 
 the progeny of that tendency to variation which accom- 
 panies the crossing of animals of distinctly different breeds. 
 Though the credit of establishing the Clydesdale breed is 
 now generally given to Lochlyoch's black horse, it is pro- 
 bable that he was the first horse of many of a similar kind 
 regarding which any written record was kept. But for the 
 fact that the Paterson family possessed the then unique 
 custom of recording important events in writing, we should 
 probably have known as little of this famous horse as we 
 now know of his presumptive predecessors. The Lochlyoch 
 mares descended from this horse are recorded in the stud- 
 book to have been 
 
 " Generally browns and blacks, with white faces and a little white 
 on their legs ; they had grey hairs in their tails, along with occasional 
 grey hairs over their bodies, and invariably a white spot on their belly, 
 this latter being regarded as a mark of distinct purity of blood." 
 
 This no doubt gave origin to the impression that a pure 
 Clydesdale ought to possess a white mark, however small, 
 either on the forehead or legs. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that single white hairs appear 
 scattered throughout the dark coats of many of the best 
 Clydesdales of the present day, as for example through the 
 bay coat of Prince Alexander. 
 
 It is a matter for conjecture whether some coaching 
 blood was or was not introduced into the breed by a stylish 
 black horse Blaze (named from the white marking on his 
 face), which belonged to Scott of Brownhill, Carstairs, but 
 the ancestry of " all the best and noted Clydesdale horses 
 of the present day" can be traced to Glancer (335), «//,3:j 
 "Thompson's Black Horse,"* which, there is little doubt, 
 * Bred by Somerville, Lampits Farm, Carnwath, about 1810. 
 
belonged to the Lochlyoch strain, and was consequently- 
 descended from the Flemish horse. 
 
 From Broomfield Champion (95) — the foal of a grey 
 mare — and the great-grandson of Thomson's Glancer (335), 
 the Prince of Wales (673), and Darnley (222), were both 
 descended. A considerable impetus to the breeding of 
 good Clydesdales was given when the Highland Society 
 began in 1827 to offer premiums for horses. One of the 
 Society's rules was that all horses eligible for competition 
 must be either "black bays or brown bays." Frame of 
 Broomfield, one of the most successful stallion owners of 
 the day, set a useful example to breeders by castrating all 
 grey colts, thereby stimulating the desire " which now exists 
 for bays and browns," and reducing the number of grey 
 horses in the country. 
 
 The importation of English blood was not confined to 
 the domain of ancient history. Tintock, a Shire horse 
 imported by Galbraith of Croy Cunningham, Killearn, about 
 twenty-five years ago, left a number of good fillies, his stock 
 being more famous on the female than on the male side. 
 From one of these was bred Damsel, which was for a time the 
 champion mare of Scotland, in the possession of Martin of 
 Auchendennan, and was sold -at his sale for exportation for 
 500 guineas. Another Tintock filly was the dam of Lord 
 Salisbury, who was also a champion and sold for export at 
 :^I500. Tintock took the second prize at Glasgow show in 
 1867, and travelled in the Strathendrick district during the 
 same year. He was ultimately exported to Canada, where 
 he was given the name of Conqueror. Old Brickhouse 
 was bought at Horncastle fair (21 miles east of Lincoln) 
 by Fergus of Brickhouse, and sold to William Park, of 
 Dalmuir, to breed Clydesdales. She left three fillies by 
 different sires, which were all champions at Glasgow show, 
 and two were first both as " eild " and brood mares at the 
 Highland Society's show. Lawrence Drew's Pi-ince of 
 
FARM HORSES— CLYDESDALES. 1 83 
 
 Avondale (not in the stud-book) — dam an English mare, 
 and sire the Prince of Wales — left two champion mares, 
 both got in the same year, and still (1892) taking first 
 prizes. 
 
 The granddams of the Prince of Wales (673) were both 
 known to be English or so-called Shire mares ; but as the 
 traffic in horses between the two countries involved the 
 carrying of colts and fillies from Lanarkshire into England, 
 it cannot be denied that these mares and other animals 
 imported into Scotland were most probably to some extent 
 of Clydesdale origin. 
 
 The most rational view to take of the position of matters, 
 after setting aside all narrow prejudices of nation or of 
 breed, is to regard the heavy draught horses of England and 
 of Scotland to be different types of the same breed. The 
 difference between the two so-called breeds amounts to 
 nothing more than what may appropriately be covered by 
 the term "different type." 
 
 Scotch breeders are rather proud that a number of 
 successful English breeders attempt to follow the Clydes- 
 dale type by selecting and breeding from Shire animals 
 showing strong Clydesdale points. James Forshaw, for 
 example, with Bar None (2388), a horse of this description, 
 secured the first prize at the London show in 1882. 
 
 Although many of the best Clydesdales of the day 
 are probably heavier than the corresponding animals 
 at any previous period in the history of the breed, still 
 there is a tendency to diminished size in the most fashion- 
 able cross of the day, viz., between the Darnley mares and 
 the descendants of the Old Prince of Wales. 
 
 In the keen competition for supremacy which took place 
 between these two famous founders of the two great strains 
 of fashionable Clydesdale blood, Darnley had the better of 
 the Old Prince of Wales for a time in the show-ring, but 
 the Prince fully regained his position in the estimation of 
 
1 84 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 the public as soon as the quahty of his stock by the Darnley 
 mares was recognised. 
 
 The Prince of Wales (673), foaled 1866, was bred by 
 James Nicol Fleming, at Drumburle, Kilkerran, Ayrshire, 
 and became the property (i) of David Riddell, Kilbowie, 
 Duntocher ; (2) of Lawrence Drew, Merryton, Hamilton ; 
 and (3) of David Riddell, (then) Blackball, Paisley. The 
 following is his showing record as given in the Clydesdale 
 stud-book : — 
 
 " First prize at the Highland Society's Show at Edinburgh in 1869 ; 
 second at Dumfries in 1870 ; first at Kelso in 1872 ; and first at the 
 Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Manchester in 1869." 
 
 He was sold at the Merryton sale when eighteen years 
 old for .^945. 
 
 The Prince was a horse of splendid action, much better 
 in this respect than Darnley, described below, although he 
 was defective in his houghs, from the symmetrical point of 
 view — being too straight and "corked" as if he had thorough- 
 pin. He showed his English connection in the confoi'mation 
 of his head, in his prominent nose, and small and somewhat 
 defective eye. The Prince had a will of his own, and his 
 somewhat intractable disposition has been transmitted to 
 many of his progeny. 
 
 Darnley (222) — also bay lik6 the Prince of Wales, — 
 foaled in 1872, was bred by Sir William Stirling-Maxwell 
 of Keir, Bart, near Dunblane, and bought by David Riddell. 
 His prize record in the stud-book is : — 
 
 " Second at the Highland Society's Show at Stirling in 1873 > the 
 premiums of Glasgow Agricultural Society in 1876 and 1877 ; first at 
 the Highland Society's Show at Edinburgh in 1877 > ^^d the champion 
 cup at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Dumfries in 
 1878 ; also second at the Royal Agricultural Society of England's 
 Show at Kilburn, London, 1879 ; first at the Royal Agricultural 
 Society's Show at Carlisle, i88o; first at Highland and Agricultural 
 Society's Show at Glasgow in 1882, as sire of the best family of five 
 aged animals exhibited ; and first and champion cup at Highland and 
 Agricultural Society's Show at Edinburgh in 1884." 
 
Plate XXXVII. 
 
 A. — Clydesdale Stallion, " Daknley," 222. 
 
 While the Property of David Rtddell, won the Highland Society and the Clydesda'e Horse 
 
 Society Championships in 1884, &:c. 
 
 Bred by Sir Wm. Stirltnc Maxwkll, Bart. 
 
 ^■l^'"- '^"^ 
 
 B. — Clydesdale Stallion, "The Prince of Wales," 673. 
 
 Fir*,t at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show, 1869 ; First at Kelso in 1S72 
 
 First at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show, 1809. 
 
 For further particulars see page 184. 
 
Plate XXXVIII. 
 
 />. — Ci.VDESDALE Stalxion, "Prince OF Al.BlON," 6178, aged Two Vears and Six Moiiths. 
 The Property of John Gelmour, Montrave, Leven. 
 
 B.— Clydesdale Mare, " Moss Rose," 6203. 
 The Property of John Gilmour, Montrave, Leven. 
 
FARM . HORSES— CLYDESDALES. 1 8 5 
 
 Darnley was said to owe much to the wonderful quahty 
 of his dam. His chief defects were, he was h'ght in the 
 thigh, and he went a little "side-ways" both in walking and 
 trotting. It has, nevertheless, been asserted that he was the 
 best " walker " of any horse of his time despite the cast in 
 his fore-feet. 
 
 The Prince of Albion (6178), for which J. Gilmour of 
 Montrave is reported to have paid ;£'3000, is by the mother's 
 side related to Darnley, although he was sired by the Old 
 Prince of Wales. The Macgregor (1487), and Flashwood 
 (3604), two of the most celebrated horses of the present 
 time, were got by Darnley. 
 
 The highest price, 1000 gs., ever paid for a two-year-old ' 
 Clydesdale filly was given at Montrave sale in 1892 for an 
 animal of the same fashionable blood, Montrave Rosea, the 
 offspring of the two champions, Prince of Albion (6178) and 
 Moss Rose (6203), shown in the accompanying plate. 
 
 Great credit was given to David Riddell for purchasing 
 and retaining the Prince of Wales and Darnley for the 
 benefit of the breed of horses in this country, at a time 
 when high prices could be secured for such animals for 
 exportation. 
 
 Characteristic Features and Points of the Breed. — 
 Under this heading there appears the following suggestive 
 paragraph in the historical and descriptive introduction in 
 the "Retrospective Volume" of the Clydesdale stud-book: — 
 
 " The oldest judges of Clydesdale horses in the Upper Ward of 
 Lanarkshire, are of opinion that the Clydesdale horses of the present 
 day differ little from those which were sold at Lanark and Rutherglen 
 Fairs. Few of them will allow that they have been improved during 
 the last 30 or 40 years ; and many maintain that horses in old days 
 were better furnished with bone, their legs better fringed with hair, and 
 in general much sounder than those for which high prices have been 
 paid during recent years." 
 
 As the highest Scottish veterinary authorities have ex- 
 pressed dissatisfaction with the regulations for the exclusion 
 
1 86 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 of unsound animals at shows, and the tendency to breed 
 from lame horses, it is to be feared that those responsible 
 for the safe keeping of the Clydesdale breed of horses have 
 not in recent years been exercising a degree of vigilance in 
 this matter, which can be at all favourably compared with 
 the efficient supervision exercised by the guardians of the 
 Shire breed over the borders. 
 
 Although the foreign demand, which resulted in a large 
 number of high-priced horses being shipped abroad, has 
 been suspended, yet the owner of a really good horse has 
 great inducements offered to keep him in this country. 
 For example, the Glasgow Society prize horse of the year 
 1889, Sir Everard (5353), may be calculated as follows to 
 have earned ;^700 to his owner during the season — May, 
 June, and July : — 
 
 The Society's premium, . . . ;^iSO 
 
 Service fees of say lOO mares @ £3, ■ ■ 300 
 
 50 mares estimated to prove in foal, @ £$, . 250' 
 
 £700 
 
 The Prince of Carruchan (81 51) would earn over ^1200 for 
 his owner, Peter Crawford, in 1892, with a covering-fee of 
 ;^'io, and an additional ;^S on sight of a foal. 
 
 The exportation of so many entire horses has reduced 
 the natural supply of the best kinds of dray horses in the 
 market, and complaints are now made that certain classes 
 of horses are only to be got with the greatest difficulty. 
 
 Points of a Clydesdale. 
 
 The colour is usually bay or dark brown, sometimes 
 black or grey, more rarely chestnut or roan. The two last 
 colours are regarded as indications of impurity of blood. 
 The height averages about 16 hands in the case of mares, 
 and 1 6-2 in that of horses ; the temper should be mild, 
 though the animal should nevertheless be possessed of 
 
FARM HORSES — CLYDESDALES. 1 8/ 
 
 plenty of muscular vigour and nervous energy; the head, 
 medium size ; the jaw broad but not too large or loaded 
 with flesh; the nose bones, if not straight, slightly arched, 
 not "dish-faced"; the inuszle not too refined or tapering; 
 the nostrils wide ; the eye bright and dark, full and vigorous, 
 yet mild ; the forehead full between the eyes and broad, 
 tapering gradually upwards in the direction of the ears; 
 the ears a good size, neither hanging, showing sluggishness, 
 nor "prick-eared," but with frequent motion, indicative of a 
 good disposition ; the neck, medium in length and thickness 
 and slightly arched in the male, and also in the female 
 when she is in high condition ; the back straight and broad, 
 and not so long as to make it weak; the tail not too 
 drooping; the ribs well sprung, round or barrel-like, the 
 last one being a good length. Shortness in the posterior 
 ribs is not an uncommon defect in Clydesdale horses, mak- 
 ing them too light in the belly and leggy to appearance. 
 The hindquarters long, well packed, and rounded; the 
 second thigh well developed and broad ; the girth round the 
 heart good ; the body is then deep, and the height of the 
 animal greater than it looks; the chest broad and deep; the 
 shoulder {scapula) closely knit at the top and oblique, though 
 not necessarily quite so much so as in a hunter ; the humerus 
 should form a very obtuse angle with the scapula, else the 
 animal cannot put its leg well forward in moving. [The 
 position is indicated in Fig. 2, page 189, which, however, 
 shows the humerus (J?) to be rather too perpendicular ; 
 and that to be avoided where the horse stands over its 
 forelegs in Fig. i.*] The forelegs ought to be straight, 
 not bending back at the knee— a defect described as " calf- 
 kneed." This defect, however, minimises the bad results of 
 
 * The figures are copied from a. paper by the late James Howard, M. P. , 
 Bedford, in the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England" for 
 1884, who there first drew attention to the importance of the position of the 
 humerus in the shoulder of a cart-horse. 
 
loo FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 short pasterns. The legs should also be strong, and not too 
 far back under the body, showing that the humerus is 
 rightly placed ; the knee-joints broad and flat; the -muscle oj 
 the forearm broad and well developed; \h& shank bone of the 
 forelegs should present a flat side view, and should be thick 
 and slightly rounded in front, tapering to an edge pos- 
 teriorily, assuming a shape somewhat like a blunt razor, also 
 short and clean (not knotty), but with plenty of substance; 
 the sinews of the back of the leg thick, strong, and well 
 defined; the fetlocks large; the feathering, or long-flowing 
 silken hair on the back parts of the legs, neither deficient, 
 too abundant, nor spreading round in front. If fine, long, 
 and silky, it is an indication, along with a fine skin, of good 
 breeding. 
 
 White feet, though common, are objectionable, being 
 frequently though not invariably softer than the others. 
 They are now so prevalent among the best horses that some 
 authorities go so far as to say that a white foot and sock 
 are essentials in the pure Clydesdale.* The feet cannot be 
 too large, if not thin and flat or " down in the soles." Too 
 many stallions are lame from laminitis, or founder, induced 
 by excessive feeding and insufficient exercise. A tendency 
 in this direction seems to have established itself as hereditary 
 in certain strains of blood. 
 
 The fore and hind legs and feet must be all set on 
 straight, as they look better and are also stronger. It is 
 less objectionable to have a toe pointed slightly in than out, 
 when strength for work is the object. For exhibition pur- 
 poses the opposite is the case, as an in-toed horse on being 
 trotted for showing is apt to throw his feet outwards in 
 
 * There is a prejudice against white feet among the natives in the Argentine 
 RepubHc ; and in the great draught-horse-breeding ranche of J. B. Haggin in 
 California, Clydesdales cannot be reared owing to the liability of the white 
 surfaces to be burnt by the sun, more particularly when the animals have 
 access to water in which they can wet the parts referred to. 
 
FARM HORSES — CLYDESDALES. 
 Fig. I. 
 
 189 
 
 a. Scapula; b. Humerus. 
 
I go FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 moving. The tendency then is to exaggerate the defect, 
 whereas an out-toed horse when trotting "in a man's hand" 
 shows to the best ;idvantage. 
 
 The houghs should be broad in front and not too straight, 
 else there is liability to thorough-pin, and not too crooked, 
 as they do not look well although they are strong. Any 
 defect in a hough constitutes unsoundness. 
 
 The pasterns ought to be medium in length, so as to 
 give the necessary elasticity to counteract the concussions 
 caused by the characteristically quick firm step. If long, 
 they are weak ; if short and upright, they are more liable to 
 bony exostoses. Splints often appear in this breed without 
 producing lameness or unsoundness. 
 
 The action is quite peculiar, being very free and active, 
 and the step long and measured ; the animalwalking, when _ 
 unloaded,- four miles an hour. Young horses will at times 
 surpass this rate, but for an ordinary work horse it is quick 
 enough. 
 
 The sole should be almost inverted each time it is lifted 
 in either trotting or walking ; the movements of the limbs 
 free and ample at both knees and houghs, and straight 
 forward. The swinging or twisting out of the fore-feet, and 
 the side-ways cow-like motion of the hind legs, are equally 
 objectionable. 
 
 The Shire Horse 
 
 Is the largest British breed of horses. The larger sorts, 
 bred in the Fen country, are better suited to dray-work 
 than to agricultural work. The points of the best specimens 
 are very much like those of the Clydesdale horse. The 
 ordinary varieties of the two breeds differ more in appear- 
 ance than the better sorts, which, as has been explained, 
 are probably more closely related than farmers generally 
 suppose. The late Lawrence Drew believed in crossing 
 Clydesdales with good Shire horses, as among the resulting 
 
Plate XXXIX. 
 
Plate XL. 
 
Plate 
 
FARM HORSES— THE SHHiE. I91 
 
 advantages it remedied two of the greatest defects of the 
 Clydesdale, viz., the want of size, and the want of depth of 
 rib or body. Such a practice is quite in accordance with 
 the best usages in the improvement of all breeds, whether 
 equine or bovine. The fact that it has been practised on a 
 considerable scale for many years explains why it may be 
 continued with advantage, as the results will not be those 
 that follow crossing between two distinct breeds. 
 
 The differences in the ordinary work-a-day form of 
 Shire horse as compared with the common Clydesdale 
 are : — 
 
 Lower and more sluggish action; the ends bulky; the 
 belly or middle larger (the animal being a greater feeder) ; 
 the quarters shorter (more like the Belgian horse), and the 
 plates consequently steeper and flatter ; the houghs wider 
 between than in the Clydesdale, in which they usually 
 incline slightly inwards ; the leg-bones rougher and not so 
 straight ; the pasterns shorter, and the hoofs more upright, 
 giving a stilted look. Long pasterns are now sought for in 
 the best horses, no doubt to counteract the general weak- 
 ness in this point. The space between the eyes is frequently 
 not so wide, and the eyes are not so prominent as in the 
 Clydesdale. Roans and chestnut colours are more prevalent 
 among Shire than among Clydesdales. There is more long 
 hair or feathering on the back parts of the legs : this also 
 extends round in front, and includes a tassel from the knee 
 of the stallion. James Howard's paper in the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society's Journal for 1884 points to much hair as a 
 defect, being more or less detrimental to the animal in cer- 
 tain kinds of work, and especially so in a heavy-land district. 
 
 Names and History. — The Shire horse or its proto- 
 type, we are told by Walter Gilbey in his handsome little 
 volume " The Old English War Horse" * was written of 
 a thousand years ago as " The Great Horse." It has been 
 
 * Vinton & Co., 9 New Bridge Street, London. 
 
192 FARM LIVE. STOCK. 
 
 subsequently named the "War Horse," "Old English Blac 
 Horse," and the " Strong Horse." 
 
 It is within comparatively recent times that horses have 
 all but supplanted bullocks in the working of land, the 
 original object of the English horse being as a help in 
 times of war. Caesar's account of it shows that even at 
 that early date the breed was maintained in a high state 
 of proficiency, not only as regards physical form and 
 quality, but also in the matter of training. At a later 
 period it was necessary to maintain the size and strength 
 of the war horse, to enable the animal to carry the heavy 
 plate-armour of the mounted soldiers of the time. To the 
 efforts made to attain this object we are indebted for the 
 massive frames and powerful limbs of the Shire horse of 
 to-day. 
 
 Records exist, dated 1160, of the importation of horses 
 with the object of improving the native horse of ancient 
 Britain. Walter Gilbey says in this connection : — 
 
 " During the reign of King John — 1 199 to 12 16 — there exist distinct 
 particulars of the importation into England, from the low lands of 
 Flanders, Holland, and the banks of the Elbe, of a hundred stallions 
 of large stature ; and it is from the blending, nearly 700 years ago, of 
 these animals with the English breed, that some strains at least of 
 our heavy draught horses must be said to date their origin." 
 
 He further points out that the so-called " Shire " horse, 
 because belonging to the Shire counties in the middle 
 of England, — 
 
 " Has for centuries, beyond a doubt, been distributed in numbers 
 through the district between the Humber and the Can;, occupying the 
 rich fen lands of Lincoln and Cambridgeshire, and extending westward 
 through the counties " (shires) " of Huntingdon, Northampton, Lei- 
 cester, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick, and Stafford, on to the Severn." 
 
 The Shire Horse Society, and the Shire Horse Stud- 
 Book, dating back to almost 1878, have done much for 
 
Plate XLII. 
 
 .«*«i««.^,£^.. ^ r^.s„*>^^P-iS^^^^^ ■^^ 
 
 A. — Suffolk Punch Stallion, " Weugewood," 1749. 
 Queen's Gold Medal and Champion Prize as the best Suffolk Stallion at Windsor Royal Show, 18 
 The Property of Alfred J. Smith, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk. 
 
 B. — Suffolk Punch Filly, "Queen of Truimi's," 2702. 
 
 First Prize (^15), Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Warwick, i8q?. 
 
 The Property of The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park. 
 
FARM HORSES — THE SUFFOLK PUNCH. 193 
 
 the advancement of the breed. The extensive foreign de- 
 mand for Shire horses to go to Germany and America 
 encouraged breeding in this country by advancing prices. 
 
 The Suffolk Punch 
 
 Is named from its county, and from its compact and 
 rounded form. The colours are chestnut (dark and light), 
 and more rarely iron-grey or sorrel. It is said that the 
 colour was derived through a cross with imported Nor- 
 wegian horses, brought, like certain of the progenitors of 
 the trotting hackneys, by the early Norse invaders. The 
 form and action of certain of the Norfolk hackneys of 
 the day leave no reasonable grounds for doubting that 
 however the Norfolk trotter and Suffolk Punch may now 
 differ in size, style, and general appearance, they must 
 have been intimately connected with one another at some 
 distant period. 
 
 Arthur Young, writing in the end of last century, 
 mentions the Suffolk Punch as being one of two pure- 
 bred varieties of cart-horses — the large black, or old Eng- 
 lish horse, being the other. The body looks much too 
 heavy for the limbs, which are clean and fine, with little 
 long hair. The back is at times hollow, but this allows 
 of a finer style of neck and shoulder. - Suffolks are slower 
 in their movements than Clydesdales, and twist their legs 
 and feet more when moving. At one time they were ilat- 
 footed, and liable to become lame if worked regularly on 
 the hard road or on stoiie pavements, but the care be- 
 stowed on breeding has in recent years eliminated this 
 defect among animals of the first rank. They are steady 
 pullers, and suited alike to farm and dray work. 
 
 N 
 
CHAPTER XIV. — THE HORSE — THE THOROUGHBRED, 
 HACKKEY, CLEVELAND BAY, YORKSHIRE COACH- 
 HORSE, AMERICAN TROTTER, THE ASS, AND THE 
 MULE. 
 
 The Thoroughbred —Racecourse and other Selection — Early Improvement — ' 
 Importation of Roman, Spanish, Arabian,, and other Horses — Failure of 
 Early Crosses — In-and-in-Breeding — The Hackney — Origin and Develop- 
 ment — The, Modern Norfolk Trotter^The Original Trotter — Yorkshire 
 Trotters — The Exportation of Hackneys — The Cleveland Bay — The 
 Yorkshire Coach-Horse^The American Trotting Horse— The Ass-^The 
 .Mule. 
 
 The Tpioroughbred * 
 
 T S in some respects perhaps the most interesting of our 
 British live stock. It has been bred without admix- 
 ture of alien blood for more than a hundred years, and dur- 
 ing that time it has been subjected to the most rigorous 
 system of selection through individual trials of strength 
 and- endurance. No breed has been so effectually tested 
 for the special qualities required of it as the thorough-; 
 bred. The show-yard test of the cart-horse is very 
 different from this test. The merits in a show competi- 
 tion are determined by external appearance and by in- 
 ference, not by trial in the work for which the animals 
 ought to be most prized. The endeavour to judge the 
 qualities of a thoroughbred by external appearances only 
 ends in failure and disappointment in most instances, even 
 when this is attempted by the most skilled. An additional 
 
 * One of the most valuable and practical works on this breed is that 
 by Wm. Day, of Salisbury, "The Horse: Hovjf to Breed and Rear Him," 
 Bentley & Sons, 1888, to which the Author acknowledges indebtedness. 
 
Plate XLIII. 
 
I'l AiE XLTV. 
 
 A. — Thoroughbred Hokse, "Foxhall." 
 Winner of the Grand Prix de Paris, the Ascot Cup, the Casserwitch, and Cambridgeshire Stakes, &c. 
 Bred in America, and got by " King Alfonso," by " Phaeton," son of " Stockwell," out of "Jamaica." 
 
 
 B.— Shetland Pony Stallion, "Laird of Noss," 20. 
 
 First at the Highland and Agricultural Show at Inverness, 1892. 
 
 The Property of The Marquis of Londonderry, Seab^wrrfftritrScoiianiitarbuui. 
 
 ?Y, SeaWirffrritrQcniramiiaibuui. 
 lY, Seat>nn i Ih rilv'BLalianrttmbuui. 
 
THE HORSE — THE THOROUGHBRED. 1 95 
 
 selection over and above this process of natural selection 
 is apparently necessary, when we realise that since 1877 
 the Derby has been won on five occasions by an unsound 
 animal. Records exist of racing in this country as far 
 back as the beginning of the 13th century. 
 
 Of the early improvement and management of British 
 horses little is known with certainty. After the formation 
 of good roads the Romans imported horses of lighter build 
 than the native English horses, with the object of improv- 
 ing the latter for road-work. Athelstan introduced running 
 horses from Germany. Spanish horses were next used 
 before Arabians were imported. What were called the 
 "Royal mares" were imported by Charles II. About the 
 end of the 17th and beginning of the i8th century the 
 most famous of the Eastern sires were introduced, viz., the 
 Godolphin Arabian, Byerly Turk, and the Darky Arabian. 
 These horses mated with the Royal mares, and with the 
 best of the native English horses of the time acquired a 
 very large share in the establishment of the English 
 thoroughbred. Going still more closely into the origin 
 of the best thoroughbred horses of the present day, it 
 will be found that nearly all can claim relationship with 
 one or other of the three famous sires — Herod, Eclipse, 
 and Matchem. 
 
 The superior qualities of the few have been taken advan- 
 tage of in the improvement of the many. The improvement 
 has been great in the special direction and for the special 
 purpose for which the racehorse is kept. ■ It is true ^hat 
 the length of a race, which in olden times extended over 
 three or four miles, has now been much shortened, and horses 
 are trained to do short distances at high speed ; but there 
 little doubt, nevertheless, that the staying power of the 
 breed is as good as ever, while the pace in later years has 
 greatly increased. 
 
 The first or early crosses with Turkish, Arabian, or 
 
196 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Barb horses did not prove a success as regards the pro- 
 duction of winners, but the improvement due to the impetus 
 given by the cross became distinctly apparent in later crosses, 
 and appeared after a time in the form of animals superior 
 to either the Arab or the English horse prior to that time. 
 Though this is admitted, no advantage could now be gained 
 by crossing with Arabs. These are supposed to have re- 
 mained at much the same stage of advancement for the last 
 two hundred years, while the English thoroughbred has been 
 greatly improved. The differences between the two breeds 
 are now too great for a cross to '' nick " satisfactorily. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding-, apart from that modified form of 
 in-breeding which has been defined " line-breeding," being 
 derogatory to pluck, is not successful in the thoroughbred ; 
 but there is no breed wherein the advantages of a good 
 pedigree are more invariably seen. 
 
 The Royal Commission on Horse-breeding.* — In the 
 year 1888, certain money, which was formerly given in 
 Queen's plates for racing, was first diverted by the Royal 
 Commission on Horse-breeding to the encouragement of 
 horse-breeding in Great Britain. A show of thorough-bred 
 stallions suitable for getting half-bred horses is annually 
 held in March at the Royal Agricultural Hall, Islington, in 
 connection with the Royal Agricultural Society of England 
 and the Hunters' Improvement and Hackney Horse Socie- 
 ties, for fhe purpose of selecting the best horses entered for 
 the various districts. In 1892, twenty-two " Queen's Pre- 
 miums " of ;^200 each were offered for stallions of four years 
 old and upwards, and these were distributed in six districts 
 in England — three in each — and four districts in Scotland 
 — one in each. 
 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of England provided 
 three additional stallions for another district of England, 
 making with the six districts already referred to the 
 
 * Secretary— J. Herbert Taylor, 5 Gt. George St., Westminster, S.W. 
 
THE HORSE — THE THOROUGHBRED. 197 
 
 seven produce districts into which the country has been 
 divided in connection with the annual agricultural returns. 
 Notice was given in 1892 that the Society would no longer 
 contribute funds to help in this work, but that the Com- 
 mission on Horse-breeding must bear the whole expense. 
 All stallions are rejected if not found on inspection to be 
 free from — 
 
 Roaring or whistling. 
 
 Ringbone. 
 
 Unsound-feet. 
 
 Navicular Disease. 
 
 Spavin. 
 
 Cataract. 
 
 Each stallion is expected to serve at least fifty mares (if 
 required) in the season, at a fee of £2 for each mare, and 
 2s. 6d. to the groom. 
 
 The average percentage of foals left is about or a little 
 over sixty. 
 
 Though the horses got by the thoroughbred stallions 
 from half-bred mares form an excellent class of animals, it 
 is a question if the ultimate result will prove satisfactory 
 when the mares in the country are more nearly thorough- 
 bred. It is safe to predict that the time will come, and that 
 soon, when there will be a demand for more bone and 
 greater massiveness than the thoroughbred can supply. 
 Moreover, if the breeding of half-bred horses is encouraged 
 by t;he work of the Commission, the extension of other 
 breeds, such as the Cleveland and Yorkshire coaching-horse, 
 which are used for similar purposes as half-breds* must to 
 some extent be discouraged. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that the produce of the Queen's 
 Premium stallions, however excellent in themselves, are 
 only cross-bred animals, which will require to be mated for 
 breeding purposes with the greatest care. So far the Com- 
 mission has had nothing but unqualified success to report, 
 which has fortified it to ask for a more liberal supply of 
 funds from the public purse, but the critical time when 
 genuine skill will be required has yet to come. It was a 
 
ipS FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 judicious act to discontinue the payment for racing pur- 
 poses of the sum of ;f 3,360, which was formerly given from 
 Her Majesty's Privy Purse for Queen's plates, as the sum 
 was much too small to encourage first class racing. It is 
 questionable, to say the least of it, whether it was right to 
 give for the encouragement of horse-breeding such a paltry 
 sum, even when increased as it was by a Parliamentary 
 vote of £1,7^0 per annum. If it is a wise policy to encour- 
 age horse-breeding by State aid, the money thus devoted 
 to it is altogether inadequate. If a larger sum is ultimately 
 provided, the Commission will naturally be requested to 
 take a more comprehensive view of the situation, and to 
 extend encouragement to other .breeds than the thorough- 
 bred. A Parliamentary blue-book of 138 pages, containing 
 the minutes of evidence taken before the Royal Com- 
 mission on Horse-breeding, was published in 1890, and 
 progress reports will no doubt be issued annually. 
 
 The efforts to improve the breed of light-legged horses 
 is not confined to England and Scotland. " The Royal 
 Dublin Society issued in 1892 the first volume of its register 
 of thoroughbred stallions for service under the horse- 
 breeding scheme of 1892. The conditions are that the 
 stallion shall be entered in Weatherby's stud-book, shall be 
 over three and not over eighteen years of age, shall by the 
 society's veterinary surgeons be declared free from all 
 hereditary diseases, and shall in other respects be considered 
 suitable for the objects of the horse-breeding scheme. In 
 all, applications were received for 147 stallions, of which 29 
 failed to pass the veterinary inspection, 17 were rejected 
 for other reasons, and loi were registered. Under the 
 scheme for the distribution of .:£'3,200 for the improvement 
 of the breed of horses, the mares of farmers whose holdings 
 are less than ;£^i50 a year tenement valuation are nominated 
 to these stallions in their respective counties, two-thirds of 
 the fee of £2, being paid by Government." 
 
Pl.ATF. XLV. 
 
 A. — Hackney Stallion, " Rufus," 1343. 
 
 Champion of the Hackney Show, London, 1889. 
 
 The Property of Henry Moore, Burn Butt?, Cranswick, Hull. 
 
 B.— Hackney Mare, "Ladybird," 177. 
 
 Winner of many Prizes. 
 Owned by J. A. Mather, Thorn^ll. N.R.- 
 
I'l.ATF. XL\I. 
 
the horse — the hackney breed. i99 
 
 The Hackney or "Norfolk Trotter" 
 Breed 
 
 Is said by Lawrence to have sprung on one side of its 
 ancestral descent from the Norwegian horse. It is conse- 
 quently found in Norfolk and Yorkshire, where the Norse 
 invaders had their principal strongholds in this country. 
 The peculiarity of its action, as indicated by. its name, is 
 the most important difference between the hackney of the 
 present day and the thoroughbred. They have been freely 
 crossed by imported horses from the same foreign stocks. 
 The form, however, has also diiferentiated with difference 
 in surroundings, and the difference in the objects in view 
 held by their breeders. It is to the original' native mares 
 in each case that the trotting habit of the one and the 
 galloping habit of the other are due. 
 
 The modern Norfolk trotter was remodelled from the 
 earlier trotter of Norfolk and the fen country about the end 
 of last century by the use of Shales' or Shield's horse, or 
 Scott Shales (692), which infused much of the thoroughbred 
 Arab and Barb blood, and gave fine bones, pace, and stay- 
 ing power to the heavy^ roundrboned, and more or less 
 cart-horse-shaped trotter of the beginning and middle of 
 the century; 
 
 The original trotter varied in size from the farmer's 
 market cob to the regular cart-horse of the country, to 
 which the Suffolk Punch is no doubt directly related. 
 There are no reasonable grounds to doubt that the free 
 action of many of our cart-horses and the action of the 
 hackney had a common origin in an early British horse. 
 It was at one time a custom in Norfolk to trot the cart- 
 horses when returning with the empty cart or waggon, — a 
 fact which indicates that they were at one time lighter and 
 more active than those of the present day. Their increase 
 in weight can, however, be accounted for by the crossing 
 
200 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 which took place between the original breed (described as 
 " small, brown-muzzled, and light-boned ") and Lincolnshire 
 and Leicestershire black horses. 
 
 Among the Yorkshire trotters the same process of 
 improvement was carried out about the same period. 
 Thoroughbred Arabian blood was largely used through the 
 employment of a good horse named " Sportsman " and his 
 descendants. It is owing to the presence of an abundance 
 of Arab blood in the hackneys of Yorkshire and of Norfolk 
 that it is now possible to cross the two varieties with satis- 
 factory results, and to maintain them as they now exist in 
 the same stud-book. At an earlier date, but so late as 
 '775) crossing in this way was not advisable, as it is 
 recorded* in reference to Norfolk horses, that " not a single 
 horse of any repute has been produced from these half-bred 
 horses brought from Yorkshire or elsewhere." 
 
 Hackneys have been largely exported to all parts of the 
 world, and in recent times have been taken to India as stud 
 horses t for breeding, army remounts by the native horses. ' 
 The Yorkshire variety seems to possess the necessary quali- 
 ties for the purpose in a greater degree than the Norfolk. 
 
 There is a considerable demand for active Polo-ponies 
 at good prices, not only at home but at all stations where 
 British troops are stationed, the game being, recognised as 
 important in the interests of good horseman.ship. The 
 circular issued (1892) by Lord Roberts, the Commander-in- 
 chief in India, recommending officers to use only ponies of 
 13.3 hands high, will give an impetus to the breeding of 
 animals of medium size. 
 
 * In the first volume of the Hackney Stud-Book, 1884, to which the Author 
 is indebted for many details of the early history. 
 
 t The Report (1892) announcing the transference of the management of 
 horse-breeding operations from the military to the civil authorities, says : — 
 "The stallions at the end of the year numbered 367, Norfolk trotters being 
 most numerous, and most popular with native breeders. An improvement in 
 horse-breeding is noticed." 
 
Plate XLVII. 
 
 -Half-Ered Gelding, at Fifty Years of age. 
 Belonged to S. F. Petrte, Leith. 
 
 B. — Cleveland Bay Horse, " Fidius Dius." 
 The Property of H. V. Webster, Northallerton, 
 
the horse — the cleveland bay. 201 
 
 The Cleveland Bay, 
 
 A branch of the old coaching or chapman horse, is 
 now mainly to be seen in Yorkshire, although at one time 
 its habitat covered a much wider region. The breed was 
 in a most flourishing condition for about two decades 
 subsequent to the middle of last century, after which period 
 it declined. It, however, sustained its worst blow at the 
 time when railways caused the reduction of the demand for 
 stage-coach horses, and when it became fashionable to breed 
 carriage horses and other light-legged horses by mating a 
 thoroughbred horse with a light farm mare. By this means 
 also the breed became stained to some extent by the intro- 
 duction of foreign blood. Within recent years much greater 
 attention has been paid to the preservation and improvement 
 of the breed. The Stud-Book — the first volume of which 
 was published in 1884 — has proved a distinct .source of 
 interest, and a means by which the best qualities of the 
 original breed may yet be brought prominently to the 
 front. There is a tendency — due, it is said, to in-breeding, 
 but no doubt also to the thoroughbred cross — to a lighter 
 condition of bone than that natural to the old form of the 
 breed. 
 
 Descent is claimed for the Cleveland from the war 
 horse and Caesar's account of the use of chariots in war by 
 the ancient Britons is quoted as referring to it. Those who 
 are interested in the Shire horse are equally certain that 
 the passage refers to that breed. The probability is that 
 both claims are equally well founded, and that the differences 
 which now exist, admitting that they are great, have been 
 produced since Caesar's time by "crossing" in different 
 directions and with different objects in view. 
 
 Loyd's description of the Cleveland horse, quoted from 
 the Cleveland Stud-Book, says : — 
 
 "From 16 hands i in. to 16 h. 2 J in. in height, he should be 
 
202 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 possessed of good, sloping shoulders, a short back, powerful loins, and 
 long quarters. His head is rather plain than otherwise, and on the 
 large side, but it is well carried, and his general appearance denotes 
 activity and strength combined in a manner not seen in any other 
 breed. His action is not remarkably high, but it is the kind of action 
 for getting over the ground. In colour he is bay — either light or dark 
 — with black legs, clear of hair; and black zebra-like stripes on the 
 arm and above the hock are sometimes seen. These are known as the 
 black points, and are supposed to denote special purity of breeding. 
 White, save a small star or a few white hairs in the heel, is not ad- 
 missible, a blaze or a white foot proclaiming at once the admixture of 
 foreign blood." 
 
 The Stud-Book points out that nearly every horse of 
 note belongs to one or other of three great families, — the 
 descendants of Dart (83), Barley Harvest (447), and The 
 Hob Horse (316). Those who have carefully followed the 
 previously detailed histories of many other breeds of live 
 stock, will remember that this is in no way an unusual 
 circumstance, but is, on the contrary, one of frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 The Yorkshire Coach-Horse, 
 
 From the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire, is a breed 
 of more recent formation than the Cleveland. The follow- 
 ing quotations from the preface of the Yorkshire Coach- 
 Horse Stud-Book, 1887, indicates in a few words its recent 
 origin and general characteristics : — 
 
 " It cannot be claimed for the Yorkshire coach-horse that he is a 
 pure-bred animal, but that on the contrary, by the judicious crossing of 
 large-sized good-coloured mares with stallions altogether or nearly 
 thoroughbred, a class of horses has been produced suited to the wants 
 and circumstances of the times. By universal consent the colour 
 should be bay or brown, with black eyes, mane and tail abundant but 
 not curly, the height from sixteen hands to sixteen hands two inches, 
 with fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, and lengthy quarters, 
 high-stepping action, good sound feet, flat legs, and abundance of bone 
 and muscle." 
 
Plate XLVIII. 
 
 A.— CoAcriiNG Stallion, "Salisbury," 1888, Y.C.S B. 
 
 First Prize, Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Warwick, 1892. 
 
 The Property of 1'homas Carr, Kirk Smeaton, Pontefract. 
 
 B.— Coaching Mare, "Wath Belle," 3:^8, Y.C.S. B. 
 
 First Prize, Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Warwick, 1892. 
 
 The Property of T. Radcliffe Church, Aston Manor, Newport, Salcp. 
 
THE HORSE — THE YORKSHIRE COACH-HORSE. 203 
 
 The coach-horse has rightly or wrongly been described 
 as an improved Cleveland. Springing from the same 
 county, there are good grounds for believing that the two 
 breeds are related through some of their progenitors. The 
 high action of the coach-horse would indicate that it rnay in 
 the same way claim kindred with the breed of trotting 
 horses which has aided in making Yorkshire famous as a 
 horse-breeding county. 
 
 It is an established fact that much of the "quality" of 
 the coach-horse has been derived from the fountainhead of 
 "quality," the English "thoroughbred," and from the breeds 
 from which the thoroughbred was formed. On this point 
 the preface already quoted says : — ^ 
 
 "Amongst the oldest noted sires of celebrated coach-horses is 
 Dunsley's Dart, descended on his sire's side from Barley's Arabian. 
 Dunsley's Dart was the grandsire of Agar's Dart, the sire of Rainbow, 
 afterwards called King George IV., sold to Robert Thomas, of Eryholme, 
 Darlington, when seventeen years old, for .£300." " Harpham Twak, 
 said to be a small horse not more than 15.1, was a full-blood horse, his 
 dam's sire going back to the Darley Arabian." " Sawden's Active was 
 by Jalap, by Regulus, the winner of seven Royal plates in one year ; 
 whilst Lamplough's Victory, from whom a host claims descent, appears 
 by conclusive evidence to have be'en sired by Trotting Jalap, a son of 
 Old Jalap, which horse is recorded in the Racing Stud-Book as foaled ' 
 in 1758." "The dam of King William (245), a horse which was in 
 service in 1840, was by Brutandorf, and grandam by Old Sandbeck, 
 both recorded as full-blood horses, Sandbeck being the sire of Barbell, 
 the dam of Flying Dutchman." 
 
 The performances of the breed in the old coaching-days 
 are also worthy of notice : — 
 
 " Of the speed, power, and endurance of these horses, we have 
 recorded that Dreadnought, by Old Clothier, won a trotting match for 
 ^100, carrying 16 stones 16 miles within the hour ; Wonderful, a horse 
 tjiat obtained a high premium at Ripon Show in 1819, had a brother, 
 Peirson's Plato, that trotted 1 8 miles within the hour, carrying 1 8 stones ; 
 and Bevas Pullen's King William trotted a mile in three minutes at 
 Selby, carrying 14 stones." 
 
204 FARM LIVE STOCK, 
 
 Like all breeds into which foreign blood has recently- 
 been introduced, the coaching-horse cannot always be relied 
 upon to breed true to type ; but the large proportion of 
 "blood" present in the best specimens minimises this draw- 
 back, and time, with the careful breeding now being followed 
 will efface it entirely. 
 
 The American Trotter* 
 
 In view of the facts that the greatest progenitors of the 
 breed were of British descent, and that trotting horses are 
 rapidly becoming fashionable not only in this country but 
 on the Continent of Europe, no apology is necessary for 
 introducing a brief account of the " National Horse of 
 America " in a book relating to British Live Stock. 
 
 Public interest is divided among the three most noted 
 breeds of trotters — our own Hackney or Norfolk trotter, 
 the American trotter, and the Orloff or Russian trotter. Of 
 these the American horse is considerably the fastest. The 
 best records of the Orloff do not come within the 2:30 
 record, while the Hackney has been bred more for showy 
 action than for pace. It has been well remarked, in con- 
 sidering the different objects for which trotters are bred, 
 that the aim of the American horse is to create interest by 
 getting as quickly out of sight as possible, while the 
 Hackney strives to attain the same object by keeping 
 within view, and covering as little ground as possible. 
 
 John Henry Wallace, founder and compiler of the 
 American Trotting Register, begun about 1865, and the first 
 volume containing 3,000 entries published in 1868, may be 
 said to have laid the foundations from which the " Standard 
 
 * See an article on the origin and history of this breed, under the title of 
 "The National Horse of America,"' in the 1887 report of the U.S. Department 
 of Agriculture, by Leslie E. Macleod, Associate Editor of Wallaces Monthly. 
 To this article, and to his friend and kinsman Henry Wallace, Editor of The 
 Iowa Homestead, Des Moines, Iowa, the Author acknowledges indebtedness 
 
THE HORSE — THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 20$ 
 
 trotter " has been evolved. Wallace laid down the principle 
 that " speed will most probably breed speed," and thus made 
 the test of actual performance the basis upon which animals 
 were admitted to registration in the American Trotting 
 Register* which, till recently sold to a syndicate, along 
 with the Year Book and Wallace's Monthly, for 130,000 
 dollars, remained his own property. Since Wallace so 
 successfully took the matter of registration in hand, the 
 record (per mile in minutes and seconds) has been reduced 
 from 2:40 to 2:04, and it is fully expected that America 
 will produce a horse that will trot a mile in two minutes, or 
 at the rate of thirty miles an hour. 
 
 The following rules which come mto force in April 8, 
 1 893, explain the meaning of the term " Standard trotter" : — 
 
 1. Any stallion that has a record of 2:30 or better, provided two of 
 his get have records of 2:20 or better, and provided his sire or dam is 
 already a standard animal. 
 
 2. Any mare or gelding that has a record of 2:25 or better. 
 
 3. Any mare that has a record of 2:30, provided her sire is standard 
 and her dam is by a standard horse. 
 
 4. Any stallion that is the sire of four animals with records of 2:30 
 or better, or the sire of three with records of 2:25 or better, or two with 
 records of 2:20 or better. 
 
 ,5. Any mare that has produced an animal with a record of 2:25, or 
 two with records of 2:30 or better. 
 
 6. The progeny of a standard horse w;hen out of a standard mare. 
 
 7. Any mare whose sire is standard, and whose first and second 
 dams are by standard horses. 
 
 The rack or pacing action,f which involves the lift- 
 ing of the hind- and the fore-foot on the same side at the 
 same time (giving origin to the name "side-wheeler"), in 
 place of the fore- and the hind-foot on opposite sides as in 
 trotting, is a natural movement which may appear in the 
 progeny of a noted trotting family in the same way that a 
 
 * In 1892 it embraced ten volumes, and registered 60,000 animals, 
 t Vide Appendix D for illustrations by Eadweard Muybridge on animal 
 locomotion. 
 
206 FARM LIVE STOCK 
 
 famous pacing sire or dam may produce a horse which 
 assumes the trotting rather than the pacing gait. 
 
 In future the pacing standard will be the same as the 
 trotting standard detailed above, but pacing horses will be 
 entered in a separate section of the "Record." Pacing may- 
 be regarded as kindred to and intermediate between trotting 
 and galloping. The best pacing records are on the whole 
 still slightly in advance of the corresponding trotting re- 
 cords, but the movement is not yet so popular as trotting. 
 
 Important lessons to British breeders are to be learned 
 by studying the early history of the American trotter, which 
 in a word may be said to be descended from the best blood 
 of the English " running " or " race-horse " — the so-called 
 " thoroughbred," — with a happy combination of other blood 
 — notably of the old English trotting horse — the ancestor 
 of the Hackney of the present day. Macleod says : — 
 
 V 
 
 " The foreign horse that played the most important part in origin- 
 ating the American trotting breed, and that which conspicuously figures 
 in the ancestry of our greatest sires and performers, was Imported 
 Messenger. Messenger was a grey horse, foaled in 1780, bred by John 
 Pratt, of New Market, England, and, according to the English Stud- 
 Book, was got by Mambrino out of a daughter of Turf. Mambrino 
 was by Engineer, son of Sampson, by Blaze, by Childers (Flying 
 Childers), son of the Darley Arabian, a horse imported to England 
 from the Levant in the reign of Queen Anne. Turf, the reputed sire 
 of the dam of Messenger, was by Matchem, son of Cade, by the 
 Godolphin Arabian." 
 
 It is believed that Messenger was not a pure thorough- 
 bred because his grandsire, Engineer, sire of Mambrino, had 
 not a complete pedigree record. 
 
 There was in this circumstance an opportunity afforded 
 for the introduction of trotting qualities and tendencies 
 from the English trotter of the day, while at the same time 
 the preponderating share of blood was derived from the 
 thoroughbred connection. The thoroughbred type has also 
 been maintained by the repeated use of thoroughbred mares 
 
XLIX. 
 
 A. — American Trotter Mare, " Sunol," 2 : 8J. 
 
 The Property of Rohert Bonner, 8 West 56th Street, New York. 
 
 From a copyright photograph by permission of Schreber & Sons, Philadelphia. 
 
 B.— American Trotter Stallion, " Allerton," 2 ; 12. 
 Bred by C. W. Williams, Independence, Iowa. 
 
THE HORSE— THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 207 
 
 as dams of trotting stock. It is acknowledged by all the 
 best authorities that great uncertainty exists as to the 
 ancestry of many of the founders of the trotting breed, but 
 well-authenticated instances of the introduction of Norfolk 
 trotter blood nevertheless exist. ; Imported Bellfounder, 
 the sire of the dam of Rysdyk's Hambeltonian, generally 
 conceded to be " the greatest of all American trotting pro- 
 genitors," is believed to have been of Norfolk blood. . The 
 two stallions mentioned below, Axtell and Allerton, belong 
 to this line of descent. Messenger, mainly through Mam- 
 brino, his most famous son, was the fountainhead of the 
 four chief trotting families of the day; — (i) the Hambel- 
 tonians, (2) the Mambrino Chiefs, (3) the Clays, and (4) the 
 Black Hawks or Morgans. 
 
 Until unprecedented records were made by the brown 
 mare Nancy Hanks* (6), 2:04, the three most famous 
 trotters of the day, called the "Trinity of flyers,'' were 
 Axtell (3) 2:12, Allerton (5) 2:09^, and Sunol 2:08^. 
 Axtell and Allerton were bred by C. W. Williams, Inde- 
 pendence, Iowa. Though Axtell possesses the greatest 
 popular reputation, Allerton is believed by experts to be 
 the better horse. Axtell was sold to a syndicate in 1889 
 for 105,000 dollars, the highest price ever paid for a horse 
 in xAmerica. He was retired to the stud, where he has been 
 highly successful, and his service fee fixed at the enormous 
 sum of. 1,000 dollars. The mare Sunol, the property of 
 Robert Bonner, of New York, was bred in California, and 
 sold at three years old for 41,000 dollars. The accom- 
 panying plate of Allerton and Sunol shows that trotting 
 power, in either male or female, is not incompatible with 
 elegance and beauty of symmetry. It also shows that in 
 * Nancy Hanks, bred in 1886, by H. Boswellj Lexington, Ky., first beat 
 record on a regulation or round track with 2:07 J, or 2:05 J on a kite-shaped 
 track, which is considered,to be two seconds faster than the other ; but as a 
 six-year-old, in the autumn of 1892, she lowered her record to 2:04 on a. round' 
 track,- and established her reputation as a " lightning striker; " , , 
 
208 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 racing performances of a high order, " blood " or breeding 
 is sure to come to the front. 
 
 Though the best trotters show breeding in a conspicuous 
 manner, yet there are certain peculiarities of form which 
 have become developed in a marked degree — for instance, 
 a massiveness or heaviness of the shoulder point, which is 
 not present in a horse with a running gait, and a great 
 length of hindquarter from the hough upwards. The trotter 
 as a rule is good-natured, tractable, and easily trained. His 
 step is long and low, qualities which admit of speed but 
 which do not attract public interest as readily as the high 
 and showy action of the Hackney does. 
 
 Although it is only between thirty and forty years since 
 trotting became fashionable in America, the breeding of 
 trotting horses is now one of the greatest live stock in- 
 dustries in the United States. Trotting does not, however, 
 monopolise the racing interests in America. In New York, 
 galloping races are much more numerous than trotting 
 races, and absorb by far the greatest share of the attention 
 of sporting men. Towards the west the interest in trotting 
 increases, and in Kentucky, for example, it is all-absorbing. 
 
 The Domesticated Ass, 
 
 Asinus vulgaris, differs from the horse mainly in the absence 
 of wartlike processes (chestnuts) on the hind legs ; in having 
 contracted hoofs, long ears, and a short erect main ; in the 
 long hair of the tail being confined to a tuft near its extre- 
 mity ; and in the sound of its voice or specific call. The 
 difference between the bray of the ass and the neigh of the 
 horse needs merely to be mentioned, not described. Three 
 black stripes, one down each shoulder, and the third along 
 the line of the back-bone, — said to represent the results of 
 the three strokes given by Balaam to his refractory ass, — 
 though regarded as typical characteristics of the ordinary 
 brown or mouse-coloured donkey, are not always present, 
 
I'LAFF, L. 
 
 j-i. *<i ■*■• sir-/ 
 
 A. — PoiTou Mule, " Bkauty," 17 hands. 
 
 First at the Royal Agricultural Society of England Show at Kilburn, 1879 
 
 The Property of C. L. Sutherland, of Coombe, near Croydon, Surrey. 
 
 .;"'-£-■ <-%-#-^^.^ '- ' -.T?''^''i'Jwk:'&'^^^^ 
 
 B.— Jack Donkey, "Malta Jack," 14. i hands. 
 First at the Royal Agricultural Society of England Show at Windsor in 1881 
 The Property of C. L. Sutherland, Coombe, near Croydon, Surrey, 
 
THE ASS. 209 
 
 being absent from the large white haired, though black 
 skinned, Syrian donkey, so popular in Egypt with European 
 visitors. 
 
 The domesticated ass is generally supposed to be most 
 nearly related to the wild ass of Abyssinia (A . tcBniopus) ; but 
 whether the wild ass has broken away from civilisation, or 
 has been tamed and tutored into the docile and patient 
 creature which has from time immemorial been under the 
 control of man, is likely to remain an unsettled question. 
 
 The wild ass of Central Asia (/4. onager), which is noted 
 for its swiftness, and for more slender build than that of 
 those already mentioned, also differs in having shorter and 
 less sharply pointed ears. 
 
 The diminutive size of the common British and Irish 
 donkey is due to two main causes, — {a) the want of attention 
 in breeding, and ip) the coldness of the climate, which, 
 through generations of neglect, has been permitted to exer- 
 cise its full influence. 
 
 In countries where the ass is held in high favour — for 
 example, in Syria, Arabia, Upper Egypt, Spain, and the 
 United States of America, — he is represented by animals 
 of special excellence and value. In Kentucky, where great 
 attention is paid to the breed, not purely on account of its 
 own value as such, but for the rearing of mules, the size of 
 animals bred from the best Spanish imported stock fre- 
 quently reaches 15.2 and 16 hands. For certain descriptions 
 of work there is no doubt the ass and the mule are admir- 
 ably suited, and might, with advantage be more numerous 
 in this country. In America there is a greater impetus 
 given to the breeding of them owing to the more trying 
 nature of the climate, so that their hardiness and power of 
 endurance as compared with those of the horse are put to 
 the test and show to advantage. 
 
 The Mule, properly so named, is the produce of a cross 
 between a Jack-donkey and a mare, while the animal pro- 
 
 O 
 
210 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 duced by a stallion and female ass is called a Hinny. The 
 latter is rarely seen, and is usually inferior in size and 
 quality to the mule, which is a most valuable beast of burden 
 in hilly regions or in hot countries, being more sure-footed 
 and possessing greater powers of endurance than the horse, 
 more especially when living on poor food. In external form 
 the mule most strongly resembles the ass ; but when bred 
 from a heavy draught mare, it combines with this something 
 of the superior stature and massiveness of the mother. 
 
 The mule has not been much Used in this country, except 
 in tramway cars in London, Glasgow, and a few other popu- 
 lous centres for a few years subsequent to the sale of pack 
 mules which occurred after the close of the last Egyptian 
 campaign. The secretary and manager of the Glasgow 
 Tramway and Omnibus Company writes, in September 
 1892, " We have now no mules, having allowed them to run 
 out" ; no doubt because there exists no means of procur- 
 ing them in the open market in this country. 
 
 " Mules have some advantage over horses in tramway 
 work, — (i) they are not particular as to the quality of their 
 food, and they consume less of it by about 7 lbs. per day ; 
 (2) they are not nearly so liable to fall, being very sure- 
 footed ; (3) they are durable, and fully four miles per day 
 more can be taken out of them than out of horses." 
 
 In America they are extensively employed. The U.S. 
 agricultural returns for 1892 show the existence of 2,314,699 
 mules in the United States, which take their share in the 
 work of the country with the 15,498,140 horses which 
 appear in the same table. 
 
 The good qualities of the mule in the performance of 
 farm work in England has been demonstrated by Edward 
 Pease, of Darlington, and by C. L. Sutherland, of Coombe, 
 Croydon. At the latter place a farm of 300 acres (90 being 
 arable) was worked entirely by mules, which consumed a 
 bushel of oats each per week with green clover in summer, 
 
THE MULE. 211 
 
 and one and a half bushels of oats each per week with hay 
 during winter. Mules are not only hardier and less liable 
 to become lame than horses, but in competition with 
 horses of their own weight they are more powerful. Conse- 
 quently, where mules are understood and appreciated, the 
 price of a work mule is relatively higher than that of a 
 horse. 
 
 The mule is generally believed to be barren, but this is 
 not so in the case of the female mule and female hinny. 
 The foal of the she-mule, which may be got by either a 
 Jack or a stallion, is however seldom born alive. 
 
 The mule is more feeble as a young foal than the pure 
 blooded foal of the mare or of the she-ass. It is also 
 longer in reaching maturity, but it lives longer, and may 
 be worked for a longer period than the horse. 
 
CHAPTER XV.— THE HORSE— BREEDING 
 AND BREAKING. 
 
 Breeding — Selection of the Mare — Treatment of a Farm Mare — Taking the 
 Horse —Difficulties about Conception — The Foal — Young Cart Horses — 
 Castration — Breaking — The Age of a Horse from his Teeth. 
 
 COUND animals of good blood and good pluck, and 
 free from any vicious tendency of temper, should be 
 selected to breed from. 
 
 Three years old is an early enough age to put a mare 
 to the stallion ; if she be younger, or if she be too old, 
 the foal may be small and weakly. The period of 
 gestation is about eleven months. May is the best month 
 for foaling, as there is then an abundant supply of green 
 food, and the weather is mild enough for brood mares 
 to lie out in the fields. At going out, shelters ought to 
 be provided for a few nights to prevent taking cold. 
 Small but increasing amounts of green food should be 
 given for a few days before this event, to accustom the 
 digestive system to the change, and thus to prevent colic. 
 
 A farm-mare should continue to do a moderate amount 
 of light work, such as ploughing, till the day of foaling, 
 but should not be put between shafts for some months 
 before that time, as owing to the enlarged size of the 
 belly as parturition approaches there is risk of injury. 
 The quantity of concentrated or rich food ought to be 
 restricted in the case of a mare in high condition some 
 little while before her time is up. Wax is seen on the 
 teats within twenty-four hours of foaling, and after it 
 
THE HORSE — BREEDING AND BREAKING. 21 3 
 
 appears the mare should be regularly watched, to prevent 
 her doing injury to the foal at birth by lying down with 
 her tail too close to the wall : beyond these precautions 
 she rarely requires assistance. A roomy loose box is the 
 best place for her to occupy. 
 
 The foal should be induced to suck immediately. If 
 this is not possible, a little milk must be drawn by the 
 finger and thumb from the mother's teat into a spoon 
 and poured iAto the foal's mouth, as a foal cannot live 
 long without food. To see that the anus of the young 
 one is not by chance closed by an adventitious skin or 
 membrane which requires to be broken, and to give the 
 mother frequent small drinks of cold water with a little 
 oatmeal thrown into it, along with a suitable amount of 
 digestible food, is all the further treatment necessary under 
 ordinary circumstances. Should the navel be attacked by 
 flies and become raw, it may be wetted with an infusion of 
 walnut leaves, and dry flowers of sulphur powdered over 
 it, to encourage healing and to ward off flies. 
 
 No nursing mare ought to be put to work if it is 
 possible to avoid doing so, as this precaution reduces the 
 chances of the development of scouring or of rickets in 
 the foal. In any case, she should have a clear month's 
 rest after foaling before going to work, and each time 
 after returning from work a little milk should be drawn 
 before the foal is allowed to suck. The milk which col- 
 lects in the udder while the animal is at work changes 
 in character from natural milk, and an alkaloid is liable 
 to be developed which is injurious to the young. 
 
 A mare takes the horse from seven to ten days after 
 foaling, and is then most likely to conceive. If " missed " 
 the first time, she comes in season every three weeks dur- 
 ing the summer, remaining " in use " or " on heat " from 
 four to eight days. By the second time she is in season 
 there is a large flow of milk, which to some extent reduces 
 
214 FARM LIVE STOCK 
 
 the system and renders conception less certain. At the 
 period when a mare is going out of season she is most 
 likely to conceive, " hold," or "settle." One good "jump" 
 or connection is better than several at one time or on one 
 day ; but in the event of a mare being covered soon after 
 she comes in season, it is an excellent practice to give her 
 a second chance in a few days, or just before she goes out, 
 and she should be kept quiet and away from other horses 
 for a few days to prevent excitement and the consequent 
 repeated attempts to discharge the contents of the uterus 
 and vagina. If this is attended to there is no necessity for 
 douching her with cold water, which appears to be an un- 
 natural and unnecessary practice under any circumstances. 
 It also appears to be wrong to put a mare to two horses 
 within two days, though the practice of crossing a mare 
 with a second horse, if there is any doubt about the potency 
 or ability of the first stallion, tends to increase the number 
 of successful connections. 
 
 A stallion will serve eighty mares in the season, and get 
 on an average forty to fifty foals, if he be not made to travel 
 too great distances to find the mares. Some valuable horses, 
 that are such sure foal-getters that mares " settle " after the 
 first connection, may cover a hundred. A horse with one 
 testicle can get foals if it be down, but he cannot do so if it 
 be carried out of sight. 
 
 It is frequently difficult to notice when small pony 
 mares are in season, as they are not so demonstrative at this 
 time as large animals. As a mare approaches twenty years 
 of age, the chances of her conceiving, if she has never bred, 
 or if she has not bred for some years, are not great. When 
 a mare is in the habit of breeding regularly she will some- 
 times continue to do so till she is very old.* Conception 
 
 * At Bosby in 1886 the Author saw a cross-bred mare, belonging to W. 
 Mould of the Harrington Arms, which was breeding at the age of thirty-two, 
 and had bred twenty foals in twenty consecutive years. All were said to have 
 been good, and a nuniber were weight-carrying hunters. 
 
THE HORSE — BREEDING AND BREAKING. 21 5 
 
 is made more likely — when there is any tendency to barren- 
 ness — by the use of a cart horse on a thoroughbred mare, 
 or of a thoroughbred horse upon a cart mare.* 
 
 A foal brought up by hand should be fed with cow's 
 full-milk. It is frequently spoiled in disposition through 
 being petted or played with, so that it becomes too familiar 
 with its attendant, and loses the natural and necessary 
 respect for the authority of its master. In Norfolk after 
 the foal is two weeks old it is fed sometimes on skim-milk, 
 boiled linseed, and bean meal, getting gradually up to two 
 gallons of milk and four pounds of the mixture per day. 
 
 A foal is weaned when it is five or six months old, say 
 early in October ; then it. should be housed at night, and 
 a halter put on its head, with a short dependent end, 
 left to lead it by. The operation of haltering is attended 
 with danger to the animal, due to the resistance which is 
 usually made, and requires great care. A cattle-shed with 
 bare walls and a few inches of dung under foot is a good 
 place to select. A cart rope should be fastened round the 
 neck of the animal to draw it up to a fixed point, — such 
 as a hole in the outer wall through which the rope is 
 passed, — so that it is made to know what it is to be held. 
 The struggle at first is often severe, and perspiration flows 
 freely with the excitement and the exertion. After all this 
 is over, the foal must be kept in a warm place till it is 
 thoroughly cooled down. Gentle treatment and constant 
 handling are necessary to give the creature confidence. 
 Leading should be done as frequently by the " off-side " 
 as by the " near," to accustom him to turn as readily to 
 the one side as to the other. 
 
 * Cowe of Mains, Chirnside, possessed a mare (nearly thoroughbred), 
 which in 1886, at the age of twenty-three years, " held " to a cart horse, after 
 repeated trials extending over some years with thoroughbreds. In 1887, 
 however, she was successfully served by a thoroughbred. Had it not .been 
 for the breaking of a leg which ended fatally, she might have continued to, 
 breed for a number of years. 
 
2l6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Young cart horses should never be too highly fed, as 
 this softens the constitution, and they become too fat and 
 heavy for the strength of their limbs. They should at all 
 times be kept thriving to encourage growth, and to prevent 
 disease and the injury which results from the presence of 
 internal parasites. A little linseed cake mixed with oats is 
 an improvement upon a diet of oats alone, and salt should 
 be within reach of all young stock, which should also be 
 allowed plenty of exercise to develop muscle. In the case 
 of thoroughbreds the highest authorities say that they 
 cannot be too liberally fed, provided they have sufficient 
 exercise. 
 
 Castration is usually performed when a colt is about 
 one year old, a time when there is little risk ; or it may be 
 done at two years if a well-developed crest and a more 
 masculine appearance is wanted. In some districts of 
 England from four to six weeks old is considered a safer 
 and better time. The operation can be successfully per- 
 formed while the animal stands on his feet, against a wall, 
 an immense improvement on the old and much more risky 
 method by which the. horse was cast by means of ropes. 
 The great danger in this is the possibility of injury to the 
 spine, brought about by the animal struggling when down, 
 and the danger is increased if any attempt be made to hold 
 the feet so that he cannot move them in struggling. He 
 is then liable to slip or break his back'. The testicles are 
 usually removed by torsion, or they may be simply cut 
 away after the seminal arteries have been tied. The older 
 methods of removal by firing-iron, or by means of clams, 
 are not now much practised or appreciated. Bathing well 
 with warm water should be resorted to next day if the 
 animal be stiff, as is frequently the case after the use of 
 the actual cautery. 
 
 The practice of docking horses, or cutting off a por- 
 tion of the tail with the object of giving a better view of 
 
THE HORSE — BREEDING AND BREAKING. 217 
 
 the hindquarters, is likely to decrease in future. It may- 
 linger in Hackney* studs, but it has almost been given up 
 among Clydesdale, though not in Shire, horses, and it is 
 decidedly objectionable when adopted in the case of large 
 carriage horses or animals good enough to become officers' 
 chargers. The pain, though severe for a few seconds, is 
 not the ground upon which extremist humanitarians have 
 really most cause to object to the operation. The removal 
 of the most effective portion of the tail^ — the weapon which 
 nature has supplied as a defence against the attacks of 
 flies when the animal is turned out to pasture — is in 
 reality the only important consideration. 
 
 Breaking is attended with danger from rearing, kicking, 
 bolting, or sulking on the part of the horse ; and careless- 
 ness, drink, or bad temper on the part of the man. Horses 
 arc more easily broken while quite young than when a few 
 years older. Farm horses ought to run out in the fields 
 during the second winter, within reach of good natural or 
 artificial shelter, and be taken up for breaking in autumn, 
 when about two and a half years old. . Heavy work strains 
 and stiffens a young horse'. The backbone often becomes 
 bent, and stands up, if an animal is made to draw loads 
 that are too heavy. Harrowing or light ploughing is a 
 suitable and safe form of work for a young animal ; but 
 carting on the hard road is not so till after he is five years 
 old. Horses ought to be broken to every description of 
 farm work when about three years old, or even before that 
 time if convenient, and during the operation their vision 
 should not be contracted by shutting in their eyes with 
 blinders. The use of an open head-collar is the best preven- 
 tive of bolting should derangement of the head-gear occur. 
 
 Mouthing is done by tying a horse up with a large 
 bit and side-reins fastened back to a sursingle, but it is 
 
 Undocked roadsters, when touched suddenly with the whip, are liable to 
 throw the tail over the reins, and, getting alarmed, kick or bolt. 
 
2l8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 far too little practised among draught-horses. After this 
 has been carried on at intervals for some days, the horse 
 should be taken out to an open field, and long ropes 
 fastened to his collar in the position of draught chains, 
 and pulled by men placed well behind, to accustom the 
 animal to the pressure on the shoulders and the sensation 
 of the chains rubbing against the hind legs, such as occurs 
 while turning in the plough. It should next be yoked to a 
 log with ropes, and when accustomed to this treatment, put in 
 double yoke with an old, steady, but active-stepping horse. 
 
 Breaking to the cart should come afterwards, as it is 
 often a difficult task with nervous animals. The greatest 
 possible care should be taken with all horses, although 
 reputed to be quiet. A man on each side of the head 
 should hold a long rein to prevent the horse, if startled, 
 from jumping on the top of one or other of them. Two 
 additional men, one on each side, should fasten the attach- 
 ments, the draught chains being adjusted first. The kick- 
 ing-strap or its common substitute, a rope, should cross 
 over above the root of the tail, and each end be made fast 
 to a shaft. This is far more effectual than when the rope 
 is located in the usual place, further forward at the highest 
 point of the hind -quarters. A fifth man lets down the cart 
 behind when the horse has been got into position. A long 
 pole should be placed between the body of the cart and 
 the axle-tree, so that it projects well behind to prevent 
 the animal rearing. 
 
 A wild or intractable horse may be subdued by the 
 Australian method of tying his head round to his tail, 
 and driving him round until he submits to be guided. 
 By adopting this method any horse may be more quickly 
 and safely put through all the various stages of the opera- 
 tion of breaking, but time must be given in any case to 
 allow a young and inexperienced animal to become ac- 
 customed to what is required of it and to practise it. 
 
THE HORSE — BREEDING AND BREAKING. 219 
 
 A young horse should be tired, but never fagged by 
 too much work, else he may develop bad temper. In a 
 display of this an animal which urinates repeatedly is 
 usually difficult to overcome. The mouth should not be 
 subjected to sudden checking or tugging. An animal 
 which has been thus ill-treated indicates its recollection 
 of the abuse to which it had been subjected by trying to 
 move away, and by holding up its head, on the approach 
 of a man. 
 
 The shoulder and back, under the pressure of the collar 
 and saddle, often become " fired," hot, and painful, especi- 
 ally in warm weather. Remedy — Bathe after work is over 
 with tepid water, gently rub the part dry, and soak it with 
 whisky, or white lotion — i oz. sugar of lead and i oz. sul- 
 phate of zinc dissolved in a quart bottle of water. This is 
 the best common lotion for broken or irritated skin. 
 
 A paste of fuller's earth plastered over any irritated 
 or superficially injured part acts as a serviceable, stimu- 
 lating, and healing dressing, provided it be left on till the 
 cure is effected. This debars its use, however, when the 
 injury is the result of the rubbing or pressure of the har- 
 ness, except when the horse is laid aside from work. 
 
 While teething it is not unusual for a young horse to 
 have a tender mouth and to refuse to eat. The gums 
 should not be cut or fired as if the animal were suffering 
 from lampas. 
 
 If off his food through being feverish from work, it is 
 necessary to coax him by giving varieties of food, a little 
 at a time, but at all times new and fresh. 
 
 Young horses pastured along with cattle gallop after 
 them at times and prevent their thriving. Some cattle 
 contract the bad habit of eating the hair from the tails 
 of horses as well as from those of the other members of the 
 herd. 
 
 In the case of horses with small feet, paring the edges 
 
220 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 of the hoof now and then, and blistering the coronet, en- 
 courage the growth of horn. 
 
 Idle horses are liable to rub, bite, and break gates, and 
 escape from their own pastures to do damage to growing 
 crops. A few strands of barbed wire nailed along the 
 upper bars of a gate form a safe and simple preventive 
 of the evil. 
 
 The age of horses able to do work may easily be 
 determined by the teeth, if not more than eight years 
 old. 
 
 At three years the two central permanent incisors are 
 up. 
 
 At four years the next pair, or lateral ones. 
 
 At five years the two corner ones are come, making 
 a full mouth ; also the tushes in the male. 
 
 At six years the hollow on the top of each tooth of the 
 first pair is worn out. 
 ■ At seven years the second pair is levelled. 
 
 At eight years all have usually been worn nearly level, 
 or " mark of mouth " is lost. 
 
 Indications of greater age are grey hairs about the head 
 and deep hollows above the eyes. 
 
 To make an animal look young, the teeth are sometimes 
 " bishoped " by low dealers — that is, artificial hollows are 
 made in the crowns of them. 
 
 An interesting little worli on " Horse Dentition^' by Sydney 
 Galvayne, the Australian horse-trainer, published by Thomas Murray 
 & .Son, Glasgow, shows that there exist on horses' teeth well-marked 
 indications of age at various periods up to thirty years, which have 
 not been generally noticed or widely studied. 
 
CHAPTER XVI.— THE HORSE— MANAGEMENT OF 
 FARM HORSES 
 
 Winter Season — Work and Food — Medicines — Water — Mud-fever — Litter — 
 Summer Season — The Soiling and the Grazing Sj'stems of Feeding Horses 
 — A Stallion — Possibility of Improvement. 
 
 TXT' INTER Season. — Full work in the case of farm 
 horses in country districts lasts for seven or eight 
 months in the year : three months, from the latter part 
 of August, including harvest, and autumn ploughing and 
 cleaning, and nearly four months, beginning in spring, 
 including February, March, April, May, and part of June 
 — this embraces spring cultivation and ploughing, planting 
 of grain crops, and the preparation of the root land. In 
 many instances, especially in suburban districts and those 
 which possess the advantages of a convenient railway 
 communication, the busy season extends throughout the 
 whole year. This is becoming more and more the case 
 under intensive systems of farming which, as compared 
 with the practices of our forefathers, have adopted a 
 greater variety of crops in the rotation and an extended 
 use of horse-power machinery, such as numerous recently 
 introduced cultivating implements, and the various forms 
 of hay-making and harvesting machines. On light land 
 two hundred and eighty working days per annum may be 
 taken as a good record in farm work, and with clay-land 
 two hundred and sixty full days' work is satisfactory. The 
 additional time, exclusive of Sundays, may or may not be 
 taken up with the extra work necessarily associated with 
 high farming. 
 
222 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The average cost of feeding a farm horse on an ordinary- 
 farm may be estimated at £2^, per annum. The charge on 
 a farmer for the support of a man and a pair of horses, 
 taking into account wages and sundry expenses, — farrier's 
 and saddler's bills, and interest on capital invested in the 
 horses and the implements they work, — amounts to about 
 ;^ioo to £1 10 yearly, or a cost of about 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. per 
 pair per working day. Little variation has taken place in this 
 total figure during the last halfcentury, because, although 
 the cost of food has fallen, wages have risen to a corre- 
 sponding extent. Fourteen to sixteen miles per day is a 
 sufficient distance for a horse to walk on a hard road if 
 the work is regular. An animal will do its work more 
 easily on a road with here and there moderate hills than 
 on one which is level throughout, because the work done 
 is then varied, and additional muscles come into play at 
 times to break the monotony of the constant strain upon 
 those which bear the burden upon a level road. 
 
 The food supply should be liberal, and should consist 
 of a mixture made equivalent to three bushels of dressed 
 oats (40 lbs. per bushel) per week. Grain should be bruised 
 or broken, especially for old horses. Unless extremely dry 
 and kept in a dry place, only a little should be prepared at 
 a time, as the ingredients, especially oats, mould and spoil. 
 In addition to oats, which would naturally forrn the greater 
 part of the mixture, one or more of the varieties of food 
 in the following list, according to what is cheapest in the 
 market, should be included : — Beans, peas, lentils, barley, 
 maize, a little malt or desiccated brewers' grains to assist 
 the digestion, along with bran or linseed cake (restricted 
 to one pound per day), to keep the bowels open. Oats 
 have for some years maintained a relatively higher price, 
 according to feeding value, than barley or wheat, in a great 
 measure owing to the fact that the area in which oats can 
 be successfully grown is more restricted in the hotter grain- 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 223 
 
 producing countries than the areas in which wheat and 
 barley are cultivated. In the warmer climate of the South 
 of Europe, barley takes the place of oats as horse-corn, and 
 there is no sufficient reason why the less expensive varieties 
 of Mediterranean barley, not pure enough for brewing pur- 
 poses, should not be largely employed to feed horses in this 
 country. Should the high price of oats be maintained for 
 a few years, the inducement to save expense will lead to 
 the prejudice against barley as food for horses (unfounded 
 as regards the flinty well-matured barley grown in abund- 
 ance of sunlight), being given up by farmers whose pros- 
 pects as bread-producers are not now too bright. 
 
 Dry bran prevents a horse bolting his food too quickly. 
 Though beans when given in large quantities tend to pro- 
 duce costiveness, a small amount added to a food mixture 
 has the opposite tendency. A little fenugreek meal or flour 
 acts as a relish or spice, and is a valuable adjunct. 
 
 Indian pulses are now more or less used as ingredients 
 in the mixed purchased foods of the various farm animals. 
 It is not safe to include them until they have been 
 thoroughly washed, as Principals Williams of Edinburgh 
 and M'Call of Glasgow have traced a disease to the use 
 of some of them in the food of horses.* 
 
 The diseases, or at least one disease — Williams's Liver- 
 pool horse disease — resulting from the cpnsumption of the 
 Muttar peas, is no doubt identical with the anthrax of 
 India. It is a blood-poison, with the rod-like microbes of 
 anthrax present. 
 
 As a horse has a small stomach, it should be fed at 
 least three times a day — morning, noon, and night. 
 
 To prevent costiveness, cold bran mashes are better than 
 boiled food, the latter being dangerous for colic, although it 
 produces a glossy skin. In addition to restricting the amount 
 
 * Described in the Veterinary Journal for 1885 and 1886 under the title 
 of " Lathyrus-poisoning." 
 
224 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 of rich food given on Sundays while horses are at rest, salt- 
 petre (2 to 4 drachms) is at times added to the usual bran 
 mash on Saturday night, to prevent stocking of the legs, 
 or Monday-morning-evil, in hard-worked and highly-fed 
 horses. 
 
 The concentrated food provided during the slack season, 
 whatever be the length of the period, may be averaged at 
 one bushel of oats per week. 
 
 Fodder. — A large horse at full work will consume, in 
 addition to short food, 18 to 24 lbs. per day of " seeds," 
 hay, or strong-boned lea hay. A few lbs. may be saved 
 if it is chaffed. In Midland and Southern England natural 
 pasture or meadow hay is preferred for hunting and carriage 
 horses, whereas in Scotland, pure ryegrass hay of luxuriant 
 growth is generally most appreciated. Timothy-grass hay 
 gives excellent results in either part of the kingdom, but 
 the natural meadow or bog-hay of Scotland is often too 
 soft in texture to be suitable for horses doing hard work. 
 Hay is dusty if much heated in the stack, and then it 
 injures a horse's wind. Heated oats are liable to produce 
 the same result, and probably to injure the kidneys at the 
 same time, and, moreover, horses do not care for them. 
 
 When clover hay is given ad lib., 2 to 2 J bushels of 
 oats, or the mixture, is considered to be enough of con- 
 centrated food per week for one horse. New oats are not 
 good for horses, and should not be given till after the 
 year expires in which they were grown. A supply of old 
 oats shoulcj consequently be preserved until after the New 
 Year. New or green oats make impure blood and induce 
 liability to grease. Straw (usually oat-, but at times wheat- 
 or bean-straw") is often given during winter, and hay in 
 spring when hard work begins ; but the best results are 
 obtained, by using a chaffed mixture of hay and straw 
 throughout the winter season. 
 
 Chaffed straw shpuld be allowed to lie for some time 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 225 
 
 before it is fed to horses, as when recently cut it is liable to 
 produce internal irritation, which may result in diarrhoea. 
 
 It is a good practice to give a few raw swedes, carrots, 
 or mangels before leaving the stable for the night. Potatoes 
 are liable to produce colic, and should never be given to 
 horses. Furze or whin is sometimes grown as a forage 
 crop to provide green winter food for horses, 30 lbs. being 
 sufficient for each animal per day ; but it requires to be 
 chaffed like straw, or thoroughly bruised between rollers. 
 
 Medicines. — Two drachms of powdered sulphate of 
 iron, mixed in a full feed of corn once or twice a day, is 
 a good tonic for a horse, and is frequently required along 
 with careful feeding in the "fall," after he goes into the 
 stable. The physical system of the horse seems to go 
 down at this season, probably with the change of coat. 
 It is owing to this peculiar condition that roadsters at this 
 time often become weak, and fall on the road and injure 
 their knees. Tonics are better than physic in the cor- 
 rection of ordinary derangements, unless parasitic worms 
 have to be cleared away. If a horse does not thrive when 
 turned out to grass, the presumption is strong that he is 
 affected by internal parasitic worms in the alimentary 
 canal. Treatment. — To destroy worms, i^ oz. of the oil 
 of turpentine should be. thoroughly soaked into dry meal, 
 and administered along with 2 drachms of the extract of 
 male fern and i pint of raw (unboiled) linseed oil. The 
 ordinary purgative for a horse is a ball of aloes — 6 or 7 
 drachms made up with 2 drachms of ginger. A horse 
 should be prepared by feeding him entirely upon cold 
 bran mashes for fully twenty-four . hours before a ball is 
 given. At times the preparation treatn^ent alone is 
 sufficient to restore a horse to its natural state of health. 
 One of the safest, most simple, and effective drenches for 
 a horse is i or 2 quarts of fresh yeast or barm. 
 
 Water should be given in a pure and fresh conditiorj, 
 
 P 
 
226 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 though not too cold, when an animal returns from work. 
 Water taken before feeding encourages eating, and prevents 
 colic brought on by the washing of the undigested food 
 from the stomach into the bowels. The practice of giving 
 dry food before an animal has quenched its thirst, after 
 exhausting work, is not to be recommended, although the 
 system accommodates itself to this unnatural state of things, 
 and the results are not, when it is regularly practised, so bad 
 as might be expected. It is, moreover, safer to give water 
 when an animal is warm, if not over-heated, than after /he 
 has been allowed to stand till he is cold and until the cir- 
 culation becomes less active. 
 
 When horses are at rest in the stable they do very well 
 if pure water is left within their reach at all times. 
 
 There is danger of inflammation of the intestines if a 
 horse's belly is wet when the animal is not accustomed 
 to it. 
 
 Mud-fever is induced by too frequent washing of the 
 legs, adopted because it is the easiest way of cleaning 
 them. If practised, the legs should be thoroughly dried, 
 or the animal be made to walk a mile or two before going 
 into the stable, to quicken the circulation and prevent the 
 chilling of the skin through the rapid evaporation of the 
 water. If neglected, the irritation, which begins usually 
 about the heels, may extend to the skin of the body, and 
 make it necessary to throw the animal out of work for 
 weeks. One of the best preventives is to leave the hair 
 of the limbs as a protection to the extremities, which are 
 most liable to suffer from cold. 
 
 The grooming' of farm-horses is far too little practised. 
 They should be well rubbed down with dry straw on com- 
 ing in from work, and thoroughly groomed when the hair 
 has dried, to get rid of dust, which is to a large extent 
 the remains of dried-up sweat. Good grooming, by in- 
 creasing its comfort, is as good as an increase of food to 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 227 
 
 an animal. To make grooming more easily performed, 
 and to add to the animal's comfort, the hair on the under 
 part of the body and the limbs above the knees and houghs 
 may be removed with advantage by clipping. The ex- 
 tremities, which require protection to a greater degree than 
 other parts of the body, should be permitted to retain their 
 natural covering. Horses thrive best when thus relieved of 
 the surplus coat of hair. It is no uncommon sight to see 
 an undipped horse, which had been heated in the yoke on 
 the previous day, still wet on the following morning. This 
 is an unnatural and unhealthy state of matters. 
 
 Litter. — To use barley straw as litter is objectionable : 
 12 to 14 lbs. per day of wheat or oat straw is much better. 
 Bedding should never be stored during the day under the 
 manger. When a good market for straw is at hand, moss 
 litter niay be substituted at a much cheaper rate. This 
 costs about 25s. per ton, in 4-ton lots, carriage paid ; and 
 I cwt. is sufificient per horse per month during the winter 
 season. If moss is allowed to become too wet before it is 
 removed, there is a danger of injury to the horses' hind 
 feet owing to the ammonia produced from the urine acting 
 upon the weaker parts of the horn, with the result that 
 sores break out about the heels. 
 
 Summer Season. — ^If horses are too highly fed when 
 on green food and not doing full work, they are much 
 more difficult to support in winter than when they are 
 kept in an ordinary way. Along with green food in its 
 season, 7 lbs. of oats, in two feeds per day, is enough for a 
 horse. When at hard work this amount may be doubled. 
 Some horses do not care to eat much corn when on grass ; 
 the teeth seem to become affected, or " set on edge " in the 
 same way as those' of a human being after eating unripe 
 apples. 
 
 There are two common systems of feeding during 
 summer : First, The soiling system, involving the cutting 
 
228 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and carrying home of green food to horses turned loose 
 when not at work in a large open yard with shelter-sheds. 
 Clover, grass, vetches, and cabbages are all useful in their 
 season. This is the more economical method if food is not 
 plentiful, but it requires additional labour to that necessary 
 when horses are grazed. 
 
 The second system involves the easier and more com- 
 mon practice of turning horses out to pasture over night 
 and while not at work. The disadvantages of this method 
 of treatment consist in horses, especially if young, galloping 
 and cutting up the grass, casting their shoes, breaking their 
 feet, and rubbing down fences and gates ; besides the risk 
 of catching cold or contracting founder in the feet if care- 
 lessly turned out after being heated before they have 
 properly cooled. 
 
 In the South of England work horses often go loose in 
 yards during winter. They are thus put in the way of 
 getting gentle exercise and plenty of fresh air to keep 
 them healthy. 
 
 Should a horse sprain a limb and become lame, he must 
 not go to work, as he will almost certainly become worse. 
 Rest, and the application of cold-water-cloths to reduce 
 inflammation, followed by firing and blistering to give 
 strength, are the usual methods of treatment. 
 
 A winter out at grass without his shoes, and being 
 allowed to get down in condition, though not too far, 
 renovates in a marvellous way an old or any horse that 
 has been overworked, of whatever breed. He takes suffi- 
 cient exercise, and goes so quietly about, that a weak part 
 is allowed to strengthen. It is thought that frost also aids 
 in the recovery of unsound Hmbs. 
 
 A horse which has been highly fed will become much 
 poorer when turned out than if he had been moderately 
 kept, showing excessive feeding during summer to be a 
 mistake. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 229 
 
 Possibility of Improvement. — The average English 
 work horse might be much improved if farmers' clubs 
 would make greater efforts to secure the services of good 
 horses in special districts, and not leave it to chance or 
 to private enterpise, which in a matter of this kind is 
 usually selfish. 
 
 The Shire stallion, " Hitchin Conqueror," in an irate condition, chari^ing hi.s owner, who 
 had entered the loose-box with the object of photographing the animal. 
 
CHAPTER XVII.— SHEEP— BRITISH BREEDS. 
 
 Sheep — Classification — Fecundity — General Points — Characteristics of 
 DifiFerent Breeds — Longf-wools — Border Leicester — English Leicester — 
 Lincoln — Long-wooUed Devon — Cotswold — Wensleydale — Kent, or 
 Romney Marsh — Roscommon — Short-'wools — South Down, or Sussex — 
 Shropshire Down — Hampshire Down — Suffolk Down — Oxford Down — 
 Clun Forest — Dorset and Somerset Horn — Ryeland — Mountain Breeds 
 — Cheviot — Black-faced Highland — Herdwick — ■ Lonk — Limestone — 
 Welsh Mountain — Old Tan-face Welsh — Exmoor. 
 
 C HEEP belong to the genus Ovis. They have been sub- 
 jected to domestication for a very long period. They 
 are classified in various ways in this country : horned and 
 hornless, black-faced and white-faced, mountain and low- 
 land, long- wools and short- wools, long-tailed and short-tailed. 
 Iceland sheep possess remarkably small and insignificant 
 tails. In the East there are sheep with rudimentary tails 
 and large masses of fat on the rump. Others, again, have 
 the fatty development in the tail itself Two is the usual 
 number of horns, but in the Western Islands of Scotland 
 remnants of the ancient polycerated sheep exhibit four 
 horns, or at times even a greater number. A general 
 characteristic of the sheep is the presence of only one pair 
 of teats from which milk can be drawn, though a second 
 pair of rudimental ones is not infrequently seen in British 
 breeds. 
 
 Fecundity, or the state of being prolific, differs much in 
 different breeds of sheep, and in different specimens of the 
 same breed. Some bear single lambs, some twins, and 
 some triplets, while four and even five have been known to 
 be brought forth at one birth. Although the local surround- 
 ings, including the kind, quality, and quantity of food, have 
 
Prof ffaUaoe^ Foj-m £u e StocK 
 
 BMITISH SSStES 
 
 t^e Hi^biu^ Gbo^kpUckI Listltate 
 
 
Plate LI. 
 
 A.— Border Leicester Ram. 
 
 Sold at Kelso in iS86 for ^50 — Tweeddale Gold Medal, Glasgow, tS83. 
 
 The Property of the Right Hon. The Eakl of Dalii(.)U^';e. Bred hv Ci a'.:k, C'ldham'^tock Mains. 
 
 ■'-*<:^ 
 
 B. — Border Leicester Ewes. 
 
 First at the Royal at Nottingham, and First at the Highland Show at Glasgow in 1888. 
 
 The Property of the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., Whittinghame, Prestonkirk. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 23 I 
 
 much to do in determining the issue, yet there is unquestion- 
 ably an inherent propensity in certain ewes to follow regular 
 habits in the matter of producing certain numbers of 
 offspring. The tendency may have been induced by local 
 conditions favourable to a particular object being continued 
 through generations, and thus made accumulative. If sheep 
 are well fed (but not too fat), and only the young of those 
 bearing twins bred from, the flock after a time becomes 
 distinctly more prolific. 
 
 Points applicable to most British Breeds 
 OF Sheep. 
 
 {Exceptions in various breeds will be named when they occur.) 
 
 1. A good carriage and springy style of walking: 
 
 2. The neck thick towards the trunk, tapering to the 
 head, arching slightly, and not too short : 
 
 3. The body deep, and projecting well over the fore- 
 legs ; under- and upper-lines straight : 
 
 4. The back level and broad behind and before, except 
 in the Cheviots and the Lonks, which have sharp shoulder- 
 tops or withers : 
 
 5. The ribs well sprung and rounded : 
 
 6. The shoulders well covered with firm flesh : The 
 regions immediately behind the shoulders well filled up : 
 
 7. The thighs or gigots and also the foreflanks fleshed 
 well down : 
 
 8. The rump, or part near the dock, well developed, 
 though not too large, as is sometimes the case in Cotswolds, 
 Border Leicesters, and other heavy fleshed breeds : 
 
 9. The legs straight, but not too long nor the bone 
 coarse : The houghs are much better slightly out than at 
 all in or " cow houghed " : 
 
 10. The characteristic wool oi the special breed covering 
 well the body, and particularly the belly. 
 
232 farm live stock. 
 
 Characteristics of the Different Breeds.* 
 
 Long-wools, without Horns, excepting Mountain Sheep. 
 
 The Border Leicester was bred at first from Bakewell's 
 Leicester by crossing with the Cheviot, but it now ranks as 
 a pure breed, and is one of the best of the varieties of 
 Leicesters. It is very largely used in the south-east of 
 Scotland for crossing with half-bred, Cheviot, and black- 
 faced ewes. 
 
 Special Points. 
 
 (i.) The ^^flia^ well set on, long, broad between the eyes, 
 but not high on the crown, nor too heavy behind the ears ; 
 the two latter characteristics in the male bringing about 
 difficulty in lambing : 
 
 (2.) The muzzle large, open, and black : 
 
 (3.) The hair on the face and legs white and hard (but 
 not so wiry as in the case of the Cheviot), and extending 
 well back behind the ears : 
 
 (4.) The ears not too large nor drooping, and white 
 inside and out : Black spots appear sometimes with age : 
 
 (5.) The belly comparatively light, said to "carry little 
 offal," and giving a leggy appearance when the animal is 
 shorn : 
 
 (6.) The wool long, soft, and arranged in little locks, but 
 not too open coated : 
 
 (7.) Fat tegs, at twelve to fourteen months old, weigh 
 23 lbs. to 25 lbs. per quarter. >- 
 
 The Improved English Leicester is the smallest of 
 the Leicester breeds, and has been longer an improved 
 breed than any other long-wool, with the possible exception 
 of the Cotswold. Bakewell accomplished the formation of 
 the improved breed by in-breeding and by selection. It has 
 been much employed in crossing to improve other breeds 
 * For a list of flock-hooks see Appendix C. 
 
Plate LI I. 
 
 A. — EiNGLisH Leicester Ewes. 
 The Property of T. H. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick. 
 
 ^^jg^' 
 
 B.— English Leicester Ram. 
 The Property of T. H. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick. 
 
I'l.ATE LIII. 
 
 '«*as?"£ 
 
 A. — Wenslevdale Ewe. 
 The Property of T. Willis of Carperby, Iledale, Yorkj^hin 
 
 
 B. — Wensleydale Shearling Ram, " Harkogate." 
 
 Champion at Ripon and First at Harrogate, i8qo. 
 The Property of John Heugh, Mudd Fields, Bedale. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 233 
 
 Special Points. 
 
 (i.) The typical sheep of this breed is mild tempered, 
 and thus suited to the laying on of fat : 
 
 (2.) The head not too short, though smaller than in the 
 case of the iiorder Leicester ; the face white with a blue 
 tinge, and the hair not so hard as in the Border Leicester : 
 A pinky face and soft hair indicate want of constitution : 
 
 (3.) The bones very fine : 
 
 (4.) The hindquarters very frequently not so large as 
 they ought to be : 
 
 (5.) Great aptitude to fatten early, both in the pure 
 breed and its crosses : 
 
 (6.) The mutton is best when not over twelve months 
 old (weighing under 20 lbs. per quarter), being greasy and 
 inferior if well fed and not killed till two years old : 
 
 (7.) The ewes not first-rate milkers, and the lambs 
 rather delicate on account of the close-breeding. 
 
 The Wensleydale is a large, high-standing Yorkshire- 
 Leicester breed, with a characteristic blue colour in the 
 skin of the face and ears, which sometimes extends to the 
 whole of the body, though the shade is deeper on the bare 
 or hairy parts. The dark colour is cultivated, because in 
 the extensive use of the rams in crossing with the Scotch 
 Blackfaced breed it is found that dark blue rams throw dark 
 faced lambs, a point which is corisidered valuable. 
 
 The Iambs bred in this way are termed " crosses " in 
 Scotland, where they are extensively kept for " hogging." 
 In the east of Yorkshire and in Lincolnshire, where many 
 thousands of them are annually bought and fattened during 
 winter, they go by the name of " Mashams." 
 
 Wool of uniform open character, long, and divided into 
 little knots or " pirls," should cover nearly the whole surface 
 of the body, including the forehead between the eyes, round 
 the ears, and on the belly and scrotum. The back* of the 
 
234 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 hind-legs down to the hoofs, and at times even the fore-legs, 
 have downy wool on them. Hairy wool on the thighs 
 where the coarsest wool tends to grow is objectionable. 
 
 The head is of a good size, and well carried on a long and 
 strong neck, giving much greater style of carriage to the 
 breed than is usual with most Leicesters. 
 
 The nose should be wide, and in the ram slightly arched ; 
 the back of the head flat, and the ears large, but well set on 
 and well carried. The breed is specially noted for the 
 absence of patchiness or excess of fat. The crosses bred 
 from it are slower in coming to maturity than those of 
 Border Leicester or the other breeds of long-woolled sheep. 
 The quality of flesh produced, the hardy constitution and 
 active disposition, enable it, however, to maintain the posi- 
 tion of first favourite in many districts, though it must 
 be admitted that in some counties, such as Dumfriesshire, 
 Border Leicester rams are coming rapidly into favour, and 
 displacing the VVensleydale in breeding half-bred lambs by 
 Cheviot ewes. 
 
 The Improved Lincoln is white-faced, and is as large as 
 any sheep in England, — though not larger than the Cotswold. 
 It was produced by crossing the old Lincoln, which was 
 famous for great length and quantity of wool, with the 
 English Leicester. There is still a tuft of wool on the 
 forehead, though not so abundant as of old. The fattening 
 qualities have, improved, although the wool has become 
 shorter, lessened in quantity, and deteriorated in quality 
 and in lustre. The wool of the breed as it now exists is 
 nevertheless of superior quality. The staple* of well-bred 
 tegs should be about as broad as two of a man's fingers. 
 
 The Long-woolled Devon strongly resembles the Lin- 
 coln, but is not so large. It is coarser boned, and does not 
 
 * The word staple here refers to the natural locks consisting of many fibres 
 of wool arranged naturally in bundles, but it is also sometimes wrongly used 
 with reference to a single fibre. 
 
Plate LI\'. 
 
 
 A. — Lincoln Ewes— Four of a Pen of Five Sheaklings. 
 
 First at the Royal Agricultural Show at Preston, 1885, &c. &c. 
 
 The Property of RonERT Wright, Nocton Heath, Lincoln. 
 
 
 B.— Lincoln Ram. 
 
 First as a Two-Shear Ram at the Royal Show at Preston in 1885, &c. &c. 
 
 The Property of Robert Wright, Nocton Heath, Lincoln. 
 
Tlate LV, 
 
 5ir»?:- 3 ^i,-ias«*S*i^' '* ^ 
 
 A.-Devon Long-Wool Two-Sheah Ram. 
 
 First at the Royal at Nottingham in iS88 
 
 The Property of Sir J. H. H. Amo.v, Bart., of Knightshayes, Devon. 
 
 B. — Devon T.nwr-..\(7^ 
 
 _ -.■.".— Three out op a Pen of Five. 
 
 Newport ; First at the Royal, Nottingha 
 Lup, at New Quay, &c. 
 --^ r,. AMORV, Bart., of Kniehtshave.. n„ 
 
Plate LVI. 
 
 A. — CoTSWOLD Ram Lamu. 
 The Property of Russell Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester. 
 
 B.— Two-Shear Cotswold Ram, with Two Months' Growth of Wool. 
 First Prize at Vienna International in 1873. 
 The Property of Russell SwANwr ^. .» - , ^.«4„, ;, - „ . 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 235 
 
 show SO much breeding. The face is white, with a lock on 
 the forehead, and it is wooUed well on to the cheeks. 
 Leicester blood was employed in its formation, and it has 
 in times past been dashed with the Cotswold, which it also 
 resembles to some extent. 
 
 The Cotswold is generally supposed to derive its name 
 from the Cotswold Hills, but the writer of the historical 
 statement published in the first volume of the Cotswold 
 flock-book points out that it is not improbable the " sheep 
 gave the name to the hills upon which they exist — ' cotes ' 
 meaning buildings in which they were formerly housed, and 
 ' wold ' being a wild open country." Gloucestershire, which 
 may be regarded as the centre of the home of the Cotswold 
 sheep, was in the time of the Romans, early in the 2nd century 
 A.D., the seat of a large trade in the manufacture and sale of 
 woollen cloth. From this it may be inferred that consider- 
 able care was devoted by our ancestors even at this remote 
 time to the breeding of sheep, which there is no reason to 
 doubt were the progenitors of the Cotswolds of the present 
 time, so that the breed is one of the oldest if not the oldest 
 in Britain. The trade in both sheep and wool was main- 
 tained throughout both Saxon and Norman times, and at 
 the present day considerable numbers of Cotswold sheep 
 are annually exported to Germany, to the United States 
 of America, and other foreign parts, where they are appre- 
 ciated for their large size and for the power of stamping their 
 distinctive characteristics when crossed with other breeds. 
 
 It too has been improved by introduction of Leicester 
 blood. It is extremely hardy and well suited for feeding 
 on stiff land, even when it is pretty wet. The flesh 
 becomes coarse when sheep grow aged. At twelve to 
 fifteen months old tegs ought to weigh 25 lbs. to 28 lbs. per 
 quarter. Those more moderately fed, and " run over " till 
 two years old, get up to 35 lbs. or more per quarter. 
 
 Points. — Faces strong, usually white, sometimes grey. 
 
236 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 with legs to match. Dark colouring on these parts gives 
 the Cotswold more the look of a Down cross, and helps to 
 sell the mutton at a higher price. A large tuft of wool 
 covers the forehead, and when full grown ought to hang down 
 almost to the nostrils. The ewes are fairly good milkers ; 
 and they are also prolific when not too fat or with too large 
 a rump. The fleece of wool averages from six to eight 
 lbs. for ewes. The fibre is long, neither close nor too open, 
 and rather coarse in quality. The belly, and particularly 
 the scrotum or " purse," should be well covered with wool. 
 
 Through being an old breed of good size, it is well suited 
 to crossing with ewes of short-woolled, smaller boned, and 
 finer varieties, provided the head of the ram is not too large, 
 with the object of avoiding the difficulty the ewe might 
 experience in giving birth to the lamb. 
 
 The Kent or Romney Marsh is a hardy whitefaced 
 breed, which is related to the Cheviot, and much resembles 
 it in general appearance. It has been somewhat modified 
 by crossing with the Leicester. Kent sheep are usually not 
 artificially fed in winter when on natural pasture, and, like 
 the Scotch mountain sheep undergoing similar treatment, 
 do not lamb till April. A lamb to each ewe is under such 
 circumstances a good crop. The wool is good, and the breed 
 is one of the closest coated of the long-wools. Points. — 
 The fore-lock is sometimes wanting, and on account of this 
 and other irregularities the type is not distinct, though the 
 best class of sheep is compact and symmetrical in form, and 
 noted for great breadth of forehead and strength of bone. 
 The backs of fat sheep of this breed are hard to the touch, 
 and the shoulder and back-bone are liable to stand up too 
 prominently. The breed is in high favour in the north 
 island of New Zealand, where much of the pasture is steep, 
 and where a lighter and more active sheep is wanted than 
 the Lincoln or the Leicester. 
 
 The Roscommon is an Irish breed to be seen in Con- 
 
Plate LVII. 
 
 
Plate LVIII. 
 
 A. — Kent or Romney Maksh Sheakling Ram in its Wool. 
 
 First at Windsor Show in i88g. 
 
 The Property of Henry Page, Walmer Court. 
 
 --\»> 5?^>^1 
 
 
 B. — Roscommon Two-Shear Ram. 
 
 First at the 1867 Show of the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland. 
 
 Bred by Richard Flynn, Cams, Co. Roscommon. 
 
riATE Lix. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 237 
 
 naught. It was improved from the old form by selection 
 and by crossing with the Leicester. It is quite as large, if 
 not larger, than the Cotswold or Lincoln, and the mutton is 
 said to be of finer quahty. The fleeces are long, heavy, 
 and silky. 
 
 The Merino. — ^In the matter of wide distribution, this 
 breed occupies among sheep the position held by the short- 
 horn among cattle. By far the largest number of sheep in 
 the Australian Colonies, in the Argentine Republic, in the 
 United States of America, and at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 belongs to this breed, or to crosses which are nearly related 
 to the Merino. All are believed to hav6 sprung from the 
 Spanish Merino,* though there are many distinct types 
 known by specific names, — as, for example, the Vermont 
 Merino, the highly bred American sheep ; the Rambouillet 
 or French Merino ; the Negretti, to which the German 
 Merino belongs ; the Saxon Merino ; and the various off- 
 shoots of these varieties to be found in the colonies of 
 Australia and Tasmania.! 
 
 The breed is white in hair, hoof, horn, and wool ; the bare portion 
 of the muzzle is of an orange fleshy colour (white being objectionable) ; 
 the eyes are light grey ; the horns in the male well developed (not 
 unlike the horns of a cross between the black-faced Highland and 
 Cheviot breeds), spirally coiled inwards, and not placed too wide nor 
 yet close enough to touch the cheek. In the case of ewes the great 
 majority are absolutely without horns ; when horns do appear they are 
 comparatively insignificant. 
 
 To the touch, the back is thin-fleshed, and, as in the Cheviot breed, 
 slightly elevated at the withers ; the backbone is rather sharp. The 
 skin of some breeds, notably the German and the Vermont, is more or 
 less full and wrinkled, more particularly about the neck, but the great 
 
 * Introduced into Spain by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians about 
 1 100 B.C. 
 
 + For details of the different strains of Merino blood see the Author's work 
 on the " Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New Zealand," from 
 which is extracted the description of the characteristics of the breed, printed in 
 small type. See also "Sheep Breeding in Australia," by George A. Bruni : 
 Walker, May, & Co., Melbourne. 
 
238 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 majority of the Australian Merinos are plain-skinned, with the exception, 
 perhaps, of a few wrinkles at the neck. The looseness of skin and the 
 folds were objected to by the shearers, who were greatly retarded in 
 their work owing to the care it was necessary to exercise to prevent 
 cutting the skin ; but in these days of shearing by machinery, wrinkles 
 do not offer such an impediment or source of danger. 
 
 Irrespective of the difficulty of shearing, wrinkles are not liked 
 except as an indication of purity of breed. If it were not the case that 
 the progeny of Vermont and other wrinkled sheep lose the wrinkles, 
 the infusion of fresh blood of this kind would be less in favour. There 
 is a tendency to the production of coarse wool fibre, especially on the 
 crowns of the wrinkles when these are large and numerous. Wool 
 should be abundant^ on the belly, and extend down the legs to the feet 
 and well on to the head and face, so that at shearing-time little but the 
 nose and hoofs are to be seen projecting from a flouncing ball of white 
 wool. The part of the face not clad with wool should be covered with 
 soft silky hair. 
 
 In well-bred sheep the wool is close, dense, and fine; though it 
 varies in these characters as well as in length and profusion in the 
 different varieties of the breed, and even within these varieties, accord- 
 ing to the locality in which they are reared and kept, or, in other words, 
 to the nature of the country, food, and climate. 
 
 Sheep generally produce finer wool after they are once shorn. 
 Uniformity in thequality of the wool on the different parts of the body 
 is striven for, — the wool of the hindquarter or thigh should not be hairy 
 or strong in staple, but should resemble the wool of the side or fore- 
 quarter as much as possible. On being parted for inspection, down 
 the side, shoulder, or back, it should divide freely, without any sign of 
 adhesion or matting, as this would stamp it as inferior for the purposes 
 of combing wool. A fine, wavy, bright staple should be presented down 
 the sides of the opening (a condition usually more pronounced near 
 the forequarter than oh the thigh), and at the bottom of it a bright 
 flesh-coloured streak of skin. 
 
 A real Merino fleece, as it grows on the sheep, should be firm as a 
 board, and packed like a cauliflower — the tips of the wool being even, 
 neither fuzzy nor straight, nor standing up in places. With great 
 length of staple, which is not a natural characteristic of the breed, the 
 density which is of so much importance is lost. 
 
 There are several breeders of pure Merino sheep in 
 
 this country, all of whom have a favourable report to give of 
 the success of this cosmopolitan breed even in our humid 
 
Plate LX. 
 
Plate LXI. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 239 
 
 climate, which is very different from that of the parched-up 
 country from which the Merino was originally dispersed. 
 Among these may be mentioned the names of Sturgeon & 
 Son, Grays Hall, Essex ; Finlay Campbell, Brantridge Park, 
 Balcombe, Sussex ; L. A. Macpherson, Wirley-Grove, Pel- 
 sail, Staffordshire ; Purvis Russell, Warroch, Milnathort, 
 Fifeshire. The Grays Hall flock was descended from a 
 choice lot of Negretti Merinos, consisting of four rams and 
 forty-six ewes, imported from Spain in 1791 by George HI. 
 The Brantridge Park flock was begun in 1885 by the 
 importation of ten ewes and two rams from New South 
 Wales, the direct and pure-blooded descendants of the 
 famous Camden stud flock, which was formed by blending 
 the blood of a number of Merinos imported into that colony 
 from the Cape in 1797 with a selection made in 1804 from 
 the royal flock above referred to. The ancestors of the 
 Wirley Grove flock were imported from Canterbury, New 
 Zealand, in 1887, and an offshoot of the flock has been 
 established with success, at an elevation of five hundred and 
 fifty feet above sea-level, at Corrimony, twenty-four miles 
 from Inverness. 
 
 Much valuable information regarding the character of the 
 Merino when bred in this country has been provided by the 
 history of a flock of about foUr hundred pure bred Merinos, 
 which was kept for a period of thirty years, ending about 
 1870, by Thomas Drewitt & Sons, auctioneers, Guildford. 
 
 It is generally supposed that Merino wool is liable to 
 degenerate when grown in this country, but the concensus 
 of opinion of those who have personal experience is against 
 this view, if care be taken in breeding, and if the animals be 
 not forced with rich food. Samples submitted to experts in 
 the wool trade in London have been pronounced equal to 
 the best class of wool of New Zealand growth in respect of 
 quality, density of staple, and growth. There is also a 
 decided prejudice against Merino mutton imported from 
 
240 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 the Argentine Republic, and from Australia and New 
 Zealand, owing to its dark colour, especially after it has 
 been frozen, and thinness as compared with that of the 
 carcasses of home-fed British sheep. Merinos are undoubt- 
 edly chiefly famous for wool production, and they are slow 
 in coming to maturity for the butcher, the mutton being 
 prime at three years old, but at its best when produced on 
 natural food the mutton is not inferior to that of our moun- 
 tain breeds. Crossing with most of our early maturity breeds 
 has proved successful in hastening maturity in the produce. 
 A very successful cross with Cotswold rams has produced 
 the Metis-merino, which is now quite famous in France, 
 both as a mutton and a wool producer. Successful experi- 
 ments in crossing have been carried out in this country with 
 the Lincoln, the Leicester, the Shropshire, the Romney 
 Marsh, the Cheviot, and the Scotch Blackface. The last is 
 a hardy cross, yielding both mutton and wool of excellent 
 quality, and with a little artificial food during winter it thrives 
 admirably on mountain pasture. The weak point of the 
 Merino breed, as a general purpose sheep, is its slowne^in 
 maturing its mutton, but this is a defect for the remedy.of 
 which strong inducements are offered in connection with the 
 colonial and South American mutton trade with this country.' 
 
 Short-wools : all Hornless except where stated. 
 
 The Sussex or Southdown is the breed through which 
 all the other Downs have been formed, by crossing it with 
 the old-fashioned varieties of the different districts. It is 
 short-legged, and in all respects most compact and sym- 
 metrical, but particularly good in the hindquarters. The 
 present improved and peculiarly handsome form of the 
 breed has been attained by selection from the original stock, 
 which was light in the forequarters, and leggy. 
 
 The head is small and neat, woolled close up to the ears 
 and on the forehead ; naked ears are most objectionable. 
 The hair on the face and legs is of a grey-brown colour. 
 
Plate LXII. 
 
 S'^m 
 
 
 
 ifei«^:t^.^s; 
 
 , \ % 
 
 Sfc^ iJiSn^i''*^-"™" 
 
 A. — Southdown Ram, " No. 24." 
 Bred by Hugh Pexfold, of Selsey, Chichester, sold in 188S for 185 guineas. 
 
 B.— Hamhshike Shearlixg Ram, " Ke:\iele " or "Victor IV' 
 
 Champion in 1891. 
 The Property of Robert Coles, The Grange, Warminster, Wilts. 
 
Plate LXIII. 
 
 ^Hif^- 
 
 
 A. — Shropshire Ewes. 
 The Property of Edward Caddick, Caradoc, Ross 
 
 B. — Shropshire Down Ram, "Webton Pkince." 
 The Property of Edward Caddick, Caradoc, Ross. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 24I 
 
 The fleece is short, close,,and of fine quality, andshbuld 
 be free^frdtn^hard p.rp|,eQting fibfes ; that from a evsjeweifh's 
 froi^ii^ three to four lbs. . Open, long.,' coarse woal' has been 
 imported into sonie flock^ in .the attempt to increase the size 
 byr^ros9ing,'and it is 'very; objectioiiable. Any .darkness or 
 dtilitessinfthe colour of the skifl. when the wool is parted iS 
 also sin •objectionable feat'ure'ih the show-ring. ' ; :> 
 
 The flesh ia of excellent quality, but it can be. easily 
 made too fat. The average weight for well-kept itegs should 
 be about;- 1-8 .Ihs. per. .quarter at twelve months.:: The 
 offal, as compared with that of other breeds, is little! in 
 amount: Fat wethers ' rising ,' two years old, belonging to 
 Earl Bathurst, and sold' in Cirencester market in the first 
 week of December 1884, dressed to 138 lbs. per carcass, or 
 34"5 lbs. per quarter dead-weight, and yielded 65 '83 per 
 cent, dead-weight to live-weight. 
 
 The original habitat of this breed was the region of the 
 low chalk-hjlls of Sussex and the rieighbouring counties, 
 ^■way-fr^pi, this .they are-,usually kept as ornamental sheep 
 inpapks,'where; they -are at times made into five-year-old 
 r^utton; They are not good rent-payers, except in their 
 nati-ve.district, being too, sjnall, and also liable to foot^rot. ; 
 
 The Shropshire Down breed of the. present tiinehai 
 beenifypdueed by crossing the old form with,' Sou thdowns 
 to give -qucility, and with Leicesters 'to. maintain. 'the size. 
 Now any importation of blood is objectionable, as it lead.'; 
 to divergences from the true type. •. -', 
 
 ■Points. — The face is, longer and . larger than that, of 
 the Southdown ; -fhd. nose slightly Roman; arid the ears 
 larger, and showing a more sprightly appearance. The face 
 . and legs are of a blackish brown colo.ur; the lattei- ofteft 
 darkj^r than. the, former, which is usually, tinged with .grey 
 (mofe' at some .seasons than at others) round the nose: an'd 
 eyes, and on the jaws. White spots on either face or legs 
 are objectionable, and black spots on the body are equally 
 
 Q 
 
242 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 SO. Transparent ears are bad, showing a deficiency of the 
 necessary hairy covering, and a tendency to softness, pro- 
 bably induced through in-breeding. 
 
 The wool should be free from black, of fine quality, and 
 closely set, although a little longer than Southdown ; and 
 the skin underneath ought to be a uniform pinky flesh- 
 colour. A good average weight for a fleece in an ordinary 
 ewe flock is 7 or 8 lbs. ; those of ram tegs and highly fed 
 ewes more : but heavy " clips " of wool are frequently coarse. 
 
 The dead-weight is usually about 20 to 22 lbs. per quarter 
 at twelve months old. 
 
 This breed has spread quickly in England within a few 
 years, and they were extensively tried in Scotland (about 
 1884) to cross with the native sheep. The crosses, like the 
 pure breed, are remarkably well covered with flesh on the 
 back, and make excellent fat lamb, as they come forward 
 early, but they have not been a success when kept till 
 spring as hoggs, being much smaller in size than the 
 Leicester crosses, which they were expected to supersede. 
 Another disadvantage of the Shropshire used in crossing 
 with sheep on hill pastures is that the lambs are too bare 
 for the first few days after birth, so that they cannot resist 
 the cold in very stormy seasons. 
 
 The Hampshire Down breed has its natural habitat on 
 the chalks of Hampshire and the region lying immediately 
 north and west ; hence called the West Country Down. 
 It was formed by crossing the old Wilts and Hants sheep 
 with the Southdown and by selection. 
 
 It is larger, coarser-looking, and lower-set than the 
 Shropshire, and when young not easily fed to " handle fat," 
 though often forced to great weights by high feeding. Ewes 
 are frequently allowed one lb. per day of a mixture of equal 
 parts of linseed cake and peas or Egyptian beans, until the 
 lambs begin to eat ; then this is gradually taken from the 
 ewes and given to the lambs. With abundance of natural 
 
I'l.ATE LXIV. 
 
 A. — Suffolk Ewes. 
 
 Won a number of First Pri7es. 
 
 Tlie Property of Joseph Smith, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon, Suffolk. 
 
 
 
 
 5:^.:>.ft 
 
 
 B.— Sufkolk: Ram, " Sailor Prinxe." 
 Winner of many First Prizes, and a Champion Prize in 18 
 The Property of Edward Gittus, Snailwell, Suffolk. 
 
SHEEP — BRITISH BREEDS. 243 
 
 food in addition to the concentrated mixture, a ram lamb 
 may increase from 19 lbs. at dropping in January to 
 150 lbs. live-weight on ist August. Lambs can 1 be got 
 early, as the ewes come ' in season sooner than hiost other 
 sheep. If "kept for, tegs, in an ordinary way, they should 
 weigh 20 to 22 lbs, per quarter at thirteen or, fourteen 
 months old. The mutton is of. fine quality, and all over 
 firm to the touch. 
 
 Points.- — The head should be . large _ arid - free from 
 "slugs;" "sriigs," or -budding, horns, with a strong Roinan 
 nose : the faces and legs almost black ; light faces indicate 
 recent crossing with the Southdown. The wool should be 
 free from black patches, and grow close up to and round 
 the ears, close and fine over the body, and shed white, with 
 a pink skin underneath. The average weight of fleece is 
 4| to 5 lbs. for ewes. 
 
 The ears are of a good size, more pointed than in the 
 Southdown, of a dark mouse colour behind, and free from 
 light specks. 
 
 The forequarters are particularly good, and the top of 
 the shoulder extremely broad. A conspicuous defect in 
 ordinary specimens of the breed is a falling away behind 
 the shoulder. 
 
 The Suffolk is a hornless breed, which resembles the 
 Hampshire, but it is not quite so compact and low set; 
 and the - short hair on the face and ears is black, and 
 extends down the back of the head, so that the ears are not 
 surrounded with wool as in the case of the Southdown. 
 
 It was bred originally from the hardy, horned, black- 
 faced Norfolk sheep, by crossing with the Southdown to 
 givesythmetry of fofm, c6mpactness, and early maturity, 
 airi'd-alsp with the Hampshire, to maintain size and weight. 
 The breed is mentioned in "The General Vv^vt of the Agri- 
 culture of Suffolk" as far back as 1797. Some pure-bred 
 flocks of the present day date back to 1,810, which throws 
 
244 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 light upon the fact that recent attempts at the importation 
 of foreign blood into the breed have not proved successful. 
 Those in the eastern districts partake strongly of the old 
 Norfolk characteristics, viz., dark face, light bone, and 
 active habits. Those to the west are, as a rule, kept on 
 better land ; they have lighter faces, greater aptitude to 
 fatten, and grow to greater weights. 
 
 The Suffolk breed was not recognised as of sufficient 
 importance to form a class at the Royal Agricultural 
 Society's shows until 1886. Since that time it has made 
 rapid strides in advancement. A Suffolk Sheep Breeders' 
 Association has been organised with the object of pro- 
 tection and improvement. The animal they have under 
 their care is possessed of great strength of constitution, 
 distinctive characteristics, and abundance of bone and flesh ; 
 and the objects before them ought to be to equalise and 
 refine the type by judicious selection. 
 
 It is claimed for this breed that it excels in the 
 following particulars, — 
 
 In fecundity, to the extent of producing thirty lambs to 
 the score of ewes ; in early maturity, as if fed on good 
 grass, tegs are ready for the butcher at ten or twelve 
 months old, and the ram lambs are so large and well 
 developed that they are often preferred for breeding pur- 
 poses to older sheep ; in hardiness, as the sheep have 
 not been pampered, and will find a living on bare pas- 
 tures where most other breeds would starve. The mutton 
 is very fine, possessing an exceptionally large proportion 
 of lean meat. It commands the highest prices in the 
 market. The constitution is unusually robust and hardy, 
 the animals possessing great power of endurance when 
 driven long distances. Their being almost exempt from 
 foot-rot has raised their reputation as good " rent payers," 
 and has led to their being substituted for " half breds," at 
 one time so largely kept in the marsh land districts. 
 
Plate LX\'. 
 
 -*.->. 
 
 A. — OxFOHD Down Ram, "Liverpool Freeland." 
 
 Royal Winner in the Two-Shear Class in 1885, and Champion of ali breeds at the Oxfordshire Sh n\ 
 
 The Property of John Tbeadwell, Upper Winchendon, Aylesbury, 
 
 B.— Ryland Ram, in Full Wool. 
 The Property of Frank Shepherd, The Brook, Colwall, Malvern. 
 
SHEEP— BRITISH BREEDS. 24S 
 
 The Oxford Down is a breed comparatively recently 
 formed by crossing Hampshire ewes with Cotswold rams. 
 It is the largest Down, although Hants tegs, being dropped 
 sooner and being consequently older, weigh more at the 
 London Christmas fat shows. The mutton is of good 
 quality, the quarter weighing 20 to 23 lbs. at twelve to 
 fourteen months old. 
 
 Points. — The face is not so dark, nor the shoulder so 
 broad, as in the Hampshire. The type is not so well 
 defined, showing more of the crossed origin. Rams from 
 old-standing flocks cross well with hill-breeds and inferior 
 sheep, but breeding from the produce of a recent cross is 
 not to be depended upon. 
 
 Flocks of cross ewes are sometimes kept for breeding 
 fattening tegs. When they become light faced after fre- 
 quent crossing with the Cotswold, a pure Hampshire ram 
 is turned in for a year, and when rather dark a Cotswold 
 is used in preference. A Shropshire ram on a cross ewe 
 produces a sheep with a much better covering of flesh 
 along the back than the Oxford Down will do. 
 
 Oxford Down wool is longer and more open or loose 
 than that of other Down sheep — in fact it ought in reality 
 to be classed as long wool ; fleeces of ewes average 6 or 7 
 lbs. each. 
 
 The Clun Forest Breed belongs to the Clun district 
 of Shropshire, the south of Radnorshire, and the adjoining 
 portions of Montgomery. It is sometimes called in these 
 localities the Radnor-forest or Kerry-hill sheep. It is bred 
 from the tan-face sheep that at one time abounded in that 
 region, by crossing with hardy Shropshire and black-faced 
 Longmynd mountain rams. The Longmynds have been 
 quite supplanted by them. The ewes are excellent mothers ; 
 crossed with a Shropshire ram they produce Easter fat lamb, 
 which would weigh, if kept till early summer, 17 lbs. to 18 
 lbs. per quarter. Ewes and two-year-old wethers rise in 
 
246 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 weight to 28 lbs. per quarter. The wether mutton is sold 
 in the "West End" as Welsh, dressed with a tuft of wool 
 on the tail, which is left its full length on account of the 
 breed being semi-mountainous. 
 
 The wool is about the same weight as that of the 
 Shropshire down, but a little coarser. 
 
 The Dorset and Somerset Horn is a white-faced 
 breed, with a close short fleece weighing 4 or 5 lbs., and 
 a tuft of wool on the forehead. The nose, hoofs, and legs 
 are white. In size it is larger than the Southdown, com- 
 pact, and well proportioned. 
 
 The great peculiarity of the breed is, that the ewes 
 take the ram as early as April, and breed "house-lamb" 
 ready for Christmas. They also take the ram again soon 
 after lambing, and thus two crops each year may be got, 
 though it involves special precautions. The ewes are 
 often tupped for the last season by a Southdown ram, so 
 that the lambs become ripe sooner, and possess dark 
 heads with no horns. Downs or Down-crosses are usually 
 supposed to give the best quality of mutton, and there 
 is consequently a run upon dark faces and legs, as 
 butchers can more easily dispose of the mutton of dark- 
 faced sheep. 
 
 The Ryeland Breed (named from the Ryelands of 
 Hereford, a poor upland district) is perhaps one of the 
 breeds of longest standing in England, resisting, as it does, 
 any attempt at improvement by crossing with other breeds. 
 It is compact and hardy, and fattens readily, when liber- 
 ally fed, up to 20 lbs. per quarter at twelve to fourteen 
 months old. Pure-bred lambs and also crosses by a 
 Ryeland ram on ewes of other breeds make excellent 
 butchers' lambs. They are dropped in a fat condition, 
 and when well managed they retain it in virtue of their 
 natural hardiness of constitution. 
 
 Both rams and ewes are hornless, and possess white faces 
 
Plate LXVl. 
 
 A. — SOMKkSET AND DOUSET HORN EwES. 
 
 The Property of H. Davis, Preston Farm, MiKerton. 
 
 B.— Somerset and Dokset Horn Ram, "Prince." 
 
 First Prize at Plymouth in i8go. 
 
 The Property of Herbert Farthing, Thurloxton, Taunton. 
 
SHEEP — MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 247 
 
 and legs, and a tuft of wool on the forehead. The wool 
 is short, and exceptionally fine in quality, and is more 
 like the wool of the Merino than that of any other British 
 breed. The fleece weighs about 7 or 8 lbs. on an average 
 in the case of well-kept sheep. The breed is almost free 
 from foot-rot, unless when this is communicated to certain 
 of its members by contact. 
 
 The Ryeland sheep were supplanted to a large extent 
 some years ago during the rage for Shropshire and other 
 improved Downs, but the tendency of recent times has 
 been to breed them up again, and greatly to improve 
 upon the original form by selection. It is estimated that 
 there are only about thirty flocks of Ryeland sheep in 
 existence at the present time, twenty-five' of which are 
 located in Hereford and Brecknockshire, while perhaps 
 two or three places may be found where, they are bred 
 in each of the counties of Monmouth, Gloucester, and 
 Worcester. 
 
 Mountain Breeds, 
 
 The Cheviot is named from the range of hills on the 
 Scotch and English Border, its native district. The ewes 
 pasture on the lower and less exposed green hills all 
 over Scotland. Cheviot wethers and Blackfaced High- 
 land ewes go to greater heights, or occupy positions on 
 the black or more heathery land at lower elevations. 
 
 Points. — The face and legs should be well covered 
 with short, hard, wiry, pure-white hair, which should ex- 
 tend over the ears and well over the back of the head. 
 
 The horns in the ram, though not always present, are 
 not objected to, being considered a sign of hardiness, if 
 " clean " — not thick and ringed or rough like those of the 
 Blackfaced breed. The nose of the ram is somewhat arched 
 or Roman. The nostrils are black, and the eyes dark, and 
 very full and bright. 
 
248. FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The wool is moderately long, and should be close-set, 
 and neither open nor curly, but straight and free from 
 " kemp " or dead hairs, covering all parts of the body well, 
 including the belly, breast, and legs down to the knees and 
 houghs. A good average clip for ewes is 4^ to 5 lbs. of 
 washed wool. 
 
 The tail is long, and should be very rough. It is cut 
 so that the point reaches the hough.* 
 
 The shoulders are high, and sharp at the withers. 
 
 The fashionable form of Cheviot is now shorter, smaller, 
 and more compact, and the wool closer' and thicker set 
 than formerly, since a series of bad seasons, down to 1879, 
 showed that the larger varieties with loose open fleeces 
 were not so hardy. The old, original Cheviot was a very 
 close-coated, short-woolled, and remarkably hardy sheep, — 
 even more hardy, it is recorded, than the Scotch Blackfaced 
 breed, a state of things which is now far from being the 
 case. 
 
 The ewes are good milkers, if not starved, as they 
 frequently are in bad seasons, when the natural food on 
 which they subsist is late in springing. 
 
 Cast ewes fed on turnips for from twelve to fourteen 
 weeks, and wethers from the hills at' three years off, weigh, 
 killed and dressed, 60 to 70 lbs. : wethers a year younger, 
 and finished on turnips, get up to about the same weights. 
 
 Cast, draught, or cull ewes, at five years old, go from 
 the hills into the low country and better food, to be 
 " milled " or crossed with Wensleydale, Border Leicester, 
 or Lincoln rams. The produce is called " Half-bred," or 
 " Leicester-Cheviot," and those half-breds kept for ewes pro- 
 
 * The tails of mountain sheep are left long to protect the udders in cold 
 weather, and because, on natural food, they are not so liable to scour and 
 become dirty as sheep on turnips and luxuriant green, forage. Shetland and 
 Iceland sheep have not tails long enough to act as a protection, but there 
 is an unusual amount of wool on the inner part of the thighs, which .'serves 
 the purpose equally well. 
 
Plate LXVII. 
 
 ^^ - ^ 
 
 A.— An East Country Cheviot Ram, "Aimfu Sandy." 
 
 In store condition, with a pedigree which dates back for 90 years. 
 
 The Property of John Elliot, Hindbope, Jedburgh. 
 
 ''•'.'^.■-X'--',' 1, 
 
 
 
 B. — A Wfst Country Cheviot Ewe— As One of a Group of Three. 
 The Winner of many Prizes, Highland Society and others, including a Champion Cup at Moffat, 
 The Property of J. A. Johnstone, Archbank, Moffat. 
 
I'LATE Lxviir. 
 
 ^^tf^y*^ 
 
 oVf 
 
 "^-r». 
 
 '.^'.'^ 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 m 
 
 ,14': ''If ' . 
 
 A.— Scotch Black-Faced Highland Ewes. 
 The Properly of John Craig, Innergeldie, Perthshire. 
 
 
 ^^M 
 
 r^^ 
 
 
 ^SP 
 
 t!-' 
 ^ 
 
 ^r 
 
 r . 
 
 f 
 
 f/'- 
 
 *■ \ n 
 
 JV 
 
 L' , 
 
 s 
 
 
 /'v 
 
 ( \ 
 
 <A 
 
 0-, 
 
 ':%' 
 
 / 
 
 %^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 
 1'' 
 
 
 
 
 B.— Scotch Black-Faced Mountain Ram, "Cirencester's Grandson." 
 First Prize Ram above Two-Shear at the Highland and Agricultural Show, Inverness, i8 
 The Property of Chaples Howatson, ofDornel, Glenbuck, N.B. 
 
SHEEP— MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 249 
 
 duce by a Leicester or Lincoln ram " Three-part-bred " 
 lambs. 
 
 Half-breds, when fat at twelve to thirteen months old, 
 weigh 16 to 18 lbs. per quarter, and the flesh is leaner and of 
 better quality than that of the pure Leicester or Lincoln. 
 
 The Scotch Blackfaced Highland Breed is smaller 
 than the Cheviot, much hardier, and thrives better on coarse 
 pasture, such as black, heathery land. 
 
 The wool is curly, loose, and shaggy, hanging down 
 nearly to the ground, and more hairy and kempy than 
 Cheviot wool. It is specially valuable in the manufacture of 
 coarse articles, such as carpets ; and as it is less subjected 
 to. foreign competition than other wools, it fluctuates less in 
 price. The fleece averages 3^ to 4^ lbs. from ewes, and is 
 usually clipped unwashed. Much is exported to America 
 when the price does not exceed 6d. per lb., as then it can 
 be imported under a much smaller duty than higher-priced 
 wools. Black or blue spots on the neck, tail, or other parts 
 of the wool-producing portion of the skin of a Blackfaced 
 sheep are objectionable. 
 
 Points. — The face and legs are black or mottled (but the 
 colours should be distinct, clear, and free from dun or brown), 
 smooth and glossy, and no wool among the hair, although 
 the remains of a tassel on the forehead and a fringe on the 
 legs has often to be dressed off" well-bred sheep in preparing 
 for exhibition. The nose is strong and prominent, and the 
 nostrils are wide and black. 
 
 The horns of the ram are large, coming out level, from 
 the crown of the head, and not rising above it or joining 
 together at the base, but taking one or more spiral turns 
 according to age. The corkscrew-like curl of the horn is in 
 a forward direction, and should so incline that room is left 
 between the horns for the face. 
 
 In the ewe the horns are small, thin, flattened and curved, 
 but not spirally twisted. 
 
250 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The ears are short and small, but hidden by the horns 
 in the ram, and not much looked to in judging. The back 
 is broad all the way along, including the shoulder tops. The 
 tail is naturally short, not often hanging lower than the 
 hough, and it, consequently, does not require to be cut. 
 Old ewes should have rough tails, as when they lose the 
 wool and become " whip-tailed " they are not worth so much 
 in the market. 
 
 The mutton is of the finest quality, especially that of three- 
 year-old wethers, or young and tender lambs. A fat wether 
 from the hill at three years off should weigh i6 to i8 lbs. 
 per quarter. 
 
 The " Blackfaced " sheep is wild and active, and when - 
 thriving best must travel about a great deal, a habit which 
 suits it to its native pastures better than to a low country 
 district, where it is liable to be affected with foot-rot. The 
 breed is supposed to have come originally from the Ettrick 
 Forest. 
 
 The produce of a Blackfaced ewe by a Leicester ram is 
 called a "Cross" or "Mule"; and by a Cheviot ram a " Half- 
 long." The latter name is given because a Blackface is 
 sometimes termed the "short" sheep, and a Cheviot the 
 "long" sheep. As ewes these sheep of mixed breed are 
 good milkers. 
 
 Milk-sickness in Lambs is found in upland districts in 
 Scotland, where there is an abundant supply of " draw- 
 moss " — the sheathing cotton sedge, Eriophorum vaginatum. 
 The malady appears early in May, soon after the lambing 
 season begins, and continues with greater or less severity 
 till the end of the month, being most deadly in good 
 growing seasons. At times as many as one-third of the 
 lambs born on one day will die. However plentiful and 
 good grass may be in June, the evil influences which are 
 liable to be exerted when the sheep are feeding freely on 
 draw-moss do not appear, consequently late lambs rarely 
 
Plate LXIX. 
 
 
SHEEP — MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 251 
 
 suffer. The disease appears in the case of lambs of about 
 two or three days old in the form of inflammation of the 
 stomach, and they die in convulsions within a few hours. 
 The post-mortem appearances are different from those present 
 when lambs " burst " after taking too much milk, as they 
 are liable to do on rich low country pasture. The remedy for 
 milk-sickness is to give one teaspoonful of whisky in a tea- 
 spoonful of water twice daily for three days, the ewes which 
 have not lambed being " shed in," so that the work of treat- 
 ing every lamb under three days old may be made possible. 
 There is not much chance of the remedy being successful 
 after the symptoms appear, and no hope of natural recovery. 
 
 It is a useful precaution, as a means of prevention, to 
 turn out the rams a week earlier than usual, so that a large 
 number of lambs may be dropped before the advent of the 
 most dangerous season. 
 
 The Herdwick Breed is the hardiest of hill sheep, and 
 is found in greatest numbers on the mountains of Cumber- 
 land and Westmoreland. A few flocks have been taken to 
 Wales and other parts, and there is a distinct tendency 
 towards the increase in the total numbers of the breed. 
 
 It is recorded that the Herdwick was brought to this 
 country about the time of the Spanish Armada, and that 
 " forty small sheep managed to save themselves from the 
 wreck of a Spanish vessel stranded on the sandy coast of 
 Drigg, and were claimed as jetsam and flotsam by the then 
 lord of the manor." 
 
 From these foundlings or castaways the breed of the 
 present day is supposed to have been descended. Any 
 attempt to cross the Herdwick with other breeds with the 
 object of improving it has been unsuccessful. 
 
 Points. — Horns may be present or absent in the ram, 
 though they do not exist in the case of the ewe. They are 
 rather appreciated, though not considered essential in the 
 case of the ram. 
 
252 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The colour of the heads and legs of the lambs when 
 dropped should be black, with the exception of a white tip 
 to the ears, and possibly a fringe of white hair round the 
 hoofs. The white gradually extends from the starting 
 points indicated, and forms a ring which develops round the 
 muzzle, till at three years of age the face is left either white, 
 like the hoofs, or steel-grey in colour. These colours should 
 be free from spots or speckles, or from a brown tinge. The 
 wool is strong and coarse, and inclined to be hairy at the 
 top of the shoulder. The poll should be well covered with 
 wool, and the forehead with the forelock ; the tail bushy 
 and broad. There are some unique customs in the manage- 
 ment of this breed which are not commonly met with among 
 other breeds of sheep, — First, such as smearing the teats of 
 the ewes with plasters of pitch to prevent the lamb sucking ; 
 second, painting the wool of the ram a brjght red colour, so 
 that the .shepherd is enabled to distinguish him in uneven hilly 
 ground, even three miles away, by the aid of a field-glass. 
 
 The wethers at three or four years old, and also the fat 
 ewes, may weigh from 12 to 18 lbs. per quarter, and the 
 mutton is of excellent quality. 
 
 The Lonk Sheep is a native of the Lancashire, York- 
 shire, and some of the Derbyshire hills. It resembles the 
 Scotch Blackface, but is leggier, with a larger body and 
 bigger head, a longer and rougher tail, and in the ewe 
 stronger horns. In constitution it is not so hardy as the 
 Scotch Blackface, but it has a shorter, closer, finer, and 
 heavier fleece, which weighs 4^ to 5 lbs. in the case of ewes 
 kept in. moderate condition. 
 
 The rams have been used to cross with Scotch Black- 
 faced ewes to increase the size and improve the wool, but 
 the attempt has not succeeded, as the constitution of the 
 produce is weakened. The fat-weight is slightly more than 
 that of the Highland Blackface. 
 
 The Limestone Breed has only recently attracted 
 
Plate LXX. 
 
 A. — Two-Shear Lonk Ewes. 
 
 The Property of Mrs Dawson, Weston Hall, Otiey, Yorkshire. 
 
 
 B. —Two-Shear Lonk Ram, ''Captain." 
 The Property of Mrs Dawson, Weston Hall, OtIey, Yorkshire. 
 
SHEEP — MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 253 
 
 general notice, although it has existed for many years as an 
 important local variety.* The home of the breed embraces 
 some eight parishes or townships on the dry limestones in 
 the lower districts of Westmoreland, only a few townships 
 being in the higher parts of the qounty. It also extends to 
 a limited extent to the Derbyshire hills. 
 
 Points. — Both males and females are horned, and the 
 faces, legs, and wool are white. The wool is very long, and 
 it is finer in quality on the forequarters than on the hind- 
 quarters. The breed possesses a noble carriage. It is very 
 hardy and active, and admirably suited to mountain climb- 
 ing, though on dry lowland pasture it thrives well and 
 reaches its maximum size. 
 
 There has been little or no change in the characteristics 
 of Limestone sheep from time immemorial. The attempt 
 to introduce sheep of other breeds from other parts of the 
 country, usually by strangers coming to settle in the district, 
 has failed, the native dry, heaths, or bare mountain pastures 
 being unsuitable to any but the Limestone breed. On the 
 other hand they do badly on wet and spongy land. The 
 ewes are most prolific, and will readily cross with rams of 
 other breeds, but it is then necessary to bring them in from 
 the heath not later than the beginning of October. They 
 make good mothers if not interfered with, but if approached 
 or handled they are liable to become petted, and even to 
 run away from their lambs; Shearling wethers on ordinary 
 pasture will weigh 18 to 21 lbs. per quarter dressed at 
 nineteen to twenty months old, and highly fed cast ewes 
 have run up to 28 lbs. per quarter. The outside show of fat 
 is not so good as in the Lincoln and Leicester breeds, but the 
 quality of the mutton is unequalled by that of any English 
 
 * The father and grandfather of R. Parker, Moss End, Burton, Westmore- 
 land (who has been good enough to supply valuable information regarding 
 the breed), bred Limestone sheep on the same farm for nearly one hundred 
 years. 
 
254 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 breed except that of the Herdwick and the Welsh mountain 
 sheep. The ewes resemble the ewes of the Dorset breed, in 
 that they come in season at almost any time, and conse- 
 quently may be used for the production of Christmas fat 
 lamb. 
 
 The Welsh Mountain Sheep.* — This breed has existed 
 on the Welsh hills, it may be said; from time immemorial. 
 On the highest hills the original breed still exists in its 
 pristine purity of blood, though in the lowlands, including 
 the richest pastures of the country, the breed has been 
 increased in size and modified to some extent (though 
 the general characteristics have been well maintained) by 
 crossing with various larger early maturity breeds. The 
 improvement of the breed has been restricted ■ by the fact 
 that many of the mountains are common pastures, where 
 it is impossible to secure united action on the part of the 
 various owners of stock. 
 
 The crossing of a mountain breed of sheep with an 
 improved early maturity breed, which invariably possesses 
 a Ipss hardy constitution on that account, can only be 
 regarded as an improvement when it is possible to place 
 the mountain sheep in a position in which it will be in- 
 dependent of severe weather and scarcity of food, which, 
 by the application of Darwin's law of the survival of the 
 fittest, exercise an immense influence in forming the char- 
 acter of a mountain sheep. 
 
 The characteristics of the pure breed are a yellow face 
 and legs, short fine wool, and usually a narrow body 
 descending towards the shoulder. The rams possess 
 gracefully curved horns, while the ewes are generally 
 hornless. The breed is noted for hardiness and activity, 
 which renders it difficult to fence those which are taken 
 down to the lowlands to feed. The mutton in the London 
 
 * The Author is indebted for much of the following information to Owen 
 Price of Naubyrham, Cray, Brechen, and Professor Gilchrist, Bangor. 
 
Plate LXXI. 
 
 A. — Improved Welsh Mountain Ram, " Brhenin Cymru." 
 First Prize Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Warwick, 1892. 
 The Property of John Jones, Central Buildings, Llandudno. 
 
 B. — Welsh Mountain Ram, "Glyder," and Ewe, " Gynffon-fawr.' 
 The Property of Thomas Roberts, Tan-y-fynwent, Aber, near Bangor. 
 
SHEEP — MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 2$ J 
 
 market is regarded as of the finest quality, and class,ed 
 with Scotch mountain mutton and that of the Southdown. 
 
 The dead weight of the real pure-bred Welsh sheep 
 does not exceed 28 to 32 lbs., but specimens, the " im- 
 proved " variety, run up to 36 or 40 lbs., and on the best 
 pasture four or five year old wethers even weigh 50 lbs. 
 
 The influence of crossing has been to produce thicker 
 sheep of " square '' and equally balanced frames, which in 
 suitable localities, where turnips and other artificial food 
 can be conveniently provided, return more profit than the 
 pure breed under liberal treatment. The great differences 
 in size and appearance are accounted for by the different 
 breeds used in crossing. In some places the Radnor Forest 
 sheep has been employed for the purpose. In Anglesey 
 and South Carmarthenshire, where the- largest sheep (run- 
 ning up to 15 and 20 lbs. per quarter) are to be found, 
 Leicester and Lincoln blood has been introduced ; and on 
 the highest hills in Breconshire the Cheviot cross has 
 proved to be hardy and suitable to the surroundings. 
 
 The weight of the Welsh fleece differs with the size 
 and character of the variety of the breed producing it, 
 from 2 lbs. up to the weight of the larger English Down 
 fleeces, the staple of the improved specimens being longer 
 and more open as well as more heavy. 
 
 The russet-rooted wool called ^-war ^■ock, which may be 
 seen in lambs in front of the top of the shoulder, may be 
 eliminated by careful breeding. The famous Welsh-flannel, 
 Welsh-shawls, and woollen goods of various sorts (with which 
 the names of Owen, Owen, & Co. are familiar), are made 
 from those parts of the fleece which yield the finest of 
 wool fibre. 
 
 The mountain flocks usually range on the hills from 
 April to November, but they are brought down to the 
 lower land during the winter months. The ewes are not 
 sent back to the mountains after they are four years old, 
 
256 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 but are crossed usually with a Shropshire down tarn with 
 the object of producing fat lambs for the May market. 
 
 The Tan-Face is a very old Welsh mountain breed, 
 still met with, but in smaller numbers than formerly, in 
 Radnorshire, about Abbey-cwm-hir * and St Harmon, and 
 shown as a distinct class at the Radnorshire Agricultural 
 Show annually held at Pen-y-bout. This is a short-legged, 
 hardy little sheep, with a close fleece of fine wool on the 
 back and sidesi but rather coarse underneath. 
 
 Exmoor Sheep somewhat resemble Dorsets, but are 
 more hardy. They have white faces, with black nostrils, 
 and the horns slant farther back than in the case of 
 Dorsets. The wool is close and fine, weighing 4 or 5 lbs. 
 a fleece. Exmoors are larger than Welsh sheep, while 
 the mutton is also very good. 
 
 * Cwm-hir (pronounced coo7n here), Welsh for long-valley. 
 
Plate LXXII. 
 
 
 
 
 A. — ExMooR Ram. 
 The Property of Sir Wm. R. Williams, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple North Dev 
 
 - W-; »s«e9f4#fe- 
 
 B. — ExMooR Ewe. 
 The Property of Sir Wm. R. W,ll,a»,s, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple, North Devo 
 
CHAPTER XVIII.— MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON CULTI- 
 VATED LAND AND LOW COUNTRY PASTURE— THE 
 EWE AND LAMB. 
 
 Tupping Time — Winter Pasture — Ewes not in Lamb — The Lambing Pen — 
 Parturition — Early Treatment of the Lamb — Food of the Ewe — Lambs' 
 Food — Castration— Washing — Shearing — Weaning. 
 
 **nrUPPING" or "Ride" time commences usually, 
 where the climate is moderate, about the first 
 week of September, or at any later period, varying with 
 the district, till about 22nd November (Martinmas), when 
 hill-rams go out to the ewes. The date is often governed by 
 the time the ewes begin to come in season : for instance, 
 Hampshires will tup in the beginning of August, whereas 
 mountain ewes frequently do not begin to stand to the ram 
 before the end of October. 
 
 Cast ewes (four-year-old) and " culls," or those unfit for 
 breeding, are " drawn " out when the lambs are weaned, or 
 at any more suitable time before the ram is put amongst 
 them. By being kept on good food, such as rape or 
 mustard, for ten days before tupping time, ewes get into 
 an improving condition, and in consequence produce more 
 doubles. The object may also be accomplished, if the 
 green food cannot be had, by giving each one ^ lb. of 
 oats daily. 
 
 Too much care cannot be exercised in arranging the 
 ewes and rams according to their different qualities and 
 characters, so that the flock may maintain a definite type 
 of its own. One ram to sixty ewes is the usual propor- 
 tion, but he may be allowed a greater number if he be 
 
 R 
 
2S8 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 kept apart, and a " chaser " or " teaser " lamb, with a cloth 
 sewed on his belly, put out to find the ewes as they come 
 in season. 
 
 A shepherd should notice if ewes " come back " to the 
 ram at the end of sixteen days. The usual mechanical 
 way of finding this out is to use three colours of paint, 
 say blue, red, and black. The breast, or sometimes the 
 inside of one fore-leg of the ram, is first rubbed with blue 
 for rather more than two weeks. Red is used for the next 
 period of sixteen days, and black for a third period. The 
 ewe's rump is thus marked while being tupped, and accord- 
 ing to the colour of the last marking the time of lambing is 
 approximately predetermined. A ewe marked twice should 
 be put to another ram for a third trial, as she is less likely 
 to hold to the first ram than to another. This is most 
 easily accomplished by running several lots of ewes with 
 the accompanying rams together. At the end of six 
 weeks, when the tups are taken up, the ewes should run 
 over stubbles and poor pasture, or follow fattening sheep 
 to pick up what remains of turnips or other rejected food : 
 they should be kept thriving, but must not be made too 
 fat. 
 
 Ewes going on pasture during winter should have an 
 allowance of | ton of roots per hundred per day till lambing 
 begins ; and after they have lambed, i ton per day, or 22'4 
 lbs. each, along with i or 2 lbs. of hay or good oat straw 
 in racks. This allowance should be slightly increased 
 should snow cover the ground. Ten days before lambing 
 begins each ewe should have J lb. daily of a mixture of con- 
 centrated artificial food, — such as crushed peas, Egyptian 
 beans, and cake, with oats (whole), and bran, varying in 
 relative proportion to one another, and also in quantity, to 
 suit the condition of the bowels. Heavy milking ewes, 
 such as those with double lambs, should have this con- 
 centrated food increased, but not more than i lb. each 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 259 
 
 per day. The mixture is gradually reduced as the lambs 
 learn to eat and become less dependent upon their mothers. 
 Some farmers provide no extra food, and others give too 
 much, and set it down to bad luck if the lambs do not 
 thrive. It is a mistake to have breeding stock either too 
 fat or too lean : they are then less prolific and there is 
 more risk of their producing small-sized young, and moreover 
 they have less milk to support them. On an ordinary farm, 
 twenty-five lambs to every twenty ewes is a good crop, 
 thirty lambs being more than an average. With extra 
 care in management, and by breeding only from ewes 
 which have been born twins, even thirty-five, or in the 
 case of small and exceptionally successful flocks, even 
 forty lambs may sometimes be got. 
 
 Sheep not in lamb (eild) may be noticed near to or 
 in lambing time by the following signs — 
 
 1. By their jumping and playing in good weather : 
 
 2. By being less bulky than the others in the region of 
 the abdomen : 
 
 3. By no lamb being felt when the ewe is turned up, 
 and the tips of the fingers pressed against the lower part 
 of the belly : 
 
 4. By having no " show " or increase in size of the 
 udder : 
 
 4. By the appearance on the bare skin about the udder 
 of a considerable amount of yellow waxy excretion which 
 does not look as if it would naturally clean off : and 
 
 6. By the wool near to the udder being more firmly 
 attached than the wool of a pregnant sheep. 
 
 The lambing pen is an open, well-littered yard, often 
 erected at a suitable spot in a field of roots, and con- 
 structed of hurdles thatched with straw to provide warmth 
 and shelter for the young lambs in stormy weather. It 
 should be placed on dry ground, having a southern ex- 
 posure, in a sheltered place if possible, and on a slope 
 
26o 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 sufficient to let surface water readily escape. Small 
 covered pens, each about 4| feet square, are ranged round 
 
 the north, east, and .west sides, at the rate of thirty to thirty- 
 five for two hundred ewes. The cost of the labour of erecting 
 a lambing pen of the size named is from £2. los. to £1. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 261 
 
 Ewes " coming near their work " are brought in at 
 night, so that they may be more carefully tended. Ewes 
 do not lamb so frequently at night as late in the evening 
 and early in the morning, and lambing is easier in moist 
 than in dry weather. 
 
 The period of gestation in the case of ewes is between 
 twenty-one and twenty-two weeks. The shepherd should 
 live in a wooden house on wheels, fitted with a stove, and 
 placed close to the pen- to enable him to give his undivided 
 attention to the flock. 
 
 During parturition assistance by hand should never be 
 given too soon. Should the head of the lamb protrude, 
 immediate action is necessary to prevent its death by 
 strangulation. When parturition is normal the two forer 
 legs appear first, then the head. A steady pull by the 
 legs is usually successful help, In false presentations large 
 lambs require to be turned right round before they can 
 be got away. Turning is most easily accomplished when 
 the ewe is suspended by an assistant holding her by the 
 hind legs. The hands, after washing, should be rubbed 
 over with carbolic oil, one part of pure carbolic (Gresser's 
 or Calvert's, not the crude or brown carbolic) to twenty of 
 sweet oil. Half an ounce to one ounce of the mixture 
 should be put into the vagina afterwards, to prevent in- 
 flammation (the result of injury, or the presence of putrid 
 matter, as when the lamb is dead), which induces " strain- 
 ing." Inversion of the uterus (commonly called the " lamb- 
 bed," or in Gloucestershire the " wither " or " wether ") is 
 thus prevented. When protrusion occurs, the exposed part 
 should be washed with tepid water (cold water is liable to 
 give pain), and pressed gently back into its proper position, 
 with the hand held flat, care being taken not to pierce the 
 organ with the fingers. The oil should in such a case have 
 a few drops of laudanum in it to help to soothe and to 
 allay the irritation. To retain it in its position, a i-inch 
 
262 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 mesh-net made of strong twine may be 
 put on the top of the wool round the 
 hips and covering the tail, the ends 
 passing along the sides of the animal, 
 and terminating in fastenings to a rope 
 tied round the heart-girth after the 
 fashion of the cow-breeches already de- 
 scribed at page 148. If a net is not 
 at hand, locks of wool may be tied 
 tightly across from hip to hip, or the 
 lips of the vulva may be stitched to- 
 gether. The last, though successful, 
 seems a cruel and drastic remedy, but 
 it should be remembered that while the 
 womb protrudes the pain is acute, and 
 the life of the animal is in danger. 
 
 The Early Treatment of the Lamb. 
 — When it is necessary to bring lambs 
 that have been chilled into the house, 
 they should not be placed near a fire, 
 because a sudden change of temperature 
 gives an injurious shock to the nervous 
 system, which may result in physical 
 collapse, or even in death. Cows' milk, 
 given at blood heat, 98° F., without 
 water, should have in it a little gin or 
 sweet spirits of nitre to aid urination. 
 Stricture of the neck of the bladder, the 
 result of exposure to cold, is most com- 
 mon in male lambs, and is relieved by 
 providing shelter, and gently rubbing 
 the belly with the hand while the lamb 
 is held up by the fore-legs. 
 Net Breeches for a A motherless lamb, while young, 
 should be fed five or six times a day 
 
 Ewe. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 263 
 
 to prevent scour. The giving of a little cows' milk to a 
 lamb while it is sucking its mother often induces diarrhoea 
 or constipation, and in cold weather results in the develop- 
 ment of swelled and stiff joints. 
 
 In " twinning on " a second lamb to a ewe which has 
 lost her lamb, the skin of the latter may be put on the 
 living lamb for a few hours to give it the smell with which 
 the ewe is familiar, and by which she is able to distinguish 
 her own lamb if she has been allowed to lick it. Should she 
 not have smelled or licked it, another lamb may be at once 
 substituted for the dead one without any further precaution 
 than that of rubbing its body over with the slime adhering 
 to the skin of the dead lamb. Whisky rubbed on her nose 
 and on the lamb soon after lambing, when the instinctive 
 fondness for the young is strongest, temporarily suspends 
 the ewe's power of scent sufficiently to deceive her. 
 
 The Food of the Ewe. — About the end of March or 
 beginning of April, ewes on arable land in the Midland 
 Counties and south of England are removed from around 
 the ewe-pen, where, to encourage the flow of milk, they 
 have had sprouting white swedes, or late-sown green- 
 round turnips, which stand the winter well. The lambs 
 are allowed to run before the ewes, and thus to secure 
 the best of the young sprouts, by the hurdles being made so 
 that they can pass through while their mothers cannot. 
 
 One acre (15-ton crop) is usually set aside per week 
 during winter for every two hundred ewes, or 24 lbs. each 
 per day. Shelter can be readily provided when necessary 
 by thatched or wattled hurdles set up to form a cross, 
 thus -1- . The ewes are run for a week or ten days on early 
 pasture (" seeds ") ; next for three weeks on rye, which ought 
 to be finished before the end of April ; then on clover, 
 vetches, or some other forage crop ; swedes or mangels 
 follow ; and later on, to give a change of food, cabbages are 
 thrown to them while at pasture in the field. 
 
264 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The practice of training Lambs to eat cake early is most 
 important in feeding for fat lamb. Lambs are taught to 
 eat cake and corn before being weaned by enclosing their 
 troughs within hurdles, through which they alone of the 
 flock can pass. 
 
 Store male lambs are castrated at two or three weeks 
 old ; but not during frost, which would induce stiffness ; 
 nor in a hot sun, which might cause excessive bleeding 
 if the testicles be removed by pulling. Lambs on rare 
 occasions faint after castration, but soon recover con- 
 sciousness. Marking, by taking nips from the ears, if 
 not, done previous to this time, is also now performed; 
 while the tail too is docked to keep the sheep clean, 
 should the solid excreta at any time become abnormally 
 soft, as is frequently the case when lambs are put on 
 luxuriantly grown food produced on naturally rich or 
 highly manured land, or when lean sheep of any age begin 
 to improve rapidly. 
 
 There are three common ways of Castration : — First, 
 The scrotum or purse is either slit or the top cut off by a 
 knife, and the testicles are drawn away by the teeth of the 
 operator : Second, By iron clams and the actual cautery 
 after the scrotum has been cut into ; if a lamb is stiff next 
 day it should be bathed with hot water in the region of the 
 wounded part : Third, By hazel-wood clams dipped in 
 powdered sulphate of copper, after being spread inside with 
 lard, placed so that the neck of the cord supporting each 
 testicle is gripped and thus fixed on for half-an-hour. This 
 stops the circulation of the blood in the parts involved, and 
 prevents bleeding after the testicles have been cut away. 
 The top of the scrotum is removed in this instance, as the 
 operator has then greater freedom in adjusting the clams 
 than when slits are made. 
 
 This last way of making the incision possesses also the 
 advantage of providing a free passage for the escape of 
 
Plate LXXIII. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 26$ 
 
 humours, which form in the wounds during the process of 
 healing, though on the other hand it reduces the size of the 
 purse, which is a disadvantage for marketing when the 
 animal is ready for the butcher. . The two latter methods 
 are not so liable to produce inflammation, and there is no 
 danger, as in the case of drawing the testicles, of rupture, or 
 bleeding in the region of the kidneys, causing a lamb to pine 
 more frequently than to die immediately after the operation. 
 The third method is the safest, but it takes much more time 
 in execution than the others. It is the most suitable when 
 well-developed lambs or old sheep are castrated. 
 
 Washing, which should be done ten days before clipping, 
 is usual in the case of most Lowland breeds of sheep, though 
 it is not practised with the Scotch Blackfaced breed. It is 
 never done in salt water, as this injures the wool for keeping 
 in store. There ought to be a watertight box in the centre 
 of the pond for a man to stand in while doing the washing, 
 in place of his having to get into the water. The washer 
 takes hold of a sheep and keeps it moving in the water until 
 the " yolk " or " eik " is washed out. This yolk, which keeps 
 the wool soft and greasy to touch, is an excretion from the 
 skin chiefly, but possibly also to some extent from the wool 
 itself It contains much potash, and is used in the manu- 
 facture of fancy soaps. It is most abundant on certain 
 strains of the Merino breed. Hill sheep, such as Cheviots, 
 are simply thrown into a large pond and made to swim 
 through it once or possibly twice ; but since the price of wool 
 has been so much reduced, the operation has become less 
 general. 
 
 The time of Clipping or Shearing is dependent on the 
 weather, and, in the case of lean sheep, on the " rise " of new 
 wool. Unless for special purposes, sheep are clipped in the 
 new growth of wool. 
 
 Eild sheep, or those not giving milk, are shorn first : 
 from the beginning of May onwards, in the south, and ewes 
 
266 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 three or four weeks later. Exposure to cold by early clipping 
 greatly diminishes the flow of milk, and might also cause 
 death in some cases from inflammation. 
 
 The new wool left upon breeding ewes or sheep in poor 
 condition is not so close as that of fat sheep, and conse- 
 quently not so effective as a means of protection. Show 
 sheep if clipped early require to be kept under cover. Fat 
 sheep clipped for the spring market have by law woollen 
 sheets put on them if the weather be at all cold, and neglect 
 to comply with this regulation is punishable by a fine. 
 
 Lambs are not shorn the first year, except in a few 
 districts where they are highly fed, and are of a good size 
 when summer arrives. 
 
 Twenty-five to thirty stock sheep of a large breed is a 
 good number for a man to clip in a day : the cost averages 
 about 3s. per score when done by piecework. If the 
 shearer is restricted to twenty per day, as in the case of 
 fat sheep for market, which require to be clipped over the 
 back and to be done bare and well, the cost is raised to 4s. 
 per score. 
 
 Shearing by mechanical means is becoming general in 
 our Australian colonies, where the numbers of sheep are 
 counted by tens of thousands, and where labour is not 
 only expensive but difficult to control. As shearing-machines 
 become more simple, better understood, and less expensive, 
 they will secure a footing in this country. A gang of men 
 might carry their appliances with them, and contract for the 
 shearing of numerous small flocks in the same district. 
 
 The great difficulty to overcome is that of securing the 
 power sufficient to drive a limited number of shears at a 
 moderate cost, as there is not enough of work to, employ an 
 ordinary steam-engine with the limited number of hands 
 which are brought together at the shearing of an ordinary 
 flock. The Priestman oil-engine, which has now been 
 brought to great perfection for the execution of light work, 
 
Plate LXXIV. 
 
 ^^A ^[ IP 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 267 
 
 would supply sufficient power at a minimum cost to the 
 ordinary farmer who is desirous to establish a set of shearing 
 plant of his own. 
 
 The advantages of the shearing-machine over the hand- 
 shears are (i) an increase of work done, by some 20 to 25 
 per cent. ; (2) unskilled labour can be employed at a cheaper 
 rate ; (3) more wool can be removed ; (4) the work is more 
 uniform ; and (5) no injury is done to the wool by making 
 double cuts, which shorten the fibre and increase the amount 
 of waste in manufacture. The Wolseley machine, which is 
 shown in the accompanying plate, was the first to come 
 prominently to the notice of the public, but there are now 
 a number of patentees of machines which differ in minor 
 details, but are in certain broad principles like the pioneer 
 machine. Mention may be made of the " Silver " sheep- 
 shearer, which is making its way in the colonies, and of 
 " Burgon's " machine, which was exhibited at the Royal 
 Agricultural Society's Show at Warwick in 1892. 
 
 Each machine is driven by a flexible shaft, making from 
 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions per minute. The cutter is nicely 
 adjusted to a comb, in the manner of the comb-like cutting 
 teeth of an ordinary hand horse-clipping machine, and moves 
 from side to side 4,000 times per minute over the comb, 
 which rests upon the skin of the sheep, and threads its 
 way among the wool close to the surface of the body. 
 As the points of the cutter are protected by the comb, 
 it is much less likely to cut the skin ; yet the machine 
 does cut it if care be not exercised, and the skin be not 
 pulled^ level. 
 
 Before the workman lets the sheep escape, it is usually 
 " buisted " or marked by a large iron letter dipped in hot 
 (but not quite boiling) Archangel tar, darkened in colour 
 with a little lamp-black. As the wool grows pretty long, 
 these markings become first indistinct and then unreadable, 
 and paint or red keel, after being mixed with water or linseed 
 
268 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 oil, is rubbed on some part of the wool. Paint mixed with oil 
 is less bright at first, but it is the more durable of the two. 
 
 After all visible and removable impurities such as dung 
 (" clarts ") are removed, each fleece of wool is carefully rolled 
 inside out into a bundle, except in such cases as that of 
 Scotch Blackfaced wool, which is turned the other way. 
 The neck end is last rolled on, and, to tie the whole together, 
 it is made into a band by twisting. The wool should be 
 at once, while warm, packed in strong canvas bags or sheets, 
 as the operation is then more easily and better accomplished. 
 
 Certain lands and climates produce better and finer wool 
 than others, whatever be the breed of sheep. Rich and also 
 heavy soils produce strong wool ; light soils, as Down lands, 
 wool of a finer quality. 
 
 Wool " wauks," " mats," or " felts " {i.e., sticks very close 
 together) on the backs and necks of lean sheep in wet winters, 
 and is thereby lowered in value. The best wool is got from 
 sheep that are kept constantly thriving; there is then no 
 break in the fibre, such as takes place when sheep get very 
 poor in condition. 
 
 Weaning, in the South of England, is done about the 
 beginning of May and onwards ; in the North, the time is 
 the end of June and the beginning of July and even later. 
 Lambs should have their pastures frequently changed, if 
 turned out in a field " at the breadth," and should never fol- 
 low ewes or other sheep, as they pick up parasites which have 
 been dropped by their predecessors, and are seriously injured 
 thereby. Sheep thriving badly from ordinary causes, such 
 as grass-scour, may almost invariably be " set going " by" a 
 change to sainfoin, in those districts where sainfoin flourishes, 
 or by the addition of a moderate allowance of cake or corn 
 to the natural food. Ewes immediately after weaning, with 
 the extra feeding discontinued, are run over the poorest and 
 barest pasture to dissipate the milk, which, unless precautions 
 are taken to prevent it, is liable to cause swelling of the 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 269 
 
 udder for a few days. It is quite unnecessary to milk ewes 
 at this period by hand, as was at one time the custom even 
 in hilly districts. Ewe-milk cheese, of a rich green colour, 
 and of very fine flavour, was at one time largely made in 
 this country ; but, as ewes were milked from behind, the 
 operation was not one of the cleanest either for the milker 
 or for the product. 
 
 When lambs are to be fed on a bulky well-grown forage 
 crop, as clover, rape, or vetches, they should at first go on 
 for a few hours each day, and be turned out for a time into 
 a grass field at night. This should also be done in wet 
 weather if possible, especially if the land is at all heavy. 
 There is risk of hoven, which may end fatally, if lambs are 
 suddenly put on wet clover ; or of impaction, developing 
 into " stomach staggers," if the clover be very dry, or if there 
 be not a proper supply of water. Sheep, contrary to a 
 common erroneous belief, drink freely in dry weather, and 
 those giving milk more than others. 
 
CHAPTER XIX.- MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 
 CONTINUED— FEEDING. 
 
 Penning of Sheep on Roots and Forage Crops — Troughs — Urinary Disorders — 
 - House Feeding — Amount of Food — Experiments by Lawes and Gilbert — 
 Calculations of Yield per Week according to Food consumed. 
 
 C HEEP in the south are closely penned between two 
 "^ sets of low hurdles, the first being moved forward at 
 least once a day, and those behind every second day. 
 The grass on any given part is thus consumed at once, and, 
 if properly attended to, it need not be eaten so closely as to 
 injure the crowns of the roots to the detriment of future 
 growth. It is then left to spring afresh without any further 
 bleeding and the consequent check of growth, which ensues 
 each time it is nibbled by sheep. When the crop is of a 
 moderate size, larger breaks are given, and the hurdles are 
 not so often lifted. In Scotland and the north of England, 
 sheep run unrestricted over the whole field at once. No 
 doubt this is more wasteful of food, but there is little expense 
 for attendance, and moreover Scotch sheep are more active 
 than the representatives of the large English breeds, and 
 require to be at liberty to move freely about. 
 
 Fattening tegs, and on arable farms stock tegs, go on 
 to soft turnips, such as whites and greystones, in the end of 
 September or beginning of October, and in a few districts 
 even earlier. If not quite ripe, turnips ought to be pulled a 
 few days before the sheep reach them. This makes them 
 sweeter, and helps to prevent indigestion, which shows itself 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 27 1 
 
 in the outbreak of scour, and in an increased death-rate. 
 Soft turnips are followed in order by yellows, green-rounds, 
 swedes, and by mangels in spring and early summer. Roots, 
 unless when thrown on the grass in spring and summer, 
 should, as a rule, be cut and fed from troughs, as they go 
 further, and the practice pays in the end. If tegs are made 
 to bite turnips, they break their milk inciSor teeth in frosty 
 weather, and cannot then feed satisfactorily. A mixture of 
 concentrated artificial food (bruised cake and grain) prevents 
 scour and various other ailments in fattening tegs. , It is 
 best to begin with a small quantity, and to increase to about 
 J lb. at the New Year (average :^ to ^ lb.), and then to 
 increase in the proportion of | lb. per 100 lbs. live- weight 
 till the time of sale. Concentrated food is advantageously 
 and conveniently mixed with chaffed hay or straw. One ton 
 of hay may be set aside per acre of roots, — that is, i ton of 
 hay to 1 5 tons of roots, or an allowance of a little over i lb. 
 of hay per sheep per day. 
 
 Turnip-troughs should be almost square in cross- 
 section, and ample in size. There should be for the 
 " artificial food " a second set of troughs which do not 
 require to possess such capacity ; the cross-section of the 
 latter might be in the form of a right angle. Troughs, 
 when not in use, should be turned over with the mouth 
 down to keep them clean and dty. A length of 8 inches 
 to 9 inches is the necessary allowance of trough-space for 
 each sheep, in the case of the larger breeds. As sheep 
 range themselves on both sides of the trough while feeding, 
 each will thus have at least 1 8 inches of space or standing 
 room. One man can easily cut roots for, and take, full 
 charge of, a flock of two hundred sheep, or attend to four 
 hundred if the roots are not cut. 
 
 Stock tegs should have little, if any, artificial food, 
 which, .if given in quantity, injures their constitution for 
 breeding purposes. 
 
2/2 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Urinary disorders appear in some districts late in 
 spring among sheep penned on roots, especially swedes 
 and mangels. All the food then requires to be changed 
 without delay, and linseed cake given, along with J drachm 
 of nitrate of potash per day. And, to induce warmth, the 
 back should be covered with a piece of strong canvas cloth, 
 2 feet to 2| feet square, which has had boiled linseed oil 
 brushed on one side of it to make it waterproof The 
 best preventive of this affection is a liberal supply of pure 
 water, of which the animals will drink freely as the dry 
 weather of spring comes on, and as the proportion of 
 moisture in the roots decreases. 
 
 Sheep feed faster, especially in stormy weather, in a 
 well-ventilated house or shed than in the open, but the 
 cost of erecting houses is prohibitive, except in the case 
 of rams or show sheep. When large numbers of sheep are 
 kept together in a house, they are liable to take foot-rot. 
 Under those circumstances it is well to have a platform, 
 a few inches high, covering most of the centre of the floor, 
 and to sweep it clean every day. 
 
 Two hundred sheep are as many as ought to be placed 
 in one flock if fed on roots. In Gloucester and some other 
 districts, where the sheep are heavy, that number would be 
 advantageously divided into two or three lots by hurdles, 
 or by a 4-inch-mesh wire-net. Recently an ingenious and 
 handy adaptation of the " Corrimony " wire-fence has been 
 added to the means for fencing sheep folded upon turnips.* 
 
 Amount of Food. — A Cotswold teg, or one of any of 
 the larger breeds, from eleven months old (ist January) 
 till fat, will eat, along with the other food mentioned, 24 
 lbs. of roots daily, if fed three times a day — younger sheep 
 eat less in proportion to their ages. Lean sheep eat more 
 in proportion to their weight than fat ones. A Cotswold 
 cast ewe will consume up to 35 lbs. of roots per day. 
 
 * Invented by A. Walker, Stagebank, Heriot, N.B. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 273 
 
 One average acre of turnips (15 tons) will feed two 
 hundred sheep for one week, at 24 lbs. each per day. 
 
 Experiments by Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr Gilbert 
 
 showed that Cotswolds gave the largest average increase 
 per head per week and also per 100 lbs. live- weight. Cross- 
 breds came next, then Hampshires, Leicesters, and last of 
 all Southdowns, — the increase in all but the Leicesters 
 being in inverse proportion to the quality of the mutton. 
 Under cover, three sheep, of 100 lbs. live- weight each, 
 consumed approximately the same amount of food as 
 was consumed by two sheep of the same age and 
 breed weighing 1 50 lbs. each. The mixture consumed per 
 100 lbs. live-weight per week was 4f lbs. cake, 4f lbs. hay, 
 and about 70 lbs. roots = about one-seventh of the live- 
 weight, after deducting the moisture of the food. The 
 increase was nearly 2 per cent, live- weight = 2 lbs. per week 
 for a 100 lbs. sheep. A usual increase is i lb. of live- 
 weight to 8 or 9 lbs. of solid food, moisture being deducted. 
 About 58 per cent, of the fasted 'live -weight of sheep, 
 moderately fat, is butchers' carcass (Warington) ; very fat 
 sheep give 6 to 8 per cent, more in the case of refined 
 breeds, such as Southdowns. Lean sheep give about 50 
 per cent., and old ewes, unless of the more fleshy breeds 
 in good condition, often little over that proportion. In 
 ordinary sheep passing from store to fat condition, 68 per 
 cent, of the increase is carcass. 
 
 The following calculation shows the amount of mutton 
 produced from the food already recommended. The amount 
 is reduced to percentage to correspond with Lawes & Gilbert's 
 8 lbs. or 9 lbs. dry food example. A little more food is 
 allowed for sheep kept outside. This drawback is so far 
 made up for by the advantage gained from giving a mixture 
 of concentrated food. 
 
 Food per day, per 100 lbs. live-weight, would thus be 
 
 S 
 
274 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ^ lb. cake and corn, 1 2 lbs. roots, and i lb. hay ; or per 
 week : — 
 
 3^ lbs. cake. 
 7 lbs. hay. 
 
 loj lbs. — i^ lbs. moisture (= 14 p. c.)= 9 lbs. dry food. 
 
 84 lbs. roots— 76|^ lbs. do. ( = 9op. c.)= 7| lbs. do. 
 
 Total, i6i lbs. dry food. 
 
 This should give 2 lbs. increase of live-weight = i lb. in 8^ 
 lbs. dry food. 
 
 By adding 50 per cent, to the foregoing figures, we get 
 about what a Cotswold teg would do from ist January till 
 it is killed at thirteen to fifteen months old, when weighing 
 25 lbs. per quarter. With 150 lbs. live- weight the increase 
 would be 3 lbs. ; and if we apply the 68 per cent, rule in 
 passing from store to fat condition, the dressed mutton 
 would amount to about 2 lbs., — a good performance per 
 week for a sheep of one of the larger breeds. 
 
 Cost of feeding a Hampshire teg for sixteen weeks 
 during the finishing process. 
 
 Food. 
 
 per day. 
 
 per week. 
 
 in 16 weeks. 
 
 Price per ton. 
 
 Total cost. 
 
 Cake and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cori;. 
 
 ^Ib. 
 
 3i lbs. 
 
 icwt. 
 
 £6. I OS. 
 
 3s. 3d. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 lib. 
 
 7 lbs. 
 
 I cwt. 
 
 £3- Ss. 
 
 3s. 3d. 
 
 Roots. 
 
 20 lbs. 
 
 140 lbs. 
 
 I ton. 
 
 £0. 6s. 
 
 6s. od. 
 
 Tota 
 
 cost for 16 
 
 weeks, 
 
 I2s. 6d. 
 
 To calculate the return of produce from the dry food 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 275 
 
 consumed, say an increase of i lb. of live-weight for 9 lbs. 
 dry material eaten : — 
 
 Dry Matter— 
 
 
 
 
 In 140 lbs. of roots @ 10 p. c. dry, 
 
 = 
 
 14 lbs. 
 
 
 In io§ lbs. hay, corn, etc., @ 86 p. 
 
 c. dry = 
 
 9 lbs. , , 1 
 
 Increase of 1 
 
 
 
 ■ — ■ live 
 
 -weight. 
 
 Dry matter consumed weekly, 
 
 
 23 lbs. 4- 9= 
 
 2i lbs. 
 
 To find the yield of mutton : — 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 : 68 
 
 :: 2f 
 
 : 174 
 
 Weeks, lbs. 
 
 Percentage Live- 
 increase weight, 
 in finishing. 
 
 Dressed 
 mutton. 
 
 7%«J— Increase in 16 = 27-8 @ s 
 
 s. per 
 
 Total return in 
 
 16 weeks. 
 
 8 lbs., 
 
 = 
 
 = 17s. 5d. (nearly). | 
 
 Cost of feeding, 16 weeks, . 
 Net profit, 16 weeks, . 
 
 
 I2S. 6d. 
 
 
 4s. lid. 
 
 
 The calculation assumes that the cost of shepherding and 
 the average loss from death are more than counterbalanced 
 by the value of the manure produced. 
 
 The above figures do not show the actual profit to the 
 farmer by the transaction, as much depends upon the cost 
 per lb. of the flesh of the lean sheep when bought, and 
 whether the purchase price was more or less than the sale 
 price. Here again is to be seen the importance to the 
 farmer of a knowledge of the live-weight, in place of 
 trusting to his good luck to make a fortunate guess " by 
 hand and eye" at the weight of the animals. The 
 ordinary farmer only attempts this guess once annually, 
 consequently he has little practice, and is most likely to 
 make a mistake. 
 
 Sheep, either rough or clipped, are sometimes sold by 
 the farmer to the butcher by the lb., "sinking the offal," 
 
2/6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 viz., 6d., 8d., lod., or is. per lb. of dressed carcass, according 
 to the quality and range of prices in the market. The 
 butcher gets the head, feet, skin, and intestines, including 
 "web tallow," all into the bargain. The web tallow, or 
 store of fat which surrounds or encloses the bowels and 
 stomach of a fat sheep, often weighs lo lbs. to 14 lbs., and 
 in the case of the Down breeds even more. 
 
CHAPTER XX.— MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP CONTINUED 
 —EXTERNAL PARASITES. 
 
 Dipping— Ticks or Kades— Grass Ticks — Sheep Lice — Black Flies — Maggot 
 Flies — Scab Mites — Winter and Summer Dips — The Dipper — Dipping 
 Materials — Pouring — Smearing. 
 
 TRIPPING is practised in accordance with the custom of 
 the district at various times during each of the four 
 seasons, — spring, summer, autumn, and winter, — on a dry 
 day and when the wool is dry ; for example, immediately 
 after clipping, or, still better, a fortnight later, when the 
 wool has grown a little, to enable it to retain more of the 
 effective material of the dip :■ lambs should also go through 
 the tank at the same time. Ewes and tups should either 
 be dipped after tupping time or one clear month before it, in 
 order to prevent " firing " the rams. The object of dipping 
 is to ameliorate or prevent altogether the attacks of parasites, 
 viz., — the kade or tick, Melophagus ovinus ; the grass-tick, 
 Ixodes ricinus and /. reduvius, and perhaps other species ; the 
 louse, Trichodectes spharocephalus ; thehlsick fiy,An^kromj/m 
 (several species) ; the flesh or maggot fly, four species, Musca 
 Ccssar, M. vomitoria, M. canaria, M. cadaverina ; and the 
 scab-mite or itch-mite, Dermatodictes ovis — an acaris. 
 
 Ticks (English), Kades or Kaids (Scotch), are slightly- 
 flattened, six-legged insects, resembling flies without wings, 
 which move about in the fleeces of sheep, and live by now 
 and then biting and sucking blood. They may be kept 
 under, if not got rid of altogether, by timely dipping. They 
 are most abundant on sheep in poor condition, and during 
 
278 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 winter when there is little sun, as they do not then come to 
 the top of the wool to bask and so get shaken off. On 
 man they bite a few times and produce considerable un- 
 easiness and itchiness, and then die. 
 
 Grass-Ticks (eight-legged) fix themselves by burrow- 
 ing their heads into the skins of sheep and other animals, 
 as horses, cattle, pigs, dogs, rabbits, and even men. 
 They do not often move about, but after becoming fixed 
 gorge themselves with blood drawn from the unwilling 
 host, increase to the size of a large pea, and finally drop 
 off into the grass to pass one stage of their existence inde- 
 pendently of the animal. It is consequently impossible to 
 destroy them altogether, or even to keep sheep quite free 
 from them at all seasons on land where they exist. This is 
 more especially the case in spring and sometimes in autumn, 
 when the young ones which are about in the grass find their 
 way to the hairy or woolless parts of the skin about the 
 head, neck, and legs. 
 
 Sheep Lice are much smaller in size than the two pests 
 described, and also much lighter in colour, except about the 
 head, which is dark brown. They exist usually in greatest 
 abundance on the head and hairy parts of the body, and 
 produce great irritation, which prevents sheep from thriving. 
 With a little care, and by adopting the comparatively new 
 practice of dipping sheep over the head, they can be quite 
 destroyed. Most well-managed flocks are free from them. 
 
 Black Flies, such as swarm in thousands about the hats 
 and heads of people and the ears of horses in summer, do 
 not bite, and cannot break the healthy skin, but live by 
 sucking any raw surface, as an accidental cut made while 
 shearing, or the crowns of rams that have been fighting. 
 When very numerous they irritate and unsettle sheep, and 
 prevent wounds healing, especially if these be about the top 
 of the shoulder, where the animal can do little to protect 
 itself 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 279 
 
 Maggot Flies, sometimes called blue-bottle flies, do 
 
 damage by laying their viviparous ova, during warm showery 
 
 weather, on any part of the wool which has been wetted or 
 
 soiled with solid or liquid animal excreta. In a few hours 
 
 after the sheep are thus " fly-blown " or '' struck," if the day 
 
 be hot, the maggots are hatched, and immediately find their 
 
 way to the skin, which they devour rapidly — growing in 
 
 size and strength until they are able to cause death within 
 
 a few days. The presence of maggots may be easily 
 
 detected by the wool on the parts attacked becoming damp 
 
 on the surface and dark in colour, and by the restless and 
 
 uneasy movements of the sheep, — including turning round 
 
 and attempting to bite the affected part, lying down often, 
 
 then rising and running a little, and taking shelter away 
 
 from the rest of the flock at the back of a wall or among 
 
 rank undergrowth. A sheep may at times clear itself of its 
 
 tormentors by rubbing in a loose sandy bank or scaur ; but 
 
 the shepherd has usually to dress each animal carefully, at 
 
 least twice, with a strong smelling solution, which destroys 
 
 the maggots without injuring the raw parts of the skin. No 
 
 ordinary dipping material used for the destruction of the 
 
 insect parasites previously described is strong enough to 
 
 kill ma,ggots. Sores should be kept soft and in a healthy 
 
 healing condition by the application of carbolic oil. The 
 
 spirit- or oil-of-tar is very useful, if there be no broken skin, 
 
 to prevent a second attack in very bad cases, by sprinkling 
 
 the top of the wool or any dirty part with it ; but it darkens 
 
 the wool, and it also causes much irritation on a raw or 
 
 maggot-wounded surface. Maggot flies may be almost 
 
 certainly prevented from striking the fleece if sheep are 
 
 kept clean by clipping away all dirty wool in the region of 
 
 the tail, and by dipping them at times with a strong smelling 
 
 solution containing a quantity of carbolic acid and sulphur. 
 
 When it is important to have the scrotum well covered with 
 
 wool, as is the case in certain breeds of sheep, ram lambs 
 
28o FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 are not kept in the dipping tank the usual time, as prolonged 
 submersion has a tendency to make the wool fall off those 
 parts. They are frequently not dipped in the usual way, 
 but a concentrated solution of dip material, with a strong 
 smelling fly-powder added, is rubbed over the backs with a 
 Banbury brush. Sprinkling the backs with a mixture from 
 a rose-can is a common practice when large numbers of 
 sheep require to be protected. The sheep are first packed 
 closely together in a fold, so that the dipping stuff when 
 showered on cannot fall to the ground. Maggots have 
 been known to effect great improvement in a bad case of 
 foot-rot by feeding on the diseased part, but they require 
 to be carefully observed, and their cleaning action stopped 
 before they have gone too far. 
 
 Scab Mites are microscopic, and very much smaller 
 than any of the other parasites. When they are present, 
 patches of the wool become white, and the sheep by biting 
 half-pull so much wool, leaving a rough and speckled sur- 
 face. When felt with the hand there is a hard brittle scab 
 on the skin at the roots of the wool. This scab must of 
 necessity be cleared off to prevent the extension of the 
 disorder, which is most contagious, and would ultimately 
 prove fatal to life if not attended to. " The Highlands of 
 Scotland," or north of the Forth and Clyde, was at one 
 time the stronghold of scab. In some places it still lurks 
 in this country. This is to be regretted, as it is possible to 
 stamp it out, as has been shown by the energetic action of 
 the Stock Departments of the leading Australian colonies 
 where it has been completely eradicated. There is a fact 
 indicating the possible existence of a dormant condition of 
 scab, which has not yet been scientifically explained, and 
 which should be interesting to farmers buying sheep from 
 the Scottish Highlands, viz., that after a long drive or 
 railway journey, where sheep are packed closely and heated, 
 scab is liable to break out in a few weeks, although there 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 281 
 
 may be no such thing visible in the flock from which they 
 came. The rule is to dip Highland sheep about ten days 
 after coming off rail, and then there is not the slightest 
 danger. 
 
 The common winter dips are preparations of arsenic and 
 other poisonous substances, — for instance, Bigg's dip is 
 mostly sulphide of arsenic, got largely from the chimneys of 
 chemical works. Commercial arsenic (AsgO,), boiled with 
 a little bicarbonate of soda to make it dissolve, does the 
 work well, but hardens the wool. Oil, melted butter, or 
 grease is used to counteract this action and to waterproof 
 the fleece. 
 
 Summer dips mostly contain carbolic acid, with an 
 admixture of sulphur, which smells strongly and drives off" 
 flies. Carbolic acid is not only able to kill the living forms, 
 as other dips do, but also to destroy the eggs or " nits " by 
 coagulating the albumen present in the substance of which 
 they are composed. The so-called non- poisonous dips 
 belong to this class. Bigg's and Cooper's are two dip com- 
 pounds commonly used in summer. Most dips require to 
 be dissolved in hot water, which is an inconvenience and an 
 additional expense. Little's dip is an example of dips that 
 dissolve in cold water, but these, as a rule (Blackie's dip 
 being an exception), are more easily washed off" the wools 
 by rains than those which are sparingly soluble in cold 
 water. Sheep aff'ected with scab are dipped in a bath 
 containing, in addition to the usual dip material, tobacco- 
 juicfe and powdered hellebore-root which has been boiled 
 for fifteen minutes. 
 
 A dipper consists of a fold, a tank, and a dripper. The 
 tank may be built of bricks drawn with cement, and may 
 have a concrete floor. The old-fashioned tub into which 
 sheep are turned on their backs is a mistake. Heavy sheep 
 are liable to be injured in lifting. The best form of tank is 
 made wide enough to permit a sheep to swim through 
 
282 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 without being able to turn easily : a suitable size is 1 5 to 20 
 feet long at the top, 5 feet deep at the plunge-end and for 
 one-third of its length, and then gradually slanting out to 
 the dripper at the other or exit-end. Sheep are not lifted, 
 but pushed forward and plunged one by one over the head. 
 As they go in they close their lips, and on coming up swim 
 slowly through. They should remain in the tank till the 
 wool is thoroughly soaked. The men employed are liable 
 to let them go too quickly, and one should be stationed at 
 a convenient place with a forked stick to regulate the rate 
 at which the sheep swim. The excess of dipping solution 
 runs off the sheep to the floor of the dripper, and then back 
 to the tank, towards which the floor of the dripper slopes. 
 For a few minutes after dripping, to avoid poisoning the 
 pasture, especially when an arsenic dip has been used, the 
 sheep should go for a time into a fold, or bare paddock 
 where there is no grass. The cost of dipping, which is 
 usually done by contract in Southern England, is about id. 
 each over a flock, including lambs. The cost of dipping 
 material for Scotch sheep is from £e, per 1000 (or a little 
 more than id. each) down to half that price, but large 
 discounts are often given by some agents. 
 
 A home-made dip, especially intended for waterproofing 
 the fleeces, may run up to 2d. per sheep, as follows : — 
 
 20 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts of soft 
 soap and pitch -oil (the former boiled 
 before mixing) at 2d. per lb. . . . ;£'o 3 4 
 
 10 lbs. tobacco powder at yd. per lb. . 0510 
 
 2 gallons Gallipoli oil at 4s. per gallon . 080 
 
 Cost of material to dip 100 hill sheep, ;£'o 17 2 
 
 The principle in pitch-oil is carbolic acid and some 
 chemically-allied substances. The pitch-oil and soft soap 
 alone make a good cheap summer dip. If used in spring 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 283 
 
 the oil is liable to darken the colour of the wool, and reduce 
 its value in the market. 
 
 Pouring is done by running a concentrated solution of, 
 say, 5 gallons per score (against 20 gallons used in dipping) 
 into " sheds " or partings made by the hand, at intervals, in 
 the wool along the back, sides, and belly of the sheep. 
 This is more effectual than dipping in a case of scab, but is 
 more expensive, and unnecessary for ordinary purposes. 
 
 Smearing* with a mixture of equal parts of American 
 or Archangel tar and grease, or better, butter, is a method 
 of waterproofing the wool and destroying parasites that 
 was at one time very largely and successfully practised in 
 exposed hill districts, especially in the Highlands of Scot- 
 land. It encourages the growth of wool more than any dip 
 yet used, but wool is now so low in price that the increase 
 will not repay the extra cost of the operation, and many 
 have discontinued ,it. It darkens the wool, and often gives 
 sheep, especially if lean, a " back-set " until the tar rises a 
 little from the skin. Smearing should not be practised 
 before the middle of October, as a strong sun melts the 
 smear, and it runs towards the points of the wool if it does 
 not drip off, and moreover the sheep become fevered. 
 In carrying out the process the smear should be laid well 
 to the skin at the bottoms of partings made in the wool, 
 and as little as possible on it. The usual practice in pre- 
 paring the material is to thoroughly mix in a tub, a fort- 
 night before the operation, as much as will be sufficient 
 for forty mountain sheep, viz., 9 pints (Scotch!) of tar 
 with 9 pints of butter, the latter melted to enable it to 
 mix with the tar. Tar i^ a mild blister if applied alone to 
 an animal's skin, and the grease is intended to dilute it. 
 Hard grease, such as butter, also gives the tar consistency. 
 
 * The Author is indebted for many of the facts on this subject to Stephen 
 Brown of Killilan, Wester Ross. 
 
 t A Scotch pint is about equivalent to % of an imperial gallon. 
 
284 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 A man smears twenty sheep per day, and receives from 
 2s. 6d. to 3s. for the work, besides food. The cost of 
 smearing sheep is nearly lod. each, made up as follows : — 
 
 9 pints of tar at 8d., £060 
 
 40 lbs. butter at 6d., 100 
 
 Labour at 3s. 6d. p. score, including 
 
 rations, . . ....070 
 
 Cost of smearing forty sheep, . . ;^i 13 
 
CHAPTER XXI.— MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP CONTINUED 
 —INTERNAL PARASITES. 
 
 Internal Parasites — Tape-worm producing Gid — Liver-fluke producing Rot — 
 Diarrhoea resulting from worms — Husk or Hoose. 
 
 T NTERNAL Parasites. — Besides the external pests 
 - referred to in the last chapter, sheep are subject to 
 numerous internal parasites. One stage of the develop- 
 ment of Tcenia ccEnurus, the tape-worm of the dog, is 
 passed in the brains of sheep, causing " gid " or " sturdy." 
 The remedies are of more consequence to farmers who 
 keep lean stock, and to ram-breeders, than to those who 
 can send without much loss an affected animal at once to 
 the fat market. A ram that has been cured of " sturdy " 
 is none the worse afterwards for breeding purposes. The 
 seat of disease is on the surface of the brain, at its base, 
 or, in the Author's experience, most frequently in the 
 "lateral cavities." These cavities are situated one on each 
 side of the forward brain, and there, in common language, 
 a "water-bag," containing many young tape-worms, de- 
 velops. This presses against the brain, causing absorption 
 of the contiguous parts of that organ, and usually a thinning 
 and softening of the skull in one or other of the hollows on 
 the crown of the head immediately in front of a line drawn 
 between the ears, where the skull is comparatively thin. 
 Partial paralysis accompanies the later stages of the 
 development of the malady, and the sheep becomes blind 
 on and turns to the side opposite to that on which the 
 "water-bag" inclines. Boring with a trochar and canula, 
 to extract the " bleb " and its contents, is easy in such a 
 
286 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 case. When the seat of the disease is far back in the 
 brain the skull is thicker over the affected part, and there 
 is not sufficient time, before death is liable to occur, for 
 the bone to become thin and soft by absorption. In 
 Scotland this form of gid is known by the specific name 
 of " thorterill." Piercing then leaves little pieces of bone, 
 fractured from the skull, on the surface of the brain, 
 which, although the disease may be cured, produce within 
 a few days suppuration, which usually results in death. 
 Principal Williams, Edinburgh, recommends in place of a 
 piercer the use of a little circular saw, called a trephine, 
 to remove a minute round piece of bone. The skin is 
 bared from the skull immediately over the spot to which 
 the movements of the sheep direct suspicion. All detached 
 pieces of bone are washed carefully away before the mem- 
 brane covering of the brain is broken. Piercing in the 
 usual way through the brain to reach the bag is then done 
 with comparative safety. In districts which are much sub- 
 ject to this disease, to ensure the destruction of the embryo 
 worms the skulls of dead sheep should be broken up 
 and buried with quicklime in a compost heap. The dogs 
 ought also to be dosed regularly with J drachm to i drachm 
 of areca nut, which frees them from tape-worms, and lessens 
 the risk of sheep, while feeding on grass, picking up segments 
 of the worms passed by dogs. 
 
 Liver Rot. — Though there have been enormous losses 
 in this country from " rot " in sheep, the full bearing and 
 nature of the working of the liver fluke (^Distomum hepaticum 
 or Fasciola hepaticd), which is the cause of the disease, does 
 not yet seem to be quite understood. These worms, which 
 are seldom more than an inch long, are broad, thin, and 
 flat, and attach themselves by a sucker on the under surface. 
 Sometimes hundreds have been found in the liver ducts of 
 one sheep. Professor Leuckart in Germany, and A. P. 
 Thomas in this country, traced, almost simultaneously, the 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 287 
 
 life-history of this parasite through all its different stages, 
 and published independent accounts of their investigations 
 in 1882.* They find that the fluke lives for a time, and 
 changes its form, in the body of a minute shell-snail 
 {Limncea truncatuld), which thrives in an excess of wet. 
 
 The sequence of changes in the animal system is 
 originated by irritation, and consequent inflammation, 
 beginning in the biliary ducts, and extending through the 
 liver, interfering with the performance of its functions in 
 aid of digestion. The stomach next becomes weak or 
 disordered, poor and imperfect blood is formed, and time 
 is all that is necessary to exaggerate the results into a 
 persistent anaemia, which ultimately ends in death. 
 
 The great means of prevention are, to surface- or under- 
 drain, and in stiff clays to lay the arable land up in high 
 ridges to aid surface-drainage ; to keep sheep from pastur- 
 ing on flooded land ; to have lumps of rock salt about the 
 pasture ; and to give liberal feeding. One fact in connection 
 with this disease is not generally known, but is worthy of 
 special consideration. The presence of flukes in the liver, 
 even in large numbers, does not necessitate the appearance 
 of the dangerous symptoms described. Few sheep are 
 killed in Galloway, a large district in the south-west of 
 Scotland, without flukes, frequently in large numbers, being 
 found in their livers : yet death from " rot " to any extent 
 is very exceptional. Rot certainly has done much damage, 
 and will continue to do so on damp undrained land in wet 
 seasons, but there are good reasons to believe that much of 
 the death from so-called " rot" has been from a very different 
 cause, which will be described under lung disease. 
 
 Scour or Diarrhoea in sheep, but more especially in 
 lambs, is often caused by various parasitic worms attaching 
 themselves to the inner surfaces of the stomach and bowels. 
 There they set up irritation, and live by absorbing what 
 
 * See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for that year. 
 
288 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ought to go to nourish the sheep. Treatment. — No better 
 or effectual remedy can be had than one or two doses of 
 turpentine. A sheep is very easily choked, and turpentine 
 is one of the most dangerous drugs to administer, not only 
 from its highly irritating and searching nature (liable to 
 cause death by spasmodic closing of the mouth of the 
 windpipe- should it enter), but from the fact that it will 
 hardly mix with any ordinary drench. The administra- 
 tion must be 'made with great care. To ensure safety, the 
 turpentine (| to \ oz.) should be thoroughly soaked into a 
 little dry meal, and this again mixed with cold gruel, oil, 
 or even water. Should the scour be the result of an over- 
 feed of succulent grass, or be due to a sudden change of 
 green food, the primary purgative and the secondary 
 astringent action of the turpentine is generally what is 
 wanted. Laxity of the bowels, when there is no positive 
 derangement of system, is easily remedied by altering the 
 concentrated food from cakes which contain large quantities 
 of oil, to the seeds of leguminous plants, as beans, peas, 
 lentils, &c., which are deficient in oils, and possess a costive 
 tendency. 
 
 " Husk " or " Hoose " is a bronchial catarrh, the result 
 of the irritating action of a number of long, hair-like, round 
 white worms {Strongylus filaria) in the bronchial tubes. It 
 is most common amongst lambs, if they have been pastured 
 on land recently occupied by sheep, as they pick up the 
 eggs {ova) with their food. The attack is evinced by a 
 peculiar husky cough, made worse by exertion ; by an un- 
 thriving appearance ; and by a mucous discharge from the 
 nostrils, which often contains the worms or their eggs. 
 Weak animals, and those which develop large numbers of 
 worms, frequently die. To prevent the occurrence of this 
 malady, sheep should be kept in good thriving condition, 
 and young stock should never be put on land previously 
 soiled by sheep. Remedial treatment is directed towards 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 289 
 
 the destruction of the worms. A turpentine drench has 
 been long considered efficacious ; |^ to ^ oz. at a time being 
 given to a lamb, and this "repeated twice, with an interval 
 of three days between two administrations. Turpentine is 
 a most poisonous and dangerous drug if given too fre- 
 quently, or in too large quantities, to sheep, as it sets up 
 inflammation in nearly all the important organs of the 
 abdomen ; and most sheep thus poisoned will die within a 
 few days, after evincing by dulness, restlessness, and the 
 grinding of their teeth, that they are suffering severe 
 internal pain. A purgative only aggravates the condition, 
 ■ and hastens death. Injections of tepid water may be em- 
 ployed to allay pain and relieve the constipated condition 
 which accompanies turpentine poisoning. 
 
 A simple drenching-tin for sheep, the invention of one 
 Armstrong, was described as follows in the Sydney Mail: — 
 
 " It is a tin cone, about 8 inches in length, 
 about \\ inch through at the butt, which is closed. 
 At the mouth or narrow end, which is about | inch 
 across, and open, the sharp edge is covered by a 
 ring, so that it will not injure the sheep's mouth. 
 Near the base of the cone, and about i\ inch 
 from the end, there is an orifice about i inch wide. 
 The sheep are held, and the operator having the 
 drench stuff in a bucket, dips the drencher, wide 
 end down, into the mixture. By this action he 
 instantaneously admits into the tin about one ounce 
 of the drench, and raising it he is ready to pour 
 the dose down the throat of the sheep. The cone 
 is, in fact, a measure and drench combined. The 
 large opening freely admits the air, the want of 
 which is the great difificulty met with when a bottle 
 is used. Six or seven men can easily drench three , 
 thousand weaners in a day." 
 
 The recent and more approved method of treatment is 
 the injection, directly into the trachea, of | to i drachm 
 of a turpentine and carbolic acid mixture, fully detailed 
 at page 89. 
 
 T 
 
 Sheep 
 Drenching-tin. 
 
CHAPTER XXII.— MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 
 CONTINUED— DISEASES. 
 
 Lung Disease — Trembling or Loupin' 111 — Braxy — Temporary Blindness — 
 Foot-rot — Blotches — Dew-rot. 
 
 T UNG Disease. — Cattle are subject to an infectious 
 lung disease ; goats have been found liable to a dis- 
 ease of the same nature at the Cape ; and the Author has 
 proved to his satisfaction that sheep also take lung disease 
 one from another, and die, under certain circumstances, 
 in great numbers. It appears to possess very much the 
 nature of a bad cold, and is more severe on old ewes and 
 lambs than on other sheep. Should it break out in a flock 
 during summer, or in fine mild weather in winter, deaths 
 are not numerous ; but in a cold and stormy season, which 
 aggravates the disease, one-third to one-half is no unusual 
 proportion of a flock to die. 
 
 '\rhe symptoms are a violent and painful cough, which 
 seems to give no relief When seriously affected the animal 
 falls off from the others, and gradually stops feeding. The 
 breathing becomes increasingly heavy and laboured, with 
 heaving at the flank, and moaning in the later stages, 
 evincing the presence of acute bronchitis with severe pain. 
 The ears droop in a peculiar manner, and the head hangs 
 down, while foam appears at the mouth, and a tough yellow 
 mucus at the nose and eyes. None recover after these 
 acute symptoms set in, and death supervenes generally 
 about the third or fourth day. Hhz post-mortem reveals a 
 highly congested state of the air-passages, and large portions 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 291 
 
 of the lungs, usually the upper lobes, are found to be 
 solidified, so that they sink on being immersed in water. 
 
 The most efficacious treatment is to inject by the intra- 
 tracheal syringe, shown at page 89, two to four drachms of 
 the injection mixture there detailed, and to cover the backs 
 by sewing to the wool with stocking-yarn pieces of strong 
 canvas, 2 feet or 2 feet 3 in. square, which have been water- 
 proofed by brushing one side with boiled linseed oil, to 
 keep rain off and heat in : the sheep should also be liberally 
 fed, and kept perfectly quiet in a well-sheltered place. Any 
 attempt to drug or fumigate the affected animals simply 
 increases the number of deaths. A few usually die of 
 consumption some months after the acute stage of the 
 disease has passed. 
 
 It is necessary to state that Principal Williams and 
 various other authorities believe that the origin of the 
 disease above described is entirely parasitic, the special 
 worm being said to be Strongylus filaria. The Author 
 freely admits the great injury that thread-worms produce 
 in an irritated condition of the air-passages, and that they 
 might determine, in some cases, whether the affection would 
 be severe enough to destroy life, or mild enough to pass off 
 after a time, without much or any notice, should outside 
 conditions be favourable to recovery ; still, at the same 
 time, he has not the slightest doubt of the existence of a 
 contagious lung disease in sheep, which is, however, so varied 
 in its ultimate results by other and external influences — as 
 climate, general treatment, and parasitic action — that it has 
 not been generally recognised or acknowledged. To the 
 public the difference of opinion as to whether the disease 
 is solely parasitic or infectious is of little moment, as 
 the remedial treatment recommended in either case is the 
 same. 
 
 There exist weighty reasons for the statement, that 
 much of the death from so-called " rot " in the United 
 
292 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Kingdom in 1879 was largely due to this disease, and 
 not nearly so much to the liver iluke as was supposed, 
 although in many districts the latter was prevalent and 
 most destructive. 
 
 " In Asia Minor a contagious lung disease of goats has long been 
 recognised. Whenever an outbreak occurs among the stock of the 
 villagers, a strict cordon is drawn around the infected area until the 
 destructive malady has ceased to exist. Some importations of Angora 
 goats carried the disease to Cape Colony a few years ago, where it 
 committed great havoc in 1881 and 1882, more especially in the dis- 
 tricts of Somerset and Bedford. Several thousands of goats died. The 
 mortality of an entire flock was at least equivalent to 90 per cent, in 
 many places. Prompt measures were taken by the Cape Government 
 to stamp out the disease by the slaughter of all animals on infected 
 farms, and just compensation to the owners of the flocks was awarded. 
 In a little more than twelve months the plague was by this means 
 stayed, and the disease is now unknown in the colony. The Dutch 
 and English farmers called the malady lung-ziekte, or ' lung-sick,' by 
 which name contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle is known by them. 
 They aver that the symptoms and post-mortem appearances were 
 precisely like those of animals of the bovine race that have died of 
 pleuro-pneumonia. The diseases, however, could not be the same. 
 The 'lung-sick' of goats was not communicable to cattle. Even 
 sheep that cohabited with them enjoyed perfect immunity from the 
 disease." — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 Trembling or Loupin' 111 is a deadly disease which is 
 only known by a Scotch name, although ailments possess- 
 ing much of the same symptoms have occurred at times in 
 England. It prevails most on certain grassy up-lands, those 
 growing nard or mat-grass {Nardus stricta) being particu- 
 larly liable to produce it. Ziindel, V.S., Strasburg, describes 
 a disease in lanibs in which an organism is found very 
 similar to that of Loupin' 111, and which, he says, " resembles 
 the microscopic plant Pleospora herbarum!' 
 
 It is spreading in Scotland, not rapidly, but surely, It 
 has been diagnosed by Principal Williams to be caused by 
 the presence of a microscopic organism which may be found 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 293 
 
 in the fluid surrounding the spinal cord of affected sheep. 
 As in the case of the microbe of anthrax, this organism can 
 be cultivated under suitable conditions in chicken- or 
 mutton-broth or jelly. By such cultivation its virulence is 
 gradually attenuated, and it is hoped that inoculation with 
 fluid containing the weakened germs will, in time, prove a 
 preventive of the worst consequences of the disease. 
 
 The symptoms are a loss of power in the limbs, and 
 sometimes high fever with affection of the brain. Usually 
 the animal eats, and appears to be perfectly well in health, 
 but is unable to rise. Others, again, drop down instantly 
 and die, especially on being suddenly started. Spring or 
 early summer is the most deadly time. The disease has 
 been long known in many parts of Scotland, but its cause 
 was quite unaccounted for till 1881, when Principal Williams 
 made the discovery while working under the auspices of 
 the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. It 
 had been noticed that in years when ticks {^Ixodes') were 
 abundant trembling was most prevalent, and on examination 
 the ticks were found to contain organisms identical in 
 appearance to those in the spinal fluid. This is suggestive, 
 but the full chain of facts necessary for the confirmation 
 of the theory has not yet been worked out. The theory 
 advanced by Brotherston, botanist on the Highland Society 
 Loupin' 111 Investigation Committee, holds that Loupin' 111 
 is caused by ergot, a dark horn-like parasitic fungus which 
 appears on certain common pasture-grasses. 
 
 Certain preventive means, which have already proved 
 useful in practice, are advocated by both investigators, viz., 
 cutting or burning, at the proper season, all excess of rough 
 herbage, and the pasturing of cattle along with sheep, 
 especially during early summer. 
 
 The fact that spring dipping of sheep is rapidly becom- 
 ing recognised as the best safeguard against the disease, so 
 far as treatment of the animal is concerned, tends to 
 
294 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 support the theory advanced by WilHams against the 
 ergot-theory.* 
 
 The best treatment of affected animals, not actually 
 prostrate, is to keep them in a perfectly quiet place, and to 
 prevent excitement by allowing neither man nor dog to 
 approach within sight of them. 
 
 When down, fat sheep should be killed at once ; animals 
 in store condition may first be bled, if there be brain affection, 
 then well fed, turned from one side to the other, and moved , 
 regularly to fresh ground. A small percentage recover after 
 becoming unable to walk. The practice of looking for the 
 tick and puncturing its posterior to make it lose hold might 
 probably be practised with advantage. At Cape Colony, 
 where a similar disease exists, when the tick is found and 
 removed, a paralysed lamb may recover the use of its linibs 
 within a couple of hours. 
 
 Braxy is a blood disease, often described as Anthrax^ 
 although it is quite distinct, as inoculation with its virus 
 does not cause death in the same way. It prevails much 
 on certain lands in Scotland, usually in autumn but some- 
 times in spring, when there are sudden and severe white 
 frosts at night, and the grass is of a rank growth. The 
 succulent green herbage or " tath " from the droppings of 
 cattle is most liable to produce the disease, which runs its 
 course so quickly within a few hours that no ordinary 
 remedy is of much avail. The blood becomes viscid and 
 dark, and 'stagnates in certain parts before death ; so that 
 effective bleeding, which is usually attempted, is often im- 
 possible. To try bleeding, and to make the animal move 
 about, are almost the sole means at command, and that only 
 in the early stages. The flesh of sheep which have died of 
 braxy is dark-red, particularly in the region of the abdomen, 
 and it has a high and peculiar smell and flavour. Ham 
 
 * Vide the Author's " Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New 
 Zealand," Sampson, Low, & Co. , for a description of tick poisoning in Aiistralia. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 29S 
 
 made from the hindquarters of a braxy sheep is considered 
 to be rather a delicacy by those who have learnt to appre- 
 ciate it in youth. Principal Williams considers it to be 
 "nothing more than an acute form of indigestion, with 
 inflammation of the bowels, and flatulence, arising from 
 eating food in a more or less ' fusted ' or decomposing con- 
 dition." It may be prevented, or its prevalence greatly 
 lessened, by not pasturing cattle along with sheep on land 
 subject to it, or at least doing so only in the early part of 
 the season ; and by keeping sheep during times of danger 
 from all quickly grown grass, or by only allowing them into 
 such pasture in the middle of the day, when there is no frost 
 on the ground. 
 
 Temporary Blindness is most frequently met with after 
 a long spell of wet cold weather. A dim opaque scum 
 forms over the pupil of the eye. This would disappear of 
 itself in time, but as the animal cannot see to feed, it falls 
 off in condition, and may tumble into a hole. Bleeding at the 
 eyes is the remedy usually practised, which brings about the 
 desired effect within a few days. A pen-knife is inserted . 
 between the frontal bone and the skin immediately below 
 the inner corner of the eye, and a large vein, which bleeds 
 profusely, is thus severed. 
 
 Foot- Rot. — It was noticed that dipping with arsenic 
 greatly improved sheep suffering from foot-rot, and from 
 this sprang the custom, for prevention as well as for cure in 
 mild cases, of driving sheep once a fortnight through a 
 trough containing a solution of arsenic. The drying and 
 hardening action on the horn is injurious if repeated oftener. 
 In very bad cases, all horn that has separated from the 
 inner part of the foot by suppuration must be carefully 
 removed with a sharp knife, and the raw exposed surfaces, 
 which would grow proud-flesh if not attended to, dressed 
 with a caustic or acid mixture, as arsenic is hurtful to a 
 large open sore. A flock of sheep may be seriously injured 
 
296 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 in condition, and niade to appear as if they were foundered, 
 if driven through a strong solution of arsenic when their feet 
 are in a raw state, and serious consequences result if pellets 
 of undissolved arsenic are left adhering to the hoofs. 
 
 The arsenic trough should be 1 2 feet long, i foot deep, 
 8 inches wide at the bottom, and 14 inches at the top, but 
 the ends only 3 inches high. The sheep then easily step 
 into it when it is placed level on the surface of the ground, 
 between two rows of hurdles or paling merely wide enough 
 for them to pass through. The solution (strength, one 
 pound of arsenic, dissolved by boiling with a little carbonate 
 of soda in five gallons of water) is put into the trough, till 
 it is from i to i^ inch deep, so that it cannot rise above 
 the horny part of the foot, else it might blister the skin and 
 cause the hair to fall off The sheep, having first had all 
 long or loose horn cut away, are driven quietly through, to 
 prevent any splashing of the liquid against the uncovered 
 skin. Crude carbolic acid — strength, 3 or 4 parts to 100 of 
 water — or pitch-oil, dissolved by boiling with black soap, 
 and mixed with eight or ten times its volume of water, is 
 sometimes used instead. The box should have a tight- 
 fitting lid made to close when not in use, in order to prevent 
 the poisoning of stray animals by drinking from it. 
 
 To help to maintain the feet in a normal condition, lime 
 in the powdery caustic state is sometimes laid down at 
 gateways or places where the sheep often walk over. A 
 common cause of foot-rot is dung or some foreign matter 
 getting at the . tender structures of the internal foot on 
 account of some softening, decay, or weakness of the outer 
 horny box, and then suppuration and fungoid growth follow. 
 
 True foot-rot is not generally considered to be contagious, 
 although an attempt is made by Professor Brown, in the 
 R.A.S.E. Journal for 1 892, to prove its contagious character. 
 
 The Author is inclined to believe that there is sometimes 
 a derangement in the systems of sheep, which shows itself by 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 297 
 
 symptoms almost identical with those of foot-rot, and which 
 may one day be found to be contagious, or at all events 
 induced, without any external cause, in a whole flock by 
 unsuitable or possibly excessive feeding. 
 
 The feet of sheep that have been aff"ected with foot-rot 
 are more susceptible of the disease in future ; thus foot-rot 
 is difficult to get rid of when once well established. 
 
 Blotches,* causing lameness, originate in wart -like 
 growths, which, in the first stages, are hard and scaly exter- 
 nally, and gorged with blood within. They appear in some 
 seasons about the coronet and lower parts of the legs. The 
 affection is not contagious, although it breaks out in a flock 
 suddenly, and at times attacks the greater number of them 
 more or less seriously. Clover is thought to produce it by 
 mechanically irritating the skin of the legs frequently when 
 sheep are on pasture in autumn, and it usually disappears 
 when the flock is put on roots. Sheep fall off" much in 
 condition, and in sorhe of the more aggravated cases die of 
 blood-poisoning, pus having found its way into the blood by 
 absorption of the foetid discharge which comes from the sores 
 in the later stages of their development. The remedies are to 
 remove the sheep from the conditions under which the malady 
 broke out, and to dress the affected parts without delay with 
 the hot iron, or with carbolic, caustic, or acid applications. 
 
 Dew-rot is a cause of lameness, which appears in April, 
 and even to a greater extent in autumn, in damp foggy 
 weather, or when there are sudden changes of temperature 
 at night resulting in frosts or heavy dews. It appears at 
 first in the form of white blisters, between the digits, or on 
 the anterior surface of the coronet. The hair falls off the 
 aff'ected parts, which are left bare, and in a short time be- 
 come open sores. If they are not at once treated by using 
 a stimulating embrocation, after opening them with a knife, 
 the inflammation and irritation spread until the whole foot- 
 * Termed "oafe'' or "orf" in Scotland. 
 
298 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 structure is involved, and the ultimate condition becomes 
 something like an aggravated form of foot-rot, the whole of 
 the horny parts sloughing off. When it takes this serious 
 form, the proper treatment is to poultice with tar, bran, or 
 linseed cake (ground and " burst " with hot water) to reduce 
 inflammation, allay pain, and keep dirt from the wounds. 
 
 Sheep thus affected fall very much off in condition, but 
 there is no fear of death if proper precautions be taken. 
 This disease is reported to have appeared in Gloucestershire, 
 for the first time, about 1870. 
 
 Some places are more subject to it than others. The 
 pastures are frequently worst which have not a good aspect, 
 such as those lying away from the sun. Immediate and 
 constant attention is positively necessary to prevent the 
 development of the mature form of the disease ; and the 
 whole flock must be removed, and put on arable land which 
 is not under pasture. Dew-rot very frequently appears 
 among ewes that 1 are going with the ram, and are conse- 
 quently better fed at this time than usual. A rapidly- 
 improving condition may render the system more susceptible 
 to the disease, as is the case with many other diseases. 
 Sheep that are being forced, in the cases of high farming or 
 for show purposes, are more liable to give the shepherd 
 trouble than those that are fed in a moderate way; and the 
 death-rate, as a rule, is much higher. 
 
 Another common cause of an excessive death-rate is' 
 allowing sheep, through bad management or want of proper 
 food, to fall into an unthriving condition, or, in common 
 language to get a " backset." 
 
 If hoggets are kept, more particularly late into spring, 
 on a turnip crop which has not been properly cleaned of 
 weeds while growing, a very alarming death-rate frequently 
 occurs. There is a pretty wide-spread belief in Gloucester- 
 shire, both amongst farmers and shepherds, that chick-weed 
 {Stellaria media), if abundant, is most hurtful to young sheep. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII.— SHEEP DOGS. 
 
 The Collie Dog — Appearance and Characteristics — Points quoted from Rules 
 of Northern and Midland Sheep-dog Club— Type of the Old English 
 Sheep Dog from the same Rules — Sheep Dog Trials. 
 
 T^HE Collie Dog. — The common belief that the collie 
 is treacherous, is a calumny upon probably the most 
 valuable and sagacious, mild-tempered and patient, servant 
 of the sheep-farmer. It is quite true that a collie which 
 has been brought up in the wilds may be shy and refuse 
 to be patted or even touched by a stranger, but this is 
 merely the result of training and surroundings upon a 
 highly-strung nervous disposition. Dogs that are well 
 treated are usually extremely sensitive, and seem to be 
 as much' discomfited by a moral rebuke — an unkind look, 
 word, or action of his master — as most animals would be 
 by physical chastisement. This indicates an amount of 
 sympathy and good fellowship between the dog and his 
 master, which is quite unattainable in the relationship 
 which exists between man and such a noble and service- 
 able animal even as the horse. 
 
 The mental powers of a collie dog also develop under 
 kind treatment, associated with firm and consistent man- 
 agement and control, such as is necessary in training a 
 dog to work so that he will obey his master's call, and 
 understand and act in obedience to his master's sign or 
 gesture. When near at hand the word and look of the 
 master form the chief means of guidance, but at a distance 
 the whistle and motion can alone be relied upon. The 
 period of life at which a dog is most susceptible of learning 
 
300 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 is when it is between six and twelve months old. A dog 
 which is descended from working parents is usually more 
 easily trained than one which is sprung from a fancy show- 
 yard strain which has not been accustomed to work. It 
 is a question not yet determined how much this may be 
 due to want of training in successive generations, or to 
 the persistent inbreeding which is carried on among the 
 best show-dogs. Though inbreeding is useful in preserving 
 a show-yard type, it undoubtedly tends to spoil the temper 
 and disposition for training and for work. Good showyard 
 quality is, nevertheles.s, not incompatible with first-rate 
 working performances. There is no reason why attention 
 should not be paid to both important characteristics, or 
 why they should not be corribined in one and the same 
 animal ; but to be successful in this effort, it would pro- 
 bably be necessary to insist upon greater posterior cranial 
 development in the show dog than is at present the 
 fashion. 
 
 In describing the external form or figure of the collie 
 dog, it may be said, generally, that the points nearly cor- 
 respond to those of a hunting horse. The shoulders should 
 be oblique ; the withers narrow or sharp ; the hindquarters 
 long ; the chest deep to give abundance of lung-room, but 
 not wide, else the animal cannot gallop ; the back broad, 
 well-coupled, and muscular ; the ribs well sprung ; and the 
 belly not too much tucked up like that of a greyhound. 
 
 The shape and pose of the ears and the tail are regarded 
 with special importance. Prick - ears, giving the head a 
 foxy appearance, are as objectionable as hanging or lop- 
 ears. The ears should stand up while the dog is on the 
 alert, and the tips should incline slightly forward, forming 
 hollows to catch the sound similar to the hand of an 
 aged person put up while listening, in the familiar manner 
 which calls for no description. The tail should not be too 
 short, or set on too low on the hindquarters. It should not 
 
SHEEP DOGS. 301 
 
 be carried gaily, but should droop — not, however, lower 
 than the houghs — the point turning slightly up, without the 
 animal being cock-tailed or swirl-tailed ; and in the case 
 of the rough collie, it should be covered by a good flag 
 all the way to the tip. A close under-coat of fur extend- 
 ing over the body is of great importance in a working 
 collie, as although the straight hard outer hair, which acts 
 as an outer covering of thatch, may get wet in stormy 
 weather, the under fur keeps the skin warm and dry even 
 when the dog is exposed for hours on the hill-side. Black- 
 and-tan dogs, especially of the darker shades, are frequently 
 defective in the under-coat, owing to there being a stain in 
 the blood from the so-called Gordon setters of comparatively 
 recent times. The coat of the rough collie should not part 
 along the back line while dry, and if parted while wet the 
 second coat should still obscure the skin. 
 
 The hair on the forelegs is smooth and short in front, 
 but it lengthens iiito a long silky fringe or feather down 
 the back of the leg all the way to the pastern. The hind- 
 legs are free from fringes, and they ought to be set on 
 straight — not cow-houghed, "five-o'clock" or V-shaped — else 
 the stifle joints project and the power of motion is 
 weakened. To be " hare-footed " or long-footed is objec- 
 tionable. Dogs ought to stand . on their toes or be " cat- 
 footed." ■ The collie-claw, or dew-claws, on the hind feet 
 (parts strongly developed in the St Bernard, being in that 
 breed frequently double), should be cut off with a pair of 
 scissors at an early age in the case of dogs which are 
 intended to work. If not removed they are liable to be 
 torn when snow covers the ground and becomes slightly 
 crusted on the top, as is the case when frost occurs after 
 a mock-thaw ; the toes of the dog sink, and the claws 
 come in contact with the ragged edges of the broken 
 snow-crust. 
 
 The dew-claw seems to be the remains of a natural 
 
302 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and no doubt useful appendage, which existed in the 
 common ancestors of some of our most distinct breeds 
 of dogs, as the claws in question have been known to 
 appear in puppies which were first crosses between a 
 clawless spaniel and clawless English terrier, the ancestors 
 of both breeds having been clawless for many generations. 
 The following descriptive points have been extracted 
 from the Rules of the Northern and Midland Sheep-dog 
 Club.* 
 
 Type of Rough Collie. 
 
 Head. — Should be in proportion to dog's size. Skull moderately 
 wide between the ears, and flat, tapering to the end of the muzzle, 
 which ought to be of a fair length, but not too snipey, with only a 
 slight stop.t 
 
 Teeth — Strong and white. The top jaw fitting nicely over the 
 lower ; and where much over or at all under-shot, it should count 
 against the dog. 
 
 Eyes. — Of almond shape, set obliquely in the head, and the shade 
 consistent with the colour of the dog. A full or staring eye is very 
 objectionable. 
 
 Ears. — Small, and when the dog's attention is attracted, carried 
 semi-erect ; but when in repose it is natural for them to be laid back 
 on the ruff. 
 
 Neck. — Long and well arched, and shoulders muscular and sloping. 
 
 Back. — Rather long, strong, and straight, the loin slightly arched, 
 and the chest fairly deep, but not too wide. 
 
 Forelegs. — Straight and muscular, with a fair amount of bone. 
 The hindlegs should be rather wide apart, with stifle well bent, 
 forming sicklehocks. 
 
 i^^,^A— Compact, knuckles well sprung, claws strong and close 
 together, pads cannot be too hard. 
 
 Coat. — Should consist of a long straight outer coat, as hard as 
 possible, with a dense growth of under-coat. The hair on thighs 
 and tail should be as abundant as possible, but short and smooth on 
 head and ears and below the houghs. A long frill and handsome 
 mane, finishing with cape on the shoulders, is very characteristic of 
 the breed. 
 
 * Secretary — Harold Macbeth, Sale, Cheshire, t See footnote, p. 303. 
 
Plate LX.KV. 
 
 
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SHEEP DOGS. 
 
 303 
 
 Symmetry. — The dog should be of fair length on the leg, and his 
 movements active and graceful. 
 
 Height. — Dogs, 22 to 24 inches ; Bitches, 20 to 22 inches. 
 
 Tail. — Of medium length ; andw'hen the dog is standing quietly 
 should be slightly raised, but more so when excited. 
 
 Type of Smooth Collie. — The smooth collie should be the same 
 in every particular as the rough collie, excepting the coat, which 
 should be short, hard, and dense. 
 
 Type of Natural Bobtail Rough Collie. — The natural bobtail rough 
 collie is the same in every particular as the rough collie, with the 
 exception of a natural bobtail. 
 
 Type of Natural Bobtail Smooth Collie. — The natural bobtail 
 smooth collie is the same in every particular as the smooth collie, 
 with the exception of a natural bobtail. 
 
 Note, — In all cases of bobtails, a docked tail will disqualify, 
 
 
 Scale of Points. 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 25 
 
 Ears 
 
 
 15 
 
 Body 
 
 
 10 
 
 Legs and Feet 
 
 
 15 
 
 Coat 
 
 
 25 
 
 Tail 
 
 
 10 
 
 Type of the Old English Sheep Dog. 
 
 Skull. — Capacious, and rather squarely formed, giving plenty of 
 room for brain power. The parts over the eyes should be well arched, 
 and the whole well covered with hair, as defined in " coat." 
 
 Jaw. — Should be fairly long and square. The "stop"* should be 
 defined, but not to a great extent. 
 
 Eyes. — These, of course, vary in ditferent colours of dogs. In the 
 dark-blue shades they should be dark-brown. In the lighter colours 
 they will be found to follow them, and become paler in shade, while 
 where white predominates a '' wall " or marble eye may be considered 
 typical. 
 
 Nose. — Always black in colour ; fairly large and capacious. 
 
 Teeth. — Strong and firm, and should be evenly placed in the jaw. 
 
 * "The indentation between the'skuU and the nasal bone near the eyes. "— 
 Vero Shaw's definition. 
 
304 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Working dogs often have their incisors broken off. This is in no way 
 detrimental. 
 
 Ears. — Medium sized, and carried close to the head, coated with 
 hair of a moderate length. 
 
 Legs. — The forelegs should be straight and possess plenty of bone. 
 They should remove the body a medium height off the ground with- 
 out approaching legginess. They should be well coated all round. 
 
 Feet. — Moderately large, round, toes well arched, and pads capa- 
 cious and hard. 
 
 Tail. — This is a most important point in the Old English Sheep 
 Dog. Without a doubt many dogs are bred without the slightest 
 approach to a caudal appendage ; while, on the other hand, some in 
 the litters will be found with half, three-quarters, and whole length 
 tails. The breeding of those without tails should be encouraged and 
 be persevered with, and be given preference to in judging, provided 
 the dogs are good elsewhere. A tail of any length takes away the 
 appearance and the " corkiness" * of the dog. A docked dog can gene- 
 rally be detected by the bluntness at the end of the stump. 
 
 Neck and Shoulders. — The neck should be fairly long, arched, and 
 graceful, and well coated with hair. The shoulders should be set on 
 slopingly, and the dog generally be found to stand lower at the shoulders 
 than on his hind quarters. 
 
 Body. — Rather short, and very compact. The ribs should be well 
 sprung, and the brisket deep and capacious. The loin should be very 
 stout, and to a certain extent arched, while the hindquarters should 
 be bulky, and the hams densely covered with coat, very often of a 
 softer and more woolly description than is to be found on other parts 
 of the body. 
 
 Coat. — Profuse, and of a good texture, i.e., fairly hard and strong. 
 There should also be a double or under coat. 
 
 Colour. — Varies ; but preference should be given to dark-blue, 
 light, or pigeon-blue and steel-grey dogs. The colours are generally 
 intermixed with white, which imparts to the dog a more attractive 
 appearance. 
 
 Height. — Fair stand and measurement at the shoulder, from 20 
 inches upwards. The bitches, of course, smaller than the dogs 
 Great height is not to be encouraged, for it takes away the corkiness 
 and cobbiness * of the dog. 
 
 General Appearance. — He is a stropg compact looking dog, pro 
 fusely coated all over. He has a peculiar springing style of move- 
 
 * Compactness. 
 
SHEEP DOGS. 
 
 305 
 
 ment, and is a thick-set, muscular, able-bodied dog, with an intelligent 
 expression. 
 
 Scale of Points : Total, 100. 
 
 Head 
 
 10 
 
 Ears 
 
 5 
 
 Jaw 
 
 5 
 
 Legs 
 
 10 
 
 Eyes 
 
 S 
 
 Tail (undecked) . 
 
 10 
 
 Nose 
 
 5 
 
 Neck and Shoulders 
 
 10 
 
 Colour 
 
 10 
 
 Body, Loin, Hindquarters 
 
 10 
 
 Teeth 
 
 5 
 
 Coat 
 
 IS 
 
 Sheep Dog Trials have for many years occupied a 
 good deal of attention and interest in certain localities of 
 the United Kingdom ; and thanks to such men as Edward 
 W. H. Jones,* in Wales, and G. F. Bowden, of Somersal, 
 Derbyshire, the method of competition is becoming more 
 and more systematised. Trials have also become popular 
 in America, where a considerable number of the best 
 British dogs have recently been taken. 
 
 _ " The prescribed work or task,'' says Jones in his excellent little 
 book, " is generally as follows : — Three sheep being set at liberty on a 
 spot some half-mile distant from the shepherd and the dog, out of 
 the dog's sight, and even sometimes out of the sight of the shepherd 
 also, the dog has (i) to go to find the sheep ; (2) bring them over a 
 course more or less beset with natural and artificial difficulties to the 
 shepherd, who is restrained from proceeding over a certain boundary to 
 the assistance of the dog, and, with the shepherd's assistance when 
 within this boundary, to drive the sheep to a small enclosure ; and (3) 
 pen them within a certain specified time — generally ten minutes." Out 
 of a total of 60 points, the find =18 ; the return = 30; and the pen- 
 ning =12. 
 
 * Author of " Sheep Dog Trials : their Staridard of Adjudication, Origin 
 and Progress ; together with the Sheep Dog : its History, Varieties, Points, 
 Breeding, and Training. " Printed at the Brecon and Radnor Express Office. 
 
 U 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 TWO TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF THE STOCKING 
 OF FARMS IN SOUTHERN AND MIDLAND ENGLAND. 
 
 Data of Use in the Calculations.* 
 
 HORSES. — 3 are kept per loo acres arable on light land ; 4 kept 
 per 100 acres araljle on heavy land ; cost per annum for feeding 
 each horse, ^25 ; with shoeing and sundry bills extra, £2,0 ; 
 one man and pair of horses cost ;£ioo to ^iio a year.t 
 
 Grass at 3s. 6d. per week for 22 weeks, = ^3. 17s., which would 
 pay the rent of i\ or 2 acres. One acre at least of good old pasture 
 should be set aside per horse. 
 
 Hay, 24 lbs. per day for 7 months = nearly 2 J tons per horse. Con- 
 suming value, taken at half the sale value, = ^2 to £2. los. per ton ; or 
 use I ton of hay and 1^ ton of good oat straw. 
 
 Litter, i\ ton for the winter season. Averaging the yield of oats at 
 52 bushels per acre, 2 acres are consumed per horse when three 
 bushels are given per week in winter and one bushel in summer. So 
 much of this might be sold, and beans, bran, and other suitable feeding 
 stuffs bought to take its place. 
 
 Sheep. — 2 ewes with 2J lamb's (a fair crop), or 2^ lambs (a good 
 crop), are kept per acre on medium pasture in summer. 
 
 Roots, ^ ton given per day to 100 ewes on grass till lambing time, 
 and I ton per day after lambing, or= i ton per day for four months, or, 
 120 tons -4- 1 5 (average in tons per acre) =8 acres per 100 ewes. 
 
 * The prices current in 1885 are still retained, consequently allowance will 
 require to be made in adapting the figures to the present time of a reduction 
 of say 20 to 25 per cent, in some instances. 
 
 t The figures are stated for ordinary farm horses which do no exceptional 
 amount of carting on the road. The cost of feeding the large lorry, van, or cart 
 horse in town, where food requires to be purchased at the highest rates, amounts 
 to about 14s. weekly, or ;^36 per annum, but this sum may vary, probably 2s. per 
 week up or down, with the nature of the work done. 
 
2rof: jVclUoxx^ .¥arm,Ziye- Stock 
 
 BRITSSH IE 
 
 !QieE£iiIrac^ Geo^^IdcBl £i«tltDte 
 
 "is 4S BO BO lAo 
 
APPENDICES. 307 
 
 Ewes not on grass, and also clipped sheep or hoggets after Christ- 
 mas, consume 24 lbs. per day : therefore 200 eat i acre (15-ton crop) 
 in one week. Beginning with lambs put on in September, it is approxi- 
 mately right to say i acre will keep 300 per week on an average during 
 the first root season =16 lbs. of roots per day, but they would not be 
 quite enough for the larger breeds. 
 
 Hay should also be allowed = i ton per acre of roots. 
 
 Cake = J lb. to each sheep per day for six months amounts to 70 
 lbs. more than 2 tons for 100 sheep. It is near enough, practically, to 
 say 2 tons. 
 
 Bullocks. — I acre of good pasture, or ij acre to \\ acre, accord- 
 ing to quality, should, during summer, keep one fattening bullock, which 
 ought to gain 20 stones of beef in 23 weeks. One store animal might 
 be sufficient stock for i acre of second-quality land. 
 
 Turnips, f cwt. per day, or 7 tons in six months, is nearly \ acre for 
 each bullock. If giving i cwt. per day, i\ bullock may be kept per 
 acre of turnips (15 tons) between six and seven months. The price at 
 7s. 6d. per ton = 4jd. per cwt. 
 
 Hay, I stone (14 lbs.) per day for 26 weeks = 22j cwts. A large- 
 sized fattening bullock should eat about ij stone =i7|- lbs. per day. 
 An ordinary crop of " seeds " hay = i^ ton per acre ; a good crop, 2 tons. 
 
 Of natural hay, i\ ton per acre is a good crop. Heavier crops 
 become white at the bottom, and are not of such good quality, except 
 on some rich moist meadows where the larger grasses greatly pre- 
 dominate. 
 
 Of straw, a bullock in a yard will eat and trample down 3 or 4 tons 
 in six months ; i or 2 tons more could be trampled down if 
 necessary. 
 
 Of meal and cake mixture, 6 lbs. per day to each bullock for six 
 months gives a total of \ ton, less 28 lbs. — say, ^ ton each. 
 
 Cows. — One cow can be kept summer and winter on 7,\ acres of 
 superior dairy-grass-land ; while 3 acres, up to 5 or 6 acres, of ordinary 
 quality are necessary in a mountainous dairy district. 
 
 Hay cut from i acre of natural meadows = ij ton, or 19 lbs. per 
 day per cow for six months ; this, plus \ ton to i ton of good straw, is 
 enough fodder for an average dairy cow : 24 lbs. of hay per day = 2j^ 
 tons in seven months : 25 lbs. of hay per day = 2 tons in six months. 
 
 Mixed concentrated food, given in spring after calving and before 
 grass comes, may vary in cost from £\ per cow (ordinary feeding) to 
 £7. each (high feeding). 
 
308 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Cotton cake given in summer on the grass, 3 lbs. per day for six 
 months = (nearly) 5 cwts. per cow, and at £6 per ton, costs 30s. per 
 cow. 
 
 Root and forage crops for all the year round are already given on 
 pages 122 and 123. 
 
 Rent and Taxes amount to, say, from 3s. to 5 s. per acre. 
 
 Implements. — Total cost per acre, ;£i on a farm half arable and 
 half pasture, up to 30s. if it is all arable, or even £1 per acre if many 
 new and expensive implements be bought, or when the holding is 
 small. A 500-acre farm might thus have £500 to £t^o or ^1000 of 
 capital sunk in implements. 
 
 Ca/zVa/ required for an ordinary farm = ;£5, ^8, or ;^io per acre : 
 in high farming it may mount up to more. 
 
 Example No. i 
 
 1 s given as an answer to the first three questions set in the Examina- 
 tion for the Diploma of the Royal Agricultural Society of England in 
 1884. 
 
 Question (i). "What capital is required for a farm of 500 acres — 
 half arable and half pasture ? — the arable being turnip and sheep land, 
 the grass, 50 acres good feeding land, the rest suited for young stock." 
 
 Question (2). " What proportion of capital would you apply to — 
 
 I. Cattle. 2. Sheep. 3. Horses. 4. Implements and 
 machines. 5. Tillages, &c. ? " 
 
 Question (3). " State the most suitable course of cropping ? " 
 
 In all arable farm calculations the rotation is the first point to 
 settle. 
 
 Question (3). — Rotation for 250 Acres Arable. 
 
 A Five-course Shift. 
 
 1. Wheat, 50 acres. 
 
 2. Oats, 50 acres (better straw for fodder than barley). [Catch 
 
 crops following more or less ; as rye, trifolium, vetches, rape, 
 &c., for sheep food in spring.] 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 309 
 
 3. Roots, 50 acres, mostly eaten on the land by sheep ; part carted 
 
 to the yard for cattle. 
 
 4. Barley, 50 acres (part might be oats instead). 
 
 5. " Seeds," 50 acres, all cut once for hay and the after- or latter- 
 
 math eaten by sheep. 
 
 Question {2). — To find the numbers, and affix the prices, of the 
 Horses, Cattle, and Sheep, that the foregoing 250 acres of acres 
 of arable and 250 acres of grass-land will keep. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 250 acres, total of grass. 
 50 „ (the best) keep 50 fatting bullocks. 
 
 200 „ left. 
 
 75 „ keep 50 bullocks one year younger. 
 
 125 „ left. 
 
 16 „ (second quality) to graze 8 horses. 
 
 109 „ left. 
 
 34 „ cut for hay. 
 
 75 
 
 left for sheep. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Being light land, the number of horses required would be 3 per 100 
 acres cultivated =8 horses. At £y3 to ^40 each, say =^320. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 75 acres of grass left for sheep. 
 2 sheep per acre with their lambs. 
 
 150 ewes @ ;£4* each=^6oo total capital in ewes. 
 
 One hundred and fifty ewes get i J ton of roots per day on grass 
 for four months or 120 days =1 80 -r tons 15 (average crop in tons per 
 acre)= 12 acres turnips required for the ewe flock. 
 
 Tegs, 200 eating 16 lbs. turnips per day consume l8 acres in six 
 months or twenty-six weeks. 
 
 * Too high for an ordinary floclc at current prices. 
 
310 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 12 acres set aside for ewes. 
 i8 „ „ tegs. 
 
 30 „ total for sheep. 
 
 20 „ for 50 cattle = 70 lbs. (fully) each per day for six months. 
 
 50 „ total turnips disposed of. 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 (i.) Straw. 
 150 acres of grain crops @ i^ ton straw per acre. 
 
 187 tons straw (50 bullocks eat and trample down 3J tons each). 
 17s „ for cattle. 
 
 12 „ for horse litter ; to go to the cattle-yard afterwards. 
 
 Some of the straw given to the cattle for litter would first be 
 used for thatching, which would not spoil it for its ultimate 
 purpose. 
 
 (2.) Hay. 
 50 acres seeds @ i^ ton of hay per acre. 
 + i4 
 
 75 tons total seeds hay. 
 
 34 „ cut from the 34 acres of natural meadow — rather a light 
 
 crop. 
 
 109 „ total hay. 
 
 18 „ for 8 horses = 2^^ tons each. 
 
 91 „ left. 
 
 30 „ allowance of i ton per acre of turnips for sheep. 
 
 61 „ left to be sold, or a little more given to the sheep and a 
 small foddering per day to the bullocks. 
 
 Where a good market for hay cannot be got, it might pay better to 
 pasture half of the " seeds " land instead of cutting it. 
 
APPENDICES. 311 
 
 Capital = Spring Valuation of Stock, &c. 
 Cattle. 
 
 50 bullocks @ £2,0 each, ^1000 
 
 50 „ ®£^3, „ 650 
 
 ^1650 
 
 Sheep. 
 1 50 ewes, with Iambs @ £/\ each, . . . ^600 
 
 200 tegs @ 60/ each — a high price, . . . 600 
 
 £1200 
 
 Horses. — 8 @ ^40 each, 320 
 
 Implements. — ^i per acre all over, .... 500 
 
 Tillages. 
 
 50 acres wheat @ 50/, . . . . . ^125 
 
 100 „ oats and barley @ £2, .... 200 
 
 50 „ "seeds" @^i, 50 
 
 50 „ turnip land (including catch crops and 
 
 manures for the same) @ £■},, . . . 1 50 
 
 525 
 
 Half-yeai^s Rent, Tithe, and Taxes % 28/ per acre per 
 
 annum, 350 
 
 C«jA z« ^a«(/ to pay wages and expenses, ... 455 
 
 Total capital . . . ;£5ooo 
 
 Question (i). 
 Capital required per acre = ;£io. 
 
 At current rates the above prices might be adjusted so that the 
 capital required might be reduced by £3 or £4 per acre. 
 
 Example No. 2. 
 
 The following calculation will show the rotation which might be 
 adopted on a 300-acre farm in the south of England, consisting of 
 two-thirds arable suitable for sheep, and the rest pasture for grazing 
 or dairy purposes ; it gives also the stock kept, and the amount of 
 capital required per acre, apportioning the amount for horses, cattle. 
 
312 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 sheep, implements, &c. Besides this will be found the number of 
 labourers required, their different duties, and the amount necessary 
 per annum for wages ; together with a Michaelmas valuation and 
 a statement of receipts and expenses for a year. 
 
 A four-course rotation adopted for the arable land. 
 50 acres wheat — or part oats to produce better fodder. 
 50 „ roots, mostly swedes ; average, 15 tons per acre, — 5 acres 
 of mangel, 20 to 25 tons per acre, would keep up 
 the above average, and allow 2 or 3 acres to grow 
 potatoes. 
 50 „ oats. 
 50 „ clover or " seeds " all cut once for hay. 
 
 200 acres, the given amount of arable. 
 
 Pasture. 
 100 acres grass. 
 
 75 „ pasture should carry 150 ewes and their lambs (say 200) 
 in summer. 
 
 25 „ left. 
 
 10 „ keep 6 or 7 horses. 
 
 IS „ left for 10 cows' pasture = i|^ acre each. 
 
 Or 5 cows might be kept, and their calves reared each 
 year ; the heifers coming into milk at two years off, 
 and the bullocks of the same age put up to finish, in 
 the autumn following. 
 
 Roots. 
 
 50 acres, average 1 5 tons. 
 
 12 „ for 150 ewes = i| ton per day for 4 months during winter 
 while on grass : by giving half quantity for 2 months 
 at first, before lambing, the turnips may be spread over 
 5 months. 
 
 38 „ left. 
 I „ for 10 cows = 30 lbs. each per day for 4 months in winter, 
 including the time they are dry. 
 
 37 „ left (carried forward) 
 
APPENDICES. 313 
 
 37 acres (brought forward) 
 
 20 „ for 200 tegs : 18 acres are consumed in 6 months by 200 
 
 tegs going on as lambs in September = 16 lbs. per day 
 
 being rather little for large breeds. 
 
 17 „ left. 
 •^ „ for 7 horses. 
 
 16J „ left. 
 S-^ „ for 50 tegs, bought in autumn, to feed. 
 
 II „ left for bullocks : 7 tons are consumed by a fattening 
 bullock in 6 months @ f cwt. per day, leaving i ton 
 per acre over, after feeding 2 bullocks per acre, which 
 would make up the possible total to 24 bullocks. 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 (i.) Straw. 
 100 acres grain crops @ \\ ton straw per acre : this is a low 
 average, but it is off light land. 
 X i\ ton. 
 
 125 tons straw. 
 
 20 „ for horses : half for litter, and the remainder for fodder 
 being sufficient with i ton of seeds hay for each horse. 
 
 105 „ left. 
 10 „ as part of the cow-fodder : i ton per cow. 
 
 95 „ left. 
 
 10 „ for cow's litter, which could be done without if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 85 „ for 24 bullocks = 3^ tons each, to supply fodder and litter. 
 The litter is supplemented by the rough stable clean- 
 ings being thrown into the open yard. 
 
 (2.) Hay. 
 50 acres of " seeds " hay. 
 X i\ the average number of tons per acre. 
 
 75 tons total of hay. 
 
314 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 75 tons of hay (brought forward). 
 
 40 „ given to the sheep— a little over i ton per acre of roots 
 
 consumed (37 ac), or something more than i lb. per 
 
 sheep per day. 
 
 35 „ left. 
 
 10 „ for 10 cows, which with 10 tons of straw allowed pro- 
 vides the necessary 25 lbs. each per day for 6 months. 
 
 25 „ left. 
 7 „ for 7 horses also getting part straw. 
 
 18 „ left ; and might be sold at market or sale value — £4 per 
 ton, more or less. 
 
 If there is no market, which is usually the case when a farm is 
 located away from a large town or railway station, 10 tons given to 
 the sheep would supply j lb. more for each per day, and a foddering 
 might go daily to the bullocks. 
 
 Michaelmas Valuation — 29th September. 
 
 1 50 ewes @ ;^3 each, ..... 
 20ohome-bredtegs| /^^^l^ 
 
 50 bought do. J ^ ^ ' ' 
 
 7 horses ® £3^ each, ..... 
 10 cows @ ;£2o each, . . . . , 
 
 8 pigs @ 30/ — fed on refuse, grain, and potatoes, 
 
 24 bullocks @ ^17 each, .... 
 
 100 acres grain crops (@ £S to ;£io), say @ £g per acre, 
 50 acres roots @ ^5. 10/ — nearly 7/6 per ton, 
 75 tons.hay @ £2 — consuming-value taken at half the sale- 
 value, . ... 
 
 Implements @ £1. 10/ per acre, 
 
 £Aio 
 500 
 
 245 
 200 
 12 
 408 
 900 
 275 
 
 150 
 450 
 
 .£3590 
 
 Petty cash, . 10 
 
 Total capital required, . ;£36oo 
 
 ^^3600^300 (the number of acres) = ;^i2 capital per acre. 
 Now depreciated (1893) at least 35 per cent. 
 
APPENDICES. 315 
 
 Expenses and Purchases other than of stock bought to fill up the 
 places of those sold that appeared in the first valuation. 
 
 Rent, Taxes, and Labour. 
 
 Rent, 300 acres, @ 30/, ..... ^450 o o 
 Taxes, 4/ per acre, . . . . . 60 o o 
 
 Labour, 35/ per acre, arable, . . ^350 o o 
 
 Labour, 10/ per acre, grass, . . 50 o o 
 
 400 o o 
 
 £()\o o o 
 
 Purchased Cakes and Feeding Stuffs. 
 
 For cows (@ ^i each), . . . ^10 o o 
 
 For 24 bullocks, 12 tons @ £,"]. 7/, . 88 4 o 
 
 For 250 sheep, S tons @ £,"]. 7/, . . 36 15 o 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Rye-grass, home-grown ; clover, 10/ per 
 
 acre, ..... _£25 o o 
 (Wheat 5/, oats 3/ per bushel), 225 bush. 
 
 @4/= ■ • • . 45 o o 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Super, 3 cwts. per acre for turnips = 150 
 
 cwts. @ 3/6, .... £,ib 5 o 
 Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia 
 
 for grain crops and potatoes, 2 tons 
 
 @ £\o (average), . . . 20 o o 
 
 134 19 o 
 
 70 o o 
 
 46 5 o 
 Shoeing (30/ per horse) plus sundry bills . for repair of 
 
 harness, implements, &c. = ^5 each . . . 35 o o 
 
 Coal, Sr'c, for the engine — a fixture belonging to the 
 
 farm, . . . . . . . 16 o o 
 
 Interest on £3600 cupiial @ 4 p. c.= . . . 144 o o 
 
 Total expenditure for the year (carried to 
 
 page^ib), /1356 4 o 
 
3l6 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Receipts from Sales of Farm Produce for a year, leaving the numbers 
 and value of stock as is found in the valuation at last Michaelmas. 
 
 From Sheep Stock — 
 
 Receipts for wool, and death and depreciation neutralise each other 
 as follows : — 
 
 Sale of wool (6 lbs.) at 5/ each on 150 ewes, . . £yi 10 o 
 
 Death, 3 or 4 per 100, and difference in price of old 
 
 ewes sold and about 50 tegs bought, . . 37 10 o 
 
 200 lambs (produce of 1 50 ewes) @ £2 each, . . £^oo o o 
 
 250 tegs sold @ 60/ each, profit £1 each, . . 250 o o 
 
 On horses there should be no loss if young ones are 
 broken in and others sold at their best. 
 
 Front Cattle — 
 10 cows (produce 600 gals, milk @ 7d. = £iT, 10/ 
 
 each)= . . . . . . 175 o o 
 
 10 calves @ 50/ each, . . . ;£25 o o 
 
 Less loss through sale and repurchase of 
 
 3 cows to prevent depreciation of 
 
 the stock, . . . . 1500 
 
 10 o o 
 
 24 bullocks @ 35/ per month of increase (for six 
 
 months)= ...... 252 o o 
 
 8 pigs yield a profit of £1 each, food supplied by the 
 
 farm= . . . . . . 16 o o 
 
 From Sale of Grain — 
 (Wheat, 4J qrs. per ac. @ 3Sl=£7 8 9) 
 (Oats, 7^ qrs. „ @ 2ol=£7 10 o) 
 100 acres grain crops. 
 14 „ off for horses. 
 
 86 „ @ £7. 10/ per acre — after paying market 
 
 expenses, ...... 645 o o 
 
 From Poultry — 
 50 hens and 20 ducks @ a profit of 2/6 each = . . 8 15 o 
 
 Return from produce in the year, . . .;£i756i5o 
 
 Total expenditure for the year {brought from page 2,1^), 1356 4 o 
 
 Total profit, . £ipo 11 o 
 
APPENDICES. 317 
 
 The loss from death is assumed to be allowed for in stating the 
 prices obtained. Should grain rise, say 10/ per quarter on wheat, the 
 profit on the above farm, due to this item alone, would be increased by 
 ;£200 a year. But, on the other hand, the fall of each 7/6 per quarter 
 which has taken place since the time to which the calculations refer, 
 has reduced the profit on such a farm by ^150. The prices of live- 
 stock cakes, feeding stuffs, and manures are now (1892) considerably 
 reduced, in some cases even 20 to 30 per cent, from the prices 
 quoted above. 
 
 The foregoing do not pretend to be more than two of many 
 methods which may be adopted of arranging the stock and crops 
 on such farms. 
 
 The following Balance-Sheet and Revenue and Expenditure 
 Account will enable the reader to follow more exactly the figures 
 in the foregoing example (No. 2), and to verify the results. The 
 accounts are framed on the footing of a tenant entering into pos- 
 session of his farm at Michaelmas of an assumed year, with stock, 
 &c., as on page 314, carrying on one year's transactions, as on pages 
 311 (six lines) to 316, and striking a balance at the Michaelmas suc- 
 ceeding his entry, with stock, &c., then in , number and value exactly 
 the same as at entry. In the Revenue and Expenditure Account, the 
 value of grain, roots, and hay consumed is stated on each side, as well 
 as the other receipts and expenditure described on pp. 311 to 316. 
 
 [Balance-Sheet 
 
3i8 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 BALANCE- 
 
 
 As at Michaelmas 
 
 As at Michaelmas 
 
 
 1898. 
 
 
 1899. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 it. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 To Ewes, . 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Tegs, . 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 Soo 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Horses, 
 
 
 
 24.'; 
 
 
 
 
 
 245 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Cows, . 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Pigs, . 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Bullocks, 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Grain Crops, 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Roots, . 
 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 
 
 
 27s 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 „ Hay, . 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Implements, 
 
 
 
 45° 
 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Cash in hand or bank. 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 410 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3600 
 
 
 
 
 
 4000 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 Br. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT* 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 (/. 
 
 To Ewes, Expenditure on their account. 
 
 2SS 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 ,, Tegs, ditto. 
 
 233 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Cows, ditto, 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Ditto, Loss through Sales to prevent Deprecia- 
 
 
 
 
 tion, ...... 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Bullocks, Expenditure on their account, . 
 
 250 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 ,, Horses, ditto, 
 
 160 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 ,, Rent, Taxes, and Labour, 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 
 
 This after crediting pasture rent, ;f 150, debited above 
 
 
 
 
 under proper heads,^Ewes, Horses, Cows. 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Seed, ...... 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Manure purchased, .... 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ,, Shoeing, &c., ..... 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Coals, &c.. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Interest on Capital, .... 
 
 144 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Balance or Profit, .... 
 
 400 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 2451 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 * For the arrangement of the above figures the 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 319 
 
 SHEET.* 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 As at Michaelmas 
 1898. 
 
 As at Michaelmas 
 1899. 
 
 By Capital, .... 
 ,, Revenue Account for Profit, 1898- 
 99, . 
 
 3600 
 
 s. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ 
 3600 
 
 400 
 4000 
 
 J. 
 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3600 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOR Year, ASSUMED, say 1898 to 1899. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 
 I 
 
 J. 
 
 d. 
 
 By Grain Crop, sold or used, .... 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 If understated, so far as used on Farm, per contra corre- 
 
 
 
 
 spondingly understated, so result not affected. Same 
 
 
 
 
 applies to Roots and Hay. 
 
 
 
 
 „ Roots, used, ..... 
 
 275 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Hay, ditto, ..... 
 
 ISO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Ewes, for Lamb Crop, 200 at 40s. , 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Tegs, disposed of at profit (subject to Expenditure 
 
 
 
 
 per contra) of, . 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Cows, for profit (ditto) 
 
 
 
 
 Calves, and Milk, .... 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Bullocks, disposed of, profit (ditto) 
 
 2S2 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Pigs, ditto, ditto. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ Cash, for Poultry sold, .... 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 2451 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 Author is indebted to A. T. Niven, C.A., Edinburgh. 
 
320 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The following Labour Note shows the particulars of the ;£400 
 stated as expense of labour on page 311. 
 
 Labour — 
 
 3 carters. 
 
 1 cowman. 
 
 2 shepherds. 
 
 4 labourers. 
 
 10 @ 13/ per week, average, .... .£338 o o 
 
 1 bailiff® ^i per week, . . . . 52 o o 
 
 II men, ....... £3<)o o o 
 
 3 extra hands at harvest for three weeks @ 24/ per 
 
 week, . . . . . . . 10 16 o 
 
 Total labour, . ;£4oo 16 o 
 
 The bailiff, carters, head shepherd, and cowman are all supposed 
 to have cottage and garden accommodation in addition to the above 
 money wages. 
 
 In some districts wages are higher, while in others they are lower. 
 The above may be taken as an average which may be raised or lowered 
 to suit the times. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 LIVE STOCK SOCIETIES. 
 
 Extracted by permission from the Live Stock Journal Almanac. 
 HORSES. 
 
 Jockey Club. — Sec, Edward Weatherby, Old Burlington Street, 
 and Newmarket. 
 
 National Hunt Committee. — Sees., Messrs Weatherby, Old Bur- 
 lington Street, London. 
 
 Shire Horse Society. — Offices, 1 1 Chandos Street, Cavendish 
 Square, London. Sec, J. Sloughgjove. Terms, Annual Members, 
 £\. IS. ; Life Members, £\o. los. 
 
 Suffolk Horse Society. — Sec, Fred. Smith, Woodbridge, Suffolk. 
 Life Members, £^ ; Annual Members, los. 
 
 Cleveland Bay Horse Society of Great Britain and Ireland. — 
 Annual subscription, £l ; Life Members, £io ; Life Governors, £,10. 
 Hon. Sec, Wm. Scarth Dixon, 68a Micklegate, York. 
 
 Hackney Horse Society. — Sec, Henry F. Euren ; Assistant, F. 
 F. Euren, 1 1 Chandos Street, Cavendish Square, London, W. 
 
 Select Clydesdale Horse Society of Scotland. — Sec, Wm. Law, 210 
 Kennedy Street, Glasgow. 
 
 Clydesdale Horse Society of Great Britain and Ireland. — Offices, 
 46 Gordon Street, Glasgow. Sec, Archibald MacNeilage. Terms, 
 an entrance fee of los. ; Life Governors, in addition, pay ^10 ; Life 
 Members, ^5 ; and Annual Members, los. annually. 
 
 Hunter^ Improvement Society. — Sec, A. B. Charlton, 1 1 Chandos 
 Street, Cavendish Square, London, W. 
 
 Yorkshire Coach Horse Society. — Hon. Sec, J. White, The Grange, 
 Appleton Roebuck, Bolton Percy, Yorks. 
 
 Shetland Pony Stud Book. — Sec, George Bruce, 35 Market Street, 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 New Forest Pony Association. — Sees., R. W. Blathwayt, Sandy 
 Down, Lymington, Hants, and A. P. Higham, Brockenhurst, Lym- 
 ington, Han'ts. 
 
 Trotting Union of Great Britain. — Sec, F. Cathcart, 1 1 Ludgate 
 Hill, London, E.C. 
 
 X 
 
322 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Pony Stud Book Society. — Sec, G. H. Hardwin, 34 Victoria Street, 
 London, S.W. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and, Ireland. — Offices, 12 
 Hanover Square, London, W. Sec, E. J. Powell. Terms for Life 
 Members, an entrance fee of ^i. is. ; subscription of £\o. los. : 
 Annual Members, entrance fee of ^i. is. ; subscription, £1. is. 
 yearly. Entries in the Herd Book : For Members, bulls, 3s. each ; 
 cows, with not more than two calves, is. 6d. each. For Non-Mem- 
 bers, bulls, IDS. each ; cows, with not more than two calves, 5s. each. 
 
 Hereford Herd Book Society. — Sec, S. W. Urwick. Offices, 20 
 East Street, Hereford. Terms, entrance fee, los. 6d. ; Life Members, 
 £,^. 5s. ; Annual Members, ids. 6d. per annum. Bulls entered in 
 Herd Book for 2s. 6d., and cows is. each. 
 
 Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association. — Sec, J. O. Urwick, 20 
 East Street, Hereford. 
 
 English Jersey Cattle Society. — Sec, John Thornton ; Assistant 
 Sees., T. W. Hammond and L. J. Craufurd, 7 Princes Street, 
 Hanover Square, London, W. 
 
 Devon Cattle Breeder^ Society. — Sec, John Risdon, jun., Wivelis- 
 combe, Somerset. 
 
 South Hams Herd Book. — Editor, A. Michelmore, Totnes, Devon. 
 
 Red Polled Society of Great Britain and Ireland. — Sec, H. F. 
 Euren, Mercury Office, Norwich. 
 
 Sussex Herd Book Society. — Sec, W. C. Young, 191 Fleet Street, 
 London, E.G. 
 
 Galloway Cattle Society. — Sec, Rev. John Gillespie, M.A., Mous- 
 wald Manse, Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, N.B. 
 
 Polled Cattle Society. — Sec, Alex. Ramsay, g Old Market Place, 
 Banff", N.B. 
 
 Ayrshire Cattle and Herd Book Society. — Sec, J. M'Murtrie, 70 
 Newmarket Street, Ayr. 
 
 Highland Cattle Society of Scotland. — Sec, Duncan Shaw, W.S., 
 42 High Street, Inverness. 
 
 Jersey Herd Book. — Joshua Le Gros, La Prarie, St Lawrence, Jersey. 
 
 North Wales Black Cattle Society. — Sec, Wm. Arthur Dew, 
 Wellfield, Bangor. Subscription : Life Members, ;£$ ; annual sub- 
 scription, los. 
 
 English Guernsey Cattle Society. — Annual subscription, ^i. is. ; 
 life membership, ^10. los. Hon. Sec, Julian Stephens, 19A Colman 
 Street, London, E.G. 
 
APPENDICES. 323 
 
 Kerry Herd Book. — Registrar, Royal Dublin Society, Kildare 
 Street, Dublin. 
 
 Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society. — Hon. Sec, F. N. Webb, Babra- 
 ham, Cambridge, or 191 Fleet Street, London, E.C. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock-Book Society.— 
 Sees., Messrs Lythall, Mansell, and Walters, College Hill, Shrews- 
 bury. 
 
 Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association. — Sec, R. Henry Rew, 
 
 26 Norfolk Street, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
 Suffolk Sheep Society. — Hon. Sec, E. Prentice, Stowmarket, 
 Suffolk ; Editor, C, E. B. Davis, Kirtling, Newmarket. Terms : 
 Life Members, ^5. 5s. ; Annual, los. 6d., with entrance fee, 10s. 6d. 
 
 Pure Select Wensleydale Sheep Breeder^ Association. — Sec, T. 
 T. Willis, Manor House, Carperby, Bedale. 
 
 Hampshire Down Flock-Book Society. — Sec, J. E. Rawlence, 
 Salisbury. 
 
 Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeder^ Association and Flock- 
 Book Society. — Sec, T. J. Other, Howgrave, Ripon. 
 
 Lincoln Longwool Sheep Breeder^ Association. — Sec, S. Upton, 
 St Benedict's Square, Lincoln. 
 
 Cheviot Sheep Society. — Sec, John Robson, Newton, Bellingham, 
 Northumberland. 
 
 Cotswold Sheep Society. — Sec, James W. Taylor, Cold Aston, 
 Cheltenham. 
 
 Southdown Sheep Breeder^ Association. — Sec, W. W. Chapman 
 
 27 Baker Street, Portman Square, London, W. 
 
 Dorset Horn Sheep Breeder^ Association. — Sec, F. V. Ensor, 
 Dorchester. 
 
 National Sheep Breeder^ Association. — Sec, W. W. Chapman, 27 
 Baker Street, Portman Square, London, W. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 British Berkshire Society. — Hon. Sec, Heber Humfrey, Shippon, 
 Abingdon. 
 
 National Pig Breeders' Association. — Sec, W. C. Young, 191 
 Fleet Street, London, E.C. 
 
 GOATS. 
 
 British Goat Society. — Sec, H. S. Holmes Pegler, Zoffany House, 
 King's Langley. 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 Names of the more prominent Breeds of British Live Stock, with the 
 Dates of the estabhshment of the various Breeders' Societies and 
 of the issue of the first volumes of the pedigree records of each, 
 so far as these exist. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Shorthorns. First Volume Herd Book, 
 
 
 1822 
 
 Hereford. „ 
 
 J) 
 
 
 1846 
 
 Sussex. 
 
 ) 
 
 )) 
 
 
 1874 
 
 Devons. 
 
 ) 
 
 ;i 
 
 
 1851 
 
 Jerseys. 
 
 J 
 
 Island Herd Book, 
 
 
 1866 
 
 Jerseys. 
 
 J 
 
 English „ 
 
 
 1879 
 
 Guernseys. 
 
 » 
 
 )> )) 
 
 
 1885 
 
 Red Polled. 
 
 J 
 
 J) 5» 
 
 
 1877 
 
 Aberdeen Angus. 
 
 T 
 
 )) ?) 
 
 
 1862 
 
 Welsh, . 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 Longhorns (Herd Book now 
 
 discontinued), 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Galloways. First Volume Herd Book, . 
 
 
 1862 
 
 West Highland. „ 
 
 » 
 
 
 1885 
 
 Ayrshires. „ 
 
 j> 
 
 
 1878 
 
 Kerry. 
 
 PIGS. 
 
 
 1890 
 
 Large White Yorkshire. 
 
 
 
 
 Middle White Yorkshire. 
 
 All registered in H 
 
 erd Book of 
 
 Small White Yorkshire. 
 
 National Pig Breedei 
 
 ■s' Association, 
 
 Small Black. 
 
 established 
 
 1885. 
 
 
 Tamworth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Berkshire. British Berkshire Society Herd Book, 
 
 1885 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 325 
 
 Thorough-Bred Horses. 
 "S I Hunters' Record. 
 
 ^ 4-. 
 
 O (ti 
 
 ° 4-. 
 
 CQ 3 
 CO 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 First Volume Pubhshed, 
 Established, 
 
 Hackney Horse Society. 
 
 Cleveland Bay Horse Society. 
 
 Yorkshire Coach Horse Society. 
 
 Shetland Pony Society. 
 
 Suffolk Horse Society. 
 
 Clydesdale Horse Society. 
 
 Shire Horse Society. 
 New Forest Ponies, 
 Welsh Ponies, 
 Dartmoor Ponies, 
 
 Exmoor Ponies, .... 
 Pony Stud Book. First Volume Published, 
 
 
 1793 
 1886 
 1884 
 1886 
 1886 
 1890 
 1877 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 No Special Register. 
 
 1892 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 Shropshire. Flock Book Published, 
 
 Suffolk. Do., 
 
 Southdown. Do., 
 
 Lincoln. Do., 
 
 Leicester. No Flock Book or Society. 
 
 Cotswold. Flock Book Published, 
 
 Oxford Down. Flock Book Published, 
 
 Devon Longwool. No Flock Book or Society. 
 
 Dorset Horn. Flock Book Published, 
 
 Wensleydale. Do., 
 
 Kentish or Romney Marsh. No Flock Book or Society. 
 
 Herdwick. Do. 
 
 Border Leicester. No Flock Book or Society. 
 
 Cheviot. Flock Book Published, 
 
 Blackfaced. No Flock Book or Society. 
 
 Lonk. Do. 
 
 Ryeland. Do. 
 
 Dartmoor. Do. 
 
 Exmoor. Do. 
 
 Welsh. Do. 
 
 Roscommon. Do. 
 
 Hampshire Down. Flock Book Published, . 
 
 1883 
 1887 
 1892 
 1892 
 
 1892 
 
 1892 
 1890 
 
 1890 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 The following six plates are after Photographs by Eadweard Muy- 
 bridge, who also revised and corrected the letterpress, and used 
 by permission from advance sheets of the Standard Dictionary. 
 Copyright by Funk Sr' IVagnalls, New York, U.S.A. 
 
 THE REGULAR PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENTS OF THE 
 
 HORSE. 
 
 Some Consecutive Phases of the Walk. 
 The stride is completed at ii, and 12 is the same as 2. 
 
 Walk. — A method of progression, common to nearly all the ter- 
 restrial vertebrates, which is effected by a regulated succession of 
 limb-movements, as described below. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 327 
 
 If, in the quadrupedal walk, the notation begins with the landing 
 of a right hind foot, the consecutive foot-fallings will be the right fore 
 foot, the left hind foot, the left fore foot, followed by its diagonal hind, 
 with which the record began. The time intervals of foot-fallings vary 
 with different species of animals, but their sequence is invariably the 
 same with all — the apes alone excepted, with which the landing of a 
 hind foot is usually preceded by that of its lateral fore foot. During 
 a single stride of a quadruped in an ordinary walk it is supported in 
 eight different ways : twice upon the laterals ; twice upon the dia- 
 gonals ; twice upon two hind feet and one fore foot ; and twice 
 upon two fore feet and one hind foot. 
 
 "It is thus seen that when a hoEse during a wal/i is on two feet, and the other two feet 
 are suspended between the supporting legs, the suspended feet are laterals. On the other 
 hand, when the suspended feet are severally in advance of and behind the supporting legs, 
 they are diagonals. These invariable rules seem to be neglected or entirely ignored by many 
 of the most eminent animal-painters of modern times." — Eadweard Muybridge, On the 
 Science of Animal Locotnotion^ p. 8 [r. i. gt. brit.]. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Some Consecutive Phases of the Canter. 
 The stride is complete at 10, and 11 and 12 are reproductions of 2 and 3. 
 
 Canter. — A system of quadrupedal locomotion in which the feet are 
 landed on the ground in the same consecutive order as in the walk, 
 but not with the same comparative intervals of time. See WALK. 
 
328 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Assuming that in the canter the notation is begun after a pro- 
 pulsion through the air with a final thrust by the left fore foot, the 
 landing will take place on the right hind foot, followed in order by the 
 right fore, the left hind, and the left fore, from which a succeeding 
 thrust off the ground will be effected. The consecutive supporting 
 feet are : — (i) the right hind foot ; (2) the right hind and right fore 
 feet ; (3) both hind and the right fore foot ; (4) the left hind and 
 right fore feet ; (5) the left hind and both fore feet ; (6) the left hind 
 and left fore feet ; (7) the left fore foot alone, from which the animal 
 leaves the ground. 
 
 ' ' The canter is usually regarded as a slow gallop, probably from the facility with which 
 a change from one gait to the other can be effected; an important difference will, however, 
 be observed." — E. M. 
 
 Some Consecutives Phases of the Amble. 
 
 The stride is completed between lo and ii, and ii and 12 show more advanced phases of 
 
 the movement than i and 2. 
 
 Amble. — A method of progressive motion with the same sequence 
 of foot-fallings as in the walk {see Walk), but in which a hind foot or 
 a fore foot is lifted from the ground before its fellow hind foot or 
 fellow fore foot is placed thereon, the support of the body devolving 
 alternately upon one foot and upon two feet, the single foot being 
 alternately a fore foot and a hind foot, and the intermedial supports 
 alternately diagonals and laterals. See plate above. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 329 
 
 The amble is natural to the elephant, and in some countries to the 
 horse, the mule, and the ass. The sequence of foot-fallings is the 
 right hind, the right fore, the left hind, the left fore, beginning again 
 with the right hind foot. At no time during the stride is the body of 
 the animal unsupported. The amble has been erroneously confused 
 with the rack or pace ; it is the most gentle and agreeable to the 
 rider of all methods of locomotion of the horse, whereas the rack is 
 probably the most disagreeable and ungraceful. 
 
 " Out of the old hackney-pace to a fine easy ambled 
 
 Ben Jonson, Every Man in his Humour ^ Act iii. sc. z. 
 f "The gray mare . . . hreaking from her sober amhle into a gentle trol." — Dickens 
 Barnaiy RudgCy pt. i. ch. 14, p. 167 [h. & h. '71]. 
 
 " The amble and the walk are the only regular progressive movements of the horse 
 wherein the body is never without the support of one or more legs ; in all others the weight 
 is entirely oflf the ground for a longer or shorter period." — E. M. 
 
 Some Consecutive Phases of the Trot. 
 
 The full stride is not completed until the right fore foot in ifz is brought to the ground as in 
 
 position z. 
 
 Trot. — A more or less rapid progressive movement of a quadruped 
 in which the diagonal limbs act nearly simultaneously, and during 
 which the body is entirely without support for varying intervals of 
 time and distance. 
 
330 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 When a horse is trotting at a high rate of speed, the fore foot 
 usually precedes its diagonal hind foot in being lifted from and placed 
 upon the ground, and the body will be entirely without support for 
 about one-half of the total length of the stride. Beginning the 
 notation with the landing of the right fore foot, the. order of the sup- 
 porting feet will be : — (i) the right fore foot ; (2) the left hind and 
 right fore feet ; the left hind foot ; (4) without support ; (5) the left fore 
 foot ; (6) the right hind and left fore feet ; (7) the right hind foot ; (8) 
 without support. The time during which one foot alone is on the 
 ground is very brief. 
 
 " It appears somewhat remarkable that until quite recently many experienced horsemen 
 were of opinion that during the action of the irot one foot of a horse was always in contact 
 with the ground." — E. M. 
 
 Some Consecutive Phases of the Rack or Pace. 
 The stride is completed at lo, and ii and 12 are reproductions of 2 and 3. 
 
 Rack — A method of progressive motion by a quadruped in which 
 two lateral feet are, with nearly synchronous movement, placed upon 
 and lifted from the ground, alternating with the other laterals, the 
 body of the animal being in the intervals entirely without support. 
 Sometimes called the pace. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 331 
 
 With some animals the rack is a hereditary movement ; with 
 others it is acquired. A trained horse can make faster progress by 
 racking than by trotting. 
 
 " The rack differs from the trot in the nearly synchronous action of the laterals instead of 
 the diagonals." — E. M. 
 
 Some Consecutive Phases of the Gallop. 
 The stride is completed at 12. 
 
 Gallop. — The most rapid method of progressive quadrupedal 
 motion (sometimes erroneously called the run), in which the animal 
 springs into the air from a fore foot and lands upon the diagonal hind 
 foot. 
 
 If the notation of a stride by the horse during a gallop begins with 
 the landing of a hind foot upon the ground, as, for example, the left 
 hind foot, the right hind will next strike the ground and at a consider- 
 able distance forward ; then follow in succession the left fore foot and 
 the right fore foot, at a distance from each other sometimes equal to 
 the height of the animal. The consecutive foundations of support 
 (beginning the notation as above) are : — (i) the left hind foot ; (2) 
 both hind feet ; (3) the right hind foot ; (4) the right hind and the 
 left fore feet ; (5) the left fore foot ; (6) both fore feet ; (7) the right 
 fore foot, from which the animal will spring into the air, in which 
 phase (the only one of the gallop when the animal is entirely off the 
 
332 FARM LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ground) all of the legs are flexed under the body. The first foot to 
 strike the ground will be the hind foot diagonal to that from which the 
 spring was effected. See plate on last page. 
 
 " This movement {xh& gallops has in all ages been employed by artists to convey the im- 
 pression of great speed, although, curiously enough, the phase in which the horse has been 
 almost invariably depicted is one which is impracticable during uniform progressive motion, 
 and conveys no such impression to the careful observer," — E. M. 
 
 We call special attention to the following extracts from the defini- 
 tions of step and stride, as applied to the progressive movements of 
 man and the lower animals. 
 
 Step. — In animal locomotion, an act of progressive motion in 
 which one of a pair of the supporting members of the body is thrust in 
 the direction of the movement, involving the transfer of the support 
 from the one member to the other. 
 
 " In the bipedal walk or run a step is one-half of a stride or full round movement; With 
 all quadrupeds, except the kangaroo and other jumpers, four steps are necessary to complete 
 a stride. In the walk these steps take place at approximately regular periods of time. In 
 the trot the diagonals, and in the rack the laterals, make a step almost simultaneously. In 
 the amble, the canter, and the gallop, these steps occur at irregular intervals of time." 
 
 Stride. — In animal locomotion, an act of progressive motion, com- 
 pleted when all the feet are returned to the same relative positions 
 they occupied at the beginning of the notation of the movement. 
 
 "The normal stride of a biped consists of two uniformly executed steps. The normal 
 stride of a quadruped consists of four steps. These steps may occur at separate and approxi- 
 mately regular periods of time, as in the walk ; at separate and irregular periods of time, as 
 in the amble, the canter, and the gallop ; or in pairs, as they are effected during the trot 
 with the diagonal, and during the rack with the lateral, members. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS breed of 
 cattle, s8, 63. 
 
 — bull, points of, 63. 
 Aberdeenshire shorthorns, 39. 
 Aboriginal cattle and sheep, characters 
 
 of, 12, 15. 
 Abortion in cows, 143. 
 
 — in cows, means of prevention of, 145. 
 
 — in cows, series of exhaustive experi- 
 
 ments on, necessary, 147. 
 Acorn-poisoning, 98. 
 " After-birth," the, in calving, 142, 144. 
 "After-pains,"' effect of, in cows, 147. 
 Agar's Dart (horse), 203. 
 Ages of horses, how determined, 220. 
 Agricultural labourers, inefficient educa- 
 tion of, 2. 
 Alton on Ayrshire cattle, 70. 
 "Alloy" strain, the, of shorthorn 
 
 breed, 30. 
 Albion, Prince of (a Clydesdale horse), 
 
 185. 
 Alderney cattle, 70, 74, 79. 
 Alexander, Prince (bay Clydesdale 
 
 horse), 181. 
 Allerton (famous American trotter), 
 
 207. 
 Amble, the, 328. 
 America, demand for Jersey cattle in, 
 
 76. 
 
 — employment of asses and mules in, 
 
 209. 
 
 — loss of cattle caused by " horning " 
 
 or "hooking" in, 102. 
 
 — national horse of, 204. 
 
 — popularity of " dishorning " in, io4- 
 
 — wild horses of, 176. 
 
 American pork, how to distinguish, 157. 
 
 — ■ trotting register, 204. 
 
 "Amnion," the, in calving, 142. 
 
 Animal, fat, rule for finding the dead- 
 weight of, approximately, by 
 measurement, 113. 
 
 — points of a good feeding, 93. 
 Animals, characteristics of fat, 14. 
 
 — constitutional weakness of, 7. 
 
 — influence of domestication on, 13, 
 
 16. 
 
 — knowledge of habits of, important, I. 
 
 — prices of, at Edinburgh sales, 112. 
 
 — variable features of male and female, 
 
 6. 
 Anglesey black bullocks and grazing 
 cattle, 53. 
 
 — black cattle, 53. 
 
 — black cattle, milking qualities of, 53. 
 Anguses, black polled, M'Combie on 
 
 breeding of, 8. 
 
 — black polled, as compared with the 
 
 Galloway, 64. 
 
 — black polled, Ralston's experiments 
 
 at Glamis, 8. 
 Anthromyise, 277. 
 Apoplexy, parturient, in cows, 148. 
 Appendix A, stocking of farms, 306- 
 
 320. 
 
 — B, Live Stock Societies, 321-323. 
 
 — C, various Breeders' Societies of 
 
 British Live Stock, with the dates 
 of establishment of the various 
 herd - books, stud - books, floek- 
 books, &c., 324-325- 
 
 — D, the regular progressive move- 
 
 ments of the horse, 326-332. 
 
334 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Asia Minor, contagious lung disease of 
 
 goats in, 292. 
 Asinus, how distinguislied from Equus, 
 
 208. 
 Ass, the domesticated, 208. 
 
 — the size of, influenced by treatment 
 
 and climate, 209. 
 ■ — • the wild, of Abyssinia, 209. 
 
 — the wild, of Central Asia, 209. 
 
 — popularity of, in some countries, 209. 
 Atavism, 12. 
 
 — peculiar cases of, 55, 62. 
 Avondale, Prince of (noted horse not in 
 
 stud-book), 183. 
 Axtell (famous American trotter), 207. 
 Aylesbury Dairy Company, 44. 
 Ayrshire Cattle and Herd Book Society, 
 
 322. 
 
 — breed of cattle, 69. 
 
 — bullocks, excellence of, 73- 
 
 — cow, essentially a cheese dairy cow, 
 
 73- 
 
 — milking qualities of, 73. 
 
 — points of, 72. 
 
 — breeding from, 10. 
 
 BACON, curing of, 156. 
 — model sides of, 157. 
 Bakewell's method of breeding, 32, 41, 
 
 159, 232. 
 Bar None (noted Shire horse), 183. 
 Barbell (horse), 203. 
 Barley as food for horses, 223. 
 Barley Harvest (horse), 202. 
 Barrenness, how occasioned, 13. 
 
 — obviated by change of climate, 34. 
 Barter's, Richard, records of yield of 
 
 milk from dairy cows, 125. 
 " Bates " branch of shorthorns, 36. 
 
 — branch of shorthorns, colours of, 37. 
 
 — branch of shorthorns, noted breeders 
 
 of. 39- 
 Bathurst's, Earl, Hereford oxen, 45. 
 
 " Beastings," or colostrum, 83. 
 
 Bellfounder (horse), 207. 
 
 Belted colouring of Scotch polls, 60. 
 
 Berkshire breed of pigs, 163. 
 
 Bevas PuUen's Kiiig William (horse); 
 
 203. 
 Billings, Dr Frank S. , on " cornstalk " 
 
 disease, 97. 
 Bistoury for dilating teats, 133. 
 Blackfaced Highland crosses, 250. 
 
 — Highland sheep, 249. 
 
 — well-bred sheep, dressing of, for ex- 
 
 hibition, 249. 
 Black Hawks, the, 207. 
 
 — Polls, the, 58. 
 
 Blaze (black horse), 181, 206. 
 Blickling Hall herd, 57. 
 Blindness in sheep, 295. 
 Blood-poisoning in calves, 84. 
 
 — in cows, 145. 
 
 — in sheep, 297. 
 
 Bloomfield Champion (noted Clydesdale 
 
 horse), 182. 
 Blotches in sheep, 297. 
 Booth and Bates blood, commingling of, 
 
 38- 
 
 — cattle compared, 37. 
 
 — cattle, interbreeding of, 38. 
 "Booth" branch of shorthorns, 36. 
 
 — branch of shorthorns, noted breeders 
 
 of, 38. 
 Border Leicester, the, 232. 
 
 — where largely used for crossing, 232, 
 
 234- 
 Bos indicus, 18. 
 
 — longifrons, 15, 70, 75. 
 
 — longifrons, the milk cow of the 
 
 Druids, 75- 
 
 — primigenius, 15, 42. 
 
 — scoticus, 17. 
 
 — taurus, 26. 
 
 — urus, 15. 
 
 Bot fly. See Warble fly. 
 Boxes for feeding cattle, loi. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 335 
 
 Braxy in sheep, 294. 
 
 Breaking of horses, 212, 217. 
 
 Breeders' Societies, dates of establish- 
 ment of, 324. 
 
 Breeding, Bakewell's method of, 32, 
 41, IS9, 232. 
 
 — cattle, food for, 13. 
 
 — CoUings' system of, 32. 
 
 — Darwin on principles of, 3. 
 
 — effects of in-and-in, 10, 14, 17, 32, 
 
 33, 42, 44, 59, 62, 67, 196: 
 
 — effects of imagination in, 7. 
 
 — effects of line-breeding, 11, 198. 
 
 — for first time, 140. 
 
 — Lord Panmure's attempt and its 
 
 result, 61. 
 
 — peculiarities transmitted by, 7. 
 
 — sow, the, management of, 164. 
 British cattle, classification of, 26. 
 
 — Goat Society, 323. 
 
 — live stock, prominent breeds of, 
 
 324- 
 Broncho-pneumonia, 96. 
 
 — how distinguished from pleuro- 
 
 pneumonia, 96, 97- 
 Buchan cattle, 60. 
 " Buisting," or marking of sheep, 
 
 267. 
 Bull, a mongrel, objectionable, 6. 
 
 — points of Aberdeen- Angus, 63. 
 
 — shorthorn, effects of crossing with, 
 
 II. 
 " Bulldogs " for securing cows, &c., 88, 
 
 132. 
 Bulls, features of wild, of Great Britain, 
 
 17- 
 
 — ferocity of Jersey, 77. 
 
 — system of training, 88. 
 
 Butter, extension of trade in, with 
 Australian colonies, 124. 
 
 — qualities of Guernsey, 79. 
 
 — steady supply of, necessary through- 
 
 out the year, 125. 
 Buttercups in pasture, 120. 
 
 Butter-making, inability of British 
 farmer to compete with foreigners, 
 124. 
 
 — result of the action of County 
 
 Councils, 125. 
 
 — without a churn, 127. 
 Byerly Turk (horse), 195. 
 Byre, arrangement of, 100. 
 
 CABOT'S map, drawings in, repre- 
 senting objects discovered, 176. 
 Cadzow Park cattle, 20. 
 Caesar, Bos urus of, 16. 
 
 — reference to war-horse, 192, 201. 
 Calyes, housing of, in winter, 89. 
 
 — hoven in, 87. 
 
 — method of rearing, 84. 
 Calving, for first time, 140. 
 — ■ operation of, 142. 
 
 Canter, the, some consecutive phases 
 
 of, 327- 
 Capital required for a farm, 308. 
 Carbolic oil, in parturition, 142. 
 Carruchan, Prince of (a Clydesdale 
 
 horse), 1S6. 
 Castle Martin breed of cattle, 52. 
 Castration of calves, 88. 
 
 — of horses, 216. 
 
 — of male lambs, 264. 
 
 — of male pigs, 168. 
 
 Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus breed of, 58, 
 
 63- 
 
 — aboriginal, features of, 12. 
 
 — aboriginal, of Great Britain, 15. 
 
 — Anglesey black, 53. 
 
 — Ayrshire breed of, 69. 
 
 — Blickling Hall herd of, 57. 
 
 — breeding and management of, 83. 
 
 — British breeds of milkingj 69. 
 
 — Buchan, 60. 
 
 — Castle Martin breed of, 52. 
 
 — Channel Islands, 70, 74. 
 
336 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cattle, comparison between Booth and 
 Bates, 37. 
 
 — Devon breed of, 46. 
 
 — Dewsland breed of, 52. 
 
 — dishorning of, 102. 
 
 — distribution of, in India, 49. 
 
 — effect of imported blood on, 49. 
 
 — effects of in-and-in-breeding on, 10, 
 
 14. 17, 32, 33, 42, 44, 59, 62, 67. 
 
 — feeding, regularity in, 105. 
 
 — Fife horned, 61. 
 
 — fly affecting, 98, 1 17. 
 
 — forest, home of, 16. 
 
 — forest, characteristics of, 16. 
 
 — Galloway breed of, 65. 
 
 — Glamorgan breed of, 54- 
 — • Gloucester breed of, 54- 
 
 — grazing, 91. 
 
 — grooming of, 108. 
 
 — herd books, date of establishment of 
 
 the various, 324. 
 
 — Hereford breed of, 43. 
 
 — house-feeding of, 100. 
 
 — Kerry, 79. 
 
 — Kerry, Dexter variety of, 81. 
 
 — lice affecting, 90. 
 
 — longhorn breed of, 41. 
 
 — Low on preservation of ancient, 
 
 48. 
 
 — M'Combie, Wm., a breeder of, 62. 
 
 — Norfolk and Suffolk breed of, 57. 
 
 — on hire, effect of letting out, 33. 
 
 — Orkney and Shetland, 55. 
 
 — polled breeds of, 56. 
 
 — polled breeds of, appreciation of, on 
 
 American prairies, 104. 
 
 — prominent breeds of, 324. 
 
 — red polled breed, 57. 
 
 — reversion to the ancient white breed, 
 
 54- 
 
 — shelter for, 94, loi, 104, 116. 
 
 — shorthorn breed, 29. 
 
 — Somerford Park white, 56. 
 
 — Sussex breed of, 47. 
 
 Cattle, Societies for improvement of, in- 
 formation on, 322. 
 
 — Teeswater, 30, 70. 
 
 — unnatural symptoms in healthy, 95. 
 
 — Watson, Hugh, a breeder of, 62. 
 
 — Welsh, 52. 
 
 — West Highland breed of, 50, 66. 
 
 — wild, 15. 
 
 — wild park, their origin, 16. 
 
 — Woodbastwick herd of, 57. 
 
 — young, liable to ringworm, 89. 
 Chaplin's, Right Hon. Henry, energetic 
 
 action, result of, 96. 
 Chapman horse, 201. 
 Chartley wild cattle, 15, 23, 56. 
 "Cherry" tribe, the, 39. 
 Cheviot cross with Welsh mountain 
 
 sheep, 255. 
 — ■ sheep, 247. 
 
 — Sheep Society, 323. 
 Chick-weed hurtful to sheep, 298. 
 Childers (horse), 206. 
 Chillingham wild cattle, 15, 16, 18, 22, 
 
 70. 
 Choking in cows, 152. 
 Cholera in pigs, 174. 
 Clays, the, 207. 
 Clean, the, in calving, 142. 
 Cleansing, the, in calving, 143. 
 Cleanly habits, differences of individual 
 
 pigs in the matter of, 167. 
 Clement's, Andrew, visit to Australia 
 
 and New Zealand, 124. 
 Cleveland Bay horse, 201. 
 
 — Bay horse, Loyd on, 201. 
 
 — Bay Horse Society of Great Britain 
 
 and Ireland, 321. 
 
 — Bay Stud book, points noted in, 202. 
 Climate of Guernsey, 78. 
 
 Clipping or shearing of sheep, 265. 
 
 — of horses, 227. 
 Clun Forest sheep, 245. 
 Clydesdale horse, the, 180. 
 
 — horse, characteristics features of, 185. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 337 
 
 Clydesdale horse, compared with the 
 Shire, 191. 
 
 — horse, dissatisfaction with regula- 
 
 tions for excluding unsound animals 
 at shows, 185. 
 
 — horse, foreign demand for, 186. 
 
 — horse, thejiistory of, 180. 
 
 — horse, importation of English blood, 
 
 180, 182. 
 
 — horse, points of a, 186. 
 
 — horse, prices and pedigrees of, 181- 
 
 i86. 
 
 — scapula and humerus of, 189. 
 
 — Horse Society of Great Britain and 
 
 Ireland, 321. 
 
 — horses, white feet in, 188. 
 Coaching horse, the, 202. 
 
 — horse, the origin and characteristics 
 
 of, 202. 
 
 — horse, the, connection of with the 
 
 "thoroughbred," 203. 
 
 — horse, the, performances of the 
 
 breed, 203. 
 Cochrane's, H. M., of Quebec, famous 
 
 "Duchess" cow, 38. 
 Cold, effect of, on milk, 1 16. 
 
 — effect of, on the pig, 165. 
 
 — endurance of, by the horse, 178. 
 
 — weather, effect of, on quality of 
 
 pork, 158. 
 CoUings system of breeding, 32, 36. 
 Collie dog, the, 299. 
 
 — dog, the, external form and figure 
 
 of, 300. 
 
 — dog, the, mental powers of, 299. 
 
 — dog, the, nature and disposition of,2g9. 
 
 — dog, natural bobtail rough, 303. 
 
 ■ — dog, natural bobtail smooth, 303. 
 
 — dog, rough, type of, 302. 
 
 — dog, smooth, type of, 303. 
 
 — dog, points, scale of, 303. 
 Colostrum or "beastings," 83. 
 Colour, of cattle, effects of imagination 
 
 on, 7. 
 
 Colour, transmission of, 9, 18, 30, 37, 
 
 44. 51. 60. 68. 
 Colouring, natural, of the skins of 
 
 cattle, 32. 
 Commission, Royal, on horse-breeding, 
 
 196. 
 'Concentrated food for cattle, 106. 
 Conception of mares, difficulties about, 
 
 214. 
 Concrete as flooring for cattle houses, 
 
 84. 
 Conqueror (horse). .Se? Tintock. 
 Co-operative Creamery system, success 
 
 of, in S. and W. of Ireland, 125. 
 " Cornstalk disease," 97. 
 Costiveness, prevention of, in horses, 
 
 223. 
 Cotswold sheep, 235. 
 
 — sheep, antiquity of the breed, 235. 
 
 — Sheep Society, 323. 
 
 — supposed origin of name of hills, 235. 
 Cow, Ayrshire, points of, 72. 
 
 — breeches, 147. 
 
 — cost of feeding per day, 126. 
 
 — how to put dry, 136. 
 
 — pasture, 118. 
 
 — points by which to judge, 135. 
 Cows, abortion in, 143. 
 
 — abortion in, means of preventing, 
 
 145. 
 
 — choking in, 152. 
 
 — de-sexed or "spgyed," 136. 
 
 — docility of Jersey, 77. 
 
 — effect of insufficient exercise on, 153. 
 
 — exertion (moderate), good for, 116. 
 
 — grooming of, importance of, 128. 
 
 — food for, 115, 119, 126, 129, 137, 
 
 140, 307. 
 
 — habit of standing in water,- objections 
 
 to, 119. 
 
 — heavy milking, liable to barrenness, 
 
 14. 
 
 — house feeding of, 126. 
 
 — hoven in, 138, 
 
338 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cows, impaction of the rumen in, 152. 
 
 — importance of water supply for, 1 1 8. 
 
 — imfiammation of the udder in, 1 50. 
 
 — inversion of uterus in, 147. 
 
 — lameness in, 153. 
 
 — loupin'-ill in, 150. 
 
 — milk-fever in, 148. 
 
 — pasturing of, 115, 129. 
 
 — period of lactation in, 134. 
 
 — plan by which 100 cows can be fed 
 
 on 300 acres, 122. 
 
 — premature labour in, causes of, 144. 
 
 — protracted labour in, causes of, 143. 
 
 — protrusion of vagina in, 148. 
 
 — rumen, impaction of the, 152. 
 
 — signs of pregnancy in, 141. 
 
 — signs of approaching parturition in, 
 
 141. 
 
 — "soiling "of, 115, 121. 
 
 — treatment of dairy, 128. 
 
 — udder, inflammation of, 150. 
 
 — weed in, 150. 
 
 Creamery, Co-operative, success of sys- 
 tem in S. and W. of Ireland, 125. 
 Crops on arable land, 123. 
 
 — rotation of, 308, 311. 
 Cross, effect of the first, 12. 
 
 — Galloway, excellence of, 68. 
 
 — Galloway, by a West Highland bull, 
 
 66. 
 
 — Hamilton-Chillingham, 22. 
 
 — Hereford, excellence of, 68. 
 
 — Kerry, excellence of, 81. 
 
 — Vaynol-Ch^rtley, 24. 
 
 Crossing cattle, effects of, 10, 13, 70. 
 
 — experiments in crossing wild cattle 
 
 with pure-bred Shorthorns, 19. 
 
 — pigs, effects of, 160, 162. 
 
 Culley, George, on Shorthorn breed, 
 35- 
 
 D 
 
 AIRY cows, treatment of, 128. 
 Dairying, 115. 
 
 Dairy cows, action of County Councils 
 with regard to, 125. 
 
 — Barter's records, 125. 
 
 — districts noted for, 115. 
 
 — expert of Victorian Government on 
 
 butter export trade, 124. 
 
 — extent of land requisite for, 121. 
 
 — need for co-operation for manufac- 
 
 turing and marketing purposes, 
 125. 
 
 — winter, 124. 
 
 — winter, necessity for, and difficulties 
 
 in the way of, 124, 125. 
 
 Dandle Dinmont, transmission of fea- 
 tures of, 6. 
 
 Damsel (Clydesdale mare), 182. 
 
 Darley Arabian (horse), 203, 206. 
 
 Darnley (a Clydesdale horse), 184. 
 
 Dart (horse), 202. 
 
 Darwin on heredity and variation, 4. 
 
 — on in-and-in-breeding, 10. 
 
 — on influence of domestication, 35. 
 
 — on principles of breeding, 3. 
 Darwin's theory of pangenesis, 4. 
 
 " Dead bull," Landseer's famous picture 
 
 of, 16. 
 Derraatodictes ovis, 277. 
 Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, 322. 
 
 — long-wool sheep, 234. 
 
 — North, breed of cattle, 46. 
 
 — North, breed of cattle, Somerset type 
 
 of, 47. 
 — • South, breed of cattle, 47. 
 Dew-claw, the, of dogs, 301. 
 Dew-rot in sheep, 297. 
 Dewsland breed of cattle, 52. 
 Dexter variety of Kerry cattle, 81. 
 Dexter stud book, regulations agains' 
 
 white markings in the, 80. 
 Diarrhoea in calves, 87. 
 
 — in pigs, 173, 174. 
 
 — in sheep, 287. 
 
 Dip, sheep, constituents of, 282. 
 Dipper, a, 281. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 Dipping of sheep, 277, 281. 
 
 Dipping of sheep, a safe-guard against 
 
 "loupin'-ill," 293. 
 Diseases in horses, 179, 197, 223. 
 Dishorning of cattle, 102. 
 
 — of cattle, illegality of, in England, 
 
 104. 
 
 — of cattle, legality of, in Scotland and 
 
 Ireland, 104. 
 
 — of cattle, popularity of, in America, 
 
 104. 
 
 — of cattle, short duration of pain of 
 
 operation, 102. 
 
 — of cattle, temperature of animal 
 
 after the operation, 102. 
 Distomum hepaticum, 286. 
 Docking horses, the practice of, 216. 
 " Doddies," or Angus cattle, 60. 
 Dog, the collie, 299. 
 
 — the collie, appearance and character- 
 
 istics, 299. 
 
 — the collie, points of various types, 
 
 302. 
 
 — Old English sheep, 303. 
 
 — Old English sheep, scale of points of, 
 
 305- 
 
 — sheep, trials of, 305. 
 Domestication, influence of, on animals, 
 
 13, 16, 19, 25, 3S. 
 Dorset and Somerset Horn sheep, 246. 
 
 — and Somerset Horn sheep, peculiarity 
 
 of the breed, 246. 
 
 — Horn Sheep Breeders' Associa- 
 
 tion, 323. 
 Down-cross sheep, 246. 
 Dreadnought (horse), 203. 
 Drench, administration of, to a pig, 173. 
 
 — for a horse, 225. 
 
 — for a sheep, 289. 
 Drenching-tin, 289. 
 
 Drew, Lawrence, of Merryton, 184, 
 
 190. 
 Drewitt & Sons' history of a Merino 
 
 flock, 239. 
 
 Druids, the milk cow of the, 75. 
 
 Dry food to horses, practice of giving, 
 
 before water, 226. 
 "Duchess" tribe of shorthorns, w, 
 
 38. 
 Dumb-martin, 14. 
 Dunsley's Dart, 203. 
 " Durham ox," the, 33. 
 
 ECLIPSE (horse), 195. 
 Edinburgh sales, prices of animals 
 at, 112. 
 Education, importance of, 2. 
 
 — necessity of manual and mental, 3. 
 " Eild," or yeld, 71, 139. 
 
 Eild sheep, how known, 259. 
 Engineer (horse), 206. 
 English Guernsey Cattle Society, 323. 
 English Jersey Cattle Society, 322. 
 Eocenes in N. America, remains of 
 
 horse in, 175. 
 Equus caballus, 177. 
 Equus distinguished from asinus, 176. 
 Equus Przevalskii, or true wild horse, 
 
 177. 
 Ergotised grass, effect of eating, 144, 
 
 293- 
 " Escutcheon, or "milk-mirror " theory, 
 
 134- 
 Essex pig, the, 163. 
 Everard, Sir (a Clydesdale horse), 186. 
 Ewes, breeches for, 262. 
 
 — cast, 257. 
 
 — • feeding of, 258, 268. 
 
 Exercise, effect of insufficient, on cows, 
 
 153. 
 Exertion, effect of moderate, on cows, 
 
 116. 
 Exmoor sheep, 256. 
 Exostoses, how transmitted, 7. 
 Experiments of Sir J. B. Lawes and 
 
 Dr Gilbert in sheep feeding, 273. 
 
34° 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 FAMILY resemblances, causes of, 4. 
 Farm horses, 178. 
 
 — horses, cost of feeding, 222. 
 
 — horses, grooming of, 226. 
 
 — horses, management of, 221. 
 Farms, examples of stocking of, 306. 
 Farrall on Ayrshire cattle, 70. 
 Farrowing, preparations of sow for, 166. 
 Fasciola hepatica, 286. 
 
 Fat animals, characteristics of, 13. 
 " Favourite," a shorthorn bull, 35. 
 Feeding of bullocks, 307. 
 
 — of cart horses, 216. 
 
 — of cattle, cost of, per week, 109. 
 
 — of cattle, regularity in, 105. 
 
 — of ewes, 258, 263. 
 
 — of farm horses, 222, 306. 
 
 — of horses in summer season, 227. 
 
 — of lambs, 268. 
 
 — 100 cows, plan for, 122. 
 
 — of pigs, 168. 
 
 — of sheep, 270, 272, 306. 
 
 Female animals, influence of, in cross- 
 ing, II. 
 
 — animals, variable features of, 6. 
 Fife horned cattle, 61. 
 
 Field, The, on Vaynol Park wild cattle, 
 23- 
 
 Flashwood (a Clydesdale horse), 185. 
 
 Flesh of pigs, 158, 171. 
 
 Floor for cattle houses, 84. 
 
 Flower, W. H., on the "Horse," 177. 
 
 Fly affecting cattle, 98, 117. 
 
 — affecting sheep, 278. 
 "Flyers, Trinity of," 207. 
 Flying Childers (horse), 206. 
 
 — Dutchman (horse), 203. 
 Foal, food of, 215. 
 
 — treatment of, 213, 215. 
 
 — weaning of, 215- 
 Foals, twin, 14. 
 
 "Foetal membrane," the, in calving, 
 
 142. 
 ' ' Foljambe " (famous shorthorn bull), 29, 
 
 Food, concentrated, for cattle, 106, 137. 
 
 — for cows, IIS, 119. 121, 129, 137, 
 
 140, 307. 
 
 — for horses, 222, 306. 
 
 — materials, gradation of changes in, 
 
 105. 
 Foods, composition of, 14. 
 
 — effects of a few common, 138. 
 Foot-and-mouth disease in calves, 84. 
 
 — disease in pigs, 173. 
 Foot-rot in sheep, 295. 
 
 — mixture, application of, 153, 295. 
 Force of inheritance, the, 5. 
 Foreign demand for Clydesdale 
 
 horses, 186. 
 Founder or laminitis in horses, 188, 228. 
 Fowlers, the, as cattle exporters, 74. 
 Free-martin, 14. 
 FuUarton, Colonel, on Ayrshire cattle, 
 
 70. 
 Fuller's earth, a, dressing for horses' 
 
 wounds, 219. 
 
 GALLOP, some consecutive phases 
 of the, 331. 
 Galloway breed of cattle, 65. 
 
 — Cattle Society, 322. 
 
 — cow, breeding from a, 9. 
 
 — cross by a West Highland bull, 66. 
 
 — crosses, excellence of, 68. 
 
 — Herd Book, 68. 
 
 Galton's, Francis, theory of the con- 
 tinuity of germ-plasm, 5. 
 
 Galvayne, Sydney, on "Horse Denti- 
 tion," 220. 
 
 Gestation, period of, in cow, 141. 
 
 — period of, in ewes, 261. 
 
 — period of, in mare, 212. 
 
 — period of, in sow, 165. 
 
 " Gid " or " sturdy " in sheep, 285. 
 Gilbert, Dr, on sheep feeding, 273. 
 Gilbey on the horse, 192. 
 Glamis, Ralston's experiments at, 8. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 f Jlamorgan breed of cattle, 54. 
 Glancer (Clydesdale horse), 181. 
 Gloucester breed of cattle, 54. 
 Goats, contagious lung disease of, 292. 
 Godolphin (Arabian horse), 195, 206. 
 Grass, ergotised, effect of eating, 144, 
 
 293- 
 -^ ticks, 278. 
 Grasses, mixture of permanent, as food, 
 
 140. 
 Grazings, qualities of, 93. 
 "Green milk," use of, 83, 149. 
 Grooming of cattle, 108, 128. 
 
 — of horses, 226. 
 
 Guenon's "milk-mirror" theory, 134. 
 Guernsey butter, qualities of, 79. 
 
 — cattle, 78. 
 
 — climate of, 78. 
 
 " Gwar Goch," 255. 
 
 HABITS of animals, knowledge of, 
 important, i. 
 Hackney or Norfolk trotter, igg. 
 
 — Horse Society, 321. 
 Hsematopinus eurysternus, or ox-louse, 
 
 91 
 
 Hambeltonian (horse), 207. 
 Hambeltonians, the, 207. 
 Hamilton-Chillingham cross, 22. 
 Hamilton, wild cattle at, 20. 
 
 — wild cattle, characteristics of, 20. 
 Hampshire Down sheep, 242. 
 
 — Down Flock Book Society, 323. 
 Harpham Twak (full blood horse), 203. 
 Hay meadow, amount of produce of, 
 
 119. 
 Heat, effect of, on milk, 1 16. 
 
 — endurance of, by the horse, 178. 
 Herbage, natural, suitable for cows, 
 
 119. 
 Herd wick sheep, 251. 
 
 — unique customs in management of, 
 
 252. 
 
 Heredity, 4. 
 
 Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, 
 322. 
 
 — breed of cattle, 43. 
 
 — breed of cattle, as milkers, 45. 
 
 — breed of cattle, as work oxen, 45. 
 
 — breed of cattle, characteristics of, 43. 
 
 — breed of cattle. Hewer's improve- 
 
 ment of, 45. 
 
 — breed of cattle, Tomkins' improve- 
 
 ment of, 44. 
 
 — breed of cattle, early breeders of, 45. 
 
 — crosses, excellence of, 68. 
 
 — Herd Book Society, 322. 
 Herod (horse), 195. 
 
 Hewer's improved Hereford cattle, 45. 
 Heilprin, Professor Angelo, on wild 
 
 horses of America, 177- 
 Highland Cattle Society of Scotland, 
 
 322. 
 Hinny, a, 210. 
 
 Hire, effect of letting cattle out on, 33. 
 " Hitchin Conqueror" (Shire stallion), 
 
 229. 
 Hob horse, the, 202. 
 Hobbies, utilisation of, 2. 
 Hog cholera, 174. 
 "Horning" or "hooking," effects of, 
 
 102, 118, 144. 
 Horns, absence of, in Scotch polls, 60, 
 
 65. 
 Horse, age of, how determined, 220. 
 
 — American trotter, 204. 
 
 — Breeders' Societies, names of, 325. 
 
 — breeding and breaking of the, 212, 
 
 217. 
 
 — breeding. Royal Commission on, 196. 
 
 — castration of, 216. 
 
 — Cleveland Bay, 201. 
 
 — clipping of, 227. 
 
 — Clydesdale, the, 180. 
 
 — cost of, on a farm, 222. 
 
 — " dentition," 220. 
 
 — diseases of, 179, 197, 223. 
 
342 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Horse, distinction of the true, 176- 
 
 — docking of the, 216. 
 
 — dressing for wounds of, 219. 
 
 — early history of, 1 75. 
 
 — early improvement of, 195. 
 
 — effect of crossing on, 11, 196. 
 
 — endurance of the, 178. 
 
 — exotoses on legs of, 7- 
 
 — feeding of young cart, 216. 
 
 — feeding in summer season, 227. 
 
 — fodder for a, 224. 
 
 — food for a, 222, 306. 
 
 — forty points of a, 179. 
 
 — founder or laminitis in, 188, 228. 
 
 — fossilised remains of, 175. 
 
 — Gilbey on, 191, 192. 
 
 — great, the, 191. 
 
 — grooming of, 226. 
 
 — in-and-in-breeding of, 196. 
 
 — inflammation in a, 226. 
 
 — litter for, 227. 
 
 — management of farm, 221. 
 — • medicines for a, 225. 
 
 — mouthing of, 217. 
 
 — mud-fever in a, 226. 
 
 — Norfolk hackney, 199. 
 
 — Old English black, 192. 
 
 — possibility of improving the, 229. 
 
 — regular progressive movements of 
 
 the, 326. 
 — - Shire, the, 190. 
 
 — societies for improvement of, inform- 
 
 ation on, 321. 
 
 — strong, the, 192. 
 
 — studbooks, date of establishment of 
 
 the various, 325. 
 
 — Suffolk Punch, the, 193. 
 
 — teething of, 219. 
 
 — thoroughbred, the, 194. 
 
 — war, the, 191, 201. 
 
 — water for a, 225. 
 
 — wild American, 176. 
 
 — wild, the genuine, 177. 
 
 — Yorkshire trotters, 200. 
 
 Horses, prominent breeds of, 325. 
 House lamb, 246. 
 Hoven in calves, 87. 
 
 — in cows, 138. 
 
 — in lambs, 269. 
 
 Howard, James, M.P., on Clydesdale 
 
 horses, 187. 
 " Hubback " (shorthorn bull), 29, 31. 
 " Humlies," or Brechin'cattle, 60. 
 Hummel or cattle shed, loi. 
 Hunters' Improvement Society, 321. 
 " Husk'' or "hoose" in sheep, 288. 
 
 — or "hoose" in calves, 89. 
 Hypoderma bovis affecting cattle, 98. 
 
 T MAGINATION, effects of, in breed- 
 1 ing, 7. 
 
 Implements, cost of, 308. 
 Inheritance, force of, 5. 
 Injuries, results of accidental, 7- 
 In-and-in-breeding of cattle, 10, 14, 17, 
 32, 33, 42, 44, 59, 62, 67. 
 
 — of horses, 11, ig6. 
 
 India, distribution of cattle in, 49. 
 
 — stud-horses for, 200. 
 Inflammation in a horse, 226. 
 Inoculation as a preventive of pleuro- 
 pneumonia, 96. 
 
 Intra-tracheal injection, 89. 
 Inversion of the uterus in cows, 147. 
 
 — of the uterus in ewes, 261. 
 Irish milking cow, 80, 81. 
 Ixodes ricinus, 277. 
 
 — reduvius, 277. 
 
 JALAP (horse), 203. 
 Jersey bulls, ferocity of, 77. 
 
 — cattle, 76. 
 
 — cattle, demand for, in America, 76. 
 
 — cattle, points of, 77. 
 
 — cows, docility of, 77. 
 
 — cows, milk of, 77, 78. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Jersey Herd Book, 76, 322. 
 
 — the, 74. 
 
 — the, Thornton on, 74, 75. 
 Jockey Club, 321. 
 
 KADES, 277. 
 Kent or Romney Marsh sheep, 
 236. 
 
 — or Romney Marsh sheep, held in 
 
 favour in New Zealand, 236. 
 Kerry breed as fancy cattle, 81. 
 
 — breed of cattle, 79. 
 
 — cattle, Dexter variety of, 81. 
 
 — cattle, points of, 80. 
 
 — cow, excellence of, 80. 
 
 — Herd Book, 80, 323. 
 
 — crosses, 81. 
 
 "Killerby" shorthorns, 36, 38. 
 Knowledge of animals, how acquired, I. 
 
 LABOUR in cows, causes of pro- 
 tracted, 143. 
 
 — in cows, causes of premature, 144. 
 Lactation in cows, period of, 134. 
 Lambing pen, 259. 
 
 Lambs, castration of, 264. 
 
 — early treatment of, 262. 
 
 — feeding of, 262, 268. 
 
 — hoven in, 269. 
 
 — milk-sickness in, 250. 
 
 — weaning of, 268. 
 Lameness in cows, 153. 
 
 — in horses-, 228. 
 Lamplough's Victory (horse), 203. 
 Lawes, Sir J. B., on Cattle feeding, 107, 
 
 109. 
 
 — computing tables by, iii. 
 
 — on sheep feeding, 273. 
 Lawrence, John, on wild horses, 177- 
 Laws regulating family resemblance, 4. 
 Leicester Border sheep, 232. 
 
 — improved English sheep, 232. 
 
 Leuckart, Professor, on liver-rot, 286. 
 Lice on cattle, 90. 
 
 — on cattle, paraffin oil a remedy for, 90. 
 
 — sheep, 278. 
 
 Limestone breed, the, of sheep, 252. 
 
 — breed of sheep, points and charac- 
 
 teristics of, 253. 
 Limnsea truncatula, 287. 
 Lincoln, improved, sheep, 234. 
 
 — Longwool Sheep Breeders' Asso- 
 
 ciation, 323. 
 Lincolnshire breed of pigs, 162. 
 Lind's, William, remarkable cow, 127. 
 Line-breeding, 11. 
 Litter for horses, 227. 
 Live-stock computer, 114. 
 
 — great function of, 114. 
 
 — Societies, list of, 321. 
 Live-weight of pigs, 170. 
 
 — of sheep, 273. 
 
 — selling by, ill. 
 Liver-rot in sheep, 286. 
 Lochlyoch's black horse (Flemish 
 
 stallion), 181. 
 Longhorn breed of cattle, 41. 
 Lonk sheep, 252. 
 Loupin'-ill, or trembling, in cows, 150. 
 
 — or trembling, in sheep, 292. 
 
 Low on Dexter variety of Kerry cattle, 
 81. 
 
 — on habitat of longhorns, 41. 
 
 — on polled Suffolk breed of cattle, 58. 
 
 — on preservation of ancient cattle, 48. 
 Loyd's description of the Cleveland 
 
 horse, 201. 
 Lung disease in sheep, 290. 
 Lung-sick, the, or lung-ziekte, in goats, 
 
 292. 
 
 M'CALL, Principal, on horse 
 disease, 223. 
 M'Combie, Wm., on cattle breeding, 8, 
 62. 
 
344 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 M 'Combie, Wm. , on cattle feeding, io8. 
 
 — on slow feeding animals, 93. 
 
 M 'Donald and Sinclair on Hewer's 
 
 improved Hereford, 43. 
 M'Dougal's dip for warble fly, 99. 
 Macgregor (a Clydesdale horse), 185. 
 Maggot flies, 279. 
 Male animals, variable features of, 6. 
 
 — effect of potency of, 6, 11. 
 • — influence of the first, 6. 
 Mambrino (horse), 206. 
 
 — Chiefs, 207. 
 
 Mare, time of conception by the, 213. 
 
 — treatment of farm, 212. 
 Mares, rarity of twins from, 14. 
 
 — number of, served by a stallion, 214. 
 "Mario," a champion shorthorn bull, 39. 
 " Mashams," 233. 
 
 Matchem (horse), 195, 206. 
 Maturity, propriety of forcing, 92. 
 Measles in pigs, 174. 
 Measurement of a fat animal, with rule 
 by which to find the dead-weight, 
 
 113- 
 
 Medicine for horses, 225. 
 Meire's live-stock computer, 114. 
 Melophagus ovinus, 277. 
 Merino sheep, 237. 
 
 — sheep, breeders of, in this country, 
 
 238. 
 
 — sheep, characteristic points of, 237. 
 
 — sheep, distinct types of, 237. 
 
 — distribution of, 237. 
 
 — sheep, Thomas Drewitt & Son's 
 
 history of a flock of, 239. 
 
 — wool, quality of, when grown in this 
 
 country, 239. 
 Metis-Merino, 240. 
 Messenger (horse), 206, 207. 
 Milk, amount of, produced, 117, 121. 
 
 — average yield of, per day, 127. 
 
 — effect of cold on, 1 16. 
 
 — effect of food on, 119, 137. 
 
 — effect of heat on, 116. 
 
 Milk, favourable secretion of, 116. 
 
 — ("green"), use of, 83, 149. 
 
 — fever, 121, 148. 
 
 — mirror theory, 134. 
 
 — secretion of, how reduced, 117. 
 Milking breeds of British cattle, 69. 
 
 — cow, old Irish, 80. 
 
 — machines, 133.' 
 
 — mode of procedure in, 129, 131. 
 
 — times for, 129. 
 
 — cows, heavy, liable to barrenness, 
 
 14. 
 
 — qualities of Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 
 
 64. 
 
 — qualities of Anglesey cattle, 53. 
 
 — qualities of Ayrshire cow, 73. 
 
 — qualities of Devon cattle, 47. 
 
 — qualities of Galloway cattle, 67. 
 
 — qualities of Guernsey cattle, 78, 79. 
 
 — qualities of Hereford cattle, 45. 
 
 — qualities of Jersey cattle, 77) 7^- 
 
 — qualities of Orkney and Shetland 
 
 cattle, 55. 
 
 — qualities of red-polls, $8. 
 
 • — qualities of shorthorns, 30, 31. 
 
 — qualities of Somerford Park White 
 
 Herd, 56. 
 
 — qualities of Welsh cattle, 53. 
 
 — qualities of West Highland cattle, 
 
 SI; 
 
 Milk-sickness in lambs, 250. 
 "Milling" of" cast" Cheviot ewes, 248. 
 Mites, scab, 280. 
 Molinia, or flying-bent, 90. 
 Montgomeryshire breed of "cattle, 44. 
 Montrave Rosea (Clydesdale mare), 185. 
 Morgans, the, or Black Hawks, 207. 
 Mountain breeds of sheep, 247. 
 Mouthing of the horse, 217. 
 Moss Rose (Clydesdale mare), 185. 
 Mud-fever in a horse, 226. 
 Mule, the, 209. 
 
 — the, ■ advantages of, for tramway 
 
 work, 210. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345- 
 
 Mule, the, extensive employment of, in 
 America, 210. 
 
 — the, good qualities of, in the per- 
 
 formance of farm work, 210. 
 
 — the, offspring of, 211. 
 
 — the, valueof, as a beast of burden, 210. 
 Musca cadaverina, 277. 
 
 — Csesar, 277. 
 
 — canaria, 277- 
 
 — vomitoria, 277. 
 
 Muybridge, Eadweard, on animal loco- 
 motion, 326. 
 
 NANCY Hanks (American trotter), 
 207. 
 Nardus stricta, 292. 
 National Hunt Committee, 321. 
 
 — Pig Breeders' Association, 323. 
 Natural herbage the best for dairy pro- 
 duce, 119. 
 
 New Forest Pony Association, 321. 
 Niven, A. T., on stocking of farms, 319. 
 Nocard, Professor, on prevention of 
 
 abortion, 146. 
 Norfolk and Suffolk breed of cattle, 57. 
 Norfolk trotter, 199, 204. 
 North Wales black cattle, 53. 
 
 — Wales Black Cattle Society, 322. 
 
 " /^AFE," or " orf," 297. 
 V^ Oats for horses, 224. 
 Old Brickhouse (mare), 182. 
 
 — Sandbeck (horse), 203. 
 
 Orde, Sir John, on Vaynol Park wild 
 
 cattle, 24. 
 Orkney and Shetland cattle, 55. 
 Orloff trotter, 204. 
 Ortelius on Ayrshire cattle, 70. 
 Ovis, the genus, 230. 
 Ox, points of an, 28. 
 " Oxford " tribe of shorthorns, 37. 
 
 — Down sheep, 245. 
 
 — Down Sheep Breeders' Association, 
 
 323- 
 
 PACING action, the, 205. 
 Pangenesis, the theory of, 4. 
 Panmure, Lord, and cattle breeding, 61. 
 Paraffin oil a remedy for lice, 90. 
 Parasites, external sheep, 277. 
 
 — internal sheep, 285. 
 Parent, influence of a, 4. 
 Parturition in sheep, 261. 
 
 — signs of approaching, in cows, 141. 
 Pasturing of cattle along with sheep, 93, 
 
 293. 295- 
 
 — of cows, 118, 140. 
 
 Pedigrees of Clydesdale horses, 184. 
 
 Peirson's Plato (horse), 203. 
 
 Pen, lambing, 259. 
 
 Pig Breeders' Association, National, 
 
 323- 
 Pigs, administration of drench to, 173- 
 
 — breeds of, 154. 
 
 — castration of, 168. 
 
 — dark breeds of, 163. 
 
 — defects met in Berkshire, 163. 
 
 — diseases of, 173. 
 
 — effects of crossing, 160, 170. 
 
 — fattening, 167. 
 
 — feeding of, 168. 
 
 — the flesh of, quality of, 158, 171. 
 
 — improved breeds of, jMints applic- 
 
 able to, 155. 
 
 — in America, mode' of feeding, 169. 
 
 — live- weight of, 170. 
 
 — management of, 164. 
 
 — results of in-and-in-breeding of, 10. 
 
 — Sanders Spencer on, 156, 161. 
 
 — shelter-shed for, 168. 
 
 — Societies for improvement of, infor- 
 
 mation on, 323. 
 
 — susceptibility to cold of, 165. 
 
 — weights of, in greatest demand, 158. 
 
 — white breeds of, 158. 
 Pleospora herbarum, 292. 
 Pleuro-pneumonia, 96. 
 
 — how distinguished from broncho- 
 
 pneumonia, 96, 97. 
 
346 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Polled Cattle Society, 322. 
 
 Polo-ponies, demand for, in India, 200. 
 
 Pony Stud-Book Society, 325. 
 
 Pork, cost of producing a stone of, 171. 
 
 — quality of, 158, 171. 
 
 Potency of the male, effect of, 6, 11. 
 
 Pouring, sheep, 283. 
 
 Pregnancy in a cow, signs of, 141. 
 
 " Pressing," effect of, in cows, 147. 
 
 Price Owen on Welsh mountain sheep, 
 
 254. 
 Prices of Clydesdale horses, 184. 
 Progressive movements of the horse, the 
 
 regular, 326. 
 
 QUARTLYS, the, as improvers of 
 the Devon breed of cattle, 46. 
 ~ Quayle, Thomas, on unim- 
 proved Jerseys, 75. 
 Queen's premiums, 196. 
 — plates, 198. 
 
 RACK or pace, the, 205, 330. 
 Ralston's interesting experiment 
 with Polled Angus cattle, 8. 
 Ramage on wild cattle of Great Britain, 
 
 17- 
 
 Rectum,' protrusion of, in pigs, 174. 
 
 Red Polls, the, 57. 
 
 Red Polled Society of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, 322. 
 
 Register, American trotting, 264. 
 
 Resemblance, causes of family, 4. 
 
 "Reversion," 12. 
 
 "Ride" time, 257. 
 
 ' ' Rigged " colouring of Scotch polls, 
 60. 
 
 Rinderpest, effects of, 21. 
 
 Ringworm, liability of cattle to, 89. 
 
 Ringworms, organisms producing, ad- 
 hering to gates and rubbing-posts, 
 90. 
 
 Robertson, James, an improver of 
 
 Kerry cattle, 82. 
 Roscommon sheep, 236. 
 Rotation of crops, 308, 311. 
 Rule for finding the dead-weight of a 
 
 fat animal by measurement, 113. 
 Rumen, impaction of the cow's, 1 52. 
 Riitimeyer's " Domestic Cattle of the 
 
 Ancients," 17. 
 Ryeland sheep, 246. 
 Rysdyk's Hambeltonian (horse), 207. 
 
 SANDBECK (horse), 203. 
 Sawden's Active (horse), 203. 
 Scab mites, 280. 
 
 Scapula of Clydesdale horse, 189. 
 Scotland, white pigs of, 162. 
 Scott Shales (horse), 199. 
 Scrofula in pigs, i73- 
 Scrofulous rash, result of close-breeding, 
 
 17- 
 "Seg,"88. 
 Select Clydesdale Horse Society of 
 
 Scotland, 321. 
 Servant, how to be a successful, 2. 
 Seton as a preventive of disease, belief 
 
 in a, 88. 
 Shaw, A. W., on pigs, 156. 
 Shearing of sheep, 265. 
 
 — of sheep by mechanical means, ad- 
 
 vantages of, 267. 
 Sheds for cattle, loi. 
 Sheep, aboriginal features of, 12. 
 
 — blackfaced Highland, 249. 
 
 — blindness in, 295. 
 
 — "buisting" or marking of, 267. 
 
 — blotches in, 297. 
 
 — Border Leicester, 232. 
 
 — braxy in, 294. 
 
 — British, breeds of, 231. 
 
 — characteristics of British breeds, 231. 
 — ■ Cheviot, 247. 
 
 — chick-weed hurtful to, 298. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 Sheep, clipping or shearing of, 265. 
 
 — Clun Forest, 245. 
 
 — cost of, on a farm, 306. 
 
 — CotsWold, 235. 
 
 — dew-rot in, 297. 
 
 — diarrhoea in, 287. 
 
 — dip, constituents of, 282. 
 
 — dipping of, 277, 281. 
 
 — dogs, 299. 
 
 — dog trials, 305. 
 
 — Dorset and Somerset Horn, 246. 
 
 — Down-crosses, 246. 
 
 — drench for a, 289. 
 
 — effect of crossing on, ii. 
 
 — Flock Books, dates of establishment 
 
 of, 325- 
 
 — eild, how known, 259. 
 
 — Exmoor, 256. 
 
 — feeding of, 93, 258, 270, 272, 306. 
 
 — flies affecting, 278. 
 
 — foot-rot in, 295. 
 
 — "gid" or "sturdy" in, 285. 
 
 — Hampshire Down, 242. 
 
 — Herdwick, 251. 
 
 — "husk" or "hoose" in, 288. 
 
 — improved English Leicester, 232. 
 
 — improved Lincoln, 234. 
 
 — kades or ticks on, 277. 
 
 — Kent or Romney Marsh, 236. 
 
 — lice, 278. 
 
 — Limestone breed of, 252. 
 
 — liver-rot in, 286. 
 
 — long-wooUed Devon, 234. 
 
 — Lonk, 252. 
 
 — lung disease in, 290. 
 
 — management of, 290. 
 
 — Merino, 237. 
 
 — Metis-Merino, 240. 
 
 — mountain breeds, 247. 
 
 — Oxford Down, 245. 
 
 — parasites, external, on, 277. 
 
 — parasites, internal, in, 285. 
 
 — parturition of, 261. 
 
 — points of, 231. 
 
 Sheep pouring, 283. 
 
 — Roscommon, 236. 
 
 — Ryedale, 246. 
 
 — scab in, 280. 
 
 — short-wool, 240. 
 
 — Shropshire Down, 241. 
 
 — smear, recipe for, 284. 
 
 — smearing, 283. 
 
 — Societies for improvement of, infor- 
 
 mation on, 323. 
 
 — Suffolk, 243. 
 
 — Sussex or Southdown, 240. 
 
 — tan-face, 256. 
 
 — trembling or loupin'-ill in, 292. 
 
 — tupping of, 257. 
 
 — turnip- troughs for, 271. 
 
 — urinary disorders of, 272. 
 
 — washing of, 265. 
 
 — Welsh mountain, 254. 
 
 — Wensleydale, 233. 
 
 — West Country Down, 242. 
 Shelter for cattle, 94, loi, 104, 116. 
 Shetland Pony Stud Book, 321. 
 Shire horse, the, 190. 
 
 — horse, the, compared with Clydes- 
 
 dale, 191. 
 
 — horse, the, names and history of, 
 
 191. 
 
 — Horse Society, 192, 331. 
 Shorthorn cattle, 29. 
 
 — cattle, unique position of, 69. 
 Shorthorns, Aberdeenshire, 39. 
 
 — "alloy" blood, origin of, 30. 
 
 — Collings' system of breeding, 32. 
 
 — colours of, 29, 30, 31. 
 
 — historical sketch of, 32. 
 
 — milking qualities of, 30. 
 
 — points of, 29. 
 
 — results of in-breeding on, 33. 
 
 — Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 322. 
 Shropshire Down sheep, 241. 
 
 — Sheep Breeders' Association and 
 
 Flock Book Society, 322. 
 
348 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Smear, recipe for, 284. 
 Smearing, sheep, 283. 
 Societies, Live Stock, list of, 321. 
 " Soiling " of cows, 115, 121. 
 Somerset Park White Herd, 56. 
 
 — type of North Devon breed of cattle, 
 
 47- 
 South Devon breed of cattle, 47. 
 
 — Down Sheep Breeders' Association, 
 
 323- 
 
 — Wales black breed of cattle, 52. 
 
 — Wales white breed of cattle, 54. 
 Sow, breeding, general management of, 
 
 164. 
 Spanish merino, the, 237. 
 " Spayed " cows, 136. 
 Spencer, Sanders, on breeding of pigs, 
 
 156, 161. 
 "Sportsman" (horse), 200. 
 Stage-coach horses, 201. 
 Stallion, number of mares served by a, 
 
 214. 
 " Stanwick cow," the, 37. 
 "Standard Trotter," 205. 
 "Staple " of wool, correct use of the 
 
 word, 234. 
 Stellaria media, 298. 
 Step, the, in animal locomotion, 332. 
 Stocking of farms, examples of, 306. 
 Storer, Rev. John, on wild cattle of 
 
 Great Britain, 15, 17, 18, 22. 
 "Straining," effect of, in cows, 147. 
 Strathmore's, Lord, polled Angus herd, 
 
 experiments with, 8. 
 Stride, the, in animal locomotion, 332. 
 Strongylus filaria, 288, 291. 
 ' ' Studley " shorthorns, 36. 
 Suffolk breed of cattle, 57. 
 
 — breed of sheep, 243. 
 
 — breed of sheep, points of excellence 
 
 of, 244. 
 
 — Sheep Society, 323. 
 
 — Punch, the, 193. 
 
 — Horse Society, 321. 
 
 Sugar cane as cattle food, 107. 
 Sunol (famous American trotter), 207. 
 Superpurgation, effect of, 144. 
 Sus indicus, 154. 
 
 — scrofa, 154. 
 
 Sussex breed of cattle, 47. 
 
 — bullocks as wprkers, 48. 
 
 — Herd Book Society, 322. 
 
 — or Southdown sheep, 240. 
 Swine fever, 174. 
 
 — societies for improvement of, infor- 
 
 mation on, 323. 
 
 TABANUS bovinus, or gad fly, 117. 
 Taenia Csenurus, 285. 
 Tamworth breed of pigs, 163. 
 Tan face sheep, 256. 
 Tankerville, Earl of, owner of Chilling- 
 ham Park, 17. 
 
 — on characteristics of wild cattle, 17, 
 
 18. 
 
 — on effects of crossing wild cattle with 
 
 pure-bred shorthorns, 19. 
 Teats, bistoury for dilating, 133. 
 
 — second pair of rudimental, some- 
 
 times seen in British breeds of 
 
 sheep, 230. 
 Teeswater cattle, 30, 70. 
 Teething of horses, 219. 
 Tegs, cost of feeding, 274. 
 
 — stock, 271. 
 
 Thomas, A. P., on liver-rot, 286. 
 Thompson's Black Horse, 181. 
 Thornton on Channel Islands cattle, 75- 
 Thornton's ' ' Circular " on system of 
 
 breeding, 31. 
 Thoroughbred horse, 194. 
 Ticks, 277. 
 
 — practice in Cape Colony with regard 
 
 to, 294. 
 
 Tithe, 308. 
 
 Tomkins', Benjamin, system of breed- 
 ing, 44. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 Treacle as cattle food, 107. 
 Trichodectes scalaris or ox-louse, 90. 
 
 — sphjerocephalus, 277. 
 " Trinity of Flyers," 207. 
 Trocar and canula for hoven, 139. 
 Trot, the, some consecutive phases of, 
 
 329- 
 Trotting horses, peculiaiity of form of, 
 208. 
 
 — interest in, in America, 20S. 
 
 — Union of Great Britain, 322. 
 Tupping, 257. 
 
 Turnips for cattle, 105. " 
 Twins from mares, rarity of, 14. 
 Tympanitis in calves, 87. 
 Typhoid fever from contaminated water 
 supply for cows, 118. 
 
 UDDER, inflammation of cows, 
 150. 
 Undocked roadsters, objection to, 217. 
 Urinary disorders of sheep, 272. 
 Uterus, inversion of, in cows, 147. 
 — inversion of, in ewes, 261. 
 
 VAGINA of cows, protrusion of the, 
 148. 
 Variation, definition of, 4. 
 Vaynol Park wild cattle, 23. 
 Ventilation, good, necessary for cows, 
 loi, 128. 
 
 WALES, Prince of (a Clydesdale 
 horse), 184. 
 Walk, the, some consecutive phases of, 
 
 326. 
 Walker's adaptation of the " Corri- 
 
 mony " wire fence, 272. 
 Wallace, John Henry, founder and 
 compiler of the American Trotting 
 Register, 204. 
 
 Warble maggot breathing tubes, 99. 
 Warington on dressed beef and live- 
 weight, no. 
 
 — on live-weight of pigs, 170. 
 ' ' Warlaby " shorthorns, 36. 
 Washing of sheep, 265. 
 
 Water supply for cows, 118, 130. 
 
 — supply for horses, 225. 
 
 Watson, Hugh, as a breeder of cattle, 
 
 62. 
 Weaknesses, constitutional, of animals, 
 
 7- 
 M'eaning of foals, 215. 
 
 — of lambs, 268. 
 Weed in cows, 150. 
 
 Weeding, or artificial selection, 6. 
 Weeds in pasture land, 119. 
 Weismann, Prof., on the theory of the 
 
 continuity of germ-plasm, 5. 
 Welsh cattle, 52. 
 
 — cattle, milking qualities of, 53. 
 
 — flannel, 255. 
 
 — mountain sheep, 254. 
 "Welsh Runts," S3. 
 Wensleydale "crosses,'' 233. 
 
 — sheep, 233. 
 
 West Country Down sheep, 242. 
 
 — Highland breed of cattle, 50. 
 
 — Highland breed of cattle, points of, 
 
 51, 66. 
 
 — Highland bullocks, excellence of, 50. 
 
 — Highland calves, peculiarities of, 51. 
 "White heifer that travelled," the, 33. 
 White Polls, the, 56. 
 
 — scour in calves, 87. 
 Wild cattle, 15. 
 
 — cattle, untamable nature of, a seem- 
 
 ing fallacy, 25. 
 
 — horses, 176. 
 
 Williams, Principal, on lung disease in 
 sheep, 291. 
 
 — on horse disease, 223. 
 
 — on operation for " gid " in sheep, 
 
 286. 
 
3SO 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Williams, Professor, on prevention of 
 
 abortion, 145. 
 — on loupin'-ill, 292. 
 Wilson's report on the fresh butter 
 
 export trade of Victoria, 124. 
 Winter dairying, 124. 
 Wonderful (horse), 203. 
 Woodbastwick herd of cattle, 57. 
 Woollen cloth, Gloucester a centre of 
 
 trade in, in the time of the Romans, 
 
 235- 
 
 YORKSHIRE coach-horse, the, 202. 
 — Coach-Horse Society, 321. 
 
 Yorkshire, large, breed of pigs, 158. 
 
 — middle-bred, breed of pigs, 160. 
 
 — small, breed of pigs, 159. 
 
 — breed of pigs, the, Sanders Spencer 
 
 on, 161. 
 
 — trotters, 200. 
 
 Young, Arthur, on the Suffolk Punch, 
 193. 
 
 ZEBU race of cattle, features of, 18. 
 Zoological Society's Gardens, 
 wild cattle at, 24. 
 Ziindel on disease in lambs, 292. 
 
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 The Diagrams are printed in black. 
 
 Diagram. 
 
 1. Swing and Wheel Ploughs - - with 6 figures. 
 
 2. One-Way Ploughs - ,, 4 ,, 
 
 3. Subsoil and Digging Ploughs „ 6 ,, 
 
 4. Steam Ploughs - - ,, 4 ,, 
 
 5. Steam Tackle at Work 
 
 6. Harrows, Zig-Zag and Drag 
 
 7. Chain-Harrows and Improved Zig-Zags 
 
 8. Harrows which are also Clod-Crushers or Pulverisers 
 
 9. Cultivators or Grubbers 
 
 10. Implements for Working in Drills 
 
 11. Rollers ... 
 
 12. Swingle- or Whipple-Trees 
 
 13. Forms of Furrow-Slices 
 
 14. Manure and Seed Drills 
 
 15. Water- or Liquid-Manure and Seed Drill 
 
 16. Weed Eradicators 
 
 17. Mower and Reaper 
 
 18. Reaping Machines 
 
 19. Haymakers or Tedders 
 
 20. Hay Rakes - 
 
 21. Carts and Waggon 
 
 22. Threshing Machine at Work 
 
 23. Threshing Machines - 
 
 24. Fopd Preparing Machinery 
 
 Each Diagram, has Explanatory Letterpress at foot. 
 
 Prices — Single Sheets, gd. ; 12 or more, 6d. each. On Cloth, Rollers, and Varnished, 
 Single Copies, is. 3d. ; 12 or more, 2s. each. On Cloth only and Eyeletted, Single Copies, 
 IS. 6d. , 12 or more, is. 4d. each. The complete Series of 24 Sheets, mounted on Cloth, and 
 fastened on one Roller, £,t.. ios. 
 
 Handbook to accompany the Series^ with Explanation of each Diagram^ and Two reduced 
 lilustrations, is given gratis uuith each Set. Price separately, 3d. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 INDIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 By ROBERT WALLACE, 
 
 Professor of Agirculture and Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 With 3 Maps and 80 Illustrations, 8vo. 
 ONE GUINEA. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " This work, giving the views of a scientific and able observer of the present condition of 
 agriculture in India, is of great value. ... A great deal of valuable information is very 
 clearly set forth in the chapters on different varieties of Indian cattle."— ^o^K^oy Gazette. 
 
 *' An attractive, readable, and suggestive work, which embraces the whole field of modern 
 agriculture." — The Englishman, Calcutta. 
 
 *' A work of wide interest and exceptional value." — The Englishman, Calcutta. 
 
 "We cannot speak too highly of its usefulness and interest to those who have at, heart the 
 promotion in this country of agriculture on scientific principles." — O. Angio-Liisitano, 
 Bombay. 
 
 " Professor Wallace has rendered an invaluable service both to India and to England, by 
 his intelligent observations and the free expression of his views." — Indian Daily News. 
 
 " Should be studied by every one who has the development of the resources of the country 
 at heart." — Times oj" India. 
 
 "All interested in Indian agriculture will find in this work a surprisingly large amount of 
 valuable information given by one who is most capable of giving it in the very best way." 
 — Civil Service Gazette. 
 
 " English statesmen, and all who are interested in our Eastern Empire, will find much 
 fresh and original information in Professor Wallace's instructive volume." — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 " The book is an important contribution to our knowledge of the subject, and its appear- 
 ance may be expected to mark the dawn of a new era ; for the inquiry has been systematic, 
 and the facts noted in every branch of the subject are eminently practical and suggestive." — 
 Daily News. ' 
 
 ' ' Containing a vast amount of in formation of an entirely novel character, and of some facts 
 that may he of utility to agriculturists of this country as 'well as of India." — Standaj d. 
 
 "A work of conspicuous merit and ability, and one calculated to throw an altogether new 
 light upon the whole subject of Indian agriculture." — Morning Post. 
 
 " Professor Wallace is to be congratulated on providing for his countrymen so graphic a 
 picture of Indian agriculture." — Bell's Weekly Messenger. 
 
 " The book must be ranked among the most exhaustive and practical treatises on Indian 
 agriculture yet produced in our own or any other language." — Scottish Leader. 
 
 Edinburgh: OLIVER & BOYD. 
 
 London : 
 SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, & CO. LTD 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 NOW READY. Demy 8vo, over 500 pages, cloth extra, 
 Price One Guinea net. 
 
 THE RURAL ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURE OF 
 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 
 
 AS SEEN BY 
 
 ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S. Edin. 
 
 Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the University of 
 
 Edinburgh, Author of ' ' Indian Agriculture " ; " Farm 
 
 Live Stock of Great Britain," &c. 
 
 With 10 Maps, 90 Full-page Plates, and 24 Text Illustrations. 
 EXTRACTS FROM PRESS OPINIONS. 
 
 ** Professor Wallace has accumulated a vast store of information." — The Standard. 
 
 "The most interesting chapters in Mr Wallace's volume are those on viticulture and on 
 irrigation. His ten maps illustrating the orographical and land surface features, the geology, 
 the rainfall, the isotherms and the exploration of the country, would alone make this volume 
 valuable. Eighty good engravings add to its interest, and a most copious index 'facilitates its 
 use as a book of reference." — Athemeum. 
 
 ** Professor Wallace's excellent book." — Black and White. 
 
 "Avery complete and very instructive account of the agricultural methods and appliances 
 in use throughout the principal Australian Colonies." — The Thnes. 
 
 "The general reader will find it a mine of valuable information and just conclusions." — 
 The Academy. 
 
 "The book will prove valuable, if not entertaining, to people who take an interest in 
 agriculture." — Saturday Review. 
 
 " Professor Wallace has written a monumental and standard work." — The Graphic. 
 
 * ' A large book, literally crammed with information, much of which must be indispensable 
 to many of those connected with agriculture." — Morning Post. 
 
 ' ' The facts in this comprehensive volume are derived from personal observation ; the 
 author's opinion on the subject appears entitled to considerable weight." — The Daily News. 
 
 " It is the book of travel of an enthusiastic specialist who is exceedingly industrious in 
 gathering his facts, and exceedingly willing to lay them before the world." — Scotsman. 
 
 ' ' A most valuable volume : and should become a text-book upon the agricultural resources 
 of the Australasian Colonies." — British Aust7'alasian. 
 
 " This deeply interesting book." — Colonies and India. 
 
 "The book is written well and impartially." — Daily Graphic. 
 
 " One of the best contributions wc have yet received, to onr apprehension, of the economical 
 conditions of our great Australasian Colonies." — Leeds Mercury. 
 
 " A most valuable book." — New Zealand Herald. 
 
 &c., &c,, &c. 
 
 LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, & COMPANY LIMITED. 
 
7, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C. 
 April, 1895. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 INCLUDING NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN 
 
 ENGINEERING: CIVIL, MECHANICAL, AND MARINE; 
 
 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING; 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY; ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS; 
 
 SCIENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES; 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING ; 
 
 AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY; 
 
 LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. 
 
 MECHANI CAL ENGINEER ING, etc. 
 
 I>. K, Clark's Pocket-Book for Mechanical Engineers* 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF 
 TABLES, FORMULJE, RULES AND DATA, A Handy Book of Reference 
 for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E., 
 Author of "Railway Machinery," "Tramways," &c. Second Edition, Re- 
 vised and Enlarged. Small 8vo, 700 pages, gs, bound in flexible leather covers, 
 with rounded corners and gilt edges. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 Mathematical Tables. — Measurement of Surfaces and Solids.— 
 English Weights and Measures.— French Metric Weights and Mea- 
 sures.— Foreign Weights and Measures.— Moneys. — Specific Gravity 
 Weight and Volume. — Manufactured Metals. — Steel Pipes.— Bolts and 
 Nuts. — Sundry Articles in Wrought and Cast Iron, Copper, Brass, Lead, 
 Tin, Zinc. — Strength of Materials. — Strength of Timber. — Strength of 
 Cast Iron. — Strength of Wrought Iron. — Strength of Steel. — Tbnsils 
 Strength of Copper, Lead, etc. — Resistance of Stones and other Build- 
 ing Materials. — Riveted Joints in Boiler Plates.— Boiler Shells — Wire. 
 Ropes and Hemp Ropes. — Chains and Chain Cables.— Framing. — Hardness 
 OF Metals, Alloys and Stones.— Labour of Animals.— Mechanical Prin- 
 ciples. — Gravity and Fall of Bodies. — Accelerating and Retarding 
 Forces. — Mill Gearing, Shafting, etc. — Transmission of Motive Power. — 
 Heat. — Combustion: Fuels. — Warming, Ventilation, Cooking Stoves. — 
 Steam. — Steam Engines and Boilers. — Railways — Tramways — Steam 
 Ships. — Pumping Steam Engines and Pum^s. — Coal Gas, Gas Engines, etc. — 
 Air in Motion. — Compressed Air.— Hot Air Engines. — Water Powbk — ■ 
 Speed of Cutting Tools. — CpLouRS. — Electrical Engineering. 
 %* Opinions of the Press. 
 
 " Mr. CUrfc manifests what is an innate perception ot what is likely to be useful In^ pocket- 
 book, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation. Very frequently we find the informa< 
 tion on a given subject is suopiied by giving a summary description of an experiment, and a state- 
 ment of the results obtained. There is a very excellent steam table, occupying five and-a-half 
 pa^es ; and there are rules given for several calculations, which rules cannot be found in other 
 pocket-books, as, for example, that on page 407, for getting at the quantity of water in the shape 
 of priming \a any k.iown weight of steam. It is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineer- 
 ing subject concerning which this work supplier no information, and the excellent index at the end 
 adds to its utility. In one'word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, poss^sed of which 
 the engineer will be saved many a wearisoms calculation, or yet more wearisome hunt through 
 various text-books and treatises, and, as su:h, we can heartily recommend it to our readers, 
 who must not run away with the idea that Mr. Clark's Pocket-book is only Molesworth in another 
 form. On the contrary, each contains what is not to be found in the other : and Mr. CUrk takes 
 more room and deals at more length with many subjects than Molesworth possibly could. ' 
 
 The Engineer. 
 
 " It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a similar compass, or produce a 
 book of 650 pages which should be more compact or convenient for pocket reference. . . 
 Will be appreciated by mechnaical engineers of all classes." — Practical Engineer. 
 
 "Just the kind of work that practical men require to have near to them. "—£wi:?rfjA MechtmH 
 
4 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Foley's Office Reference Book for Mechanical 
 Engineers. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK, 
 for Machine and BoiJer Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. General 
 Engineering Data, Part II. Boiler Construction. Witfa 51 Plates and 
 numeroMc Illustrations. Bv Nklson Foley. M.I.N.A. Second Edition, 
 Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, £s 3s. net balf>boiiiiH, 
 
 Summary of Contents. IJust published, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Measures.— Circumferences and 
 Areas, &c., Squares, Cubes, Fourth 
 Powers. — Square andCube Roots.— 
 Surface of Tubes — Reciprocals.— 
 Logarithms. — Mensuration. — Spe- 
 cific Gravities and Weights. — 
 Work AND Power. — Heat. — Combus- 
 tion. — Expansion and Contraction. 
 — Expansion of Gases. — Steam.— 
 Static Forces.— Gravitation and 
 Attraction. — Motion and Computa- 
 tion of Resulting Forces. — Accu- 
 mulated Work.— Centre and Radius 
 
 of Gyration. — Moment of Inertia. 
 — Centre of Oscillation. — Elec- 
 tricity. — Strength of Materials. 
 —Elasticity. — Test Sheets of 
 Metals. — Friction. — Transmission 
 of Power. — Flow of Liquids.— Flow 
 of Gases. — Air Pumps, Surface Con- 
 densers, &c.— Speed of Steamships. 
 — Propellers. — Cutting Tools.— 
 Flanges. — Copper Sheets and 
 Tubes.— Screws, Nuts, Bolt Heads, 
 &c. — Various Recipes and Miscel- 
 laneous Matter. 
 
 With DIAGRAMS for Valve-Gear, Belting and Ropes, Discharge and 
 Suction Pipes, Screw Propellers, and Copper Pipes. 
 PART II. 
 
 Riveting. — Boiler Setting, Chim- 
 neys, and Mountings. — Fuels, &c. — 
 Examples of Boilers and Speeds of 
 Steamships. — Nominal and Normal 
 Horse Power. 
 
 Treating of, Power of Boilers. — 
 Useful Ratios. — Notes on Con- 
 struction. — Cylindrical Boiler 
 Shells. — Circular Furnaces. — 
 Flat Plates.— Stays.— Girders. — 
 Screws. — Hydraulic Tests. — 
 With DIAGRAMS for all Boiler Calculations and Drawings of many 
 Varieties of Boilers. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 " The book is one which every mechanical engineer may, with advantage to himself add to 
 his \i\ixs.iy."— Industries. 
 
 " Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. . . . The diagrams are a great feature 
 of the work. . . . Regarding the whole work, it may be very fairly stated that Mr. Foley has 
 produced a volume which will undoubtedly fultil the desire of the author Eind become indispen- 
 Mib^ to all mechanical engineers." — Marine Engineer, 
 
 " We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book 
 for the use of marine engineers." — journal 0/ Atnerican Society (\f Naval Engineers. 
 
 "A veritable monument of industry on the part of Mr. Folej, who has succeeded in producing 
 what is simply invsUuable to the engineering profession." — Steamship. 
 
 Coal and Speed Tables, 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for 
 
 Engineers and Steam-users. By Nelson Foley, Author of " The Mechanical 
 
 Engineer's Reference Book." Pocket-size, 3s. 6i. cloth. 
 
 "These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day use ; they are of suffi- 
 cient scope for most practical purposes, and may t>e commended to engineers and users of 
 steam.?' — IrcH 
 
 " This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical engineer. Mr. Foley has com- 
 piled a very usetul set of tables, the information contained in which is frequently required by 
 eagineess, coal consumers and users of steam." — Iron and Coal Trades Review, 
 
 Steam Engine^ 
 
 TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Sup- 
 plement on Gas Engines, and Part II. on Heat Engines. By T, M. 
 Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. Professor of Mechanics at the Royal 
 College of Science. London; Author of "The Principles of Mechanics," 
 "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Twelfth Edition, Enlarged. With nu- 
 merous Illustrations. Crown Svo, 6s. cloth. 
 "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison 
 
 with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise."— ^^wpVww*-. 
 " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess bimseSt." 
 
 —Mining youmaL 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 Gas Engines. 
 
 ON GAS-ENGINES, With Appendix describing a Recent 
 Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M. Goodetk, M.A. Crown 8vo, su. 6d, 
 cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " Ljke all Mr. Goodeve'i writings, the preseot is no oxceptloB In point of general excdlence. 
 It Is a valuable little volume.''— Me AaHical IVorid. 
 
 Steam Engine Design, 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON 'J HE STEAM ENGINE, with especial 
 Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine- 
 Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students and Users of Steam 
 Power. By Herman Harder, C.E. English Edition. Re-edited by the 
 Author from the Second German Edition, and Translated, with considerable 
 Additions and Alterations, by H. H. P. Powlks, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. With 
 nearly i.ioo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth 
 
 " A perfect encyclopedia of the steam engine and its detailr, and one which must take a per- 
 manent place in Englsh drawing-offices and workshops."—-^ /^o eman Paitem-ntaker. 
 
 " This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the con- 
 struction and design of medium- sized stationary engines. ... A careful study of its contents 
 and the arrangement of the sections leads to the concluhion that tnere is probaby no other book 
 like it in this country. The volume aims tit showing the resuUs of practical experience, and it 
 certainly may claim a complete achievement of this ideA."— Nature. 
 
 " There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned in the 
 design and construction of the steam engine." — Mechanical iVorld. 
 
 Steam Boilers, 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Con- 
 struction, and Mconomical Working. By Robert Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. 
 i2mo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boUBrs,"—SnfftMeer, 
 "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all em 
 ploymg steam power to possess thenuelves of the work." — Xyiand's Iron Trade Citvuiar. 
 
 Boiler ChimneySm 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS: Their Draught-Power 
 and Stabilify, With a Chapter on Lightmng Conductors. By Robert 
 Wilson, A. I.C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, ss. 6d. cloth. 
 " A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building." — The Builder, 
 
 Boiler Making, 
 
 THE BOILER-MAKER'S HEADY RECKONER &> ASSIST ^ 
 
 A NT. With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use 
 of Platers, Smiths and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, 
 M.I.C.E. Third Edition, 480 pp., with i40lllusts. Fcap. 8vo, ys. half-bound. 
 " No workman or apprentice should be without this book."— /ron Ttade Circular. 
 
 Locomotive Engine Development, 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT, 
 A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines 
 between 1803 and 1894. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Author of '* Safe 
 Railway Working," &c. Third Kditlon, Revised and Enlarged. With 95 
 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S.6d. cloth gilt. [Just published. 
 
 ** Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution of the modem locoma- 
 ttve will find much to attract and entertain in this volume."— 77ie Timef. 
 
 " The author of this work is well known to the railway world, and no one probably has n 
 better knowledge of the histury and development of the locomotive. The volume before us 
 should be of value te all connected with the railway system of this couatrv."— Nature. 
 
 Estimating for Engineering fFork, dtc, 
 
 ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS AND ACCOUNTS: 
 A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Esti- 
 mates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam 
 Engines and Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs 
 Accounts. By A General Manager. Demy 8vo. 12s. cloth, 
 " Thi^ is an excellent and very useful bonk, covering subject-m tter in constant requisition to 
 
 erery factory and workshop. . . . The bonk is invaluable, not only to the young enfpneer, but 
 
 mIso to the estimate department of every works." — Bitilder. 
 
 " We accord the work unqualified praise. The mformatlnn is given in a plain, straight^'orward 
 
 manner, and hears throughout evidence nf the intimate practical acquaintance of the author witn 
 
 every phase of commercial engineering."— A/^fAanwa/ JVorld. 
 
6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Fire Engineering, 
 
 FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES. With 
 a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Re- 
 marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; 
 Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; 
 Hints on Fire- Brigades, &c. &c. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With 
 aumerous Illustrations. 544 pp., demy 8vo, £1 4s. cloth. 
 " To those interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we most heartily commend this 
 
 book. It is the only English work we now have uoon the subject."— Bngineering. 
 
 "It displays much evidence of caretul research; and Mr. Voung^ has puc his facts neatly 
 
 t-ngether. His acquaintance with the practical details of the construcrion ot steam fire engines, 
 
 o'd and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, is accurate and 
 
 full. ' ' — Engineer. 
 
 Boilertnaking. 
 
 PLATING AND BOILERMAKING : A Practical Handbook 
 for Workshop Operations. By a Foreman Pattern-Maker. Author of 
 " Pattern Making,'' &c. 380 pages, with 338 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 
 75, 6d. cloth. ' \ Just published, 
 
 " A. thoroughly practical, plainly-written treatise. The volume merits commendation. The 
 author's long experience enables him to write with full knowledge of his subject." —Giasg-ow Herald. 
 
 Engineering Construction* 
 
 PATTERN-MAKING : A Practical Treatise, embracing the IVIain 
 Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and 
 Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, 
 Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in 
 Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods of Estimating the 
 weight of Castings; to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop 
 Reference. By A Foreman Pattern Maker. Second Edition, thoroughly 
 Revised and much Enlarged. With upwards of 450 Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Jttst published. 
 
 " A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands ana nas prac- 
 tised what he has written about. . . . We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young 
 loumeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making." — Builder. 
 "More than 4^0 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- 
 plicit, thus rendermg the work an excellent vadf tnecum for the apprentice who desires to become 
 master of his trade.' —^m^/mA Mechanic. 
 
 Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Termti, 
 
 LOCKWOOD'S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE 
 PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current 
 in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and 
 Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by 
 A Foreman Pattern-Maker, Author of "Pattern Making." Second 
 Edition, Revised, with Additions. ■ Crown 8vo. ys. 6d. cloth. 
 "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by Che vanous trades engaged In mechanical en- 
 
 gineermg. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and 
 
 every foreman e>Tigineer and mechanic should have a copy." — Building- News. 
 
 ' Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes us as 
 
 a happy idea to combine with a definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of which 
 
 it treats." — Machinery Market. 
 
 Mill Gearing, 
 
 TOOTHED GEARING: A Practical Handbook for Offices and 
 Workshops. By A Foreman Pattern Maker, Author of " Pattern Makine," 
 *' Lockwood's Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms," &c. With 
 184 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 6s. cloth. iji^&t published. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Chap. I. Principles.— II. Forma- 
 tion OF Tooth Profiles. — III. Pro- 
 portions of Teeth.— IV. Methods 
 OF Making Tooth Forms.— V. Invo- 
 lute Teeth. — VI. Some Special 
 Tooth Forms. — VII. Bevel Wheels. 
 — VIII. Screw Gears. — IX. Worm 
 Gears. — X. Helical Wheels. — XI. 
 
 " We must give the book our unqualified praise for Its thoroughness of treatment, and we can 
 heartily recommend it to all interested as the most practical book ou the subject yet written."— 
 Mechanical World. 
 
 Skew Bevels. — XII, Variable and 
 other Gears. — XIII. Diametrical 
 Pitch.— XIV. The Odontograph.— 
 XV. Pattern Gears. — XVI. Machine 
 Moulding Gears.— XVII. Machine 
 Cut Gears.— XVIII, Proportion of 
 Wheels, 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 Stone--working Machinery^ 
 
 STONE- fVORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economi- 
 cal Conversion of Stone, With Hints on the Arrangement and Manaeecnent 
 of Stone Works. By M. Powis Balk, M.I.M.E. With IHusts. Crowd tivo, gs. 
 
 "The book should be In the hands of every mason or student of stone- work. "—C0//i«*> 
 Gua*tiian^ 
 
 " A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for buildlne or ornamental purposes.'*— 
 Machinery MarAet. 
 
 Pump Construction and Matiagement. 
 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING : A Handbook for Pump Users. Being 
 Notes on Selection, Construction and Management. By M. Powis Bale, 
 M.I.M.E.. Author of" Woodworking Machinery," *' Saw Mills," &c. Second 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than dlffuseness 
 
 tias been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be 
 
 of use." — your'ttal of Gas Liff^hting. 
 
 " Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written." — Gtasgo-w Herald. 
 
 Milling Machinery, etc, 
 
 MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES: A Practical 
 Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters, including Information on 
 Making and Grinding the Cutters. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of" Lathe- 
 work," " Handybooks for Handicrafts," &c. With upwards of 300 Engrav- 
 ings, including numerous Drawings by the Author. Large crown Svo, 352 
 pages, I2S. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A new departure in ensfineering literature. . . . We can recommend this work to aU 
 (atere^sted in milling machines ; it is what it professes to be — a practical treatise." — Ettj^ineer. 
 
 " A capital and reliable book, which will no doubt be of considerable service, both to those 
 who are already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate its adoption." 
 
 indiMtries, 
 
 Turning, 
 
 LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, 
 
 and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. 
 
 Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged Cr. 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 ** Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how 
 to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable." 
 — Enii^neering: 
 
 " We can safely recommend the work to youn? engineers. To itie amateur it will simply t>a 
 invaluable. To the studentit will convey a great deal of useful information." — Engineer. 
 
 Screw-Cutting, 
 
 SCREW THREADS: And Methods 0/ Producing Them. With 
 Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screvp-Cutting Lathes. 
 By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of " Lathe- Work," &c. With Seventy-four 
 Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Waistcoat -pocket size, 
 15. 6d. cloth. 
 " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies and screwing-tools gene- 
 rally are illustrated and their action desciihed."— Mechanical JVorld. 
 
 '" Ic is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw cutting lathe ; in fact a ntulium 
 inparvQ on all the subjects it txezxs\i-poa,"-~-Carpenter and Builder, 
 
 Smithes Tables for Mechanics^ etc, 
 
 TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, 
 FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc. 
 Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised 
 and Enlarged, with a New Section of Electrical Tables, FoRMULiE, and 
 Memoranda. Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. 
 '* It would, perhaps, be as ditficult to make a small pockpt-book selection of notes and formula , 
 
 to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smicb's waistcoat. 
 
 pocket collection may be looked upon as a successfuTattempt."— £«W«fi*''. 
 
 ••The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed Into the dlmen- 
 
 lions of a card-case." — Building Nenus. " A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge."— /n»«. 
 
 French' English Glossary for Engineers^ etc, 
 
 A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH- 
 FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, 
 Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By John Jambs 
 Fletcher. Engineer and Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 
 zoo pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. 
 " It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and Enj^land to have 
 W large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected m a liUputiaD 
 volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers." — Architect. 
 
 "The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the tables are new and well arrani^ed. 
 Wo cordUfiy commend the book,' — AfoAawicai World. 
 
8 CROSBY LOCK WOOD *» SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 1' ear-Book of Engineering FormulcBf «!tcm 
 
 THE ENGINBEh'S YEAR-BOOK tOR 1895. Comprising 
 Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Eltc- 
 trical. Marine and Mine EngineeriDg. By H. R. Kemps, A.M. Inst.C E., 
 M.I.E.E.. Technical Officer of ihe Engineer-in-Chiel's Office. General Post 
 Office. Londcn, Author of "A Handbook of Elecirical Testing,'* "The 
 Electrical Eng neer's Pocket-Book," &c. Uih750 Illustrations, specially 
 Engraved for ine work. Crown fcvo, 650 pages, 8s. leather. IJast published. 
 " Represents an enormous quantity of work, and foims a desirable book of reference."— 7 A# 
 Engineer. 
 
 " The bonk is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country."— A«fi'«<w»ff. 
 " Tbis valuable and wel1-dei>i£iied book of reference meets the demands ol all descnptioDb ol 
 engineers/' — Saturday Remnu. ,_ 
 
 "Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering aod construction.' — 
 Building News. , 
 
 " The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, 
 complete and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains au comparisons is praise ol the 
 faigbfest sort, ai a th&t may justly be said of it ' —Mxnivg Jcurtial. 
 
 "There is certainly room or the new cfmer, which supplies explanations and d'rections, as 
 well as formulae and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical 
 annuiJs. ' ' — A rch iteit. 
 
 "Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an enfiinrer has to use 
 day by day. It is in every way admirably equipped, and is fure to prove successful."— 5f<j/Jwa«. 
 " The up-tO'dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busp 
 people for whom the work is intended."— G^aj^'ow Herald. 
 
 Portable Engines* 
 
 THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND 
 MANAGEMENT. A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam 
 Engines generally. By William Dyson Wahsbrough. With 90 Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 ** This Is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every- 
 one «^o has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere,"— ^ar.^ Lan€ Express. 
 
 " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners 01 steam engines, and to those who 
 have to do with their construction or use."— Timber Trades journal. 
 
 " Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. wansbrou?h lumlshes to the reader 
 •hould be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine. " — Buildtng Nevs. 
 " An excellent text-book of this useful form of engin*-. ' The Hints to Purchasers ' contain a 
 (rood deal of ^onimonsense and practical wisdom." — E?iglish Mechanic, 
 
 Iron ana mteeL 
 
 ** IRON AND STEEL " ; A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory^ 
 and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- 
 masters and their Stock-taktrs; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet 
 Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal Founders; lion Ship and Bridge Builders ; 
 Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects. Coniractors, 
 Builders, and Prcfessional Drauthtsmen. By Chaplls >^ojipe, Author c) 
 "The Slide Rule," ^c. Eighth Edition, Revised throughout and considerably 
 Gnlart^ed. 32mo. 6s. leather, 
 
 " For comprehensiveness the book has not its equEiI." — Iron. 
 
 " One of the best of the pocket books." — English Mechanic, 
 
 " We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in condderlng the details of aJl kinds of 
 iron and steel wtytlts."—Mrval Sctenee. 
 
 a^iententary Mechanics. 
 
 CONDENSED MECHANICS, A Selection of ip'ormul^, Kules, 
 Tables, and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, Science Classes, &c. 
 In Accordance with the Requirements of the Science and Art Department. 
 Pv W. G. Crawford Hughes, A.M.I.C.E. Crown ^^o, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " The book is well fitted for those who are either confronted with practical problems tn thel> 
 work, or are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowleage by going through their 
 formulae again." — Marine Engineer. 
 
 " It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is intended."— Aai/iwz>' News^ 
 
 Steam,* 
 
 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM, Containing Rules for Un- 
 professional Steam-users. By an Engineer. Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6d. 
 
 " t1 steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become* 
 ■ensatirns bv their rarity." — English Mechanic, 
 
 H arming* 
 
 HEATING BY HOT WATER; with Information and Sug- 
 gestions on the best Me>thods of Heating Public, Private and Horticultura) 
 Buildings. By Walter'Jones. Second Edititn, >Mtb 96 lUustratiotiB. 
 Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 ** We confidently recommend all Interested In heating by hot water to !»ecute a copy ot tbu> 
 vahuble little treatise." — The Plutnber and Det-trator, 
 
MECHANICAL ENGIN EERING, etc, 9 
 
 THE f*OPULAH mHKS Of MWHaEL HEYNOLDS 
 ("The Engine Drivers Friend"). 
 
 locomotive" Engine JJriving^ 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING: A Practical Manual for 
 Bn^neers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds* Mernb^ 
 ot me Societyof Engineers, fcrmerly Locomotive Inspector L. B.and S.C. K. 
 Ninth Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. With Illus- 
 trations and Portrait ot Author. Crown 8vo, 4.5. 6d. clotn. 
 " Mr. Reynolds bas supplied a want, and has supplied it welL We can con&dently recommeDd 
 
 the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performanre 
 
 of locomotive eneines."— The £nei»eer. 
 
 " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter In the literature of the day. Of th** oracticaJ utilrtr 
 **'H?^'?°""'*'® ''*^'**®' "* ^^^^ *° speak in terms of warm commendation."- ri/henaum. 
 *' Evidently tne wurK oi one^wno Kuuv,>i nis auuject inuiou^tUy.' — Katiiuay ^enrtte yiazettt, 
 '* Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of 
 
 our engine-drivers, we mi^ht have fewer distressing accidents to deplore."— 5c0l!ftnan. 
 
 Stationary Engine JJriving, 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for 
 En^neers in charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds. Fifth 
 Edition. Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6ii. cloth. 
 "The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points 
 treated Is clear and practical. . . . He has produced a manual wUch Is an exceedingly useful 
 one for the class for whom it is specially intended." — Hn£ineerinf. 
 
 "Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only know 
 lomething about the stationarv engine, but all about it,"— ^n^'n^^f*, 
 
 "An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr, Reynolds's book will require but little actual 
 experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them." — EnffliskMechanic. 
 
 The Engineer^ Firevnanf and Engine- Boy, 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and 
 ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a His-orical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotivo 
 Engines and their Inventors. By Michael, Reynolds. Secood Edition, wiih 
 Revised Appendix. With numerous Illustrations and Portrait of George 
 Stephenson. Crown 8vo^ 4^. 6d. cloth [Just published, 
 
 " From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day moie 
 forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. , . . The volume contains information of a tech- 
 nical kmd, and tacts that every driver should be familiar -with."— £nj^/ish Mechanic. 
 
 "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has 
 ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine."— /ron. 
 
 Continuous Railway Brakes, 
 
 CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES: A Practical Treatise on 
 the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom ; their Construction and 
 Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By Michael 
 Reynolds. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance In forming, public 
 opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an mterest in the brake."— £i^/is4 
 MecHanie. 
 
 "Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of tl e 
 various parts of eac^ particular brake to be readily grasped." — MecAanicai tVorid. 
 
 Engine-Driving Jjife, 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE : Stirring Adventures and Incidents 
 
 in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third 
 
 and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, is. td. cloth, [Just published. 
 
 " From first to last perfecdy fascinating. Wilkie Collins s luost thrilling conctspiiuna are thrown 
 
 Into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page," — North BritishMail, 
 
 "Anyone who wishes to get a real insight mto railway life cannot do better than read ' Engine- 
 
 Drtving Life' for himself; and if he once take it up he will 6nd that the author's enthusiasm and real 
 
 Icve oJF the engine-driving profession will carry bim on till he has read every pasre." — S^Utd^dti^Rtaneut, 
 
 docket Companion for Enginetnen, 
 
 THEENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC^ 
 TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, 
 AND MECHANICS. By Michael Reynolds. With Forty-five Illustra- 
 tions and numerous Diagrams, Third Edition, Revised. Royal iSmo, 35, 6d., 
 strongly bonnd for pocket wear, 
 "This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of 
 
 a competent engineer." — dasgovj Herald. 
 
 " A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the mioimatlon an engin» 
 
 mind£r desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require." — The 
 
 " A boon to those who are striving to become emcient mechanics."— Z>as/y ChronieU. 
 
10 CROSBY LOCK WOOD 6* SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 MR. NUMBER'S VALUABLE ENGINEERING BOOKS, 
 
 The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY 
 OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humber, A-M.Inst.C.E., and 
 M. Inst. M.E., Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," 
 Sec. &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured 
 Proatispiece, and upwards ot 250 Woodcuts^ and containing 400 pages o( 
 Text. Imp. 4to, £6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. 
 Ltst of Contents. 
 
 I. Historical Sketcn of some of the means 
 tba.t have been adopted for the Supplyof Water 
 to Cities and Towns.— H. Water and the Fo- 
 reign Matter usually associated with it.— III. 
 RcunfciU and Evaporation. — IV. Springs and 
 the water-bearing formations of various dis- 
 tricts. — V. Measurement and Estimation of the 
 flow of Water — VI. On the Selection of the 
 Source of Supply.— VII. Wells.— VIII. Reser- 
 voirs.— IX, The Purification of Water.— X. 
 Pumps. — XL Pumping Machinery. — XII, 
 
 Conduits.— XIII. Distribution of Water—XIV, 
 Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings.— 
 
 XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. 
 
 XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.— 
 
 XVII. Description of Plates. — Appendices, 
 
 S'ving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, 
 c. &c., together with Specifications of several 
 Works illustrated, among which will be found : 
 Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbuiy, Dundee, 
 Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham. Dublin) and 
 others. 
 
 "The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced In English, or 
 In any other langua^^e. . . , Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an 
 exhaustiveness much more distmctive of French and German than of English techniul treatises." 
 ^Engineer. 
 
 "We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of Infor- 
 mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns The plates, fifty in 
 number, are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention 
 of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession." — Builder. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction, 
 
 A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST 
 AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron 
 Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By 
 William Humber, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Re- 
 vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 oi which now first 
 appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text, In Two Vols.i 
 imp. 4to, £6 165. 6d. half-bound in morocco. 
 
 ' ' A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to 
 elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc- 
 tive worth of those illustrations." — CivH En^ineey and Architect's journal. 
 
 "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued — in which the most unportant bridges erected 
 dunng the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk- 
 shaw, Mr. Page^ Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others amonj;: our most eminent engineers, are 
 drawQ and specified in great detail." — Engineer. 
 
 Strains^ Calculation of. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 
 IN GIRDERS AND SIMILARSTRUCTURESMNDTHEIRSTRENGTH, 
 
 Consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details 
 for Practical Application, &c. By William Humber, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. 
 Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 7s. 6d, cloth. 
 " The formulae are neady expressed, and the diagrams good." — Athenau?n. 
 " We heartily commend this really iuin^ book to our ei^ineer and architect readers." — Eng- 
 lisk Mechanic 
 
 Barlow's StrengthofMaterialSf enlarged hy Humber. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; 
 with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension 
 Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, Revised 
 by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; to which 
 are added, Experiments b^ Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkal'dv; and 
 Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by Wm.HumbbRi 
 A-M.Inst.C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with ig large Plates and numerous Wood. 
 cuts, i8s. cloth. 
 
 " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, end the experienced practitioner, It ttUI always rank in 
 Idture, as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subJecL" — Engineer. 
 
 " There is no greater authority than Barlow." — Building News. 
 
 " As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every 
 civil engineer and practical meclamc."^Engtish Mechanic. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 MR. NUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING, 
 
 Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price ]Ci2 X2s., half-morocco. Each 
 Volume sold separately as follows : — 
 
 : RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER^ 
 ING. First Series. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, 
 Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, 
 A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 pouble Plates, drawn to a large scale, 
 Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious 
 descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £s 3^* half-morocco. 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Thames, West London Extension Railway 
 
 Victoria Scadon and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. 
 (8 plates) ; Southport Pier (3 plates) ; Victoria 
 Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6 
 plates); Roof of Cremome Music Hall ; Bridge 
 over G. N. Railway ; Roof of Station, Dutch 
 Rhenish Rail (3 plates) ; Bridge over the 
 
 _ ay to 
 
 plates); Armour Plates: Suspension Bridge, 
 Thames (4 plates); The Allen Engine; Sus- 
 pension Bridg'e, Avon {3 plates); UndeBground 
 Railway (3 platest. 
 
 " Handsomely Uthogiaphed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve 
 In a permanent form copies of the plans and specific ations prepared for the guidance of the con- 
 tractors for many important engineering works.' -^Engifteer. 
 
 NUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING, 
 Second Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of 
 Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letter- 
 press, Specifications, &c., £3 35. half-morocco, 
 
 Lista/ tht Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Blrkennead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 
 plates); Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. 
 Railway (3 plates) ; Digswell Viaduct, Great 
 Northern Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, 
 Great Northern Railway; Iron Permanent 
 Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, 
 
 and Aberj 
 
 lyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny 
 CoUegeWood Viaductj^ Cornwall Rail- 
 
 er^venny Railway; Ebbw Vladtici, 
 Meithyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny 
 
 Rail- 
 
 way ; 
 
 way ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) ; 
 Bndge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Railway 
 {6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). 
 " Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the 6ne collection of examples 
 he has here brought before the profession and the public." — Prci^ical Mechanics Joumal. 
 
 HUMBERTS PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 Third Series. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of 
 J. R. M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpressi 
 Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 Main drainagb. Metropolis.— Aiir^A 
 
 Side. — Map showing Intercet>tion of Sewers; 
 Middle Level Sewer (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, 
 
 Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall 
 Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North 
 
 and South Sides). 
 
 Thames Embankment.— Section of River 
 Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (st plates) i 
 Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and 
 Waterloo Bridges ; York Gate (2 plates) ; Over* 
 flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ; 
 Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; 
 Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections 
 Gullies, Plans and Sections; Rolling Stock; 
 Granite and Iron Forts. 
 
 Bridge over River Lea(3 plates); Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich 
 Railway, and Bow and Barkii^ Railway Junc- 
 tion; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and 
 Bariring Railway (3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feedei 
 Is plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; 
 Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet : Out- 
 fall Sewer, Penstocks. South Side.—OntSaH 
 Sewer. Bennondsey Branch (s plates) ; Outfall 
 
 " The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear repre- 
 sentations of the two great works carried out t^ our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber*! 
 volume."— f^ff^rt^er', 
 
 H UMBER'S PROGRESS OP MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 Fourth Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait oi 
 John Fowler, late Pres. Inst, C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, 
 Specifications, &c., £3 35. half-morocco. 
 
 List bf the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain- 
 ge, Metropolis (4 pUtes) ; Barrow Docks (5 
 ■ " ' '; Viaduct, Santiago and Vai- 
 
 puces) ; Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Vi 
 paraiso Railway (a plates) ; Adam's Locomo< 
 tive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates) ; 
 Cannon Street Station Roof. Cnanng Cross 
 Railway (3 plates) ; Road Bridge over the River 
 Moka (3 pUtes) ; Telegraphic Ap))aratus for 
 
 "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publlcarion from the able pen of 
 Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful 
 ness in giving the measurements and details ot' some of the latest examples of engineering, as 
 carried out by the most eminent men In the profession, cannot be too highly piizBd,"^Artisan. 
 
 Mesopotamia; Viaduct over the River Wye, 
 
 .,. „ . '"-'•wAv (3 plates) ; St. Germans Via- 
 
 II Railway 12 plates) ; Wrought- 
 
 Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; MiUwall Docks 
 
 (6 plates) ; Milroy's Patenf Excavator ; Metro* 
 
 ?outan District Railway (6 plates) ; Harboun* 
 orts, and Breakwaters (3 plates). 
 
12 CRO SBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Statics, Graphic and AneUytie* 
 
 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Appli- 
 cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, LatUce, Bowstring 
 and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron A rckes and Piers, and other Frameworks, 
 By R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale, 
 With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially 
 arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities, SecoDd Edition, Re- 
 vised and Enlarged. 8vo, x6s. cloth. 
 " Mr. Graham's book wUl find a place wbererar ^raDhlc and analytic statics are used or stadled." 
 ^Sf^gineer. 
 
 "The work Is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared wtth 
 much care. The directions for working are ample, and Jire illustrated by an abundance of veD- 
 lelected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical 6iMiehtsman."—j4tA4rueum. 
 
 Practical Mathematics^ 
 
 MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use 
 of Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By Olinthus Gregory, 
 LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully 
 Revised by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics. Belfast College. 
 With 13 Plates. 8vo, £1 is. cloth. 
 " The enffineer or architect will here find rea^ to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe- 
 matical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of 
 examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out." — Builder. 
 
 "One of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. . . It is an Instructive book foi 
 ^he student, 3nA a text-book for mm who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs 
 occasionally to refresh his memory upon them."-^MiA^«nf News, 
 
 Hydraulic Tables, 
 
 HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAE 
 
 for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes^ and 
 Rivers, With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, 
 Catchment-basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill ' 
 Power. By John Neville, Civil Engmeer, M.R.I.A, Third Ed., carefully 
 Revised, with considerable Additions, Numerous Illusts. Cr. 8vo, 145. cloth. 
 " Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice ; its study will prevent the annoyance oi 
 
 avoidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out any 
 
 given work connected with hydraulic engineering." — Mining' Journal. 
 
 " It is, of all English books on the suDject, the one nearest to completeness. . . , From trie 
 
 good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations, and abundance of formulae, the carefully 
 
 calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction. 
 
 which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition. —^rcA»te(A 
 
 Hydraulics, 
 
 HYDRA ULIC MANUAL, Consisting of Working Tables and 
 
 Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field 
 
 Operations. By Lowis D' A. Jackson, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," 
 
 " Modern Metrology,*' &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Large cr. 8vo, x6s. cl, 
 
 " The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful ob* 
 
 server of the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his 
 
 command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this 
 
 branch of the engineer's profession. We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to 
 
 be acquainted with the latest development of this important subject." — Engineering. 
 " The standard-work in this department of mechanics." — Srotstnan. 
 "The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from wnat Is superannuated, and Its 
 
 thorough adoption of recent experiments : the text Is, in fact^ in great part a short account of the 
 great modem experiments."— VVo/Mre. 
 
 Drainage* 
 
 ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BUILD- 
 INGS. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E., Author of " The Practical Railway En- 
 fineer," &c. Revised, with large Additions on Recent Practice in 
 Drainage Engineering, by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Author of 
 "Tramways: Their Construction and Working," "A Manual of Rules, 
 Tables, and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &c. Second Edition, Cor- 
 rected. Fcap. 8vo, 5s, cloth. 
 
 " The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work Is characterised by the comprehen- 
 sive grasp and accuracy ol detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher." 
 ^tM^naufn. 
 
 " As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering, the book is to be commended to aU 
 who are making that branch of engineering science their special study." — /ron, 
 
 " A comprehensive manual on drainage ei^ineering, and a useful introduction to the Muami.'' 
 -^Building News, 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc, 13 
 
 Water Storage^ Conveyance, and Utilisation^ 
 
 WATER ENGINEERING : A Practical Treatise on the Measure- 
 ment, Storage* Conveyance, andUtilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns, 
 for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By Charles Slagg, A.M.Inst.C.E., 
 Author of " Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns, and in Villages," &c. 
 Second Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " As a small practical treatise on the water bupplv ot towns, and on some applications of 
 water-power, the work is in many respects excellent.' -^EH^neering: 
 
 " The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent 
 authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear 
 and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very 
 carefully and exhaustively." — Builder. 
 
 "For anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a consideration of the practical 
 applications of the science there is no better guide. " — Architect, 
 
 River Engineering. 
 
 RIVER BARS : The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- 
 ment by *' Induced Tidal Scour; " with a Description of the Successful Re- 
 duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. 
 to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, 75. 6d, cloth. 
 " We recommend all interested in harbour works — and, indeed, those concerned In the im- 
 provements of rivers generally— to read Mr. Mann's interesting work on the treatment of river 
 bars." — Engineer. 
 
 ^M^russes 
 
 TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON, Practical Applications of 
 Scxencein Determining theStresses, Breaking Weights^ Safe Loads, Scantlings, 
 and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By William 
 Griffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and 
 Art. Oblong 8vo, 4s- 6d. cloth, 
 
 " This handy little book enters so minutely Into every detail connected with the construction ot 
 coof trusses, that no student need be ignorant of these matters."— /Voc^k-o/ Engineer, 
 
 Railway Working. 
 
 SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- 
 dents: Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modem Appliances 
 and Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Con- 
 sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- 
 trations and Coloured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d 
 cloth. 
 
 *• A book for the engineer, the directors, the manaeers ; and, In short, aU who wish for informa- 
 tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working,' "— Railway 
 
 " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especifiUy where a 
 aniform code and practice is Advocated."— -//erepaiA's Railway journal. 
 
 "The author maybe congratulated on havi^ collected, in a verjr convenient form, much 
 valuable information on the prmcipal questions atincting the safe workitig of railways."— ^ai/- 
 ■way Engineer. 
 
 Oblique Bridges. 
 
 A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE 
 BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buck, 
 M.I.C.Ef Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I.C.E. ; 
 and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con- 
 struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I.CB. Royal 8vo, im. 
 cloth. 
 
 " The standard text-book for all engineers re^ardli^ skew arches Is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it 
 would be impossible to consult a bettor. '^Enffineer. 
 
 "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the 
 subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and archi- 
 tect, on a confessedly difficult subject. Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed."— ^wi/rffw^ News. 
 
 Tunnel Shafts, 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS : A 
 Practical and Theoretical Essay, By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst.C.E,, 
 Resident Engineer, London and North-western Railway. Illustrated with 
 Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
 "Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason ; and the observations 
 
 on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates will be 
 
 found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineeriji? profession."— Buildino fVfws 
 
 "Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost vakie, and calculated to save much tuii« 
 
 and obviate manv mistakes."— Ctf//»«T Guardian. 
 
14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Students Text-Book on Surveying^ 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYING : A Text-Book for Students pre- 
 paring for Examination or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George 
 W. UsiLL, A.M.I.C.E., Author of "The Statistics of the Water Supply of 
 Great Britain." With Four Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustra- 
 tions, Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Including Tables of Natural 
 Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth ; or, on Thin Paper, 
 bound in limp leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use, 12s. 6d. 
 
 "The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of 
 employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his 
 experience as surve;|^or, draug^htsm^in, and teacher, has found necessary, and -which the student 
 In his inexperience will find most serviceable." — Engineer. 
 
 "'The latest treatise in the English language on surveying, and we have no hesitation In say> 
 
 Ing that the student will find it a better guide than any of its predecessors 
 
 Deserves to be recognised as the first book which should be put in the nands of a pupil of Civil 
 Engineering, and every gentleman of education who sets out for the Colonies would find it well to 
 havea copy." — Architect, 
 
 Survey Bractice^ 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveyings LeveU 
 lin^f and Setting-out ; and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea, 
 With Tables, Illustrations, and Recerds. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, 
 A.M.I.C.E., Author of " Hydraulic Manual," "Modern Metrology/' &c. 
 Second Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d, cloth, 
 "A valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend this book as containing an 
 
 admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor."— Athenauin.. 
 
 " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place It in their libraries, and study well the 
 
 matured instructions afforded in its pages." — Colliery Cuardian. 
 
 " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, 
 
 aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one." — Suilder, 
 
 Surveying, Land and Marine. 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SC/ierEr/NG, in Reference to the Pre- 
 paration of Flans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns* Water 
 Supplies; Docks and Harbours, With Description and Use of Surveying 
 Instruments. By W, D. Haskoll, C.E., Author of *' Bridge and Viaduct Con- 
 struction,'' &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large cr. 8vo, 9s. cl. 
 "This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommend- 
 ing it, feeUng assured that it will more than repay a careful study." — Mechanical World. 
 
 " A most useful and well arranged book. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written 
 and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors." — Builder, 
 
 " This volume cannot fall to prove of the utmost practical utUltr. It may be safely recommended 
 to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."-— ^sn>M£' youmaL 
 
 Field'Book for Engineers, 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- 
 ■ TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOGK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, 
 Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and 
 Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing 
 Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-dut 
 Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right 
 and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without 
 Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off- 
 sets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in 
 depth. By W. D. Haskoll, C.E. Fourth Edition. Crown Svrf, 12s. cloth. 
 "The book is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make 
 It useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the s3Lme."~Athenixum. 
 "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the Importance of such a 
 work and the amount of valuable tune which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tablet 
 prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." — Railway JVewa. 
 
 Levelling, 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP 
 LEVELLING, Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil 
 Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.TELFORD's Rules for the 
 same. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Seventh Edition, with 
 the addition of Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and 
 Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates 
 and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 85. 6d. cloth. *«* Trautwine on Curves 
 may be had separate, 55. 
 " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and co\leigez."—En^Keer. 
 " The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger 
 members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful book " — Sitffineer, 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SUR VEYING, etc. 15 
 
 Trigonometrical Surveying. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OP CONDUCTING A 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and 
 Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, Src, with 
 Useful Problems, FormulsB, and Tables. By Lieut.-General Fromb, R.E. 
 Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major General Sir Charles 
 Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and us Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, i6s, 
 cloth. 
 
 "The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for Is the best testimony to Its merits. 
 No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so weU and so steadily maintamed by this 
 work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary 
 to brinf every portion of the contents up to the present iajca,"— Broad Arrov . 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK 
 OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By 
 Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool- 
 wich. Sixth Edition, Crown 8vo, with separate Atlas of I2 Plates, 12s. cloth. 
 
 Tunnelling. 
 
 PRA CTICA L TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting, 
 out of the works, Shaft-sinking and Headiiig-driving, Ranging the Lines and 
 Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction 
 of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the 
 Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., 
 M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnear Clark, 
 M.Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, with 31 Folding Plates and numerous Wood 
 Engravings, 30s. cloth. 
 
 " The estimation in which Mr. Slmms's book on tunnelllngf has been held for over thirty years 
 
 cannot be moretruly expressed than in the words of the late Prof. Rankine: — * The best source of in* 
 
 formation or the subject of tunnels is Mr.F. W. Simms's work on Practical TunnelUng .' "—Architect, 
 
 " It has been reerarded from the first as a text-book of the subject. . . . Mr. Ckirk has added 
 
 Immensely to the value of the book." — Engineer, 
 
 Tramways and their Working. 
 
 TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 
 
 Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
 Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, 
 Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c.; aDescriptionof the Varieties of Roll- 
 ing Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, 
 Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway 
 Construction, &c. &c. By D. Kinnear Clark. M.Inst.C.E. With numerous 
 Illustrations and Folding Plates. In One Volume, 8vo, 780 pages, price 28s., 
 bound in buckram. [Just published. 
 
 " All interested in tramways must refer to It, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's 
 work ' Railway Machinery.'" — Engineer. 
 
 " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, In which the history of this kind of locomo- 
 tion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found."— 
 Building News. 
 
 " The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliances 
 are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramwaj 
 will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him,"— 
 Atheneeum, 
 
 Cwrves, Tables for Setting-out. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES 
 for Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, 
 M.Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, 
 waistcoat-pocket size, 3s. 6d, 
 " Each table is printed on a small card, which, beln^ placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands 
 
 fcce to manipulate the instrument— no small advantage as regards the rapidity olvtot]t,"— Engineer , 
 "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which 
 
 he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." — Athtnaum. 
 
 Earthwork. 
 
 EARTHWORK TABLES, Showing the Contents in Cubic 
 Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an 
 average of 80 feet.^ By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Camfin, C.E. 
 Crown 8vo. 5s. cloth. 
 
 " The way in which accuracy Is attained, by a simple division of each cross section Into three 
 elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious,"~Aihenantm. 
 
re CROSBY LOCKWOOD A* SON*S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Water Supply and Water-Works. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
 STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS: A Practical Treatise for the Use oi 
 Engineers and Students of Engineering. By W. K. Burton, A.M.InstC E,, 
 Professor of Sanitary Engineering in the Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, 
 and Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-works. With an Appendix on 
 the Effects of Earthquakes on Waternorks, by John Milne, F.R.S., Pro- 
 fessor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. With numerous 
 Plates and Illustrations, Super-royal 8vo, 25s. buckram. ijust published. 
 
 " The whole art of waterworks construction is dealt with in a clear and comprehensive fashion 
 in this handsome volume. . . . Mr. Burton's practical treatise shows in all its sections the fruit 
 of independent study and individual experience. It is largely based upon his own practice in the 
 branch of engineering of which it treats, and with such a basis a treatise can scarcely fail to be sug- 
 gestive and usciu\."~Saturiiay_ Review. 
 
 "Professor Burton's book is sure of a warm welcome among engineers. It is written in clear 
 aiid vigorous languaee and forms an exhaustive treatise on a branch of engineering the claims ot 
 which It would be difficult to over-estimate." — Scetsntan. 
 
 " The subjects seem to us to be ably discussed, with a practical aim to meet the requirements 
 of all its probable readers. The volume is well got up, and tne illustrations are excellent. 
 
 The Laticet. 
 
 Seatf Expansion by, 
 
 EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By John 
 Keily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart- 
 ments. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 SUHHARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Section I. Formulas and Data. 
 Section II. Metal Bars. 
 Section III. Simple Frames. 
 Section IV. Complex Frames and 
 
 Plates. 
 Section V. Thermal Conductivity. 
 
 Section VI. Mechanical Force of 
 
 Heat. 
 Section VII. Work of Expansion 
 
 and Contraction. 
 Section VIII. Suspension Bridges. 
 Section IX. Masonry Structures. 
 
 " The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and 
 other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or archi- 
 tect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books." — Builder, 
 
 " Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures ss 
 suspension bridges and 'he like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy 
 exposition of the geometrical principles involved in these changes." — Stutsman. 
 
 Earthwork^ Measurement of. 
 
 A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK, By Alex. J. S. Graham, 
 C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. iSmo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, 2uid available for rough 
 
 estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineer's and contractor'! 
 
 offices. ''—^rfifan. 
 
 Strains in Ironwork. 
 
 THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with 
 Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M.Inst.C.Ei 
 Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo', 5s. cloth. 
 The student cannot find a better little book on this subject." — Engineer, 
 
 Cast Iron arid other Metals^ Strength of, 
 
 A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OP CAST 
 IRON AND OTHER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Fifth 
 Edition, including Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches. 8vo, 12s, cloth. 
 
 Oblique Arches. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
 OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Im- 
 perial Svo, Ss. cloth. 
 
 GirderSf Strength of. 
 
 GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTA- 
 TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEET 
 GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates By J. H. Watsc n 
 Buck, M.Inst.CE. On a Sheet, 2s. 6d. 
 
MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. 17 
 
 MARINE ENQINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, 
 N AVIGATION, e tc, 
 
 JPocket-Book for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders^ 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER':^ 
 POCKET-BOOK of Formulte, Rules, and TabUs.and MARINE ENGINEER'S 
 AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book 0/ Reference, By Clement Mackrow, 
 Member of the lastitutioD of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fifth 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged to 700 pages, with upwards of 300 Illustra- 
 tions, Fcap., Z2S. 64, strongl> bound in leather. 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Signs and Symbols, Decimal Frac 
 noNS. — Trigonometry. — Practical 
 Geometry. — Mensuration. — Cen- 
 tres AND Moments of Figures. — 
 Moments of Inertia and Radii of 
 Gyration. — Algebraical Expres- 
 sions for Simpson's Rules. — Me- 
 chanical Principles. — Centre of 
 Gravity. — Laws of Motion. — Dis- 
 placement, Centre of Buoyancy.— 
 Centre of Gravity of Shifts Hull. 
 —Stability Curves and Metacen- 
 TRBs. — Sea and Shallow-water 
 Waves.— Rolling of Ships.— Pro- 
 pulsion and Resistance of Vessels. 
 — Speed Trials. — Sailing, Centre 
 OF Effort.— Distances down Rivers, 
 Coast Lines. — Steering and Rud- 
 ders of Vessels. — Launching Cal- 
 culations and Velocities.— Weight 
 of Material and Gear. — Gun Par- 
 ticulars and Weight. — Standard 
 Gauges. — Riveted Joints and Rivet- 
 ing. — Strength and Tests of Mate- 
 rials. — Binding and Shearing 
 Stresses, etc.— Strength of Shaft- 
 ing, Pillars, Wheels, etc. — Hy- 
 draulic Data, etc. — Conic Sections, 
 Catenarian Curves. — Mechanical 
 Powers, Work. — Board of Trade 
 Regulations for Boilers and En- 
 gines. — Board of Trade Regula- 
 
 FOR Boilers. — Lloyd's Weight of 
 Chains.— Lloyd's Scantlings for 
 Ships.— Data of Engines and Ves- 
 sels. Ships' Fittings and Tests.— 
 Seasoning Preserving Timber.— 
 Measurement of Timber. — Alloys, 
 Paints, Varnishes. — Data for 
 Stowage. — Admiralty Transport 
 Regulations. — Rules for Horse- 
 power. Screw Propellers, etc. — 
 Percentages for Butt Straps, etc. 
 — Particulars of Yachts.— Masting 
 AND Rigging Vessels. — Distances 
 of Foreign Ports. — Tonnage 
 Tables. — Vocabulary of French 
 AND English Terms. — English 
 Weights and Measures — Foreign 
 Weights and Measures. — Decimal 
 Equivalents. — Foreign Money. — 
 Discount and Wage Tables.— Use- 
 ful Numbers and Ready Reckoners 
 — Tables of Circular Measures,— 
 Tables op Areas of and Circum- 
 ferences OF Circles. — Tables of 
 Areas of Segments of Circles,— 
 Tables op Squares and Cubes and 
 Roots of Numbers. — Tables of 
 Logarithms of Numbers.— Tables 
 OF HyperbolicLogarithms. — Tables 
 OF Natural Sines, Tangents, etc.— ^ 
 Tables of Logarithmic Sines, 
 Tangents, etc. 
 
 TioNS for Ships. — Lloyd's Rules 
 
 " In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value. It contains a 
 vast amount of imbimation. We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation for its 
 specific purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, or seaman, 
 wood or iron shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work."— Nautical Magnsine. 
 
 "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or designs of vessels. . . .Will 
 be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected 
 from the best authoriries, and put together in a popular and simple form." — Engineer. 
 
 "The professional shipbuilder has now, m a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for 
 ■olvingmaov of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." — Iron 
 
 "^here is no douDt that a pocket-book of this descnption must be a necessity in the ship- 
 huilding trade. . . . The volume contains a mass ot useful information clearly expressed and 
 presented in a handy form." — Marine Engineer. 
 
 Marine Engineering, 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise 
 on). By Robert Murray, C.E, Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with 
 considerable Additions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E., 
 Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. i2mo, 5s. cloth boards. 
 " Well adapted t* give the young steamship engineer or marme engine and boiier maker a 
 general mtroduction into his practical' wor\c."—Aferkanitiii JVorld. 
 
 "We fcelsure that this thoroughly revised edition will continueto be as popular m the future 
 as It has been in the past, as, for its size, it contains more useful informition than ny similar 
 treatise."— /wrfiMft-iAf. , .,.,,. 
 
 " As a compendious anrl useful guide to engmeers of our mercantile and royal na'.al services, 
 we should say it cannot be surpassed. "—5«t7rf»»^A'lrwj. ' 
 
 " The information given is both sound and sensible, and well qualified to direct young sea- 
 going hands on the straight road to the extra chief 's certificate. . . . Most usefuHo surveyors, 
 uupectors, draughtsmen, and joung engineers,"— CAw:fff» Herald, 
 
 C 
 
i8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <5* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Bochet-BooU for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR. 
 MULM FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, A.I,N.A. 
 Third Edition. Royal 32010, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 45. , , -^ 
 
 "We recommend It to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt yfd.a.t."~7^aval Seittut, 
 "A most useful companioa to all marine engineers," — If nited Service Gatette, 
 
 Introduction to Marine Engineering, 
 
 ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING : A Manual for Young Marine 
 Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on 
 Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Manageblent ot 
 Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful 
 Tables. By John Sherren Brewer, Government Marine Surveyor, Hong- 
 kong. Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 ' " Cnntatns much valuable information for the class for whom it is Intended, especially In the 
 
 chapters on the management of boilers and engines."— '^VixwAVa/ Magatine. 
 " A u-^eful introduction to the more elaborate text-books." — Scotsman. 
 " To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attsun a thorough knowledge, Mr. 
 
 Brewer offers decidedly useful help." — Athenautn, 
 
 Navigation. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's 
 Sea-Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together with the 
 requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, 
 by Henry Law, C.E., and Professor J. R, Young. Illustrated, i2mo, 7s, 
 strongly half-bound. 
 
 Drawing for Marine Engineers, 
 
 LOCKIE'S MARINE ENGINEER'S DRAWING -BOOK, 
 Adapted to the Requirements of the Board ot Trade Examinations. By 
 John Lockie, C.E. With 22 Plates, Drawn to Scale. Royal 8vo, 35. 6a. 
 cloth. 
 
 " The student who learns from these drawings will have nothing to unlearn." — En^neer. 
 
 "The examples chosen are essentially practical, and are such as should prove of service to 
 ngineers generally, while admirably fuUilfing their specific putpos^."— Mechanical World. 
 
 Sailmaking, 
 
 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By Samuel 
 B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Rarsey 
 and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other Illustrations. 
 Small 4to, I2S. 6d. cloth. 
 
 30MMARY OF Contents. 
 
 Chap. I. The Materials used and 
 THEIR Relation to Sails. — II. On 
 THE Centre of Effort. — III. On 
 Measuring.— IV. On Drawing.— V. 
 On the Number of Cloths required. 
 
 — VI. On Allowances. — VII. Calcu- 
 lation OF Gores.— VIII. On Cutting 
 Out.— IX. On Roping.— X. On Uia- 
 gonal-Cut Sails.— XI. Concluding 
 Remarks. 
 
 " This work is very ably written, and is illustrated by diagrams and carefuUy-worked calcula- 
 tions. The work should be in the hands of every sailmaker, whether employer or employed, as it 
 cannot fail to assist them in the pursuit of their important avocations."— /r/e 0/ Pf-'ight Herald. 
 
 '* This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu- 
 facture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a first- 
 rate text-book and euide." — Portsmouth Times. 
 
 " The author of this work has rendered a distinct service to ail interested in the art of sail- 
 making. The subject of which he treats is a congenial one, Mr. Sadler is a practical sailmaker, 
 and has devoted years of careful observation and study to the subject ; and the results of the 
 experience thus gained he has set forth in the volume before us." — Steamship, 
 
 Chai/n Cables, 
 
 CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS, Comprising Sizes and 
 Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and 
 Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, 
 Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, 
 Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, 
 List of Manufecturers of Cables, fltc. &c. Bv Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., 
 M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of 
 Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- 
 tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous 
 Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, £% «. cloth, 
 bevelled boards. 
 
 " It contains a vast amount of valuable Information. Nothing seems to be wanting 10 m ike it 
 a complete and standard work of reference 00 the subject,"— <^a«<ica/ MaeoMtnt, 
 
MININ G AND METALLURGY, ' ' ^19 
 
 MINING AND METAL LURGY, ' ^ 
 
 Mining Machinery, 
 
 MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES :XVrd.ctica.l 
 
 Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of Mines. By 
 
 E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. Crown 8vo, 580 pp., with upwards of 300 
 
 Illustrations, 12s. 6d. cloth. [Just, published, 
 
 _ " Mr. Davies, in this handsome volurne, has done the advanced student anfl tHe irianatrer of 
 
 nun^ good service. Almost fevery kind of machinery in actual use is carefully destribeid, and the 
 
 woodcuEs and plates are good."— A thenaum. 
 
 " From cover to cover the work exhibits all the same characteristics which excl*e the confi- 
 dence and attract the attention of the student as he peruses the tirst paere. The work may safely 
 be recommended. By its publication che literature connected with the industry wUl be enriehed, 
 and the repiKation of its author enhanced."— ^Wwti'w^ ^ouritai. ' ' '-••'*'•'■ ■ -*!■ 
 
 _ "Mr. Davies has endeavoured to bring before his readers the best of everythine in m"dem 
 mmmg: appliances. His work carries internal evidence of the author's impartiality, and.this con- 
 stitutes o.ie of the great merits of the book. Throughout his work the criticisms are based on his 
 own or other reliable experience." —Iron and Steel Trades' yoitmal. 
 
 " The work deals with nearly every class of machinery or apparatus likely tcj be met with or 
 required in connection with metalliferous mining, and is one which we have every confidence in 
 cecommeoding." — Praaical hngineer. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining, 
 
 A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer &c.,, Author Qfj." A 
 Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying.** Fifth Edition, tHorbughlv'Revised 
 and much Enlarged, by his Son, E, Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. Witn about 
 
 Z50 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 125. 6d. cloth, 
 
 "Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines can have a better book 
 or his companion and his guide."— /Wixwi^yijMrMa/. il\fining IVorld, 
 
 "We are doing our readers a service in callincr their attention to this valuable work." * 
 
 " A book that will aot only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist 
 but also very interesting to the general public." — Iron. 
 
 " As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book lias a real value 
 and it supplies an actual want." — Athenaum. 
 
 Earthy Minerals and Mining, 
 
 A TREATISE ON EARTHY &- OTHER MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," 
 &c. Third Edition, revised and Enlarged, by his Son, E. Henry Davies, 
 M.E., F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations!. Crovrn 8vo, i«. 6d^ cloth. 
 
 *' We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters thatcontaini 
 ttie same amount of information packed in equally convenient form." — Academy. 
 
 " We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and tradei 
 manuals which have recently appeared. "—/^W^tiA Qttar&WyiZez/trar. ' '. - < > 
 
 Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom, 
 
 BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical 
 Development, and Future Prospects 0/ Metalliferous Mines in the United King- 
 dom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, 
 Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. 
 Secohd Edition. Revised. Super-royal 8vo, £z -zs, cloth.. 
 
 "One of the most valuable works of reference of modem times. Mr. Hunt, as Keeper of Mining 
 Records of the united Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else 
 and has evidently made the most ot them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and 
 the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific." — nngineering^. 
 
 "The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical informatidn on minine subjects, and we 
 know of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only 
 merit of Mr. Hunt's volume, it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in the library of 
 everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of thia country, 
 •^Atkeneeufn. 
 
 "A mass of Information not elsewhere available, .and of the greatest value to those who may 
 be interested in our great mineral industries." — En^neer. 
 
 Underground Pumping Machinery, 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- 
 tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and 
 the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
 their merits compared with other forms of.Pumping Machinery, By Stephen 
 MicHELL 8vo, 15s. cloth, 
 "Will be highly esteemed by coIUery owners and lesseet, mining engineers, and students 
 
 generally who require to be acquamted with the best means of securing the drainage of minec. Ix 
 
 & a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of staam pumping machineEv-— 
 
 Colliery Guardian. 
 
 *' Much valuable Information Is given, so that the book Is thoroughly worthy of an exteasi . e 
 
 drculadon amongst practical men and purchasen of machinery."— ^t^N^M^ ToM«««t 
 
20 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <S> SON '5 CATALOGUE. 
 
 Prospecting for Gold and other Metals* 
 
 THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro- 
 spector and Traveller in Search of Metal'BearingorotherValuableMinerftlt. 
 By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New 
 Cuedonia." Sixth Editioq.tborouehlv Revised anH much Enlareed. *iiDall 
 crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth ; or, 45, 6d. leather, pocket-book iorm, with tuck. 
 
 IJustpubl-shed, 
 "Will supply a much felt want, especially amone Colonists, In wbose way are jio oneu tntown 
 many ■nineralo^cal specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine. ' — Jinjiyfuer. 
 
 "How to find commercial minerals, and how to identity tnem when ihey are tound, are Uie 
 
 " r points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical 
 
 ■to his paees as would supply material for a book three times its size." — Mining- ycumal. 
 
 Mining A'otes and FormiilcBm 
 
 NOTES AND FORMULAE FOR MINING STUDENTS. By 
 
 iOHH Herman Merivalb, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of 
 fining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle>upon-Tyne. Third 
 Edition* Revised and Enlargpd. Small crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. 
 ** Invaluable to anyone who Is working up for an examination on mining subjects."— /rMi and 
 C9mi Trades Review. 
 
 " The author has done his work In an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book 
 that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations."— 
 Bneineer. 
 
 Handyhooh for Miners. 
 
 THE MINER'S HANDBOOK : A Handy Book of Reference on 
 the Subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations. Ore Dressing, &c. 
 For the Use of Students »nd others interested in Mining matters. Compiled 
 by John Milne, F.R S., Pro''essor of Mining in the Imperial University ol 
 lapan. Revised Edition. Fcap. ^vo, 75. 6ei. leather. [Just published, 
 
 " Prore»snr Milne's handbook is ^ure to be received with favour by all connected with mining, 
 and will be extremely popular among sX\x^eaXs."—Aihenautn. 
 
 Miners* and Metallurgists* PochetSook, 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. 
 
 Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes, for Use in Field and Office 
 
 Work. By F. Danvers Power, F.G.S.. M.E, Fcap. 8vo. os, leather. 
 . " Thi« excellent book is an admirable example of its kind, and oueht to find a large sale 
 amoi^st Enelish-speaking prospectors and mining engineers." — Ett^ineeriti^. 
 
 " A useful vatU-fnecu-m containmg a mass of rules, formulae, tables, and various other informa 
 tion. necessary for daily reference."— /rvn. 
 
 Mineral Surveying and Valuing. 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE 
 GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua^ 
 tton of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By Wm. Lintbrn. 
 Third Edition. Enlarged. i2mo, 45. cloth. 
 " A valu^le and thoroi^hly trustworthy guide."— /r^m and Coal frades Review. 
 
 Asbestos and its Uses* 
 
 ASBESTOS: Its Properties, Occurrence, and Uses, With some 
 Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada. By Robert H. Jones. With 
 Eight Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown Svo, 125. 6d. cloth. 
 " An interesting and invaluable work." — Collierv Guardian. 
 
 Explosives* 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a 
 
 Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun- 
 Cotton, Nitro-Glycciine, and other Explosive Compounds. Including the 
 Manufacture of Coliodion-Cotton. By M. Eissler, Author of " The Metal- 
 lurgy of Gold," &c. Crown 8vo, ros. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasdng and the 
 use of explosives generally may ai uny time become a necessary auxiliary." — Nature, 
 
 ' " A veritable mine of mtormati.-.n on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining 
 and blastirg purposes." — .rf*-**!* and Navy Gazette. 
 
 Irnn.0 MettrUurgv of, 
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON. ContainingHistoryof Iron Manu- 
 facture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu- 
 facture of Iron and Steel &c. B^ H. Bauerman, F.G.S., A.R.S.M With 
 numerous Illustrations. Sixth Edition, Enlarged, zamo, 5s. 6d» cloth. 
 
MINING AND METALLURGY, 
 
 Colliery Management. 
 
 THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK: A Compro- 
 faensive TreaMse oa the Laying.out and Working of Collieries. Desicned as 
 a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and tor the Use of Coal-Hining 
 Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By C\lbb Pahslv, Mining 
 Engineer and Surveyor; Member ot the North of England Institute of 
 Mjoing and Mechanical Engin'-ers ; and Member of the South Wales Insti- 
 tute of Ml nine Engineers. With nearly soo Plans, Diagrams, and other 
 Illustrations. Second Eklition, Revised, witn Additions. Medium 8vo. about 
 700 pages. Price £1 s$. strongly bound. 
 
 Summary of ^^ontents. 
 
 Geology. — Search for Coal.< 
 Mineral Leases and other Hold- 
 ings.— Shaft Sinking.— Fitting Up 
 THE Shaft and Surface Arrange- 
 MENTS.— Steam Boilers and their 
 Fittings. — Timbering and Walling. 
 — Narrow Work and Methods of 
 Working. — Underground Convey- 
 ance. — Drainage. — ^The Gases met 
 WITH in Mines; Ventilation. — On 
 the Friction of Air in Mines.— 
 
 ThePriestman Otl Engine; Petro- 
 leum AND Natural Gas -Surveying 
 AND Planning. — Safety Lamps and 
 Fire Damp Detectors —Sundry and 
 Incidental Operations and Appli- 
 ances. — Colli krv Explosions.— Mis- 
 cellaneous Questions & Answers. 
 
 Appendix: Summary of Report op 
 H.M. Commissioners on Accidents 
 
 IN Mines. 
 
 ♦** Opinions of the Press 
 
 ** Mr. Famely has not only given us a comprehensive i-eference book of a very h!gh order, 
 suitable to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but at the svne time has 
 provided nuoing students with a class-book thit is as interesting as it is 'vasX.Tut&r9."—<,otUefy 
 
 "yix. Pamety's work is eminently suited to the purpose for which it is intended — ^belng deaft 
 Interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the very latest 
 maclunes m every department. ... A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed 
 this work." — Colliery iruardian. 
 
 " This is the most complete * all round ' work on coal-mining published fn the English 
 language. . . . No library of coal-mining books is complete without it." — Colliery Engineer 
 (Scranton, Pa., U.S.A.). 
 
 " Mr. Famely 's work is in all respects worthy of our admiration. No person in any responsibw 
 position connected with mines should be without a copy."— U^estminsfer Review. 
 
 Coal and Iron* 
 
 THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED 
 
 KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of tha 
 Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distriba- 
 tion, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence 
 of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History o* 
 the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meadb, Assistant 
 Keeper of Mining Records. With Maps 8vo, £1 8s. cloth. 
 '* The book is one whicn must tind a place on the shelves ot all mterested In cool and Iraa 
 
 pioduction. and in the iron, steel and other metallurgical^ndustries." — Eng'ineer. 
 
 "Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met, 
 A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from hli 
 
 libra, y "—Intn and Coal Trades Review, 
 
 Coal Mining, 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. By 
 the late Sir Waringtoh W. Smyth. M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the 
 Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With 
 numerous Illustrations. lamo, 4s. cloth boards. 
 
 " As an outline is given of every known coal-field m this and other countries, as weB as of tiMl 
 principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large numoer of leadefs."— 
 J/lfot'Mf yeumal. 
 
 Subterraneous Surveying. 
 
 SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical 
 Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fbnwick, 
 Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. lUust. i2mo, 35. cloth boards. 
 
 Granite Quarrying. 
 
 GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By 
 George F. Harris. F.G.S., Membre de la Soci6t6 Beige de G^oloeie, Lec- 
 turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With lUustra- 
 tioas. Crown dvo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A clearly and well-written manual on the granite industry." -Scotsman. 
 " An interestuig worfc, which will be destfrvediy esteemed."— Co«i«n( Guardian. 
 " \n ezceedinglyint<;resting and valuable monograph on a subject which ha«: hitherto recetved 
 unacc luntably little attention in the shape of systematic literary treaanent. •—Scolttsh Leader. 
 
22 CROSBY LOCKWOOD *• SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Qoldf Metallurgy of* 
 
 THE METALLUhGY OF GOLD : A Practical Treatise on the 
 
 Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of 
 
 Concentration and Chlorination, andtbe Assaying, Meitinfi, and Refining oi 
 
 Gold. By M. EissLER, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, tormeriy 
 
 Assistant Assayer ot the U. S. Mint, San Francisco, Third Edition, Revised 
 
 and greatly Enlarged. With 187 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, X25. 6(2. cloth. 
 
 "This book thorouf^hly deservestts title ot a 'Practical Treatise.' The whole process of fold 
 
 milling, from the breaking 01 the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and 
 
 orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of deiaiL" — Saturday Revttu. 
 
 " The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend It to 
 all professional men engaged in the gola-mining industry,"— AfiMtMf JoumaT. 
 
 Gold Extractiont 
 
 THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION : and 
 its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields in South Africa. 
 by M. EissLER, M.E., Mem. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy, Author of " The 
 Metallurgy of Gold," &c. With Diagrams and Working Drawings. Large 
 crown bvo, ys. 6d, cloth. \Just published, 
 
 " This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual working of a pro- 
 cess which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extrac- 
 tion of gold from tailmgs." — Mining JonrnaL. 
 
 "The work will prove invaluable to all interested in gold mining, whether metallurgists or as 
 investors." — Chemical I^ews. 
 
 Silver, Metallurgy of, 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF SILVER : A Practical Treatise on 
 
 the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the 
 Assaying, Melting and Refining, of Silver Bullion, fiy M. Eissler. Author 
 of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. With 150 
 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 105. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ' ' A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want 
 amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others mdirectly connected 
 with tne industries." — Aiining yournal. 
 
 " From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and teliahle."—Colliety Guardtan. 
 
 "For chemists, practical mmers, assayers, and investors alike, we 'do not know of any work 
 on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive."— CPAxjr^fiw herald, 
 
 Leadf Metallurgy of* 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD: A 
 Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of 
 Lead Bullion. Including Reports on varioas bmelting Estahlisbmenis and 
 Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and 
 America, By M. Eissler, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Goid." &c. 
 Crown Svo, 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, 12s. td. cloth, 
 
 " The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace 
 bU the stages experienced in the passage ot the lead from the various natural states to its issue 
 from the refinery as an article of commerce." — Practit a I Engineer. 
 
 'V The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author. Those who wish to obtain 
 a thorough insight into the present state of this industry cannot do better than read this volume, 
 and all mining engineers cannot fail to find many useful hints and suggestions in it."— Jndusrrtes. 
 
 " It is most carefully written and illustrated with capital drawings and diagrams. In fact^it is 
 the work of an expert for experts, by whom it will be prized as an indispensable text-book."— 
 Briitol Mercury. 
 
 Iron Mining. 
 
 THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: 
 Their Mode of Occurrence, .Age, and Origin, and the Methods of Searching 
 for and Working them, with a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain, 
 By J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Enaineer. Crown Svo, 16s. cloth. 
 
 " The author lias a thorough practica knowledge of his subject, and has supplemented a care- 
 ful study of the available literature by unpublished mformation derived from his own observations. 
 The result is a very useful volume which cannot fail to be of value to all interested in the iron 
 industry of the country." — Industries. 
 
 " Mr. Kendall Is a great authority on this subject and writes from personal observation."— 
 Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " Mr. Kendall s book is thoroughly well done. In it there are the outlines of the histonr of 
 ore mining in every centre and there is everything that we want to know as to the character of the 
 ores of each district, their commercial value and the cost of working them. ' — Jron and Steei 
 J raits Joufnal, 
 
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 23 
 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 Electrical Engineering^ 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OP 
 MODERN RULES, FORMULM, TABLES, AND DATA. By H, R. 
 Kempe, M.Inst.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer, Postal Telegraphs, 
 Author of " A Handbook of Electrical Testing." &c. Second Edition, 
 thoroughly Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 
 32mo, oblong. 55. leather. 
 
 •' There is very little in the shape of formulee or data which the electrician Is likely to want 
 In a hurry which cannot be found in its pages "—Practical £n£i*uer. 
 
 " A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical electrical engineering and Iti 
 various ^plications to the industries of the present day."— /ron. 
 
 " It is the best book of its kind." — EUctricat Engineer. 
 
 "Well arranged and compact. The * Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book ' Is a good one."— 
 EUctrician, 
 
 "Strongly recomniended to those engaged In the various electrical industries."— f/nr'Wra^ 
 ReiHew, 
 
 Electric Idghting, 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING : A Handbook for Working 
 Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Manage- 
 ment. By John W^ Urquhart, Electrician, Author of '* Electric Light." &c. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised, with Additional 
 Chapters. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 " This volume deals with what may he termed the mechjuiics of electric lighting, and Is 
 addressed to men who are already engaged in the work or are training for it. The work traverses 
 a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful worK on ' Electric 
 Light.'" — Electrician, 
 
 " This is an attempt to state In the simplest lan;^age the precautions which should be adopted 
 In Installing the electric light, and to give information, for the guidance of those who have to run 
 the plant when installed. The book is well wonh the perusal of the workmen for whom it is 
 written." — EUctrical Reinew, 
 
 " We have read this book with a good deal of pleasure. We believe that the book will be of 
 use to practical workmen, who will not be alarmed by hnding mathematical formula: whicQ they 
 are unable to understand." — Electrical Plant. 
 
 " Eminently practical and useful. . . , Ought to be in the hands of everyone in charge of 
 an electnc light plant." — Electrical Engineer, 
 
 " Mr. Urquhart has succeeded in producing a really capital book, which we have no hesitation 
 In reconimending to the notice of working electricians and electrical engineers."— ^ec/ea»tiea/ 
 Pyorld. 
 
 Electric lAghU 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain 
 Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, BatterieSi 
 Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of 
 "Electric Light Fitting," "Electroplating," &c. Fifth Edition, carefully 
 Revised. with Large Additions and 145 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ys. 6J. cloth. 
 " The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered and explained in a very clear 
 and concise manner." — Electrical Review. 
 
 "Contains a good deal of very interestmg information, especially in the parts where the 
 anthor gives dimensions and working costs."— Electrical Engineer. 
 
 " A miniature vade-mecum of the salient facts connected with the science of electric light- 
 ing." — Electrician. 
 
 "You cannot for your purpose have a better book than 'Electric Light,' by Urquhart."— 
 EngiJteer. 
 
 " The book Is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject."— ^thenaufn. 
 
 Construction of Dynamos, 
 
 DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Handbook for the Use 
 0/ Engineer Constructors and Electricians-in-Charge. Embracing Frame- 
 work Building, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Com- 
 pounding, &c. With Examples of leading English, American, and Conti- 
 nental Dynamos and Motors. By J, W. Urquhart, Author of "Electric 
 Light,'* " Electric. Light Fitting," &c. Second Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged. With 114 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. IJust published. 
 "Mr. Urquhart's book is the first one which deals with these matters in such a way that the 
 engineering student can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads his 
 readers up to difficult subiects by reasonably simple tests."— Eni'ineerm^- A- rvino. , ^^ , , 
 " The author deals with his subject m a style so popular as to make his volume a handbook ef 
 great practical value to engineer contractors and electricians in charge of lighting installations."— 
 Scotsfnan. , ._ _, 
 
 •f'Dyiiamo Construction' more than sustains the high character of the author's previous 
 publications. It is sure to be widely read by the large and rapidly-increasing number of practical 
 electricians." — Glasgo-iu Herald. 
 
 " A book for which a demand has long ^yXstedi."— Mechanical IVorld. 
 
24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUB. 
 
 A New jyictionary of Electricity* 
 
 THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY, A Popu- 
 lar Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engi- 
 neering. Containing upwards of 3,000 Definitions. By T. O'Connor Sloahe 
 A.M., Ph.D.. Author of "The Arithmetic of Electricity," &c. Crown 8vo, 
 630 pp., 350 Illustrations, 75. td. cloth. Ji?"^^ published. 
 
 " The work has many attractive features in it, and Is beynnd doubc, a well put together and 
 useful publication. The amount of grr^und covered may be gathered from the fact that In the 
 mdex about 5,000 references will be found. The inclusion of such comparatively modem words 
 as ' impedence,' 'reluctance,' &c., shows that the author has desired to be up to tiaie. nnd indeed 
 there are other indications of carefulness of compilation. The work is one which does ttie author 
 great credit and it should prove of great value, e'-pecially to students."— ^^'^r/Wfa^^n/iira'. 
 Very complete and contains a large amount of useful information." — Industries, 
 "An encyclopadia of electrical science m the compass ot a dictionary. The information 
 glTen Is so<ind ann clear. The book is well printed, well il.ustrated. and well up to date, and may 
 be confidently rerommended." — Sut/der. 
 
 " The volume is excellently printed and illustrated, and should form part of the library of 
 every one who is connected with electrical mMters."— Hardware Tradt youtmai. 
 
 Electric Lighting of Ships. 
 
 ELECTRIC SHIP.LIGHTING : A Handbook on the Practical 
 Fitting and Running of Ship's Electrical Plant. For the Use of Shipowners 
 and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Sea-goine Engineers-in-Charge. By 
 1. W, Urquha^it, C.E. With 88 Illustratirns. Crown 8vo, 7s fiJ. clotn. 
 
 " The subject 01 snip electric lighting is one of vast importance in these days, and Mr. Urqu* 
 t is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable 
 
 hart is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the serrice of the practical 
 marine electrician." — 7ne Steamship, 
 
 Distinctly a book which of its kind stands almost alone, and for which there should be a 
 Aem^rid.''~'Eiectrical Revxew. 
 
 Country Houf^e Electric Lighting, 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES : A Practical 
 Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with par- 
 t culars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H, Knight. Crown 8vo, 
 IS. wrapper. {Just published. 
 
 Electric Idghting. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT- 
 ING. By Alan A. Cahpbbll Swintoh, Associate I.E.E. Third Editioni 
 Enlarged and Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. X5. 6d. cloth. 
 "Anyone who desires a short and thoroi^hly clear exposition of the elementary principles of 
 electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little wot)^^—Bradf<»^ Odserver, 
 
 Dynamic Electricity. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND 
 MAGNETISM. By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "The Ele- 
 ments of Electric Lit^hting," &c. Cr. ovo, wxth 120 Illustrations, los. 6d, cl. 
 
 Electric Motors^ d'C. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TRANSFORMATION OF POWER and its 
 Application by the Elecric Motor, inciuding Electric Railway Construction, 
 By P. Atkinson, A M., Pn.D , Author of " The Elemen s of Electric Light- 
 ing," &c. With 96 lUustiations. Crown 8vo, 7s. td. cloth. 
 
 Dynamo Construction. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO: A Practical Treatise for Amateurs, 
 Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Construct- 
 ing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts, 
 Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 25. cloth, 
 "The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to 
 
 enable any amateur mechanic possess-^d of average skill and the usual tools to be found in aa 
 
 amateur's workshop, to build a practical dynamo machine." — Biectrician. 
 
 Text Book of Electricity. 
 
 THE STUDENTS TEXT-BOOK OP ELECTRICITY. By 
 Henry M. Noad, F.R.S. 630 pages, with 470 IllustratiL.ns. Cheaper Edition, 
 Crown Svo, qs. cloth. \Jttst published, 
 
 Flectricity. 
 
 A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY : Including Galvanism, Mag- 
 netism, Dia-Ma^netism, Electro- Dynamtci, By Henrt M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. 
 Fourth Edition (1859). Svo, £1 4s. cloth. 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, $tc. 25 
 
 ARCHITE CTURE, BUILD ING, eto. 
 
 Building Construction. 
 
 PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION : A Handbook 
 for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for 
 Persons Engaged in Building. By John P. Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on 
 Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Medium 
 8vo, 450 pages, with i,oco Illustrations, xzs. &d. cloth. \^J^st publishtd, 
 
 " This Toliune Is one of the most complete expositions of building construction we have seen. 
 It contains all that is necessary to prepat« students lor the various exambiations in buUdiug coa- 
 struction."— ilMt/f/i^ News. 
 
 " The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest 
 the hand of a man of experience in building operations— and the volume must be a blessing to 
 many teachers as well as to students." — The Architect. 
 
 " The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids 
 fair to take a permanent place as a favourite students' text-book. The large number of illustra- 
 tions deserve particular mention for the great ment they possess for purposes of reference, in ex- 
 actly corresponding to convenient scales."— ^awr. /nst. Brit. Archts. 
 
 The New London Building Act, 1894, 
 
 THE LONDON BUILDING ACT, 1894; with the By-Laws 
 and Regulations of the London County Council, and Introduction, Notes, 
 Cases and Index. By Alex. J. David, B.A., LL.M. of the Inner Temple, 
 Barrister-at-Law. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d, cloth. iy**st published. 
 
 " To all architects and district surveyors and builders, Mr. David's manual will be welcome."— 
 Building' News. 
 
 "The volume will doubtless be eagerly consulted by the building fraternity." — Illustrattd 
 Carpenter and Builder. 
 
 CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES, A Book for 
 
 Architects, Builders, Contractors, and ( lerks of Works. By George L. 
 
 SuTCUFFE, A.K.I. B.A. Crown 8vo, 7s- 6^- cloth. IJtat published. 
 
 ** The author treats a ditlicult suhject in a lucid manner. The manual fills a Tong^elt gap. It 
 is careful and exhaustive ; equally useful as a student's guide aad a architect's book of reference." 
 — yaumai oy Royal Institu.io** of Brittsh Architects. 
 
 " There is room for tnis new book, which will probably be for some time the standard work on 
 the subject for a builder's purpose." — Glas^o-w Herald. 
 
 " A thoroughly useful and comprehensive work," — British ArJtitect. 
 
 Mechanics for Architects, 
 
 THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE : A Treatise on 
 Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects. Bt E, W. 
 Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second EdltioUf 
 Enlarged Illust. with 125 Diagrams. Cr. Svo, ys. 6d. cloth. [_Just Published, 
 '• The book is a very useful and heloful manual of architectural mechanics, and really contains 
 sufficient to enable a careful and painstaking student to grasp the principles bearing upon the noa- 
 jority ot building problems. . . . Mr. Tarn has added, by this volume, to the debt of gratitude 
 which is owing to him by architectural students fur the many valuable works which he has pro- 
 duced for their use." — TAe Builder. 
 
 "The mechanics in the volume are really mechanics, and are harmoniously wrought in with 
 the distinctive professional manner proper to the subject. '—The Schoolmaster. 
 
 The New Builder's J^rice Book, 1^96, 
 
 LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK FOR 1895, A 
 Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Priqes and Data for Builders, 
 Architects, Engineers, and Contractors. By Francis T. W. Miller. 800 
 closely-printed paeeR, crown svo, 4s. cloth. 
 
 " This book ts a very useful one, and should lind a place In every English office connected with 
 the building and engineering professions." — Industries. 
 
 " An excellent Book of reference." — Architect. 
 
 " In its new and revised lonu cms irice book is what a work of this ktnd should be — compre* 
 hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well hooMd."— British ArchiUtt. 
 
 Designing Buildings, 
 
 THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS: Being Elementary Notes 
 on the Planning, Sanitation and Ornamentive Formation of Structures, based 
 on Modern Practice. Illusttated with Nine Folding Plates. By W. Wood- 
 ley, Assistant Master, Metropolitan Drawing Classes, &c, Svo, 6s. cloth. . 
 
 Sir Wm, Chambers's Treatise on Civil ^rchitectiM/re. 
 
 THE DECORATIVE PART OP Ci\^IL ARCHITECTURE. 
 fly Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and 
 an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwzlt, F.S.A. Revised 
 and Edited by W. H. Lssbs. 66 Plates, 4(0, ais. cloth. 
 
26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD *• SON*S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Villa A.rchitecture» ^ 
 
 A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE : Being a 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences if^- various Stylet* With Qutlice 
 Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wicxes, Architect, Author of "The 
 Spires and Towers of England," &c. 6i Plates. 4to, £i xzs, &d. half-mprocco, 
 
 " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their belncf the worlc of an artlsUc architect, aao 
 they will prove very valuable and sagg&stive."^Building^ Nrws. 
 
 Text-Book for A.rchitect8, 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Booh of Useful 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors^ Contractors, Clerks of 
 Works, &c. €rc. By Frederick Rogers, Architect. Third Edition. Crown 
 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be 
 hard to find a handier or more complete little volume," — Stattaard, 
 
 Ta/ylor and Cresy^s Home, 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OP ROME, By 
 the late G. L.Taylor, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New 
 Edition, thoroughly Revised by the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chap- 
 lain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 13c Plates, £$ 35. half-bound. 
 
 ** Tajrlor and Cresy's work has from its first publlcanoa been rimkea auong those professional 
 books which cannot be bettered,"— -4 rcAt/<rf. 
 
 Linear Perspective, 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE : The whole Course and 
 Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Per- 
 spective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O. Ferguson. Second 
 Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, 3s, 6d. boards. {.y«st published. 
 
 " It is the most intelligible o( the treatises on this ill-treated subject that 1 have met with, '— 
 E. Ingress bell, Esq., in the R.I.B.A. yournal. 
 
 Architectural Drawing* 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRA WING, for the Operative Builder 
 and Young Student in Architecture, By George Pyns. With 14 Plates, 4to, 
 7S. 6d. boards. 
 
 . Vitruvius^ Architecture, 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE of MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO, 
 Translated by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. New Edition, Revised by * 
 
 the Translator, With 23 Plates. Fcap, 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Valuing* 
 
 THE STUDENTS GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- 
 ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK. Containing Directions for 
 taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into 
 Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calcula- 
 tion of Areas and Solidities* Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. 
 With Additions by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A, Sixth Edition. With 8 Plates 
 and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. 
 " This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measurine and 
 valuing artificers' wurk that has yet been published." — Buiidiitff IJews. 
 
 Pocket Estimator and Technical Chiide, 
 
 THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEAbURER, AND 
 ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech- 
 nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete 
 Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimat- 
 ing the parts cf a Building coUectivel]^. By A.C.Beaton. Seventh Edit. 
 Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d, leather, gilt edges, 
 "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his 'Beaton.' "—Butlding News, 
 
 Donaldson on Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS: or, Practical 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up 
 Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions,' Illustrated by 
 Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- 
 gineers. By Professor T. L. Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition. 
 8vo. with upwardf) of t.ooo page;: of Text, and 3;) Plates. {,1 lis. 6d. cloth. 
 " Valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . , SuflBce it to 
 say that Donaldson's ' Handbook of Specifications ' must be boug;ht bv all iTch\tscts."—Suilder. 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc.. 271. 
 
 Bartholomew and Rogers' Specifleationn. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, andtBiiildei. Wiib an Essay 
 on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis oi the 
 Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly 
 added to by Frederick Rogers, Architect. Third Edition, Revised, with 
 Additions, With numerous Illustrations. Medium 8vo, 155. cloth. 
 " The collection of speciftcations prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work 
 
 is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every 
 
 young architect must be equipped."— ^rcA»^cc<. 
 
 Construction. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OP BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. Wykdham Tarn, M.A., Architect. 
 Third Edition. Revised and Enlarged. With 59 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. cl. 
 A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — BuiUUr, 
 
 House Building and Repairing. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATdR ; or, What will it Cost 
 to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price, Book for .Uniprofe^sional .people, , as 
 well as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By J. t). Simo.sJ Edited by F. 
 T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B.A. Fourth Edition. Crown gvo, 3s. 5i. cloth. 
 
 "In two years It will repay u» cost a nunarea tuues over." — Field, 
 
 Cottages and Villas. 
 
 COUNTRY AND SUBURBAN COTTAGES AND VILLAS: 
 How'to Plan and Build Them. Containing 33 Plates, with Introduction, 
 General Explanations, and Description of each Plate. By James W..BoGt;s, 
 Architect, Author of " Domestic Architecture," &c, 4to. los. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Building ; Civil and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 A BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical, including 
 dhurch Restoration ; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyramid, &c. 
 By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Fcao. &vo, ss. clqth, 
 " A book which Is always amusing and nearly always Instructive."— TVm^x. 
 
 Sanitary Houses, etc. 
 
 THE SANITARY ARRANGEMENT OF DWELLING- 
 HOUSES: A Handbook for Householders and Owners of Houses. By A. 
 J. Wallis-Tayler, A.m. Inst. C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth. [Jms* published.. 
 
 '• This book will be largely read ; it will be of considerable service to the public. It is well 
 arranged, easily read, and for the most part devoid of technical terms."— /.awc«. 
 
 Ventilation of Buildings. 
 
 VENTILATION. A Text Book to the Practice of the Art of 
 Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. Bu.chan, R.P. izmo, 4s. cloth. 
 
 " Contains a great amount of useful practical information, as thoroughly interesting as it is 
 technically reliable."— ^rtVirA Architect. 
 
 The Art of Plumbing. 
 
 PLUMBING. A Text Booh to the Practice of the Art or Craft of 
 the Plumber. By William Paton Buchan, R.P. Sixth Edition. 4s. cloth. 
 "A text-book which may be safely put in the hands of every young plumber."— ^wrVrfer. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the ArchiUct, Engineer, and 
 Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various 
 Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. 
 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 " No book v«th the same objects In view lias ever been published in which the clearness ot tne 
 rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." — Scotsman, 
 
 The Science of Geometry. 
 
 THE GEOMETRY OP COMPASSES: or, Problems Resolved 
 by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and 
 Symbals. By Oliver Byrnb. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
a*? CROSBY LOCKWOOD *■ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 CARP ENTRY, TIMBER , etc. 
 
 Tredgoid'8 Carpentry^ Revised db Enl€&rged by Tarn. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY, 
 A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, tbe Resist- 
 ance of Timber, and tbe Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roots^ 
 Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber. &c. To which is added an Essay 
 on the Nature and Properties oi Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds 
 of Wood used in Building; ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Tim- 
 ber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. Br Thow as 
 Trbdgold, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron 
 and Stone, lUustiated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably 
 enlarged by £. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Build- 
 ing," ibc. With 6i Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcata. In 
 One large Vol., 4to, price £i 5$. cloth. 
 
 " Ouf^bt to be in every architect's and every buDder's library."— J?Mtf<lM-. 
 
 " A work whose monumental excellence must commend It wherever skilful evMntry Is con* 
 cenwd. The author's principles are rather confinned than impaired by tinw. The additional 
 plates are of great intrinsic vi^Me."— Building Nm/t, 
 
 Woodworking Machinery. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY : Its Rise, Progress, and 
 
 Construction, With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economi- 
 caj Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by 
 leading English, French, and American Engineers. Bv M. Powt« Rale, 
 A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions. 
 Large crowih 8vo, 440 pp , 95. cloth, \Just published, 
 
 " Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject and he has collected so muca iniormation that 
 the book Is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber." —Architect. 
 
 "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The 
 •otbor Is a thoroufch master of his subject." — BuUding News. 
 
 Saw Mills, 
 
 SA W MILLS : Their Arrangement and Management, and the 
 Economical Conversion of Timber, (A Companion Volume to " Woodwork- 
 ing Machinery.'*) By M. Powis Bale. Crown 8vo, 105. 6d. cloth. 
 " The admtnistratioH of a lar^e sawini; establishment is discussea and the subiect examined 
 from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and ttie 
 like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery 
 In its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise."— ^m>/(^c. 
 
 Nicholson's Carpentry, 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car- 
 penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a 
 knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's Standard 
 Work. New Edition, Revised b^ A. Ashpitel, F.S.A, With Practical 
 Rules on Drawing, by G. Pynb. With 74 Plates. 410, £1 is. cloth. 
 
 Handrailing and Stair building, 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING : Showing 
 New and Simple Methods tor Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the 
 Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing'Up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George 
 CoLLiNGS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A 
 Treatise on Stairbuilding. i2mo. 2s. 6d cloth limp. 
 * ' Will be found ofpractlcal utility In the execution of this difficult branch of io\nery."~Bu'iiaer, 
 " Almost every dimcult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is eJucldated by the 
 aid of plates and explanatory letterpress."— Fut-niVMre GaxetU, 
 
 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY: A 
 
 Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature By 
 George Collings. With Diagrams. Second Edit. i2mo, ss. 6d. cloth limp, 
 
 " An excellent example of what a book of this tcind should be. Cheap in price, clear In definl* 
 on and practical in the examples selected."— ifMt/<^»'. 
 
 Handrailing, 
 
 HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. On 
 the Square-Cut System. By J. S. Goldthorp, Teacher of Geometry and 
 Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanic's Institute. WitU Eight 
 Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, 3s. fd. cloth. 
 
 " Likelv to be of concidrrable value to joiners and others who take a pride in food work. 
 we heartilr c mmend t to teachers and ^tudenti."— 7'tm^er Trades yoUnta.. 
 
CARPENTRY, TIMBER, tte. ag 
 
 Timber Merchant's Companion, 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S ANJ) BUILDER'S COM- 
 PANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and 
 Measurement of Deals and Battens, oi all sizes, from One to a Thousand 
 Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any 
 
 gven Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred; the Price per Cube Foot of 
 quare Timber to any given Price per Load of so Feet ; the proportionate 
 Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load 
 ol 50 Feet ; the readiest mode of ascertainmg the Price of Scantling per 
 Lineal Foot of any size, to an^ given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. By 
 Willi AH Dowsing, Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 31. cl. 
 " Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that 
 every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it."— HuU Advertiser. 
 
 " We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and 
 limpUcity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired."— rim^M' TraeUs yoHrmU, 
 
 Practical Tim,ber Merchant, 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide 
 for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising 
 nsefiil Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of 
 Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, 
 &c. By W. RicMARDSOH. Fcap. 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth. 
 ' "TUs handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, 
 
 builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, aiui manufacture of timber."— 
 
 yeumal tif ^orutry, 
 
 Timiber Freight Booh. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANTS, SAW. MILLER'S, AND 
 IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. Comprising Rulet , 
 Tables, and Memoranda relating to the Timber Trade, By WiLLiAb 
 Richardson, Timber Broker ; together with a Chapter on " Speeds of Saw 
 ■Mill Machinery," by M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., &c. izmo, 3s. 6i. cl. boards. 
 "A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda relating to the timber trade. We re* 
 commend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supply- 
 ing a real want in the trade."— ^Ms&^i'rv^cwj. 
 
 Packing-Case Makers, Tables for, 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES; showing the number of Super- 
 ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. 
 By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oolong 410, 3t. 6ii. e', 
 " Invaluable labour-saving ta.bles."^/ronmorteer, 
 "Will save much labour and calculation."— (rnwrr. 
 
 Superficial Measurem,ent. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, by i to 108 
 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber 
 Merchants, Builders, &c. By Jahbs Hawungs. Fourth Edition. Fcap., 
 3s. 6d. cloth. _^ 
 
 " A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any 
 snifece of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined.. The book will be 
 foundofthegreatestutility to all engaeed in building operations."— 5ffl£r»»««. 
 
 " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations In super, 
 ficial measurement."- J?fV/ifA Mechanic. 
 
 Forestry. _ . . „ , , 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP FORESTRY. Designed to afford In- 
 formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or 
 Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B. 
 Hough. Large crown Svo, 10s. cloth, 
 
 Tim>ber Importer's Chuide. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S.TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND 
 BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grahdy. Compris- 
 ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative 
 Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic 
 and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freieht, 
 Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and 
 Builder. Third Edition, Revised, nmo, «. cloth limp. 
 " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and 
 
 throws in. as a makeweight, a host of maten^ concerning bricks, columns, cisterns. ltc."—BnglisA 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
30 CROSBY LOCK WOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 DECORATIVE ARTS, eto. 
 
 Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). 
 
 SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS 
 AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P, 
 Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, 
 xS^ by 12^ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also I2 plain 
 Plates, comprisingi54 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price £z iis.6d. 
 List of Plates, 
 
 Finished Specimen — zg. Mahogany: Spectmeni 
 of various Graitis.and Methods of Manipulatioo 
 ^o, az. Maho^ny : Earlier Stages and Finished 
 Specimen — 22,3^,34. Sienna Marble; Varieties 
 of Grzun, Preliminary Stages and Finished 
 Specimen — 95, 96, 37. juniper Wood : Methods 
 of producing Grain, &c. : Preliminary Stages 
 and Finished Specimen— 38, 99, 30. Vert de 
 Mer Marble: Varieties of Grain and Methods 
 of Worldng Unfinished and Finished 'Speci< 
 mens— 31. 33. 3^. Oak : Varieties of Grain, Tools 
 Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre* 
 liminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 34, 35, 
 36. Waulsort Marbla: Varieties of Gmln, Uo' 
 finished and Finished Specunetisi 
 
 I. Various Tools required for Wood Painting 
 —a, 3. Walnut : Preliminary Stages of Graii^ing 
 and Finished Specimen — 4. Tools usfed for 
 Marble Painting and Methoa of Manipulation— 
 6. St. Reml Marble: Earlier Operations and 
 Finished Specimen — 7. Methods of Sketching 
 different Grains, Knots, &c.~8, 9. Ash: Pre- 
 minary Stages and Finished Specimen — lo. 
 Methods of Sketching Marble Grains— 11, la. 
 Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working 
 and Finished Specimen — 13. Maple: Methods 
 of Producing the different Grains — 14, 15. Bird's- 
 eye Maple: Preliminary Staees and Finished 
 Specimen— ifi. Methods of Sketching the dif- 
 ferent Species of White Mavble— 17, 18. )Vhite 
 Marble: Preliminary Stages of Process and 
 
 " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles wfll find advantage 
 consulting this book. . . . Some of the Workuig Men's Clubs should give their young men 
 the opportunity to study It." — Suiliier, 
 
 " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and 
 management of the colours, and the beautifiillv executed plates will not be the least valuable to the 
 ttudeot who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature," — Buiiding News. 
 
 Wall Paper, .^ 
 
 WALL PAPER DECORATION. By Arthur Seymour 
 Jennings, Author of "Practical Paper Hanging." With numerous Illustra- 
 tions. Demy 8vo [/« preparation 
 
 Souse Decoration, 
 
 ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the, Simpler 
 
 Forms of Every^iay Art. Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORA- 
 TION. By Tames W. Facey. With numerous Illustrations. In One Vol., 
 Ss. strongly half'^ bound 
 
 House Painting 9 Graining ^ etc* 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN 
 WRITING, A Practical Manual of. By EtLis A. Davidson. Sixth Edition 
 With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. x2mo, 65. cloth boards. 
 " A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." — English 
 tleckanic 
 
 Decorators^ Receipts for* 
 
 THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De- 
 corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing 
 upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa- 
 tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior 
 Decorations, &c. Sixth Edition. 152 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper 
 
 "Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gliders, &c. The book contains the gist of 
 larger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet irith a work so full 
 of varied information on the paiatet's ait,"— Buiidiftg- News, 
 
 Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 By J. Moyr Smith. Super-royal 8vo, with 3a full-page Plates and numerous 
 smaller Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price x8s. 
 
 " The book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and 
 good many good examples of decorative treatment. —TVitc BuiiiUr, 
 
DECORATIVE ARTS, eU. .31 
 
 British and Foreign Marbles. ■'•■ ^ ^ 
 
 MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology (if l^ritisk and 
 
 Foreign Marbles. A Hahdboi^lC for Students. By 6eoroe H; BlagrOve, 
 ■ Author of " Shoring and its Application," &c. With a8 Illustrations, Crown 
 
 Svo, 3s, 64. cloth. 
 
 " This moat useful and much wanted handbook should be In the hands of every architect and 
 bwXd!ir."—Bui/ainff tVcrid. 
 
 " A carefully and usefully written treatise ; the work Is essentially practical." — Scotsman 
 
 Marble Working, etc. 
 
 MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS: A Handbook for 
 Architects, Artists, Masons, and Students. By Arthur Lee, Author of " A 
 Visit to Carrara," " The Working of Marble," &c. Small crown Svo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 " A really valuable addition to the technical literature of architects and masons." — Buitding 
 News, 
 
 DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. 
 
 A PRIMER OP THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of 
 Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for 
 Its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., prmted in Gold and 
 Colours. By F. Delauotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small ito, 6s. orna- 
 mental boards. 
 
 "The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much eood sense 
 Cbe author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judfj^ent^d ^i^owledgfe 
 as well as taste." — Athenaum, 
 
 ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Mediaval, Jrom the 
 Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and 
 small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, 
 Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen 
 Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, 
 Carvers, &c. &c. Collected and Engraved by F.Delamotte, and printed in 
 Colours. Mew and Cheaper Edition. Royal Svo, oblong, is.Qd^ orn^me^taJ 
 boards, 
 
 *' For those who Insert enamelled sentences round glided chalices, who blazon shop legends over 
 shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decaloi^e. this book will be use* 
 tuL" — AtheTuxum. 
 
 EXAMPLES OP MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental; 
 including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Court Hand, En^ossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque; 
 with several Origmal Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old Englisb 
 Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the Use of Draughtsmen, Sur< 
 veyors. Masons^ pecorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c.' 
 Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New 
 and Cheaper Edition. Royal Svo, oblong, u. Gd. ornamental boards,. 
 
 " There Is comprised In It every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and 
 oumerals can be formed, and the talent which has beep expended Id the conception of the various 
 plain and ornamental letters is wonderful," — Stattdard, 
 
 MEDIMVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- 
 NA TORS. By F. G. Delamottk. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated 
 Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by I. Willis 
 Brooks. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 4s. ornamental boards, 
 " A volume In which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gliding and all the colours 
 
 of the prism interwoven and Intertwined ana intermingled." — Sun. 
 
 THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OP DESIGN. Containing 
 Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical 
 Devices, Medisval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. . Col- 
 lected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal Svo, is. 6d. 
 ornamental wrapper. 
 " The book will be of great assistance to ladles and young children who are endowed with the 
 
 art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work." — Sast Anetian Timet. 
 
 Wood Carving. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with 
 Hints on Design. By A Lady. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition, 
 Crown Svo, as. in emblematic wrapper. - 
 
 " The handicraft of the wood-canrer, so well as a book can mpen IL may tw leamc from * A 
 Lady's" publication."— -<rA;w«M»i, 
 
32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD *• SON*S CATALOGUE, 
 
 NATU RAL SCIENCE , etc. 
 
 The Heavens and their Origin. 
 
 THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE: Chapters on the Origin and 
 Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. Gore. F.R.A.S. Illustrated by 6 
 Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates, avot i6s. cloth. 
 
 " A valuaUe and lucid summary of recent astronomical ineury, rendered more valuable and 
 attractive by a series of stellar photographs and other iUustrations."— 7"** Times. 
 
 " In presenting a clear and concise account of the present state of our knowledge, Mr. Gore 
 has made a valuable addition to the literature of the subject." — Nature. 
 
 " As interesting as a novel, and instructive withal ; the text being made still more luminous by 
 stellar photographs and other illustrations. . . . A most valuable book."— Mant/iesier Examtner 
 
 " One of the finest works on astronomical sci«ice that has recently appeared In our language. 
 Leeds Mercury. 
 
 The Constellations^ 
 
 STAR GROUPS: A Student's Guide to the ConsUllations, By 
 J. Ellard Gorb,F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Author of " The Visible Universe,' 
 "The Scenery of the Heavens." With 30 Maps. Small Ato, 5s. cloth silvered. 
 
 "A knowledge of the principal constellations Wsible in our latitudes may be easily acquired 
 firoiu the thirty maps and accompanying text contained in this ■wor'^K.,"— Nature. 
 
 " The volume contains thirty maps showing stars of the sixth magnitude— the usual naked-eye 
 limit-and each is accompanied oy a brief commentary, adapted to facilitate recognition and bring 
 to notice objects of special interest. For the purpose of a preliminary survey of the ' midnight pomp * 
 of the heavens, nothing could be better than a set of delineations averaging scarcely twenty square 
 inches in area, and including nothing that cannot at once be identified." — Saturday Reviev. 
 
 "A very compact and handy guide to the constellatioas." — Athenaeum. 
 
 Astronomical Terms, 
 
 AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY; or, Dictionary of Terms 
 used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of Remarkable and 
 Interesting Celestial Objects. By ]. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of 
 " The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown bvo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A very useful little work for beginners in a-^tronomy, aud not to be despised by more ad- 
 vanced students." — The Titnes. 
 
 " Astronomers of all kinos will be glad to have it for TefeTe]tce."—G$tardian, 
 
 The Microscope, 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE : Its Construction and Management, in- 
 cluding Technique, Photo-micrography, and the Past and Future of the 
 Microscope. By Dr. Henri van Heurcx. Re-Edited and Augir ented from 
 the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.G.S. 
 400 pages, with upwards of 250 Woodcuts. Imp. 8vo, i8s. cloth. 
 
 " A translation of a well-known work, at once popular ana comprehensive." — Times. 
 
 " The translation is as feliciCious as it is accurate."— iVo/wr;. 
 
 The l^icroscoae 
 
 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. By Dr. H. van Heurck. Extracted 
 from the above Work. Royal 8vo, with Illustrations, is. sewed. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, F.R.S. 
 Third EditioD, Revised, by Wh. T. Lynn, B.A„ F.R.A.S., izmo, ts, cloth. 
 " A sound and simple treatise, and a capital bode for Iweinuers."— AfHtfic^a^f-e. 
 
 Recent and Fossil Shells. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLVSCA : Being a Treatise on Recent 
 and Fossil Shells. B^ S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S. With an Appendix 
 on Recent and Fossil Concholosical Discoveries, by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., 
 F.G.S. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth 
 Edition, 1880. Crown 8vo, 75, 6d, cloth 
 " a most valuable storehouse of conchologlcal and geological information."— &wn££ Gassi*. 
 
 Geology and Genesis. 
 
 THE TWIN RECORDS OP CREATION; or, Geology ana 
 Genesis: their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By Gboros W, 
 Victor le Vaux. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 " A valuable contribution to tile evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclnslvety of ttie 
 
 arguments of those who would set God's Works against God 5 Word. No real difficulty is shirked 
 
 and no sophistry is left unexposed.'— rA« RotA. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY. PHYSICAL 
 AND HISTORICAL. With especial reference to the British series of 
 Rocks. By R. Tate, F.G.S. With Z50 Illustrations. X2mo, 5s. cloth boards. 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE, etc. 33 
 
 DR. LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Re-written and Enlarged by 
 B. LoEWY, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 "Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought It up to modern requirements." — 
 ligature. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS &* PNEUMATICS, Enlarged 
 by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 " For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowled^ of physical science without the pro- 
 Dund methods of mathematical iovestigatioo,' this work is well adapted." — Chemical News. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely Re-written 
 
 by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., &c. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " The style Is always clear and precise, and conveys Instruction' without leaving any cloudiness 
 pr lurking doubts behind."— £»^««W;^. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By Dr. Lardnbr. Edited by T. O. 
 Harding, B.A. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 " Written by an able scientific writer and beautifully illustrated."— jtaT^cAajfiVj Magazitte, 
 
 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Dr. 
 Lardner. Edited by G. C, Foster, B.A. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and 
 lucid style of Lardner." — Popular Science Review^ 
 
 HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY, By Dr. Lardner. Fourth 
 
 Edition by E. Dukkin, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, 9s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Probably no other book contains the same amountof information in so compendious and well- 
 arranged a form — certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." — Athenetum. 
 
 "We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we 
 strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general — but at the same time correct — acqualni- 
 gnce with this sublime science." — Quarterly journal qf Science, 
 
 DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, 
 
 THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, Edited by 
 Dr. Lardner. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double 
 Volumes, £x is. in a new and elegant cloth binding ; or handsomely bound in 
 half-morocco, 31s. 6d. 
 " A cheap and interestit^ publication, alike Informing and attractive. The papers combine 
 
 subjects of unportance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a 
 
 popular style of treatment." — Spectator. 
 
 "The ' Museum of Science and Art' Is the most valuable contribution that has ever beeii 
 
 made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society."— Sir David Brewster, In th» 
 
 North British Review. 
 
 *** Separate books foftned from the above, fully Illustrated, suitable for 
 Workmen's Librartei, Science Classes, etc. 
 
 i^fommon Things Explained, f 
 
 The Microscope, 2s. cloth, 
 Popular Geology, 25. 6d. cloth. 
 Popular Physios, 2s'. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Steam and its Uses, zs. cloth. 
 Popular Astronomy, 45.6^.cloth. 
 The See and White Ants. 25. cloth. 
 The Electric Telegraph, is, Gd. 
 
 DVm Lardner^s School Sandbooks, 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d. 
 
 "Avery convenient chiss-book for junior students in private schools."— 5rtrtrA Quarter^ 
 Review. 
 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6i. 
 
 " Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." — Gardener's Chrontcie. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. Lardner. Re- 
 
 vised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo, 2S. 6rf. cloth. 
 " One of the most readable books .extant on Che Electric Telegraph."— i!«£'/i;r/t Mechatiic 
 
34 CROSBY LOCKWOQD &* SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 OHEMIGAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Chemistry for Engineers, etc, 
 
 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY : A Practical Treatise for the 
 Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, 
 Students, and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the 
 Principal Materials used in Engmeering Work, with numerous Analyses, 
 Examples, and Suggestions. By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C, F.C.S. 
 formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the Great Eastern Railway, 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with Illustra- 
 tions, los. 6d. cloth. (just published^ 
 " In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. 
 . . . The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the 
 despatch required of engineering chemists peim'its."— Chemical Ne-ws. 
 
 " Those in search of a handy treatise on the subject of analytical chemistry as applied to the 
 every-day requirements of workshop practice will find this volume of great assistance.'— /row. 
 
 " The first attempt to bring forward a Chemistry specially written for the use of engineers, 
 and we have no hesitation whatever in saymg that it should at once be in the possession of every 
 railway engineer." — The Railway Engineer, 
 
 " The book will be very useful to those who require a handy and concise resume of approved 
 methods of analysing and valuing metals, oils, fuels, &c. It is, in fact, a work for chemists, a guide 
 to the routine of the engineering laboratory, , . , The book is full of good things. As a hand- 
 book of technical analysis, it is very -welcome."— Sietlder. 
 
 " Considering the extensive ground which such a subject as Engineering Chemistry covers, 
 the work is complete, and recommends itself to both the practising analyst and the analytical 
 student." — Chemical Trade 'VournaL 
 
 "The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trust- 
 worthy resuhs m experienced hands. There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, thfe 
 chapter on * Oils euid Lubrication ' being specially noticeable in this respect." — E>igineer. 
 
 Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc, 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Sloda, and Bleaching Powder, 
 By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. 
 With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of 
 Text. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, £1 105. cloth. 
 'This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the moit 
 approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 333 wood en> 
 g'avings, all of whicti may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manu- 
 facture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement e-&p\a.\\\ea.."~ Athenaum. 
 
 *' We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, 
 but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct 
 of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological authors."— 
 Chemical Review. 
 
 ^M^he ^^ii o^t)i!iin e 
 
 THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND 
 GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many 
 Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- 
 Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Second Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 "The student who goes throu^^h the course ot experimentation here laid down will gain 
 a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had 'got up' any of the best 
 text-books, and passed any number of examinations in their contents."— Chintical News, 
 
 CoTnmercial Chemical Analysis, 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA- 
 LYSIS; or, Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or 
 Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and iQ 
 the Arts. By A. Normandy, Editor of Rose's " Treatise on Chemical 
 Analysis." New Edition, to a great extent Re-written by Henry M. Noad, 
 Ph.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to th« 
 housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." — Medical T-rf^es. 
 
 " Essential to the analysts appointed under the new A> t. The most 1 ecent results ate given 
 and the w ork i s well edited and carefiiUv ■writtea,"—Naiure, 
 
 Dye- Wares and Colours, 
 
 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES : Their 
 
 Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities, and Sophistications. Fortha 
 
 use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J, W. Slater. Second 
 
 Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A complete encyclopaedia of the materia t&fctaria. The information given respecting each 
 
 article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of arucles such as these, so 
 
 liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and axe practical as well as valuAblo."— Chefnist 
 
 and Druggist. 
 
 " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students prepanr ^ 
 foie:iaminations in dyeing and printing It will prove exceedingly useful."- Chemical News. 
 
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, etc. 35 
 
 Modern Brewing and Malting, 
 
 A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS; Being a Practical Guide 
 
 to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern 
 
 Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By Herbert Edwards 
 
 Wright, M.A. Crown 8vo, 530 pp., 12s. 6rf. cloth. 
 
 " Msy be consulted with advantage hy the student who is preparing himself for exatninational 
 tests, whUe the scientific brewer will find in it a resume of all the most important discoveries o( 
 modem times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes 
 great care to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts."— Brewers' ^ournai. 
 
 "We have great pleasure in recommending this handybook, and have no hesitation in 
 saying that it is one of the best — if not the best — which has yet been written on the subject of 
 beer-Drewing in this country, and it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer's library." 
 — The Brewer's Guardian. 
 
 " Although the requirements of the student are primarily considered, an acquaintance of half- 
 an-hour's duration cannot fail to impress the practical brewer with the sense uf having found a 
 trustworthy guide and practical counsellor in brewery Taatters."— Chemical Trade yournaL 
 
 Analysis and Valuation of Fuels, 
 
 FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS, Their Analysis 
 and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers, By H. J. Phillips, 
 F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the Great Eastern 
 Railway. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 *' Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever 
 (ttel Is used on a large scsJe."— Chemical News. 
 
 " Cannot fail to be of wide interest, especially at the present tXxaa."— Railway News. 
 
 Pigments, 
 
 THE ARTIST'S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS, Showing 
 their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adul- 
 terations; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and 
 the most Reliable Tests of Purity , Together with the Science and Art 
 Department's Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. Standace. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "This work is indeed multum-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to 
 all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users." — Chemical Review, 
 
 Gauging* Tables and Mules for B,evenue Officers, 
 
 Srewers, etc, 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GA UGING : 
 Containing Tables, Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Of&cers, Brewers, 
 Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Mant (Inland Revenue). Second Edition, 
 Revised. iSrao, as. leather. 
 
 " This handy and usetul book is adapted to the requirements of the Inleuid Revenue Depart- 
 ment. and will be a favourite book of refeience."— Civilian. 
 
 •• Should be in the hands of every practical brewer."— ^^-ezcerj* yournaL 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AKT S, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Cotton Spinning. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE : A Manual of Practical Instruc 
 tion in the Processes of Opening, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Doubling 
 and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Opera- 
 tives, Overlookers and Manufacturers. By John Lister, Technical In- 
 structor, Pendleton. 8vo, ys. 6rf. cloth. l^ust published. 
 "This invaluable volume is a distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture."— 
 
 ''''' It' Is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements A&i\t&i."— Glasgow Herald, 
 
 Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc. 
 
 FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A Treatise on Milling Science 
 and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of 
 Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, 
 Prague Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with 
 Supplement. By H. H. P. Powles, A.-M.Inst.C.E. Nearly 400 pp. Illus- 
 trated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 2SS- cloth. 
 
 " TWs valuable work Is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of mming. . . 
 The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a sue 
 c^'ul career: he will have acquired a number of general prmciples which he can proceed to 
 .oSlv In this handsome vohime we at last have the accepted texj-boofc of modern milhngmgood, 
 lo^d English which has Uttle, if any, trace of the German idiom. —The Mtller. 
 
 "■nJiSoearSiceof this Celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers 
 will, we are sure, not be slow In availing themselves of its pages."— J/»««ri Gazette 
 
36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES AND GUMS: A Practical 
 
 Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various Agglutinants re- 
 cjuiredin the Buildine:. Metal- Working, Wood-Working and Leather- Work- 
 ing Trades, and for Workshop, Laboratory or Office Use With upwards of 
 900 Recipes and Formulae. By H. C. Standage, Chemist. Crown 8vo, 
 ■zs. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " We have pleasure in speakinsf favourably of this volume. So far as we have had experience, 
 which is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustworthy." — Athenaunt. 
 
 " As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of 
 curiosity among the large number of industries it touches."— ZJaiV^ Chronicle. 
 
 " In this goodly collection of receipts it would be strange if a cement for any purpose cannot 
 be found." — Oil^nd Colourmaji's journal, 
 
 Soap-makingm 
 
 THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the 
 Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc^ Including many New 
 Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. 
 By Alexander Watt. Fourth Edition. Enlarged. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. clotb. 
 
 •'The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical 
 5oap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." — Chemical Ne-ws. 
 
 " A thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature m our language. 
 We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English techtUcal litera- 
 ture. "—jVart*r«. 
 
 Paper Making, 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING: A Manual for Paper-makers 
 and Owners and Managers of Papar-Mills, With Tables. Calculations, &c. 
 By G. Clapperton, Paper-maker. With Illustrations of Fibres from Micro- 
 Photographs. Crown 8vo, 5s, cloth. [Just published. 
 "The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c., whilst 
 his manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper 
 makers and mill owners. The illu-itrations form an excellent feacure." — Paper Trade Review. 
 
 " We recommend everybody interested in the trade to get a copy of this thoroughly practicjj 
 book." — Paper Making. 
 
 Taper Making * 
 
 THE ART OF PAPER MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the 
 Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw , and other Fibrous Materials, 
 Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of 
 the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of 
 Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By Alexander Watt, 
 Author of " The Art of Soap-Making" With lUusts. Crown 8vo. ys. 6d. cloth 
 *' It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuatvle in- 
 formation. The 'Art of Paper-making,' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a 
 technical class or for the private student." — Paper and Priming Trades journal. 
 
 Leather Manufacture, 
 
 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a 
 
 Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and 
 Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex- 
 plaiaedj and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also the Methods for 
 the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gui 
 Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt, Author of " Soap- Making,'' &c 
 Second Edition, Crown 8vo, gs. cloth 
 " A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and Its accessories. It Is an eminently valuable 
 production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." — Chefnical Review, 
 
 Boot and Shoe Making, 
 
 THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING, A PracticaJ 
 
 Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing, and 
 Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. 
 By John B. Leno, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Mnk^v 
 lamo, 2s. cloth limp. 
 "This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever .written. The chapter on clicking, 
 which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book " 
 
 Scottish Leather Trader. 
 
 Dentistry Const ruction. 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY: A Practical Treatise on the 
 Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use 
 ful Formulse, Tables, and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c, &c 
 By Charles Hunter. Third Edition Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 " We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparing for the prnfes&ion 
 of dentistry as well to every mechanical dentist." — Dublin Jon/mal of Medical Science, 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 37 
 
 Wood Engraving. 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVING: A Practical md Easy Introduction to the 
 Study of the Aft. By Williau Norman Browh. Second Edition, With 
 numerous Illustrations. lamo, 15. (>d. cloth limp. 
 
 "The book Is clear and complete, aud will be useful to anyone wanting: to understand the first 
 elements of the beautiful art of wood ent^aving."— Gra^/ijc. 
 
 Horology, ' 
 
 A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac- 
 tice. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the 
 School of Horology at Ma9on, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besanyon 
 Watch Manufactuier, and Edward Kigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal I^ int. 
 With 78 Woodcuts and 22 Coloured Copper Plates. Second Edition. Super- 
 royal 8vo, £2 25. cloth ; ^2 105. half-calf. 
 "There is no horolo?lcal work in the English lanEuage at all to be compared to this produc* 
 tlon of M. Saunier's for cleamess and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and 
 n% a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman,"— /^oj-o^tT^'fo/ journal. 
 
 " The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which 
 continental watchmakers are indebted for tlie mechanical superiority over their Ensflish brethren 
 ■ (nfact, the Book of Books, is M, Saunier's 'TTea.tise,"'-~tVatch'maker,J^ewelleranaSilvers9nuh. 
 
 ^Fatchtnaking. 
 
 THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. Intended as a Work- 
 shop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechani- 
 cal Arts. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, and considera- 
 ably enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the 
 Horological Institute, and Edward Rigg, M.A„ Assayer in the Royal Mint. 
 With numerous Woodcuts and 14 Copper Plates. Third Edition. Crown 
 Svo, gs. cloth. 
 " Each part is truly a treatise In Itself. The arrangement Is good and the language is clear and 
 
 concise. It is an admirable guide for the young ■waichmaket,"—£?i£ineerin£^, 
 
 "It Is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a hand. 
 
 book Intended for the use oi a workman. Should be found in every workshop."— ^'a^cA afid 
 
 Cloclimaker. , 
 
 " This book contains an immense number of practical det-ails bearing on the daily occupation 
 
 of a watchmater."— H'auhmaker and Ajetalwor&er (Chicago), 
 
 Watches and Tinnekeepers. 
 
 A HISTORY OF WATCHES AND OTHER TIMEKEEPERS. 
 By James F, Kendal, M. B.H.Inst. 15, 6rf. boards; or 2s. 6d. cloth gilt. 
 
 "Mr. Kendal's book, for its size, is the best which has yet appeared on this subject in the 
 English la.Tiga5.sa."— Industries. 
 
 " Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it concerning the ingenious 
 devices of the ancient or modern horotoger. The subject is treated in a liberal and entertaining 
 spirit, as might be expected of a historian who is a master of the craXt."— Saturday Review. 
 
 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc. 
 
 ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis 
 of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descrip- 
 tions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther- 
 mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of 
 the Art, and several Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By Alexander 
 Watt, Author of " Electro- Metallurgy," &c. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 
 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical 
 
 descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the workshop." 
 
 —En£^tuer. 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy, 
 
 ELECTRO-META LL URG Y ; Practically Treated. By Alexander 
 Watt, Author of "Electro-Deposition," &g Tenth Edition, including the 
 most recent Processes. i2mo, 4s. cloth boards. 
 
 "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the sue. essfu 
 prosecution of electroplating." — Iron, 
 
 Working in Gold, 
 
 THE JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN THE ART OF WORK- 
 ING IN GOLD : A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled 
 from the Experience of Thirty Yeais' Workshop Practice. By George E. 
 Gee, Author of "The Goldsmith's Handbook," &c. Cr. bvo, 7s. 6d. cloth, 
 " This manual of technical education is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a 
 
 handicraft which is certainly capable of great improvement."— T/te Times. 
 
 " Very useful in the workshop, as the knowledge is practical, having been acquired by long 
 
 experience, and all the recipes and directions are guaranteed to be successful."— yea/e//g»' and 
 
 Metalworker, 
 
38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Electroplating, 
 
 ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook on the Deposi- 
 
 , tion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum,' &c. &c. 
 With Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries, and Dynamo 
 Machines used in the Art. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of " Electric 
 Light," &c. Third Edition, with Additions. Crown 8vo. 5s. cloth. 
 
 " An excellent practical manual."— £«^'wcirrt«^, 
 
 '' An excellent work, giving the newest information." — Horolo^cal Journal, 
 
 Eilectrotyping* 
 
 ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- 
 ing Surfaces and Wofhs of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W, 
 
 y RQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 "The boolc Is thoroughly practical. The reader Is, therefore, conducted through the leading* 
 laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, andthe depositing 
 processes, up to the final preparation of the work."— ^»-i yoMr«a/. 
 
 Goldsmiths^ Work, 
 
 THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, 
 Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. lamo, 3s. 6d. cl. bds, 
 " A good, sound educator, which will be accepted as an authority. "— Nofoio^-icai Jour/ial. 
 
 Silversmiths^ Work, 
 
 THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, 
 Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised. lamo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 *' The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . The workers in the trade wUl 
 ■ipeedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it."— Eng'lis/i Mechanic. 
 *** The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price ys. 
 
 Sheet Metal Working. 
 
 THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR: For 
 Zinc, Sheet Iron, Copper, and Tin Plate Worktrs. Containing Rules for 
 describing the Patterns reqinied in ihe Different Branches of the Trade. 
 By R. H. Warn, Tin Plate Worker. With Thirty-two Plates. 8vo, 75. 6rf. cl. 
 
 Bread and Biscuit liaking, 
 
 THE BREAD AND BISCUIT BAKER'S AND SUGAR- 
 BOILER'S ASSISTANT. Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. 
 By Robert Wells, Practical Baker. Crown 8vo, 2s, cloth. 
 " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the bctker." — Saturday Bevicw, 
 
 Confectionery for Hotels and Hestaurants, 
 
 THE PASTRYCOOK AND CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. 
 For Hotels, Restaurants and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family 
 Use, By Robert Wells. Crown 8vo, zs, cloth. 
 " "We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competldoo 
 out readers cannot do better thein purchase this book." — Bakers' Times. 
 
 Ornamental Confectionery, 
 
 ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY : A Guide for Bakers, 
 Confectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and 
 Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. 
 By Robert Wells. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 5s. 
 "A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The 
 Illustrative designs are alone worth treble the amount charged for the whole work."- Bakers' Times. 
 
 Flour Confectionery, 
 
 THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER. Wholesale and 
 
 Retail. Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, 
 &c. With Remarks on the Ineredients used in their Manufacture. By 
 R. Wells. Crown 8vo, 2s. c'oth 
 " The work is of a decidedly practical character, and tn every recipe regard is had to economi- 
 cal working." — North British Daily Mail. 
 
 Laundry Work, 
 
 LA UN DRY MANAGEMENT. A Handbook for Use in Private 
 and Public Laundries, Including Descriptive Accounts of Modern Machinery 
 and Appliances for Laundry Work. By the Editor of " The Laundry 
 lournal." Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. bd, cloth. 
 " This book should certainly occupy an honoured place on the shelves of all houst keepers 
 m\o wish to keep themselves au courant of the newest appliances and iLethods." — T/te Qtteen. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 39 
 
 HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS- 
 
 By PAUL N. HASLUCK, 
 
 Editor of "Work" (New Series); Author of "Lathework," "Milling 
 
 Machines," &:c. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 144 pages, cloth, price is, each. 
 
 13" TAeseHANDYBooKS have been written to supply information for Workmen, 
 Students, and Amateurs in the several Handicrafts, on the actual Practice of 
 the Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Techhicai^ Know- 
 ledge of the several Crafts. In describing the processes employed, and the manipu- 
 lation of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully explained ; 
 and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances, and 
 processes. 
 
 THE METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With over loo Illustrations. Price is. 
 " The book -will be of service alike to the amateur and the artisan turner. It displays thorough 
 
 knowledge of the snhiGct."— Scotsman. 
 
 THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 for Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illustrations. Price is. 
 "We recomnvsnd the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen hav*- 
 
 httherto sought in. vain for a manucil of this special 'vaAastTy."~Mechanical World. 
 
 THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. 
 Price IS. 
 
 *'We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and studi 
 this Inexpensive work."— C&rA^MweW Chronicle. 
 
 THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK, A Practical 
 Manual on the Construction ot Patterns for Founders. With upwards nf 
 100 Illustrations. Price is. 
 '* A most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern ma!k.ex."— Knowledge. 
 
 THE MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical 
 Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various 
 Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. 
 Comprising about 200 Subjects. Price is. 
 
 " A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every workshop; and it should 
 certEunly find a place in all technical sclioo'\^."Saiurday Review. 
 
 THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical 
 Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines. With upwards of ion 
 illustrations. Price is. 
 
 ■' Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little hoo^."— Builder. 
 
 THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting, With upwards of 100 Illustrations. 
 Price IS. 
 " It is of inestimable service to those commencing the tt&AB."— Coventry Standard. 
 
 THE CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK: A Practical 
 
 Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in 
 Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Price is. 
 " Mr. Hasluck's thoroughgoing little Handybook is amongst the most practical guides we have 
 seen for beginners in cabinet-work." — Saturday Review. 
 
 THE WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK OF MANUAL IN- 
 STRUCTION. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances 
 and Processes employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations. Price is 
 
 \_Just published. 
 
 THE METALWORKER'S HANDYBOOK. With upwards of 100 
 Illustrations. tin preparation. 
 
 *** Opinions or the Press, 
 
 '* Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do it, and 
 how to convey his laiowledge to others." — Engineering, 
 
 " Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions. "—£?(j?w(eer. 
 
 " Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and 
 scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of 
 what can be produced at a popular •pz\cc."School»taster. 
 
 " Helpfu! to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience."— Jaz'/y Chroniclt- 
 
 '* Practical, sensible, and remarkably chea.p."~youfnal o/Mduea^ion. 
 
 " Concise, clear and practical." — Saturday Re-view, 
 
40 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 COMMERCE, COUN TING-HOUSE WO RK, TABLES, etc. 
 
 Commercial Education. 
 
 LESSONS JN COMMERCE. By Professor R. Gambaro, oi 
 
 the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by James 
 
 Gault, Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College. 
 
 London. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercia 
 
 education by tlie o^ portune production of this volume. . . . The work is peculiarly acceptable 
 
 to Erglish readers and an aamiiable addition to existing class-books. In a phrase, we think thfe 
 
 work attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with 
 
 which the commercial man interested therein should be {a.iai\ia.T."—Cfiamder of Commerceyournal. 
 
 " An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career." 
 
 Counting House. 
 
 Foreign ComTnercial Corresponfience, 
 
 THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT : Being 
 
 Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages — English, French, 
 
 German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Second Edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages, mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do bettei 
 
 than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They consist 
 
 not of entire specimen letters, but— what are far more useful— short passages, sentences, or 
 
 phrases expressmg the same general idea in various lOTms."—j4thenaum. 
 
 "A careful examinat on has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged, ant* 
 reliable. The book is a thoroughly good one."— Schoolmaster. 
 
 Accounts for Manufacturers, 
 
 FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A 
 
 Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No- 
 menclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Rating of Fac- 
 tories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., 
 including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings 
 By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fourth Edition, Revised and En- 
 lai ged. Df my 8vo, 250' pages, 6s. strongly bound. 
 " A very interes ting description of the requirements of Factoiy Accc unts. . . . the principle 
 
 of assimilatng the Factory Accounts to the gereral commercial books Is ore which we thoroughly 
 
 agree with." — A(Coi<ntanis' yoni nal 
 
 " Character sed by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not 
 
 derive great benefit from the perusal ot this most admirable work." — Local Government Chronicle. 
 
 Modern Metrical Units and Systems* 
 
 MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual of the Metrical Units 
 and Systems of the Present Centwy. With an Appendix containing a proposed 
 English System. By Lewis D*A. Jackson, A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Aid 
 to Strvey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6rf. cloth. 
 
 " We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and mea- 
 sures." — T^ aiure. 
 
 The Metric System and the British Standards, 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand- 
 ard Measures and Weights are compared with those 0/ the Metric System at Present 
 in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, ids. 6d. strongly bound. 
 •'Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one 
 lystem into the ot'het."—Athenaum. 
 
 Iron and Metal Trades' Calculator, 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION, For 
 expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, 
 trom IS. per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one 
 shilling per pound. By Thomas Downie. 396 pp., gs. leather. 
 
 " A most useful set of tables ; nothing like them before existed."- Building- News. 
 
 "Although specially adapted to the Iron and metal trades, the tables will be found us&ful in 
 every other business In which merchandise is bought and sold by weight."— ifarf/way New.'. 
 
 Iron Shipbuilders' and Merchants' Weight Tables, 
 
 IRON -PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilders, 
 Engineers, and Iron Merchants, Containing the Calculated Weights oi up- 
 wards of 150,000 difierent sizes ot Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. by i in. to 
 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square 
 foot of Iron of i inch in thickness. Carefully compilt d and thoroughly Re- 
 vised by H. BuRLiNSON and W. H. Simpson. Oblong 410, 25s. half-bound. 
 
 "This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had much practical experience 
 of what is wanting in making estimates; and the use of the book will save much tiineln tialttrg 
 elaborate calculations."— fji^/iJ/t Mechanic. 
 
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. ^i 
 
 Chadwick's Calculator for Numbers and Weights 
 Combined, 
 
 THE NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCU- 
 LATOR, Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at 
 a glance the value at 422 difierent rates, ranging from r^th of a Penny ttf 
 zos, each, or per cwt,, and £20 per ton, of any number of articles consecu- 
 tively, from I to 470. — Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i cwt. to 470 
 cwts.— Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i to 1,000 tons. By 
 WiLUAM Chadwick, PubUc Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Im- 
 proved. 8vo,i8s., strongly bound for Office wear and tear. 
 tS" Is adapted for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, 
 Canal Companies^ Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, 
 Btussfounders, Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturers, Ironmongers, Engineers, 
 Machinists, Boilet Makers, Millwi ights, Roofings Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery 
 Proprietors, etc. Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, 
 Auctioneers, Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers,^ 
 Merchants, and General Wholesale Tradesmen, Also for the Apportionment cf 
 Mileage Charges for Railway Traffic, 
 
 \* Opinions of the Press. 
 
 " It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary, and the 
 references are even more quickly made. For making up accounts or estimates the book must' 
 prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and 
 measure in any combination to do." — En^neer. 
 
 " The most complete and practical ready reckoner which it has been our fortune yet to see. It 
 Is difficult to imagine a trade or occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use, either iiv 
 saving human labour or in checking work. The publishers hdve placed withm the reach of every 
 commercial man an invaluable and unfailing assistant."— ZA* Miller. 
 
 " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared."— G^oj^tjw Herald. 
 
 Harben's Comprehensive Weight Calculator, 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables 
 apon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact 
 Value of any Weight from i lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. 
 to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their 
 Combinations, consisting of a smgle addition (mostly to be performed af 
 sight), will afiord an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calcu- 
 lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry 
 Harben, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo, 
 £1 5s. strongly half-bound, 
 " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; It Is the best of the 
 
 Und we have seen." — Ironmonger, 
 
 " Of priceless VEilue to busmess men. It Is a necessary book In all mercantile offices." — Sh(f^ 
 
 field Independent, 
 
 Harben's Comprehensive Discount Chiide, 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE, Comprising several Series of 
 
 Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, 
 by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using 
 Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either 
 Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one 
 operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or 
 more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from ij to 
 go per cent,, Tables of Discount from ij to 98J per cent., and Tables ot Com- 
 mission, &c., from i to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant, Author 
 of "The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected. 
 Demy 8vo, 544 pp., £1 5s. half-bound. 
 
 " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time 
 tneans saving of money. We have the nigh authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables^ 
 throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work is a model 
 of typographical clearness, and must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, Eind 
 general traders," — British Trade yottrnal. 
 
 New Wages Calculator. 
 
 TABLES OF WAGES at 54, 52, 50 and 48 Hours per Week. 
 Showing the Amounts of Wages from One-quarter-of-an hour to Sixty-four 
 hours in each case at Rates of Wages advancing by One ShilUng frcm 4s. to- 
 55s. per week. By Thos. Garbutt, Accountant. Square crown >-vo. 6s. 
 half-bound. {Just published. 
 
42 CROSBY LOCK WOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 "DIRECT CALCULATORS," 
 
 By M. B. COTSWORTH, of Holgate, York. 
 
 QUICKEST AND MOST ACCURATE MEANS OF CALCULATION KNOWN. 
 
 ENSURE ACCURACY and SPEED WITH EASE, SAVE TIME and MONEY. 
 Accounts may be charged out or checked by these means in about one 
 third the time required by ordinary methods of calculation. Thete 
 unrivalled "Calculators" have very clear and original contrivances 
 for instantly finding the exact answer, by its fixed position, without 
 even sighting the top or side of the page. They are varied in arrange- 
 ment to suit the special need of each particular trade. 
 All the leading firms now use Calculators, even where they employ experts. 
 N.B.— Indicator letters in braojiets should be quoted. 
 
 "RAILWAY &= TRADERS' CALCULATOR " (R. & T.) los. ei. 
 Including Scale of Charges for Small Parcels by Merchandise Trains. 
 " Direct Calculator" — the only Calculator published giving exact charge for 
 Cwts., Qrs. and Lbs., together. " Calculating Tables" for every id. rate to 
 1005. per ton. " Wages Calculator." "Percentage Rates." " Grain, Flour, 
 Ale, &c., Weight Calculators," 
 
 " DIRECT CALCULATOR (I R) " including all the above except 
 
 " Calculating Tables." 7s. 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (A)" by Id., is, each opening, exact 
 
 pence to 40s. per ton. 5s. 
 ■" DIRECT CALCULATOR (B) " by id., 4s. each opening, exact 
 
 pence to 4cs. per ton. 45. td. 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (C) " by id. (with Cwts. and Qrs. to 
 
 nearest farthing), to 40s. per ton. 4s. 6rf. 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (Ds) " by id. gradations. (Single Tons 
 
 to 50 Tons, then by fifties to 1,000 Tons, with Cwts. values below in exact 
 
 pence payable, fractions of Jd. and upwards being counted as id. 6s. id. 
 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (D) " has from 1,000 to 10,000 Tons in 
 addition to the (Ds) Calculator. 7s. 6d. 
 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (Es) " by id. gradations. (As (D) to 
 1,000 Tons, with Cwts. and Qrs. values shown separately to the nearest 
 farthing), ^s. 6d. 
 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (E) " has from 1,000 to 10,000 Tons in 
 addition to the (Es) Calculator, es. 6d. 
 
 "DIRECT CALCULATOR (F) " by id., 2$. each opening, exact 
 pence to 40s. per ton. 4s. 6d. 
 
 '• DIRECT CALCULATOR (Gi)" by id., is. each opening; 6 in. by 
 9 in. Nearest Jd. Indexed (G I) 3s. 6d. 2S. 6d. 
 
 " DIRECT CALCULATOR (H) " by id., is. each opening ; 6 in. by 
 gin. To exact pence. Indexed (H I) 3s. 6d. 2s., 6d. 
 
 •■ DIRECT CALCULATOR {YL)" Showing Values of Tons, Cwts. 
 and Qrs. in even pence (fractions of id. as id.), for the Retail Coal Trade. 
 4s. 6d. 
 
 "RAILWAY AND TIMBER TRADES MEASURER AND CAL- 
 CULATOR (T)" (as prepared for the Railway Companies). The only book 
 pSblished giving true content of unequal sided and round limber by eighths 
 of an inch, quarter girth. Weights from Cubic Feet — Standards, Superficial 
 Feet, and Stone to Weights — Running Feet from lengths of Deals— Standard 
 Multipliers— Timber Measures— Customs Regulations, &c. 3s. 6d. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARM ING, GARDENING, etc. 43 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc, 
 
 I>r, Fream's New Edition of ^^ The Standard 
 Treatise on Agriculture,'^ 
 
 THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- 
 BREEDER'S ASSISTANT: A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally 
 Written by William Youatt. Thirteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, 
 considerably Enlarged, and brought up to the Present Requirements of 
 Agricultural Practice, by William Fream, LL.D., Steven Lecturer in the 
 University of Edinburgh, Author of "The Elements of Agriculture," &c. 
 Royal 8vo, i,ioo pp., with over 450 Illustrations. £1 lis. 6d. strongly and 
 handsomely bound. 
 
 Extract from Publishers' Advertisement. 
 
 " A treatise that made its origrinal appearance in the first decade of the century, and that enters 
 upon Its Thirteenth Edition before the century has run its course, has undoubtedly estabhshed its 
 ^Mition as a work of permanent value. . . The phenomenal progress of the last dozen years in the 
 Practice and Science of Farming has rendered it necessary, however, that the volume should be 
 
 re-written and for this undertaking the publishers were fortunate enougfh to secure the 
 
 services of Dr. Fream, whose high attainments in all matters pertaining to agriculture have been 
 so emphatically recognised by the highest professional andT official authorities. In carrying 
 out his editorial duties, Dr. FREAM has been favoured with valuable contributions by Prof. J. 
 WORTLEY Axe, Mr. E. BROWN, Dr. BERNARD DYER, Mr. W. T. MALDEN, Mr. R. H. REW, 
 Prof. SHELDON, Mr. J. SINCLAIR, Mr. SANDERS SPENCER, and others. 
 
 " As regards the illustrations of the work, no pains have been spared to make them as repre- 
 sentative and characteristic as possible, so as to be practically useful to the Farmer and Grazier." 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Book I. On the Varieties, Breed- 
 ing, Rearing, Fattening, and 
 Management of Cattle. 
 
 Book II. On the Economy and Man- 
 agement of the Dairy. 
 
 Book III. On the Breeding, Rear- 
 ing, AND Management of Horses. 
 
 Book IV. On the Breeding, Rear- 
 ing, AND Fattening of Sheep. 
 
 Book V. On the Breeding, Rearing, 
 and Fattening of Swine. 
 
 Book VI. On the Diseases of Live 
 Stock. 
 
 Book VII. On the Breeding, Rear- 
 ing, and Management of Poultry. 
 
 Book VIII. On Farm Offices and 
 Implements of Husbandry. 
 
 Book IX, On the Culture and Man- 
 agement OF Grass LAt^DS. 
 
 Book X. On the Cultivation and 
 Application of Grasses, Pulse, 
 AND Roots. 
 
 Book XI. On Manures and their 
 Application toGrass Land&Crops 
 
 Book XII, Monthly Calendars of 
 Farmwork. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press on the New Edition. 
 
 " Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work 
 which will, at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe 
 that it will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . . . 
 The illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, New 
 Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art." — The Times. 
 
 " The book must be recognised as occupying the proud i^osition of the most exhaustive work 
 Preference in the English language on the subject with which it deals."— ^i/ternxu^n, 
 
 " The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists in the English language 
 to-day. . . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in t he Ubrary of every land- 
 owner." — Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and 
 unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agri- 
 cultural library of itself."- North Britisk Agricitlturist^ 
 
 " A compendium of authoritative and well-ordered knowledge on every conceivable branch 
 of the work oif the live stock farmer ; probably without an equal in this or any other country." 
 
 Yorkshire Post, 
 
 British Farm Live Stock, 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Robert 
 Wallace, F.L.S., F.R.S.E,, &c., Professor of Agriculture and Rural Eco- 
 nomy in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised 
 and, considerably Enlarged, With overiao Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy 
 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, 12s. 6d. clotJti. 
 
 " A really complete woik on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great 
 Britain, and one which is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's 
 library. "—The Tinus. 
 
 " The latest edition of ' Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ' is a production to be proud of, and 
 its issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science." 
 
 Scottish Partner, 
 
 "The .book is very attractive . . . and we can scarcely imagine the existence of a farmer 
 who would not like to have a copy of this beautiful •woTk."—Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " A work which will long be regarded as a standard authority whenever a concise history and 
 description of the breeds of live stock in the British Isles is r&qaized."— Sell's Weekly Messenger, 
 
44 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Dairy Farming. 
 
 BRITISH DAIRYING, A Handy Volume on the Work of the 
 Dairy-Farm. For the Use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students in 
 Agricultural Colleges, and the Working Dairy-Farmer. By Prof.J. P. Sheldon, 
 ate Special Commissioner of the Canadian Government, Author of *' Dairy 
 Farming," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " We conndently recommend it as a text-book on dairy farming'." — Agricultural Gazette. 
 "Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced."— Norih 
 British Ag'riculturist, 
 
 '* It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject." — The Tintes. 
 
 JOairiJ T^aThual 
 
 MILK, CHEESE AND BUTTER: A Practical Handbook 
 on their Properties and the Processes of their Production, including a 
 Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk. By John 
 Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, Berkeley, w-tti 
 Coloured Plates and 200 Illusts. Crown 8vo,75.6rf. cloth. \Just published, 
 "An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students 
 
 and practitioners of dairy science."— jV,5. Agriculturist. 
 
 " We strongly recommend this very comprehensive i.nd carefully -written book to dairy-farmers 
 
 and students of dairying-. It is a distinct acquisition to the library of the agricultuiist."— -^^rtc«^ 
 
 tttral Gazette. 
 
 Agricultural Facts and Figures. 
 
 NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES 
 
 FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By Primrose McConnell, 
 B.Sc. Fifth Edition. Royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, with band, 45. 
 " Literally teems with information, and we can cordially recommend it to all connected with 
 agriculture." — North British Aericulturist. 
 
 Small Farming, 
 
 SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING: or, The Lessons of my 
 Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. 
 By R. ScoTT Burn. With numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 "This ts the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur facmei 
 will read with pleasure and accept as a guide." — Field. 
 
 Modern Farming, 
 
 OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn, 
 
 Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming Elconomy — Cattle, Sheep, 
 and Horses — Management of Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry — Utilisation of 
 Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition, ,In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half- 
 bound, profusely Illustrated, 12s. 
 
 " The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive emd trustworthy 
 and he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit.' — Morning Advertiser. 
 
 Agricultural Engineering. 
 
 FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT -BOOK OP, 
 
 Comprising Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply; Farm 
 Roads, Fences, and Gates ; Farm Buildings ; Barn Implements and Ma- 
 chines; Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By 
 Prof. John Scott, 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 125. 
 "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his 
 
 work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statemeots. 
 
 The volume will be of ^reat value to agricultural students." — Mark Lam Excess. 
 
 Agricultural Text-Book. 
 
 THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN: A Text-Book of 
 
 Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. 
 For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements' (Board ot 
 Trade), Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. i8mo, as. 6d. cloth. 
 "A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information." — A£^riculiural Econotnist. 
 " It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contaltu 
 •och a vast and useful fund of knowledge."— £iiMca^ttwa/ Times. 
 
 Tables for Farmers, etc. 
 
 TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATJ^D RESULTS 
 
 for Farmers, Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents, Auc- 
 tioneers, etc. With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. By Sidney Fran- 
 cis. Third Edition, Revised, 272 pp., waistcoat- pocket size, is. td. leather. 
 " Weighing less than i oz., and occupying no more space them a match box, It contains a mass 
 of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every 
 operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole 
 of the tables having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recon.mend it."— £e^/V ^ee^/y 
 Messeng;er. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 45 
 
 Artificial Manures and Foods. 
 
 FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS : Their Proper- 
 ties and Uses. A Handbook for the Practical Farmer. By Bernard Dyer, 
 D. 50. (Lond.) With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act of 
 1893, the Regulations and Forms of the Board of Agriculture and Notes on 
 the Act by A. J. David, B.A., LL.M., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. 
 Crown 8vo, izo pages, is. cloth. [y«st published. 
 
 " An exeellent shilliugsworth. Dr. Dyer has done farmers gocd service in plating at their dis- 
 posa so much useful information in so intelligible a form."— Thi: Ti/nes. 
 
 The Management of Bees. 
 
 BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT : A Guide to the 
 Manipulation of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the General Manage- 
 ment of the Apiary. By G. Gordon Samson. Crown 8vo, is, cloth. 
 
 " The intending bee-keeper will find exactly the kind of information required to enable him 
 to make a successful start witn his hives. The author is a thoroughly competent teacher, and his 
 book may be commended." — Momittg Post. . 
 
 Farm and Estate Book-keeping. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS &• ESTATE OWNERS, 
 A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all 
 Classes of Farms. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant. Second 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth boards ; or 2S. 6d. cloth limp. 
 "The volume is a capitcil study of a most importEint sub}e.ct."-^As^ricitltural Gazette. 
 The young farmer, land ag-ent, and surveyor •will find Mr. Woodman's treatise more than 
 repay its cost and study.''— Buiiding- Nezus. 
 
 Farm Account Book, 
 
 WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. Giving 
 a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen- 
 diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With 
 Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the 
 Year. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant, Author of " Book- 
 keeping for Farmers." Folio, ys. 6d. half bound. [.culture 
 "Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately, "^^^^y-j. 
 
 Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables, 
 
 THE FORCING GARDEN ; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, 
 Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans and Estimates for Building Glass* 
 houses, Pits, and Frames. By Samuel Wood. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6rf. cloth. 
 '" A good book, cUid fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. The book is written with 
 great care, and contains a gxeat deal of valuable teaching." — Gardeners' Magazine, 
 
 Good Gardening, 
 
 A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or. How to Grow 
 
 Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. By S. Wood. Fourth Edition, with con-- 
 
 siderable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cl. 
 
 " A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical 
 directions are excellent." — Athetuzum. 
 
 " May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the 
 plain, simple, and trustworthy information it gives on common matters too often neglected."— 
 Gardeners' Chfotfi^lx. 
 
 Gainful Gardening, 
 
 MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING] or, How to make One 
 
 Acre of Land produce £620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; 
 also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise ^176 pei 
 annum clear Profit. By Samuel Wood, Author of "Good Gardening," &c. 
 Fifth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, 15. sewed. 
 "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's 
 gardener, but to the market giovfer."— Gardeners' Mag^azine. 
 
 Gardening for Ladies, 
 
 THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, 
 and Amateurs' Complete Guide. With Illusts. By S. Wood, Cr.8vo, 3s. 6d. cl. 
 
 Receipts for Gardeners, 
 
 GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by Charles W. Quin, i2mo, 
 15. 6d. cloth limp. 
 
 Market Gardening, 
 
 MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. By Contributors 
 to "The Garden." Compiled by C. W. Shaw, late Editor of "Gardenine 
 Illustrated." i2mo,3s, 6d. cloth boards. 
 
46 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING 
 ES TATE AGENCY, etc. 
 
 Auctioneer's Assistant. 
 
 THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND 
 EST A TE AGENT A ND VAL UER'S POCKET A SSISTA NT, for the Valua- 
 tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and 
 of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, 
 Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly extended by C. Norris, 
 Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32mo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of 
 
 prlcte for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c."—5i(a«rfarrf. 
 
 " Contains a large quantity of varied and useful Information as to the vaJuation for purchase, 
 
 sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices foi 
 
 Inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittinj^s and other effects." — Builder, 
 
 Auctioneering, 
 
 AUCTIONEERS : THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES. 
 
 A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By Robert 
 Squibbs, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised and partly Re- written. Demy 
 8vo, izs. 6d, cloth, 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 " The standard text-book on the topics of which it treats." — Athenceunt. 
 
 " The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much information in a compen- 
 dious and satisfactory form." — Builder. 
 
 " May be recommended as giving a great deal of information on the law relating to 
 auctioneers, in a very readable form." — La-w jfountal. 
 
 ** Auctioneers may be congratulated on having so pleasing a writer to minister to their special 
 needs." — Solicitors' journal. 
 
 "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent work." — Ironmonger. 
 
 " Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcome this book from the fact that It 
 treats the subject in a manner somewhat new to the pvoiessioa."— Estates Gazette. 
 
 Inwood's Estate Tables. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold^ 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; AnnuitieSf Advowsons, etc., and for the Renewing of 
 Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate hodiest 
 for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary 
 Estates, Deterred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. ; together with Smart's 
 Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower 
 and Intermediate Rates. By W. Inwood. 24th Edition, with considerable 
 Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult 
 Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c. , by M. Fedor 
 Thoman, of the Soci^td Credit Mobilier ot Paris. Crown 8vo, 8s. cloth. 
 "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation 
 
 cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of 
 
 eminent service." — Engineering. 
 
 "'Inwood's Tables' still maintain a most enviable reputat.on. The new Issue has been enriched 
 
 by arge additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot 
 
 fail tol)e of the utmost utility." — Mining yournal. 
 
 Agricultural Valuer's Assistant. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT. A Prac 
 ticai Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates ; including Rules and 
 Data for Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights, and Values of 
 Agricultural Produce and Timber, and the Values of Feeding Stuffs, 
 Manures, and Labour ; with Forms of Tenant-Rigbt- Valuations, Lists of 
 Local AgriculturEd Customs, Scales of Comjiensation under the Agricultural 
 Holdings Act, &c. &c. By Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor. Second 
 Edition, much Enlarged, Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 ** Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, laboui, 
 
 contents, and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds." — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 " An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and 
 
 value to surveyors and auctioneers in preparmg valuations of all kinds." — Farmer. 
 
 Plantations and Underwoods, 
 
 POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS: A Practical 
 Handbook on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, Improving, and 
 Grubbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for Purposes oi 
 Transfer, Rental, Sale, or Assessment. By Tom Bright, Author of 
 "The AgriculturalValuer s Assistant,'' &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d, cloth. 
 " To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome aid. "—North British AgrtcuUurist, 
 "Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted Interest 
 and use both to surveyors and auctioneers In preparing valuations of all kinds."— ATen^ Herala, 
 
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING, ets. 47 
 
 Hudson's Land Valuer's Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables 
 on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculatin|; the Value of Estates. With 
 Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute 
 Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, C.K. New Edition. Royal 32100. 4s. leather. 
 
 " Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man."— Far?nei's' Jourytah- 
 
 Ewart's Land Improver's Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULA, 
 TABLES, and MEMORANDA teguired in any Computation relating to the 
 Permanent Improvement of Landed Property, By John Ewart, Surveyor, 
 Second Edition. Royal 32mo, 4s. leather. 
 
 Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book, 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- 
 PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Being of the above Two Works bound together. 
 Leather, with strap, 7s. 6d. 
 
 House Property, 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. A Popular and Practi- 
 cal Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of 
 Houses and Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures ; with 
 Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Useful Information on Building, and 
 Suggestive Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and 
 Surveyor. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. i2mo, 5s. cloth. 
 " The advice Is thoroughly practical."— iow journal. 
 
 " For all who have dealings with house property, this is an Indispensable ga\A^."~DecoraHoft.- 
 " Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on fine 
 art. ... A well-written and thoughtful work."— iawrf Agent's Record. 
 
 LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS, 
 
 MODERN JOURNALISM. A Handbook of Instruction and 
 Counsel for the Young Journalist. By John B. Mackie, Fellow of the Insti- 
 tute of Journalists. Crown 8vo. 2s. clotti. [^MSi published. 
 " This invaluable gfuide to journalism is a work which all aspirants to a journalistic career wil 
 read with advantage."— 7oKr«a«sA 
 
 Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders. 
 
 HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF SOLICITORS AND EN- 
 GINEERS Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provt- 
 sional Orders, for the Authorization of Railways, Tramways, Gas and Water 
 Works, &o. By L. Livingston Maoassey, of the Middle Temple, Barrister- 
 at-Law, M.lnst.C.E. 8vo, 25s. cloth. 
 
 Law of Patents. 
 
 PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS, AND HOW TO PROCURE 
 THEM. Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By 
 G. G. M. Hardingham, Assoc.Mem.Inst.C.E., &o. Demy 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Labour Disputes. 
 
 CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION IN LABOUR DIS 
 PUTES : A Historical Sketch and Brief Statement of the Present Position' 
 of the Question at Home and Abroad. By J. S. Jeans, Author of "England's 
 Supremacy," &c. Crown 8vo, 200 pp., 2s. 6rf. cloth. \yiist published.- 
 
 •' Mr Jeans is well qualified to write on this subject, both by his previous books and by his- 
 practical experience as an arbitrator."— TAe Times. 
 
 Poeket-Book for Sanitary Officials. 
 
 THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET-BOOK : A Guide to 
 Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical OfScers of Health, Sanitary In- 
 soectors Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By Edwakd F. Willoughby, 
 MD (Lond.), &o.. Author of " Hygiene and Public Health." Fcap. 8vo, 
 ■!s 6d cloth, red edges, rounded corners. ijust published. 
 
 •■ S'liine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind on the various subjects of 
 ■,l,i.-h if treats The matter seems to have been carefully compiled and arranged for facihtyot 
 ^7l™„^, Sd it U weU illustrated by diagrams and woodcuts. The different subjects are 
 ScrincS but fully and scientificaUy dealt wit%."-7-A«i<.fli«<. , ^, , „ 
 
 "4 n .irellent publication, dealing with the scientific, technical and legal matters connected' 
 th the duties of medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors. The work is replete with 
 information."-^^™' Gavirnmeut yaurnal. 
 
48 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SOWS CATALOGUE. 
 
 A, Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country, 
 
 EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER: A Handy-Book of the 
 
 Principles of Law and Equity. With A CONCISE DICTIONARY 
 OF LEGAL TERMS. By A Barrister. Thirty-second Edition, carefully 
 Revised, and including New Acts of Parliament of 1894. Comprising the 
 jLocal Government Act, 1894 (establishing District and Parish Councils) ; 
 Finance A ct, 1894 {imposing the New Death Duties) ; Merchant Shipping A ct, 
 j:894 ; Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1894; Building Societies Act, 1894 ; 
 Notice of A ccidents A ct, 1894 ; Sale of Goads A ct, 1893 ; Voluntary Conveyances 
 Act, 1893 ; Married Women s Property Act^ 1893 ; Trustee Act, 1893 ; Fertiliser 
 and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893; Betting and Loans (Infants) A'Ct, 1892; Shop 
 Hours Act, iBq2\ Small Holdings Act, i8g2; and many other important new 
 Acts. Crown 8vo, 750 pp., price 6s. 8d. (saved at every consultation ! ), 
 strongly bound in cloth. l^ttst published. 
 
 *** The Book will be found to comprise (amongst other matter) — 
 THE Rights and wrongs of individuals— landlord and Tenant— vendors 
 ^ND PURCHASERS— Leases and mortgages— Principal and Agent— partnership 
 and companies— Masters, Servants, and Workmen— Contracts and Agreements 
 —Borrowers. Lenders, and sureties— Sale and purchase of Goods - Cheques, 
 Bills, and Notes -Bills of Sale— Bankruptcy— Railway and Shipping Law— 
 jLiFE, FxRE, and Marine Insurance— Accident and fidelity insurance— criminal 
 Law— parliamentary Elections— County Councils— District Councils—Parish 
 x;ouncils— Municipal Corporations — Libel and Slander— public Health and 
 Nuisances— COPYRIGHT, patents, Trade marks— Husband and wife- divorce- 
 Infancy— Custody of Children -Trustees and Executors — Clergy, Church- 
 wardens, etc.— Game Laws and Sporting-Innkeepers— horses and dogs— Taxes 
 and Death Duties— Forms of Agreements, Wills, Codicils, Notices, etc. 
 
 IS" The object of this work is to enable those who consult if to help them- 
 selves to the law ; and thereby to dispense, as far as possible, with professional 
 assistance and advice. There are many wrongs and grievances which persons sub- 
 mit to from time to time through not knowing how or where to apply for redress ; and 
 many persons have as great a dread of a lawyer's office as of a lion's den. With this 
 iook at hand it is believed that many a Six-and-Eightpence may be saved; many 
 a wrong redressed ; many a right reclaimed; many a law suit avoided ; and many 
 an evil abated. The work has established itself as the standard legal adviser of all 
 classes, and. has also made a reputation for itself as a useful book of reference for 
 lawyers residing at a distance from law librartes, who are glad to have at hand a 
 work embodying recent decisions and enactments. 
 
 %* Opinions of the Press. 
 
 *' A complete code of Hng'lish Law, written In plain language, which all can understand. 
 -Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills. . , ." 
 
 tVeekly Times. 
 
 " A useful and concise epitome of the law, complied with considerable care." — Law Magazine, 
 
 " A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English \a.vi."— Globe, 
 
 "Admirably done, admirably arranged, and admirably cheajp."— Leeds Mercury. 
 
 " A concise, cheap and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who 
 jruns may read, and he who reads may understand." — Figaro. 
 
 "The latest edition of this popular book ought to be in every business establishment, and on 
 every library X3h\&."— Sheffield Post. 
 
 " A complete epitome of the law ; thoroughly intelligible to non-professional readers." 
 
 Bell's Life. 
 
 Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers, 
 
 THE LAW OF LOANS AND PLEDGES. With Statutes 
 and a Digest of Cases. By H. C. Folkard, Esq., Barrister-at-Law. Fcap. 
 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 The Law of Contracts. 
 
 LABOUR CONTRACTS : A Popular Handbook on the Law 
 of Contracts for Works and Services. By David Gibbons. Fourth Edition, 
 Appendix of Statutes by T. F, Uttley, Solicitor, Fcap. 8vo, 3^. 6d. cloth. 
 
 The Factory Acts, 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACTS 
 (1878-1891). For the Use of Manufacturers and Managers. By Emile 
 Garcke and J. M. Fells. (Reprinted from " Factory Accounts.") Crown 
 .8vo, 6d. sewed. 
 
 OODEN, SMALE and CO. LIMZTEDt PRIMTBRS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, B.Ci 
 
Wieaie$ leltttiimeittara &me$. 
 
 LONDON, 1862. 
 iTHE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 "Was awarded to the Publishers of 
 
 "WEALE'S SERIES." 
 
 A NEW LIST OF 
 
 WEALE'S SERIES 
 
 RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC,EDUGATIONAL, 
 AND CLASSICAL. 
 
 Comprising nearly Three Hundred and Fifty distinct works in almost every 
 department of Sciencej Art^ and Education^ recommended to the noticeof Engineers, 
 Architects, Builders, Artisans^ and Students generally, as well as to those interested 
 in Workmen's Libraries, Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, 
 
 Science Classes, <5^c., ^c. 
 
 IS" " WEALE'S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of 
 Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture 
 and Building, Civil Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical 
 Engineering, Physical and Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous 
 Treatises. The whole are constantly undergoing revision, and new editions, 
 brought up to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are constantly 
 issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their excellence is 
 assured." — American Literary Gazette. 
 
 " Amongst the literature of technical education, Weale's Series has ever 
 enjoyed a high reputation, and the additions being made by Messrs. Crosby 
 LocKWOOD & Son render the series more complete, and bring the informa- 
 tion upon the several subjects down to the present time." — Mining Journal. 
 
 " It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more popular 
 with, or more useful to, young engineers and others than the excellent 
 treatises comprised in Weale's Series." — Engineer. 
 
 " The excellence of Weale's Series is now so well appreciated, that it 
 would be wasting our space to enlarge upon their general usefulness and 
 value." — Builder. 
 
 " The volumes of Weale's Series form one of the best collections of 
 elementary technical books in any language." — Architect. 
 
 " WEALE'S SERIES has become a standard as well as an unrivalled 
 collection of treatises in all branches of art and science." — Public Opinion. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers for 
 
 Sooks : Budimentary, Scientific, 
 "WEALE'S SERIES," ETC. 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.G. 
 
WKALE S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 WEALE'S RUDIMElfTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. 
 
 *** The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated with 
 Woodcuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the fol- 
 lowing List it must be understood that the books are bound in 
 limp cloth, unless otherwise stated ; but the volumes marked 
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