PUR 
 
 FEDERi 
 
 ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 Cornell University 
 
DATE DUE 
 
 SB 93.J19 TszT'""'"""'"^^ 
 "'^l?lEiii'II;«,,!!!',^r"^' °' *^^ a^raen, farm 
 
 3 1924 000 690 887 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000690887 
 
JACQUES' NEW MANUAL 
 
 ^arhn, Jfam aiiir ^arn-f ar^, 
 
 EMBRAcnra 
 
 PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE, AGRICULTURE, AND 
 CATTLE, HORSE AND SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ■WITH INSTBUOTIOHB TO 
 
 CnliTrVATB TBGETABLES, FBUIT, FLO'WBBS, ALL THE FIELD 
 
 CHOPS, EXECUTE THE DETAILS OF FARM WORK, AKD 
 
 BREED AND BEAR THE TARI0U8 8PECIB3 
 
 OF DOMESTIC AKIMAU'. 
 
 By d: H. JAOQUEB 
 
 AUTHOB OP " THE HOUSE," " HOW TO DO EUBIHlieB," JttO. 
 
 l^ewr and Kevi$e4 ;S4itio»4 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 
 
 39 AND 4.1 CHAMBERS STREET. 
 
S5 
 
 ,16' 7 6-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 'J. 
 
 f? f '•■■'. i ? ** 
 
 \\ 
 
 ''• / 
 
 
THE GAEDEN: 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 practical |i0rtitiilture; 
 
 OR, HOW TO OUITIVATB 
 
 VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 AH EXposmoH or Tns NAirrBs and AonoK of boils antd uAmmEs Ain> tsb 
 
 btbuotube and qeowta of plants ; difibctions foe tiib fobuino a 
 
 qabden; dbsobiption of implements and fixtubes; inbtbuo- 
 
 TIONS fob SOWING, TBAN8PLANTIN0, BtTUDINQ, QBAFTIHG, AND 
 OULTIVATINQ TBQBTABLBB, FBITITS, AND PLOWEBS; 
 
 Wrm A OHAPTEB ON 
 
 By D. H. JACQUES, 
 AuTHOs OT "Thb Fabm," "Tee Horsn," "Thb Baeh-Tjjcd," "How 
 
 TO DO BUBINEBS," " HoiT TO BbHATB," XTO. 
 
 OardenlnK WM Ihe primltWe emplovment of th« fira man ; nad the fini of mm, among U> dflooon- 
 dODtfi, haTe 8T«r b«en attached to that occDpatioa. Indeed, we can hardly form as Idea of human 
 4)ticlty, In which a garden b not one of Ita moet prominent characterletlcfl.— T. Q. FlMSNDlli. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 
 
 38 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET. 
 
fintered, accor<Ung to Act of CongresB, in the year 1870, by 
 
 GEO. E. WOODWAHD, 
 
 In the Clerk'e Office of the District Court of the United States for tie 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Thebe are many excellent works on Gardening in the Englisb 
 language ; but there seemed to be loom and a demand for 
 another. No other work fills just the place that this is intended 
 to fill — ^no other quite meets the popular want which we have 
 aimed to satisfy in this. 
 
 We saw the need of a small, cheap work, embracing not only 
 brief, simple, and easily understood directions for the cultivation 
 of vegetables, fruits, and flowers, but also a succinct exposition 
 of the theory of horticulture, as deduced from the nature of 
 BoUs and manures, and the laws of vegetable life and growth ; 
 to give the reader something to fall back upon, whenever the 
 practical instructions, which can not be adapted to every change 
 of circumstances, shall fail to furnish a sufficient guide. How 
 well we have succeeded in meeting this need w^ leave the reader 
 to judge. We wUl only say, that our little book has been care- 
 fully pyepared, and combines the results of experience, observar 
 tion, and study. In preparing it, we have aimed simply at toe- 
 fulness, and have made no effort for the attainment of any 
 further originality than the end in view required. We are neces- 
 sarily placed under heavy obligations to our predecessors in the 
 walks of horticultural literature ; but what we have derived from 
 them has, in most cases, been re-written, and so modified, to 
 adapt it to our purpose, that formal credit has, except in a few 
 
Vi PBErACB. 
 
 instances, been impracticable. Among tlie numerous works con- 
 sulted, we take pleasure in acknowledging our indebtedness fol 
 valuable aid to each and all of the following : 
 
 "SLoudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening. 
 ©Mrs. Loudon's Gardening for Iiadies 
 
 Delamer's Kitchen Garden. 
 " Flower Garden. 
 
 NeUl's Gardener's Companion. 
 "Buist's Family Kitchen Gardener. 
 
 Fessenden's American Kitchen Gardener. 
 
 Every Lady Her Own Flower Gard«ier- 
 
 Barry's Fruit Gwden. 
 «»Dowiiing's Fruits and Fruit-Trees. 
 *Jac[ues' Fruits and Fruit-Trees. 
 
 Tucker's Annual Register. 
 
 Farm and Garden Essays. 
 
 Thorburn's Descriptive Catalogues 
 <» White's Garderung for the South. 
 
 Horticulturist- 
 
 Country Gentleman. 
 "Southern Cultivator. 
 
 Allen's American Farm Book. 
 
 Boussrngault's Economic Burale. 
 
 Downing' s Landscape Gardening. 
 <»Lindley's Theory of Horticulture. 
 
 Gray's Botanical Text-Book, 
 "Darby's Botany of the Southern States. 
 
 To the works marked thus (") we are under special obligations, 
 either for matter derived from them, or for valuable facts or sug- 
 gestions made more indirectly available. 
 
 Trusting that this little manual will be found worthy of a 
 measure of the favor with which his previous humble attempts 
 at usefulness has been received, the author now submits it to the 
 judgment of the great Public. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Garden of Eden— History of Gardening— Attractions— Uo Fmits lilce Oul 
 Own— Gardening favorable to Health— The Science of HorUcnltnre— Object 
 ofthia'Wort- HowtoUseit. Page 9-11 
 
 I.— STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS. 
 
 Germination — Conditions Essential to Germination — ^Time Eequired— Th« 
 Process— The Eoot— How Boots Grow— Functions of the Boot— Kinds 
 of Eoots — The Stem-Structure— Uses— Leaves— Structure and Ennotions — 
 Flowers and their Structure— Fruit— Growth and Eipening — The Food of 
 Plants— State in which it must be Taken up— Conditions Essential to Growth 
 -Warmth, Moisture, Food, Air, Light... 18-29 
 
 n.— SOILS AND MANURES. 
 
 Classification of Soils— Heavy Soils— light Soils— Loamy Soils— Calcareons 
 Soils— Marley Soils— Vegetable Mold— Alluvial Soils-Subsoils— Improve- 
 ment of Soils— Manures— Theory of Manures — Composts 80-40 
 
 in.— FORMATION OF A GARDEN. 
 
 Bltuation— Exposure — Size and Shape— Laying Out— Fencing— Hedges— Prep- 
 aration of the Soil— Draining — Trenching- Subsoil Plowing 41-46 
 
 rv.— IMPLEMENTS AND FIXTURES. 
 
 The Various Implements Eequired— Care of Implements— Fixtures— The 
 Walled Pit— Hoi Beds— Trellises — Eustio Structures 46-60 
 
 v.— HORTICULTDRAL PROCESSES. 
 
 Stirring the Soil-ApplyingManures— Forcing— Sowing Seeds- Transplanting 
 —■Watering— Hoeing— Protection from Frost -Mulching— Destroying In- 
 sects—Saving Seeds— Eolation of Crops— Propagation— Suoters-Layers— 
 Oottinga— Slips— Budding-Grafting -Pruning— Training B1-T9 
 
Vlii CONTEKTS. 
 
 VI.— THE KITCHEN GAUDEN. 
 
 Esculent Boots— The Legumes— The Cabbage Tamily- Spinaceoua Plania— 
 Asparaginous Plants— Esculent Bulbs— Salad Plants— The Cucumber Family 
 —The Pumpkin Family— Miscellaneous— Sweet Herbs 78-110 
 
 Vn.— THE FEUIT GARDEN. 
 
 The Apple— Origin— Varieties— Difficulty of Selecting— List of Summer Ap- 
 ples—Autumn Apples— "Winter Apples— Crab Apples— Culture-Gathering 
 and Preserving- The Pear-Lists of Pears— The Quince— Varieties— The 
 Peach, with Lists of Varieties— The Nectarine— The Apricot— The Cherry— 
 The OliTe— The Orange— The Lemon— The Grape- TSie Currant— The 
 Gooseberry— The Easpberry- The Blackberry— The Strawberry- The Fig— 
 The Pomegranate— The Mulberry 111-143 
 
 Vm.— THE FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 CTses of Flowers— A "Word to the Ladies- How to become Healthy and Strong 
 -Implements for Ladies' Use— Laying Out a Flower Garden— Arrangement 
 of Plants— Climbing Plants — Shrubs and Trees— General Directions— Lists 
 of Flowering Plants and Shrubs— Hardy Annuals— Hardy Biennials— Hardy 
 Perennials— Tuberous Eooted Plants — Bulbous Rooted Plants— Flowering 
 Shrubs — Climbers and Creepers 148-156 
 
 IX.— ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 
 General Hints— Picturesqueness — Pruning— American Trees — Transplanting 
 —Lists of Trees— Large Trees— Deciduous and Evergreen- Small Trees and 
 Shrubs— Hedge Plants 15T-1 61 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Bearing Tear — Cause of Diminished Fertility — Removing Large Trees- 
 New Varieties of the Potato— Luxuries of a Fruit Garden— Hyacinths in 
 Glasses— Eoaes for PotrCulture 162-lW 
 
INTRODUCTIOK. 
 
 It is written that God placed the first man in a garden to drefls 
 and to keep it ; and that woman was there created as a help 
 meet for him. That garden was the primitive paradise ; and to 
 this day, a tastefully planned, judiciously planted, and well-kept 
 garden has, still lingering about it, many of the charms we are 
 wont to attribute to the original Eden. To the true lover of rural 
 life it seems, in the fullness of its summer beauty, to be indeed 
 almost a Paradise Regained. 
 
 Gardens are frequently mentioned in ancient writings, both 
 sacred and profane, but little is told us either of their productions 
 or their cultivation. 
 
 At the close of the Roman commonwealth the catalogue of 
 cultivated fruits had become considerable, and the principles of 
 pruning and grafting were understood and practiced. With the 
 decline of the empire, horticulture, in common with other useful 
 arts, seems to have declined, and to have revived only when 
 learning arose from the slumber of the dark ages. Since that 
 time, it has kept pace with the general improvement of society. 
 England, Erance, and Belgium have taken the lead in modem 
 horticultural progress. The United States will not long remain 
 behind. 
 
 It would be interesting te trace, at considerable length, the 
 1* 
 
X Introduction. 
 
 history of gardening, and show how, both as an art and a» a gdenoe, 
 it has been perfected, step by step, by means of study, observation, 
 and experiment ; but our limits will not permit this course, and 
 we must refer the inquiring reader to " Loudon's Encyclopedia of 
 Gardening," the most thorough and complete work on the sub- 
 ject in the English language. It is, however, too large and 
 expensive to be generally accessible, except in public libraries. 
 
 Gardening, the earliest employment of man, is also the most 
 attractive. It is Emerson, we think, who says, that after work- 
 ing in one's garden, nothing else seems worth doing. Here we 
 seem to come into close communion with Nature, and to co- 
 operate with her in adorning and enriching the earth. To plant 
 one's seeds, to await hopefully their germination, to watch the 
 daily development of the tender plant, to protect it from the 
 encroachments of weeds and the attacks of insects, to loosen the 
 soil around it, to care for it, watch over it, and rejoice in its 
 growth and fruitage, and finally to enjoy the fruits of one's labors 
 in the ripened harvest — what mere sensuous pleasure can be 
 greater? The market affords no such pears, apples, peaches, or 
 plums as grow on the trees we have with our own hands grafted 
 and pnmed. Our own squashes and melons are sweeter than any 
 that our money could buy ; and no potatoes, or cabbages, or 
 turnips are like ours ! 
 
 And health flows to us from the garden in two broad streams. 
 One has its source in the invigorating out-door exercise it calls for 
 and renders so delightful, and the other in the wholesome food 
 which it furnishes to take the place of much less desirable ali- 
 ments which would otherwise be supplied by the butcher and the 
 grocer. 
 
 A tiiste for horticulture is almost universal in this country, and, 
 as land is abundant and cheap, and the facilities for obtaining it 
 great, very few outside of our cities and large towns are debarred 
 from gratifying it, to a greater or less extent. 
 
InTEODTJOTION. XI 
 
 But a knowledge of the science of horticulture is far from being 
 co-extensive with the practice of the art, and a tfuly satisfactory 
 degree of success is only occasionally attained. A rich soil and a 
 genial climate conspire to render the rudest and most empirical 
 cultivation, under favorable circumstances, moderately produc- 
 tive. Plodding industry, however blindly applied, is looked upon 
 with favor by aU-loving Nature ; but her richest gifts are reserved 
 for imited science and skill. In the cultivation of the earth, as 
 in every other department of human effort, " knowledge is 
 power." 
 
 To increase and extend a knowledge of the theory and practice 
 of gardening is the object of the following pages, in. which we 
 have given due attention to both branches of the subject. The 
 former is almost entirely ignored in most popular works on hor- 
 ticulture ; they being nearly restricted to details of practice. 
 These, though highly useful and even essential to the novice, are 
 liable to lead him frequently astray, unless he is guided in their 
 application by a knowledge of the principles on which they are 
 founded. 
 
 The theoretical part of our work is necessarily brief, but wiU ba 
 found a useful auxiliary to the practical directions which follow. 
 Carefully studied, thoroughly mastered, and constantly applied, 
 it will be of more value to the reader than a heavy volume imper- 
 fectly understood and confusedly remembered. We would by no 
 means, however, discourage those who have the leisure and dis* 
 position from pursuing the subject further. 
 
NOTICE TO THE READER. 
 
 In maJdng use of the practical directions given in tliis work, 
 the reader should bear in mind that it was written in southern 
 New York, and that where no other place or latitude is men- 
 tioned, in designating the time for planting seeds, etc. , about 40° 
 N., with a very slight elevation above the sea, is to be under- 
 stood. Allowance must be made for situation north or south of 
 this, and also for elevation of site, soU, aspect, exposure, and tha 
 general character of the season. 
 
 Our directions must also, of necessity, be subject to many 
 modifications, in other respects, by soU, situation, and climate ; 
 but if the reader vrill study the general principles of horticulture, 
 even in our brief and imperfect exposition of them, in the first 
 part of this work, and exercise a little sound judgment, he vrill 
 leadily overcome the obstacles presented by local and temporary 
 circumstances. 
 
THE GARDEN. 
 
 STRUCTDRE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS. 
 
 With wh&t Increased satisfaction are the common proeesees of maourlng or traDsplaatlng 
 ffsrrled oa, to say nothing of the more delicate operations of budding, grafting, and propagaClog 
 Dy layers, etc., when we are acquainted with the structure of the i)lantri we are endeavoring to 
 control, nd comprehend the why and the wherefore of evtjry step we pursue. — A, J, Dotening. 
 
 I.-GEEMINATION. 
 
 VERY perfect and matured seed contains the 
 germ of a new plant of the species to which 
 it owes its own existence. If you separate 
 the two lobes of a bean, or other seed of a 
 similar character, you will discover, pressed 
 between them at the undivided or stem end, 
 or side, a minute kernel or bud. This, though a 
 mere point, as it were, contains the rudiments of two 
 i' "^bl or more undeveloped loaves, united by a solid or undi- 
 f i ^ vided portion, called, in the language of botany, the 
 radiale, and constitutes an embryo plant, holding within 
 itself all the elements of vegetable life. The commencement 
 of the vital action which produces the development of this 
 embryo is called germiriMion. 
 
 The conditions essential to germination are the presence of 
 moisture, warmth, and oxygen gas. 
 
 In the absence of moisture, no effect toward germination is 
 produced by the presence of warmth and oxygen, or any other 
 gas. Moisture and oxygon gas without warmth, are equally 
 
14 
 
 The Gaeden. 
 
 inefficacious; jndsoaremoisture aud warmth in the absence of 
 the oxygen ; for seeds will not germinate in a vacuum, nor in 
 distUled or recently boUed water. 
 
 Moisture is necessary to soften and expand the various parts, 
 to dissolve soluble matter, and to establish a sort of circulation. 
 The embryo seems also to have the power of decomposing 
 water; and it is probable that a portion of the oxygen required 
 is obtained in this way. The rest must come from the air; for 
 it is found that a communication with the atmosphere is abso- 
 lutely essential to perfect germination. The effect of heat ap- 
 pears to be to set the vital principle in action, to expand the 
 air in the numerous microscopic cavities of the seed, and to 
 produce distension of all the organic parts. The degree of 
 heat required varies with different species. The common 
 chickweed wiU germinate at a temperature but little above the 
 freezing-point, while the seeds of many tropical plants require 
 a heat of from 90° to 110° (Fahrenheit) to call them into 
 action. "Wheat, rye, and barley wiU germinate at 44P. A 
 
 degree of heat vary- 
 ing from 113° to 
 167° is capable of 
 destroying the vital- 
 ity of the various 
 grains, beans, peas, 
 etc. Direct light, 
 so essential to sub- 
 sequent vegetation, 
 is unfavorable to 
 germination. 
 
 The time required 
 for germination ia 
 very different in dif- 
 ferent species of 
 plants. Much also 
 depends upon soil, 
 rotMo BADiBH, SHOWING sBBD-MATEs. cllmate, degree of 
 
Steuctuke and Geowth. 15 
 
 moisture, etc. Under favorable circumstances, wheat, rye, 
 oats, and millet will germinate in one day ; bean, turnip, radish, 
 and mustard in three days ; lettuce in four days ; melon, cucum- 
 ber, squash, and pumpkin in five days ; barley in seven ; cabbage 
 in ten ; parsley in fifteen ; almond, peach, and peony in one 
 year, and hawthorn in two years. 
 
 The time that seeds will retain their vitality also dififers in 
 different species, but in all cases depends partly upon the degree 
 in which they are excluded from the action of moisture and 
 light. Kidney-beans, peas, and carrot, parsnep, and rhubarb 
 seeds are generally considered as losing their vitality at the end 
 of one year, but wUl sometimes germinate after being kept 
 much longer. 
 
 These facts have important bearings upon the subject of 
 horticulture, and should be constantly borne in mind; and 
 especially is it requisite that the essential conditions of germi- 
 nation be held in remembrance. A failure to germinate is 
 doubtless often attributed to bad seeds, when the fault is en- 
 tirely in the planting. It must be perfectly evident that if your 
 seeds are insulBciently covered in a light, dry soil, they will 
 lack the first essential of germination, and will be liable to 
 wither and perish for want of moisture. This is why light 
 soils should be pressed together and upon the seed in planting, 
 either by means of a roller or otherwise. Seeds buried too 
 deeply, or covered with a heavy, dense soil, pressed too closely 
 upon them, fail to germinate for want of communication with 
 the atmosphere. If tliere be not suflicient warmth in the soil 
 at the time of planting, and it remain cold for a considerable 
 time thereafter, the seeds just as surely perish. Remember the 
 conditions of germination — moisture, warmth, and oxygen gas 
 (or air containing oxygen). 
 
 Germination being established by the action of moisture and 
 warmth, and maintained by the oxygen of the atmosphere, all 
 pai'ts of the embryo enlarge, and new parts are formed at the 
 expense of a saccharine or sugary secretion, which ttie germinat- 
 ing seed possesses the power of forming. "With the assistance 
 
16 The Garden. 
 
 of this substance, tlie root or radicle, at first a mere rounded 
 cone, extends and pierces tlie earth in search of food, while 
 the other extremity elongates in the opposite direction, bringing 
 the cotyledoTis, or seed-leaves (except when these remain per- 
 manently in the ground, as in the pea, wheat, rye, etc.), and 
 the rudimentary leaves and stem, to the surface of the soiL 
 The process of germination is now completed — the plant is 
 
 born. 
 
 II.— THE BOOT. 
 
 The root, the stem, and the leaves are called the fundamental 
 organs of plants. Of them vegetables essentially consist ; and 
 the various organs known by other names are really but repeti- 
 tions, under more or less modified forms, of these essential parts. 
 
 Germination, as we have seen, pushes the root downward 
 into the earth, where, extending iy the addition of new matter 
 to its point, it soon enters upon the exercise of its funetion — 
 the absorption of the crude food of the plant from the soil. 
 This is carried up through the stem into the leaves, to be di- 
 gested or assimilated, and returned to the stem and root, and 
 used in the formation of new branches, leaves, and rootlets, as 
 well as for increasing the length and size of those already 
 formed. The more a plant grows, therefore, the more are the 
 means of growth multiplied. 
 
 As the roots are extended by the addition of new matter to 
 the extreme points, these points are exceedingly dehcate and 
 sasUy injured. It is mainly through them, too, that absorption 
 tahes place. It is readily seen, therefore, why the careless or 
 unskillful removal of plants from the earth, for the purpose of 
 transplanting, by destroying the delicate points of the roots, or 
 spongelets, as they are called, always checks so greatly theii 
 growth, and often destroys their life. 
 
 Their peculiar mode of growth admirably adapt roots to 
 pierce the earth and insinuate themselves into the minutest 
 crevices. Thus they pass on from place to place in search of 
 fresh pasturage, shifting their mouths, although their bodies 
 remain stationary. 
 
Stetjotuee and Growth. 17 
 
 Roots seem to possess a principle akin to instinct, wliich 
 guides them in their search for food ; for they invariahly extend 
 themselves most rapidly and widely in the direction of the 
 richest soil. If a strawherry plant he set in a sandy soU, defi- 
 cient in nutritive matters, and rich earth placed on one side of 
 it, the roots will immediately seek the fertile spot, although at 
 first nowhere in contact with it. A decaying hone or a piece 
 of rotten wood wiU in the same way he sought out hy the 
 roots of a plant requiring the nutritive elements it may contain ; 
 and such objects are often found completely covered hy a net- 
 work of minute rootlets. 
 
 The roots of plants have, to a certain extent, the power of 
 selecting their food. In general, they absorb only those sub- 
 stances which are needed to develop and perfect their various 
 parts. Thus, if a pea and a grain of wheat be planted side by 
 side, and made to grow under the same circumstances, the 
 wheat plant will absorb silex (in solution) from the earth, while 
 the pea wUl absorb none. This power of selection, however, 
 does not enable the roots of plants to reject, under all circum- 
 stances, any deleterious agents which may be brought in con- 
 tact with them; and it is a curious circumstance that sub- 
 etances which are fatal to man are equally so to plants, and in 
 aearly the same way. 
 
 In addition to their principal office, as feeding organs, the 
 roots of plants are beheved to be, to some extent, organs of 
 excretion, throwing off any superfluous or deleterious matter 
 which may have been imbibed either by themselves or by the 
 leaves. They also possess the power of accumulating a store 
 of sap, upon which the plant may draw in time of need. 
 Striking examples of the last-named property are furnished by 
 th3 turnip, the beet, the carrot, and other plants of the samp 
 class. 
 
 In general, roots do not produce buds, and are therefore 
 incapable of multiplying the plant to which they belong ; but 
 to this rule there are many exceptions, some species having 
 the power, under certain circumstances, of forming what are 
 
18 
 
 The GtAedeii. 
 
 called adventitious buds. In sucli cases they may be employed 
 for the purposes of propagation. 
 
 Roots are not inactive during the winter, as many suppose, 
 except while actually frozen, but are perpetually extracting food 
 from the earth, and storing it up for the next season's use. A 
 long, mild winter is there- 
 fore favorable to the vege- 
 tation of the succeeding 
 spring. 
 
 Roots are of various 
 kinds. In reference to 
 their duration, they are 
 classed as annual, iien- 
 mal, and perennial. An 
 riBEons BOOT. annual root lives but a bpjndle boot. 
 
 single year. It is always fibrous, or composed of numerous 
 branches or rootletn. Biennial roots are those of plants which 
 do not blossom till the second year, at the end of which they 
 perish. They are thickened ov fleshy, and of various shapes — 
 conical, as in the carrot; spindle-sTicoped, as in the radish ; tur- 
 
 TUBBEOUS BOOT. 
 
 OBBEFIKG BOOT. 
 
 nip-shaped, clustered, tuierous, ®tc. Perennial roots are those, 
 which, like the roots of trees aad woody plants, and some 
 others, survive from year to year ind.^finitely. 
 
 A tuber, of which the potato is the best example, is not 
 strictly a root, but a modification of the stem, running beneath 
 
StBTJOTUEB and GrEOWTH. 19 
 
 the surface of the soil, and having buds (eyes) embedded in a 
 cellular substance, consisting principally of stareh. 
 
 Bulbs, whether formed in the earth, as is generally the ease, 
 or on the summit of the stem, as in the top or tree onion, are 
 simply leaf-buds iucloaed in scales or concentric layers. 
 
 III.— THE STEM. 
 
 As soon as the root enters upon the performance of its proper 
 function, the stem begins to extend itself upward, and the pri- 
 mary leaf-bud, attracting to itself the food procured for it, and 
 « part of the nutritive matter stored up in the seed-leaves, ex- 
 'pftnds, and the two or more parts or leaves of which it is 
 composed separate, and begin to manifest their distinctive 
 features. 
 
 The stem is at first composed entirely of cellular tissue, 
 possessing neither strength nor tenacity ; but at the moment 
 that the first rudiment of a leaf appears upon its growing point, 
 the formation of woody matter commences. It consists of tough 
 fibers of extreme fineness, which take their rise in lihe leaves, 
 and thence pass downward through the cellular tissue and are 
 incorporated with the latter, giving it the necessary strength 
 and flexibility. In trees and shrubs these fibers combine 
 intimately with each other, and form what is properly called 
 wood ; but in herbaceous and annual plants they constitute a 
 lax fibrous matter. The woody matter thus plunged, as it 
 were, into the cellular tissue, forms within the circumference 
 of the stem a tubular partition, separating it into two parts — 
 the bark and the pith. This gives us, in perennial stems, the 
 three general divisions of pith, wood, ^nd bark. 
 
 The pith consists entirely of ceUul^r tissue, gorged at first 
 with the nourishing juices of the pl^nt, but afterward becom 
 ing empty and dry. 
 
 The wood consists of the proper woody fiber, interwoven 
 with and bound together by thin plates or layers of cellular 
 tissue, passing horizontally across it, and forming what are 
 called the silver grain in maple, oak, etc. Thej" represent tha 
 
20 
 
 The Gaeden. 
 
 horizontal system of the wood — in botanical language, the 
 medullary rays. 
 
 The la/rh consists originally of ceUular tissue alone, hut after- 
 ward the inner portion next the wood has the woody tissue 
 formed in it, and becomes the liber, or fibrous inner bark. 
 
 Whenever a stem is wounded, it is the cellular or horizontal 
 system which forms granulations that eventually coalesce into 
 masses, within which the woody tissue is subsequently devel- 
 oped, and the communication between the two sides of an inci- 
 sion effected. In cuttings, the callus which forms at the end 
 placed in the ground is the ceUular or horizontal system pre- 
 paring for the woody fibers, which are to pass downward in 
 the form of roots. 
 
 The description we have given of the structure of a stem 
 applies to all plants whose woody matter is augmented annually 
 Dy external additions below the liber, and which are called exo- 
 gens, or outside growers. AU the trees and shrubs of the 
 United States, except the few palms of our Southern confines, 
 belong to this class. In the palms, which belong to the class 
 of endogens, or inside 
 growers, the woody 
 matter is augmented 
 annually by internal 
 additions to their cen- 
 ter, thus constantly 
 BxoQBK. pushing the woody 
 
 growth of former years to their circumference. The stem of 
 the asparagus exhibits a similar structure in an herb. In endo- 
 gena, the cellular and fibrous systems are all mixed together, 
 their mode of growth not requiring the same arrangement of 
 parts as exists in the exogens. 
 
 Stems, during their growth, form on their surfaces minute 
 vital points, each of which becomes, or may become, a leaf- 
 bud, capable of forming another stem or branch like that on 
 which it is found. These buds appear immediately above the 
 point of unioi. between the leaf and the stem, and are not, 
 
 lUfDOOBN. 
 
Steuctdke and Geowth. 21 
 
 under ordinary circumstances, found anywliere else. They 
 occasionally, however, appear on other parts, when they are 
 called (as when found on the roots) advenUHoua buds. It 
 is by means of the leaf-buds that a cutting is capable of pro- 
 ducing a new individual like that from which it was taken. 
 Leaf-buds are also capable, under fitting cir- 
 cumstances, of growing when separated from 
 the parent branch. In some cases they are 
 planted in the earth, when they put forth roots, 
 and thereby sustain an independent existence. 
 In others they are inserted below the bark 
 of a kindred species, and, forming new wood, 
 adhere to that on which they are placed. 
 
 The principal functions of the stem (aside 
 from its continual multiphcation of itself by bum. 
 
 means of buds) are the support of the leaves and the convey- 
 ance and distribution of the sap. In trees, the sap or crude 
 food procured by the roots rises principally through the newer 
 wood ; but the assimilated sap returns from the leaves in the 
 newest bark, or liber, whence it is horizontally diffused, through 
 the medullary rays, into the sap-wood and other living parts. 
 It is in the bark, therefore, and not in the wood, that we must 
 look for the proper juices of a plant. 
 
 IT.— LEATES. 
 
 A leaf, as defined by Dr. Lindley, is an appendage of the 
 Btem of a plant having one or more leaf-buds in its axil, or 
 point of union with the stem. In some cases no leaf-buds are 
 visible, but they are present, nevertheless, although latent, and 
 may be developed by favorable conditions. 
 
 A complete leaf consists of the lamina, or blade, and the 
 petiole, or leaf-stalk. In some leaves the petiole is wanting, 
 the lamina resting immediately upon the stem, and in others 
 there is no proper blade, the whole organ being cylindrical or 
 Btalk-like. 
 
 Considered in reference to their structure, it may be said 
 
22 The Gaeden. 
 
 leaves are extensions of the green layer of t}:« bark (\thioh, 
 where no proper leaves exist, fuLflUs their function) expanded 
 Into thin lamina and strengthened by woody fibers connected 
 with the liber, or inner bark, and with the wood. These woody 
 fibers form their frame- work, and afford, at the same time, by 
 their microscopic ramifications, a complete and beautiful system 
 of veins. The leaf, therefore, like the stem, consists of two 
 distinct parts, the cellular and the woody. The cellular por- 
 tion is not the structureless, pulpy mass which it appears to be 
 to the naked eye, but presents a regular and beautiful arrange- 
 ment of cells. The woody part forming the veins, and having, 
 as we have seen, a double origin, is arranged in two layers, the 
 upper, arising from the wood, and conveying the ascending 
 sap to every part of the leaf, and the lower, connected with 
 the Uier, and establishing a communication with the bark, by 
 means of which the assimilated juices pass downward. En- 
 casing the whole of this wonderfully beautiful apparatus is the 
 ^{dermis, or skin, pierced by numerous invisible ^ores or holes, 
 called stomates, through which the plant breathes and per- 
 spires. 
 
 It would be interesting, in connection with the foregoing 
 brief outline of the structure of the leaf, to give some account 
 of the different forms of leaves, their various modifications, 
 and their systematic and beautiful arrangement on the stem ; 
 but as the practical ends we have in view do not require us to 
 pursue the subject further in this direction, we must forego it. 
 
 Leaves have been called the lungs of plants. They are 
 something more than this, being not only organs of respiration, 
 but of perspiration and digestion also. They are, at the same 
 time, stomach, lungs, and skin. They receive the crude sap 
 from the roots through the stem, and, by means of exposure to 
 air and light, the decomposition of water and carbonic acid, 
 and the throwing off of superfluous moisture, condense it and 
 change it into organizable matter— the true food of plants. 
 This elaborated sap is sent immediately downward, to serve for 
 the novirishment of every part. 
 
Steuotpee and Geowth. 23 
 
 The nutrition of a plant depending upon its leaves, the former 
 may be destroyed by simply destroying its foliage. In general, 
 it does not immediately die, because it has the power of putting 
 forth new leaves, which come into action and supply imper- 
 fectly the places of those removed ; but if it be deprived of 
 these essential organs during the entire season, its power of 
 Droduoing them ceases, and all functions are suspended. 
 
 v.— FL0WEE8 AND FEUIT. 
 
 A flower is that part of a plant which is formed for the pur- 
 pose of reproducing its species by means of seeds. Fruit is 
 the seed, or the seed and its perica/rp, or covering. The peri- 
 eanp includes whatever goes to make up the seed-vessel, 
 whether it be a mere thin husk, a hard, bone-like shell, or a 
 soft, fleshy pulp. 
 
 Anatomically considered, the parts of a flower are merely 
 modified leaves, the whole forming a very short branch. 
 What causes a plant to convert some of its leaf-buds into 
 flowers, by fashioning the leaves into calyx, eorolla, stamens, 
 and pistils, while other buds become ordinary branches, it is 
 not essential to our purpose to explain. It is pretty clear, 
 however, that their production depends upon the presence in 
 the plant of a sufficient quantity of secreted matter. Jit for 
 their maintenance when produced. If it happen, then, that, 
 from any causfe, there be not, at the usual time of flowering, 
 any store of nutritive juices beyond what is required for the 
 - production of leaves and the growth of the stem, no flower- 
 buds are put forth. This is illustrated in the failure of fruit- 
 trees to bear at all the season next succeeding one in which an 
 excessive Crop has been produced.* Sometimes flowers are 
 produced, but, the supply of nutriment proving insufEicient, 
 they drop off without producing fruit. 
 
 Lindley syllogistically says : " A flower being a kind of • 
 branch, as has been already shown, and the fruit being an ad- 
 
 * See Appendix, A 
 
24 The Gaeden. 
 
 vanoed stage of the flower, it follows that a fruit is also a kind 
 of branch." It has certainly the same organic connection with 
 the plant as other branches, and, like them, requires to be sup 
 plied with focd, without which it must perish. 
 
 So long as a fruit retains its original green, foliaceous char- 
 acter, it is capable of performing, partially at least, the func- 
 tions of a leaf, decomposing carbonic acid, etc. A portion of 
 the Ibod required for its maturation may therefore be derived, 
 by its own action, from the air ; but the greater part must be 
 prepared by the leaves from material furnished by the roots. 
 This shows the necessity of the healthy and regular action of 
 the leaves and roots in perfecting fruit, and the importance of 
 fruit being placed near the leaves, so that it can readily attract 
 the required nutriment from them. If you remove all the 
 leaves from a branch containing fruit, you stop the growth of 
 the latter almost as effectually as by separating it from the 
 stem. 
 
 The juices furnished by the leaves undergo further altera- 
 tions by the vital forces of the fruit itself, and this alteration 
 varies according to the species. The fruit of the peach is 
 sweet, but there is no perceptible sweetness in its leaves ; and 
 the fruit of the fig is sweet and nutritious, while the leaves of 
 that plant are acrid and deleterious. 
 
 Among the principal immediate causes of the changes which 
 occur in the secretions of fruits are heat and light. Fruits 
 produced in warm seasons are always much sweeter than those 
 which are matured in cold ones ; and the products of hot cli- 
 mates abound in sugar, while in those of cold climates acidity 
 prevails. 
 
 The ripening of fruit is hastened by dryness, and retarded 
 by an excess of moisture. 
 
 Seeds are affected by all the circumstances which affect the 
 fruit, which is created primarily for their nutrition and preser- 
 vation. The fruit attracts organizable matter from the leaves, 
 and the seeds attract it from the fruit. The better the fruit, 
 therefore, the more perfect are the seeds. 
 
Steuctuke and Gkowth. 25 
 
 ^Jl seeds will not equally produce vigorous plants ; but tlie 
 healthiness of the seedling will correspond with that of the 
 seed from which it sprung. Where vigor is required, the 
 plumpest and heaviest seeds should be selected. 
 
 A seed always produces a plant of the same species as that 
 from which it was derived, but is not certain to reproduce any 
 peculiarity that may have existed in its parent. For instance, 
 the seed of a Green Gage plum will grow into a new individual 
 of the plum species, but it is not certain, or even likely, to pro- 
 duce the variety known as the Green Gage. The variety must 
 be propagated in some other way. 
 
 TI.— THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 
 
 The gardener should know precisely what substances plants 
 require for their growth and the maturation of their fruit — 
 that is, their natural food. This is ascertained by analysis. 
 When we have learned of what plants are composed, we know 
 what their food must necessarily contain. 
 
 The constituents of plants, as shown by analysis, are of two 
 kinds, organic and inorganic. Only the organic constituents, 
 however, are universally indispensable. These are oxygen, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon, which make up at least from 
 eighty-eight to ninety-nine per cent, of every vegetable sub- 
 stance. The inorganic constituents, which are essential to the 
 perfection of any but the lowest grade of plants, consist mainly 
 of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silex, sulphur, and 
 phosphorus. 
 
 Now, where and how are the different kinds of food which 
 plants require obtained? Mainly, no doubt, from the soU, and 
 by means of the roots, which, we have seen, are the proper 
 feeding organs. The air may, however (and evidently does, in 
 some cases, as in the epipTiytes, or air-plants), either directly oi 
 ijidirectly, supply all the organic elements. 
 
 But whether derived from the earth or from the air, the 
 vlanfs nourishment is wTwlly receiiied either in the gaseous or 
 the liquid form ; for the leaves can imbibe air or vapor only 
 
 2 
 
26 The Gaeden. 
 
 while the tissue of the rootlets is especially adapted to absorb 
 liquids, and is incapable of taking in solid matter, however 
 minutely dimded. Let these facts be borne in mind while pre- 
 paring your soils and manures. 
 
 The oxygen and hydrogen required by plants is probably de- 
 rived principally from water. 
 
 The nitrogen is obtained mostly by the decomposition of 
 ammonia (hartshorn), a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, 
 always produced when any animal and almost any vegetable 
 substance decays. It is dissolved in water, absorbed by porous 
 substances in the soil, and thus flirnished to the roots of plants. 
 
 The source of the carbon, which forms much the larger por- 
 tion of the bulk of plants, is still to be sought. Carbon itself 
 is a solid, absolutely insoluble ia water, and therefore not avail- 
 able. The chief, if not the only fluid composed of carbon, 
 naturally presented to the plant, is that of carbonic acid gas, 
 which consists of carbon united with oxygen. This gas makes 
 up, on the average, one two-thousandth of the atmosphere, 
 from which it may be directly absorbed by the leaves; but, 
 being freely soluble in water, up to a certain point, it must be 
 carried down by the rain and imbibed by the roots. The car- 
 bonic acid of the atmosphere is, therefore, the great source of 
 carbon for vegetation. Carbonic acid is also produced in small 
 quantities by the action of manures in the soil. 
 
 The carbonic acid absorbed is decomposed in the leaves by 
 the action of solar light; the carbon being retained and the 
 oxygen thrown off — beautifully reversing the process of animal 
 respiration, and thus preserving the proper balance in the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 The mineral matters which form the inorganic constituents 
 of plants are all either soluble in Avater, or in the acids or alka- 
 lies mixed with it, and are therefore readily absorbed by the 
 roots. 
 
 The following analysis of wheat will give the reader an idea 
 of the principal mineral constituents of plants generally, as to 
 the number of their elemonls; their proportion will vary 
 
Steuctube and Geowth. 
 
 27 
 
 neatly in diflferent species. The wheat (the entire plant, in- 
 cluding the seed) in 1,000 lbs. gave llf lbs. of ashes, composed 
 as foUows : 
 
 Potash 2.25 
 
 Soda. 2.40 
 
 Lime .96 
 
 Magnesia 90 
 
 Alumina 26 
 
 Silica. 400 
 
 Salphnrio acid BO 
 
 Phoaphorio acid 40 
 
 Chlorine. 10 
 
 Iron, a trace. 
 
 An analysis of perfected plants of the same species, although 
 growing in very diEFerent soUs, will give the same proportion ; 
 while different species, although growing in the same soil, will 
 give very different proportions, showing that plants require 
 definite quantities of the inorganic elements in order to perfect 
 growth, and that in soil that does not yield these elements an 
 imperfect growth only can be obtained. 
 
 These facts lie at the foundation of rotation of crops and 
 manuring. "When any given plant has exhausted the soil of 
 the soluble elements requisite for its growth, another plant 
 requiring different elements, or the same in different propor- 
 tions, may grow luxuriantly and in perfection in the same soU. 
 Generally the grasses, such as wheat, rye, oats, etc., require 
 large quantities of silica ; peas, clover, and tobacco, much lime ; 
 turnips, beets, and sweet potatoes, potash and soda. The stalk 
 and fruit often require different elements in different proportions. 
 Both of course must be supplied. These elements might exist 
 in the soU, but not in a soluble condition, and of course yield 
 no benefit to the plant.* 
 
 TIL— CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO GEOWTH. 
 
 All the conditions essential to growth have already been 
 either specially explained or iucidentaUy mentioned ; but it may 
 be useful briefiy to recapitulate : 
 
 1. Wa/rmfh. — Without this, as we have seen, the latent 
 powers of vegetable life can not be called into action. It ia 
 
 • See Appendix, B and also " The Farm," foi more on this point 
 
28 TheGakden. 
 
 not less essenlial to their continued activity. Althougli many 
 plants will live at a temperature much below the freezing-point, 
 yet no plant is able to grow unless the temperature is above 
 82°, for physical reasons which require no explanation. A 
 temperature permanently mtioh higher than a plant requires for 
 its healthy growth over-excites, enfeebles, and finally destroys it. 
 
 2. Moisture. — Moisture is obviously essential, both because 
 water itself in its pure state furnishes two of the essential ele- 
 ments which enter into the composition of aU plants, and 
 because it constitutes the medium through which the other 
 substances required are conveyed into the roots. Excessive 
 moisture, however, is destructive to most plants. It is a great 
 point in horticulture to determine the degree of moisture most 
 congenial to a given species, under given circumstances. As a 
 general rule, the plant should he most abundantly supplied with 
 moisture when it begins to grow, and the quantity gradually 
 diminish^ as it approaches maturity. However, as one effect 
 of excessive moisture is to keep the newly-formed parts of a 
 plant tender and succulent, those the leaves or roots of which 
 (as in the case of lettuce, radishes, etc.) are to be eaten un- 
 cooked, should be constantly supplied with moisture. Excess 
 of moisture will also cause strawberries and other fruits to 
 swell beyond their natural size ; but their flavor is diminished 
 in the same proportion. 
 
 3. Food. — A plant can no more live without food than a 
 human being can. Deficiency of food dwarfs it, and prevents 
 perfect development; and it must not be forgotten that the 
 presence in the soil of the nutritive elements is of no avail so 
 long as they remain in an insoluble condition. It is only in a 
 gaseous or liquid form (allow us to repeat) that plants are ca- 
 pable of receiving their food. 
 
 4. ^«V.— Plants breathe (in their way), and must therefore 
 have air. Much of then- nourishment is derived either imme- 
 diately or remotely from it. 
 
 5. Light.— It is by the aid of solar light alone that the leaves 
 can properly perform their grand function— the assimilation of 
 
Stettctuee astd Geowth. 29 
 
 the crude sap furnished them by the roots. It is only under 
 the influence of light that they decompose the carbonic acid 
 gas from which the large proportion of carbon they require ia 
 obtained. It is to light also that they owe their green color. 
 In the dark this coloring matter is not formed, potatoes and 
 other vegetables kept in cellars throwing out white stems and 
 leaves. Some plants, however, require less light than others, 
 and flourish in shady places. When we wish to blanch a plant, 
 as in the case of celery, we exclude the light.* 
 
 * For a further elucidation of the Tarious Bubjeota discussed in the forogoing 
 pages, see Lindley's "Tlieory of Horticnlture," Gray's "Botanical Text- 
 Book," Boussinganlt's "Economie Bwrale^ and Darby's "Botany of the 
 Bonthem States," to all of which, and especially to the flrat-named, wo iutTO 
 been indebted in the preparatioo of this chapter 
 
30 The Gaedek. 
 
 II. 
 
 SOILS AND MANURES. 
 
 ne soil Bbotlld be good to tba depth of two feet, ind any Decesaary deepening beyoMd tUt, 
 Djr manoreB or otherwise, should not be neglected. — IfeiU, 
 
 I.— CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 
 
 E are accustomed to recognize three prim- 
 itive earths — silex (which includes sand 
 and gravel), clay, and lime. These, to- 
 gether with decayed vegetable and animal 
 matter, enter more or less into the compo- 
 sition of all soUs. On the relative propor- 
 tion of these ingredients and their texture, or degree 
 of fineness or coarseness, depends mainly the character 
 of each variety. 
 
 Soils may first be considered in two grand divisions 
 — ^heavy and light, the former being characterized by 
 a predominance of clay, and the latter by an excess of sand or 
 gravel. 
 
 1. Heavy Soils. — The heavy or clayey soils are also known 
 as wet and cold, from their strong affinity for water. In dry 
 weather, however, they are liable to bake, or become hard an> 
 brick-like. They are difficult to work, and, tUl much modifie>. 
 by art and labor, generally unproductive. 
 
 2. LigM Soils. — The light or sandy and gravelly soils are 
 denominated dry and warm, because they permit the water to 
 pass readily through them. They are subject to drouth, and 
 have the further disadvantage of allowing a large pi-oportion 
 of the manure applied to them to pass through into the sub- 
 soil. They are easy to work, and crops can be brought to per- 
 fection much earlier on them than on clayey soils. 
 
Soils and Manuebs. 31 
 
 These grand classes of soils, running into each other hy 
 imperceptible gradations, and being variously modified, may be 
 aonsidered as embracing every variety found on the face of the 
 globe. 
 
 3. Loamy Soils. — A mixture of from fifteen to sixty per 
 cent, of sand with clay forms a loamy soil. If the sand do not 
 exceed thirty per cent., it is called a clay loam; more than 
 thirty per cent, constitutes it a sandy loam. 
 
 4. Calca/reous Soils. — Calcareous soils are those in which 
 lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing 
 constituent. Calcareous soils may be either calcareous clays, 
 calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the propor- 
 tions of sand or clay which may be present in them. 
 
 6. Marly Soils. — Soils containing lime, but in which the 
 proportion does not exceed twenty per cent., are sometimes 
 called marly. 
 
 6. Yegetable Molds. — When decayed vegetable matter exists 
 in so great proportion as to give the predominant character to 
 a soO, it receives the name of vegetable mold. Vegetable 
 molds are of various kinds, and may be either clayey, sandy, or 
 loamy, according to the predominant character of the earthy 
 admixtures. 
 
 1. Alluvial Soils. — AUuvial soils are such as have been 
 formed by the washings of streams. They are generally loamy, 
 and very fertile. 
 
 Besides their principal component parts, every soil must 
 contain, in greater or less quantities, aU the elements which 
 enter into the composition of vegetables. They may have cer- 
 tain substances which are not necessary to vegetable life, and 
 such as are necessary may be in excess ; yet to sustain a healthji, 
 prolific vegetation, they must hold, and in a form fitted to its 
 support, silex, alumina, carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, 
 potash, soda, magnesia, sulphur, phosphorus, oxyd of iron, 
 mangan^e, chlorine, and probably iodine. These are called 
 the inorganic or earthy parts of soUs. In addition to these, 
 fertile soUs must contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hyd/ro- 
 
82 TheGaeden. 
 
 gen, whioli are called organLo parts of soils, from their great 
 preponderance in vegetables and animals. 
 
 For gardening purposes, a loamy soU, composed of nearly 
 equal proportions of clay, sand, and lime, and enriolied by de- 
 posits of decayed animal and vegetable matter, is perhaps the 
 best; but a sandy loam similarly enriched is good. Very 
 heavy and very light soils are objectionable ; but the latter less 
 80, since it may be much more easily improved. 
 
 Subsoils. — The productiveness of a soil depends to a con- 
 siderable extent upon the subsoil or bed on which it rests, 
 which may be either clayey, sandy, gravelly, or calcareous. A 
 clayey subsoil is unfavorable, as it renders the soil wet and cold. 
 Loose and leachy subsoils, consisting mainly of gravel or sand, 
 are also undesirable, on account of the facility with which 
 moisture and the soluble portions of manures escape into them. 
 Calcareous subsoils are considered best. 
 
 II.— IMPEOVEMENT OP SOILB. 
 
 As the original soil of one's garden can not always be a 
 matter of choice, the garden being properly situated near the 
 house, and the house depending for its location upon other cir- 
 cumstances besides the soil, it becomes important to know how 
 to improve it if it happen to be of an undesirable character. 
 
 In order to set yourself about the work of improvement with 
 a reasonable prospect of success, you should have a clear com- 
 prehension of the end to be attained. What, then, are the 
 q^ualities desirable in a garden soU ? 
 
 A garden soil should be loamy, rich in all the elements essen- 
 tial to the growth of plants, suflBciently light and friable to be 
 easOy cultivated, and to allow the roots to penetrate it in every 
 direction, and at the same time sulEciently adhesive to retain 
 moisture and the soluble portions of manures till they may be 
 required by the growing plant. 
 
 Improvement of Clayey Soils. — If it be a clayey soO with 
 which you have to do, you wUl probably, in the iirst place, 
 find it too wet. The only effectual remedy for this defect i» 
 
Soils and Manttees. 33 
 
 thorougli underdraining. This not only draws off the surplna 
 water, but opens the soil to the action of the atmosphere, 
 which, in its passage through it, imparts its nutritive gases, and 
 helps to warm and disintegrate it. Deep trenching will aid in 
 the process of draining.* 
 
 Having thoroughly drained your plot, you should next give 
 your attention to improving the texture of the soil in other 
 ways. The natural remedy for their too dense and adhesive 
 character seems to be sand ; but to produce the desired effect 
 large quantities are required — so large that the improvement 
 in that way of large tracts of land is considered impracticable. 
 In treating a small garden, however, -the expense of the appli- 
 cation may often be disregarded. 
 
 Lime is a valuable auxiliary in the improvement of clayey 
 soils, forming, with their ingredients, chemical combinations, 
 whereby their extreme tenacity is broken up, and adding, at 
 the same time, an element of fertility, in which they may be 
 deficient. Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, has the same effect in 
 a still more powerful degree. Ashes, coarse vegetable manures, 
 straw, corn-stalks, leaves, chips, etc., are also very useful, as 
 they add new materials, and also help to separate the particles 
 of the original soU. 
 
 In cold olima,tes, clayey soils should be plowed or dug in the 
 fall, the action of the frost and snow tending to break them up 
 and destroy the adhesion of their particles. In the South, 
 where there is little frost, and frequent and copious rains occur 
 during the winter, this course is injurious rather than beneficial 
 
 The frequent working of clayey soUs with plow, harrow, 
 Bpade, or hoe, if done when they are not too wet, wiU greatly 
 improve them. 
 
 A persevering application of the various means we have 
 indicated, will gradually bring the heaviest clay soil into the 
 proper loamy consistency for horticultural purposes. 
 
 A loamy soU resting upon a clayey subsoil should in general 
 
 * For B chapter on Draining, see " The Farm." 
 2* 
 
84 The Garden. 
 
 be underdrained ; but if the stratum of clay be shallow, trench- 
 ing or subsoil plowing will answer a good purpose. 
 
 Improiiement of Sandy Soils. — K your plot be sandy, its 
 improvement, though equally necessary, is less difficult. The 
 defects of sandy soUs, as we have seen, are lack of adhesive- 
 ness, want of affinity for water, and a leachjr character, which 
 permits the escape of manures. Olay is the principal remedy 
 indicated, and a few loads, well incorporated with the original 
 soU, wiR have an astonishing effect in improving a sandy gar- 
 den. The required tenacity is thus very readily imparted. 
 
 Lime is scarcely less valuable for application to sandy than 
 to clayey soUs ; for while it separates the latter, it renders the 
 former more adhesive. Gypsum, ashes, and clay marls are 
 also exceedingly useful. To these applications should be added 
 the frequent use of a heavy roUer. 
 
 Where a sandy soO rests upon a clayey subsoil, as is not un- 
 frequently the case, it may be greatly improved by trenching 
 or deep plowing, by means of which a portion of the subsoil 
 is thrown up and mixed with the surface soil. 
 
 Sandy soUs, modified as we have indicated, being warm, 
 quick, and easy of cultivation, are the best in the world for 
 tap-rooted plants and bulbs, and for the production of early 
 crops of almost every kind. 
 
 Gravelly soils resemble sandy soils in their characteristic 
 defects, and require similar treatment ; but they are less desir- 
 able, and require greater modifications to adapt them to gar- 
 dening purposes. 
 
 The other soils named require similar treatment in proportion 
 as they approach the clayey or sandy character. 
 
 Depth of Soil. — The soil of most gardens (except on the 
 aUnvial bottoms of the "West) requires improvement in depth 
 quite as much as in any other particular. In no part of your 
 garden should you be satisfied with less than two feet of good, 
 friable soil, easOy permeable by the roots of plants. A stOl 
 greater depth is desirable, especially in the fruit department 
 Few who have not had their attention speciallj ii'awn to th« 
 
Soils and Manuees. 35 
 
 BUbject are aware how deeply the roots of some species of 
 plants penetrate, when permitted hy a proper state of the soil. 
 The roots of a strawberry plant are said to have heen traced 
 five feet in a deep, rich soU. 
 
 Trenching and subsoil plowing are the processes by which 
 the depth of soil is increased. The former is an expensive 
 process, hut, in gardening, a remunerative one; the latter is 
 much cheaper, and, where it can be applied, serves a good 
 purpose. 
 
 Trenching, or subsoU plowing, is positively essential where 
 the summers are long and dry, as in portions of the Southern 
 States. Mr. White, in his " Gardeniug for the South,'' says 
 very truly that there is no point of greater importance than 
 this. "Poor ground, deeply moved," he adds, "is better than 
 rich land with shallow tillage ; and when the ground has been 
 once prepared in this way, it will feel the benefit forever after. 
 Increasing the depth of the soU in this mode is, to aU intenta 
 and purposes, increasing the size of your garden ; for one fourth 
 of an acre thus prepared will yield, ia a dry season, as much 
 as an acre will with shallow tillage, and the growth of plants 
 in good seasons will be fully doubled." 
 
 Trenching should be performed in the fall, and any coarse 
 manures you may wish to apply dug in at the time. For a 
 description of the process of trenching, see Chapter III. 
 
 Color of Soils. — The color of a soil has an important relation 
 to its capacity for heat and moisture, and consequently to its 
 adaptedness for horticultural purposes. Dark-colored earths, 
 all other things being equal, are the best. 
 
 Old Gardens. — Some old and small gardens are in a very 
 bad state from excess of nutritive matters, or rather from the 
 unavailable state in which these matters exist in the soil, which, 
 instead of consisting of friable mold, presents only a black, 
 shining substance, known to chemists as humic acid. This is 
 the product of manures saturated with stagnant water, and ia 
 the result of excessive manuring, frequent watering, and lack 
 of drainage, ^o condition can be more unfavorable to the 
 
36 TheGaeden. 
 
 growth of plants than this, and if they grow at all in such soil 
 they will be gross, pungent, and unwholesome. The remedy is 
 ti-enohing, underdraining, and the application of lime, gypsum, 
 ashes, etc. 
 
 Further means of improving soils will be treated of in the 
 next section, under the head of Manures. 
 
 III.— MANTJEES. 
 
 If your soil be either wholly or partially deficient in any of 
 the constituents of plants, these constituents must be supplied 
 by adding to it substances which contain them. The substances 
 thus added are called manures, which, in the broadest sense of 
 the word, embrace everything which, being added to the soil, 
 promotes directly or indirectly the growth of plants. 
 
 Manures directly assist the growth of plants either by enter- 
 ing into their composition, or by absorbing moisture and nutri- 
 tive gases from the atmosphere, and holding them for their use. 
 Indirectly, manures assist the growth of plants by destroying 
 vennin or weeds, by decomposing the soil and rendering its 
 elements available, by protecting vegetation from sudden 
 changes of temperature, or by improving the texture of the 
 soil. They are divided into two classes — organic and inorganic. 
 The former embraces ordinary vegetable and animal substances, 
 and the latter mineral substances. 
 
 Organic Manures. — The principal organic manures are the 
 dung of animals, human excrements, urine, flesh, blood, fish, 
 swamp-muck, sea-weed, and decayed leaves, hay, straw, and 
 wood. Guano, though an animal product, contains so large a 
 proportion of salts, and is so deficient in the characteristics of 
 recent animal matter that it is generally classed with the inor- 
 ganic manures. 
 
 Inorganic Manures. — The principal inorganic manures are 
 ashes, lime, the marls, gypsum, bones, salt, charcoal, soot, and 
 guano. 
 
 Theory of Manures. — The kind of manure which will prove 
 most useful in a given instance must be determined by refer- 
 
Soils and Manukes. 37 
 
 ence to several circumstances — the chemical composition and 
 mechanical texture of the soil, the character of the climate or 
 season, and the kind of crop to be produced. The manures 
 most generally applicable are those composed of substances 
 which directly enter into and are essential to the growth of 
 plants. 
 
 The fertiUty of a forest is not only maintained but increased 
 oy the constant decay of its leaves, branches, and trunks, 
 which returns to the earth not only the nutritive matter origin- 
 ally drawn from it, but also much that has been supplied by 
 the atmosphere. This manure is just what the trees need — it 
 keeps good the supply of the elements essential to their growth. 
 So the parts of any plant decayed and rendered soluble are the 
 best manure for its species. But the products of our gardens 
 are mainly taken from them, and used as food. Every particle 
 not thus made use of should bo returned, mixed with other 
 vegetable and animal matter, in the form of compost. For the 
 rest, stable manures (of which the dung of the horse is the best) 
 should be relied on as the grand staples. 
 
 AH the ordinarily cultivated plants, as has already been 
 stated, contain potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, sOioa, 
 iron, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, 
 and hydrogen. The four substances last named may, as we 
 have seen, be derived either immediately or remotely from the 
 air ; but they are all essentials of a fertile soil, and, to perpetu- 
 ate its fertility under cultivation, must be supplied in the form 
 of manures. 
 
 Stable Manure. — Common stable manure contains potash, 
 soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silica, oxyd of iron, sulphur, 
 phosphorus, chlorine, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. 
 Lime exists both as a carbonate and as a phosphate, potash as 
 a muriate and a sulphate, and soda as a carbonate. A compari- 
 son of this list of chemical substances with those enumerated 
 in the preceding paragraph as the essentials of a fertile soil, 
 will at once show the value of stable manure. Every part of 
 it has been formed from vegetable substances, and it has only 
 
38 Thk Gaeden. 
 
 to be ronde-cd friable and soluble to enter again into tlieu 
 composition. As plants can not, it will be remembered, absorb 
 manm-es in a gross or solid form, the last point is an important 
 one, and of universal application. 
 
 Niglt Soil. — Human excrements, composted witb charcoal' 
 dust, leaves, turf, loam, etc., form a most powerftd fertHizer. 
 Quicklime should never be mixed with night-soil, for while it 
 neutralizes the odor, it also expels its fertilizing qualities. 
 
 Tlie Lung of Fowls. — The dung of fowls contains the essen- 
 tial qualities of guano, and is next to night-soil in value. It 
 should be kept dry, or else mixed at once with a compost which 
 wUl retain aU the volatile and soluble matters which it contains. 
 
 Other Organic Manures. — Dead animals, blood, butchers' 
 offal, fish, hair, bristles, hay, straw, leaves, sea-weed muck, 
 rich turf, the refuse from the kitchen, and the slops from the 
 chamber are aU of great value as materials for a compost. 
 
 AnTies. — If any di-ied vegetable product be burned, the incom- 
 bustible substance remaining behind is called the ash or ashes. 
 This, though generally less than one tenth of its substance, is 
 all that the plant necessarily derived from the soil. The sub- 
 stances expelled are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. 
 They return to the air, from which they were either immedi- 
 ately or remotely derived. The ashes of vegetables, then, fur- 
 nish j«st the inorganic elements required for their gi-owth. 
 Their value as a manure is evident, and it is astonishing that 
 any person with a garden or a farm can allow a spoonful of 
 them to be wasted. Leached ashes contain all the elements of 
 Ihe nnleached, but are somewhat less valuable from having lost 
 a portion of their potash and soda. Coal ashes, though inferior 
 ti> wood ashes, are stiU very valuable as manure. 
 
 Lime. — "We have already spoken of the value of lime in im- 
 pro'i ing the texture of soUs. It also condenses and retains the 
 volatile gases brought in contact with it by the air and rains, 
 and converts the insoluble n-atters of the soil into available food 
 for plants, besides entering itself directly into the composition 
 of nearly all vegetation. 
 
Soils and Manitees. 39 
 
 Tlte Marls. — Marls ai-e composed of carbonate of lime mixed 
 with clay, sand, loam, and frequently with phosphate and sul- 
 phate of lime and potash, and are valuable as manures in pro- 
 portion to the lime and potash they contain. 
 
 Guano. — This substance is composed of the dung, food, and 
 carcasses of sea-birds which have been accumulating for ages on 
 some of the islands of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Of its 
 value as a manure there can be no doubt. There is much 
 fraud in its sale, however, and if great caution be not exercised, 
 an adulterated article may be palmed off upon you. It must 
 never, in a fresh state, come in direct contact with the seeds or 
 roots of plants, as it is certain to destroy their vitality. 
 
 Other Inorganic Manures. — Common salt is valuable in small 
 quantities for garden use. On account of its great affinity for 
 water, it attracts the dews and atmospheric vapors, and ia 
 therefore a preventive of drouth. It is also useful iu destroy- 
 ing worms, slugs, and larv». Old plaster, broken bricks, bones, 
 charcoal, soot, and even broken glass, are useful as manures, and 
 should be carefully saved and applied. 
 
 Having said so much of the various manures, we must repeat, 
 in order to impress it upon the reader's mind, that our principal 
 reliance should be upon stable manure (with which we would 
 include that from the pig-sty) and the composts formed of 
 home-made materials, according to directions we are about to 
 give. The special manures most likely to be requii-ed by soilf 
 in general are lime, phosphate of lime, and potash. 
 
 Oompostt. — In or near the garden, and in some out-of-sight 
 comer, there should be at all times a compost heap for receiving 
 all kinds of rubbish that can have the least value as manure. 
 
 Make a shallow excavation of sufficient size, and a little 
 lower at one end than at the other, forming viath the earth 
 thrown out a smaD. embankment aU around it. Into this throw 
 green weeds, the sweepings of the yard, the refuse of vegeta- 
 bles, leaves, decayed vegetable matter of aU kinds, woolen rags, 
 old plaster, charcoal-dust, soot, soap-suds, brine, slops from the 
 kitchen and chambers, etc. The heap should be dug over ocoft- 
 
40 TheGaeden. 
 
 sionally, adding a little ashes and lime. Animal manures 
 Bhould be composted in a separate heap, to which ashes and 
 lime should not be added, as they would do harm by setting 
 free the ammonia. In the latter case, charcoal-dust, plaster of 
 Paris, and vegetable mold, leaves, tur^ or swamp-nfuok should 
 be used. 
 
 One who has never tried the experiment of carefully hus- 
 banding the elements of fertility which accumulate abvQt a 
 house, yard, and garden wUl be astonished at the annual amount 
 and value of the compost which may, with very little trouble, 
 be thus manufactured. Try it.* 
 
 * For a more complete exposition of tbe wliole sabject of Soils and H» 
 nnree, see " Tlio Farm." 
 
FOKMATION OF A GaEDEN. 41 
 
 III. 
 
 FORMATION OF A GARDEN. 
 
 NotlHng cODdccoB mor» to the Buccesaful completion of any piece of work than a et od begin* 
 
 I.-SITUATIOTT. 
 
 S it is desirable, if not absolutely necessary, 
 that the garden should be placed near the 
 house, the situation of ■which must be de- 
 termined, in part, at least, by independent 
 considerations, our range for the selection 
 of a plot is generally quite limited. But it 
 is well to know what kind of a situation is best, that 
 we may exercise understandingly any liberty of choice 
 that may be allowed us. 
 
 Por early crops a southeastern exposure, with a slight 
 inclination, is best, as it receives the full benefit of the 
 morning sun. If sheltered on the north and northwest by 
 higher grounds or by trees or high walls, so much the better. 
 In warm climates, however, a northwestern exposure is better 
 for many garden crops. 
 
 In selecting a situation for a garden, reference should also be 
 had to soil. If this be originally good, the expense of making 
 it so, artificially, will be saved, and only ordinary manuring 
 required. Diversity of soils and exposures are also desirable 
 combinations of advantages. Proximity to water is important, 
 but very low grounds are, if possible, to be avoided. 
 
 II.-8IZE AND SHAPE. 
 
 The size of a garden win naturally depend mainly upon the 
 wants, tastes, and means of its owner. An acre is not too 
 much, but one half oi' even one fourth of an acre, well ma- 
 
42 ThbGaedeu-. 
 
 aured imil skillfally cultivated, will furnish vegetables and fruits 
 BufficLeut for the use of a small family. If you can consist- 
 ently appropriate an acre or more for the purpose of a garden, 
 do not be content with less. You will find a ready market for 
 its surplus products, and at high prices, too, unless you happen 
 to be situated at a great distance from any city or large town. 
 The form of a garden, like its situation and size, must depend 
 upon circumstances. For convenience in laying out and culti- 
 vation, a square or a parallelogram is a good shape. If the 
 form be a parallelogram, it is better that it should extend from 
 east to west than from north to south. 
 
 III.— LAYING OUT. 
 
 The fruit and kitchen garden are to be looked upon from an 
 economical rather than an esthetic point of view, and their 
 internal arrangement should be simple, and, so far as circum- 
 stances wOl permit, regular and geometrical. In laying out a 
 flower-garden or a lawn, however, no matter how small it may 
 be, there is room for the exercise of taste and the creation of 
 beauty ; and we will reserve our directions on that point for 
 the chapters devoted specially to those topics, confining our- 
 selves here to the fruit and kitchen departments. 
 
 Whether within the same inclosure or not, the flower-garden 
 will naturally be placed nearest the house. Passing through 
 that, we enter the kitchen department, beyond which is the 
 fruit-garden. It is better, however, in some cases to reverse 
 the order of the last two, placing the fruit department next 
 the flower-garden. In small gardens, too, these departments 
 necessarily intermingle to some extent; but this should be 
 avoided so far as is possible, as the trees are very detrimei tal 
 to other crops — shading the ground, injuring tender plants by 
 the drippings from their branches, and exhausting the soil by 
 means of the heavy di'afts made upon it by their roots. Dwarf 
 pears may be admitted into the vegetable department with 
 comparative impunity, provided the soil is sufficiently ma- 
 nured to withstand the double demand thus made upon it. 
 
Formation of a Gaeden. 43 
 
 A large garden sliould have a walk through the center, ex- 
 tending the whole length, with a turning place at the extremity, 
 and broad enough to admit a cart for bringing in the manure 
 and conveying the heavier crops to the cellar or other place 
 of storage. This walk may be crossed by another at right 
 angles, and both should be bordered with cun-ant or gooseberry 
 bushes, or other shrubs. In small gardens these walks may be 
 narrow and without borders, or may be omitted altogether. 
 A border from four to twelve feet wide, and skirted by a walk 
 three or four feet wide, should run entirely around the garden. 
 The smaller compartments need not be separated by permanent 
 walks, and their arrangement must be left to be decided by the 
 circumstances of each case. 
 
 The only general direction that seems necessary in reference 
 to laying out the fruit department is, that care should be taken 
 to give the less hardy trees the most sheltered and warmest 
 position, and to so dispose the various kinds that the larger 
 trees shall not shade and dwarf the smaller. The fruit-gardes 
 should have its wall-borders for the cultivation of raspberries, 
 blackberries, currants, gooseberries, etc. (unless these, as is 
 generally the case in small gardens, are transferred to the bor- 
 ders of the kitchen department), and its trellises and arbors 
 for grapevines. 
 
 IT.— FENCING. 
 
 A garden should be surrounded by a close fence, at least seven 
 feet high, and picketed, to prevent the entrance of thieves. 
 The height and closeness of the fence will increase the warmth 
 of the air, break the force of high winds, which might injure 
 tender plants and trees, and prevent, in a measure, the seeds 
 of weeds from being driven into it by the wind. A close board 
 fence, however, is an unsightly object, and a high close hedge, 
 60 soon as it can be grown, may advantageously take its place. 
 The Osage Orange and, at the South, the Cherokee and single- 
 white Macartney roses are suitable for this purpose. 
 
4A The Gaeden. 
 
 v.— PEEPAEATION OF THE SOU. 
 
 1. Draining. — If your soil require draining, this is tlie first 
 thing to be attended to. If in digging a hole two feet deep, 
 water he found to coUect and stand in it, even during the wettest 
 times, you may he sure that draining is required. "No one," 
 J. J. Thomas says, " who has never given draining a foil and 
 fair trial can appreciate its importance. Very often the soil 
 may he worked and planted from two to four weeks earlier in 
 the spring — a most important advantage for early vegetables. 
 Scarcely less is the benefit during the rest of the season in pre- 
 venting hard-baked soil in times of drouth." Do not neglect 
 this on account of the expense. No operation in gardening 
 "pays" better. A quarter of an acre well underdrained will 
 be more valuable than an acre of wet, cold, tenacious, undrained 
 soil. Dig parallel ditches from twenty-five to thirty feet apart, 
 and from three to four feet deep, forming a slightly inclined 
 plane on the bottom, which may be from six inches to a foot 
 wide. These ditches may be filled to a sufficient depth with 
 rubble-stones or brush, and then covered with soU, if the arched 
 tiles or tubes of burned clay, now mostly used, can not he pro- 
 cured. The average expense of the best underdraining is esti- 
 mated at only from twelve to eighteen dollars an acre. 
 
 2. Trenching. — AVe have already (in Chapter 11.) spoken of 
 the necessity of depth of soil for horticultural purposes, and 
 especially for the growth of trees, and of the means for deep- 
 ening soils naturally too shallow, as nearly all are. Trenching 
 is thus performed : 
 
 " At one end of the plot to be trenched, dig with the spade 
 a trench three feet wide and at least two feet deep, throwing 
 the earth out on the side opposite to the plot. Now open an- 
 other trench of the same width, and put the surface spadeful 
 of this into the bottom of the former trench, and the next 
 spadeful upon that, until it is opened to the depth of the first 
 one. When the plot is entirely trenched in this way, the last 
 trench will remain open, and must he fiUed with tJie earth 
 
FOEMATION OF A GaKDEN. 45 
 
 thrown out from the first one. If the subsoil he poor and 
 gravelly, it is better to take off the first spadeful, and then 
 loosen the bottom to the required depth without bringing it to 
 the surface. If the soil require it, as ii generally will, layers 
 of manure may he added to those of earth alternately." 
 
 3. Subsoil Plowing. — The expense of trenching being great, 
 where the plot to be prepared is la »e, subsoil plowing may be 
 substituted, similar results in a somewhat inferior degree being 
 obtained. In suhsoUing, a common turning plow goes first, and 
 the subsoil plow follows, loosening the earth to the required 
 depth below the bottom of the ordinary furrow, -but not turn- 
 ing it up. 
 
 The foregoing preparatory operations being thoroughly per- 
 formed, we may consider the garden ready for the ordinary 
 processes of cultivation. Of these we shall speak in another 
 chapter. 
 
46 The Gaeden. 
 
 IV. 
 
 IIPLEMEMTS AND FIXTURES. 
 
 Next to knowledge and BklU are good toolB.— rftc Workman. 
 
 I.— IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 OU should supply yourself with good iui' 
 plements of the various kinds essential to 
 the proper performance of every necessary 
 operation. To purchase those of an infe- 
 rior quality because they can he procured 
 at a somewhat lower price is false economy. Ex- 
 perience will prove them the more costly in the 
 end. They soon get out of repair and become 
 useless; besides, in their best estate, much less 
 work can be accomplished with them, and that 
 imperfectly. 
 
 The Spade. — It is convenient to have several spades of dif- 
 ferent sizes, but a No. 2 of Ames' cast steel will serve for most 
 purposes. For the flower-garden, a lady needs a smaller and 
 lighter one, manufactured especially for feminine use. 
 
 The Shovel. — A shovel is necessary for loading and spreading 
 composts and for various other operations. The round-pointed 
 ones are perhaps more generally useful in a garden than the 
 square-bladed, 
 
 Soes. — You need several hoes, of different sizes and shapes. 
 The common square draw-hoes are most used. They are of 
 various sizes. One of three or four and another of six or seven 
 inches wiU be found most useful. To these it is desirable to 
 add a pronged hoe, a thrust-hoe, and a triangular draw-hoe. 
 The latter is useful for digging furrows for seeds. 
 Bakes.^-The garden rake should be of the best wrought 
 
Implements and Fixtuees. 47 
 
 iron, ■with teeth about two and a half inches long and one and 
 a half inches apart. The handle should be from six to eight 
 feet long. DriU-rakes, which are very useful, if not indis- 
 pensable, are made of wood, with obtusely-pointed teeth, three 
 or four in number, placed at a greater or less distance apart, 
 for sowing different seeds. In using the drill-rake a line is 
 stretched to guide it in making the first driU, and afterward the 
 first tooth is kept in the driU last made, as a guide, and thus 
 all the rows in a long bed can be made perfectly parallel. 
 Several different sizes are required. 
 
 Tlie Trowel. — The trowel is very useful for removing plants, 
 with balls of earth for transplanting. It should be from five 
 to nine inches long, exclusive of the handle. 
 
 The Bibler. — This is a short piece of round wood, obtusely 
 pointed. A serviceable one may be made from an old spade 
 or shovel handle. 
 
 The Heel and Line. — These are essential — at least the Una, 
 which may be used without the reel — where anything like 
 straight rows and regularity are desired. The reel may be 
 either of wood or of iron. 
 
 The Watering Pot. — One boiling four gallons is the best 
 size. It should be made of double tin, and kept well painted. 
 
 Garden Shears. — These are of various sizes, and are used 
 for clipping hedges and many other purposes. The seven and 
 nine-inch size are very convenient. There is a smaller article 
 made expressly for the ladies. 
 
 The Saw. — The pruning saw is from fourteen to eighteen 
 inches long, and is made with fine teeth and a hooked handle, 
 for hanging on the limb of a tree. 
 
 Knives. — A pruning knife of modem size and a budding 
 knife will be essential in the fruit-garden. 
 
 Hand- Glasses. — Hand-glasses, either made of panes set in 
 boxes, or bell-glasses, are necessary for protecting early plants 
 of the tomato, egg-plant, etc. 
 
 Ladders. — A light, common ladder and a standing ladder 
 wiU be found indispensable in the fruit department. 
 
4:8 The Gaeden. 
 
 The Wheelbarrow. — The wheelbarrow is exceedingly usefn] 
 in the smallest garden, and in a large one absolutely indispens- 
 able. It should be light, tut strongly made. 
 
 Additional. — Several other implements are desirable, and in 
 particular cases indispensable, among which are, a erowla/r, a 
 pick, a manure forJc, a forhed spade, pruning shea/rs, a ga/rdcn 
 roller, a lawn scythe, a hedge hooTc, vine scissors, a hand-culti- 
 vator, an orchardisfs hooJc, a hand-syringe, etc. 
 
 The plow, subsoil plow, and cultivator belong rather to the 
 farm, and if you cultivate only a small garden, you wiU find it 
 more economical to pay for the occasional use of these imple- 
 ments than to LQvest money in their purchase. 
 
 Preservation of Implements. — Having procured implements 
 of a good quality, do not allow them to be destroyed for the 
 lack of a little care on your part. An implement that in the 
 hands of a careful and economical gardener wiU last and con- 
 tinue serviceable for ten years may be ruined in a single season 
 by a negligent and wasteful one. 
 
 In or near the garden should be a tool-house or a room set 
 apart for the purpose of storing the implements when not in 
 nse. OarefuUy clean your spades, hoes, and other implements 
 of steel or iron, before returning them to their place. Imple- 
 ments of wood should be painted. 
 
 II.— FIXTUEES, ETC. 
 
 The gardens and grounds of every rural residence of taste 
 should have seats, arbors, and other sti'uctures of rustic work 
 — ^that is, work made of the trunks and branches of trees, with 
 their bark on and in their natural forms. They may be cheaply 
 erected, and wiU add greatly to the out-of-door attractions. 
 The tool-house we have recommended .may be of this charac- 
 ter, and be made ornamental as well as useful.* 
 
 Pits. — What is called a sunk pit is made by excavating the 
 earth and forming walls of brick, stone, or boards. These are 
 
 * See " The House," for designs and degcrlptions. 
 
Implements and Fixtitees. 
 
 49 
 
 Bometimes covered with glass frames, and at other times with 
 mats or hoards. They are mostly used for the preservation of 
 vegetables, such as celery, endive, lettuce, cauliflower, etc. 
 The walled pit is partly sunk in the ground and partly above 
 it. The walls are formed of brick or stone, finished with a 
 wooden or stone cop- 
 ing, and covered with 
 movable glazed sashes. 
 Of this pit Buist says : 
 
 "There is no ap- ^ 
 pendage to the garden ^ 
 of greater utility than ^| 
 this pit. It is two feet ™e vausxo pit. 
 
 under ground and one foot above it in front, and two feet above 
 it at the back, and six or seven feet wide in the clear. It is 
 an excellent winter apartment for plants when covered with 
 sash and mats. MUed with very rich earth, it produces very 
 fine cauliflowers, which wiU be in use from March to May. If 
 filled with warm manure early in February, it wiU produce 
 cucumbers that will be in use from April to July, or radishes 
 and small salading in any quantity." 
 
 Rot Beds. — The common hot-bed frame is a bottomless box 
 
 THB HOT-BED. 
 
 of wood, with a sloping top and covered with a sash. It may 
 be of any length or breadth, but from four to six feet wide, 
 and from six to ten feet long is a good size. The sashes are 
 made without cross-bars, the glass overlapping like the shingles 
 of a house. The glass should be proportionally much smaller 
 than it is represented in our engraving — ^not larger than seven- 
 by-nine at most. The lap of the panes should not be over 
 
 8 
 
50 The Garden. 
 
 half an inch. It should be bedded in soft piitty, and the sash 
 well painted. The sashes should be made to slide in grooves, 
 BO as to be conveniently moved whenever the bed may require 
 to be opened, either wholly or partially, to the air* The 
 whole should be kept under cover when not iu use. Directions 
 for preparing hot-beds will be found in the next chapter, xmder 
 the head of " Forcing.'' 
 
 Trellises, — Every garden should have one or more trellises 
 for vines. They are of different kinds to adapt them to differ- 
 ent situations and purposes. The posts should be made of some 
 durable wood. Ked cedar is the best. Under the head of the 
 grape we shall describe the construction of the trellises required 
 for its support. Designs for ornamental trellis-work may be 
 found in " The House." 
 
 * Instead of the sashes for covering the frames, the following mode, called 
 the German plan, may perhaps be adopted with advantage ; but we have not 
 tried it : 
 
 "Take white cotton cloth, of a close texture, stretch, and nail it on frames 
 of any size you wish ; take two ounces of lime-water, four ounces of linseed 
 oil, one of white of eggs, two ounces of yellow of eggs ; mix the lime and oil 
 with very genUe heat, beat the eggs separately, and mix them with the former ; 
 spread this mixture with a paint-brush over the cotton, allowing each coat to 
 dry before applying another, until they become water-proof. The following 
 are the advantages this shade possesses over glass ones : 1. The cost being 
 hardly one fourth. 2. Repairs are easily and cheaply made. 8. The light. 
 They do not require watering; no matter how intense the heat of the sun, the 
 plants are never struck down or burned, or checked in growth, neither do they 
 grow up long, sick, and weakly, as they do under glass, and still there is 
 abundance of light. 4. The heat arising entirely from below is more equable 
 and temperate, which is a great object The vapor rising from the majiura 
 and earth is condensed by the cool air passing over the surface of the shade, 
 and stands in drops upon the inside, an4 therefore, the plants do not require 
 as frequent watering. If the frames or sltetchers are made large, they should 
 be intersected by cross-bars about a foot square to support the cloth. Thesa 
 i/ticles are just the thing for bringing forward melons, tomatoes, flower-seeiU, 
 etc. in season for transplantirg." 
 
H.OKT10ULTUEAL PeOCESSES. 
 
 51 
 
 V. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL PROCESSES. 
 
 Bvfiry operation Id gftrdenlng depends for Its completo and unlverBal Buccesa npon a knowl* 
 kdge of the Btracture of plants, the nature of soUb and manures, and tbe laws of Teget»l)l« 
 life and growth. — AT. Le Jardinisr. 
 
 I.-STIEEING THE BOIL. 
 
 _ HE attentive reader of the foregoing chap 
 ter3 wUl not require to be told that a thor 
 ough stirring and pulverizing of the soil, as 
 one of the iirst operations in gardening, is 
 absolutely essential to any high degree of 
 success in the steps which follow. Hia 
 knowledge of the structure of roots and the nature 
 of their food has prepared him to appreciate the im- 
 portance of the mechanical division of soils. He 
 knows that the ground must be readily permeable by 
 the tender rootlets, pervious to moisture and air, and 
 80 broken up that the water, acids, and alkalies penetrating it 
 may efficiently act upon its soluble parts. 
 
 Spading is the most effisctual method of stirring the soil, 
 but, where the plow can be advantageously used, will hardly 
 "pay" in this country. In small gardens, and in portions of 
 all gardens, spading is the only practicable operation. What- 
 ever the means used, let the work be thoroughly done. Down- 
 ing says: "If I had to preach a sermon on horticulture, I 
 should take this for my text — 'Stir the soil.' " 
 
 II.— APPLYING MANUEES. 
 
 As the roots of plants usually penetrate every part of the 
 soil of a garden, manures-, a» a general rule, should Ja as tfuyr- 
 
52 The Gaedek. 
 
 oughly mixed as possible with every part. 'Wliere the gromid 
 is to be plowed, they are generally spread upon the surface, 
 and turned in by that process. In special cases, as will be 
 seen further on, manuring in the hill or drill is advisable. 
 Manures are also sometimes applied as top-dressings — ^that is, 
 are spread upon the surface and not dug in. Vegetable and 
 animal manures for common garden use should be thoroughly 
 rotted and finely pulverized. 
 
 III.— FOEOmG. 
 
 Every garden should have one or more hot-beds for for- 
 warding early tomatoes, cucumbers, cabbages, radishes, let- 
 tuce, etc. We have described the hot-bed frame in Chapter 
 rV. The bed itself should be composed of stable manure and 
 leaves, and must be not less than three feet deep. The manure 
 should be first thrown in a heap to ferment, and worked over 
 several times, adding water if it should become dry or musty. 
 Sometimes the bed is made on the surface of the ground, and at 
 others au excavation ten or twelve laches deep is made, in order 
 to give the bed a less inconvenient elevation above the general 
 surface. The manure and leaves should be spread evenly ia 
 layers, and pressed down. The bed should be at least six 
 inches larger every way than the frame which is to cover it, 
 and slope slightly toward the south. When neatly finished, 
 put on the frame, close the sash, and keep all tight till the heat 
 rises and steam appears on the glass. So soon as the heat 
 rises, give the bed air at noon, or the warmest part of the day, 
 bat keep it carefully closed the rest of the time. In three or 
 four days you may cover the surface with from four to six 
 inches of fine, rich garden mold, and so soon as this is warmed 
 through, the bed is ready for use. The seed may be sowed in 
 drills, but, for facility of transplanting and to secure an un- 
 checked growth, it is better to sow them in small pots, which 
 are to be plunged ia the mold. Sprinkle gently with water of 
 the same temperature as the bed. When the plants appear 
 Uiey should have the air every day in which the weather will 
 
HOETIOULTUEAL PbOOESBES. 53 
 
 permit. Open the bed also to warm, gentle rains, but keep it 
 carefolly closed against cold or heavy storms. At night keep 
 it well covered with matting or straw. Transplant as soon as 
 danger from frost wiU permit. 
 
 In the South this forcing process may be coiomenced early 
 in the winter, but at the North not tall Pehmary or March, 
 according to the latitude and the season. 
 
 IT.— SOWING 8EEDB. 
 
 The first thing to be attended to in seed-sowing is the prep- 
 aration of the bed by thoroughly pulverizing the soil ; and the 
 smaller the seeds the more finely should the earth he pulver- 
 ized. The son should he freshly stirred and moist, but not too 
 wet. The depth at which seeds should be buried varies with 
 Bpecies and with the state of the soU. The objects are to ex- 
 clude the light and secure suflacient moisture for the purposes 
 of germination. The latter object requires large seeds, other 
 things being equal, to be covered more deeply than small ones. 
 If seeds are covered too deeply, unnecessary impediments are 
 thrown in the way of the ascending shoots ; and germination 
 may be prevented altogether by the exclusion of the air. 
 Most garden seeds are sown in drOls. The earth should he 
 pressed upon them with more or less force, according to the 
 nature of the soil, in order to secure the necessary degree of 
 compactness to retain the moisture and to support the plant 
 after germination. Specific directions, where they are required, 
 will be given under the name of each plant. 
 
 T.— TEAHSPLANTING. 
 
 In transplanting, the principal points to be attended to ai-e — 
 care in taking up, to avoid injuring the tender extremities of 
 the roots, through which, as we have seen, the plant receives 
 its nourishment ; planting firmly, to give it a secure hold of 
 the soil ; shading, when necessary, to prevent the evaporation 
 from its leaves being greater than the plant, in its enfeebled 
 state, can support ; and watering, that it may not lack moist 
 
£4 The Gaeden. 
 
 nre. Moist -weather should also, if possible, be chosen for 
 performing the operation. 
 
 As a general rule, in transplanting, the collar of the root 
 should not be buried. Cabbages, balsams, and some other 
 annuals, which throw out roots above the collar, fiirnish ex- 
 ceptions ; also pears on quince stocks, which must be set so as 
 to bring the place where the scion is inserted below the surface 
 of the soil. 
 
 The operation of transplanting herbaceous plants should 
 always be performed with & trowel, removing a little ball of 
 earth with the plant. A damp, cloudy day, an evening, or 
 just before a shower, is a favorable time. 
 
 Tap-rooted plants are transplanted with great diflBculty, and, 
 if the operation be attempted, should be taken up with a con- 
 siderable ball of earth. 
 
 In transplanting trees much depends upon the knowledge 
 and skiU exercised. Thousands of fine trees are lost every 
 year through the ignorance and carelessness of transplanters. 
 
 In taking up a tree or shrub for transplanting, be careful to 
 injure the roots as little as possible. But in all cases the roots 
 will be maimed more or less. The feeding power of the tree 
 is to the same extent decreased, and it will not be able to sus- 
 tain the draft made upon it by the stem and leaves. These 
 must be diminished correspondingly by heading back or short- 
 ening. In preparing a place for the reception of the tree, avoid, 
 if possible, the sites of old trees. Dig a hole considerably 
 larger than the clump of the tree's roots, and from fifteen to 
 twenty inches deep, placing the sods, if in sward land, in one 
 heap, the soil in another, and the subsoil in a third. The hole 
 should he filled with a mixture of the soil, subsoil, and rich, 
 black loam, or well-rotted compost manure, to the height 
 where it is proper to place the tree. With the hand or spade, 
 shape the soil for the roots into the form of a little cone, on 
 which to set the hollow in the center of the clump of roots. 
 If this is done some weeks, or even months, before setting th» 
 tree, it wOl be all the better. 
 
HOETICULTUEAL PkOCESSES. 55 
 
 If the ground be dry, or if the roots have been much exposed 
 to the an- since the tree was taken up, soak the roots and the 
 lower part of the trunk in water twelve or twenty-fcur hours. 
 Out off all bruised and broken ends of roots smoothly with a 
 knife, and shorten-in the longest, so that the clump of roots 
 may have a somewhat circular form. In cutting a root, always 
 enter the knife upon the under side, and bring it out, with a 
 slope, to the upper side, so that the fibers which may shoot oat 
 from the edges of the cut shall strike downward into the 
 ground, instead of upward, as they should were the cut made 
 as it commonly is. 
 
 "With good, rich soil fill up under, among, around, and above 
 the roots, straightening them out with the fingers, and placing 
 them in a fan-like and natural position, being very cautious not 
 to leave any, even small, hollow places among them. If the 
 root is one-sided, make the most you can of the weaker part. 
 At this stage of the work, if you have patience, it is an ex- 
 cellent plan to make a circular dam around the edge of 
 the hole, and keep it full of water for a half hour or more. 
 In setting evergreens, this, by some, is deemed almost indis- 
 pensable, unless the ground is quite moist. Next, put in a little 
 more earth, pressing it around the tree with the foot. After 
 this, throw on an inch or so of loose earth, and the work is 
 done. 
 
 Another mode of filling up around the trees, called mudding- 
 in, has proved very successful. Make the circular dam around 
 the tree first, or as soon as it is needed, then let one person 
 slowly sift the soil into the hole upon the roots, while another 
 constantly pours in water, thus keeping the earth in a thin, 
 muddy state. 
 
 Very large trees are most successfully transplanted by re- 
 moving them with large balls of frozen earth in mid- winter, 
 and placing them at once in a hole previously prepared to 
 receive them.* 
 
 • Se« Appendix, O. 
 
66 The Gaeden. 
 
 The fundamental principle to be generally observed in trans- 
 planting is to head back tbe top of the tree in proportion to 
 the loss of root that it has sustained by being removed. 
 
 Some fruit-trees may be moved much more easily than 
 others. . Downing arranges them with reference to this point 
 in the following order : Plnms, quinces, apples, pears, peaches, 
 nectarines, apricots, and, last and most difficult, cherries. It 
 is an invariable rule, that the larger the tree the leas the chclmees 
 of success. In the northern parts of the United States small 
 trees should always be set in the spring. 
 
 Medium-sized trees — say five to ten feet high — may be set 
 equally well either in the autumn or spring. Trees of large 
 size should be moved late in autumn, in the winter, or quite 
 early in the spring. 
 
 The evergreen tribe are, however, best planted out just aa 
 their buds begin to swell in the spring; but they are some- 
 times successfully set in autumn, and also duiing the last of 
 May and first of Jime. If their roots are exposed to dry, 
 out of the ground, they- are almost certain to die. 
 
 VI.— WATEEING. 
 
 Watering, like every other operation in gardening, has its 
 rules, founded on the general principles laid down in our first 
 and second chapters. The most important points to be remem- 
 bered are : 1. That on the nature of the plant, the stage of 
 its growth, and the dryness or dampness of the atmosphere 
 depends the quantity of water required; 2. That the soil 
 should never be saturated with water, too much moisture 
 proving injurious as well as too little; 3. That the watei 
 should not be applied at the base of the stem, as it is through 
 the extremities of the rootlets mainly that it must be taken up, 
 and these, except in tap-rooted plants, are at a greater or lesi 
 distance from the original starting-point ; 4. Tliat in summer, 
 the proper time for watering plants is evening, but that in 
 colder weather it is better to water them at mid-day ; 5. That 
 rain water is better than well or spring water, and that when 
 
HOETIOULTUKAL PeOCESSES. 67 
 
 the latter is used it should be exposed to the air for some time 
 before applying it ; 6. That the water should never be colder 
 than the plants to be watered. 
 
 VII.-HOEING. 
 
 The necessity for stirring the soil before planting has been 
 already shown. As soon as the plants are well above ground 
 it should be stirred again. In field culture, and to some extent 
 in large gardens, this is done with the plow and cultivator. 
 Where these can not go, the hoe must be faithfully applied. 
 The soil can not ie stirred too often. 
 
 One object in hoeing is the destruction of weeds. This 
 should be thorough — ^the extermination should be complete. 
 Spare not even the smallest. But keeping the weeds down is 
 not the only good result attained by hoeing. The soil is 
 thereby kept friable and porous, opened to the atmosphere and 
 the fertilizing gases, and new, fresh, and cool surface is pre- 
 sented for the absorption of moisture. Soe deeply. A mere 
 scratching of the surface is not enough ; and do not fail to kill 
 every weed. 
 
 One year's seeding makes seven years' ■weeding. 
 
 Till.— PEOTECTION FEOM FE08T. 
 
 Straw and leaves laid several inches deep about their roots 
 are very useful in protecting half-hardy plants during the win- 
 ter. Garden-pots, empty boxes, barrels, hand-glasses, and cold 
 frames should be brought into requisition in particular oases, 
 for the protection of early plants from spring frosts, and later 
 ones from those of the autumn. Common tumblers may be 
 used for very small plants, but they must be raised whenever 
 moisture accumulates. 
 
 Fruit-trees in blossom, or covered with young fruit just 
 formed, may be protected by keeping up smoldering, smoking 
 fires during the night in various parts of the garden, at the 
 windward side. But little fire is required, the clouds of smoke 
 effectually warding off the frost. The amount of fruit which 
 
 3* 
 
58 The Garden. 
 
 might often be thus saved -would repay a hundied-foM the 
 lahor and care bestowed in this way. 
 
 IX.— MULCHING. 
 
 Mulching is placing mulch or moist litter of various kinds 
 upon the surface of the soU over the roots of trees, shrubs, and 
 herbaceous plants. Its uses are the retention of moisture, the 
 prevention of injury by frost, and the promotion of an equable 
 temperature. Strawberries thinly mulched, the crovrn being 
 uncovered, are rendered more productive and continue longer 
 in bearing, especially in hot, dry climates. Newly planted 
 fruit-trees are often greatly benefited by mulching. 
 
 X.— DE8TK0TING INSECTS. 
 
 The foes against whicli the gardener is forced to wage a per- 
 petual war of extermination, though individually insignificant, 
 are in the aggregate most formidable. We will try to give a 
 few useful hints of a general character to aid the reader in this 
 warfare. 
 
 Sowing a garden with salt, at the rate of six or eight bushels 
 to the acre, wUl cause many insects to disappear. It should 
 be done in the autumn. Digging the soil in the winter, and 
 thus exposing it to the frost, wUl destroy many grubs, etc. 
 "Wide-mouthed bottles, partly filled with molasses and water, 
 and hung up in a garden, make excellent traps for the moths, 
 which are the parents of many destructive vermin. Mr, 
 Downing mentions an acquaintance who thus caught and de- 
 stroyed in a single season three hualieh of insects, and preserved 
 Lis garden almost free from them. A bright fire of resinous 
 pine, tar, shavings, or any other combustible, kindled in the 
 garden at night, on a platform erected for the purpose, wiU 
 tittract and destroy millions. Birds are among the best friends 
 of the gardener, and should by no means be destroyed, 
 although some of them may eat a few raspberries or cherries. 
 Toads live almost entirely upon insgcts, and do no harm in a 
 garden. Induce as many of them as possible to make it theii 
 
Hoeticultheal Processes. 59 
 
 home. Hens and chickens should have access ■whenever it 
 can safely he permitted. 
 
 To drive insects away from plants various preparations are 
 useful. A writer in the Southern Cultivator recommends the 
 following: 
 
 "Put into a harrel of water a quarter of a pound of cam- 
 phor, in pieces of the size of a hickory nut, and let it stand a 
 day before using. Water your plants with this. The harrel 
 may be refilled many times before the camphor will have all 
 been dissolved. A cupful of strong lye put into the watei 
 will add to the strength of the mixture by causing the water 
 to take up more camphor. Camphor is very oflfensive to most 
 insects." Tobacco-water is another eflicient remedy. Lime, 
 charcoal-dust, ashes, soot, snuff, and sulphur sprinkled upon 
 plants prove a defense against most destroyers. To expel the 
 striped bug from cucumbers, squashes, etc., water the plants 
 daily with a strong decoction of quassia, made by pouring four 
 gallons of boning water on four pounds of quassia, in a barrel, 
 and, after twelve hours, filling the barrel with water. The 
 intolerable squash or pumpkin hug may he thoroughly driven 
 off by a decoction of double strength, containing a pound of 
 glue to ten gallons, to make it adhere. 
 
 The most effectual and the cheapest remedy for the striped 
 bug, however, consists in defending each hill of melons, cu- 
 cumbers, squashes, etc., by a box about fifteen inches square, 
 the sides being eight to ten inches high, covered with millinet 
 or some similar thin material. 
 
 The following recipe for making a " barrier to insects" is 
 given in the Oa/rden6r''s Chronicle. It may be easily tried: 
 
 "Take of common resin li lbs. ; sweet oil, 1 lb. ; place them 
 in a pipkin over the fire until the resin is melted ; stir the mate- 
 rials together, that they may be well blended ; when cold the 
 substance formed, which the discoverer calls 'rezoil,' will be 
 of the consistency of molasses. To use the rezoil it should be 
 spread with a brush upon shreds or any fitting material, and 
 wrapped roimd the stem of the plant ; if any support is used, 
 
60 TheGaeden. 
 
 that should be brushed over also. No insect can possibly, or 
 win attempt to cross this barrier ; the rezoU never dries, but 
 always remains sticky and clammy — its action as a trap is 
 therefore obvious." 
 
 But, however numerous and effective the other remedies, 
 " eternal vigUance" can not be dispensed with in dealing with 
 the pests of the garden. 
 
 XI.— SATING SEEDS. 
 
 Choose the best plants for seed — the most true to their hind 
 and the most perfectly developed ; allow the seeds to become 
 perfectly ripe before gathering them; gather when dry, and 
 especially take care that they are perfectly dry when pnt up ; 
 store them in paper bags carefully labeled, and keep them in a 
 dry, cool place. Great care is necessary in raising seeds to 
 preserve the sorts unmixed, as varieties of the same species 
 or similar species are almost sure to mix if planted near each 
 other. If you raise more than one kind of corn, or pumpkin, 
 or cucumber, or melon in the same garden, you can not be 
 sure of pure seed. The squashes and pumpkins may mix, or 
 the melons with either, the pollen of one being conveyed by 
 the wind, or sometimes by bees or other insects, to the pistil 
 of the other. 
 
 XII.— EOTATION OF CEOPS. 
 
 Why rotation of crops is beneficial has been already shown, 
 and if the reader has forgotten, let him turn back to the first 
 chapter. The following is a good rotation for a given portion 
 of a garden : 
 
 rirst year, cabbages. 
 
 Second " onions. 
 
 Third " carrots, beets, or parsneps. 
 
 Tourth " potatoes or turnips. 
 
 Fifth " celery, spinach, or lettuce. 
 
 flelery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, cfiuliflowera, 
 
HOETICULIUEAL PkOCESSBS. 61 
 
 or turnips ; old asparagus beds are good for carrots, potatoes, 
 stc. ; strawberry and raspberry beds do well for tbe cabbage 
 tribe, and the cabbage tribe may be followed by the tap-rooted 
 plants — carrots, beets, etc. 
 
 A large portion of every garden, even at the North, should 
 be made to produce two crops each season. All the space occa- 
 piod by early peas, beans, and potatoes can be made available 
 for turnips and cabbages. Turnips (English or Dutch) may also 
 be sown broadcast among the corn and later potatoes after the 
 last hoeing. 
 
 XIII.— PEOPAGATION. 
 
 There are, properly speaking, but two modes of propagating 
 plants — by seeds and by division. By the first the species is 
 perpetuated, and new varieties raised. The second mode mul- 
 tiplies specimens of the individual itself, with all its peculiari- 
 ties, which may be and generally are lost in the seed. 
 
 There are several distinct modes of propagating plants by 
 division, all, however, depending for their success upon" the 
 presence of leaf-lvds, each of which, as we have seen, being 
 capable, under favorable circumstances, of forming a distinct 
 and independent individual. 
 
 1. Slickers. — Some plants, such as the rose, the raspberry, 
 the lilac, etc., throw up suckers or sprouts from their roots. 
 These spring from what have been described as adventitious 
 buds. We have only to divide these from their parent and 
 transplant them in a suitable soil to secure their independent 
 growth. Offsets and runners are of a similar nature to the 
 suckers of the woody plants. The former are young bulbs 
 which form by the side of the old one, and merely require 
 breaking oif and planting. The latter are shoots springing from 
 the coUar or crown of a plant, and throwing out roots at their 
 joints. These have only to be separated from the parent plant 
 to become independent individuals. The strawberry is the 
 most noted example of this mode of propagation. 
 
 2. Layers. — The tendency manifested by many plants to 
 throw out roots from their joints early suggested- to gardeners 
 
63 TuE Garden. 
 
 the idea of making layers. A twig growing out of a tree, at a 
 point not far from the ground, is bent down, and the middle 
 portion of it buried just under the surface of the sod, and fast- 
 ened there by means of a hooked peg, or by a stone or turf 
 placed above it. Success is rendered more certain by checking 
 the downward flow of the sap. This may be accomplished by 
 cutting a slice off the under side of the part of the twig that is 
 placed under ground, or, more perfectly, by entering the knife 
 on the under side at this point, and splitting the twig upward 
 about one or two inches, fastening the split open with a little 
 wedge or pebble. The sap accumulating at this point induces 
 the throwing out of roots, and the conversion of the shoot into 
 a new plant. Trees or shrubs purposely headed down for 
 raising layers are caUed stools. A single quince-bush, thus 
 made into a stool, and its twigs layered, is capable of producing 
 many finely-rooted plants in a single season. Of some kinds 
 of layers nearly every bud will form roots of its own. 
 
 3. Cuttings. — Cuttings are shoots removed from the parent 
 tree or plant without roots. The branches nearest the ground 
 are considered best for cuttings, as the tendency to throw out 
 roots is greater in them than in those more elevated. They 
 should be cut ofiF just below a joint. Some species, however, 
 as the wiUow, the currant, etc., will throw out roots from any 
 part of the stem, and generally succeed with even the most 
 careless planting. The best time to take off cuttings is in No- 
 vember, but in a cold climate they are more likely to succeed 
 if kept in damp mold in a cellar, and not planted till spring. 
 In planting, bury them to the second joint, leaving one or two 
 joints above the surface of the soil. Press the earth com- 
 pactly about the lower end. Cuttings of delicate plants are 
 generally struck (rooted) in pots, and sometimes it is necessary 
 to cover them with a bell-glass, to prevent too rapid evaporation. 
 
 4. Slips. — Slips are cuttings made from the root or collar of 
 a plant, or branches stripped off, with a small portion of the 
 root or stem attached. They are treated like other cuttingst 
 Many kinds of fruit-trees may be readily propagated by slips. 
 
HOETIOULTUE AL PeOCESSES. 
 
 63 
 
 6. Budding. — Budding consists in introducing the Lud of one 
 tree or shrub, with a portion of the bark and wood adhering 
 to it, below the bark of another tree or shrub. Tlie operation 
 is thus performed : With a sharp budding-knife, upon a smooth 
 place on the side of the stock, cut a longitudinal slit an incli or 
 more long. Across the top of this cut a transverse slit from a 
 quarter to half an inch long, so that both slits, taken together, 
 shall resemble the letter T. Next, out from your stick of buds 
 a thin slice of bark, with a little wood in the central portion 
 of it, entering the knife about half or three .fourths of an inch 
 below, and bringing it out about as far above a bud. This 
 slice of bark and wood, taken together, is called a iwd, the part 
 of the bud which grows into a twig being technically called 
 its eye. 
 
 With the ivory haft of your budding-knife, or, if you have 
 not such a knife, with any little wedge of wood or ivory, raise 
 up the corners of the slit in the stock. Taking hold of the 
 bud by its foot-stalk, enter it, and gently push it down to the 
 bottom of the incision. The eye of the bud will j 
 now be from one fourth to three fourths of an inch 
 from the transverse part of the slit. The part of the 
 bud, if any, projecting a,bove this transverse slit, 
 should be cut off, by passing the knife through it, into 
 the transverse slit again, so that the upper end of the 
 bud and this transverse part of the slit shall make a 
 good joint together. Bind the bud firmly with shreds 
 of bass-matting, so as to cover every part of it except 
 the eye. Woolen yarn or corn husks will answer 
 when no matting is at hand. The stock (trunk or 
 branch) should be from an eighth of an inch to not 
 more than an inch in diameter. 
 
 To prepare a stioh of buds for budding, take a scion 
 of the present season's growth, and cut off the por- 
 tions of each end of it containing buds that are im- 
 perfectly developed. Next, cut off the leaves at a ^™*' 
 pomt about in the middle of their stems or footatalis. The 
 
64: 
 
 The Gaeden. 
 
 buds wHch are to be used lie in the angle on tte upper sida 
 of these stems. 
 
 Budding is generally performed in the summer or early part 
 of autumn. It is essential to success — 1st. That the Txi/rTc of 
 the stoch should part freely from the wood, and 2d. That tht 
 hud which is to ie inserted should he well ripened, otherwise it 
 "will not have vital energy sufficient to establish itself in its 
 new location. Whenever these conditions can be secured, 
 budding may be successfully performed. The buds put in 
 early, however, especially in the South, make a considerable 
 growth the same season. Buds should be inserted on the 
 north side of the stock, if practicable. The operation is one 
 of some nicety, and to be successful must be performed rapidly, 
 and with fresh, healthy buds, smooth cuts, and cleanly rising 
 larh. A few days after budding, the stock should be cut off 
 within ten or twelve inches of the bud, and when this has 
 grown three or four inches, the stock may be cut off again 
 near the budded shoot. All sprouts, or "robbers," as they are 
 called, that appear on the stock must be carefully removed. 
 Care should also be taken not to allow branches 
 from the main shoot of the bud to grow, and to 
 secure an upright position of it, a ligature of the 
 matting may be passed around the sprout and the 
 upper end of the old stock. 
 
 In spring budding, some gardeners recommend 
 to make the incisions in the form of an inverted 
 X, but we see no good reason for this inversion, 
 and believe that the other mode is equally sue 
 cessful. 
 
 Annular budding is applied with success to trees 
 of hard wood and thick bark, or those which, like 
 the walnut, have buds so large as to render the 
 common mode of budding difficult and uncertain. 
 A ring of bark is taken from the stock, and one of 
 equal size, containing a bud, from the scion. K 
 
 TEEATMBHT OF , ,i ., . . • 
 
 iHB EtTD. the stock be larger than the scion, an entire ring 
 
HOETICULTUEAL PkOO^SSES. 65 
 
 win not be taken off, but only what may be filled by tbe ring 
 of bark from the scion. If the ring of bark from the scion be 
 too large for the stock, it will be reduced so as to just inclose 
 the stock. "When thus fitted, tie with matting, and cover the 
 wound with clay or grafting-wax, and the work is done. 
 
 6. Orafting. — In grafting, a shoot with two or more buds on 
 it, instead of a single bud, is transferred from one tree or shrub 
 to another. The operation, in all its forms, consists essentially 
 in bringing in contact portions of growing shoots, so that the 
 liber or iimer bark of the two may unite and grow together. 
 The same general principles apply to it as to budding. 
 
 The shoot to be transferred is called a scion. The best time 
 to cut scions is from the middle of January to the last of Feb- 
 ruary, although they may be taken from the trees at any time 
 from late autumn until spring. In order to keep them until 
 they may be used, nothing more is necessary than to thrust 
 their lower ends into the ground, in a shady place — say close 
 on the north side of the trunk of the tree from which they 
 were cut ; or a better way is to set them half their length deep 
 in a box of fine soil in a cellar. 
 
 In cutting scions, take from the extremity of the limb of a 
 tree that part of it which grew the preceding season, 
 and keep the shoot or twig entire tUl wanted for use. 
 
 Scions are imited to their stocks in several ways. 
 Whatever may be the mode of operating, however, 
 the principle is always the same — namely, the sa/p- 
 veaseh of the graft and the stoch must ie so adapted 
 to each other that the sap can flow uninterruptedly 
 from the one to the other. 
 
 Cleft grafting is the mode in most common use. olept 
 Stocks from half an inch to two inches in diameter ''**'^™'* 
 are usually worked over in this way. The whole top of a 
 large tree may thus be headed back and grafted, so as to 
 become even more valuable than one that was grafted in the 
 nursery. 
 
 The operation is performed as follows: Saw off the stock 
 
66 The Garden. 
 
 crosswise, then pare the end smoothly with a knife. Next^ 
 split it down about two inches with a thin, sharp knife, driven 
 with a hammer. A narrow wedge is now driven into the 
 middle of the cleft, so as to keep the top of it open about a 
 quarter of an inch. Out the scion (which should not contain 
 more than three or four buds) at the lower end, in the form of 
 a wedge, about one and a half inches long, contriving to have 
 a bud or eye at the top of the part so formed, to insure greater 
 success. The scion is next to be inserted on one side of the 
 stock, and fitted nicely into the cleft, so that the inner bark of 
 the outer side of the scion shall exactly meet that of the stock. 
 On large stocks two scions are thus inserted, one on each side. 
 
 The scions being adjusted, carefully withdraw the wedge 
 which stands erect between the scions. Make a ball of wax, 
 and lay it on the head of the stock, between the scions, and 
 press it down, and spread it so as to cover the head, and lap 
 over three fourths of an inch all around upon the baik, and rub 
 it down smoothly, being careful to make an air and water-joint 
 around the scions and over the end of the stock. Where the 
 wax passes over the corner of the stock, it should be quite 
 thick, to prevent it from cracking. Then cover the cleft on 
 each side quite below its lower extremity, and the work is 
 done. The next spring cut off nicely the poorest scion in each 
 stock, as one is usually quite sufficient. 
 
 For small seedling stocks, or smaU sprouts on larger trees, 
 less than half an inch in diameter, it is well to adopt the whip 
 or spliee method. 
 
 Out the stock with a sharp knife, obliquely upward, without 
 bruising or starting the bark, and the scion downward, with a 
 corresponding angle, to make the two parts fit moely, care 
 being taken that the inner bark of the stock and scion exactly 
 meet. Then lay the parts together, and bind them snugly with 
 a strand of matting or bass-bark, and cover the splice with 
 grafting- wax or clay, to shield it from the air and water. 
 
 AUied to splice g^^fting is what is called saddle grafting. 
 On stocks of half an inch or more in diameter and scions of 
 
HoETlCULTtTEAL PeOOESSEB. 67 
 
 the same size, this mode is sometiines empk yed with excellent 
 success. In this process, cut the stock with a drawing-knife 
 upward, forming a wedge ; then spht with a fine saw the scion, 
 and with a knife pare away each side to a point, so as to fit 
 the stock ; place the parts together, and bind them firmly with 
 matting or bark, and cover the whole with clay or grafting- 
 wax. At the end of two months the union will generally be 
 sufficiently perfect to allow the removal of the covering and 
 the ligature, which, if left on too long, will injure the growth. 
 
 In-arch grafting is used when others will scarcely succeed. 
 The two trees must stand close to each other. A twig of each, 
 without being cut from its tree, must be pared with a long, 
 corresponding slanting cut,- and the two raw edges must be 
 fitted nicely, and bound firmly together, and the joint covered 
 with the composition. When the union has taken place, the 
 trees are so separated as to leave the scion on the tree where 
 it is wanted. 
 
 A mode called root grafting is practiced extensively in nurs- 
 eries. The two-year seedling stocks are headed down to within 
 an inch or so of the collar or crown ; they are then split, and 
 the scion inserted, as in common cleft grafting. The scion is 
 held in its place by a piece of matting bound round the stock. 
 The stocks to be used for this purpose are generally taken up 
 in the fall, grafted in the winter at the fireside, and packed 
 away in the cellar till spring, when they are properly planted ; 
 the point of insertion of the graft being covered with the soil. 
 No wax or clay is necessary. Scions may also be grafted on 
 smaU roots by common splice grafting. The point of union 
 should be covered with soil to the depth of two inches. 
 
 Grafting may be performed at almost any season of the year 
 with scions properly kept ; but by far the best time is fi-om 
 the middle of February, in mild weather, all along untU the 
 middle of May at the North, and tin the end of March at the 
 South — stone-fruits first, and other fruits somewhat later. 
 
 Neither grafting nor budding can be successfal, unless be- 
 tw een different varieties of the same species, as the apple upon 
 
68 The Garden. 
 
 a seedling apple-tree stock ; or between nearly allied species 
 of tlie same genus, as between the apple and the pear, which 
 unions are comparatively imperfect and short-lived ; or, thirdly, 
 between nearly alhed genera, as between the cherry and the 
 plum, which maintain a feeble existence for a limited period, 
 and then die. All unions, therefore, between widely different 
 genera and species, are utterly impossible, as the graft can not 
 live upon the sap supplied by the stock, any more than a Kon 
 can be fed upon grass. 
 
 To produce dwarf trees, Apple is grafted upon Paradise (or 
 Doucin) stocks ; the Pear upon the Quince, Thorn, or Mountain 
 Ash ; the Peach upon the Plum ; the Plum upon MirabeUe 
 Plum seedlings ; the Cherry upon the Cerasus Mahalebf and, 
 in general, any tree upon any other kindred tree of slower or 
 smaller growth. 
 
 The stock and the graft (scion or bud) exert influences upon 
 each other mutually. The stock often affects the size and 
 flavor of the fruit borne by the graft. Of a graft or stock, 
 either may communicate its own diseases and infirmities to the 
 other. It is pretty well established, also, that stocks bearing 
 early fruits have an influence in accelerating the ripening of 
 the fruits which may be made to grow upon them by grafting. 
 
 Grafting Wax. — To make grafting wax of an excellent 
 quality, take four parts of resin, two of beeswax, and one of 
 tallow; melt the whole together, pour the composition into 
 cold water, and work it over thoroughly, pulling it as you 
 would molasses candy. The hardness of the wax may be in- 
 creased or lessened by applying more or less tallow. In cold 
 weather keep the composition in warm water, and in warm 
 weather in cold water, to secure the proper consistency for use. 
 In using it, the hands should be slightly greased. 
 
 XIV.— PEUNING. 
 
 The principal objects sought to be attained by pruning are 
 to promote the growth, improve the form, and increase the 
 fruitfolness of trees. No operation in horticulture requires 
 
HOKTICULTUEAL PeOCESSES. 69 
 
 the exercise of more knowledge, judgment, and skill, in ordei* 
 to the attainment of complete success ; but in general no opera- 
 tion is more carelessly, ignorantly, and bunglingly performed, 
 or more frequently neglected. 
 
 Pruning to promote the growth of a tree proceeds upon the 
 principle that the sap which would have been appropriated 
 to the support of the branches, or parts of the top, taken off, 
 will go to increase the vigor of the parts which remain. This 
 is true within certain limits, but the process must not be car- 
 ried too far. Sufficient top must he left to supply leames for 
 the elaboration of the sap. 
 
 Young trees, two or three years from the seed, or one year 
 from the graft, are not infrequently headed down to two or 
 three buds, on purpose to strengthen their growth. A single 
 bud is then trained vertically, and the rest pruned away in the 
 course of the summer. In such cases, the growth of the top 
 being attended with a corresponding increase of fibrous roots, 
 the tree at once becomes vigorous and healthy. 
 
 Peach trees, in our chmate, are highly benefited by thug 
 shorteniiig-in annually, in the spring, one half, or thereabouts, 
 of their entire growth of the previous summer, all over the 
 heads of the trees. 
 
 Dwarf pears on quince also require a similar heading-in, an» 
 nually each spring, so long as they continue to make a growth 
 of scions. 
 
 Pruning to improve the form is applied mostly to ornamental 
 trees, to which almost any desirable shape may be given by 
 this means. If one part of a tree should outgrow another part, 
 the former may be shortened-in in winter, and the shoots pinched 
 off the next summer, tiU the sap is thrown in the right direc- 
 tion into the weaker branches, and the balance restored. 
 When you desire the new shoots of a branch to take an upright 
 direction, prune to an inside bud ; while, if you wish an open, 
 spreading top, prune to an outside bud, etc. Do not trim the 
 stems or trunks of your trees (whether ornamental or fruit- 
 trees) to bare poles, but allow the branches to form near the 
 
70 The Garden. 
 
 ground, as they naturally will in open ground. Your orna- 
 mental trees -will thus be more beautiful, and your fruit-treea 
 more likely to bear well. 
 
 Everything that is favorable to rapid and vigorous growth is 
 unfavorable to immediate fruitfulness, hence pruning to induce 
 fruitfulness is performed after vegetation has commenced. This 
 checks the growth of the wood, impedes the circulation of the 
 sap, and promotes the formaticn of fruit. Top pruning or 
 shorteniug-in is the most common form of pruning to induce 
 fruitfulness. Pruning the roots has a similar effect. The oper- 
 ation of root pruning is thus performed : 
 
 At a few feet from the trunk of the tree, varying the dis- 
 tance according to its size, dig a circular ditch around it^ 
 eighteen or twenty inches deep, cutting off all the lateral roots 
 smoothly, close to the circular mass of earth in which the tree 
 stands, removing the outer pieces of roots from the surrounding 
 ground, as much as can be done conveniently. Fill up the 
 trench with good, rich soil, and the tree wUl, in this country, 
 generally be brought into a permanent fruit-bearing state. 
 Repeating the operation annually, apples, pears, anji other 
 fruit-trees may be rendered productive dwarfs — even so as to 
 be planted only six or eight feet apart. And, if at the same 
 time we apply the shortening-in process above described, they 
 may be kept in a beautiful pyramidal form, and rendered very 
 profitable. This work may be done in autumn, in winter, or 
 early in the spring. 
 
 Pruning ought to be performed with sharp tools. When the 
 saw is used, the ends of the limbs should afterward be care- 
 fully pared with a knife. They should then be covered with 
 some composition to protect them from the weather. Down- 
 ing's Gkim-Shellaa is admirably adapted to this pm'pose. This 
 preparation is made by dissolving a quantity of the gum in 
 alcohol, so that the composition shall be of the consistency of 
 thin molasses. The liquid should be kept in a wide-mouthe<l 
 bottle, the cork of which should have a wire (running through 
 it into the bottle), with a sponge attached to the end of it. 
 
HoETICULTtTEAL PhOCES5ES. 71 
 
 "When the object of primmg is to promote the growth oi 
 improve the form of a tree, the operation is generally performed 
 in the winter or early in the spring. Some, however, reoom- 
 .nend pruning in May or June. 
 
 XT.— TEAINING. 
 
 In England, where fruit-trees generally are trained on walle 
 and trellises, this process requires much time and labor on the 
 part of the gardener. In this country it is hardly applied at 
 all, except to vines and pear-trees, and to the latter only occa- 
 sionaDy. The principal object of training is to produce from a 
 certain number of branches a larger quantity of fruit than 
 would grow on them if left in their natural state. This is 
 effected by spreading and bending the branches so as to form 
 numerous depositions of the returning sap, aided, where the 
 tree is trained against a wall, by the shelter and reflected heat 
 which the latter affords. 
 
 Directions for training the grapevine will be given nnder its 
 proper head. 
 
 A new mode of training fruit-trees, practiced in the north 
 of Russia, is well deserving of trial in the colder parts of New 
 England, especially for cultivating the peach. A tree, one year 
 from the graft, is headed down to two healthy, strong wood- 
 buds. These are trained horizontally, about ten or twelve 
 inches from the ground, to a south wall — ^perhaps the north 
 side of a wall might do quite as well, in our more changeable 
 climate. These arms are suffered to throw up vertical shoots, 
 which become covered with fruit-spurs. These vertical shoots 
 are kept shortened-in, to a length of not more than about 
 one or two feet; and these, with the two horizontal arms 
 from which they spring, and the short trunk of about ten 
 to fourteen inches in length, constitute all there is of the 
 tree above ground. The whole tree may be covered, through 
 the winter, with two feet or more of soil heaped over it, 
 with a deep bank of snow, or with straw, evergreen bougha, 
 or the like. 
 
72 The Gaeden. 
 
 Peaclies, we are convinced, can be raised in this way where 
 they fail entirely under ordinary treatment. It has hardlj 
 been fairly tried, however, in this country.* 
 
 * In preparing ttie condensed directions for transplanting, budding, grafting, 
 pruning, training, etc., contained in this chapter, we have been deeply in- 
 debted to the valuable little manual of George Jaques, entitled " A Praotica. 
 Treatise on the Management of Eruit-Trees," which we cordially recommeud. 
 See also Barry's "Fruit Garden" o£ these points. 
 
The KrTCHEN Gtaeden. 13 
 
 VI. 
 
 THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 1 eoDBlder the kitchen garden of very conelderable Importance, aB pot-herbs, aalada, and 
 rootB of varloTjB kinds are useful In honsekeeplng. Having a plenty of them at hand, a family 
 will not be so likely to run Into the error which Is too common In this country, of eating fleiih 
 Id too great a proportion for health.— Ur. Deane, 
 
 I.-ESCULENT EOOTS. 
 
 1. The Potato — Solanvm Tuberosum. 
 
 " HE potato, called by the French la pormne 
 de terre, and by the Germans bie Sattofel, 
 is a native of the elevated equatorial regions 
 of South America, and is still to be found 
 in a wild state in the neighborhood of 
 Quito and other places. It appears to have 
 been introduced into North America and cultivated by 
 the Virginia colonists as early as 1584. A few years 
 later it was carried to England by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 The varieties of the potato are numberless; and, 
 while old sorts are constantly disappearing, new ones 
 are every year coming into notice and taking their places. 
 The duration of a variety is believed by Knight and- others to 
 be limited to fourteen years. Very few sorts continue to be 
 cultivated even that length of time. New varieties are readily 
 produced by planting the seed found ia the balls. The opera- 
 tion is a simple one, and should more frequently be undertaken. 
 There is no doubt but that varieties will yet be obtained in this 
 way far superior to any yet known. "We give in the Appendix 
 fuU directions for producing and proving new sorts. 
 
 To give a list of the best varieties of the potato, were it 
 practicable, would be useless. The best sorts of this year 
 may be put in the second or third rank next year ; besides, 
 
 4 
 
74 The Gaeden. 
 
 those to whicli the preference is given in New York may ba 
 considered inferior in Pennsylvania, and worthless in Georgia. 
 Select for planting those varieties which experience has decided 
 to he best adapted to yonr soil and climate, and "to combine 
 the various qualities required for table use. 
 
 In a cold, moist climate the potato thrives best in a light 
 but rich loam. In a dry, hot climate a heavy loam is prefer- 
 able, except for the earliest crop. Vegetable manure is best 
 for the potato. Ashes and, where the soil needs it, lime, may 
 be added with advantage, but, in garden culture, animal ma- 
 nures should, so far as possible, be avoided, as their use tends 
 to make the tubers moist' and waxy. The manure should be 
 well rotted, and thoroughly mixed with the soil. 'Where you 
 can not get sufficient manure of the right kind to properly 
 enrich the whole soil, you may scatter it into the drill or hill 
 to the thickness of three or four inches. 
 
 In garden culture, plant in drills made with the plow or the 
 hoe, ftom eighteen to twenty-four inches apart (some varieties 
 requiring more room than others), placing the sets about nine 
 or ten inches apart in the drUls. Cover to the depth of from 
 four to six inches, according to the texture and condition of 
 the son — a heavy, moist soil requiring less depth of covering 
 than a light and dry one. 
 
 In reference to the sets or seed, many and contradictory 
 opinions prevail. Some contend that the largest-sized potatoes 
 alone should be used for planting; others prefer a mediua 
 size ; while many use those which are too small for the table. 
 Some plant them whole, while others divide them, making 
 from two to eight sets from each. Even scooped-out eyes 
 have had their advocates. "We have no room in this little 
 work to advance arguments or adduce evidence, and must be 
 content to give our opinion (as indicated by the mode pursued' 
 in our own garden), which, however, we believe to be based 
 on sound theory and supported by general experience. We 
 choose for planting medium sized, fully matured, a/nd every 
 wa/y sound and perfect tubers — such as we would select for th( 
 
The Kitchen Gasden. 75 
 
 table — and, if we have plenty of seed, plant them whole. If 
 there be a deficiency of seed, or the price be very high, we 
 divide them longitudinally, making two sets of each potato, 
 and plant them with the eyes upward. They shonld be cut a 
 week before planting ; and it is a good plan to roU them in 
 ground plaster of Paris or old slaked lime. Something may be 
 gained in earhness by cutting the potato transversely in the 
 middle, and planting only the seed end, which should be set 
 upright in the ground. 
 
 In garden culture, potatoes should generally be hoed at least 
 three times, to keep the weeds down, earthing them up a little 
 each time; but if the ground be little infested with weeds, 
 twice wiU do. The first hoeing should be given soon after the 
 shoots appear above the surface of the ground. If they should 
 be partially covered with earth by the operation, no harm will 
 be done. Potatoes should never be hoed after the blossoms 
 appear. Pinching oS the flower-buds will considerably increase 
 the crop of tubers. 
 
 Potatoes should not be harvested tUl the tops are mostly 
 lead. They should be exposed to the sun only long enough to 
 dry them for storage. Store in a dry cellar (when there is 
 danger from frost), and cover them with sand or straw. When 
 sprouts begin to grow, as they win. toward spring, carefully 
 rub them oS. Their growth will greatly injure the quality of 
 the tuber for table use. Those intended for seed should be fre- 
 quently turned over to prevent premature growth. 
 
 Of the potato rot, as it is called, little can be profitably said. 
 Its cause and remedy are yet to be made known. As pre- 
 ventives, a dry soU, the use of lime and ashes, the absence 
 of fresh stable manure, early planting, and new, healthy varie- 
 ties are recommended. For arresting the disease, cutting off 
 the tops on the first appearance of the blight is sometimes 
 effectual. 
 
 Potatoes for an early crop are planted in this country from 
 the first of January to the first of May, according to the cli- 
 mate and season. In the latitude of New York they may in 
 
76 TheGaeden. 
 
 ordinary seasons and in favorable situations be put into the 
 ground from the tenth to the twentieth of March. 
 
 For raising Irish potatoes (as they are invariably called 
 there) at the South, the plan published by Mr. Peabody of the 
 Soil of the South is undoubtedly a good one. "We have tried 
 the same mode with fair success at the North, using here, 
 however, less straw. Mr. Peabody's directions are substantially 
 as follows : 
 
 "As soon after Christmas as possible, plow or spade up the 
 plot of ground designed for the potato patch, and lay it off in 
 faiTOws two feet apart, and eight or ten inches deep. Fill 
 these fuiTows with decomposed straw or leaves. Divide each 
 potato once, and place the sets, cut side downward, upon the 
 straw ; now level the ridge made by the furrow, covering seed, 
 straw, and all, and then scatter straw evenly over all to the 
 depth of eighteen inches or two feet. No fiirther onltnre is 
 required. In the dryest seasons the yield wiU be greater than 
 when planted in the ordinary way. Many have failed in this 
 mode of culture because they have not applied half straw 
 enough." 
 
 2. The Sweet Potato — GoTmoVoulus Batatas. 
 
 This best of aU esculent roots belongs to the cormohulacea or 
 bind- weed family. It is a native of the East Indies, but grows 
 in perfection in our Southern States. It is raised in largo 
 quantities in Delaware and New Jersey, and even farther 
 north, but the quality of the tubers is inferior to that of those 
 produced at the South. 
 
 A dry, loamy soU, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet 
 potato. It should be well manured. The special manurei 
 indicated by an analysis of the root are potash and the phos- 
 phates. 
 
 Where the season is sufficiently long to mature it, the sweet 
 potato may be propagated by cutting the seed into slips, and 
 planting them where they are to grow ; but at the North the 
 sprouts must always be started in a hot-bed. Place the potac 
 
The Kitchen Gaedbst. 77 
 
 toes ia tbe bed early in April, covering them three or four 
 inches deep. They will throw np sprouts in three or four 
 weeks. When these are about four inches above the surface, 
 they may be separated from the parent tuber and planted out 
 in hills, leaving the latter to put out other shoots for future 
 plantings. The hiUs or beds should be about four feet apart, 
 and raised fi-om sjx inches to a foot above the common level of 
 the ground. Some make continuous ridges four feet apart, and 
 plant the sprouts on the top, about a foot asunder. They must 
 be kept free from weeds tiH the vines cover the ground. They 
 are fit for gathering when the vines are dead. They are very 
 difficult to preserve through the winter. A careful seclusion 
 from air and light, the absence of frost, and absolute dryness 
 are essential to their preservation. The best way to cook them 
 is by baking. 
 
 3. The Tuenip — Brassica Bepa. 
 
 The !French call the turnip le rumet, and the Germans tcr 
 ©ted ritSc. It has beeji in cultivation at least two hundred and 
 fifty years. There ^e many varieties. For early crops the 
 Purple-Top Strap-Leaved, Snow-Ball, and the Early Tellow 
 Dutch are to be preferred. For later sowing we would name 
 Robertson's Golden Stone, Stone Globe, Golden Ball, Sweet 
 German, the Purple-Top Swede, Skirving's Improved Swede, 
 the White French, River's Swede, and Ashcroft's Swede. Skirv- 
 ing's Improved is, perhaps, the best of the Swedes. 
 
 Turnips thrive best in a rich, sandy loam. Bone-dust, lime, 
 ashes, and plaster of Paris are good special manures. Sow in 
 driUs about two feet apart. Thin out the plants gradually to 
 six or eight inches apart. They may be readily transplanted 
 if desired. Stir the soil well, and keep the weeds in sulg ac- 
 tion. English turnips do well sown broadcast. Sow the early 
 sorts from February to May, according to climate and season. 
 Other sowings may be made in July and August for winter 
 use. In the latitude of Georgia they may be sowed as late as 
 October. Harvesting should je deferred till the approach of 
 
78 The Uaedek. 
 
 cold weather — or at the South they may remain in the gromid 
 all winter. 
 
 4. The BsET-^Beta Vulga/ris. 
 
 The beet (Fr. Beterave) is a native of the south of Europe, 
 It takes its name from the form of its seed-vessel, which resem- 
 bles the Greek letter ieta (^S). The best varieties are Extra 
 Early Tmnip or Bassano, the Early Turnip, the Long Blood, 
 and the London Blood. 
 
 A light sou, well enriched with manure and well broken up, 
 suits the beet. It will grow in almost any soil. Sow in drills 
 a foot apart and about an inch deep. Drop the seeds three 
 inches apart, cover smoothly, and press the earth firmly upon 
 them. Kadishes may be sown in the same bed, as they will 
 be removed before the beets are ready for thinning. Keep 
 the ground well stirred and free from weeds, and thin the 
 beets to about six inches apart. Sow the early sorts iu March, 
 or the first of April, in the latitude of New York. The later 
 varieties may be sowed in May or June. 
 
 In gathering your beets, cut off the leaves an inch or two 
 above the coUar, and be careful not to break or bruise the root. 
 To preserve them through the winter, store in a dry cellar. 
 They keep best packed in sand. 
 
 6. The Oaeeot — Daucus Oa/rota. 
 
 The carrot (Fr. Garotte) is supposed to have been introduced 
 into Europe from the island of Crete. The Early Horn is the 
 most forward in ripening, and fuUy equal in color and flavor to 
 any other sort. It may be sown from the middle of April to 
 the middle of July in the latitude of New York, and in the 
 South from January to April inclusive. The Long Orange 
 grows very long and large, but is not equal in flavor to the 
 Early Horn. The Altringham is a bright-red variety, of an 
 excellent flavor, and keeps well for winter use. It is not quite 
 BO hardy as tlie other sorts. 
 
 The carrot succeeds best in a light, rich soU. It must be 
 deeply dug and wel broken up, or the roots wiU grow forked 
 
The Kitchen Gaeden. 79 
 
 and crooked. Choose a -warm spot and a calm day for sowing. 
 Sow in di-Uls half an inch deep, and for the Early Horn nine 
 inches apai-t. For the other varieties twelve inches apart is 
 hotter. Kadishes may he sowed in the same hed. Stir the 
 ground frequently and deeply, and thin out to from three to 
 six inches apart. The latter is the proper distance when the 
 plants are to he left to grow to the full size. The directions 
 for preparing and preserving them fbr winter use are the same 
 as for heets. 
 
 6. The Paesnep — Pa/rtinaca Sativa. 
 This very palatahle and exceedingly nutritious root is a native 
 of Sardinia, and in its wild state is said to he poisonous. In 
 French it is called le panais. The hest variety is the Sugar 
 or Hollow Crown. Soil and culture the same as for the carrot 
 and beet. Bone-dust and ashes are the special manures most 
 likely to he required. Late iu the fall take up as many as you 
 need for winter use. The rest may remain in the ground, as 
 frost seems to improve their flavor. In the South, lift them 
 as wanted during the winter. 
 
 7. Salsitt — Tragopogon Porrifolivm. 
 
 The Salsify, or Oyster Plant, is a native of England, and is 
 less known in this country than it deserves to he. Sow and 
 cultivate the same as the parsnep. A portion of the crop may 
 remain iu the ground all winter. Prepared and cooked accord- 
 ing to the following directions, it wUl he found to resemhle the 
 oyster in flavor : 
 
 Scrape the roots slightly, soak them in water for an hour, 
 and then hoU tUl quite tender. Now let them draiu for a short 
 time ; meanwhile make a thick hatter with white of eggs 
 beaten up with a little flour. Grate the roots tolerably fine, 
 press them into flattened balls of the size of an oyster, dip 
 them in the batter, roU them into grated crackers, and fry 
 them in a pan till brown. Another way is to parboil, cut in 
 slices, and fry either witi )r without the hatter. Try it. 
 
80 'The G-abden. 
 
 8. Jeettsalem Aktiohoke — Helianthus Tiiberomi. 
 This plant is a species of sunflower, and is occasionally culti- 
 vated for its tuberous roots. It may be planted like the potato, 
 and will grow anywhere. 
 
 U. — THE LEGTOIBS. 
 
 The Pea — Pisum Sativum. 
 
 This universally cultivated plant originated in the south of 
 Europe. The catalogues of the seedsmen embrace twenty or 
 more varieties, and new sorts are constantly appearing. Of the 
 early peas, the earliest at present known is Dillisotone's Early, 
 and next, perhaps, and better known, is Early Dan O'Eourke. 
 Hovey's Extra Early and Landreth's Extra Eady, improved 
 American varieties of great merit, are nearly if not quite as 
 early as the Dan O'Eourke. Champion of Paris, Champion of 
 England and Advancer, all excellent sorts, are a little later. Tom 
 Thumb is an early variety remarkable for its extreme dwarfness, 
 seldom rising over twelve inches in height. 
 
 Blue Imperial, King of the Marrows, and the Ne Plus Ultra 
 are among the best to succeed the early crops. To follow the 
 last-named, for late crops, British Queen or Mammoth ; Carter's 
 Victoria, Competitor, Knight's Tall Green Marrow and Cham- 
 pion of Scotland may be recommended. 
 
 It is well enough to give the new varieties yearly introduced 
 a fair trial, as sorts superior to any now named may be origin- 
 ated ; but the claims set up for new kinds by interested propa- 
 gators are often unfounded and preposterous. 
 
 For the early sorts a light, warm, dry, and moderately rich 
 soil is to be preferred. If manure be used, it should be weL 
 rotted ; bat it is better to take ground which has been made 
 sufiiciently rich by a previous year's manuring. The later and 
 taller varieties require a heavier soil. 
 
 You may plant your early peas at almost any time when the 
 ground is not actually frozen, covering with mulch if necessary. 
 In the .atitude of New York they may generally be planted 
 before the twentieth of March — sometimes on the first — and 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 81 
 
 require no protection. In the South, any time from January 
 to March will do. Plant in douhle drills, from six to nine 
 inches apart, according to the variety. The rows should be 
 three feet apart for the smaller sorts, and from four to six for 
 the larger. Oover the early kinds one inch deep, and liie late 
 an inch and a half. The sticks should he from two and a half 
 to three feet for the early sorts. The British Queen reaches 
 the height of five or six feet, and Knight's Tall Marrow is a still 
 loftier grower. When the plants are about two inches high, 
 stir the ground well, and earth them up a little. Kepeat this 
 operation several times before setting the sticks or brush, 
 which should be done when the peas are from six to eight 
 inches high. If the season be dry, watering will much increase 
 the crop. Topping off the points of the vines soon after the 
 first blossoms appear will hasten the growth of the fruit. The 
 smaller kinds of early peas may be planted about half an inch 
 apart in the drills, and the later and larger sorts from a third 
 of an inch to an inch. It is well to soak them twenty-four 
 hours before planting. 
 
 To forward an early crop, plant in lines from east to west, 
 and stick a row of cedar, spruce-fir, or other evergreen branches 
 along the north side, sloping so as to bend over the plants at 
 one foot or eighteen inches from the ground. These protect 
 them from cold rains and at the same time leave them open to 
 the full influence of the sun. Behind this temporary hedge 
 there should be a close board fence, a brick or stone wall, or a 
 high close hedge. 
 
 Beans, cabbage, lettuce, radish, or celery may be planted 
 between the rows of peas, especially of the earlier sorts. 
 
 Peas which are to be ripened or dried should not be sowed 
 before the tenth of June, as all earlier crops wiU be infected 
 with bugs. 
 
 2. The BtrsH-BEAir — Fhaseolus Vulgaris. 
 
 The bean is believed to be a native of India, whence it was 
 Drought to England near the dose of the sixteenth century. In 
 
82 The Gaedek. 
 
 one form or another it is universally esteemed. Of the com- 
 mon Bush, Snap, or Kidney bean there are many varieties. 
 Among the test are the Early Mohawk (a very hardy sort), 
 Early Six "Weeks, Early Valentine, Early Dun Colored, Early 
 Pink Eye, Early White Marrow, Late Valentine, and the Royal 
 Kidney. The tender pods of all these sorts are eaten as string- 
 beans ; but they are also excellent taken from the pods after 
 they are nearly or quite grown, and boiled and prepared in the 
 same way that Lima beans usually are. For this mode of cook- 
 ing we prefer the Pink Eye and the Early White Marrow. 
 
 Beans wiU thrive in almost any soil; but for an early crop 
 it should be light and dry. If the ground be too wet, they are 
 liable to rot. Bone-dust, ashes, and super-phosphate of lime 
 are very useful as manures. The bean is destroyed by a slight 
 frost, and can therefore seldom he planted, in this climate, till 
 the middle of April, or even later. Plant once in two weeks 
 tm the last of August, to keep up a succession for the table. 
 Plant in drills from eighteen inches to two feet asunder, drop- 
 ping the beans two inches apart, and covering them about an 
 inch deep. Give them frequent and deep hoeings, drawing a 
 little earth to the stems. 
 
 The Small White bean, so extensively used in New England 
 for baking, may be planted in any vacant spots in the garden 
 in June or July, and wiU require no care except to keep the 
 weeds down. 
 
 3. The Common Pole Bban — Phaseolus Multiflorus. 
 
 Of the common running or pole bean (Je Tiwricot a rames of 
 the French), the best varieties are the Dutch Case Knife, London 
 Horticultural, White Cranberry, and Scarlet Eunner. Plant 
 in hills from the first to the middle of May, and give them 
 poles when they begin to put forth runners ; or, better, set the 
 poles first, and plant the beans around them. Or they may be 
 planted in drills along a border, or on each side of a walk, and 
 trained on a slight trellis of laths and lines, and thus be made 
 eiTiamenta. as well as usefoL 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 83 
 
 4. The Lima. Bbah — PJiaseoliis Zimensia. 
 
 Of tlie Phaseolus Limerms there are three varieties cultivated 
 in the United States — the Green Lima, the Whfte Lima, and 
 the Carolina Sewee. The "White Lima is to be preferred. It 
 requires a strong, rich soil, and should not be planted tiU 
 settled, warm weather, as the seed is very liable to rot in the 
 ground if the weather be cool. 
 
 Beans of all kinds can easily be preserved for winter use, 
 with very little loss of flavor. You have only to pick them in 
 the same state as when for immediate use, and dry them thor- 
 oughly in the sun. You may have green beaas all the year 
 with very little trouble. 
 
 5. The Pea-Nut — Arachis Eypogea. 
 This plant, known also as the pindar ground pea and ground 
 nut, is a legume bearing its seed under ground. It is cultivated 
 extensively iu some of the Southern States as a field crop, but a 
 few hiUs may find place in the Southern garden. Make the 
 hiUs two and a half or three feet apart, and drop three or four 
 of the shelled seeds in each. Cover them two inches deep. 
 Thin the plants to two ia a hUl, and keep the ground free from 
 weeds. 
 
 III.— THE CABBAGE FAMILY. 
 
 1. The Common Cabbage — Brassica Oleracea. 
 The cabbage (Fr. cTiou pomme) is one of the most ancient of 
 garden vegetables. It is mentioned by Pliny as being much 
 esteemed in his times. It was a favorite with the Romans, who 
 probably introduced it into England. Its varieties are almost 
 numberless. Of the common cabbage, the following are the ' 
 most desirable : Early York (very early, and of a delicate flavor), 
 Atkins' Matchless (small but tender and delicately flavored,) 
 Large York, Early Drumhead, Winningstadt (intermediate in 
 season), Bergen Drumhead, Large Drumhead, Marblehead 
 Mammoth, Champion of America, Mason, and Stone-Mason 
 (late). The Bergen Drumhead, Marblehead Mammoth and 
 Stone-Mason grow to a very large size, and are favorites witt 
 
84 TheGabden. 
 
 market-gardeners. The large Red Dutch is one of the latest 
 of cabbages. It is chiefly used for pickling. The Utrecht Red 
 is a smaller red cabbage of fine quality. 
 
 The cabbage will grow in any soil sctfioiently enriched and 
 properly prepared. It must be plowed or dug deeply, and well 
 pulverized. Common salt, ashes, plaster of Paris, and bone- 
 dust may be used with advantage, as the plant abounds in sul- 
 phur, phosphorus, soda, and potash. Animal manures may 
 also be freely used. 
 
 For producing early spring cabbages, various plans are pur- 
 sued. The best mode for general adoption is the following: 
 About the tenth of September, for southern New York (a little 
 earlier for New England, and a little later for the South), sow 
 seeds of the Early York, Nonpareil, or Vanack in a seed-bed 
 of rich, light soil. If the weather be dry, sprinkle the bed 
 with water a few times, to promote germination. When large 
 enough to transplant, set them quite thickly in a cold frame or 
 walled pit, for protection during the winter. The frame or 
 pit may be covered with boards, adding straw, if necessary, 
 when the frost is severe. Give the plants air whenever the 
 weather will permit. Carefully exclude the rain, as too much 
 moisture will injure them. Early in the spring transplant into 
 the compartment of the garden designed for them. "Where the 
 winters are not too severe, they may be brought forward a 
 week or two earlier by planting them out in the fall in good, 
 rich soil, previously prepared by throwing it up into high 
 ridges, running east and west, and about two feet apart. On 
 the south sides of these ridges set out the plants one foot apart. 
 They will then be shielded from the north winds, and receive 
 all the beneiit of the sun. "When the weather becomes severe, 
 cover with straw, laying it across the ridges. This may be 
 removed whenever mild weather returns. Early cabbages 
 may also be obtained by starting the plants in a hot-bed, sowing 
 in February or March. 
 
 In transplanting cabbages, especially the early ones, the 
 growth of which it Is important not to cneck, take them up 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 85 
 
 with a troweE reinoviug considerable earth with them, in order 
 not to disturb their roots. 
 
 For summer, autumn, and winter use, sow Early Dutch and 
 Drumhead in AprU and May. Transplant into rows two feet 
 apart, and eighteen inches apart in the row. Give the plants 
 a copious watering the evening previous to taking up, and 
 water again after setting out. The whole secret of their after- 
 culture lies in frequent and deep Jioeing. Hoe while the dew 
 is on, if practicable. Never strip off the lower leaves. 
 
 To preserve cabbages in perfection through the winter, the 
 following is the best raode with which we are acquainted, : As 
 late in the fall as the weather will permit, dig trenches eighteen 
 or twenty inches apart, parallel to each other, and of any con- 
 venient length. Now dig out your cabbages with a spade, and 
 transplant them into these trenches as close together as they 
 will stand, covering root and stem to the lower leaf. Around 
 this bed raise a kind of frame with old pops, rails, or boards 
 and earth, making it a little higher at one side than the other, 
 and high enough at the lower side to prevent its roof or cover- 
 ing from coming in contact with the cabbages. Across this 
 frame place poles, lath, or narrow boards, and cover the 
 whole thickly with straw, bean haulm, corn-stalks, or any ma- 
 terial of that sort. In this way you may have cabbages up to 
 April, of as fine a flavor as when transplanted into the trenches. 
 A few may be transplanted into a similar trench in the cellar, 
 where, of course, they wiH require no covering. 
 
 3. Savot Cabbage — Brassiea Oleracea Sabavda. 
 
 This member of the great cabbage family takes its name from 
 Savoy. It differs from the common cabbage in the wrinkled 
 character of its leaves. There are only two varieties worthy 
 of culture — the Curled and the Drumhead. The former is to 
 be preferred for family use. It is superior in delicacy to the 
 common cabbage. Cultivation the same as the winter varieties 
 »f the latter. 
 
 Brussels Sprouts {ehov, de Bruxelles) is considered a sub- 
 
86 The Gaeden. 
 
 variety of the Savoy. It is a celebrated vegetable in Europe, 
 but is not often seen in American gardens. Sow in April, and 
 transplant in June into rows eighteen inobes apart. Cultivate 
 like cabbages. The stem grows to the height of two feet or 
 more, and is crowned with numerous little heads of from one 
 to two inches in diameter. After they have been frosted 
 (which is necessary to their perfection), they may be gathered. 
 To prepare them for the table, soak an hour in cold water ; 
 boil about twenty minutes ; drain ; season to the taste ; stew 
 gently in a sauce of cream or floured butter, stirring them con- 
 stantly. They are sometimes served with tomato sauce. They 
 may also be cooked simply as cabbages, and eaten with meat. 
 
 3. BoiREOOi^Er—Brassica Oleracea Mmbriata. 
 
 This plant, also called German Greens (Ft. chou vert) and 
 Scotch Kale, is one of the most delicate and valuable of the 
 cabbage tribe. It has large, wrinkled leaves, forming an open 
 head or stool. It is perfectly hardy, frost only improving it. 
 It remains green and eatable all winter, requiring only a slight 
 protection in the Northern States, and none at all at the South. 
 Por winter and spring greens it is unequaled. Sow and 
 cultivate the same as the cabbage. No garden should be 
 without it. 
 
 4. The Oatjliflowee — Brastica Oleracea Botrytis. 
 
 The cauliflower is a kind of cabbage, with long, pale green 
 leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white flower-buds. The 
 French very appropriately call it le chou-fleur. It was intro- 
 duced into England from the island of Cyprus. There are only 
 two true varieties — the Early and the Late. 
 
 The cauliflower requires a very rich soil and careful culture. 
 For the early spring or summer crop, sow the seed from the 
 first to the twentieth of September, iu a properly prepared 
 seed-bed. "When the plants are two inches high, transplant 
 them into a bed of very rich, light soil, three inches apart each 
 way, so that they may grow firm and stocky for removal to theii 
 
The Kitchen Gaeden-. 87 
 
 final place of growth. This should he a hed of the richest 
 light earth, two feet deep, and one third of it well-decomposed 
 manure, surrounded hy a frame or wall, and covered with glass 
 or shutters. An open exposure, sheltered from the northwest, 
 is essential. The bed should be prepared about the first of 
 October, to give it time to settle. Into this bed remove your 
 plants about the middle of October (or earlier in a very cold 
 climate), setting them eighteen inches apart. Tate them up 
 carefaUy with a trowel, and in planting press down the soil 
 pretty firmly upon the roots, giving it a gentle watering at the 
 same time. No further watering will be required till spring. 
 Protect the plants carefully against frost, covering the sash or 
 shutters with matting or straw if necessary ; but do not neglect 
 to give them the air every mild, clear day. They must not be 
 left open to the rain, as too much moisture will cause them to 
 "damp off," as it is called, at the neck. When the weather 
 becomes warmer in spring, copious waterings may be given. 
 Soap-suds and other liquid manures are applied with advantage. 
 Early lettuce may be sowed in the same bed between the rows 
 of cauliflowers. 
 
 When a cauliflower has attained its full size, which will be 
 indicated by the opening of the border, cut off the head with 
 several inches of the stem, and most of the leaves, these being 
 taken ofi^ however, before cooking. 
 
 For the autumn crop sow in AprO, transplant into rich soil, 
 two feet apart. Hoe frequently and deeply, and if the season 
 be dry, water copiously. They must not suffer from drouth. 
 You may know when they need water by the drooping of the 
 leaves. The hills about the plant should form a hollow basin 
 to retain the moisture. 
 
 The cauliflower is a wholesome and nutritious vegetable, and 
 should be more generally crltivated. To cook, soak an houf 
 in cold water with a handful of salt in it ; then boil till tender 
 in milk and water, taking care to skim the surface, so that not 
 the least foulness may fall on the flower. It may be served up 
 with sauce, gravy, or melted butter. 
 
88 TheGaeden. 
 
 6. Beooooli — Brassica Oleracea Botrytis Gymoia. 
 
 This plant is similar to tlie cauliflower, from whicli it is sup- 
 posed to have originated. It differs from the latter in its undu- 
 lating leaves, its larger size, and its color. It is also a hardier 
 plant, but not so delicate in flavor. Grange's Early White 
 and the Purple Cape are the best varieties. White recommends 
 the latter for the South. Sow in AprU or May, and treat in the 
 same manner as the late cauliflower. They will commenca 
 heading in October. To have them during the winter, in a 
 northern climate, they must he pitted in a cellar or shed. 
 South of Virginia they need little, if any, protection. 
 
 The turnip cabbage (fo^l raM), Brassica nwpo Irasaiea, and 
 the turnip-rooted cabbage, Brassica caulo ra/pa, may be added 
 to onr list, although they are little cultivated. The former, of 
 which the Olmr Namet de Laporie, from France, is the best, 
 requires the same cultivation as the cabbage, and the latter 
 should be treated hke the Swede turnip. The Green Stemmed 
 and the Purple Stemmed are recommended. 
 
 IT.— SPIHACEOUS PLANTS. 
 1. SpniACH — Spinaeea Ol&raeea. 
 
 This vegetable — VepinarA of the French — is a native of 
 Spain, and is extensively cultivated on the continent of Europe. 
 It is excellent for greens, and should receive more attention 
 than has yet been accorded to it in this country. There are 
 three varieties — the Prickly-Seeded, the Kound-Seeded, and the 
 Flanders. The first is best for sowmg in the fall for winter 
 crops, in a cold climate ; but for spring sowing, and for a mild 
 climate, the second is to be preferred. The Flanders is little 
 known in this country, but is said to be superior to either of 
 the other sorts. 
 
 Spinach requires a rich soil. Sow in drills a quarter of an 
 inch deep and nine inches apart. For winter and early spring 
 crops, sow about the last of August, and again abont the mid- 
 dle of September. For summer use, sow from the first a' 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 89 
 
 April to the twenty-fifth of May. Select an open situation. 
 If the soil be light and dry, it must be trodden down or rolled 
 with a roller on sowing. Thin out the plants to niae inches 
 apart. Hoe frequently and thoroughly. The winter crop will 
 require the protection of a thin layer of straw during th^ 
 severe weather. 
 
 2. Nbw Zbaiand SPEfAOH — TePragonia Expansa. 
 
 This is an annual plant from New Zealand. It famishes a 
 good substitute for spinach during the summer, when the latter 
 fails, but, as it nequires to be forwarded in a frame or hot-bed, 
 is hardly worth the trouble it costs in a northern climate. 
 
 Garden Orache (atriplex fiortensii) and Garden Patience 
 (rumex patienta) are sometimes used in the place of spinach, 
 but are only worthy of a mere mention here. 
 
 v.— ASPAEAGIN0U8 PLANTS. 
 
 1. AsPAEAGTTS — Asparogus Officinalis. 
 
 The asparagus plant is a native of the sea-coasts of Great 
 Britain. The varieties may be reduced to two — ^the Green Top 
 and the Purple Top. 
 
 Asparagus is propagated only by seed, but in forming a new 
 bed it is the most economical plan to procure plants two or 
 three years old from some nurseryman or gardener. If you 
 purpose to raise your own plants, sow early in the spring, in a 
 seed-bed formed of rich, sandy loam, in drOls an inch and a 
 half deep, and eighteen inches from row to row, pressing the 
 earth firmly upon the seed. Keep the bed free from weeds by 
 frequent hoeing. About the first of the following November 
 spread stable litter or something of the sort over the ground, to 
 keep the young plants from the frost. 
 
 For the permanent bed, a rich, sandy loam is best. Select, 
 if possible, an open situation and a warm southern exposure. 
 Trench or spade deeply, digging in a plenty of manure, as the 
 Bill can hardly be made too rich or too deep. Over a plot 
 forty feet long and twenty feet wide (which wUl be large 
 
90 The Gaedeit. 
 
 enough for a rr.oderate fiiimly), sow from fifty to a lumdre*" 
 pounds of salt, incorporating it with the soil to the depth of 
 four or five inches. The ground having been well pulverized 
 and leveled, lay it off into beds about four feet wide, with 
 alleys two feet wide between them. Drive a stake at each 
 comer. This work should all be done toward the end of 
 March. Now cut a small trench or furrow six inches deep, 
 lengthwise of the bed, and about nine inches from the edge. 
 Take up the plants very carefully from the seed rows, and set 
 them in this trench or furrow, nine inches apart, with the 
 crovm of the root two inches below the surface, and cover 
 them at once. Proceed in the same manner with the whole, 
 making the rows twelve or fourteen inches apart. A damp 
 day should be chosen for the operation, which must be care- 
 fully and skiUfuUy performed. Keep the weeds down during 
 the summer, and on the approach of severe weather cover the 
 beds to the depth of three or four inches with rotten manure. 
 The first two years the plants are permitted to run up to 
 stalks, that strong crowns may be formed at their base for a 
 future crop. The winter dressing of manure must be continued 
 while the bed lasts, the tops being cut off and removed each 
 fall. In the spring, so soon as the frost wiU pennit, loosen the 
 surface of the beds with a manure fork, introducing it three 
 or four inches into the soU, and turning it up, being careful 
 not to injure the crown of the roots. A full crop may be ex- 
 pected the fourth year after planting, or at the South a year 
 earlier. Out when about four or five inches above the surface. 
 The shoot shonld be cut off slantingly about three inches 
 below the surface, nsing a long, sharp-pointed knife. The 
 cutting should never extend beyond the middle of June. 
 
 With good culture, an asparagus bed will continue product- 
 ive for fifteen years, but too many shoots must not be cut from 
 it, nor the cutting prolonged beyond the time we have named. 
 
 2. Sba Kale — Cramiba Maratima. 
 This plant is closely related to the cabbage, and is called l^' 
 
The Kitchen G-a'kdek. 91 
 
 the French le chou marin. It is easily ctdtivated, and we rec- 
 ommend our readers to try it. 
 
 Sea Kale flourishes best in a sandy soU, weU enriched with 
 decomposed vegetable manure and a top-dressing of salt. Sow 
 the seed in March or April, watering the bed freely if the 
 weather be dry. Thin out the plants gradually to two or three 
 inches apart, keeping the bed free from weeds by frequent 
 hoeing. In November cover the crowns of the plants with a 
 few inches of earth. In the spring, prepare beds as for aspara- 
 gus, and remove your plants in a similar manner, setting them 
 about two feet apart, and covering the crown of the root about 
 two inches deep. Water occasionally, if the season be dry, 
 and hoe frequently. Allow no plants to go to seed. Early in 
 November give the bed two inches of well-rotted manure, 
 forking it over lightly at the same time. Now cover the 
 crowns of the plants with three or four inches of light soil, or 
 with pure sand if you can readily procure it. The bed being 
 thus finished, cover the crowns of the plants with large pota 
 or boxes, sinking them one or two inches in the ground, and 
 carefully stopping any holes in them. Then procure a quantity 
 of leaves from the woods, mix them with about the same 
 quantity of warm stable manure, and cover the ground and 
 boxes to the depth of twenty inches. In severe weather 
 throw over this some dry litter or boards. The materials will 
 come to a heat in two or three weeks ; and in three or four 
 weeks more it will be time to examine a pot or two, and when 
 the plants are found to have sprouts from six to eight inches 
 long, they may be cut for use. Eemove a portion of the earth, 
 and cut close to the crown, and then replace the box or pot, 
 and the other materials, and other shoots will soon appear. 
 The plants will continue in a vigorous state of growth for two 
 months, giving you a supply for the table nearly the whole 
 winter ; and having your bed once formed, the forcing process 
 just described may be repeated every year for fourteen or fif- 
 teen years. In the spring remove the covering gradually, dig- 
 ging in a few inches of the decayed material to strengthen the 
 plant for a future crop. 
 
92 The Gaedew. 
 
 To have sea kale without forcing, cover the plants early in 
 the spring with eight or ten inches of sand, or fine, light soU, 
 They will produce strong shoots, which, on clearing the ground 
 around them, -will he found to be of a clear white color ; or 
 they may he blanched by covering them deeply with oat-strai)?. 
 They are useless unless well blanched. The shoots are cooked 
 in the same way as asparagus. 
 
 Tl.— ESOtJUEllT BTILB8. 
 
 1. The Onion — Allium Oepa. 
 
 The onion is supposed to be a native of Asia. Itis cplture 
 is of "inscrutable antiquity." The most useful varieties are 
 the following: Eed Dutch, Portugal, Strasburg, and Silver 
 Skinned. The first two varieties named are very hardy ^^ 
 keep well, but are of too strong a flavor to suit a delicate 
 taste ; the last two are mild-flavored, but are not good keeper?. 
 The Silver Skinned is much used for pickling. For winter use 
 we should choose the Strasburg. 
 
 The onion requires a light and friable, but rich and some- 
 what moist soil. The manure used should be well decomposed. 
 It need not be deeply mixed with the soU, as the roots of the 
 plant do not extend far below the surface. The whole must 
 be thoroughly pulverized. The onion may be sowed so soon 
 as the ground is in a condition to be worked in the spring. 
 Sow in drills half an inch deep and nine or ten inches apart. 
 After sowing, press the soil down firmly with a, board. Keep 
 the bed free from weeds, and stir the soil frequently, but not 
 deeply. The onion should not be earthed up at all. It is bet- 
 ter that the bulb should be formed entirely above the surface. 
 They should be thinned out to two inches apart. This we con- 
 sider the best mode of culture for the main crop. 
 
 For an early crop, sow the seed thickly in drills early in 
 April ; and when the bulbs have grown to the size of peas, lift 
 them, and put away in an airy loft, to keep till the next spring, 
 when set them in shallow drills, covering very lightly, if at all. 
 They will be ripe in June or July. Soap- suds will not b» 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 93 
 
 firasted on the onion bed. Soot and ashes are also good fot 
 top-dressings. 
 
 To preserve the winter crop, pull in a dry day, put them 
 under a shed or similar shelter to dry, and store in a loft where 
 they can have plenty of air. 
 
 Onions may be sparingly eaten as a salad, but in the raw 
 state are rather difficult of digestion. They are most whole- 
 some boiled. Boil twenty minutes in water, with a little salt ; 
 then pour off the water entirely, and put in equal parts of hot 
 water and mUk, or skimmed milk alone, and boU twenty min- 
 utes more. They may be fried or roasted, but are more diffi- 
 cult of digestion in those modes of cooking. 
 
 2. The Top oe Tebb Ooton — Allium Proliferwm. 
 This is a very hardy species, producing little bulbs at the top 
 of its seed-stem. It is easily cultivated, comes early to maturity, 
 and never faUs to produce a crop. Plant the little bulbs very 
 early in the spring, cultivating the plants in the same way as 
 the other species. They wUl be ready for use in May or June. 
 If large bulbs are required, the seed-stem must be broken off. 
 Those not thus treated wiU produce seed for the next year. 
 The top bulbs are considered excellent for pickling. 
 
 3. Potato Onion — Allium Tuberosum. 
 
 This is supposed to be the kind of onion that was worshiped 
 by the Egyptians. It is said never to produce either flowers 
 or seed. It is propagated by offsets from the bulbs which 
 should be planted in March, in drills eighteen inches apart. 
 Set them three inches below the surface, and six inches apart. 
 Keep the ground well stirred, but do not earth up the plants. 
 They may be lifted by the top as they ripen, which will be 
 shown by the drooping and withering of the leaves. In this 
 climate they generally ripen in August. They are milder in 
 flavor than those raised from the seed, but the bulbs are not so 
 
 large. 
 
 4. The Shallot — Allium Amalonicwn. 
 
 This plant — Vesehahte of the French — was introduced inta 
 
94: _ The Gaeden. 
 
 Europe from the town of Ascalon, in Syria. It is little used 
 in this country, except hy the Trench, but is to he preferred 
 to the onion for some of the purposes of cookery. It is propa 
 gated by offsets, which may he planted in the spring, like the 
 sets of the onion. Store in the same way as other onions. 
 
 5. The Lbbk — Allium Porrum. 
 
 The leek (Fr. porreau) is cultivated in France to an almost 
 incredible extent, as it forms an absolutely essential ingredient 
 of the soup on which the great body of the nation lives. The 
 London Flag and the Musselburgh are improved varieties of 
 the common leek. 
 
 The soil for the leek must be rich, deep, and well worked. 
 
 The manure used must be well decomposed. Sow the seed 
 
 thinly, in driUs six inches apart and half an inch deep. Thin 
 
 out the plants to an inch apart. "When about eight inches 
 
 high, transplant them into a bed previously prepared for them. 
 
 Shorten the roots to about an inch from the plant, and cut off 
 
 two inches or more from the extremity of the leaves. Dibble 
 
 them in drills eight inches apart, and so deeply ss the plant 
 
 win admit, without covering the young leaves pushing from its 
 
 center. Choose moist or cloudy weather for the operation ; or, 
 
 if dry, give the plants a copious watering. Hoe frequently, 
 
 drawing the earth about the plants as they grow. They will 
 
 be fit for use in October. The whole plant is much used in 
 
 soups and stews, hut the most delicate part is the blanched 
 
 stems. 
 
 6. The Gaolio— Allium Sativum. 
 
 The garlic is much used in southern Europe in sauces and 
 salads ; but its unpleasant odor wUl, we suspect, debar it from 
 American tables almost entirely. The bulb is divisible into 
 numerous parts called " cloves," by means of which it is propa- 
 gated. Plant in the spring, in drQls two inches dee'J; and six 
 Inches apart. When the bulbs are grown, take thea- iip, clean 
 them, and hang up in bundles. A rery slight flavor of garlic 
 Is not unpleasant in soups and stewa. 
 
The Kitohek Gakdeu. 9S 
 
 7. The Ohive — Allium Schmnoprasum. 
 This little alliaceous plant is sometimes used as a spring 
 «alad, or a seasoning for soups. It is easily propagated by 
 dividing the bulbs or roots either in autumn or spring, and 
 planting them in any bed or border. It will grow anywhere, 
 but pre&rs a moist, rich soU. It is generally spoken of in the 
 plural as chives or cives. 
 
 Vn.— SALAD PLANTS. 
 
 1. Letiuoe — Laetuca Sativa. 
 
 The lettuce is appropriately placed at the head cf the list 
 of modern salad plants. There are two grand varieties of the 
 lettuce — the Cabbage and the Cos or Upright — and numerous 
 sub-varieties of each. The best of the cabbage sorts are the 
 Early White Spring, White Gotte, Early Simpson, Summer 
 Cabbage, Green Curled, Green Winter Cabbage, White Silesian, 
 Ice Cabbage, India, Versailles and Victoria. The last will make 
 good heads most of the summer. Of the Cos or Upright sorts 
 the best are the White and the Green Paris. 
 
 A deep, rich, sandy loam suits the lettuce plant. Salt and 
 ashes are useful as special manures. Sow as early as the sea- 
 son win permit, and repeat at different times during the spring 
 and summer. For forcing in a hot-bed, the Early Cabbage 
 should be chosen. For a winter crop, the Brown Dutch may 
 be treated as we have recommended for Early York and Non- 
 pareil cabbages. In the South it will need no protection. 
 
 The Cos lettuce must be sowed in September, protected 
 during the winter, and transplanted out in the spring ; or sowed 
 in a hot-bed in February. The Cos varieties are improved by 
 tying up the leaves several days before cutting, to blanch them. 
 
 Lettuce may be had through the winter, by sowing in Octo- 
 ber in a waUed pit or frame, and protecting from frost by 
 means of sash and straw mats, giving it air in warm, clear 
 days. The earth should be within eight inches of the glass. 
 Let the plants stand eight or ten inches apart. "Water occa- 
 fionaUy, and pick off aU decayed leaves. It is a good preoau- 
 
96 The Garden. 
 
 tion to surround the frame or pit with leaves or straw. Lettuce 
 requires frequent and deep hoeings. 
 
 2. O'Bx.sa—Lepidum Sativum. 
 
 Of the garden cress there are two varieties — the Curled or 
 Pepper-Grass and the Broad-Leafed. The former is generally 
 preferred. It forms an excellent salad, and is easily cultivated. 
 To have it early, sow in a hot-bed in February. In the open 
 ground it may to sowed about the last of March. The soil 
 should be light and warm for the first sowing. Sow in shallow 
 di-Dls, covering the seed very lightly. To have it during the 
 season, sow every fortnight. It should grow rapidly, and bo 
 ■used when quite young and crisp. 
 
 Water-cress is found in brooks, in various parts of the United 
 States, but is seldom cultivated. It also is excellent for a salad. 
 
 3. MusTAED — Sinwpis Alba. 
 
 This salad plant is cultivated in the same manner as cress. 
 Cut the leaves for use whUe they are crisp and tender. "Wash 
 them carefully in water to free them from the sand that is 
 liable to adhere to them. To have a constant supply, maie 
 frequent sowings. Table mustard is made from the seeds of 
 SinapU nigra. 
 
 4. Endive — Ciehorium Endiva. 
 
 This plant is a native of China and Japan, and is much cul- 
 tivated in Europe. The variety generally used for salads is the 
 Green Curled. The Broad-Leaved or Batavian is used for 
 cooking, in stews and soups. 
 
 A light, rich soil is desirable for the endive. An open expo- 
 sure should also be- chosen. The best time to sow for an early 
 crop is about the first of July in this climate. If sowed ear- 
 lier, it is apt to run quickly to seed. In New England, how- 
 ever, it may be sowed by the middle of June. In the South, 
 White says, sow in August and September. Sow in drills 
 about four inches deep, and about a foot apart, and scatter suf- 
 ficient earth upon the seeds to cover them, leaving the driUs 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 97 
 
 to be filled up in the process of future cultivation. Wntor 
 once or twice, if the weather he dry. When about two inches 
 high, thin out the plants to ten inches apart ; and when neai-ly 
 full grown, the leaves may he gathered up in a close, rounded 
 form, and tied with a shred of matting or other soft string, 
 drawing up a little earth to the stems at the same time. 
 Choose a dry day for this operation, and tie up only a few 
 plants at a time, or in proportion as they may he wanted for 
 nse. They may also he blanched by covering them with pots 
 or boxes. It will take about ten days in warm weather, and 
 about twenty in cold weather, for the leaves to blanch for use. 
 For late crops, sow about the end of July. To have endive 
 in perfection during the winter, it must be moved into frames 
 or walled pits about the first of November, taking up consider- 
 able earth with the roots. Give air and light in mUd weather, 
 but protect from heavy rains and severe fi-osts. 
 
 5. Oeleet — Apium Oraveolens. 
 
 Celery is a native of Great Britain, and in its wild state is a 
 coarse, rank weed. Cultivation has made it one of the pleas- 
 antest-flavored of all salad plants. There are several varieties. 
 The Eed Sohd is the hardiest, and is therefore generally pre- 
 ferred in the colder portions of our country ; but the White 
 Sohd is crisper and more delicately flavored. Cole's Superb 
 Red, Laing's Improved Mammoth Ked, Seymour's Superb White, 
 Boston Market and Turkey or Prussian are the kinds to be preferred 
 
 The SOU best suited to the celery plant is a moist, rich vege- 
 table mold, to which salt, ashes, and lime may be advantage- 
 ously added, as special manures. The animal manures used- 
 must be thoroughly decomposed. The cultivation of celery 
 embraces three distinct operations : 
 
 1. Forwa/rding the Plants. — Sow in a hot-bed from the first 
 to the middle of llarch, or in a warm border in the open 
 ground, at several different times, from the first of April to the 
 tenth of May. The seed-beds should be of hght and finely- 
 pn.verized soil. Kake in the seeds lightly and regularly, and 
 
 S 
 
98 The Gaeden. • 
 
 in dry -weather water moderately, both before and after germi 
 nation. Liquid manures are very beneficial. Thin out the 
 plants to half an inch apart. 
 
 2. Stocking or Hwrdening. — When the plants are two or 
 three inches high, prick them out, at successive times, into 
 intermediate beds, three or four inches asunder, watering if 
 the weather be dry, and protecting from frost with boards or 
 mats, if necessary. This intermediate bed should be made 
 very rich with well-rotted manure. The plants that remain 
 in the seed-bed shoxdd be shortened by cutting off their tops 
 occasionally, to make them grow more stout, and watered fre- 
 quently. Of the transplanted ones, those iutended for late 
 celery should also be cut off nearly to the crown several times, 
 which win retard them and make them grow stout. When the 
 plants are from six to twelve inches high, they must be trans- 
 planted into trenches previously prepared for them. 
 
 3. Trench Culture. — It is weU to trench the compartment 
 of 'the garden intended for the permanent culture of celery, as 
 this process turns the richest soil to the bottom where it will 
 be most needed for the nurture of the plant. In ground thus 
 prepared, or at least deeply spaded or plowed, mark out the 
 trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a half feet 
 apart ; dig out each trench lengthwise, ten or twelve inches in 
 width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight inches. Lay 
 the earth dug out equally on each side of the trench ; put at 
 least four inches of very rotten dung into the trench, then pare 
 the sides, and dig the dung and parings with several inches of 
 the loose mold at the bottom. A pint of salt to every fifty 
 feet of trench, thoroughly mingled with the soil, is recom- 
 mended by some, and must, we think, prove beneficial. Tiim 
 the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in single 
 rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five 
 inches distance from plant to plant. When this work is fin- 
 ished, give the plants water in plenty, and occasionally water 
 them from time to time, if the weather be dry, and likewise 
 kt them be shaded, till they strike root and begin to grow* 
 
The K.ITCHEN Gaedek. 99 
 
 Thiar after-culture consists in stirring the soil in the trench 
 frequently with a small hoe, and watering copiously in dry 
 weather. About the middle of August or the first of Septem- 
 ber, you may begin to earth up your plants for blanching. Tie 
 the leaves together, or hold them tight with one hand, while 
 you draw the earth, which must have been finely pulverized 
 with the spade, around the stems, beiag careful not to cover 
 the heart or center of the plant. You may now repeat this 
 operation once in ten days, tiU the plants are fit for use ; but 
 this earthing-up must never be done when the plants are in the 
 least wet. About the first of October earth up firmly and 
 evenly, and with a decided slope from the base, nearly to the 
 tops of the leaves. To take up the crop, it is best to begin at 
 one end of a row, and dig clean down to the roots, which then 
 loosen with a spade, and they may be drawn up entire, without 
 breaHng the stallss. 
 
 To preserve this plant during the winter, on the approach of 
 frost take up a part of the crop, and lay it under sand for win- 
 ter use. That left in the beds may be covered with litter, to 
 be removed in mild weather. In planting, the white and red 
 sorts may conveniently be mixed in the same trench, so that 
 only one trench need be opened to obtain both. 
 
 6. The Kadish — Ra/pJianus Satwvs. 
 
 The radish (Fr. rme, Ger. titts) is a native of China. Of 
 the numerous varieties, the Scarlet Short Top is the earliest 
 and best. The Early Salmon, Red Turnip-Eooted, White Tur- 
 nip-Eooted, White Summer, and TeUow Summer are aU 
 desirable sorts. For supplying the table in winter, the Black 
 Spanish should be chosen. 
 
 Any deep, rich soil, well broken up, will do for the radish, 
 but for early crops it is desirable to have it light, dry, and 
 warm. Sow as early as the weather will permit, and for a 
 continued supply repeat your sowings about once in two weeks 
 through the season. The Black Spanish may be stored in the 
 »ellar, and will keep till spring. 
 
100 The Gaeden. 
 
 v. HoESB Radish — Oochlearia Armor aeia. 
 
 The. Lorse-radisli grows best in a rich, moist soil, contiguon« 
 to water, but may be cultivated in almost any situation. It is 
 propagated by sets from the root, which may be dropped into 
 holes made with a dibble fifteen inches deep, in soil previously 
 trenched or deeply spaded. Fill up the holes with line earth. 
 The plants should stand about ten inches apart. It may be 
 planted either in spring or in November. In taking up the 
 roots for use, you may leave a small portion at the bottom to 
 gerve as a new set. In the fall, lift enough for winter use, and 
 leave the rest in the ground. It is an excellent condiment. 
 The root is scraped into shreds, or grated fine, and eaten with 
 vinegar. 
 
 8. CoEN ?!ALAJ>---Fedia Olitoria. 
 
 This plant, sometimes called lamb's lettuce, is a native ot 
 Europe. It is in use to some extent as a spring salad. Sow 
 from the tenth to the twentieth of September, in shallow drQIs 
 six inches apart, and cover Ughtly, pressing the soil with a 
 roller or a board. Keep it clear of weeds, and in November 
 cover with straw, and pick the leaves as wanted. If the win- 
 ter prove mUd, it may be in use the whole season. 
 
 Till.— THE CUOUMBEE FAMILY 
 1. The OuotnuBBE — Ououmis Sativus. 
 
 The cucumber is found wild in almost all warm countries, 
 and is cultivated aU over the world. The best varieties for 
 forcing, or for an early crop in the open air, are the Russian 
 and the Early Frame. London Long Green, Long Green Tur- 
 key, White Spined and Underwood's Short Prickley are good 
 for the main crop. The White Spined is one of the best for table 
 use, and Underwood's Short Prickly for pickling. The Gherkin, 
 a French variety, is also much prized for the latter purpose. 
 
 A light loam is best for the cucumber, but it wiU grow in 
 almost any soil, and is very easily cultivated. Make excava- 
 tions for your hills a foot in diameter and fifteen inches deeft 
 
The Kitchen Gaeden. 101 
 
 at the distance of six feet apart each way. Fill these holes 
 with a rich mixture of well decayed maaure and light soil, 
 adding, if convenient, a little ashes, hone-dnst, and common 
 salt. Kaise the hiUs a little ahove the level of the ground, hy 
 covering the manure mixture with loam, and make them 
 slightly concave on the top. Plant about the first of May, or 
 so soon as the season wiR admit, putting eight or ten seeds in a 
 biU. "Fhen the plants have made rough leaves, thin them out 
 to three in a hUl. Nipping oflf the points of the vines to make 
 them branch out will hasten their fruiting. Stir the ground 
 frequently, and keep it free from weeds. 
 
 By forcing in hot-beds, cucumbers may be had in March or 
 April ; but few except professional gardeners care to undertake 
 the somewhat delicate operation. They may be much for- 
 warded, however, with little trouble, by the use of small boxes 
 covered with glass, or by the following method : 
 
 Make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung ; let the hole 
 be under a warm fence. Put six inches deep of fine rich earth 
 on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in this earth, and cover at 
 night with a bit of carpet or sail-cloth, having first fixed some 
 hoops over this little bed. Before the plants show the rough 
 lea^ plant two into a little flower-pot, and fill as many pots in 
 this way as you please. Have a larger bed ready to put the 
 pots into, and covered with earth, so that the pots may he 
 plunged in the earth up to their tops. Cover this bed like the 
 last. "When the plants have got two rough leaves out, they 
 will begin to make a shoot in the middle. Pinch that short ofi'. 
 Let them stand in this bed till your encumbers soum in the 
 natural ground come up ; then make some little holes in good, 
 rich land, and, taking a pot at a time, turn out the tall, and fix 
 It in the hole. These plants wiU bear a month sooner than 
 those sown in the natural ground. 
 
 The second week in July is sufficiently early to plant for the 
 fail and pickling crop, in the Northern States. In the South, 
 the late planted crops are apt to be destroyed by the melon* 
 worm. 
 
102 The Gaeden. 
 
 Oacumber plants being climbers by means of their tendrils, 
 Bome braacby sticks being placed to any advancing runners, 
 tbey -win ascend, and pro-iuce fruit at a distance from tba 
 ground, of a clean growth, free from spots, and well flavored. 
 
 2. The Melon — Oucumis Melo. 
 
 The melon is a tropical plant. Our finest varieties are sup- 
 posed to have come from Persia and Affghanistan. In the 
 south of Europe it is much used as an article of food by the 
 lower classes. This use may be made of it with advantage by 
 all classes in every country where it can be produced. Its 
 varieties are numerous and constantly increasing. The com- 
 mon mush-melon, formerly so extensively cultivated, has gen- 
 erally given way to newer and better sorts, among which the 
 Green Citron, Monroe's Green Flesh, Nutmeg, Christina (very 
 early), White Japan, Prescott Cantaloup, (a French variety, 
 Orange Cantaloup, Pine Apple and Skilhnan's Fine Netted are 
 much esteemed. [For the water-melon which belongs to a 
 different genus of the same natural order, see the next section.] 
 
 The melon should have the same soil and culture as the 
 cucumber (except that it requires less moisture), and may be 
 forced in a hot-bed, or forwarded by means of the glass-covered 
 ■boxes in the same way. Never allow more than three plants 
 to grow in a hUl. Three will produce more fruit than six. As 
 the fruit appears and attains the size of a walnut, place under 
 each a piece of tile, slate, or glass to protect it from the damp- 
 ness of the earth, and assist it in ripening by reflecting the rays 
 of the sun. 
 
 IX.— THE PUMPKIN TAMILT. 
 
 1. The PuMPKiif — Gucurbita Pepo. 
 
 The pumpkin is a native of India and the Levant. Numer- 
 ous varieties are cultivated, some of which, originated by 
 means of crossings with the squash, can hardly be distinguished 
 from that vegetable. The Cashaw and Large Cheese are the 
 best that we have tested. The Yalparaiso is said to be a good 
 
The Kitchen Garden. 103 
 
 variety , and fie Honolulu, from the Sandwich Islands^ and the 
 Oitronelle de Tov/raine, from France, are new varieties which 
 we would recommend for trial. 
 
 The pumpkin will grow anywhere, and with almost any 
 treatment. The culture indicated is the same as that for the 
 melon or the cucumher. It should never be planted in a gar- 
 den, if one has other ground in which it can be cultivated, as 
 it will be sure to mix with and contaminate the squashes, 
 melons, and cucumbers. New England farmers often raise a 
 large crop by plantiag it with their field corn. 
 
 2. The Sqitash — Oucuriita Melo pepo. 
 
 This plant fbrms the connecting link between the pumpkin 
 and the melon. It originated in the Levant. The best summer 
 varieties are the Early Bush Scalloped, and the early Bush 
 Crooknecked. Of fall and winter sorts the Boston Marrow 
 is the best that has had a fair trial in various soils and climates. 
 It is difficult now, however, to obtain it pure. The Hubbard, 
 Custard, Green Striped Bergen, Egg-shaped, Turban, Honolulu, 
 Mammoth and Yokohama are more recent and esteemed varie- 
 ties; the Hubbard in particular being deservedly popular. 
 
 The soil and cultivation required are the same as for pump- 
 kins, melons, and cucumbers. 
 
 3. Vbgetablb Maeeow — CiicurMta Succada. 
 
 This is a species of gourd. It is cooked like the egg-plant 
 when young ; when half grown is used as squash ; and when 
 matured is used for pies. Cultivated the same as the squash. 
 
 4. The Watbe Mblost — Oucurbita Citrullus. 
 
 The water-melon belongs to the same natm-al family or order 
 as the musk-melon or cantaloup, but to a different genus or 
 subdivision. It is a native of the tropics. The best varieties 
 are the Black Spanish, the White Spanish, the Orange, the 
 Mountain Sweet, the Carolina, the Texas, the Sugar White, 
 the Syrian, and the Lawson. The Texas, the Sugar Whita 
 
104 The Garden. 
 
 (sometimes called Ice Cream), and the Syrian are all new 
 varieties — ^new to us, at least. We have tested only the Texas, 
 which is a superior sort. 
 
 The hest soil for the water-melon is a light, sandy loam. 
 Anima* manui-es, well decomposed, hone-dust, and super-phos- 
 phate of lime should be used in moderate quantities. Oultivata 
 the same as mush-melons or cucumbers. If grown near any 
 other melon, squash, pumpkin, or cucumber, you can not be 
 sure of pure seeds ; and the same remarks wUl apply to the 
 other members of the pumpkin and cucumber families. 
 
 X.— MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION. 
 
 1. Indian Ooen— Zea Mays. 
 
 Every garden should have a few rows of Indian corn. The 
 best garden sorts are the Extra Early and Eight-Eowed Sweet. 
 New varieties, however, are constantly being produced. 
 
 To produce a good crop, Indian corn requires a good soil, 
 and there need be no fear of giving it too much manure. A 
 handful of ashes in each hill wOl benefit the crop. Plant in 
 hills three feet apart, dropping Ave or six seeds in a hiU, but 
 thinning out to three or four at the first hoeing. If sufficient 
 manure have not been mixed with the soil on plowing or dig- 
 ging, put a small shovelful in each hUl. Plant so soon as the 
 season will permit, and make successive plantings tUl August, 
 if you desire a continuous supply. Hoe irequently, making 
 broad, flat hUls in earthing up the plants. Never plant more 
 than one kind of corn in the same garden at one time, as it 
 will mix and deteriorate. Change your seed every two or 
 three yeai-s, getting it, if possible, from a more northern lati- 
 tude. 
 
 2. The Tomato — Solanum Lycopersicum. 
 This plant belongs to the same family as the potato, and, 
 like that vegetable, is almost universaUy esteemed and culti- 
 vated. It is a native of South America. There are several 
 sorts — ^yellow and red. The Large Smooth Red and the Pear- 
 
The Kitchen Gaeden. 105 
 
 Bhaped are the best for table use ; but the Large Bed, a scol- 
 loped or indented variety, is preferred for marketing, as it 
 grows much larger. The Large Yellow differs in flavor from 
 the Bed, and is preferred by some. It comes into use some- 
 what eai'lier than the other sorts. It is much used for pre- 
 serves. The Ked Cherry-Shaped and the Yellow Cherry- 
 Shaped are beautiful varieties, much used for pickling and 
 preserving. 
 
 A light, loamy, and moderately rich soil is best for the 
 tomato. To have early tomatoes, the plants must be started 
 in hot-beds in March. Sow the seeds thinly, or thin out the 
 plants soon after they come up. As they advance in growth, 
 they may be transplanted into a cold frame or walled pit, pro- 
 tected by glass, where they may stand three inches apart to 
 harden for final transplanting into the open air ; or they may 
 remain in the hot-bed till settled warm weather — from the 
 middle to the end of May in this latitude — when they may be 
 planted out into a warm, sheltered situation in the open air. 
 
 Those who have no hot-bed or pit may very easily forward 
 a few plants in a large pot or box of rich earth placed in the 
 kitchen window, sowing the seeds in it from the middle of 
 March to the first of April. Two or three weeks may be 
 gained in this way over those planted in the open air. 
 
 For early tomatoes, we form conical hills, a foot or more in 
 height, and three feet apart, with a little weU-rotted aaanure 
 in the center. Into a httle crater-like excavation in the sum- 
 mits of these hills we set the plants, which should be taken up 
 with a trowel in such a way as not to check their growth. A 
 Btill better way is to sow the seeds in small pots, and in trans- 
 planting to transfer the whole ball of earth from the pot to the 
 hill. The advantage of the elevated hiUs is, that the earth 
 around the roots is more readily and thoroughly warmed by 
 the heat of the sun. For a late crop, or for a hot, dry chmate, 
 this plan is not to be recommended. 
 
 In the South a plenty of tomatoes may be raised from self- 
 Down seed, which will spring up in the garden, ajvl rejuir* 
 
 5* 
 
106 The Gaeden. 
 
 little care ; but if tliey are wanted earlier, the plants may be 
 forwarded in a frame, or glass-covered bozes, sowing in Febru- 
 ary or the first of March, and transplanting when the frosts 
 are over. 
 
 The earliest tomato plants should be shortened by taking off 
 a few inches of their tops, so soon as they have set their first 
 fruit, which will cause it to ripen more rapidly. Stir the soil 
 frequently, and keep it free from weeds. Support the plants 
 with branches or a little treUis, as you would peas, to keep the 
 fruit from the ground. The plants, too, when supported, run 
 less to vines, and are much more fruitful. One dozen plants 
 properly supported will yield more and better fruit than three 
 times that number wiU when allowed to rest on the ground. 
 
 3. The Egg Plant — Solanum Mekmgena. 
 
 This plant also, as may be seen by its botanical name, belongs 
 to the potato family. It is a native of Africa. One of its 
 varieties bears a white fruit resembling an egg, whence its 
 name ; but the purple varieties only are used in cookery. Of 
 these the Large Prickley Purple produces the largest fruit, but 
 the Long Purple is superior in flavor, and should be preferred 
 for family use. They may be cultivated in the same way as 
 tomatoes, but are rather more sensitive and t«nder. They may 
 be sowed in April or the first of May in the open air, selecting 
 a warm border, with a southern exposure. 
 
 The fruit is fit for use when two or three inches in diameter, 
 and continues so tiU the seeds begin to change color. It is cut 
 in thin slices, and fried, and is also sometimes used in stews and 
 Boups. 
 
 4. The Stkawkerrt Tomato — Physalis Edulis. 
 This is a newly -introduced annual plant, producing fruit of the 
 Bize of a cherry. It is excellent eaten raw, made into pies or 
 simply stewed. We haw tried it and esteem it highly. It is 
 cultivated the same as the tomato. 
 
The Kitchen Gakden. 107 
 
 5. Thb Pbppee — Cwpsieum Annum. 
 
 The i«pper is a tropical plant, but may easily be matui-ed in 
 i,ne open air in this climate. It is better, however, to start the 
 plants in a hot-bed, if practicable, and transplant in May or 
 June. A warm situation and a light, rich soil suit it best. 
 The plants should stand in rows eighteen inches apart, and a 
 foot apart in the rows. Earth them up a little in cultivation. 
 The BeU or Sweet is the best for pickling. The Cayenne ia 
 more used in' its ripe state as a seasoning. 
 
 6. Okea — Hibiscus Useulentus. 
 
 This vegetable, which belongs to the natural family of the 
 cotton plant, was introduced from the West Indies, and is much 
 cultivated in the Southern States, It is often called gunibo 
 (Fr. gomho), and is used as an ingredient in stews and soups. 
 It is cultivated to a considerable extent in New Jersey, and 
 may be produced still farther north. A light, dry soil is best 
 suited to it. Plant in drills three feet apart, scattering the 
 seeds sparsely, and thin out to eighteen inches apart in the 
 drOl. It requires careM culture in a northern climate. Hoe 
 very frequently, and keep the ground free from weeds. The 
 pods must be gathered while quite green and tender. They 
 may be cut into thin slices and dried for winter use. 
 
 7. Rhubaeb — Rheum Wiwponticum, 
 Ehubarb, sometimes called pie-plant, although it has been 
 cultivated to a small extent for centuries, and used for medic- 
 inal purposes, has not till quite recently been popularly appre- 
 ciated. It certainly deserves a place in every garden. It is a 
 native of Asia. Myatt's Victoria, Myatt's Linnffius, Buist's 
 Early Eed, and Downing's Colossal are all excellent varieties. 
 
 The soil for rhubarb should be a light loam, rich, and moder- 
 ately moist. Bone-dust and guano are excellent special ma- 
 nures for it. 
 
 Ehubarb is propagated either by seeds or by division of the 
 roots The latter is, in ordinary cases, the preferable method. 
 
108 The Gaeden. 
 
 From ten to twenty plants will be sufficient for a moderate 
 family, and these may be bad by dividing one or two good 
 roots, leaving an eye on each set. The ground should be pro- 
 pared in October, by spading it at least eighteen inches deep, 
 digging in a large quantity of well-rotted manure, and breaking 
 it up thoroughly in the process. AUow it to settle, and then 
 plant out your sets two feet apart in the row, and four feet 
 between the rows. The crowns or eyes of the sets should ba 
 about two inches below the surface, and should be immediately 
 covered with four or five inches of litter, leaves, or straw, to 
 prevent the frost from throwing them out during the winter. 
 In this way a crop may be obtained the first year after plant- 
 ing. The only after-culture required is to cover the ground 
 with a few inches of manure every fall, digging it in with a 
 fork in the spring, and keeping the ground free from weeds. 
 If you wish to raise it from the seed, sow in the spring, trans- 
 plant in the fall, and treat as just directed. You wiU get new 
 varieties. It will be ready for the table in three years. 
 
 To make the edible leaf-stems of yom- rhubarb grow long 
 and tender, place barrels, pots, boxes, and so forth over them 
 when they begin to grow in the spring ; but the air and light 
 should not be entu-ely excluded, unless you wish to obtain a 
 very mild flavor. 
 
 Rhubarb may easily be forced by inverting boxes, pots, oi 
 half barrels over the plants in the autumn, and afterward cov- 
 ering the whole with leaves and hot stable manure. The 
 boxes, etc., should be placed over the plants before the ground 
 shall be frozen, covering the ground with eight or ten inches 
 of litter. The mixture of leaves and manure may be applied 
 about the middle of January or the first of February. By 
 merely covering your plants with six or eight inches of litter, 
 leaves, or almost any dry material, you may fo'>'war<i them from 
 seven to ten days, without further trouble. 
 
 To gather, remove a little earth, and, bending down the leaf 
 you would remove, slip it off from the crown without breaking 
 or using the knife. The stalks are fit to use when the leaf is 
 
The Kitchen Gaedew. 109 
 
 half expanded. A larger, but inferior produce is obtained by 
 letting them remain till iu full expansion, as is practiced by the 
 market-gardeners. 
 
 For use, peel the- stem, and cut it into thin slices, and pre- 
 pare as you would apples, for pies, tarts, or sauce. The 
 English gardeners say, however, that it should be grown ao 
 quickly and be so tender as to require no peeling. 
 
 8. Paeslbt — Apium Petroaelinum. 
 Parsley is but little cultivated in this country, and is princi- 
 pally used for garnishing. It is a native of Sardinia. The 
 curled variety is most worthy of cultivation. Sow in April, 
 in drills half an inch deep. It may form an edging around 
 beds, borders, or compartments. From the long time the seed 
 lies in the ground without germinating, it has been said that it 
 goes nine times to the devil and back before it comes up! 
 These journeys require ordinarily a month or more ; but by 
 soaking the seed twenty-four hours before sowing, the process 
 is somewhat hastened. When the plants are three or four 
 inches high, thin them out to six inches apart. With a little 
 protection, it will grow all winter in this climate. It is 
 esteemed by many as a seasoning for stews and soups. 
 
 XL— SWEET HEEBS, ETC. 
 
 Of the sweet herbs and medicinal plants more or less culti- 
 vated in gardens, a brief mention may properly be here made. 
 They are generally planted in borders, and, to secure their 
 peculiar virtues in perfection , should not be manured. Com- 
 mon garden soil is sufficiently rich for most of them. As a 
 general rule, they are gathered when in bloom, and carefully 
 dried in the shade. 
 
 1. SJirubly Plants. — Sage ^Salvia officinalis) ; Winter 
 QsNorjiSaturica montana) ; Rosemary (Sosmarim offieinalie) ; 
 Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) ; Rue (Buta grameolens) ; Wormwood 
 {Artimesia absinthium) ; Southernwood {Artimesia dbrota- 
 num) ; Lavendei (Lavendula spica) ; Hyssop, Hyssopus {offlci 
 
110 The Gaeden. 
 
 nalis). The foregoing are all propagated by dividing the roots 
 or by cuttings, and require little cultivation. 
 
 2. Perennial 3erbaceou% Plants. — ■ Peppermint {Mentha 
 piperita)-.. Spearmint [Mentlia mridis); Pennyroyal (Mentha 
 pulegium) ; Balm (Melissa officinalis) ; Tansy (Tanacetum iiul- 
 ga/ris) ; Burnet (Poterium sanguisorid) ; Chamomile (Anthemis 
 nobilis) ; Elecampane (Iluna helinium) ; Fennel (Anethvm 
 fmniculvMi) ; Thoroughwort or Boneset (Eupatorium perfolia- 
 tuni) ; Liquorice (Olyeirrhiza glabra). These are all increased 
 by parting the roots. 
 
 3. Biennial and Annual Plants.— Oa,T&vfa,j (Oarum carni) ; 
 Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) \ Dill (Anethum grameolens); 
 Anise (Pimpinella anisum); Sweet Marjoram (Origanum ma- 
 jorana); Summer Savory (Saturega hortensis); Sweet Basil 
 (Ocimum iasilicum) ; Bush Basil (Ocimum minimum) ; Angelica 
 {Angelica arehangelied) ; Borage (JBorago officinalis); Hore- 
 hound {Marruhium valgare). All propagated by sowing th«> 
 seedA. 
 
The Feuit Gaedek. Ill 
 
 VII. 
 
 THE FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 Bat lDrwT»ra fa the name of God, graffe, set, plant, and nourish up trees tn every corx.er at 
 yoni' erfmnds, tno lanvnr Is BmaU, the cost Is nothing, the comnodltle Is great, yourBelvea 
 •boll have pleMy , th« poors shall have somewhat In time of vrant to relieve their necessltle, 
 BBd God shall reward your good mlndes and diligence.— Oerante. 
 
 I.— A HINT OE TWO. 
 
 _ HE lamented Downing says : " He who owns 
 a rood of proper land in this country, and, 
 in the face of the pomonal riches of the 
 day, raises only crabs and choke-pears, 
 deserves to lose the respect of aJl sensible 
 men. Yet there are many in ntter igno- 
 rance of most of the delicious fruits of modem days — 
 who seem to live under some ban of expulsion from 
 all the fair and goodly productions of the garden." 
 
 Such persons are still to be found, but their number 
 is rapidly decreasing ; and there are few who will not 
 thoughtfully heed the quaint exhortation which we have chosen 
 for the motto of this chapter. 
 
 After what we have said in our third and fifth chapters 
 (which see), but few introductory hints wiU here be necessary. 
 Let it be remembered that the plot set apart for the fruit gar- 
 den should be thoroughly prepared before you commence 
 planting ; that the soil should be very deep (not less than two 
 feet), and thoroughly broken up ; that it must be moderately 
 rich ; that it should be well drained if the nature of the soil 
 require it, and that a careful attention to the directions we 
 have given under the heads of transplanting, budding, grafting, 
 pruning, etc., are essential to success. Specific directions, 
 ■when necessary, will be given under the name of each specie* 
 
112 The Gaeden. 
 
 The best manure for fruit-trees in general is composed ol 
 about equal parts of meadow mud, muck, or peaty earth, and 
 common stable manure. A small quantity of wood-ashes, say 
 four bushels to a cart-load of manure, and charcoal-dust in 
 about the same ratio, may be intermixed with this composition 
 to great advantage. This manure should be prepared and well 
 worked over several months before using. Half a peck of 
 bone-dust and a little lime, well mixed with the soil when set- 
 ting the tree, or from a peck to a bushel of old broken bones, 
 put into the bottom of the hole before setting, will be of great 
 benefit for years. The general manuring of a fruit garden 
 should be performed in autumn ; and the holes for setting out 
 the trees in the spring may be dug and filled with compost and 
 earth at the same time with decided advantage. Botted chips 
 make an excellent manure for fruit-trees, and may be applied 
 either in the holes or as a top-dressing. 
 
 Having set out your trees properly in well-prepared ground, 
 the work is rightly hegun — that is all. If you stop here, you 
 might as well have never commenced — nay, better ; for in that 
 case you would have saved the cost of the trees and the labor 
 of preparing the soil. 
 
 After your trees are planted, it is absolutely essential that 
 the ground around them shall be Tcept loose and mellow by culti- 
 vation. Cultivate potatoes or some other low-growing crop 
 between the rows of trees, keeping an area of more than the 
 diameter of the head around each tree clear from both the 
 crop and the weeds. So far as the tree's roots extend, the 
 ground belongs to them, but it must be kept well stirred. 
 
 Newly transplanted trees sometimes, especially if the season 
 be uncommonly dry, require watering; but a little water 
 poured on the surface never reaches the roots, and, by causing 
 the ground to bake, does more harm than good. To produce 
 the desired result, take oif a few inches of the surface above 
 the roots, apply the water, and then replace the earth. 
 
 Mulching is exceedingly beneficial to young fruit-trees. A, 
 sufBcient quantity of straw, litter, leaves, or tan-bark applied 
 
The Fktjit Garden. 113 
 
 In a circle covering the whole area of the roots wiU tend to 
 retain the moisture, and render watering, in ordinary cases, 
 unnecessary. In winter, where the climate is severe, it is still 
 more useful, and often saves young trees from entire destruc- 
 tion by frost. A small space immediately about the trunk may 
 be left uncovered, as it might harbor mice. 
 
 Every spring, wash the bodies of your young trees with ^oft 
 soap, or one of the following preparations : 
 
 1. Dissolve one pound of potash in two gallons and one 
 half of water, and then apply with a flat varnish-brush to the 
 limbs and trunks of the trees. A varnish-brush is best, as the 
 bristles are held together by tin bands on them, and not tied 
 together with strings, as paint-brushes are, which the potash 
 soon cuts through, and the brush falls to pieces. 
 
 2. Mix fresh cow-dung with urine and soap-suds, and with 
 the mixture wash over the stems and branches of the trees as 
 you would your room with whitewash, first cutting ofl" the 
 cankery parts, and scraping the moss and rough bark off the 
 trunks of the trees before applying it. This is particularly 
 applicable to large and old trees. It wiU destroy the eggs of 
 insects, and prevent moss growing on the trunks. 
 
 The following, it is said, will prevent rabbits [and probably 
 mice] from girdling fruit-trees : 
 
 Make a solution of, say half a pound of tobacco to three 
 gallons of water. Mix with clay, a httle lime, a little fresh 
 cow-dung, and an ounce or two of glue or paste. Thicken to 
 the consistency of thick whitewash, and put on with a brush. 
 
 The following is Bridgeman's recipe for causing trees to 
 thrive : 
 
 " The ground where they are planted must be kept well cul- 
 tivated. Young trees will not thrive if the grass be permitted 
 to form a sod around them ; and if it should be necessary to plant 
 them in grass grounds, care must be taken to keep the earth 
 mellow and free from grass for three or four feet distant around 
 them, and every autumn some weU-rotted manure should be 
 dug in around each tree, and every sprmg the bodies of th« 
 
114 The Gaeden. 
 
 trees washed or brushed over with common soft-soap, undilutea 
 with water. This treatment will give a thriftiness to the trees, 
 surpassing the expectation of any one who has not witnessed 
 its effect." 
 
 II. POMACEOUS PETJITS. 
 
 1. The Apple — Pyrus Malm. 
 
 All the varieties of the apple cultivated in this country have 
 originated from the small, acid crab-apple of Europe. When 
 cultivated with the same care and skill, it seems to succeed 
 even better here than in its native localities. It is well worthy 
 to stand at the head of all the fruits of temperate climates. 
 
 The apple-tree requires so much room that, in an ordinary 
 garden, we must confine ourselves to a smaU number. The 
 choice of our varieties, then, becomes an important affair, 
 and, we may add, a difficult one. 1. In the first place, the 
 varieties are very numerous, being numbered by thousands ; 
 3. Sorts which are considered " best " in one section of our 
 widely extended country, often prove inferior or worthless in 
 another ; 3. Soil, seasons, and modes of cultivation modify 
 them greatly in the same climate ; 4. Many new and appa- 
 rently excellent varieties have not yet been sufficiently tested 
 in reference to their adaptation to general cultivation ; 5. 
 Tastes differ widely in reference to flavors ; 6. Some sorts aro 
 known by from three to twenty different names — every neigh- 
 borhood, almost, having its local appellation for them. The 
 reader must make the necessary allowances, as the circum- 
 stances of his locality, soil, and climate, and his own expe- 
 rience and observation may dictate ; and none but the best 
 should be allowed to occupy the limited space of a fruit gar- 
 den. 
 
 Apple-trees should be planted thirty feet apart each way. 
 As special manure, lime and ashes are indicated." About half 
 a peck of each, applied annually to each tree, will be useful. 
 
 In common management, apple-trees in general bear only 
 alternate years, which are called their bearing years ; but by 
 
The Feuit Gaeden. 115 
 
 thinning out half the blossoms on the bearing year, you may 
 easily have about an equal quantity of fruit every season. The 
 bearing year may be entirely changed, by taking off all the 
 blossoms or yoimg fruit on that year, and allowing them to 
 remain on the year which we wish to make the bearing one. 
 
 To preserve winter apples, gather them carefully by hand 
 on a dry day ; lay them gently by hand twelve or fourteen 
 inches deep on the floor of a cool, dry room, and let them dry 
 and season there for three weeks. Then carefully take them 
 up, on a clear day, and pack them by hand in clean, dry bar- 
 rels, filling the barrels so full that a gentle pressure will be 
 necessary in order to head them up. 
 
 Smaller quantities may be put up in common, tight, wooden 
 buckets. The best place for keeping them is a dry, airy 
 room or cellar, of which the temperature ranges from 35° to 
 45° Fahr. 
 
 Thomas recommends packing alternate layers of apples and 
 dry chaff mixed with a small portion of dry, pulverized lime. 
 Apples for exportation are often wrapped each one separately 
 in clean, soft, coarse paper, like oranges, and then put up in 
 boxes or barrels, as above directed. 
 
 2. The Peae — Pyrus Oommunit. 
 
 The pear is second only to the apple in general utility, and 
 superior to that fruit in delicacy and flavor. The pear was 
 cultivated so long ago as the earliest times of the Romans, 
 but it is only in modem times that it has reached a high 
 degree of those delicious qualities for which it is now so 
 much esteemed. 
 
 The best soil for the pear is a strong loam on a dry subsoil. 
 It requires the same manure as the apple, with the addition 
 of a larger quantity of ashes or potash in some other form. 
 Set standard trees twenty feet apart each way ; dwarfs from 
 ten to twelve. Give bearing trees a moderate top-dressing of 
 manure every autumn. Pear-trees require comparatively httle 
 pruning. 
 
116 The Gaeden. 
 
 To dwarf the pear, it is grafted on Anger's quince stocks. 
 The fruit produced by trees thus grafted is usually better than 
 that of those on the pear stock. They also come into bearing 
 sooner, and take up less room in the garden ; but they are not 
 so long-lived as on the pear. Quince-bottomed pear-trees 
 must be very carefully cultivated. They will not bear neglect. 
 They should be headed-in more or less every year. 
 
 Winter pears are all necessarily ripened in the house ; and 
 nearly all summer pears, and a very large proportion of the 
 autumn varieties, are greatly improved by ripening them in 
 the house also. As a general rule, take summer and early 
 autumn pears from the trees, just when some of the earlier 
 full-grown specimens begin to ripen. Gather them carefully 
 ty hand on a dry day, spread them on the shelves of your 
 fruit-room, or upon the floor of a cool, dry chamber. Here 
 they will ripen by degrees, and without further care. 
 
 Late autumn and winter pears should also be gathered very 
 carefully by hand, in dry weather. Put them away very care- 
 fully, so as not to bruise or indent them in the least, in tight, 
 clean wooden boxes, buckets, or barrels, and keep them in a 
 cool, dry, airy room or cellar, of which the temperature shall 
 "be from about 38° to 45° Fahr. Examine them occasionally, 
 and if they should be sweating, take them out carefully, and 
 dry them on the floor, removing any that may have begun to 
 decay, and re-packing them as before. About ten days before 
 their usual time of ripening, bring them into a warm room. 
 The result of this process vnll surprise, as well as gratify, one 
 ■who has never tried it. 
 
 3. The (^vrsc^—Cydonia Vulgaris. 
 
 This tree is a native of Germany. It was cultivated, and 
 its fruit much esteemed by the Greeks and Eomans. It was 
 used by them, as by the modems, for preserving. 
 
 The quince is easily propagated from seeds, layers, or cut- 
 tings. A moist, strong soil suits the quince, as it grows natu- 
 rally along the borders of streams. Set the trees ten feet 
 
The Fruit Garden. 117 
 
 apart, and give tliem the same cultivation as the apple ind 
 the pear. Little pruning is required, except to improve the 
 form of the head. 
 
 III. STONE FRUITS. 
 
 1. The Peach — Persica Vulgaris. 
 
 The peach derives its name from Persia (It. pei-siaa, Fr. 
 peoher), from vphich country it originated. It is now culti- 
 vated to a greater extent in the United States than in any 
 other country in the world. In its perfection, it does not 
 yield the palm to any other fruit. A Seckel would hardly 
 tempt us to lay aside a Rareripe. 
 
 Set peach-trees about sixteen feet apart each way. Bone- 
 dust and wood-ashes are the special manures most likely to 
 be serviceable to them. 
 
 The peach is somewhat dwarfed and rendered hardier in a 
 northern climate by grafting on a plum stock. It requires 
 but little pruning, except " shortening-in," which should be 
 done early in the spring every year so long as the tree lives. 
 Cut off half the last year's growth over the whole outside of 
 the tree. This method will increase the size and value of the 
 fruit, and cause the tree to live and continue in bearing seve- 
 ral years longer than under the old system. 
 
 Every one who cultivates peaches should preserve a quan- 
 tity for winter use, either in air-tight cans or by drying. 
 
 3. The Nbctakine — Persica Vulgaris LcBvis. 
 
 The nectarine is only a distinct accidental variety of the 
 peach with a smooth skin. The well-known Boston Nectar- 
 ine originated from a peach-stone. Soil, manure, and culture 
 are the same as for the peach. It is a beautiful fruit, but, on 
 account of its liability to be destroyed by the curcutto, is lit- 
 tle cultivated. Good crops are rare. 
 
 3. The Apkicot — Armeniaca Vulgaris. 
 
 The apricot is native of central Asia, and is the most beau- 
 tiful of all the stone fruits. It ripens about midsummer, or 
 
118 The Gaeden. 
 
 immediately after tlie cherries. In this country it may be 
 cultivated in the open air, in almost any locality south of 
 Massachusetts. Like the nectarine, it is very liable to be de- 
 stroyed by the curcuUo. Let the poultry or pigs have access 
 to the trees when the fruit begins to drop. 
 
 The apricot is generally budded on the plum stock. It 
 should be placed on a north, east, or west aspect, and be pro- 
 tected by a wall or fence. It requires no pruning. 
 
 4. The Plum — Prunns Bomestica. 
 
 Several varieties of the plum are found growing wild in 
 this country, but the original parent of most of our culti- 
 vated sorts is supposed to have been brought from Asia. 
 The varieties are numerous. The Green Gage, an old Eng- 
 lish plum, still keeps its place, in popular estimation, at the 
 head of the list. 
 
 The best soil for the plum is a strong loam on a dry sub- 
 soil, but it wiU grow in any tolerably fertile soil An annual 
 top-dressing of common salt will be found very useful, not 
 only promoting the growth of the tree, but driving away most 
 of the insects to which it is liable. The tree should be set 
 about sixteen feet apart each way. The great enemy of the 
 plum is the curculio, against which you must wage a war of 
 extermination. 
 
 The plum is generally propagated by budding, but may be 
 grafted with success, if the operation be skiUfuUy and care- 
 folly performed. Little pruning is necessary, except when the 
 tree is young, to improve the form of the head. 
 
 5. The Chbbbt— (7erams Syhestris et 0. Vulgaris. 
 
 The cherry was brought originally from Asia by the Roman 
 general LucuUus, and has been in cultivation in Europe for 
 more than eighteen hundred years. It was introduced into 
 America on the first settlement of the country. 
 
 All sorts of cherries are generally worked on Black Maiz- 
 zard stocks. They maybe cither budded or grafted. Set the 
 
The Feuit Garden. 119 
 
 trees from sixt.eeu to twenty feet apart, and cultivate the same 
 as the plum. 
 
 6. The Olite — Olea Euroj)ia. 
 The olive should be more widely cultivated in the Southern 
 States. The seaboard States of the 
 South are well adapted to its cul- 
 ture. It will thrive farther north 
 than the orange. It is a low ever- 
 green tree, and commences bearing 
 in tive or six years after being 
 planted. The oil is made by crush- 
 ing the fruit to a paste, and pressing 
 it through a coarse, hempen bag, 
 into hot water, from the surface of 
 which the oil is skimmed off. The ""''^ ™^°= '"'"' ™'^- 
 common European olive is the best variety for general culti- 
 vation. It is propagated by means of little knots or tumors, 
 which form on the bark of the trunk, and are easily cut out 
 with a penknife. These are planted in the soil like bulbs. 
 It may also be propagated by cuttings or seeds. 
 
 IT. THE OEANGB FAMILY. 
 
 1. The Obange — Citrus Aurantum. 
 
 This delicious tropical fruit is successfully cultivated in Flor- 
 ida, and to some extent in Louisiana, Texas, Georgia, South 
 Carolina, and other Southern States. With only slight pro- 
 tection, it will succeed so far north as Baltimore. Of the 
 sweet orange, which alone is worthy of garden cultivation, 
 the best varieties are the Havana or Common Sweet, the Mal- 
 tese, the Blood Ked, the Mandarin, and the St. Michael. 
 
 The orange requires a deep, rich loam. To procure stocks 
 for budding with the sweet varieties, sow early in the spring 
 the seeds of the wild, bitter orange of Florida. They may 
 be budded the same or the next season. 
 
 The great foe of the orange-tree is the scale insect (Coccus 
 
120 The Gaeden. 
 
 Hesperidum), but the common chamomile is found to be. a 
 specific against it. This herb, in bunches, hung on the 
 branches of the trees, drives it away, and by cultivating the 
 plant about the roots of the tree, it is protected against its 
 attacks. 
 
 2. The Lemon — Citrus Limonum. 
 
 The lemon is cultivated like the orange. Besides the com- 
 mon lemon, there is an Italian variety called the Sweet Lemon. 
 The lime, the citron, and the shaddock belong to the same 
 family, and are subject to the same culture. 
 
 V. 3EEEIED FBTJITS. 
 
 1. The Gkape — Vitis of species. 
 
 The grape should undoubtedly head the list of berried 
 fruits. It has been cultivated from the earliest ages, and in 
 almost every country in the temperate zones. The varieties 
 cultivated in Em-ope are all of one species ( Vitis virdfera), and 
 originated in Asia. Our native grapes are of different species. 
 
 The foreign grapes do not succeed in this country in open- 
 air culture. The Black Burgundy and the Sherry may per- 
 haps be considered as partial exceptions at the South. Under 
 glass they may be successfully cultivated in all parts of the ■ 
 United States ; but as our plan does not embrace hot-house 
 cultivation, we must refer the reader to Chorlton'a " Grape- 
 Grower's Guide," and other works devoted specially to grape- 
 culture. 
 
 " Grapes and Wine," a standard work on the cultivation 
 of the native Grape and manufacture of American Wine, by 
 Geo. Husmann, of Missouri, is one of the best authorities on 
 the subject, and we recommend it to all who vrish full and 
 practical information on Grape-culture and Wine-making. 
 Published by Geo. E. Woodward, N. Y., and sent, post-paid, 
 for $1 50. 
 
 The grape wiU succeed in most soils, if properly prepared, 
 but dry, rich loam is preferable. It must be deeply worked, 
 
T H Ji F E U I T G A K D E N . 
 
 12] 
 
 and, if at all wet, thoroughly underdrained. Lime, ashes, 
 plaster of Paris, and bone-dust may be added to the ccmmon 
 compost, or used as a top-dressing with great advantage. 
 Choose a warm, sunny exposure for your grapery. In the 
 shade the fruit is liable to mildew. 
 
 All the varieties of the native grape are very readily propa- 
 gated by means of layering, and most of them will grow from 
 cuttings. Cuttings — unless struck where they are to remain, 
 which is the better plan— should be left where they are started 
 for two years before planting out. Layers may be planted out 
 the first year. Set the plants from twelve to twenty feet apart, 
 according to the height of the trelhs and the mode of train- 
 ing to be adopted. When planted, cut them down to about 
 two eyes from the ground, and allow only one of these to 
 grow the following season. 
 
 In garden culture, grape-vines are trained in various ways, 
 as fancy or convenience may dictate. Downing directs as 
 follows : 
 
 " The two buds left on the set are allowed to form two up- 
 right shoots the next summer, which at the end of the season 
 are brought down to a horizontal 
 position, and fastened each way to 
 the lower horizontal rail of the 
 trellis, being shortened to three or 
 four feet, or such a distance each 
 way as it is wished to have the 
 plant extend. The next year up- 
 right shoots are allowed to grow 
 one foot apart ; and these are 
 The third year, the trellis 
 
 .31: 
 
 TBALNlNa. 
 
 stopped at the top of the trellis, 
 being filled with vines, a set of lateral shoots wiU be produced 
 from the upright leaders, with from one to three bunches on 
 each. The vine is now perfect, and' it is only necessary at the 
 autumnal or winter pruning to cut back the lateral shoots or 
 fruit-spurs to within an inch of the uprights, and new laterals 
 producing fruit will annually supply their places. If it should 
 6 
 
122 The Garden. 
 
 be found, after seyeral years bearing, that the grapes fail in 
 size or flayor, the vines should be cut down to the main hori- 
 zontal shoots at the bottom of the trellis. New uprights will 
 be produced, which treat as before." 
 
 This is the way to haye good crops of perfect grapes. If 
 you desire wood and leayes instead, less pruning will do. The 
 annual pruning should be performed either in November, in 
 Tebruary, or early in March — at least a month before vegeta- 
 tion commences. All the other pruning required may be 
 performed with the fingers or a pair of scissors. Only two 
 bunches should be allowed to grow on one shoot ; and the end 
 of the shoot should be pinched off, four or five joints beyond 
 the last of these, when the grapes are about half grown. All 
 suckers and supernumerary shoots should be rubbed off so 
 soon as they appear. Beyond this, no leaves must be re- 
 moved, as they are absolutely essential to the full develop- 
 ment and ripening of the fruit. Every third year, at least, 
 the borders where the grapevines are growing should have a 
 heavy top-dressing of manure. 
 
 Grapes may be preserved for a considerable time by taking 
 the ripe bunches when free from external moisture, and pack- 
 ing them in jars, filling all the interstices with baked saw- 
 dust or bran. 
 
 3. The Cueeant — Riles Rubrum. 
 
 The currant is more easily cultivated than any other fruit. 
 The best mode of propagating it is by planting out cuttings 
 in the fall, or quite early in the spring. It is well to procure 
 the cuttings in the fall, and keep them like scions until spring. 
 By taking out all the eyes of a cutting except the three or 
 four upper ones, currants can easily be kept in the form of 
 little trees. 
 
 3. The Gooseberey — Ribes Orossulwria. 
 The gooseberry requires a deep, strong, rich soil. It is very 
 
The Fkuit Garden. 123 
 
 liable to suffer from drouth, and in dry seasons should be 
 mulched. It is rather shy of bear- 
 ing in this country, and does not 
 succeed in all localities, even at 
 the North. At the South it is 
 nearly useless, in ordinary locali- 
 ties, to attempt its culture. 
 
 The tree form is best for the 
 gooseberry; and one half of the 
 top should be thinned out at the 
 winter pruning, so as to admit 
 HonQHTOu-B sKEDLnra. jjgjj^ ^^g^ gjj. through the head of 
 
 the plant. When the berries are fairly set, thin them out, tak- 
 ing away one half or more of them for the benefit of the rest. 
 The best preventive and 'remedy for mildew is to keep the 
 plants well manured and pruned every year. 
 
 4. The Kaspberet — Eubus Idmus. 
 
 A deep, rich loam, rather moist than dry, suits the rasp- 
 berry best. It is propagated by suckers or oiFsets. Plant in 
 a sunny quarter of the garden, in rows from three to four feet 
 apart each way. Three or four suckers may be planted to- 
 gether to form a group. This should be done in the autumn 
 or very early in the spring. 
 
 All dead wood and the smaller stems should be cut away in 
 the spring, even with the ground. Four or five shoots should 
 be left, and tied to a stake, the tops having about one foot of 
 their upper extremities headed oflF. A slight top-dressing of 
 manure, with a sprinkling of salt, dug in every spring, is all 
 the further cultivation required. 
 
 The raspberry plant is in perfection when it is three years 
 old. When it is about six years old, it should be dug up, and 
 a new plantation made, on a piece of ground where the plant 
 has not recently grown before. It is an excellent mode to 
 make a small plantation every year, so as to continue a supply 
 of the fruit. In extreme cold latitudes, it is necessary to bend 
 
124 The Garden. 
 
 the plants down, and cover them with earth or straw through 
 the winter. 
 
 To have a fine crop of late raspbemes, cut down some of 
 the canes or stems, in the spring, to within a few inches of 
 the ground. The new shoots which will spring up will come 
 into bearing in August or September. 
 
 5. Blackberby — Bubus of species. 
 
 The low blackberry or dewberry (rubus Canadensis) has 
 never, we believe, been cultivated, but the fruit, when well 
 exposed to the sun and fully ripened, is sweet, high flavored, 
 and not to be despised. It is also doubtless susceptible of 
 improvement. Of the high blackberry {rubus mllosus), the 
 following improved varieties are highly esteemed, and the 
 first two much cultivated. 
 
 The blackberry requires similar culture to the raspberry. 
 6. The Strawberry — Fragaria of species. 
 
 This is the queen of all berries — delicious, wholesome, and 
 universally esteemed. It is a native of the temperate latitudes 
 of Asia, Europe, and America. The best varieties now culti- 
 vated in this country have originated from native species — 
 the Scarlets and the Pines. 
 
 In its wild or natural state, the strawberry generally pro- 
 duces hermaphrodite or perfect blossoms. Cultivated varieties 
 have not all retained this property. They are properly di- 
 vided, with reference to their blossoms, into three classes — 
 hermaphrodite, staminate, and pistillate. Varieties of the first 
 class are, like the wild plants, perfect in themselves, and bear 
 excellent crops. In the second class, the staminate or male 
 
 Hcnnaphrodite. Staminate. Pistillate. 
 
 BTBAWBEEBT BLOSSOMS. 
 
The Feuit Garden. 125 
 
 organs are perfect, but the female or pistillate organs are more 
 or less imperfect. Tliey bear uncertain and comparatively 
 small crops, because only a part of the blossoms develop the 
 pistils sufficiently to swell into perfect fruit. Plants of the 
 third class bear only pistillate or female blossoms, and are by 
 themselves entirely barren ; but when grown near a proper 
 number of the staminate plants, they bear the largest crops 
 and the most perfect berries. In planting a strawberry bed, 
 therefore, it is important to know which are staminate, which 
 pistillate, and which hermaphrodite varieties, and to arrange 
 them accordingly. 
 
 Form your strawberry bed in an open exposure, free from 
 the shade of trees or buildings. For an early crop, a slight 
 inclination to the south or east is desirable. The ground 
 must be deeply spaded, and a plenty of decomposed leaves 
 and other vegetable manure and ashes well turned under and 
 mixed with the soil. Pulverize the soil thoroughly. Now 
 mark off your bed into rows two feet apart, and set the plants, 
 if of the large growing sorts, two feet apart. For some of 
 the smaller sorts one foot or eighteen inches will do. " Care 
 should be taken that the plants are put into the ground just 
 as they came out of it — that is, with all their laterals spread- 
 ing, and not all gathered together and crammed into a little 
 hole.'' If your principal sort is a pistillate, you must plant a 
 sufficient number of staminate plants to impregnate the others. 
 Of less vigorous kinds, more are required. It is well to plant 
 them in alternate strips, thus : 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 PATH 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 S 8 
 
 8 8 
 
 PATH 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
126 The Gakden. 
 
 The staminate strip may, of course, consist of several rows 
 if desirable. 
 
 In planting the hermaphrodite or perfect flowered varieties, 
 as the Woods, Alpines, and Hautbois, of course no such 
 arrangement is required. Planting may be done with success 
 either in autumn or spring. Keep the ground well worked 
 between the rows, to keep it free from weeds, and, unless you 
 want new plants for a future setting, cut off all the runners so 
 soon as they appear. A light mulching with partially decayed 
 leaves or straw, covering the whole ground, but not the plants, 
 will prove highly beneficial, especially in dry seasons and at 
 the South. Before the fruit begins to ripen, cover the ground 
 with a thin layer of straw, hay, or new-mown grass, to keep 
 the fruit clean. Every autumn, if the plants be not suflBciently 
 luxuriant, a light top-dressing of manure should be applied. 
 
 A strawberry bed must always be renewed after the fourth 
 year. An easy mode of renewing a strawberry is what is 
 called cultivation in alternate strips. On the third summer 
 from planting, suffer the r nnn p.ra to grow and root into the 
 spaces between the rows ; then, in the faU or spring, dig up 
 the old plants, and your new rows are already formed in what 
 were last year the spaces between the rows. At the end of 
 three years repeat the process, and so on, not forgetting to 
 spade in a generous quantity of vegetable manure whenever 
 you dig up the old rows. 
 
 " To accelerate the ripening of strawberries," Downing 
 says, " it is only necessary to plant the rows or beds on the 
 south side of a wall or tight fence. A still simpler mode is to 
 throw up a ridge of earth three feet high, running east and 
 west, and to plant it in rofirs on the south side." Ten days 
 or more may be gained in this way; and if later fruit be de- 
 sired, rows planted on the north side would probably have 
 their fruiting retarded nearly as much. 
 
 Mr. Peabody, of Georgia, one of the most successful straw- 
 berry culturists in the world, insists with great emphasis that 
 no animal manure should be used in the cultivation of this 
 
The Feuit Garden. 127 
 
 plant. The grand secret of success, he says, is to fetd the 
 plant for fi'uit, and not for vine — to stint the natural luxu- 
 riance of the latter, and turn all the vital forces of the plant 
 to the production of berries. In this way, and by keeping 
 the ground shaded by mulch, and continually watering his 
 plants, he has fine strawberries for nine months out of the 
 twelve. " Let the cultivator remember," he says, " the four 
 great requisites for a profitable strawberry bed : Proper loca- 
 tion, vegetable manures, shade to the ground, and water, 
 WATBE, WATBB." The shade to the ground is secured by the 
 mulching we have recommended. The watering is less essen- 
 tial at the North than at the South, but is often very advan- 
 tageous. Let no reader of this little work neglect to plant a 
 strawberry bed, and enjoy vrith thankfulness its delicious 
 fruits. 
 
 VI. MISCELLANEOUS PEUITS. 
 
 1. The Fig — Mcus Garica. 
 
 This delicious southern fruit is a native of Asia and Africa, 
 and has been cultivated from the earliest times. In our South- 
 ern States it grows almost spontaneously everywhere. In the 
 Middle States it may be cultivated in the open air, by keeping 
 it low, and covering it well during the wdnter. 
 
 The fig is propagated by cuttings either of the shoots or the 
 root, and planted either in the fall or the spring. Planted in 
 hot-beds in January, they will form handsome plants the same 
 season. Layers also may be made, and suckers taken off for 
 planting. Set them out fifteen feet apart, and the first winter 
 after planting they may be cut off nearly to the ground. The 
 next year they will make vigorous shoots, one or more of which 
 may be allowed to grow, and the rest rubbed off. When 
 young, it is best even at the South to protect the tree during 
 the winter by covering it with evergreen branches. Little 
 pruning is required. North of Philadelphia the branches 
 must be bent down to the ground on the approach of winter, 
 and covered with three or four inches of soil. No one who 
 
128 The Gaedek. 
 
 lives in a climate adapted to tlieir growth, should fail to cul- 
 tivate a few fig-trees. 
 
 3. The Pombgkanatb — Punica Oranatum. 
 This unique and beautiful fruit should receive more atten- 
 tion than has hitherto been given to it in all Southern gar- 
 dens. It will grow readily so far north 
 as Maryland, but does not always ma- 
 ture its fruit perfectly north of South 
 Carolina. The tree is quite ornamental, 
 and the fruit has a very refreshing 
 acid pulp. Its singular and beautiful 
 appearance renders it a welcome addi- 
 tion to the dessert. It is also used 
 medicinally in fevers, on account of 
 its cooling nature. It might be ex- 
 ported from the South to any extent. 
 BEAHOH . j.^ .^ propagated by cuttings, layers, or 
 
 suckers, and is very easily cultivated. The finest varieties 
 are the Sweet Fruited, the Sub-acid Fruited, and the Wild 
 Acid Fruited. Besides these, there are several double-flow- 
 ering varieties, which are very beautiful. 
 
 3. Thk Mulbeert — Morua of species. 
 
 The mulberry deserves mention here, and a place in the 
 garden or lawn. It is a hardy and handsome tree, and pro- 
 duces a palatable and wholesome fruit. 
 
 The Eed Mulberry (morua rubra) is a native species, but is 
 less desirable for the garden than the Black Mulberry (mortis 
 nigra), a species much esteemed and widely cultivated in Eu- 
 rope. This sort will hardly succeed, except in very warm and 
 sheltered situations, north of New York. It is propagated 
 by cuttings, and easily cultivated. 
 
The Gaeden. 
 
 129 
 
 A CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS 
 
 ra KACH MONTH OF THE TEAK, POK THE ORCHARD, VIIfBYARD, 
 t FARM, GREENHOUSE AND GAEDEN. 
 
 '"^.■'*? 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 Destroying eggs of insects, protection of trees against the depredations of mice 
 and rabhita, wnicli in some sections do much damage by girdling tlie trees, is 
 about all that can be done at this season. A wash of cow-dung, lime, and sul- 
 phur is recommended as a preventive against the rabbit. Mice work only 
 under the snow, and if this is trodden down occasionally, immediately around the 
 tree, there is little danger from their attacks. 
 
 Vineyard. 
 
 In the northern sections of the country, vines, if not already protected, should 
 he laid down on the ground and some litter thrown over them ; or if the ground 
 is not frozen, cover with three inches of earth. In the latter case, the vines 
 should bo raised early in the spring, or the buds will be apt to rot. If vines are 
 not already pruned, do so, selecting a mild day when the temperature is above 
 the freezing-point. 
 
 Farm, 
 
 The ground being now frozen, out-door operations are in the main suspended : 
 still, the industrious farmer will find plenty of occupation in planning for next 
 season's operations. His cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, cows, and especially the 
 young stock, will require his attention, that they may be in good condition in the 
 spring. 
 
 Fences may be repaired, firewood cut, ice-houses filled, manure throwiLJBto 
 heaps and prepared for sprmg use, and tools of all kinds repaired. 
 
130 
 
 The Garden. 
 
 Garden. 
 
 There is but little that can be done at this season. If not done already, and the 
 ground is not covered with snow, clear up all rubbish, put away poles, stakeSj 
 etc., under cover, and prepare new ones, if required, for next season's use. If 
 there are any cold frames in use, they should be aired when the weather will 
 permit. See that a good stock of seeds is provided for spring use. 
 
 Greeth-house . 
 
 Admit air at every favorable opportunity wheu the thermometer out of doors 
 is above the freezing point ; 46° to 50° is hiffh enough as a night temperature for 
 general green-house plants. Camellias ana Azaleas do better at 40°. Look out 
 for insects, and fumi^te with tobacco as soon as seen. Be careful that the smoke 
 is not too strong. Camelhas will soon be in bloom; also some of the early- 
 blooming Azaleas. Avoid wetting the flowers when syringing the plants. Water 
 plants only when needed; perform the operation in the morning, using water five 
 to ten degrees higher than the temperature of the house. A few Achimeues and 
 Gloxinias may be potted and plunged in bottom heat, for early bloom. Keep 
 plants of Calla Ethiopica well watered. Cyclamen persicum will now be in bloom, 
 and make a fine show if the bulbs are large. Scarlet Geraniums will require but 
 little water at this season. Cinerarias should be kept near the glass, and repot- 
 ted if needed. Keep all plants neat and clean, and tie into neat shape when re- 
 quired. 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 Orchard. 
 
 But little can be added to the directions given last month, Cions may be cut 
 when the wood is not frozen, and may be preserved in damp sand or moss in a 
 cool cellar. Keep a look-out for mice and rabbits. It is the general practice with 
 farmers, and some professed fruit-growers, to prune apples, pears, cherry, and 
 other trees in mid-winter. We do not regard the season as the correct or best 
 one for the labor, and why? because if the operation is correctly performed, that 
 is, the cut made close to the bud or body, it is liable to dry hard, crack, and cause 
 death of the bud in the one case, or d^ay of the trunk or large limb in the 
 other. It is better to delay pruning until June. 
 
 Vinei/ard. 
 
 There is nothing to be done here to which the directions of last month will 
 not apply. If any vines awe not pruned, do it when the wood is not frozen. 
 
 Garden. 
 
 Sketoh out plaus for flower^becls, and arrange the position of plants therein, 
 &g \^X tlioro may bg rq deluy when the time arrives for commencing work^ 
 
The Gakden. 
 
 131 
 
 Mateil^ slioiiM be got ready for starting hot-beds. About tlie last of the 
 month Will be soon enough to make the bed, butiu the mean time secure a supply 
 of materials. Fresh horse manure, to which should be added an equal hulk of 
 leaves, may be thrown together in heaps, and turned over every three or four days 
 until it 1,5, thoroughly heated. Manure alone gives the greatest hcut, hut a mix- 
 ture of leaves and manure the most permanent. Earth should be provided for 
 the bed at the lirst opportunity, and covered over to prevent frcejiing up again 
 until wanted. Look over the shrubbery, hardy roses, etc., and if they need prun- 
 ing, it may be done now. Thin out the old wood of the currant and gooseberry 
 bushes, and thus improve the size and quality of the fruit nest season. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Our directions for last month will apply to this. The principal business will 
 be the care of the animals, and looking after a supply of wood for next season, 
 as well as getting out i)0Bt8 and rails for new fences, and for the repairs of old 
 ones. While the snow is on the ground, hauling from the wood-lot can be done 
 to great advantage. 
 
 Green-house* 
 
 The house should now be gay with flowers. Camellias will be in full bloom, 
 and in warm houses Azaleas also. Both should be carefully attended, that they 
 do not lack for water. One of the best plants for winter bloom is the Monthly 
 Carnation, and if a good supply of plants has been secured, there will now be 
 
 Elenty of blooms. Look carefully to the fires, that frost may not get into the 
 ouse on cold nights. Endeavor to keep the night temperature as regular as 
 possible, and air the house in the daytime at every favorable opportunity. Prop- 
 agate cuttings of Verbenas, Petunias, Carnations, and such other plants as are 
 wanted for bedding out in the garden, or for the green-house next winter. Cut- 
 tings put in now will make fine strong plants by the time for planting out. Ci- 
 nerarias and Primroses in bloom may be watered occasionally with manure water. 
 The Double-White Chinese Primrose is a splendid object when well grown. It 
 must be propagated by cuttings. If plants of Deutzia Gracilis, Weigelia Rosea, or 
 Doublc-Plowering Plum were potted in the fall, they may now be started in the 
 warmest corner of the house. Insects will now begin to be busy. Give them 
 occasional doses of tobacco smoke. 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 If new orchards are to tie planted the coming spring, make out lists of trees 
 wanted, and send to a reliable nurseryman at once. You will be able to secure 
 better trees now, than if the order is sent just at the planting season. Continue 
 searching for eggs of insects under the rough hart, and on limbs of trees. It will 
 be advantageous to apply a wash of strong soft soap and water to the body and 
 larger branches, to destroy any eggs that may otherwise escape. Look out for 
 the apple-borer now. Eemove the earth for a few inches in depth immediately 
 around the tree. Scrape the bark gently with the back of the pruning-knife, to 
 ascertain where the borer is located, then cut him out. We have found in our 
 practice that a mallet and a half-inch carpenter's gouge are the best instrument^. 
 
132 
 
 The Gaeden, 
 
 Don't be satiBfied witli poking a wire into the holes. We know to our cost that 
 it is not always effectual. 
 
 I'inet/ard. 
 As soon as the fros^t is out of the gronnd, \incover all vines that have been pro- 
 tected by earth or litter. If left covered after the ground be^ns to get warm, 
 the buds are liable to decay. Tie the vines up to the trellis, and if new vines are 
 to be planted, secure them at once. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Improve .all the favorable weather this month to haul manure into the fields, 
 ready to be plowed m at the proper time. Manure should be thrown into 
 compact tieaps. and spread when the frost is not in the ground. Select the best 
 grain for seed, and see that it is free from seeds of weeds. Considerable work 
 may be done rhe latter part of this month in i)icking up and hauling off stone 
 from fields that require it. Fences may be put in repair, and new ones made. 
 
 Gai'tleii. 
 
 Make hot beds for starting seeds of early vegetables, and sow seeds of Pepper. 
 Egg-plant, Tomato, Early Cabbage, Caulifiower, Celery, etc. Hardy vegetable 
 Beeds may be sown in the open {ground the last of the month— Onions, Beets, 
 Peas, Parsnep. Lettuce, Radish, Spmach, etc. Remove covering from Asparagus, 
 Spinach, Raspberry-canes, etc. Prepare all vacant ground for general planting in 
 April and May. Seeds of hardy flowers may be sown as soon as the ground will 
 admit. Tender annuals should be Bown in the hot-bed, and transplanted into 
 open ground in May. 
 
 G reen-Jiotise. 
 
 Camellias will be now making their growth, and will need more water than at 
 other times, also an increase of temperature. About the commencement of 
 
 frowth is a good time to graft or inarch mth better varieties. Azaleas will be in 
 loom unless ihey have been kept very cool: but in a large collection, flowers 
 may be had from December to May, some varieties flowering early, others late. 
 
 Cinerarias will now be in bloom ; fumigate them if attacked with green-fly. 
 
 Start Gloxinias and Achimenes for succession. 
 
 Flower seeds may be started in pots and boxes. 
 
 Propa,^ate Chrysanthemums. Cuttings make better plants than those procured 
 by division of the old roots. Fuchsias struck now will make fine blooming 
 plants for next summer. 
 
 Push the propagating of plants to the utmost now, to have an abundance at 
 time for planting out of doors. Also put in cuttings for next winter's stock. The 
 season is so far advanced that the sun will furnish all the heat by day, and mod- 
 erate fires only will be required at night. Give air freely in all moderate weather, 
 and close the house early, to retain as much sun-heat as possible. 
 
 " This is the month when the most of the planting is done, though we prefer 
 doing this in the fall, in this latitude. Prepare your ground thoroughly over the 
 ■whole orchard, if a new one is to be planted, by plowing, subsoiling, and en- 
 riching. If new trees are to be planted in places where old ones have died, dig 
 the holeanot less than six feet in diameter, and fill up with fresh soil if possible. 
 
The Gaeden. 
 
 133 
 
 Grafting may now be done. Cions should have been cut during the "winter ; 
 but if thib has been neglected, they should be cut a few days before wantt3d for 
 use. Don't be in a hurry to graft too early, but wait until the buds begin to start. 
 If your trees are not growing thriftily, give your orchard a good top-dressing of 
 old manure, and plow it in. 
 
 Vhieyard, 
 
 Unless the soil is naturally drained, it is absolutely necessary to success that 
 it should be thoroughly drained. Fifteen to eighteen inches is deep enough 
 to work the soil for a vineyard. Plant only well-tested varieties found to suc- 
 ceed in your locality. Test new varieties, if you have the time and space for 
 experiments. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Plow as soon as the ground is in a lit state, which it will be when it will 
 crumble and fall to pieces. In some soils plowing, done when the ground is 
 wet, leaves it to bake hard on becoming dry. Spread the manure hauled 
 out last month, and plow it under. Spring grain of all kinds will need to 
 be sown as soon as the ground is prepared properly. If root crops are culti- 
 vated, carrots, parsneps, and beets should be sown at once. A seed drill 
 will be found very useful at this time. Plant potatoes on rich ground, or made 
 BO at the time of planting. Do not plant the small potatoes ; better cut up the 
 large ones m pieces, if seed is scarce. 
 
 Garden, 
 
 Uncover the strawberry beds, or rather expose the crowns of the plants. The 
 mulch will be better left to keep the ground moist. Make new beds if needed, 
 Beds made now, and properly cared tor, will give a full crop next spring- Pork 
 up the asparagus beds lightly, takin" care not to injure the buds or roots. Make 
 new beds now, preparing the ground to the depth of eighteen inches and incor 
 porating with it a considerable amount of old manure. Salt is considered an ex- 
 cellent fertilizer for this vegetable — it may be applied in spring or fall. 
 
 Early Cabbr'-^e plants may be planted out the latter end of this raoutli. Plaota 
 in hot-beds should be thinned out, or better transplanted three to four inches 
 apart into a cooler bed. Plant Peas for a succession. Early Potatoes should now 
 be put in drills. It is rather too soon to plant beans or corn this month. 
 
 Plant out flowering shrubs, roses, etc. Seeds of hardy plants may be sown, 
 but all seeds of tender plants should be kept until next month, or sown in a 
 hot-bed. Hyacinths and tulips should have their winter covering removed, and 
 the surface of the soil stirred. Transplant herbaceous plants. 
 
 Green-hotisff , 
 
 There will be httle or no flre heat required this month if care is taken to 
 shut up the house before the sun leaves it. Give all the air possible during 
 favorable weather, to harden the plants for removal out of doors next month. 
 Prepare tor a general potting by getting soil, pots, etc., in order, but do not let a 
 plant wait for a Uttk when it wants attention. Water for all plants will now be 
 required oftener. Plants that are to be left in the house during the summer will 
 require some shading material to be put upon the glass. Lath-screens made with 
 openniKs about an inch and a half between, and placed outside of the glass, expe- 
 rience has shown to be an eflectual and cheap mode of shading. Propattate by 
 fi:eds, roots, and cuttings, inarching and grafting; young plants thus get strong 
 before winter. Ecmove seedlings as soon as possible from seed pans, and put 
 them sinifle into pots. Keep Camellias rather close and warm to promote a vigor- 
 ous growth. 
 
134 The Gaeden. 
 
 
 MAY. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 The fleason for planting is pretty well over by this time, but if any remains t» 
 be done, do it as soon as it is possible to do it well. If trees are received in a 
 dry state, bury them root and branch for a few days, then prune severely when 
 planted out. Grafting, if not already finished, may be continued. 
 
 If plowing is to be done in the orchard, see that a careful man holds the 
 plow, that as few roots may be injured as possible. Make war on insects this 
 month. Remove nests of tent-caterpillar on their first appearance, and get your 
 neighbor to join you in your efforts for their destruction. 
 
 VineT/ard, 
 
 If vines are not already planted, it may yet be done. Vines, if not tied to the 
 trellis, should be so at once. After the buds start, they are very liable to be rub- 
 bed off in handling. The time to tie up vines is while the buds are dormant. 
 Layers may now be made if it is thought desirable to increase vines in this way ; 
 preference will generally be given to vines raised from cuttings planted out in. 
 well-prepared ground. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 This will be a busy month. Most of the spring grains will have been sown in 
 April, but tiie latter part of this month is the time for corn-planting. It is useless 
 to put the seed in until the ground js warm, and equally useless to plant upon any 
 but a rich soil. Some of the larger-growing beets should be sown for feeding the 
 cows and other stock during the fall and winter. The white sugar beet and yellow 
 globe mangel-wurzel are the best for this purpose. Potatoes for the general 
 crop should be put in as early as possible. Let the pastures get a good start be- 
 fore the cattle are turned out. Put in a good supply of corn fodder now, to use in 
 the hot months, when pastures fail. 
 
 Garden. 
 
 Plant early Valentine and China beans for using green, and Limas for shelling. 
 
 Plant sweet corn about first of month, and again in about two weeks, for a succes- 
 sion. The first planting may be cut ofi' by frost, but is often successful. Trans- 
 plant tomatoes and other plants from hot-beds and frames as soon as danger 
 from frost is past. Cabbage and cauliflower plants should have a very rich soil. 
 Plant cucumbers, melons, and bush squashes in hills at least sis feet apart, and 
 manure well. Sow late sorts of peas. In the flower-garden, by the middle of 
 the month, seeds of most flowers may be planted : those kinds that bear trans- 
 planting may be sown in a reserve bed, from which they may be taken when 
 wanted. 
 
 Plant bulbs of Gladiolus, Tigrida, Tuberose, etc., and prepare beda for the 
 bedding-plants from the green-house. 
 
The Gaeden. 
 
 135 
 
 Green-house. 
 
 Admit air freely in good weather ; toward tlie end of the month leave a little 
 air on all night, increasing the quantity by degrees. .^-^ ^ j,. 
 
 Shifting plants into larger pots must he carefuUv proceeded with, faeedlings 
 and cuttings must be potted off in time, or they will destroy each other. 
 
 Bedding-plants of all kinds may be planted out about the middle of the month. 
 Carnations should be planted out, and if required for winter blooming, the 
 flower shoots pinched off frequently. Neapolitan Violets should be divided, and 
 planted out in rich ground, partially shaded. Water and syringe Camellias and 
 Azaleas freely while making their growth. 
 
 About the middle of the month some of the most hardy of the plants may be 
 brought from the green-house, and placed in a position where they will be shaded 
 for a portion of the day ; they shonid he carefully attended to for water. 
 
 JUNE. 
 
 Orchard. 
 
 If large limbs are to be removed, this month is the time to do it. The sap is 
 now in active operation, and wounds quickly heal over. Consider well before 
 you remove a branch what is to he eained by it. Never send an ignorant laborer 
 into an orchard to prune if you womd not have an indiscriminate cutting of limbs, 
 but study the form of the tree carefully, and if the branches need thinning, use a 
 sharp saw and knife, and leave the wound smooth. Cover the wounds with graft- 
 ing was, or shellac dissolved in alcohol. Rub off all shoots from the stock S)out 
 new-set grafts, and renew the wax if it has melted or cracked off, Continue the 
 war upon the insect tribe, and especially the caterpillars and borers. 
 
 Vinej/ard. 
 
 Vines will now be making rapid growth, and will require attention in tying 
 up, pinching, etc. It is the usual practice to stop the shoots at three or four 
 joints or leaves beyond the last cluster of fruit, The bunches will require thin- 
 ning out, leaving only one bunch to each shoot, if fine fruit and well-ripened 
 wood is to be obiained. 
 
 Farm, 
 
 Com is planted in some sections as late as the first of this month, and if an 
 early-maturing kind is selected, and the land is in a good condition, fair crops are 
 often the result. It is not too late to put in a good supply of corn fodder to help 
 out the pastures in the dry weather in August. The plow and hoe must be kept 
 busy in the fields of early planted com and other hoed crops, to eradicate the 
 weeds. 
 
 The latter part of this month haying will commence in many sections. Get 
 everything ready beforehand, that there may be no delay when the time comes. 
 
 Garden. 
 
 The principal work in the ^rden this month will be keeping down the weeds. 
 Don't let them get a start. Plant sweet corn for succession, also beans, peas, 
 lettuce. Celery for early use should be set in trenches well manured. Thin out 
 beds of onions, Ibeets, carrots, salsify, etc., and keep them free from weeds. 
 
136 
 
 The Gaeden. 
 
 Green-house. 
 
 Green-house plants should he mostly placed out of doors this month. In plac- 
 ing plants out of doors, try to have them so that thej' will be in shade soon after 
 mid-day. This is especially a point of importance as we go farther south, where 
 the heat of afternoon suns often nearly destroys the plants. 
 
 Camellias should remain in the house until growth ceases and the wood he- 
 comes hrown. Azaleas should be re-potted, if needed, and vigorous shoots pinch- 
 ed to make the plants bushy. Prepare soil for winter use. Neapolitan violets for 
 winter bloom should be divided, and planted out in rich soil. Achimenes, Glox- 
 inias, Caladiums. etc., will now take the place of the plants taken out of duor-s. 
 The house should be well shaded by the lath screens before recommended, and 
 careful attention given to watering. 'Torrenia Asiatica will now be a line object ; 
 it looks best in a vase, or hanging basket, the shoots being allowed to droop 
 over the side. 
 
 «1 * '- V V 
 
 BED ANTWERP. 
 
 
 UOENET. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 Orcfiard* 
 
 Pruning may he continued as directed last month. Look to the grafts set last 
 spring that they be not robbed by the numerous suckers that are sure to push 
 out about the stoclcs in which they are set. If any trees were set last spring and 
 not mulched, do it now, that their roots may be preserved from the influence of 
 the sun this month and next. If it is desirable to have large, fine fruit, the crop 
 should bo severely thinned now. 
 
 YirLeyat'd. 
 
 Continue to tie shoots to trellis as growth progresses. Look over the bunchep, 
 and see that too many are not left on. An over-crop this season will be followed 
 b;^ unripe wood in the fhll, which will be still further weakened by the cold of 
 winter, and a meagre crop the following season will be the certain result. 
 
 If mildew makes its appearance, give the vines a dusting of sulphur. De La 
 Vergnes' Sulphur Bellows is the best means of applying it. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 This month will commence the haying and harvest, and those who would keep 
 up with their work have already secured sutlicient assistance. Keapers, Mowing- 
 machines. Hay Tedders, and Horse Pitchforks save an immense amount of hard 
 labor, and even on farms of moderate size will be found to save more than their 
 cost in two or three seasons. Oit hay before it becomes withered and dry. It is 
 frequently left standing too long. 
 
 Cat wheat before it is fully ripe, and while it is in the doiigh state. 
 
 Sow buckwheat early in the mouth to avoid frosts when ripening. Turnips 
 
The Gaedeji. 
 
 137 
 
 should be sown the latter part of the month. Continne the cultivation of hoed 
 crops, and iceep down all weeds. 
 
 Oarden. 
 
 Transplant cabbage and canliflower plants for a late crop. Continue to trans- 
 plant ceiery into trenches, and see that the soil in which they grow is well en- 
 riched. Corn for using as green com may be planted as late as the 15th, to give 
 a supply until frosts. Hoe melons and cucumbers until the vines cover the 
 ground. If melons are thinned on the vines, those remaining will be aU the 
 tmer. Dig up all the vacant spaces from which early vegetables have been re- 
 moved, and BOW turnips, spinach, and other late crops. 
 
 Green-house. 
 
 The majority of the plants will be out of doors, as before advised, but will re- 
 quire to be looked over every day or two to see that they are not over or under 
 watered. Those who have large collections will find it to their advantage to con- 
 struct a sort of shed, with the sides and roof of lath, placed about an inch and a 
 half apart This will admit sufficient light and air on all sides, as well as the rain. 
 Some of our large florists and nurserymen have used such structures much to their 
 advantage, for tne protection of Camellias, Azaleas, etc., from the sun. It is im- 
 portant now to prepare plants for winter bloom. Chinese Primroses, Cinerarias, 
 Calceolarias may be sown this month, and cuttings of all desirable plants put in. 
 Carnations from cuttings, planted out, may have the tops pinched off to make 
 them branch freely and prevent bloom now. Look over tne plants, and see if any 
 need re-potting. Tuberoses, for late blooming in-doors, may be potted now. 
 Mignonette and Sweet Alyssum seeds may be sown in pots or boxes. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 There will be little remainini; to bo done in the orchard this month if previous 
 hints have been followed. If pruning is not completed, It is not too late to 
 
138 
 
 The Garden. 
 
 finish it now. Early fruit should he gathered and marksted as soon as ripe, 
 and all windfalls or wormy apples gathered and taken to the pig-pens. The 
 fruit intended for market should be carefully picked by hand. Fruit bruised by 
 Bhaking from the tree brings a lower price, and quickly decays. 
 
 Yitiei/fii'd, 
 
 The directions given last month apply so well to this, that we can add but little. 
 Some of the fruit of the early varieties will begin to color the last of the month. 
 Continue to tie shoots to the trellis, and use the sulphur remedy for mildew. 
 
 Farm, 
 
 The harvesting of grass and grain crops will be completed early this month, 
 the time somewhat depending upon the season. See that the grain is properly 
 dried before it is put into barns or stacks. If in stacks, they should be well built, 
 that they may effectually shed the rain. Grass and grain will both keep well in 
 stacks if they are properly put up. 
 
 Fall plowing may commence the last of the month. Where farms are large, 
 plowing should be continued at all favorable times, when other work is not 
 pressing. 
 
 G-arden. 
 
 Continue to eradicate the weeds whenever they make their appearance. Pro- 
 vide a good supply of seeds for next season's use, of those varieties found to be 
 successful and of good quality. Select the earliest ripening and best vegetables 
 of the different varieties for seed, and not, as is too often the case, gather them 
 after the crop is nearly over, and the best have been used. Sow turnips on vacant 
 places. Earth up celery wanted for early use, and set out plants for the latest 
 crops. 
 
 G^een-house, 
 
 Green-house plants in general if healthy, and wood matured, will be now out of 
 doors in a sheltered spot, defending the pots from the sun, which is even of more 
 importance than shadmg the tops. Finish potting all plants in need of the oper- 
 ation as soon as possible, that they may become well established before winter. 
 Almost everything may now be successfully propagated. Gather seeds of desira- 
 ble plants as they ripen. Oxalis and Lachenalias should now be potted. Plants 
 out of doors, as well as in the house, will receive much benefit by a syringing 
 every evening. Sow seeds of annuals required for winter bloom. Secure a good 
 supply of soil, pots, etc., for future use. 
 
 Ifowis a good time to look over houses; make any necessary repairs; paint 
 and put in order for the reception of the plants. 
 
The Gaeden. 
 
 139 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 If trees are to "be planted in the fall, which is the best time in this latitude, pre- 
 
 Eare the ground thoroughly beforehand. Order the trees in season, that they may 
 e on liand when wanted. Select only such varieties as are known to succeed in 
 your localities. Look out for the borers this month, and do not leave any to per- 
 petuate the race another season. Gather varieties of fruit maturing this month 
 as soon as fit to pick. 
 
 Vineyard. 
 
 All the varieties of grapes worth having will mature this month. Let the fruit 
 become fully ripe before picking, which will not be before some days after it is 
 fully colored. If the fruit is intended for wine, the longer it is left on the vine, 
 so that it escapes frosts, the better will be the quality of the wine. If fruit is to he 
 sent to market, pack in boxes about one foot long by six inches wide, and of suf- 
 ficient depth to hold two layers of bunches ; pack the fruit, closo that there be no 
 movement of it in transportation. 
 
 Farm, 
 
 Prepare soil thoroughly for winter wheat, and sow early. Sowing with a drill 
 will be found advantageous on smooth ground. Grass-seed may be sown alona 
 this month on well-enriched soil, or with the winter grain. Early potatoes may 
 be dug and marketed, or put under cover. Cut buckwheat as soon as it ripens. 
 Select the best ears of corn for seed. This is a good time to drain land, dig out 
 muck from the bogs for winter use in the barn-yards, and grub up bushes, briars, 
 etc. 
 
 Garden, 
 
 Keep the -garden clear from rubbish. As soon as one crop is off, even if no 
 other IS to be sown, clear off the dead vines, etc., and carry them to the manure 
 heap ; dig up the ground and keep clear from weeds. Continue to earth up celery, 
 when the soil is not wet. Sow seeds of early cabbages and cauliflower plants for 
 preserving over winter in frames. 
 
 Crreen-liouse* 
 
 Clear out and repair the house, if not already done, preparatory to bringing in 
 the plants the latter part of this, or early next month. Sow seeds of annuals for 
 winter or early spring blooming. Pot bulbs of Hyacinths, Crocus, Narcissus, Lach- 
 enalias, for early bloom. Propagate Geraniums, Fuchsias, Salvias, Petunias, Ver- 
 benas, etc. ; Primroses, Cinerarias and Chyrsanthemums should be repotted, and 
 encouraged to grow. Water sparingly all plants in a state of rest. Take up such 
 plants as were planted out during the summer, pot and put them in a sheltered 
 place out of the sun for a few days. See that you have a good stock of Monthly 
 Carnations, Heliotropes for winter flowering should not be planted out, but be 
 grown in pots all summer, and the pots plunged. Clean, tie, and arrange plants 
 of all kinds. Where there is not plenty of room, cuttings put in early will an- 
 swer better than old plants taken up, aud will also save much labor. Take up 
 plants of Neapolitan Violets, plant them in frames to be covered with sash ana 
 mats on cold nights With careful management flowers may be had all winter. 
 They may he also potted for the green-house, but will be required to bj kept 
 very cool to insure bloom. 
 
140 This Gaeden. 
 
 
 OCTOBER. 
 
 Pears and apples, usually termed fall varieties, should be gathered a week or 
 ten days before they would naturally drop. Pick tbem by hand ; lay them in bar- 
 rels or boxes, inclosing them tight, and place them in a cool but dry room or cel- 
 lar. So cared for they will often keep till near or quite mid-winter. Winter va- 
 rieties, especially long-keeping sorts, should be left on the tree as long as the 
 weather will permit. Planting may be done the latter part of this month, ou 
 ground previously prepared. 
 
 Orchards that have been many years in grass, as well as the trees in young or- 
 chards, will receive far greater benefit from plowing the ground, and leaving it in 
 a rough state for action of the winter frosts, than if the work is left until 
 spring. 
 
 Farm. 
 
 Fall plowing should not be neglected this month. Keep the teams going in all 
 favorable weather. Dig potatoes and get in all the root crops before the ground 
 freezes. Turnips can be left out until the last. See that all roots are put away 
 dry. Root crops generally keep better in pits out of doors than when stored in 
 cellars. Those wanted for spring use may be placed in pits and lightly covered 
 with earth at first. When hard freezing is likely to occur, cover with two feet of 
 earth. 
 
 Vineyard. 
 
 Gather all grapes before frosty nights occur. Prune vines as soon after the fall 
 of the leaf as possible. Grape-cnttings made as soon as the foliage of the vine 
 drops, and planted out in well-prepared land, will start early in the spring, and 
 make a stronger and better growth than when made during winter and planted 
 out in the spring. Plant new vineyards the last of the month, on ground previ- 
 ously well-prepared. 
 
 Garden, 
 Mow off the tops of asparagus, and cover the beds four to six inches deep 
 with manure. Cauliflower and cabbage plants should now be taken up ana 
 placed in frames for wintering. Plant deep, and about three inches apart. Leave 
 off the sashes until cold weather. Continue to earth up celery. Turnips and 
 salsify for spring use may be left in the ground all winter ; those wanted for use 
 may be taken up and preserved in sand through the winter. Strawberry beds 
 should be looked over and all weeds removed. 
 
 Crveen-house. 
 
 Tender plants should be taken in early this month. The house should be 
 abundantly ventilated, care being taken to close up early to avoid frosts. Look over 
 the plants and see that they are free from insects. Fire may be needed at night 
 the latter end of the month. Avoid a high temperature, 45 to 50 degrees should 
 not be exceeded. Hyacinths should be potted early this month ; place them 
 under the stage in the houi»e, and keep the soil moist. Chrysanthemums for 
 winter blooming shelter from cold rains and early frosts, water with manure 
 water alternately with clean. Pot all young struck plants. Plants to be taken 
 up from the flower-beds should previously have their roots cut round, and then 
 after potting should be placed in frames or in the green-house, to encourage 
 fresh roots. Water should now be given with a careful hand, and only when 
 necessary. Bear in mind that bad waturing is the great cause why pot plants 
 so often languish and die. 
 
The Gaeden. 141 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 Tree planting may be continued all this month, or nntil the ground becomes 
 ft-ozen. All dry Boils work better and easier in fall than spring, and all hardy 
 trees succeed as well or better transplanted in the autumn. All apples intended 
 for late keeping should now be taken to the cellar, which should be well ventilated 
 whenever the weather will permit. 
 
 Vineyard, 
 
 Grapevines should receive their pruning back this month for next spring's 
 growth. As to the number of buds to be left on each cane, and the number of 
 canes to a vine, much depends on the vigor and age of the vine. No universal 
 rule can be laid down for vineyard pruning. After pruning, lay the vines upon 
 the ground, and cover with earth or leaves, m this latitude and farther north. 
 
 Farm, 
 
 Continue plowing as long as possible. All clayey lands if plowed deeply and 
 turned up rough and exposed to the winter frosts will improve in q^uality fully as 
 much as the covering of one coat of manure given and worked in m the spring. 
 AH the stock should now be taken into the barns and well cared for. Young stock 
 especially should be well fed and kept growing all winter. All root crops left in 
 the ground should be at once secured, either in the cellar or in pits out of doors. 
 Secure a good supply of fire wood. 
 
 Garden, 
 
 Lose no time in attending to the gathering and storing of roots of all kinds. 
 Cabbages, celery, etc., should at once be trenched and prepared for early ob- 
 tainment in winter. Leave no fence comers or by-places occupied with heaps of 
 rubbish, old melon vines, bean haulm, etc., for these are almost invariably the 
 harbors of insects, and if left will cause you to regret your neglect another sea- 
 son. Asparagus beds, if not already done, should at once have the old tops mowed 
 and cleared off, a good dressing or salt given, and the whole covered with half- 
 rotted stable-manure, say three inches deep. 
 
 Green- house , 
 Admit air rather freely when the weather will permit. Azaleas for blooming 
 early, keep at the warmest part of the house. If the buds are well set, and 
 prominent, and the heat about 60 degrees, some will be in bloom by Christ- 
 mas ; those once forced will come earlier of their own accord again. Those for 
 spring flowering keep as cool as possible, so that the temperature is above 35 
 degrees. The buds on the earliest Camellias wiL now be swelling, and should be 
 placed with the forward Azaleas. Cinerarias, encourage the forwardest to grow 
 in a moist gentle heat ; chrysanthemums encourage with manure water. Keep 
 plants clear from dirt and insects by washing and fumigation. Temperature 
 from 4(P to 45° at night. Water only when necessary. Clean pots, paths, stages, 
 and tie and train plants in bad weather. 
 
142 
 
 The Gaeden. 
 
 DECEMBER. 
 
 Orchard, 
 
 All fruit trees should be carefuJly looked over at this season for the purpose of 
 destroying insects. Borers may have laid themselves up cosily for winter quar- 
 ters in the hodies of the trees. Search for as recommended hefore. The eggs 
 of caterpLUara should be sought for on the small branches and in the forks of 
 the trees. The cocub, or scale insect, should be destroyed by vrashing the bodies 
 and limbs of trees to which they have attached themselves. Strong lye water, or 
 a mixture of soft soap and fresh-slacked lime vrill destroy them. If you have 
 not yet mulched around your newly planted trees, do so at once. 
 
 Vineyard. 
 
 Pruning, if it has been deferred, should be completed and the vines laid upon the 
 ground and covered. If the wood is vpanted for propagation, cat it up into suit- 
 able lengths and store away in moist sand in the cellar. 
 
 JFarm» 
 
 The winter is often a comparatively leisure season. It is profitably occupied in 
 most cases in draining wet lands. Make the ditches narrow, two and one half 
 to three feet deep, and use two-inch tUes for the primary drains, and four to six 
 in«h tiles for the main or outlets. Cutting wood, getting out fence posts, and 
 jGancing will occupy the attention of the farmer now. See that a good stock is 
 now provided, that work may not be interrupted in a hurrying time. All kinds 
 of livestock will now require careful attention ; see that they are properly fed, and 
 with a variety of food, if possible. 
 
 Garden, 
 
 The hints of last month, if heeded, will leave but little to be done now. Look 
 to the roots, celerjy, cabbages, etc., stored in trenches and pits, and put on the 
 final winter covering, w^hich should be sufficient to exclude antirely the frost. 
 Keep cold frames used for protection of cabbage and cauliflower plants well aired 
 at aD, favorable opportunities. 
 
 Crreen-fiQuse . 
 
 Admit air freely when the external temperature is above 35°, especially among 
 plants desired for late blooming. Azaleas for late bloom, keep cool those 
 swelling their buds, not below 45°. 
 
 Poinsettia Pulcherima will make a warm green-house gay for several weeks. 
 Chinese Primrose, water with liquid manure when it shows flower buds ; give 
 the Double White a favorable and warm position. Water seldom ; be regulated 
 by temperature, evaporation, and the wants of the plants ; when the flower buds 
 are swelling and opening, give it oftener a^cjl after breakfast, and with the water 
 rather higher thaox the temperature of the house. 
 
The Flowee Gaedex. 148 
 
 vin. 
 
 THE FLOWER GARDEN 
 
 Qod mlglit have bade the earth bring forth 
 
 Bnoagh for great aod amall, 
 The oak-tree and the cedar-tree, 
 
 WIthoQt a flower at all. 
 
 He might have made enocgh, enough 
 
 For every 'want of onrs — 
 For Inxury, medicine, and toll. 
 
 And yet have made no flowers 
 
 Oar outward life requires them not — 
 
 Then wherefore have they birth? 
 To minister delight to man ; 
 
 To beautify the earth ; 
 
 To comfort man — to whlaper hope' 
 
 Whene'er his faith la dim ; 
 For whoso careth for the flowera, 
 
 Will much more care for him. — HSdry EmoiU. 
 
 L-rCfTEODUCTOET EEMAEKS. 
 
 jE who loves not flowers, and grudges the 
 few square feet of soil which they are 
 grumblingly permitted to occupy in a cor- 
 ner of his garden, may skip over this 
 chapter. We give him our heartfelt pity ; 
 and to the wife or daughter, whose more re- 
 fined and elevated tastes have not allowed him to 
 devote his front yard to the cultivation of potatoes 
 and cabbages, we offer our thanks. 
 Had we room, we could prove even to the devotee 
 of literal utilitarianism, that the flower garden has its uses — 
 that lilies and dahlias have quite as important a mission in the 
 world as beets and carrots ; but we must forego the argu- 
 ments and illustrations which this course would call for, and 
 
144 The Gaeden. 
 
 confine ourself to the .ess interesting, but perhaps more use- 
 fill, details wMcli follow. 
 
 A word, however, to the ladies, to whom we most respect- 
 fully dedicate this chapter. "We shall take it for granted that 
 you love flowers ; for we hold that she who does not, is no true 
 woman. But perhaps you are ready to declare that, positively, 
 you have no time to devote to their cultivation , that you have 
 not sufficient strength for such labor; or, possibly, that all 
 out-of-door employments are ungenteel and unfeminine. 
 
 Unless you have time to be sick, which you will hardly ad- 
 mit, you have time to take care of your health. To do this 
 properly, you must have daily exercise in the open air. Where 
 can you take this more pleasantly or more profitably than in 
 your flower garden ? You are not strong enough, do you say ? 
 This is, just the way to acquire strength. Begin very moder- 
 ately, allowing some stronger person to do the heaviest work. 
 An hour or two of light, active, and pleasurable employment, 
 out-of-doors, each fair day, take our word for it, will prove 
 more beneficial than the best tonic mixture that your good and 
 much respected doctor, with all his skill, can prepare for you. 
 Try it. You will soon be able to use the light hoe and spade, 
 which we recommend you to procure at once, with ease and 
 pleasure. The quack's Female Pills ficad few patrons among 
 the wives and daughters who cultivate their own flower gar- 
 dens. The idea that the employment is unsuited to woman is 
 a preposterous and absurd one. Where is her place if not 
 among the flowers — herself the fairest flower of all? Shall 
 she blush to own that her own fair hajids have reared the 
 floral gems with which she adorns her hair ? But we rejoice 
 in believing that few of our readers wiU urge this plea. They 
 will, for the most part, fully agree with us that floriculture 
 should have a prominent place among the female " accomplish 
 ments*** 
 
 Tor her light work, a lady requires implements made spe- 
 cially for her use. A spade ; a hoe ; a rake ; a fork ; a trowel ; 
 a watering-pot ; a pruning-knife ; a pair of small shears ; a 
 
The Flowee Gaedem. 145 
 
 basket, for the weeds and clippings ; a small hammer ; & ball 
 of twine ; a stout apron, with pockets for the pruning-knife, 
 shears, etc. ; a pair of strong leather gloves, for handling prickly 
 shrubs ; and a pair of overshoes, will make up a very good 
 outfit. The implements should all be light, and of the best 
 quality. The pruning-knife should be kept very sharp. Use 
 it for cutting slips, and for removing branches, leaves, etc. 
 The shears are used for clipping hedges, box, borders, etc. 
 
 In connection with her gardening operations, we recommend 
 to every lady who has suflBcient leisure the study of botany — 
 both structural and systematic. 
 
 IL— LAYING OUT A FLOWEE GAEDEN. 
 
 To attempt, within the limits of a few pages, to ftdly instruct 
 those who have extensive grounds to lay out, would be pre- 
 sumptuous. Such persons wiU need to study Downing'a 
 "Landscape Gardening," or seek the aid of a practical land- 
 scape gardener. Our brief hints and suggestions are intended 
 for those whose ornamental grounds are measured by rods 
 instead of acres. 
 
 We will suppose that, as is generally the case, yoa wish to 
 devote a portion of the space immediately around your dwell- 
 ing-house to the cultivation of flowers. 
 
 If the distance between the entrance gate and the house be 
 small, you must be content with a straight walk from the one 
 to the other ; but this should be relieved, and its necessary 
 stiffness somewhat modified, by curved side-walks, branching 
 from the main walk near the front door, and running back to 
 the vegetable garden in the rear of the house. Where the 
 space is a little greater, the straight walk should not be toler- 
 ated. It may be curved in various ways, as taste may sug- 
 gest, and the nature of the case permit. The walks may aU 
 have edgings of dwarf box. Near these walks we recom- 
 mend cutting a sufficient number of flower-beds in the turf. 
 This gives a much more beautiful appearance to the yard than 
 it would have if devoted exclusively to flower-beds. If more 
 
 7 
 
14:6 The Gaedew. 
 
 space be wanted, it may, perhaps, be found behind the house, 
 and next the fruit or vegetable garden. The beds thus cut in 
 the turf may be of various shapes and sizes, but should always 
 be bounded by curved lines. The grass-plots in which they 
 are situated should be kept smoothly shaven. 
 
 In arranging the plants in your beds, place the tallest in the 
 center ; but very tall growers, like the hollyhocks and sun- 
 flowers, should, in general, be disposed as a back-ground in 
 borders next the walls. So arrange all the kinds that the 
 smaller shall not be hidden or too much shaded by the larger, 
 but all be seen in their order, and each contribute to the gen- 
 eral effect. Eeference must also be had to colors and their 
 proper combination. It is well, so far as is possible, to select 
 plants which appear well through the season, whether in blos- 
 som or not. A constant succession of flowers in each bed 
 may be secured by commencing with the early flowering bulbs, 
 following these with the best herbaceous perennials, and clos- 
 ing with a good selection of annuals. 
 
 Climbing plants of various kinds, both annual and perennial, 
 if judiciously introduced, add greatly to the beauty of the 
 grounds around a dwelling. "Walls may be mantled with them ; 
 doors and windows enwreathed ; any unsightly object hidden ; 
 arbors covered ; and posts and the trunks of trees entwined. 
 They may also be permitted to trail among the smaller shrubs — 
 care being taken, of course, that they do not, in their luxuri- 
 ance, overpower or hide other plants. Various kinds of sup- 
 ports for climbers may be introduced into the portions of the 
 yard devoted to trees and shrubs. The simplest of these is a 
 single upright piQar of cedar or other durable wood in its 
 rough bark, or a sawed piece of timber with holes bored 
 through it at regular intervals, through which the leading 
 shoots may be drawn as they advance in growth. Prairie 
 roses, bignomas, and other hardy climbers, if skiUfally trained, 
 make a very handsome appearance on such pillars. Two 
 climbing roses, of unlike colors, may be thus trained together 
 irith a fine effect. These posts should be nine or ten feet high. 
 
The Flowee Gaeden. 147 
 
 In Bome cases it is better to drive strong wooden rods through 
 the holes we have spoken of, for the support of the climber. 
 Slender climbers, like the cypress vine and the morning glory, 
 require a lighter and more elegant support. 
 
 In the arrangement of the shrubs and trees the same prin- 
 ciple applies as to the herbaceous plants. We should endeavor 
 to produce the effect of banks, and irregular and picturesque 
 conical masses of foliage, rising higher as they recede from the 
 eye. We thei-efore place the larger growing kinds in the back 
 row, or in the center of a group, as the case may be ; some- 
 what smaller ones next in order, and still smaller ones in front. 
 
 III.— GENERAL DIEECTIONS. 
 
 Our very limited space wiU not permit us to go into details 
 in reference to the cultivation of flowers. With a few general 
 directions, however, one may get on very well in the manage- 
 ment of a small flower garden. What is most needed is some 
 guide in the selection of plants to be cultivated ; and this we 
 shall furnish in the next section. 
 
 1. Soil, etc. — For most kinds of flowers a rather sandy soU, 
 well enriched with vegetable mold and well-rotted stable man- 
 ure, is the best. It must be thoroughly broken up or pulver- 
 ized before planting. This is even more necessary here than 
 in the kitchen garden. The ground should be dug to the depth 
 of fifteen iuches, and raised a few inches above the general 
 level of the garden or yard. 
 
 2. Amvual and Biennial Plants. — Annual* and biennial f 
 plants are ia general very easy of cultivation, merely requir- 
 ing, in a majority of cases, to be sown where they are to 
 bloom, thinned out (with a few exceptions, which will be noted 
 in their place) to give them room, and kept free from weeds. 
 
 Never sow till the soil has become tolerably warm and dry, 
 Bs some flower-seeds are very liable to rot in the ground. In 
 
 * Annnal plants are those which live but one year. 
 
 t Biennial plants are suoh as endare two yeara ; blooming on the second. 
 
148 The Gaeden. 
 
 this climate, from the middle of April to the first of May, ia 
 ordinary seasons, wiU be sufficiently early for most of them. 
 A little farther north, from the first to the middle of May wiU 
 be the average time. The smaller seeds must be very lightly 
 covered, but larger ones, like the lupiaes, may be covered to 
 the depth of two laches. It is a good way to sow in small 
 circles — say from four to nine iuches in diameter. In the cen- 
 ter of this circle place a tally, or label of some kind, with the 
 name, to prevent mistakes. Soon after they come up, the soil 
 must be carefully stirred, the plants thinned out, if they re- 
 quire it, and all weeds removed. A few kinds do better with 
 transplanting than to remain where they are sown. Of this 
 nature are the balsams, the China aster, the marigold, the 
 hibiscus, and the zinnia, and several other very free-growing 
 plants. 
 
 3. Bulbs. — The best season for planting hardy bulbous roots, 
 such as the lilies, peonies, etc., is late in autumn, but they 
 may be set out in December if the ground be not frozen, and 
 the bulbs remain sound. 
 
 " Hyacinths, Amaryllis, Martagon, and other large lilies, and 
 peonies, should be planted at the depth of four inches ; Grown 
 Imperials and Polyanthus Narcissus, five inches ; Tulips, Double 
 Narcissus, Jonquilles, and Colchicums, three inches; Bulbous 
 Iris, Crocus, Arums, small FritiUarias, Gladiolus Byzantium, 
 and Snowdrops, two inches ; Kanunculus and Anemones, one 
 inch ; always measuring from the top of the bulb. The roots 
 should be placed from four to six inches apart, according to 
 their size. 
 
 " Take up bulbous roots about a month after the blossom is 
 completely over, in the following manner : When the plants 
 put on a yellowish, decayed appearance, take up the roots, cut 
 off the stem and foliage within an inch of the bulbs, but leave 
 the fibers, etc., attached to them ; spread them in an airy room 
 for two or three weeks to dry, after which wrap each root 
 carefully in paper (as the air is veiy injurious to bulbs), o* 
 cover them in sand perfectly dry." 
 
The Floweb Garden. 149 
 
 4. Shrubs. — ^Flowering-shrubs may be planted ont so soon 
 as the frost is out and the ground sufficiently dry, which wiD 
 generally be in April. The same general directions apply as 
 have already been given for trees. Tall shrubs should be sup- 
 ported for a while by a stake. The roots must not be permit- 
 ted to dry before planting ; and if they are to be carried to a 
 distance, they must be kept from the air by means of moss, or 
 straw mats bound about them. 
 
 IT— LISTS OF FLOWEEINQ PLANTS AND SHEUB8. 
 
 We now proceed to give lists of choice herbaceous plants 
 and flowering shrubs. "We might make our catalogues much 
 more extensive, and stiU fail to embrace all that are desirable 
 in particular localities and under particular circumstances. 
 "We trust that they wUl be found useful, if not whoUy satis- 
 factory, to the novice. For the professional gardener, of course, 
 we do not write. 
 
 HAEDY ANinrALS. 
 
 1. Bute Flowiibed Abgebatum (^Arg^ratimi Meaneawwiri). — Color, bine; 
 height, one foot ; in bloom all the season. 
 
 2, BwEET Alysbum (.4. caVycma). — White ; fragrant ; six inches ; all season. 
 8. LoTB Lies Bleedlng {^A7narantliv,% caudatus). — Eed and yellow ; sum, 
 4. Pbinoe's Feathee {A. hypoehondHaeus). — Eed ; summer. 
 
 6. Thbee-ooloeed Amabanth {A. tricolor). — Is most beautiful on rather 
 poor soil ; summer 
 
 6. Pheasant's Eye (Adonis imwiata). — Eed ; showy ; summer. 
 
 7. China Astee (^A. ChmenHs). — Various colors ; some lately imported 
 varieties are very beautiful ; eighteen inches ; summer. 
 
 8. Cockscomb {Celosia cristata).—Gr\m&oji ; eighteen inches ; autumn. 
 
 9. Sweet Sultan (C^ntwwrea of species). — (<7. moscTmta), purple ; (C cr» 
 tica)^ white ; (<7. sua/ceolena)^ yellow ; two feet ; summer. 
 
 10. MoENiNO Gloet {C&mjohmhia major). — Various; climbing; summer 
 Knd autumn. 
 
 11. DwaepMobntng Gloet (C. minor). — Blue; eighteen inches; summer. 
 
 12. Chbyseis ( C. crocea). — Orange ; one foot ; all the season ; ( C. Cali/om/lca) 
 yellow. 
 
 18. Lupine (Zitpire«« of species).— Many rarieties; various; one to Bve 
 feet ; some are perennial. 
 
 14. Ctpeess Vine (Ipomaea of species). — (I. quaTttocUf)^ crimson ; (7. alha\ 
 white ; climbing ; summer and autumn. I. coGcinea^ a native Southern plant 
 la generally classed with the miming glories ; red ; climbing ; autumn. 
 
150 The Gj^eden. 
 
 16. Phlox {P. Prwmmondii),— Crimson ; rose, lilac, and white ; {P. Fa n 
 ffouUi), variegated ; two feet ; all the season. 
 
 16. Zinnia {Z. elegcme). — Various ; two feet ; very showy ; should be watered 
 copiously ; all the season. 
 
 17. Balsam, oe Ladies' Blippek {BaUamina Aor^67i»£s).— Tarious ; two feet 
 summer and autumn. 
 
 IS. MiGNoifETTE {Reseda odorata), — Yellowish green ; six inches ; chiefly 
 valued for its perfume ; all the season. 
 
 19. Nastitktium (7)^opcB0ltMn airoaanguirheum').—CT]maoa'j climhing; in 
 bloom all the season. 
 
 20. Canaey Bihd Flowee ( T. adni/ncmn). — ^A beautiful climber. 
 
 21. PoBTULAOCA (P. epl&thd&n3). — Purple ; splendid ; {P. Thorhv/rtdi), yel- 
 low; (.P, aZ&a), white; (P. eUga7i8\ crimson; (P. ThelhisonU), red; should 
 be grown in a mass to give the finest effect. 
 
 22. Malope (3/. grwndiJiora).—^CiB.T\QX and white ; three feet ; summer. 
 
 28. Ten-week-stogk {Mathiola amiua). — At least a dozen distinct colors ; 
 one foot ; summer. All the varieties are well worthy of cultivation. 
 
 24. MiEiGOLD (Tagetes erecta). — Orange, yellow, straw-colored; eighteen 
 inches ; autumn. French Marigold (T. patula), striped with deep brown, 
 purple, and yellow. 
 
 25. Claekia ((7. eUga/ne). — Eose-colored ; elegant; ((7. Pulchella)., purple; 
 showy ; {C. alda\ white ; one foot; all the season. 
 
 26. Candytuft (Jteris OTna/ra). — White; (J. vmbellata)^ purple; (7. mo- 
 lacea), violet ; (7. odorata\ sweet-scented. All tiiese species are desirable. 
 
 2T. Laekspxte {DelphiTvum ajacis). — Many varieties, double flowered, and 
 superb. Branching Larkspur (7>. eonaoUda), various colors; summer. 
 
 28. Theee-coloeed G-ilia {Q. tricolor). — Light-blue margin and dark cen- 
 ter; dwarf; summer. 
 
 29. Poppy {Papaver JfcwaeiZM*).— "White, edged with red ; eighteen inches ; 
 summer. 
 
 80. Sweet Pea (Zathyrua odoraiu8).—MsLny varieties — white, black, scarlet, 
 and variegated ; three or four feet^ summer and autumn. 
 
 81. HiBisoTTS {R. ma/ivihot). — Yellow; (II. African^a major), buff, with a 
 black center ; two feet ; summer. 
 
 82. Clintonia (C. elegana).~~Blae ; six inches; very slender ; autumn. 
 
 88. Veeeena (F: of species).— Every shade of color from white to crimson; 
 procumbent ; very pretty ; aU the season, 
 
 84. DwAEF Sunflower {ffeliantJvua CaUforrdcus).—A double flower. 
 
 85. SiTN Love {HeliopMla cwa&OTc?es).— Blue ; very pretty. 
 
 86. Paust {Viola fo-icoZor).— Various ; all the season. [A perennial, but 
 treated as an annual.] 
 
 87. Petunia (P. -uio^ocea),— Every variety of color; dwarf; all the season. 
 
 88. Yellow Eveelasting {Xera/ntheum of species). — Eighteen inches ; ant 
 
 89. Evening Peimeosb {(Enothera macrocarpa). — Yellow ; large flowered 
 dwarf; summer and autumn. 
 
 40. LoABA (Z. lateritia).—OraQgQ colored ; a beautiful climbing plant. 
 
 41. Calandeinia {C. disoolor).~-liosY purple ; very fine ; sum. and autnma 
 
The Flower (takden. 151 
 
 42. Oalliopsis (C. Mcolor). — Three feet ; very showy ; autuniE.. 
 
 43. Marvel of PsKTr {MirabiUs Jalapa). — Many varieties ; autumn. 
 
 44. Geovb Lotk {UTemophUa maculata), — Spotted ; beautiful. 
 
 45. B.EL10TB.0FE (Toitrne/ortiahelioiropioidea.)— "White and blue; veryflra» 
 ^ant; autumn. 
 
 46. XtOYJ^-iN-A'Mj&T {2^igella Xkmiac8na).~&howy ', aatamn. 
 
 Vor twelve sorts, the following would be a good selection : 
 Numbers 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 23, 25, 33, and 37. To make 
 up twenty sorts add 6, 11, 13, 16, 19, 23, 29, and 41. 
 
 HAEDT BIEKNIAL8, 
 
 1. EosE OAifpioN {Agrostemma coronaria). — Blooms all summer. 
 
 2. Foxglove {Digitalis of species). — Purple, white, and spotted. 
 
 8. Camteebuet Bell {Campmrnila of species). — Various; blooma in July 
 and August 
 
 4. Hollyhock (Althea roesa.)— All its varieties ; summer and autumn. De- 
 Birable varieties can be propagated by dlviumg the roots. Biennial-perennia- 
 
 6. Gbeaedia ((?. of species).— Yellow, purple, and spotted. 
 
 6. DwAEF Evening Peimeose {(Enothera corynibosa). 
 
 7. Httmea (IT, eUgan8).—AX\ the season. 
 
 8. Catch Ely {Siletie mulUJiora). 
 
 9. MrsK-SoENTED Scabious (ScaMosa atropurpwrea). 
 
 10. Naked-Stemmed Poppy {Papaver nudicmUe). 
 
 Though aJl the biennials are generally propagated by seeds, 
 the double ones may also be successfully continued by cuttings 
 and slips of the tops, and by layers and pipings. Biennials, it 
 should be remembered, never flower till the second year. 
 
 HAEDT PEEENNIAL8.* 
 
 1. HERBACEOTJS PLATTTS-t 
 
 1. OoLTjMBiNE {Aquilegia 'Oiilga/ria). — Single and double, and many colors. 
 
 2. Haeebell (Ca'mpa7iula of species). — All the species of this genus are 
 very beautiful. Flowers single and double; many colors. G. gram-dljiord 
 has superb blue flowers. 
 
 8. Ca.-ksilTio-s (JXa/rifhuB caryop7tyll/a8).—A much noted and very beautifal 
 flower ; propagated by seeds and by layers. 
 
 4. Sweet "William {D. harbatus). — Many colors and shades of color — white, 
 red, pink, and crimson. The French call it hoquet parfait. 
 
 * Perennial plants are those which endure from year to year indefinitely. 
 
 t Those which die down to the root every year. In a restricted sense (in 
 which we use it here), the term herbaceous is not made to include the bulboiu 
 and tuberous rooted plants. 
 
132 The Gaedek. 
 
 5. PuTK (2). pliMnarius),—'M.aTij varieties. 
 
 6. Chbtsanthemitm {Pyrethrum of species). — Tarieties and colors nnmbep 
 less ; the last showy flower of the season. The following are all very beaatiftil 
 
 LAEGE FLOWEEED. SMALL FLOWBEED. 
 
 Defiance— lemon-yellow. La Fiancee — white. 
 
 Baron de Solomon— rosy-crimson. Harriette Lebois— rosy-carmine. 
 
 Julia Langdale— roay-pTirple. Cybelle— amber and gold. 
 
 Liencour — lilac and orange. Mignonette— i'ose. 
 
 Magnificent— blush. Vartigene — crimson, 
 
 Mrs. Cope— crimson-purple. Paquerette — white-shaded crimson. 
 
 Sphinx— bright claret. Sacramento- dart yelloWj red center. 
 
 "White Perfection — pure white, Louise — ^pale rose. 
 
 7. Double Daisy {BelUa peretiTvis), — Many varieties and various shades of 
 white, pink, and crimson. 
 
 8. DiBLYTEA (/>. spectaMU8),—A. very beautiftil plant; flowers pink and 
 white ; June and July. 
 
 9. Foxglove {Digitalis of species).— Yarious and beautiful. Theoretically 
 a bienuial ; bat may be continued by dividing into off-sets. 
 
 10. Gentian {GenUana of species). — Blue, yellow, and white ; very showy, 
 
 11. Geeanium {Pelargonium of species).- Species numerous ; varieties num- 
 berless. For bedding plants the Scarlet, the Nutmeg-scented (white), and the 
 Eose are the most desirable. 
 
 12. FoKGET-ME-NoT {MyosoUs syl/oatica). — Blue, pretty, and indispensable. 
 
 13. Hollyhock {Altliea rosa). — "We have mentioned this among the bien- 
 nials, where it theoretically belongs ; but it is practically a perennial, from the 
 way in which it increases by ofi'-sets. Hollyhocks are very beautiful in their 
 proper places — in borders and among shrubbery. The varieties and colors 
 are numberless. Choose the double-flowering sorts. 
 
 14. Lupine {Lupinus of species).— Some of the perennial herbaceous sorts 
 are very beautiful ; early in summer. 
 
 15. Double Ragged Bobbin {Lychnis of species). — Scarlet and white. 
 
 16. Pajjst, ok Heaetsease ( Viola tricolor). — "Varieties innumerable ; some- 
 times treated as an annual ; blooms all the season. 
 
 17. Violet (FioZa of species). — Manyof the species, both native and foreign, 
 deserve a place in the garden. Of V. odorata plena, the white and purple 
 varieties are very beautiful ; bloom early. 
 
 18. Phlox {P. of species).— Various colors ; no garden should be without 
 some of the perennial species ; summer. 
 
 19. Veeonioa ( V. chamced/rys). — Blue flowers ; a good border plant ; early 
 in summer. 
 
 20. Valeeian {V. Jiortensis et Y. Pyr&naiGO). — "White and red; grow and 
 bloom well on walls and rock-work. 
 
 Nearly all the foregoing plants are easily propagated by 
 dividing the roots, and will grow in any garden soil. A few 
 of them will not prove hardy -aorth of New York 
 
The Flowee Garden. 153 
 
 2. TtTBKEOUS-EOOTED PLANTS. 
 
 1. Dahlia. {D. •variabiMs). — Colors and varieties numberless ; a splendid 
 anttimn flower for large beds and among shrubbery. The following are a few 
 of the finest varieties : 
 
 Amazone — yellow, margined with carmine. 
 
 Anna Maria — violet, tipped with white. 
 
 Belle Amazone — bright yellow, edged with gold. 
 
 Favorite — dark carmine. 
 
 Gazelle — delicate blush. 
 
 Grand Sultan— dark purple, with light edges. 
 
 Emperitrice Eugenie— black brown. 
 
 Madame Becker— maroon, tipped with white 
 
 Malvina— purple, shaded with darker purple. 
 
 Eenuncale Imperiale— lilac and purple. 
 
 Prfitrose— dark carmine. 
 
 Wonderful— dark yellow, with purple stripes. 
 
 2. Ieis (/. of species).— More than fifty species, some of which are tuberous- 
 rooted ; all very beautiful, L suHo/na is the finest ; flowers large and spotted 
 with brown. 
 
 8, Marvel of Peeti {MirahiUs Jalapa). — Generally treated as an annual 
 very beautiful ; requires a warm border. 
 
 4. Everlasting Pea {Lathyrus of species). — The common Everla-iting Pea 
 is Z. latifoUua. Once planted it will, for the most part, take care of itself. 
 Some of the species are annuals. 
 
 5. Peony (P. officinalis).— M.Q.uy varieties. The Chinese Peony (P, /ra- 
 grans) has pinky-purple flowers and a rose-like perfume. 
 
 6. Ranunculus (i?. of species). — Several species are hardy and desirable for 
 border-plants. The Double Buttercup (H. aeris) is well known. 
 
 Z. Ladies* Slippbe {Cypripedium of species). — Several species are nativei 
 of our woods ; very beautiful, but difficult of propagation. 
 
 8. Anemone (A. of species).— Many species ; white, purple, yellow, and scar- 
 let ; succeed best in cool latitudes. Our native "Wood Anemone {A. nemoroaa') 
 deserves mention among the garden flowers. 
 
 The tuberous-rooted plants are propagated by tubers, and 
 
 some of them also by seeds. Dahlias require a sandy soil. 
 
 Sand and vegetable mold make a good mixture for them. No 
 
 animal manure should be applied. 
 
 S. bulbotts-eooted plants. 
 
 1. Crocus {O. of species).— Many species, yellow, lilac, white, etc Tho 
 Yellow Crocus ({7. luieua) is the greatest favorite. The Spring Flowering «7. 
 v^T^tts) works in well among shrubs and trees, blooms early in the spring. 
 
 2. Crown Imperial {.Fritillaria ImperiaUs). — Color varies from light yel- 
 low to orange red ; showy; suitable for borders. 
 
154 
 
 The Garden. 
 
 S. Hyacinth {ffyacinthus 0ri6ntaH8).—YaxietleB innumerable ; choose an 
 assortment of various colors. 
 
 4. Iris (7. of species). — Of the bulbous species, the Persian (L Persiea) ie 
 the most beaatiful, but does better in a pot or frame, with some protection. 
 
 5. Lilt {IMium of species). — The species are very numerous, and all very 
 beautifuL The following is a selection : 
 
 Common White {L. candidmm). 
 
 Double White (X. camMdwmJiore pleno) 
 
 Scarlet (i. ehalcedonicimi). 
 
 Japan (Z. la'nci/oUuin of var.) — white, red, rose, spotted ; very beautiAil. 
 
 Turk's Cap (2,. martacfon) — ^various. 
 
 Tiger (Z. tigriTvu/m). 
 
 6. Nabcisstjb {2^. tazetta). — Yellow and white variouBly combined ; varieties 
 numerous. 
 
 . Bapfodil '^.i?se^o?iarcisgM5).— Many varieties. 
 
 8. JoNQUTL {JUT. j<mquilla).—'Br\^i yeL ; fragrant; requires copious watering. 
 
 9. Snowdeop {Galantlms nwalia). — Double and single ; both desirable. 
 
 10. Squill {Scilla of species).— Blue and white ; S. nmmna and S. Siberica 
 ■re exceedingly brilliant and beautiful ; blossom early in spring. 
 
 11. Star of Bethlehem {Ormthogalum of species). — White and variegated ; 
 easy of cultivation. 
 
 13. TuxTP ( Tulipa Gesneriana). — Yarieties innumerable and of every shade. 
 There are early and late sorts. Choose some of both. 
 
 FLOWERING SHRUBS. 
 
 1. EosE {Bosa of species). — ^Multitudinous in species and countless in variety. 
 No two persons would make the same selection. For the few sorts wanted in 
 a common garden, we suggest the following : 
 
 HTBEID PEEPETITAL BOSES, 
 
 Augusta Mie— blush. 
 
 Geant des Battailles— brilliant crimson. 
 
 Caroline de Sansal — flesh color. 
 
 Lord Eaglan— flery crimson. 
 
 Matharin Eegina— lilac. 
 
 General Jaquemlnot— crimson-scarlet. 
 
 Mrs. Elliott— rosy-purple. 
 
 Duchess d'Orleans— rosy-carmine. 
 
 Baron Hallez— light crimson. 
 
 Bydonie— light pink. 
 
 Baron Prevost— deep rose. 
 
 La Eeine — deep rosy lilac. 
 
 liouis Peronny — deep rose, shaded. 
 
 PEHPETTJAL MOBS ROBES, 
 
 Miidam Edward Ory— rosy carmine. 
 
 Marie de Burgoyne—clear red. 
 Salet— bright rosy red. 
 General Drouot— purplish crimson. 
 Perpetual White— pure white, 
 
 SUMMER ROSES. 
 
 Coupe de Hebe — brilliant piuk. 
 Paul Eicaut — rosy crimson. 
 Perle de Panche— white and red. 
 Persian Yellow— deep golden yellow, 
 Madame Planlier — pure white. 
 
 CLIMBING E03S3. 
 
 Queen of the Prairies — red, striped 
 
 with white. 
 Baltimore Belle— blush, nearly wbtt^ 
 Mrs. Hovey— pale blush. 
 Perpetual Pink — purple pinkr, 
 
The Flowek Gakden. 155 
 
 2. Ehododendeon {S. Ca(awH&ns6).~l!hia splendid American flowering 
 Blirub is worthy of a place in every garden. 
 
 3. AzALiA {A. -vicosa et A. nudi/iora). — "White and purple; fragrant; too 
 much neglected. 
 
 4. Floweeinq Almond {Amygdalsus nana). — Beautiful pink: flowera. 
 Very desirable in every garden. Spring. 
 
 5. Magnolia (ilf, abovata). 
 
 6. Tkhe Peony (/•. Moutari). 
 
 7. Japan Quince (jpyrus Japonica of var.). — Scarlet and white ; very early 
 n the spring. 
 
 8. Japan Globe Flowee (Kerria JapoTvica). — Double yellow fiowera. 
 Showy. Spring. 
 
 9. SpiEiBA (iS'. of species). — ^Many very beautiful species. The Lance-Leaved 
 Spirsea {S. lancolati) is the most beautiful of alL Flowers, white; blooms in 
 May. Tery desirable indeed. 
 
 10. Deutzia (/^. gracilin et £>. scahra). — Flowers white. D, scabra is the 
 more hardy. Both should be cultivated where the climate will permit. 
 
 11. Giteldee Eose oe Snowball Teee (Viburnum opulua). 
 
 12. Gaaden Hydkangea (ZT. Jlortmsis) — "White flowers. 
 
 13. LiLAO {Syringia of species).— Some of the new varieties are very fine. 
 
 14. PoMEGEANATB {Granatumfiori pZeTw).— Beautiful; should be a favorite 
 wherever the climate is sufficiently mild. 
 
 15. Sweet Scented Shefb (Calycanthics Floridua). 
 
 16. Althea ob Eose of Shaeon {Ilibiscus xSy'-tcws).— Many varieties. 
 
 17. Honetsuokle (Lonieera of species). — Beautiful shrubs. 
 
 18. Pink Mezbeeum (J}ap?in& mesereu/m). — Dwarf, pretty ; flowers in March. 
 
 19. Eose Acacia {Bohina Jdspida). 
 
 20. Mock Oeange (Fhiladelphus coronarus).— White ; fragrant May ana 
 June. 
 
 21. FoESTTniA (I'. 'vwidi8amha).—A magniflcent new shrub from China; 
 flowers bright yellow ; very early in spring. 
 
 22. Ceiiison Cubeant {JSibes soTiffiwnew^i).— Single and double crimson ; 
 early in spring. 
 
 23. AsHBEEET {M-'Jumia a qwifoUa).— Evergreen; bright yellow flowers. 
 Dlossoms very early in spring. 
 
 24. EosE-CoLOKED WiBGELA ( W. rosect).— Dclicate rose-colored blossoms. 
 
 25. SiLVEE Bell {Hdlesia of species).— iT". dipUra is much flner than tha 
 common Silver Bell (^ tetraptera). 
 
 CUMBEE8 AND OEEEPEKS. 
 
 1. TiEGiNLA Cebepee {Ampelopsis hederaoea). 
 
 2. Teumpet 'FhO'WE.VL {Tecoma radieans*), 
 
 8. Clematis {C. of species).— Several species; white, blue, and purple. Tb« 
 Bweet Scented (jO.fiaifrmla) is exceedingly fragrant. 
 
 * Gray ; the Mgnonia of the old botanists. 
 
156 The G-aedek. 
 
 4. Itt (Redera of species). 
 
 5. Honeysuckle {Lordcera of species).— The Sweet Scented (Z. Selgfca) is 
 one of the mo3t desirable species ; in bloom through the summer ; very fra- 
 grant. The Chinese Evergreen {ff. sinensis) is also a very fine sort. 
 
 6. Chinese Wistaria ( W. sinensis). — A very beautiiiil climbing 
 blue flowers in clusters. 
 
 7. Climbing Eose {Bosa of species).— For these, see preceding list. 
 
 8. Jasmine (Jasminum re^ohtPmn). — Bright golden flowers ; very fragrant. 
 Bouthern. Deserves a place in every garden at the South. 
 
 9. Passion Tlowee (Peissijlora of species) — The most beautiful one is the 
 Purple Flowering (P. inearnata% 
 
 10. BiHTnwoET OB Dutchman's Pipb (ArUtolochia 9ipho).—An excellent 
 ubOT vine. 
 
OHNAMENTA.L TkEES AND ShEUBB. 157 
 
 IX. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 
 Happy Is he who In a country life 
 Shuns more perplexing toll and Jarring Btrife ; 
 Who lives upon the natal soil he loves, 
 And Blta beneath his old ancestral groves. 
 
 L— SENEEAl HINTS. 
 
 SAPPY indeed is he 
 
 Who lives upon the natal soil he loves, 
 And sits beneath his old ancestral groves; 
 
 but this happiness is the lot of compara- 
 tively few in this country. Our forefathers 
 were too deeply absorbed in the work of hewing 
 down forests to think of planting groves, or to ap- 
 preciate their beauty. They waged a war of exter- 
 mination against trees, and, so far as they went, 
 nothing but blackened stumps and unsightly skeletons 
 remained. The effects of their indiscriminate " clearing" have 
 been partially remedied in the older portions of the country 
 (for which more thanks to nature than to man) ; but even 
 there the language of our motto applies to only a few. Each 
 man's natal soil is in the hands of a stranger. What American 
 lives where his father and grandfather lived and died? "We 
 have been a migratory people. It will not always be so, how- 
 ever, and if we can not, except in rare cases, "sit beneath our 
 old ancestral groves,'' we may yet sit beneath those of our own 
 planting — may learn to 
 
 Love our own cotemporary trees, 
 and die with the hope that our children and grandchildren may 
 eiyoy their shade after we have ceased to need it. 
 
158 The Garden. 
 
 The exhortation, " Plaut trees ! plant trees!" which has gone 
 forth of late, and been so often reiterated, has not faUen upon 
 heedless ears. Thousands have obeyed it, and tens of thou- 
 sands stand ready, and only wait to be told what trees to plant, 
 and how to plant them. 
 
 For planting trees, we have already given such general direc- 
 tions as the limits of our work would permit. With a careful 
 attention to the fundamental principles set forth in the first and 
 second chapters, these directions wiU be found sufficient. It 
 remains for us to add a few hints on arrangement, etc., and to 
 give lists of the most desirable species for common use, as 
 ornamental and shade trees and shrubs. 
 
 As a border for a straight road or street, we must, of neces- 
 sity, have a straight row of trees, if any; but in laying out the 
 road or street, simple utility, and not beauty, was the end in 
 view. In laying out ornamental grounds, straight lines and a 
 geometrical arrangement of objects must be avoided; and any 
 necessary straight line, like a boundary fence, should be whoUy 
 or partially hidden, and its effect neutralized, by curving rows 
 and irregular groups of trees and shrubs. 
 
 This principle applies to the smallest village plot as well as 
 to the extensive park. Something may be done in arrangement 
 and grouping to produce a pleasing and beautiful or picturesque 
 effect, in a very limited space. To tell the reader how, in 
 detail, would require a volume. The hint we have just dropped 
 will at least lead him to think and inquire. His own taste, 
 once awakened, will do the rest. 
 
 Do not, we beg of you, distort and deform your ornamental 
 trees by trimming. If any accident or unnatural condition 
 may have caused a tree to grow into an ungraceful and unnat- 
 ural shape, you may, by a judicious use of the pruning-knife, 
 aid it to return to its natural form ; but you can not improve a 
 free-growing and symmetrical tree. If it put out branches near 
 the ground, do not, by any means, remove them. Therein 
 consists much of the beauty of many of our handsoia«et trees, 
 eepecially the evergreens. 
 
Oknamental Tkees and Sheubs. 159 
 
 Other things being equal, preference should be given to 
 native trees and shrubs, and we have so many beautiful species 
 that but few foreign ones need be placed on our lists. 
 
 Trees taken from the nursery or forest before they can be 
 used must be "heeled in" — ^that is, their roots must be placed 
 in a trench prepared for the purpose, and covered with earth. 
 Roots left esposed to the sun and winds soon lose their vitality. 
 Avoid the common error of too deep planting. The tree should 
 be set only two or three inches deeper than it stood before, in 
 the nursery or forest, to allow for the settling of the soil. 
 
 II.— LISTS OP TEEES AND BHEUB8. 
 
 Those who desire more extensive lists to select from than 
 our space allows us to give, can readily obtain them from the 
 nurserymen. Our object is to aid the novice in making a 
 selection of a few kinds. 
 
 LAEGE-GEOWING TREES. 
 BEomrous.* 
 
 1. Oak (Querctis of species).— Well known; indispensable in exteniive 
 grounds— especially the White Oak (Q. alba). 
 
 2. American Elm ( Ulmus ATn&ricana). 
 
 8. Maple {.Acer of species).— In an article condemnatory of the ailanthus, 
 the lamented A. J. Downing says: "Take refuge, friends, in the American 
 maples; clean, sweet, cool, and umbrageous are the maples." Eor the Middle 
 and Western States the Silver Maple (^. da&ycarpwm) is the best For the 
 North and East the Sugar or Eock Maple {A. saGcliarm/itm) is better. The 
 Eed Flowering {A, rubrum) and the Norway f,A. platanoides) are beautiful 
 trees, but of slower growth. 
 
 4. Black Walntjt {Juglane twV'J^)'— Adapted to extensive grounds. 
 
 5. Ash {Fraaymus A7nericnna).—Fine to group with other trees. 
 
 6. HoESE Chestnut {/Esculus of species). The White Flowenng (^. Mp- 
 pO'Cafftanum) and the Eed Flowering {JB. rubicundo) are desirable. 
 
 7. TuLip Teee {Li/riodendron tuUpif6ra).—'Lofty and magnificent 
 
 8. CtrCFMBEE Tebe (MagnoUa acuminata). —A large, beamifbl tree, with 
 bluish-white flowers. All the magnolias are desirable where they will succeed.. 
 The most magnificent of them all {M. grandijlora) will flourish only at the 
 Bouth, where it is deservedly a favorite. 
 
 9. Laeou {Larix of specie8).~The European (Z. Europea) is the beat The 
 
 * Deciduous trees are those whose leaves fall in autumn— not evergreen*. 
 
160 The Gaedicit. 
 
 American or Black Larch Tamarac (i. Ajnerieana) resembles it, but growi 
 only in very moist soils. 
 
 10. Amebic AH Ctpbess {Taaodmmi dieticHiMn^.—ltOtty and magnificent, 
 bnt requires a moist, rich soil. For the Middle and Southern States. 
 
 11. Catalpa (C. 8 ringcB/oUd). — Makes a large, round head, and large 
 leaves and showy flowers. 
 
 12. American "Whitb Bibch (BeUUa alba).— A tall, slender, and beautilU 
 Iree ; has a fine effect for grouping. 
 
 13. Honey Locust {Oladitschia fo^iacan^Aoa).— Highly omamenta. ; fine for 
 lawns and for grouping. 
 
 14. PAtrLOwniA (P. imperiaUa). — Bapid growing ; large-leaved ; large blue 
 flowers in clusters; blooms in June. Suitable for Middle and Southern States. 
 
 15. "WEBPisa- "Willow {^Silem B<ibaloni<mm). 
 
 ETEBGGBENS. 
 
 1. Spbuce {AMea of species).— The Hemlock Spruce (A. Ca^iadensie) is ono 
 of the most beautiful of all evergreen trees. Fine for a lawn. The Norway 
 Spruce (A. excelsa) is also a stately and magnificent tree. 
 
 S. ■Whitid Pine {Pinus 8trdbu8). 
 
 5. Balsam Fib (Picea balsamea). 
 
 4. Beodab Gedab {C. I>eodiira).—Qracefxi\ and beautiful; rapid growing ; 
 not perfectly hardy at the North. 
 
 6. Cbdab of Lebanon {C* Zi&tZTii).— Scarcely hardy at the North, bat ex- 
 ceedingly desirable where it will succeed. 
 
 C AMHBiOAif AsBOB TiT^ {Tht0a ocdd&ntdMs), 
 
 SMALL TREES AND LAEGE SHEUBS, 
 
 DECIDUOUS. 
 
 1. "Webphtg Ash {Fraxinus ecccelsior pendula). — Very gracef^ 
 
 2. Judas Tbee {Cerds Canadensis). 
 
 8. Labubnum {CyUssus laburnum et C. Alpinus). 
 
 4. MoiTNTAix Ash {Pyrus of species). — European and American. The 
 Weeping Mountain Ash (P. aucaparia pendula) is a beautiful drooping va- 
 riety of the European. 
 
 5. Fein&e Tbeb {Ohionanihus Virginiaa).— CoYeTed in spriog with a pro- 
 fusion of white flowers. 
 
 6. Hawthokn (Crntcegus oayyacamfha of var.). — "White, scarlet, and rose- 
 eolored flowers ; single and double. 
 
 7. Magnolia {M, c<mspicua dt M. SovZaTigiana). — The flrst has white and 
 Ihe second purple flowers. 
 
 8. BuBNiNO Bush {Euon/ymoua airopurpureua). 
 
 9. Labgb Flowbeing Syringa (PhUadelphus grand/^lorus), 
 
 10. Cornelian Oheebt {Oomus maacula). 
 
 EVERQBEENS, 
 
 1, Tree Box {Bwx>us dborescens). 
 
 2. Common Juniper {Juniperua commtmis). 
 
Oenamental Teees and Shettbb. 161 
 
 8. Irish Tbw {Taama Hibemicue), 
 
 4. MomsTAiN IjAirsEL (Kalmia laiifoUa), 
 
 5. Ambbioak H0L1.Y (Ilex opaea). 
 
 HEDGE PLANTS. 
 DKOIDUOUS, 
 
 L OsAGx Obahge {MaoUira cmrcmtiaea), 
 2. Bfokthoek (Bkaimms Calharticms). 
 8. Hawthoen (prata^ue oxyacantha). 
 
 4. Althba OB Boss of Shabon {RibUcfU9 Syriaeu%). 
 
 5. Bebbebbt (JBerberis imlgarie), 
 
 BTEEOBBENS. 
 
 t AuEBioAN Aebob Yit^ (7^/i^a occi<f6»to^)- 
 
 3. Amebigak Hollt {Hex opaca). 
 
 8. Hemlock Sfbuoe {AMes Oanadeneis). 
 
 4. Norway Speuob {Abies excelsa). 
 
 5. White Cedab (Otipressus t/iyoidea), 
 
 6. Holly-Lbated Berbebey {Mahonda aqv/ifoUa). 
 
 7. Dwaep Box {Buama 8UffruUco8Ci),—'Sot edging. 
 
 8. Eveboeeen Thoen {Oratwgus pyraccmt/ia).— For the SoutlL 
 
 9. Cheeokee Kobe (_Eosa Iwviffata). — Southern. 
 
 10. 'White Maoabtney Eobe.— The best of all hedge plants for the South. 
 
 Live hedges must gradually take the place of our unsightly 
 fences In the older parts of the country, where timber is already 
 scarce. On the prairies of the West there seems to be no other 
 resource. See " The Farm'' for directions for their cultivation. 
 Some of the foregoing hedge plants have not been well proved, 
 but are all more or less perfectly adapted to the purpose. Th« 
 Osage Orange seems as yet to be most generally approved. 
 
 For further information on the culture of forest trees, for 
 shade, for shelter, for timber, for fuel and for profit, see 
 " Fuller's Forest Tree Culturist." And for the selection and 
 management of ornamental, deciduous and evergreen trees, 
 see "Elliot's Lawn and Shade Trees." Both published by 
 Gko. E. Woodwaed, and sent post paid for $1.50 each. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 THE BEAEING TEAE. 
 
 Tms arises simply from the tendency in the apple, when loft to itoelf, to beai 
 BO large crops one year as to require the next year to recover aufBcient streiigth 
 to bear again. This becomes a kind of fixed constitutional habit in a given 
 variety, and is continued by grafting, so that whole orchards bear one year, and 
 are unfruitful the next, with great regularity. On the other hand, certain sorts, 
 like the Belle-fleur and Holland Pippin, which bear but moderate crops, in 
 strong soils bear every year. 
 
 The habit itself may be corrected or changed, when the tree or orchard is 
 young, by picking ofi* all the fruit that sets the first year the tree bears a good 
 crop, thus forcing it to take its bearing year the next season.— -4. J. Drnjom/rig, 
 
 B. 
 
 OATJSE OF DIMINISHED FERTILITY. 
 
 The first colonists of Virginia found a country the soil of which was r/ch in 
 alkalies. Harvests of wheat and tobacco were obtained for a century from one 
 and the same field, without the aid of manure ; but now whole districts are 
 converted into unfruitful pasture land, which without manure produces neither 
 wheat nor tobacco. From every acre of this land there were removed in the 
 space of one hundred years 1,200 lbs. of alkalies, in leaves, grain, and straw. 
 It became unfruitful then because it was deprived of every particle of alkali 
 which had been reduced to a soluble state, and because that which was ren- 
 dered soluble again in the course of a year was not sufficient to supply the 
 demands of the plants. . . . It is the greatest possible mistake to suppose 
 tliat the temporary diminution of fertility in a soil is owing to the loss of vege- 
 table mold. It is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies.— 
 
 0. 
 
 EEMOTING LAEGE TEEES—" BALLING." 
 
 Late in the autumn, dig a circular ditch at a distance of from two to five feet, 
 according to its size, from the trunk of the tree, and from eighteen to thirty 
 inches deep, smoothly cutting oflF all the lateral roots close Co the central mass 
 of earth. This ditch must be kept free from snow, until the inclosed ball cou- 
 taining the roots of the tree is thoroughly frozen. "With iron bars and leveri 
 force up this circular mass of earth, and place two or more strong skids under 
 it. By means of a strong set of pulleys, with oxen attached, if necessary, tha 
 
Appendix. 163 
 
 mas3 of earth, and tlie tree altogether, must be drawn orer the skids np ont of 
 the Iiole, upon a stone-boat or sled, the tree standing vertically, just as it grew. 
 Thus loaded and secured, it may easily be dravrn to the spot selected for it— 
 George Jo/ques. 
 
 D. 
 
 NEW TAEIETIES OF THE POTATO FEOM THE SEED. 
 
 The plants ftom the seeds are about as hardy as tomatoes [and may be sown 
 in the same way either in a hot-bed or in the open air. The former is the pref- 
 erable way.] They should be hoed often, and dug early, or before the fall 
 rains and cold nights. 8ome years they will grow large enough for the table, 
 but are not fit to eat until three or four years old. 
 
 Each hill should be dug by itself, and aU small and unhealthy tubers thrown 
 away, and the good ones labeled and put away earefiiUy for another year'fl 
 planting. Any plants that have been well cultivated, and only produce small 
 tubers the first year, will never afterward ripen in season. 
 
 The second planting will need care and close attention through its growth. 
 Observe the time of flowering, and time of the decay of the vines, that when 
 digging them you may have the history of every hill, for almost every hill is a 
 family by itself. 
 
 At this time many sorts can again be rejected, reserving only those thai 
 promise good, or indicate the object in view. I threw away a great many 
 varieties at every digging till the fourth year. I had but three families, all 
 white skin and flesh, to which I gave the name of '^ Stone Hill," the quality of 
 which has been well tested by use, as they have gone into almost every State 
 in the Union, and have been exhibited at very many fairs, and always attracted 
 notice; and a premium.^j4.. J). BulkeUy. 
 
 E. 
 
 LUXURIES OF A FEUIT GARDEN. 
 
 A friend of ours, in whose reliability we have implicit confidence, has a 
 email plot of ground, of which he tells us the following facts : 
 
 From a row of currant bushes, about eight rods long, he and his neighbors 
 gathered over two bushels of currants thia year. The currant season, from 
 the first picking to the last, was, from June 1st to August 15tb, two and a half 
 months. 
 
 From a row of gooseberry bushes, two rods long, he gathered about a bushel 
 of gooseberries. 
 
 From a plot of strawberry vines, four rods long and one rod wide, he gath- 
 ered nearly three bushels of strawberries. The strawberry season lasted about 
 three weeks, ending about the middle of July. 
 
 Then his raspberries came on, and lasted about three weeks. Of these he had 
 about half a bushel. They stood next to the strawberries in point of delicacy. 
 
 He has a number of cherry-trees. They yielded well this year. His family 
 and friends used a bushel or so, and the children of the neighborhood fed 
 themselves upon them, without stint, for two weeks. 
 
164 Appendix. 
 
 Soon afler the raapberries were gone, his peaches began to ripen. One of the 
 trees ripened its fruit late, and it has lasted till within a few days past ; of these 
 he has had two or more bushels. 
 
 AH along since the first of August his apples and pears have been ripening, 
 and have furnished an abundant supply for his family, for the cow and pig, and 
 some to sell or give away besides. He will have a large quantity of excellent 
 winter apples. He has just gathered from two or three grapevines aa many 
 bushels of fine grapes. Some of these his wife made into marmalade, and 
 some she has preserved in paper, for use hereafter. The best— and greater 
 portion of the whole— were eaten as a dessert, or given to children or friends, 
 all of whom enjoyed them much. 
 
 These are some of the enjoyments drawn from a small plot of ground during 
 the season just closing. They were at small cost, but they sweetened many a 
 meal, ministered to health, and added to the comfort of many guests. 
 
 Why may not nearly every man have as large a plot of gronnd, and as many 
 comforts ? Simply because he is negligent. — Ofdo Fa/mier. 
 
 HYACINTHS DT GLASSES. 
 Hyacinths intended for glasses should be placed in them during October and 
 November, the glasses being previously filled with pure water, so that the bot- 
 tom of the bulb may Just touch the water; then place them for the first ten 
 days in a dark room, to promote the shooting of the roots, after which expose 
 them to the sun and light as much aa possible. They will blow, however, with- 
 out any sun, but the color of the flowers will be Inferior. The water should be 
 changed as it becomes impure ; draw the roots entirely out of the glasses, rinse 
 off the fibers in clean water, and wash the inside of the glass well. Care 
 should be taken that the water does not freeze, as it would not only burst the 
 glass, but cause the fibers to decay. Whether the water be hard or soft is not 
 of much consequence— soft is preferable— but must be perfectly clear to show 
 the fibers to advantage. — Thorbw"n?s Catalogue, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 rAOE 
 
 Aihei. 88 
 
 ABparagiu 89 
 
 Appjle 114 
 
 Apricot 127 
 
 AunualB 14S 
 
 Bulbs 19 
 
 Budding 68 
 
 Beet T8 
 
 Bean 81 
 
 " Pole 82 
 
 " Lima 83 
 
 Borecole 86 
 
 Broccoli 88 
 
 Blackberry 186 
 
 Bieauials 151 
 
 Bulbous Booted Plants 158 
 
 Composts 89 
 
 Crops, Rotation of 60 
 
 Cuttings 82 
 
 Carrot 78 
 
 Cabbage 88 
 
 " Savoy 85 
 
 Cauliflower 86 
 
 Chive 95 
 
 Cress 96 
 
 Celery 97 
 
 Cucumber 100 
 
 Corn Salad 100 
 
 Cape Gooseberry 106 
 
 Cherry 128 
 
 Currant 188 
 
 Climbing Plants 155 
 
 Draining 82,44 
 
 Exogen 20 
 
 £ndogen 20 
 
 Endive 96 
 
 Egg Plant 106 
 
 Flowers 28 
 
 " Annual 149 
 
 " Biennial 161 
 
 " Perennial 151 
 
 " Tnbe'ous Booted 163 
 
 " Bulbous Booted 168 
 
 Flower Garden, Laying Out 145 
 
 " " Cultivation of.... 147 
 
 Fruit 24 
 
 " Bipening of 24 
 
 " Gardening,, Ill 
 
 Foodof Plants 25,28 
 
 Fencing 43 
 
 Fixtures 48 
 
 Forcing 52 
 
 Frost, Protection from 57 
 
 Fig 141 
 
 FAOV 
 
 Garden, Situation of a t! 
 
 " Sizeofa 41 
 
 " Shapeofa 41 
 
 " LaylngOnt. 42 
 
 Garlic 94 
 
 Grape 180 
 
 Grape Tines, How to Train 132 
 
 Germination 18 
 
 Growth, Conditions Essential to.. 2r 
 
 Guano 89 
 
 Grafting 65 
 
 Grafting Wax 68 
 
 Gooseberry 134 
 
 Hot Beds 49 
 
 Hoeing. 67 
 
 Horse Kadish 100 
 
 Hedge Plants 161 
 
 Implements 46 
 
 " for Ladies 144 
 
 Insects, Destruction of 68 
 
 Indian Com 104 
 
 Leaves 21 
 
 Lime 38 
 
 Layers 61 
 
 Leek 94 
 
 Lettuce 95 
 
 Lemon 180 
 
 Lime, The 130 
 
 Manures 86 
 
 " Application of 51 
 
 Marls 88 
 
 Mulching 58 
 
 " Potatoes 76 
 
 " Trees 58 
 
 Mustard 96 
 
 Melon 102 
 
 Mulberry 142 
 
 Nectarine 126 
 
 Onion 92 
 
 " Top 93 
 
 " Potato 98 
 
 Okra 107 
 
 Olive 129 
 
 Orange 180 
 
 Pits 48 
 
 " Sunk 48 
 
 " Walled 49 
 
 Propagation 61 
 
 Pruning 68 
 
 Potato 78 
 
 " Eot 75 
 
 " Sweet 76 
 
 Parsnep 79 
 
 Pea 80 
 
166 
 
 Index. 
 
 PAfiR 
 
 Fea, Sweet 150 
 
 " Everlasting 158 
 
 Fea^Nut 83 
 
 Pumpkin 102 
 
 Peach 124 
 
 " Trees, Pruning 126 
 
 " " Heading-in 126 
 
 " " Training 71 
 
 Pomegranate. 141 
 
 Pepper lOT 
 
 Parsley 109 
 
 Plum 12T 
 
 Ferenuialfl 151 
 
 Quinca 128 
 
 Eoots 16 
 
 Eadish 99 
 
 Ehubarb lOT 
 
 Raspberry 134 
 
 Seed-Leaves 16 
 
 Stem 19 
 
 Seeds 24 
 
 " Sowing 53 
 
 " Saving 60 
 
 Soils 30 
 
 " Improvement of 32 
 
 " Depthof 84 
 
 *' Preparation of 44 
 
 " Stirring 61 
 
 Situation 41 
 
 Subsoils 82 
 
 Subsoil Plowing. 46 
 
 Btirring the ScU 61 
 
 Bowing Seeds 68 
 
 PAOV 
 
 Suckers 61 
 
 Slips 69 
 
 Salsify 79 
 
 Spinach 88 
 
 " NewZealand 89 
 
 SeaKale 9C 
 
 Shallot 93 
 
 Shrubs 164-160 
 
 " Lislsof 154 
 
 " Flowering 154 
 
 Squash 108 
 
 Sweet Herbs 109 
 
 Sweet Potato 76 
 
 Strawberry 186 
 
 Trenching 44 
 
 Trellises 50 
 
 Transplanting 53 
 
 Training Tl 
 
 Turnip 77 
 
 Tomato 104 
 
 Trees 157 
 
 " Transplanting 54 
 
 " Washesfor 118 
 
 " Protection of, against Babbits 113 
 
 " Lists of 159 
 
 " Large Growing 159 
 
 " Small 160 
 
 " Deciduous 159.160 
 
 " Evergreen 160 
 
 Vegetable Marrow 103 
 
 Wheat, Analysis of 27 
 
 Watering 6T 
 
 Water Melon lOS 
 
THE FAEM: 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 radical Agriculture; 
 
 OR, HOW TO CULTIVATE 
 
 ALL THE FIELD CROPS: 
 
 EMJ^RACINQ 
 
 A THOBOUGH BXPOSITION OP THE HATTTBK AND ACTION OP SOILS AND MANVKSS 
 
 TDK PRINCIPLES OP ROTATION IS CROPPING ; DtRKOTIONS FOB IRRIGATING, 
 
 DRAINING, 8UBS0ILINO, FENGINO, AND PLANTING HEDGES; DEBCBIP- 
 
 TI0N8 or AGRIOITLTUKAL IMPLRMENT8; INST RUCTIONS IN TUB 
 
 OULTITATION OF TUB VARIOTTS FIRLD CROPS, 0EC1IABD8, 
 
 BTO., ETO. : 
 
 WITH A MOST VALtTABLB 
 
 By T>. H. JACQUES, 
 
 AuTKOB OP " Toe Qabden," " Tub House," " Domestio AniMiLB," " How 
 TO DO BusimESS," "How to Bbhate," kto. 
 
 To render agriculture more piuducUre aud beaeficlul to all. It li neceuary that Ita principles Bhonld 
 be better undeitood, aod that we ebould profit more from the ezpeiieuce of each other. 
 
 Jddoi Bvbl. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 
 
 39 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET. 
 
fetered, «c«>i>iiiig to Act <f Ooi^tess, in the jiesr 18J0, by 
 
 GEO. K. WOODWARD, 
 
 IB tke Clerk's Oiic* of the D.strio: Coart of the United States fix- O* 
 S^;;tl\eni District of Sew York, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Beueving that good books on fanning can hardly be too greatly 
 multiplied, and that a cheap manual, embodying not only compre- 
 hensive practical directions for the cultiyation of the TarioiiB field 
 crops, but also a brief exposition of the fundamental principles 
 which underlie all the operations of the farm, is a special want 
 (it the present time, we have essayed, in the work now before the 
 reader, to supply this lack. How well we have succeeded, we leave 
 it for the public to judge. 
 
 In the details of cultivation we have been intentionally brief, 
 because we believed that the mass of those into whose hands this 
 book would fall, stand less in need of these than of the information 
 condensed into the first six or seven chapters. 
 
 Having a correct notion of the fundamental principles of agri- 
 cultural science, and with clear outlines of the common practical 
 operations of farming before him, any intelligent man will readily, 
 by means of observation and experience, make himself master of 
 the minor details. Without the theoretical part, the rules of prac- 
 tice laid down in most agricultural works are liable constantly to 
 lead astray. 
 
 In the preparation of this little book we have consulted a large 
 number of the best agricultural works — American, English, French, 
 and German — to some of which we have been largely indebted for 
 facts and suggestions. In addition to the formal credit given in 
 the body of the work, we take pleasure in mentioning the following 
 
vi Pbefack. 
 
 works as among those from which we have received more or lesa 
 valuable aid : 
 
 Stephens' Book of the Farm. 
 
 The American Farmer's Encyclopedia. 
 
 Allen's American Farm Book. 
 
 Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office. 
 
 Tessenden's Complete Farmer. 
 
 Thaer's Principles of Agriculture and Manures. 
 
 Beatty'a Southern Agriculture. 
 
 White's Gardening for the South. 
 
 Norton's Scientific Agriculture. 
 
 Dana's Muck ManuaL 
 
 Boussingault's Economie Burale. 
 
 Downing's Fruits and Fruit Trees. 
 
 Munn's Practical Land Drainer. 
 
 Tucker's Annual Kegiater. 
 
 Harris' Rural Annual. 
 
 The Country Gentleman. 
 
 The American Agriculturist. 
 
 The Southern Cultivator. 
 Hoping that his little book will aid largely, in its humble way, 
 in the promotion of agricultural progress, and prepare the way for 
 many a larger and better work, the author most respectfully dedi- 
 cates it 
 
 TO THE YOUNG FARMERS OF AMERICA. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Agrici'ltuhe may be said to have had its origin when it waa 
 ordained that man should earn his bread by the sweat of his brow. 
 From tiiat time to the present, among all nations and tribes of men, 
 more or less attention has been given to the cultiyation of the 
 earth ; although in the earlier stages of social progress the prin- 
 cipal reliance of mankind for subsistence has been first upon the 
 chase, and then upon flocks and herds. Man is first a hunter, then 
 a shepherd or herdsman, and then a farmer. 
 
 Of the existence of agriculture as one of the prominent occupa- 
 tions of the people among the ancient Israelites, we have many 
 notices in the Bible. We gather from various scattered passages 
 in the books of sacred history and prophecy that they had plows ; 
 that they turned the soil up into ridges ; that they plowed with 
 two oxen ; that they sowed the seed broadcast from a basket and 
 plowed it in ; that they used hoes or mattocks for extirpating the 
 weeds ; that when the grain was ripe they cut it with a sickle or a 
 scythe ; that it was bound into sheaves and carried in carts imme- 
 diately to the threshing floor or to the barn ; that threshing was 
 variously i)erformed by means of a threshing-machine or instru- 
 ment (Isaiah xviii. 27, 28), cart wheels, the treading of horses and 
 cattle, and beating with poles ; and that the grain was winnowed 
 by being thrown up against the wind by means of a shovel. 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks, agriculture received great attention, 
 and was evidently conducted with great skill and success ; in fact, 
 it seems to have been much the same thing as at the present day, 
 our superiority consisting more in the improved implements we use 
 than in our better knowledge of the art and science of cultivation. 
 
 1* 
 
viii Inteoduction. 
 
 The Romans probably derived their knowledge of agricultur* 
 from the Greeks and other older nations, adding to it from their 
 own experience. They well understood the nature of soils and th« 
 use of manures, and practiced irrigation and underdraining. Th« 
 Roman farmers, Pliny tells us, were very particular in drawing 
 straight and equal-sized furrows. They always plowed three times 
 at least before they sowed. The furrows in the first plowing were 
 usually nine inches deep. 
 
 In the early days of Rome, when they praised a good man they 
 called him an agriculturist and a good husbandman ; and he was 
 thought to be very greatly honored who was thus praised. 
 
 The first of modem countries to improTe the practice of agri- 
 culture was Flanders ; and the Flemings or Belgians have con- 
 tinued to this day the model farmers of Europe. Their whole 
 country resembles a series of gardens. Their farms are small, and 
 they devote their efforts to three grand points — the accumulation 
 of manures, the destruction of weeds, and the frequent and deep 
 pulverization of the soil. They were the first among the modems 
 to raise crops for the purpose of plovring them in. 
 
 Nowhere at the present time is agriculture pursued with greater 
 skiU and success than in England ; and there is in that country a 
 steady and continued progress both in the science and the art of 
 cultivation. 
 
 American agriculture commenced at the point which that of 
 England had reached at the time her colonies were planted on the 
 shores of the Western Continent. It has not kept pace, we are 
 sorry to say, with that of the mother country. A virgin soil, 
 abounding in all the elements of the highest fertility, and requir- 
 ing at first but slight tillage to produce large crops, the abundance 
 and cheapness of new lands, and the lack of persistent, steady 
 effort, which soon became an American characteristic, led at once 
 to a superficial and exhausting mode of cultivation which has re- 
 sulted in reducing thousands of acres of once fertile soil to a bar- 
 ren wilderness. 
 
 But there has been a reaction. American husbandry is now 
 
Intkoduotion. ix 
 
 rapidly impro-ving, and we shall not long be left beliind by tha 
 leading agricultural nations of Europe. The old or exhaustive 
 system is giving place to the new or fertilizing system, under which 
 the productiveness of lands is constantly increased instead of being 
 diminished. The worn-out lands of Virginia and the other old 
 States have, in many instances, under the new system, been re- 
 stored to more than their original fertility. This will go on 
 till the older States will rival, if not excel, the new in productive- 
 ness. 
 
 The conditions requisite for the improvement of agriculture, and 
 the elevation of the agriculturist to the high social position to 
 which his contributions to the general welfare and the prosperity of 
 the State entitle him, are thus happily stated by Hon. L. Chandler 
 Ball, in a late agricultural address : 
 
 "1. By adopting a higher standard of education, both general 
 and professional. 
 
 "2. By a more thorough cultivation of the soil, by which its fer- 
 tility shall be increased, and permanently maintained. 
 
 " 3. By the more general introduction of improved implements 
 of husbandry, by which farm and household labor may be more 
 easily and more economically performed. 
 
 " 4. By improving the breeds of domestic stock, and rearing only 
 those animals which are the best of their respective kinds. 
 
 ''5. By growing only those roots, grains, grasses, and fruits 
 which are the most nutritious and the most productive. 
 
 " 6. By pursuing that particular branch of industry which gives 
 the strongest probabilities of success ; having reference to climate, 
 Boil, markets, and amount of foreign and domestic competition. 
 
 " 7. By making the business of farming attractive to educated 
 men, and the farm-house and all its surroundings pleasant to re- 
 fined taste and cultivated manners." 
 
 The extensive demand for books on farming, and the wide circu- 
 lation of agricultural papers and magazines, show that " a redeem- 
 ing spirit" is truly abroad among our farmers. The vast amount 
 of sound agricultural teachings which is now being almost ■univer- 
 
X Inteodttotion. 
 
 sally diffused, can not fafl to show itself everywhere in a rapid and 
 permanent improTement of our system of cultivation. 
 
 But much still remains to be done. Ignorance and prejudice are 
 obstinately blind and deaf. There is much of both to be yet over- 
 come. We send this little book ont into the world to aid as it may 
 in the work. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I— SOILS. 
 
 Importance of the Subject— The Organic and the Inorganic Parts of Soil^- 
 Origin of Each— Classification of Soils — Heavy Soils— Light Soils— Crops 
 adapted to Each - Sandy Soils- Clayey Soils— Limy Soils- Loamy Soils — 
 Marly Soils— Alluvial Soils — Vegetable Molds-Subsoils— Analysis of Soils 
 — Professor Johnson's Tabular View — The Causes of Fertility and of Barren- 
 ness—How to Ascertain the Per-centage of Sand in any Soil— A Test for 
 Lime— Physical Properties of Soils— Texture— The Value of the impalpable 
 Powder in Soils— A Mechanical Analysis — Consistency of Soils— Depth of 
 Soil— Colors of Soils-Humidity— Influence of Subsoils— Position and Form 
 "f Surface— Improvement of Soils— Management of Clayey Soils— Draining 
 —The Addition of Sand, Lime, Plaster of Paris, etc.— Fall Plowing— Paring 
 and Burning— Management of Sandy Soils— Vegetable or Peaty Soils — Man- 
 agement of Subsoils -Subsoil Plowing— Benefits of Subsoiling Page 18 
 
 n.— MANURES. 
 
 Necessity of Manures— Why the Soil of a Forest does not become Exhausted- 
 Exhaustion of Cultivated Soils — ^Decrease of Productiveness of the Soils of 
 New York — Instructive Facts — Land, like Animals and Plants, must be 
 Fed — Food of Plants — Organic and Inorganic Substances found in Plants — 
 Both made up from their Food— AVhere Plants obtain their Food— What the 
 Dlflterent Crops Take from the Soil-A Tabular View— Classiflcation of Man- 
 ures— Vegetable Manures— Green Crops as Manures— Advantages of Green 
 Manures — Straw, Leaves, etc.— Sea-Weed — Composition of Sea-Weed— Cotton 
 Seed — Turf— Swamp Muck — Great Value of Muck — Muck and Ashes— How to 
 Compost Muck — Animal Manures— Stable Manures— Value of Urine— How to 
 Preserve and Apply it— Waste of Manures by Fermentation — How to avoid it 
 — Hog Manure— The Manure of Fowls — How to Treat it — Guano — Composition 
 of Guano — ^Fish Manures — Night Soil — How to Preserve and Compost Night 
 Soil — Flesh, Blood, etc., as Manures — Bones — Process of Dissolving Bones — 
 Mineral Manures— Lime— Marls— Green Sand— Gypsum— Major Dickinson's 
 Method of Applying Mineral Manures to Seeds — Common Salt— Other Salts 
 — Ashes— Management of Manures — Fermentation — Overhauling Manures — 
 Drawing Manure in Winter— A Caution in reference to Quicklime— Bury- 
 ing Manure— Importance of Texture -Composts— Irrigation 26 
 
xu Contents. 
 
 m.— ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Theory of Eotations— The Three Grand Classes of Crops— The Grain Cropa - 
 
 The Koot Crops— The Grass Crops— Systems of Rotation— Benefits of Rota* 
 
 tion in Cropping— Astonishing Neglect of a Great Source of Profit. .Page 49 
 
 IV.- DRAINING. 
 
 Bad Effects of Excess of Moisture— How Draining remedies them— Ten Reasons 
 for Underdraining— Conditions Requiring Drainage — Practical Directions- 
 Examination of the Field— Draining Springy Ground— Direction of Drains- 
 Depth and Distance Apart— Digging — Implements- A Ditcher's Level— Ma- 
 terials and Construction— Brush-Wood Drains— Stone Drains— Different 
 kinds of Stone Drains— Tile Drains — Rationale of their Action— Will Drain- 
 ing Pay ? — A Farmer's Reply— Some Facts— Estimates— Economy of Tiles 51 
 
 v.— FENCES. 
 Requisites of a Good Fence— "Various kinds of Fence— Stone Fence— The Zig- 
 zag Fence— Posts and Rails— The best Wood for Posts— Board Fence- The 
 Sunken Fence— The Wire Fence Illustrated— Cost of Wire Fence — ^Wire 
 Netting— Hurdle Fence— Hedges— Causes of Failure in Cultivating Hedges 
 ^The best Hedge Plants — Directions for Planting and Trimming— Hedges 
 for the South— How to Form a Hedge of Cherokee or Macartney Rose— A 
 Hint or Two— Are Fences Necessary ?— No Fences in France, Belgium, etc. 
 —The Ohio Farmer's Opinion 61 
 
 VI.— AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USE. 
 The Plow— Ancient Plows— Modem Improvements— The Eagle Plow— The 
 —Michigan Plow— The Double Mold-Board Plow— The Subsoil Plow -The 
 Harrow -The Cultivator— The Horse Hoe— The Field Roller— Seed Sowers 
 —The Horse Rake— Mowers, Reapers, etc. — Conclusion 78 
 
 VIL— FARM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Introductory- Capital — Livestock — Implements— Seeds— Labor— Eecapi tula- 
 tion of Estimates-Size of Fann—LajiDgOutFarms ■ Fences— Gates— Build- 
 ings — Choice of Implements— Choice of Animals— Soils and their Manage- 
 ment—Manures—Rotation of Crops— Operations in Order of Time— Conclu- 
 sion 83 
 
 VXII.— FARM CROPS. 
 Indian Com — Wheat— Uye — The Oat— Barley— Rice— Buckwheat— Milletr— 
 How to Shock Grain— Potato— Sweet Potato— Turnip— Kohl Rabi— Carrot— 
 Parsnep- Beet — Chinese Yam — The Grasses — Timothy — Meadow Grass- 
 Red Top— The Fescue Grasses— Orchard Grass — Egyptian Grass— German 
 Millet or Hungarian Grass — The Clovers — Other Grasses— Cotton — Sugar- 
 cane — Chinese Sugar-Canc — Imphee — Broom Corn — Flax — Hemp — 
 Hops 100 
 
 IX.— THE ORCHARD. 
 
 Laying Out Orchards— Squares— Quincunx— Soil and Situation— Planting- 
 Cultivation— Profits of Apple Culture 14C 
 
THE FARM 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 For the reason tbat a plact wonld die In a vacuam, for the same reaaok It woiiia die In a aoC 
 
 destitute of tha baaes neceBsary for lbs organic constitution /or to live 1b to com< 
 
 blue, and without elements no conibluation would be possible. — EoKpaQ. 
 
 I.— CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 
 
 HEN selecting a farm, or when entering 
 ' upon the cultivation of one already in 
 possession, the farmer should, first of 
 v" all, turn his attention to an investiga- 
 
 i.v tion of the various soils of which its surface is 
 composed. These form the basis of all his oper- 
 ations ; and his success will depend in no small 
 degree upon the skiU with which he avails him- 
 self of the capabilities and adaptations of each. He should be 
 familiar with their several characteristics, understand the va- 
 rious methods of improving them, and know to what crops 
 each is best adapted. To aid him in this investigation is the 
 object of this chapter. i 
 
 AH soils adapted to agricultural purposes are composed of two 
 classes of substances — organic and inorganic. The inorganio 
 
 "Vr^ 
 
14 The Faem. 
 
 parts are derived from the decay of animal and vegetable mat- 
 ter. There must have been a time, in the geological history of 
 the earth, when the soil was destitute of these elements. A low 
 grade of animal and vegetable life was possible without them. 
 Living things found nourishment in the crumbled rocks, which 
 formed the primitive soil. Enriched by their decay, it became 
 capable of sustaining a higher order of existence. The result 
 gradually attained, we see in the present condition of the earth's 
 surface. 
 
 The organic part of the soil is generally called vegetable 
 mold, but scientific writers designate it as humus. To be fertile, 
 a soil must contain a considerable portion of this organic mat- 
 ter ; but we know of no rule by which to determine precisely 
 what quantity is essential. Probably from five to ten per cent, 
 must be present in all permanently rich, strong soils. 
 
 Besides ministering directly to the growth of plants, by ftir- 
 nishing them with a portion of their necessary food, this vege- 
 table mold or Aumus promotes fertility by improving the tex- 
 ture of the soil, making sandy land more tenacious and clayey 
 land more friable ; and by giving it a darker color, and thus 
 increasing its power of absorbing heat. More than fifty per 
 cent, of humus, however, in a moist soil has an injurious effect, 
 rendering it what is called sour. 
 
 We have already hinted at the origin of the inorganic por- 
 tions of the son, in speaking of the crumbled rocks which nour- 
 ished the first living things. The process of decomposition or 
 crumbling down is still going on under our eyes. Some rocks 
 crumble very slowly, others more rapidly ; but all wear away 
 more or less. Each rock gives its own peculiar character to the 
 Boil which it forms. 
 
 Of the various soils several distinct classifications may be 
 made. It will be well for us, at the outset, to consider them 
 all as embraced in two grand classes — heavy or light. The dis- 
 tinction indicated by these terms is familiar to every farmer. 
 He knows, too, that it is a predominance of clay which consti- 
 tutes a soil heavy, and that an excess of sand or gravel makes a 
 
Soils. 15 
 
 •oil vliat is called light. We will look at these two slasses of 
 soils a little more in detail. 
 
 1. Heavy Soils. — Heavy soils, also often denominated cold and 
 wet, are distinguished for their affinity for water, their tenacity, 
 their softness when wet, and their hardness when dry. They 
 are comparatively difficult to cultivate, and require more skill and 
 caution in their management than light soils ; hut they are gen- 
 erally fertile, and not easOy exhausted. They not only hold 
 securely the various solid manures applied to them, tiU they are 
 required for the support of the growing crops, but greedily absorb 
 the fertilizing gases brought within their reach by the air and 
 the rains. They are admirably adapted to wheat, oats, Indian 
 com, and the various grasses ; hence they are sometimes styled 
 grass lands. They of course exist in great diversity, and vary 
 much in value, but are generally susceptible of being made 
 highly productive. 
 
 2. Idght Soils. — Light soils are easily cultivated, friable, dry, 
 and warm ; but their porousness facilitates the escape of both 
 the water and the manure applied to them, and renders them 
 liable to drouth and exhaustion. They are particularly adapted 
 to rye, barley, buckwheat, and the tap-rooted plants. The 
 English farmers sometimes distinguish them as turnip soils. 
 
 Although soils contain small quantities of a large number of 
 substances, they are chiefly made np of what are sometimes 
 called the three primitive earths — silex (including sand and 
 gravel), clay, and lime. As either of these predominates, it gives 
 its peculiar character to the soil, whence we have the arrange- 
 ment into three grand classes — silicious, argillaceous,- and cal- 
 careous, or, in other words, sandy, clayey, and limy soUs. 
 
 1. Sandy Soils. — A soil containing not less than seventy per 
 cent, of sand may be considered sandy, in the sense in. which 
 the term is here used. 
 
 2. Clayey Soils. — Clay with a mixture of not more than 
 twenty per cent, of sand forms a clayey soil. 
 
 3. lAmy Soils. — Limy or calcareous soUs are those in which 
 lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing 
 
16 The Faem. 
 
 characteristic. Of Jcareous soils may be either calcareous clays, 
 calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the propor- 
 tions of clay or sand that may be present in them. 
 
 4. Loamy Soils. — Loamy soils are intermediate between those 
 denominated sandy and those with predominant clayey charac- 
 teristics. There are sandy loams, clayey loams, calcareous 
 loams, and vegetable loams. 
 
 5. Marly Soils.- -SoUs containing lime, but in which the pro- 
 portion does not exceed 20 per cent., are sometimes called marly. 
 
 6. A lluvial Soib. — Soils made up of the washings of streams 
 are called alluvial. They contain portions of every kind of soil 
 existing in the surrounding country, and are generally loamy 
 and very fertile. 
 
 7. Vegetable Melds. — When decayed vegetable and animal 
 matter or humus exists in so great a proportion as to give the 
 predominant character to a soil, it sometimes receives the name 
 of vegetable mold. 
 
 8. Subsoils. — The stratum or bed on which a soil immedi- 
 ately rests is called the subsoil. Subsoils, like soils, may be 
 either silioious, argillaceous, or calcareous. 
 
 II.— ANALYSIS OF BOILS. 
 
 Chemical analysis shows that the organic parts of a soil are 
 composed of carbon, oxygen., nitrogen, and hydrogen. The in- 
 organic parts of a fertile soil, in addition to the silex, clay, and 
 lime, of which we have already spoken, contain smaller quanti- 
 ties of magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, 
 oxyd of iron, and oxyd of manganese. All these are essential 
 to independent fertility. 
 
 It may be remai ked here, that while chemical science is a 
 highly useful ally of agriculture, its decisions must, for the 
 present, be held subject to reversal by practical experiments. 
 This lack of perfect and universal reliability comes from the 
 imperfection of the most careful analyses, and from the influ- 
 ence of conditions of which chemistry can not take cognizance ; 
 and not from the unsoundness of chemical theories. 
 
Soils. 
 
 17 
 
 Professor J. F. W. Johnson has given the follow Ing tabular 
 riew of the composition of soils of different degrees of fertility : 
 
 IN ONE HUNDRED POUNDS. 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Alumina (the base of clay) 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Oxydofiron 
 
 Oxyd of manganese 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Lobs during the analysis.. . 
 
 Ferti'e 
 wirhout 
 Man lire. 
 
 9.7 
 
 64.S 
 
 5.T 
 
 5.9 
 
 .9 
 
 6.1 
 
 .1 
 
 .2 
 
 .4 
 
 .2 
 
 .2 
 
 .4 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fertile 
 
 with 
 Manure. 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.1 
 1.8 
 
 3.1 
 .8 
 
 lOO.O 
 
 4.0 
 7T.8 
 
 9.1 
 .4 
 .1 
 
 8.1 
 .1 
 
 100.0 
 
 The soil of which the composition is given in the first column 
 contained all the elements required for the growth of plants, 
 and so long as these remain unexhausted will produce good crops 
 without manure.* Some of the alluvial soils of the West are of 
 this character. They will aU be found to contain every one of 
 these constituents. The proportions may vary in soils of equal 
 fertility. This is immaterial, so long as there shall be a suf- 
 ficient quantity of each to supply the wants of the crop. The 
 soil the analysis of which is recorded in the second column lacked 
 potash, soda, and chlorine. These are essential, and therefore 
 the soil, in its natural condition, was barren ; but as these con- 
 stituents are all supplied in considerable quantity by ordinary 
 manuring, fertility was thus easily attained. In the third col- 
 umn half the inorganic substances present in the first are en- 
 tirely lacking, and two others — lime and magnesia — are greatly 
 reduced in their proportion. No ordinary manuring would sup- 
 ply all these deficiencies, and therefore the soil was, in a practi- 
 cal point of view, hopelessly barren. 
 
 Does not this illustration make tBe cause of fertility on the 
 
 * See " The Garden," Chapter I. 
 
18 The Farm. 
 
 one hand an^ of barrenness on the other perfectly obvious I 
 Here it is in the compass of a nut-shell. A soil is fertile (as a 
 general rule) when it contains in sufficient quantity all the sub- 
 stances which plants require, and barren when some of thesa 
 substances are either entirely wanting or deficient in quantity. 
 The exceptions to the first part of this rule are an unfavorable 
 physical condition and the presence of certain substances in 
 hurtful excess. 
 
 The time is coming when every farmer, thoroughly educated 
 at an agricultural college, wiU possess both the knowledge and 
 the apparatus necessary for making any required analysis of 
 soOs, but at present we must, in general, be content with the 
 knowledge of their composition which we are able to obtain by 
 a few simple processes. 
 
 To ascertain the per-centage of sand which a soil may contain, 
 dry a quantity thoroughly ; weigh it; boU it in water ; stiritin 
 a convenient vessel, and when the sand has settled pour off the 
 liquid, which will hold the fine clay, etc., in suspension ; after 
 doing this a few times nothing will remain in the bottom of the 
 vessel but nearly pure sand, which may be dried and weighed, 
 and the quantity wiU show whether the soil be sandy, loamy, or 
 clayey. 
 
 Any considerable quantity of lime in a soil is readily detected 
 by pouring upon it a little muriatic acid, which may be obtained 
 at any apothecary shop. So soon as this acid comes in contact 
 with lime, if there be any, a brisk effervescence will take place, 
 owing to the bubbling up and escape of carbonic acid gas. This 
 simple test would save many a fanner from the expensive mis- 
 take of applying lime to land which already contains a sufficient 
 quantity of that important element of fertility. 
 
 III.— PHYSICAL PEOPEETIES OF SOILS. 
 
 In judging of the value of a soU, the nature and proportions 
 of the elements of which H is composed are not the only ciroum- 
 Btances to be considered. Its physical properties must also be 
 taken into account. 
 
Soils. 19 
 
 1. Texture of Soils. — Considered in reference to texture, a 
 soil may be described as essentially a mixture of an impalpable 
 powder witb a gi-eater or smaller quantity of visible particles 
 of all sizes and shapes. 'Sow, although the visible particles are 
 absolutely essential, their effects are, as it were, indirect; the 
 impalpable powder alone exerting a direct influence upon 
 vegetation, by entering into solution with the w&ter and acids 
 with which it comes in contact ; for plants are incapable of 
 tahing in solid matter however minutely divided; and it is in s 
 liquid or gaseous form only that their food can be received.* 
 From this it will be readily understood how a soil may possess 
 all the elements of fertility and yet be barren, as stated in a pre- 
 vious section, on account of some of these elements being looked 
 up in it, as it were, in an insoluble condition. The stones and 
 smaller visible portions of the soil are gradually but constantly 
 crumbling down under the action of air, moisture, and other 
 chemical agents, thus adding, from year to year, new impalpable 
 matter to the soil. The greater the proportion of this impal- 
 pable matter, all other things being equal, the greater will be 
 the fertility of the soil. This proportion may be ascertained 
 with considerable accuracy by the following simple experiment : 
 
 " Talje a glass tube about two feet long, closed at one end ; 
 fill it about h4Lf full of water, and put into it a sufficient quantity 
 of the soU. to be examined to fill two or three inches of the tube 
 at the bottom ; then put in a cork, and having shaken the tube 
 well, to mix its contents thoroughly, set it in an upright position 
 for the soil to settle. Now, as the largest particles are of course 
 heaviest, they fall first, and form the undermost layer, and so on 
 in regular gradation, the impalpable powder forming the upper 
 stratum. By examining the various layers and noting their pro- 
 portions you may make a very good mechanical analysis of soils." 
 
 Soils must also be examined in reference to their consistency 
 or tenacity, which is nothing more than the strength with which 
 their molecules or particles are bound to each other by what ia 
 
 • See " The Garden," Chapter I. 
 
20 The Faem. 
 
 called, in tlic language of natural philosophy, the attraction ol 
 cohesion. Clayey soils have the greatest degree of consistency, 
 and sandy soils the least. Both extremes are unfavorable, a 
 medium in this respect agreeing best with vegetation. 
 
 2. Depth of Soil. — Another very important point is depth of 
 BoU. A deep soU has not only the advantage of giving the roots 
 of plants a wider range and a greater mass of food, but it retains 
 moisture better in seasons of drouth, and is not so readily sat- 
 urated in rainy weather. For the tap-rooted plants, such as 
 beets, carrots, parsneps, etc., depth of soil is particularly im- 
 portant. 
 
 3. Colors of Soils. — Soils are of various colors — black, white, 
 gray, yellow, red, etc., and the effects and indications of these 
 hues are not to be disregarded in estimating the Value of land 
 for agricultural purposes. The brown and red soils are gener- 
 ally best. They are termed warm, and are mostly loamy and 
 fertile. Yellow and gray indicate clayey soils, which are cold in 
 their nature. Black generally indicates peat or deep vegetable 
 mold. Dark-colored earths absorb heat more rapidly than 
 others, but they also allow it to escape with equal readiness. 
 
 4. Humidity of Soils. — Too great moisture is not less injurious 
 to a soil than extreme dryness. The proper medium should 
 be sought, and where land is too wet, thorougji underdrain- 
 ing should be practiced. But more on this point in another 
 chapter. 
 
 6. Influence of Suhsoils. — A subsoil of clay beneath a clayey 
 soil is unfavorable ; but beneath a sandy soil it is beneficial, 
 especially if deep plowing and subsoiling be resorted to, for the 
 purpose of improving the latter. On the same principle a sandy 
 or gravelly subsoil is desirable under clayey soils, as it permits 
 the infiltration of any superabundant moisture, and may ameli- 
 orate the soU by mixing with it. A calcareous or limy sub- 
 soil is beneficial to both clayey and sandy soils. 
 
 6. Position and Form of Surface. — The position in which a 
 piece of land lies and the form of its surface increases or detracts 
 from its value according to its composition. Sandy soils ara 
 
Soils. 21 
 
 most fertile when flat and situated lower than the surrounding 
 country. On the declivities of hiUs, such soil is of less value, 
 as it is liable to become parched by drouths and washed away 
 hy rains. Clayey soils, on the contrary, especially where the 
 subsoU is impermeable, are favorably situated when on a hill- 
 side. Southern and eastern exposures are favorable to early 
 vegetation, and in a cold climate or with a clayey soil are very 
 desirable for many crops. 
 
 IT.— IMPROVEMENT OP SOILS 
 
 Even the most valuable farms generally contain many acres 
 which require considerable amehoration, aside from ordinary 
 culture and manuring, to bring them into the highest state of 
 fertility of which they are capable ; and the farmer should be 
 well acquainted with the various means and methods to be 
 made use of in improving each kind of soil. 
 
 The means of ameliorating soils may be divided into two 
 classes, mechanical and chemical. The former includes drain- 
 ing, trenching, subsoil plowing, paring, the addition of various 
 substances to improve texture, etc. ; the latter embraces the 
 various kinds of manures. Practically, however, the two 
 classes run into each other, the mechanical processes leading 
 to chemical changes, and the addition of manures to mechanical 
 improvement. 
 
 To draining and manures, separate chapters will be devoted. 
 We will speak here briefly of a few other means of improve- 
 ment which should not be neglected. 
 
 1. Improning Clayey Soils. — One of the principal defects of 
 clayey soils, especially where they rest upon a subsoil of the 
 same nature, is the excess of water which is held in them. The 
 only effectual way, in a majority of cases, to get rid of this is 
 by thorough underdraining. This draws oflt by imperceptible 
 degrees all the excess of water and opens the soil to the free 
 admission of the air, which in its passage through it imparts 
 warmth and such fertilizing gases as it may contain. Open 
 drains or ditches, though less effectual, are useful. In some 
 
22 The Faem. 
 
 cases " water furrows," terminating in some ravine or ditch, 
 serve a very good purpose. 
 
 To break the too great tenacity of clayey soils, sand seems to 
 be the ingredient indicated ; but so large a quantity is required 
 to produce the desired effect, that its application on a large 
 scale is generally considered impracticable. Lime is exceed- 
 ingly useful as an ameliorator of clayey soils, inducing chemical 
 combinations the mechanical effect of which is to break up the 
 too great tenacity of the clay, while it adds, at the same time, 
 an element of fertility which may perhaps be wanting. Gyp- 
 sum or plaster of Paris has the same effect in a stiU more power- 
 ful degree. Ashes, coarse vegetable manures, straw, leaves, 
 chips, etc., are also very useful, adding new materials to the soil 
 and tending to separate its particles and destroy their strong co- 
 hesion. In cold climates, plowing clayey lands in the fall, aai 
 thus exposing them to the action of the frosts and snows, has a 
 beneficial effect. At the South, where there is little frost, and 
 fi'equent and heavy rains occur during the winter, the effect of 
 fall plowing is very injurious. Clayey lands must never be 
 plowed when wet. 
 
 "Where a clayey soil rests upon a sandy subsoil its improve- 
 ment is easier, as deep plowing, by which a portion of the sub- 
 soU is turned up and mixed with the soil, soon modifies it very 
 sensibly. 
 
 In Europe, paring off the surface containing vegetable matter, 
 drying, and burning it, and spreading the charred mass to which 
 it is thus reduced upon the surface, to become again mixed 
 with it, is frequently resorted to for the improvement of clayey 
 soils ; but this process is too expensive to be generally applic- 
 able in this country, where labor is so dear and land so cheap. 
 
 2. Improving Sandy Soils. — Sandy soOs require a treatment 
 in most respects the reverse of that applied to clayey soils. Olay 
 is the great ameliorator, and as the quantity required to produce 
 a decided beneficial effect is not great, it may generally, when it 
 can be obtained in the immediate neighborhood, be applied 
 with profit It should be thinly spread in the faU upon sward 
 
Soils. 23 
 
 land previously plowed, so that the frosts of winter may act upon 
 it and separate its particles. The land should he thoroughly 
 harrowed in the spring and subsequently plowed, if necessary. 
 
 Lime and gypsum, which render clayey soils more friable, in- 
 crease the adhesiveness of sandy soils, and when cheaply ob- 
 tained furnish a profitable dressing. Ashes may also be ap 
 plied with great benefit, as may vegetable manures and vege- 
 table mold. Sandy soils are plowed to the greatest advantage 
 when wet, and are improved by the frequent use of a heavy 
 roller. Pasturing sheep upon them is very beneficial. 
 
 Gravelly soils (except calcareous gravels) are more difficult 
 of improvement than sandy soils, and are most profitably ap- 
 propriated to pasturage. Sheep will keep them in the most 
 useful condition of which they are capable. 
 
 8. Improvement of Vegetable Soils. — Soils composed mainly 
 of humim or vegetable mold, such as are found on low, swampy 
 levels, and sometimes called peaty soils, are generally, in their 
 natural state, totally unfit tor any profitable vegetation. When 
 it is desirable to cultivate such a soil, the first process is to drain 
 from it all the excess of water which it may contain. Then the 
 hommocks, if any, must be cut ofl', dried, and burned, and the 
 ashes spread over the surface;' after which sand, fine gravel, 
 ashes, air-slacked lime, and barn-yard manure should be liber- 
 ally added. These soils, thus ameliorated, make valuable grass 
 lands, but require subsequent dressings of sand, lime, ashes, 
 etc., as their fertility decreases. 
 
 4. Management of Subsoils. — "We have already spoken of the 
 benefits resulting from mixing the soil and subsoil by deep plow- 
 ing, in cases where they are of a diflFerent nature. To break up 
 the subsoU and prepare it for mixing, and also to deepen soils 
 and give the roots of plants a greater scope, a variety of sub- 
 soil plows have been invented. In subsoil plowing a common 
 plow goes first and is followed in the same furrow by the sub- 
 soil plow, which thoroughly breaks up the subsoil to the depth 
 of from twelve to sixteen inches, without displacing it. At 
 subsequent plowings portions of this subsoil are turned up by 
 
24 The Faem. 
 
 allowing the common plow to ran more deeply than before ; 
 but care should be taken not to bring it up too rapidly or in too 
 large quantities. 
 
 Besides allowing the roots of plants to penetrate more deep- 
 ly in search of nutriment and moisture, subsoil plowing, by 
 opening the stratum broken up to the action of the atmosphere, 
 gradually prepares it to become an integral part of the soil, 
 increases its warmth by making it a better conductor of heat, 
 and renders it far less liable to suffer from drouth. This last 
 point is particularly important, as subsoiled lands frequently 
 produce excellent crops in seasons in which those subjected to 
 common plowing alone fail to return even the seed deposited 
 in them. Subsoil plowing should be repeated once in five or 
 six years ; going each time a little deeper than before, tUl the 
 greatest practical depth is attained. 
 
 Subsoil plowing is not applicable, however, to all lands. 
 Where the subsoil is loose and leachy, consisting of an excess of 
 sand or gravel, it is not only unnecessary but positively injurious. 
 
 The gradual mixing of the subsoil with the soil which results 
 from subsoil plowing is especially beneficial to lands which 
 have been for a long time under cultivation, and have become 
 partially exhausted. A fresh supply of the inorganic elements 
 is thus furnished for the nourishment of vegetation, and new 
 avenues opened to those powerful agents of fertUizing decom- 
 position, the air and the rains. 
 
 Where underdraining is required, it should precede the sub- 
 soiling, and the surface of the drains should be sufficiently 
 below the. surface not to be disturbed by the subsoil plow. 
 
 With the exception we have noted, where the subsoil is loose 
 and leachy, subsoU plowing, though expensive, wiU most cer- 
 tainly "pay," as experience has amply proved. 
 
 The subject of improving soils wiU be continued in the next 
 two chapters, under the heads of Manures and Draining. 
 
Manubes. 
 
 25 
 
 IL 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 Manorea, lu fiomi lorni, moat be considered absolutely easential to austaluing aoila subjected 
 to tillage. — AUeii. 
 
 I.— ITECEBSITT OF MANTJEES. 
 
 IjHILE soils remain covered by unbroken for- 
 ests, they not only retain their fertility, but 
 actually grow richer and richer from year to 
 Id''^^^ year, notwithstanding the vast amount of nutritive 
 matter annually absorbed by the roots of the grow- 
 ing trees. Everything thus taken from them is ulti- 
 mately returned with interest. The leaves and 
 broken twigs, and eventually the branches, trunk, and roots, in 
 their decay, give back not only what they received from the 
 soil, but much, in addition, that they have elaborated from the 
 atmosphere. "We receive from the hands of nature no worn- 
 out lands; but her system of tillage is very different from 
 ours. 
 
 The productive power of soils subjected to cultivation is grad- 
 ually exhausted by the process. ' Some of the alluvial. lands of 
 Virginia produced large annual crops of corn and tobacco for 
 more than a century, without any return being made to them 
 for the elements of fertility abstracted; but these lands are now 
 nearly valueless. The secondary " bottoms" of the Scioto and 
 
 2 
 
26 The Faem. 
 
 Miami may retain an apparently nndiminished fertility for a 
 stni longer period, but they must ultimately fail, and unless a 
 system of cultivation radically different from that now pursued 
 be adopted, become like the worn-out lands of some of the 
 older portions of the country. Reliable statistical tables prove 
 beyond a doubt that, notwithstanding our improved farm im- 
 plements and superior methods of cultivation, the average 
 yield, per acre, of the cultivated lands of the State of New York 
 has decreased considerably since 1844, when the records on 
 which these tables are founded were commenced. In com the 
 decrease is nearly four bushels per acre ; in wheat nearly two 
 bushels ; and in potatoes, partly owing to the rot, no doubt, 
 twenty-two and a half bushels. The falling off would have 
 been still greater had not deeper tillage and better husbandry 
 furnished a partial offset to the decreased fertility of the soil. 
 
 These are instructive facts, and should cause the farmer to 
 pause and reflect. 
 
 The fruitfdlness of a soil is decreased or increased according 
 to inexorable laws. With each crop that is taken from a plot 
 of ground a greater or less amount of each of the elements of 
 fertility — silex, potash, lime, soda, magnesia, chlorine, etc. — is 
 necessarily removed. Another portion is lost in the process of 
 cultivation independently of what is taken up by the plants. 
 Continue this process year after year, and what must be the 
 result ? Ultimate barrenness, of course. There is no remedy 
 but to supply in the form of manures what is thus taken away. 
 The farmer must feed the land which feeds him and so many 
 others, or in the end all must starve together. In the older 
 portions of our country at least, the time has come when the 
 importance of manuring should be more fuEy appreciated. 
 
 n.— THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 
 
 In burning a dried plant of any kind, we find that the great- 
 er portion of it is dissipated in the process. Generally only 
 from three to ten per cent, is left. This is in the form of ash 
 or ashes. The portion driven off has evidently disappeared ia 
 
Manures. 27 
 
 the air, in a gaseous form. It is found by a method of analysis 
 which we can not here stop to describe, that it was composed 
 of four elements — carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. 
 These are called the organic parts of plants. 
 
 An analysis of the incombustible portion remaining shows 
 it to be composed, as a general rule, of these ten substances — 
 potash, soda, magnesia, lime, oxyd of iron, oxyd of manganese, 
 silica, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. All these 
 substances are generally present in our cultivated crops, but 
 not invariably ; one or two of them being sometimes absent. 
 In some species of plants one of these is wanting and in other 
 species another, and the proportions vary greatly in different 
 species of plants. Of these differences we shall have occasion 
 to speak further under the head of rotation of crops. 
 
 Both the organic and inorganic parts of plants are made up 
 from their food, which must of course consist of both organic 
 and inorganic materials. The former are obtained partly from 
 the soil and partly from the air ; the latter come exclusively 
 from the soil. A fertile soil must therefore contain, in sufiBcient 
 quantity and in an available form, all the constituents of plants ; 
 and to maintain its fertility under cultivation, these constituents 
 must be supplied in the form of manures so fast as they are 
 taken up by the crops produced. 
 
 The food of plants, so far as it is derived from the soil, is all 
 received through the roots in a state of solution ; and the roots 
 have, to a certain extent, the power of selecting their food and 
 of rejecting whatever would prove hurtful to the plant. Dele- 
 terious agents brought in contact with them may, however, 
 under certain circumstances, be taken up by mere capillary at- 
 traction, and the plant thereby poisoned. 
 
 III.— WHAT THE DIFFEEENT CEOPS TAKE FEOM THE SOIL, 
 
 In examining the ash of the different cultivated plants, we 
 observe, as we have already hinted, great differences in the 
 proportions in which the various elements exist. The ash from 
 the stem or the leaves of a plant and from the seeds of the same 
 
28 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 plant also varies considerably. The following table gives the 
 composition of our most common cultivated crops : 
 
 
 IndlaD 
 Corn. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Wbeat 
 Straw. 
 
 Bye. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Po- 
 tatoes. 
 
 Tur- 
 nips. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Sulpliuric acid 
 
 Phosphoric acid . . 
 
 a trace 
 
 .5 
 
 49.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 1T.5 
 
 23.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 1.0 
 4T.0 
 
 a trace 
 
 2.9 
 
 16.9 
 
 29.5 
 
 a -trace 
 
 1.3 
 
 a trace 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 8.1 
 06 
 
 8.6 
 6.0 
 T.2 
 0.8 
 6T.6 
 1.0 
 5.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 47.8 
 
 2.9 
 10.1 
 82.8 
 4.4 
 0.2 
 0-8 
 
 10.5 
 
 48.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 9.9 
 
 27.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 10.4 
 7.1 
 
 11.3 
 2.7 
 1.8 
 6.4 
 
 61.5 
 
 a trace 
 
 8.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 13.6 
 7.6 
 8.6 
 
 18.6 
 6.3 
 
 42.0 
 5.2 
 7.9 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 6.0 
 2.6 
 
 22.9 
 6.7 
 
 18.2 
 2.3 
 
 87.9 
 1.7 
 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 With reference to the character of their ash, we may arrange 
 these crops into three grand classes : 
 
 1. The grains in which phosphoric acid predominates 
 
 2. The roots in which potash and soda abound. 
 
 3. The grasses in which lime is an important element. 
 
 In straw and the stems of the grasses silica is abundant, con- 
 stituting from one half to two thirds of the whole weight. The 
 wood of trees gives an ash in which lime is a prominent ingre- 
 dient. There are particularly large quantities in that of fruit- 
 trees. 
 
 The foregoing facts furnish hints toward a sound system of 
 manuring, and show how important to the farmer is a knowledge 
 of the composition and mode of action of the various manures. 
 
 IV.— CLASSIFICATION AND DE3CEIPTI0N OF MAN0EES. 
 Manure, in the broadest sense of the word, is anything which 
 added to the soil, either directly or indirectly, promotes the 
 growth of plants. All manures might be considered imder 
 two heads- -organic and inorganic ; but it will better serve our 
 present purpose to arrange them in three grand classes, veget- 
 tile, animal, and mineral. 
 
 1. Vegbtablb Manttees. 
 Vegetable manures are not so energetic in their action a» 
 
Manuees. 29 
 
 those of animal or mineral origin, but their effects are more 
 durable ; and the wise agriculturist wUl avail himself largely of 
 the cheap means of ameliorating his soil which they afford. 
 
 1. Oreen Crcips.— Plowing in green crops, such as clover, 
 spurry, sainfoin, buckwheat, cow-peas, turnips (sown thickly), 
 Indian corn, etc., is one of the best modes of renovating and 
 sustaining a soil. Worn-out-lands, unsalable at ten dollars 
 an acre, have by this means, while steadily remunerating their 
 proprietors by their returning crops for aU the outlay of labor 
 and money, been brought up in value to fifty dollars an acre. 
 
 For the Northern States red clover has been found best fitted 
 for a green manure ; but in particular cases some other crop 
 may be used with greater advantage. At the South, the cow- 
 pea (which is no pea, but a bean) is considered the best fertilizer. 
 E. L. Allen, in the "American Farm Book," says, " The advan- 
 tages of green manures consist mainly in the addition of organic 
 matter which they make to the soil. The presence of this aids 
 in the liberation of those mineral ingredients which are there 
 locked up, and which, on being set free, act with so much ad- 
 vantage to the crop. The roots also exert a power in effecting 
 this decomposition, beyond any other known agents, either of 
 nature or art. Their minute fibers are brought into contact 
 with the eleraents of the soil and they act upon them with a 
 force peculiar to themselves alone. Their agency is far more 
 efiScacious for this purpose than the intensest heat or strongest 
 acids, persuading the elements to give up for their own use 
 what is essential to their maturity and perfection. By sub- 
 stituting a crop for a naked fallow, we have all the fibers of the 
 roots throughout the field, aiding the decomposition which is 
 elowly going forward in every soil. 
 
 " Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their 
 sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the appli- 
 cation of gypsum. By its long tap roots, clover also draws 
 much from the subsoil ; as aU plants appropriate such saline 
 substances as are necessary to their maturity, and which are 
 brought to their roots in a state of solution, by the up-welling 
 
30 The Farm. 
 
 moisture from beneath. This last is frequently a great source 
 of improvement to the soil. The amount of carbon drawn 
 from the air in the state of carbonic acid, and of ammonia and 
 nitric acid, under favorable circumstances of soU and crop, is 
 very great ; and when buried beneath the surface, all are saved 
 and yield their fertility to the land ; whUe such vegetation as 
 decays on the surface loses much of its value by evaporation 
 and drainage. In the green state, fermentation is rapid, and 
 by resolving the matter of plants into their elements, it fits the 
 ground at once for a succeeding crop." 
 
 The proper time to turn in most plants used as green manure 
 is at the season of blossoming. 
 
 The same effects follow the plowing of grass lands, and turn- 
 ing under the turf; and the thicker and heavier the sward the 
 better, since then a larger amount of organic matter in the form 
 of roots is added to the soU. 
 
 1. Straw, Leaves, etc. — Straw, leaves, hay are usually applied 
 to the lands after they have either been worked over by ani- 
 mals and mixed with their manures, or composted with other 
 substances and decomposed ; but clayey soils are benefited by 
 their application in an undeeayed state. 
 
 Potato tops or haulm; bean haulm; weeds, pulled before 
 they have seeded, and all kinds of vegetable refuse, are readily 
 decomposed by the addition of a small quantity of animal sub- 
 stances or lime, and should be carefully composted. 
 
 3. Sea-weed. — Sea-weed and pond-weed form valuable ma- 
 nures. The former is particularly rich in the substances most 
 needed by our crops, the ash containing, according to Professor 
 Johnston, the following constituents and proportions : 
 
 Potash and soda from 15 to 40 per cent. 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Common aalt 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 Bulphurlc acid 
 
 Silica 
 
 Farmers who live near the c^ast should embrace every op- 
 
 " 8 
 
 " 21 " 
 
 " T 
 
 " 15 " 
 
 " 8 
 
 " 85 " 
 
 " 8 
 
 " 10 " 
 
 " 14 
 
 " 81 " 
 
 " 1 
 
 " 11 " 
 
Mantjees. 31 
 
 portnnity of getting it. It may be plowed in green or applied 
 aa a compost. In either case, it decomposes very rapidly, and 
 its effects are immediately seen. 
 
 4. Cotton Seed. — At tlie Soiith, cotton seed is much used as a 
 manure, and is very valuable for that purpose. It is applied at 
 the rate of from eighty to a hundred bushels per acre. It may 
 be sown broadcast and plowed in during the winter, when it 
 wiU rot before spring, or it may be left in heaps to heat tai its 
 vitality is destroyed, when it may be thrown upon the corn 
 hills and covered with the hoe or plow. 
 
 5. Turf, Muck, Mud, ete.— Kich turf, fall of the roots of the 
 grasses and decayed vegetable matter, is valuable as an absorb- 
 ent of animal or other manures in compost heaps. Mixing it with 
 lime, and leaving it several weeks to decompose, is a good pre- 
 paratory process. 
 
 Swamp muck, pond mud, and the scourings of old ditches, 
 are exceedingly rich in vegetable matter, and may as well be 
 mentioned here as anywhere else. These are all exceedingly 
 useful as manures ; but differ in richness according to the cir- 
 cumstances under which they have been formed. "When there 
 is no outlet for the water and sediments, and the mud, besides 
 containing a large proportion of salts, the result of ages of evap- 
 oration, is the receptacle of the remains of myriads of minute 
 shell-fish, animalculae, infusoriaa, and the spawn and exuvia of 
 frogs and other occupants, the mud is especially valuable. Such 
 reservoirs of vegetable nutrition are mines of wealth to the 
 farmer, if judiciously applied. 
 
 Dana, in his valuable "Muck Manual," says: 
 
 " The salts of geine* in a cord of peat are equal to the ma- 
 nure of one cow for three months. It is certainly very curious 
 that Nature herself should have prepared a substance whose 
 agricultural value approaches so near to cow-dung, the t^-pe of 
 manures. Departing from cow-dung, and wandering through 
 
 ♦ G-eine, in its agricultural sense, includes all the decomposed organic mat« 
 lers of the soil. In some form it is absolutely essential to agriculture. 
 
32 The Faem. 
 
 all the varieties of animal and vegetable manures, we land in a 
 peat-bog. The substance under our feet is analyzed, and found 
 to be cow-dung, without its musty breath of cow odor, or the 
 power of generating ammonia, except some varieties of peat. 
 The power of producing alkaline action on the in- 
 soluble geine is alone wanting to make it equal to cow-dung.'' 
 
 According to this statement, we have but to add an alkali 
 in the proper proportion, to produce a manure equally valu- 
 able with cow-dung. From sixteen to twenty-four bushels, ac- 
 cording to their strength, of wood ashes, or about sixty pounds 
 of soda ash, will supply in f uU the lacking elements ; but as 
 clear cow-dung may profitably be mixed with two parts of loam 
 or muck, so two thirds of the alkali may be omitted from the 
 muck mixture, to make it correspond with the cow-dung com- 
 post. 
 
 "The best plan," Dana says, "for preparing the artificial ma- 
 nm-e, is to dig the peat in the fall, and mix it in the spring with 
 eight bushels of common house ashes or twenty pounds of soda 
 ash to every cord of muck, estimating the quantity when fresh 
 dug, and making no allowance for shrinkage. If ashes be used, 
 they may be mixed at once witjj the muck, but the soda ash 
 should be dissolved in water and the heap evenly wet with it. 
 In either case it must be well shoveled over. If leached or 
 spent ashes be used, add one cord to three cords of the muck." 
 
 The salt and lime mixture, described in another section, 
 may be added to muck in the proportions of four bushels of the 
 mixture to one cord of the muck, making a very effective ma- 
 nure ; or the latter may be composted with stable manure or 
 any animal matter found about the house or barn. 
 
 2. Animal Manures. 
 
 These comprise the flesh, blood, hair, bones, horns, excre- 
 ments, etc., of animals. They contain more nitrogen than veg- 
 etable manures, and are far more powerful. 
 
 1. Stable Manures. — The standard manure of this country 
 is that from the stable and barn-yard. The principal varietie* 
 
Manures. 33 
 
 are those of the ox, the cow, the horse, and the sheep. Of 
 these, that of the horse is the most valuable in its fresh state, 
 but is very liable, as ordinarily treated, to lose much of its value 
 by fermentation ; that of the sheep comes' next; while that of 
 the cow is placed at the bottom of the list, because the enrich- 
 ing substance of her food goes principally to the formation of 
 milk. That of the ox is better. The value of each of these 
 manures varies also with the food and condition of the animals 
 from whom it is obtained. 
 
 The manure of any animal is richer than the food given to it, 
 because it contains, in addition to the residuum of the food, cer- 
 tain particles belonging to the body of the animal. The extent 
 to which it is animahzed depends upon the thoroughness of the 
 digestion, fatness of the animal, and the drain made upon the 
 elements of nutrition by the system. The manure of well-kept 
 cattle, it is readily seen, is far more valuable than that from 
 those which are barely kept alive. 
 
 All the urine, as well as the solid excrements of animals, 
 should be carefully preserved. It is very rich in nitrogen and 
 the phosphates, and some writers on agriculture contend that 
 its value, if properly preserved and applied, is greater than that 
 of the dung. From an experiment made in Scotland, it appears 
 that In five months each cow discharges urine which when ab- 
 sorbed by loam furnishes manure enough of the richest quality 
 and most durable effects for half an acre of ground. Think of 
 this, ye American farmers, who are accustomed to allow so 
 much of this richness to run to waste ! The urine of three cows 
 for one year is worth more than a ton of guano, which would 
 cost from fifty to sixty dollars ! Will you continue to waste 
 urine and buy guano? Various methods of preserving and 
 applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer. 
 Stables may be so constructed that the liqiuid discharges of the 
 cattle, together with the wash of the barn-yard, may be con- 
 ducted to a tank or cistern, to be pumped out and applied di- 
 rectly to the land, or absorbed by saw-dust, charcoal dust, turf, 
 etc., and used in that form. If allowed to stand long in the 
 
34 The Faem. 
 
 tank, in a liquid form, fermentation is liable to take place, and 
 the ammonia to pass off; but a few pounds of plaster of Paria 
 occasionally thrown in will cause the formation of the sulphate 
 of ammonia, which will not evaporate. 
 
 But the waste of manures is not confined to tho-; of the 
 liquid form. The solid excrements of the animals are often 
 left to drain, bleach, or ferment, tiU the greater portion of their 
 most valuable elements have disappeared. Stable manures 
 should ie sheltered from the sun and rain, and fermenting heaps 
 so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the escape of the fer- 
 tilizing gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine, will aid in re- 
 taining the ammonia. Boussingault, one of the most accurate 
 of experimenters in agricultural chemistry, states that while 
 the nitrogen in fresh horse-dung is two and seven tenths per 
 cent., that in the fermented and dried dung is only one per cent. 
 Horse-dung should be mixed at once with other manures, or 
 with turf or loam, to retain its fuU value. The manure of sheep 
 is strong and very active, and, next to that of the horse, is most 
 liable to heat and decompose. 
 
 2. Mog Manure. — ^The manure of swine is strong and valu- 
 able. Swamp muck, weeds, straw, leaves, etc., should be thrown 
 into the sty in liberal quantities, to be rooted over and mixed 
 with the dung. In this way from five to ten loads of manure 
 per annum may be obtained from a single hog. 
 
 3. TJie Manure of Fowls, etc. — The excrements of birds con- 
 tain both the feces and urine combined, and are exceedingly 
 rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. The manure of hens, 
 turkeys, geese, ducks, and pigeons should be carefully coUeoted 
 and preserved. Do not think that because the quantity is 
 small, it is hardly worth the trouble of collection. Professor 
 Norton says that three or four hundred i)Ounds of such ma- 
 nure, that has not ieen exposed to the rain or sun, is equal in 
 value to from fourteen to eighteen loads of stable manure I It 
 may be kept dry, reduced to a powder, and applied as a top 
 dressing, or formed into a compost with muck, turf, decayed 
 leaves, charcoal dust, or other absorbents. If exposed to tha 
 
Manuebs. 
 
 35 
 
 weather uncovered, much of its value is quicldy destroyed. 
 The custom adopted by some farmers of mixing the excrements 
 of fowls with unleaohed ashes, quick-lime, etc., is not founded 
 on correct principles, and inevitably deteriorates the manure. 
 
 4. Onano. — Guano is formed from the excrements of sea- 
 birds, mixed with the remains of the fish on which they prey, 
 their own carcasses, and other animal matters. It is found iu 
 tropical latitudes, where it seldom rains, and where immense 
 numbers of sea-birds have resorted for ages, to build their nests 
 and rear their young. Here their excrements, etc., have accu- 
 mulated till beds of from fifteen to thirty feet in thickness have 
 in some instances been formed. Of its value as a manure there 
 can be no doubt ; but circumstances must determine whether 
 in any given case it can profitably be purchased and applied at 
 the prices at which it is held. 
 
 Professor Norton gives the composition of a few of the lead- 
 ing varieties of guano as follows : 
 
 VAKIE I'Y. 
 
 ■Wrttur, per 
 Ctill t. 
 
 OigHiiic Mut- 
 ter snd Am- 
 
 monlacnt Salta. 
 
 Phosphates. 
 
 
 5-7 
 
 7-10 
 
 10-13 
 
 18-26 
 
 ■ 56-M 
 66-66 
 60-66 
 86-44 
 
 25-29 
 16-23 
 22-80 
 21-29 
 
 
 ChUian 
 
 
 The guano of commerce is often adulterated, and great cau- 
 tion should be exercised in buying it. That purchased directly 
 from the agent in Peru, in New York, may, it is said, be relied 
 upon as absolutely pure. 
 
 In applying guano, care should be taken that it do not come 
 in contact with any seed, as it might destroy its vitality. 
 
 5. Fish Manures. — These are available near the sea-coast 
 only, where they furnish an important source of fertility, which 
 should not be neglected. The flesh of fish acts with great 
 energy in hastening the growth of plants. It decomposes 
 rapidly, and should be at once plowed under, or made into a 
 well-covered compost heat. 
 
 6. Night (Sbi7.— From the analysis of Berzelius, the excre- 
 
36 The Farm. 
 
 ments of a healthy man yielded— water, 733 ; albumen, 9 ; bile, 
 9; mucilage, fat, and the animal matters, 167; saline matters, 
 12 ; and undecomposed food, 70, in 1,000 parts. When freed 
 from water, 1,000 parts left, of ash, 132; and this yielded — car- 
 bonate of soda, 8 ; sulphate of soda, with a little sulphate of 
 potash and phosphate of soda, 8 ; phosphate of lime and mag- 
 nesia, and a trace of gypsum, 100 ; silica, 16. 
 
 Human urine, according to the same authority, gives in every 
 1,000 parts — of water, 933 ; urea, 30.1 ; uric acid, 1 ; free acetio 
 acid, lactate of ammonia, and inseparable animal matter, 17.1 ; 
 mucus of the bladder, .3 ; sulphate of potash, 3.7; sulphate of 
 soda, 3.2; phosphate of soda, 2.9; phosphate of ammonia, 1.6; 
 common salt, 4.5 ; sal-ammoniac, 1.5 ; phosphates of lime and 
 magnesia, with a trace of silica and of fluoride of calcium, 1.1. 
 
 Urea is a solid product of urine, and, according to Prout, 
 gives — of carbon, 19.99 ; oxygen, 26.63; hydrogen, 6.65 ; nitro- 
 gen, 46.65, in 100 parts. The analyses of Woehler and Liebig 
 differ immaterially from this. Such are the materials, abound- 
 ing in every ingredient that can minister to the production of 
 plants, which are suffered to waste in the air, and taint its 
 purity and healthfulness. Boussingault considers the excre- 
 ments of a single man during a year sufficient to produce four- 
 teen and a half bushels of wheat. 
 
 Doubtless much of the waste of night-soil, which has been 
 permitted in this country, has resulted from the offensive odor 
 it imparts and the supposed difficulty of managing it. These 
 difficulties are easily obviated in various ways. Allen, in 
 his "American Farm Book," recommends that tight wooden 
 boxes, with hooks on the outer side, to which a team may be at- 
 tached for drawing them out, be placed under the privy. Tliese 
 boxes should have a layer of charcoal dust, charred peat, or 
 plaster of Paris at the bottom, and others successively as they 
 become filled. These materials are cheap, compact, and read- 
 ily combine with the volatile gases. Sulphuric acid is more 
 efficient than either, but more expensive. Quick-lime will neu- 
 tralize the odor, but it expels the enriching qualities ; and if it be 
 
Manuees. 37 
 
 intended to use the night-soil, lime should never be mixed with 
 it. Both the charcoal and peat condense and retain the gasea 
 in their pores, and the sulphuric acid of the gypsum leaves the 
 lime, and like the free acid, combines with the ammonia, form- 
 ing sulphate of ammonia, an inodorous and powerful fertilizer. 
 Raw peat, turf, dry tan-bark, saw-dust, and leached ashes are 
 aU good ; but as more bulk is needed to effect the object, their 
 use is attended with greater inconvenience. From its great 
 tendency to decompose, night soil should be immediately cov- 
 ered with earth when exposed to the air. 
 
 1. Flesh, Blood, Sair, etc. — Dead animals, the blood and of- 
 fal from slaughter-houses, are among the most powerful of fer- 
 tilizers — equal to guano and the other costly manures ; and yet 
 it is not uncommon to see horses or cattle that die from disease 
 drawn out into the wood to decay on the surface of the ground. 
 Every animal that dies should be made into compost at once. 
 Covered with a few inches of turf or loam, decomposition goes 
 on without the loss of the fertilizing element, and a manure of 
 the most valuable kind is produced. In large animals the flesh 
 should be separated from the bones, and the latter be subjected 
 to one of the processes described in the next section. 
 
 Hair, woolen rags, leather shavings from the shoe-shops, and 
 all other refuse animal matters, should be carefully preserved 
 and composted, as they make very rich manure. 
 
 8. Bones. — The value of bones as a manure is just beginning 
 to be appreciated in this country. "They unite," Professor 
 Norton says, " some of the most efficacious and desirable organic 
 and inorganic manures." Boiled bones have lost most of their 
 organic parts, but are stOl very valuable, being rich in phos- 
 phate of lime. They are generally crushed to fine fragments 
 in mills, and thus applied to the land. Another way of apply- 
 ing them is in a state of solution, by sulphuric acid (oil of vit- 
 riol). Professor Norton thus describes the process of dissolv- 
 ing them : 
 
 " To every hundred pounds of bones, from fifty to sixty pounds 
 of the acid is taken ; or if bone-dust be used, from twenty-five to 
 
38 The Faem. 
 
 forty-five pounds of the acid will be sufficient. The acid must 
 be diluted with three times its bulk of water. The bones are 
 placed in a tub and a portion of the acid, previously diluted, 
 poured upon them. After standing a day, another portion ot 
 the acid may be poured on ; and finally the last on the third 
 day, if they be not already dissolved. The mass should be 
 often stirred. It wiU dissolve into a kind of paste, which may 
 be mixed with twenty or thirty times its bulk of water, and 
 applied to the land by means of an ordinary water cart; but a 
 more convenient method, in most cases, is to thoroughly mix 
 the pasty mass with a large quantity of coal ashes, earth, saw- 
 dust, or charcoal dust. It can then be sown by hand or dropped 
 from a drill machine. Two or three bushels of these dissolved 
 bones, with half the usual quantity of yard manure, will be suf- 
 ficient for an acre." 
 
 Bones make a cheap as well as a rich manure, and no thought- 
 ful former will suffer one to be wasted about his house. 
 
 3. MiNKBAi MaOTIBBS. 
 
 1. Lime. — Lime is applied to land in three different states — 
 as quick-lime, slaked lime, and mild or air-slaked lime. To 
 cold, stiff, newly drained land, especially if there exist in it 
 much of acid organic compounds, it is best to apply quick-lime 
 or caustic hydrate (slaked lime), as it will have a more energetic 
 effect in ameliorating it. On light soils mild or air-slaked 
 lime is considered most beneficial. It is best to apply lime 
 frequently and in small quantities, so as to keep it near the sur- 
 face and always active. 
 
 Lime, as we have seen, is an essential ingredient in soil, being 
 constantly needed by the plants in all their parts. It may always 
 be added with profit wherever it does not already exist in suf- 
 ficient quantity. 
 
 2. Mark. — -In true marl the principal element of fertility is 
 the lime which it contains ; but its value is increased by the 
 greater or less proportion of magnesia and phosphoric acid 
 which are usually combined with it. 
 
Manctees. 39 
 
 A valuable mineral fertilizer generally called marl, but which 
 contains comparatively little lime, abounds in parts of New 
 Jersey and Delaware. Its predominant characteristic is a green 
 granular mineral or sand. The carbonate of lime in shells, 
 scattered through it, varies from ten to twenty per cent, in some 
 specimens, while others are almost entirely destitute of it. The 
 secret of its value lies chiefly in the from ten to twelve per cent, 
 of potash which the best specimens contain. Magnesia is also 
 often present. Its effects upon the light sandy soils of New 
 Jersey are very striking indeed. 
 
 3. Gypsum. — Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of 
 lime, and has been found one of the cheapest and most power- 
 ful fertilizers derived from the mineral kingdom. In reference 
 to the manner in which plaster acts there has been some con- 
 troversy among agricultural chemists ; some contending that it 
 serves as a direct food of certain plants, while others maintain 
 that its utility is due to its power of absorbing gases and hold- 
 ing them in contact with the roots of plants. Late experiments 
 seem to prove that it acts in both these modes. When scat- 
 tered over compost heaps, it is known to absorb ammonia and 
 prevent its escape. On grass lands it is best to sow it in damp 
 weather or while the dew is on. Sow broadcast at the rate of 
 a bushel to the acre. Seed potatoes may be wet and rolled in 
 plaster before planting with decided advantage; and we know 
 of no better way of applying it to corn than to give the seed a 
 coat before putting it in the ground. Hon. A. B. Dickenson's 
 mode of applying plaster, lime, etc., is an excellent one. We 
 insert his directions as given in one of his inimitable agi-icultu- 
 ral addresses: "I will tell you how you can put a coat of tar 
 over all kinds of seed as evenly as a painter could put a coat of 
 paint over a board with his brush. An iron kettle is the best 
 to mix the tar and water. Have sufficient boiling water to cut 
 the tar ; mix it with the hot water; then pour in sufiicient cold 
 to make it near blood heat. Have sufficient water to stir what- 
 ever grain you put in, that the water and tar may come into 
 eontact with every part and particle ; it will then be coated 
 
40 The Faem. 
 
 evenly and is ready to be taken out. Shovel it into a basket — 
 for economy the basket may be placed over a tight barrel tc 
 oatch the water; us soon as it is done draining, throw into a 
 tight box, wiiere you can mix and put on whatever your soil 
 lacks. If wheat or barley, you need not fear to apply lime and 
 salt. If oats, corn, or buckwheat, plaster and salt. And on 
 the soils of Yates County it would be beneficial to all of the 
 above-named grains, to steep in strong brine over night. Every 
 species of grass seed I sow with a heavy coat, and fasten as 
 much plaster as possible, which draws moisture in a dry season, 
 and prevents rotting in an excessively wet one, and I never fail 
 to have my grass seed take well." 
 
 4. Common Salt, etc. — Common salt or chloride of sodium 
 has been in use for ages as a fertilizer, and its great value can 
 not be disputed. As an ingredient in compost, it is of great 
 service, and operates with an influence upon the soil which can 
 be produced by no other stimulant, either mineral or vegetable. 
 As to top dressing for grass lands — especially those of a loamy 
 texture — it is invaluable. Mixed with wood ashes and lime, in 
 the proportion of one bushel of salt to three of ashes and five 
 of lime, it constitutes a very energetic manure for Indian corn 
 — producing an early and vigorous germin.ation of the seed, and 
 acting as an efficieiit protection against the ravages of the vari- 
 ous insectivorous enemies by which the young plants are too 
 frequently infested and destroyed. 
 
 A very useful and energetic mixture is made by the following 
 simple process : 
 
 "Take three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of 
 salt in as little water as will dissolve it, and slake the lime with 
 it. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once — which it 
 will if good and fresh burned — turn it over and let it lie a day 
 and add a little more of the brine ; and so continue to do tiU it 
 is all taken up." 
 
 This mixture wUl supply plants with chlorine, lime, and soda, 
 all of which are essential ; destroy the odor of putrefying animal 
 matters, whUe it retains the ammonia, and promotes the de- 
 
Manures. 
 
 41 
 
 somposition of vegetable and animal matters in the soil or 
 sompost heap to which it may be applied. The farmer should 
 keep a quantity of this mixture constantly on hand. 
 
 Brine which has been used for salting meat or fish is still 
 more valuable than that newly made, as it contains a portion 
 o' blood and other animal matter. 
 
 Whenever refuse nitrate of potash — that is, common salt- 
 peter — or refase liquid in which it has been dissolved for 
 pickling meat, can be procured, it should be carefully preserved 
 and mixed into a compost heap. 
 
 There are various other salts which are valuable as manures, 
 but the high price at which they are sold precludes their use 
 in ordinary cases. 
 
 5. Ashes. — Ashes, as we have seen, compose the entire inor- 
 ganic parts of plants. Eeturned to the soil, they may again be 
 taken up by the growing vegetation. Their great usefulness 
 as a manure is evident and undisputed. The ashes from differ- 
 ent trees differ materially in composition and value ; but all are 
 highly useful applications to every kind of soil and crop. 
 Johnston gives the composition of the ash from oak and beech 
 as follows : 
 
 PEll-CENTAGE OF 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Common salt 
 
 Lime 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 MagDesia 
 
 Oxyd of iron 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Silica 
 
 8.4S 
 
 15.83 
 
 5.64 
 
 2.79 
 
 0.02 
 
 11.28 
 
 74.63 
 
 62.37 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.31 
 
 4.49 
 
 11.29 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.79 
 
 8.46 
 
 3.07 
 
 0.78 
 
 1.32 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 "Ashes," Allen observes, "are to the earthy part of vege- 
 tables what milk is to the animal system, or barn-yard ma- 
 nures to the entire crop ; they contain every element, and 
 generally in the right proportions, to insure a full and rapid 
 growth." 
 
 Leached ashes have lost some of their value, being deprived 
 
42 The Faem. 
 
 of the greater portion of their potash and soda, bnt are still 
 very useful as manures. 
 
 Coal ashes are less valuable than wood ashes, but are by no 
 means to be neglected by the farmer. 
 
 Soot is exceedingly valuable as a manure, and the small 
 quantity produced should be carefully saved. 
 
 IT.— MANAGEMENT OF MANUEE8. 
 
 Great skill and care are requisite in the management of 
 manures, in order to preserve them from waste and secure their 
 greatest efficiency. Some hints on this point have already been 
 dropped in speaking of the different kinds of manure. We 
 have room for only a few additional suggestions. 
 
 1. Fermentation. — The comparative advantages of using fer- 
 mented and unfermented manure is still under discussion among 
 scientific agriculturists; but that great loss takes place when 
 manure ferments uncovered iy some absorient of the fertilizing 
 gases is clear to every observer and thinker. See to it, then, 
 that all fermenting manure is covered with turf, muck, charcoal 
 dust, saw-dust, or plaster, to take up and retain the ammoniacal 
 gases as they arise. 
 
 2. Digging over Manures. — The frequent digging over of 
 barn-yard manure, practiced by some farmers, while it promotes 
 decomposition, also leads to great waste. 
 
 3. Hauling Manure in Winter. — The opinion is now gaining 
 ground that when it can be conveniently done, the best way to 
 secure to the land the greatest possible benefit from stable and 
 barn-yard manure is to draw them at once, so fast as they are 
 produced, to the fields where they are to be used, and either 
 spread them at once or deposit them in heaps so small that no 
 putrefactive fermentation will take place. In many cases, ma- 
 nures may be hauled in the winter with great economy, as the 
 labor of the teams and hands is in less demand elsewhere. A 
 correspondent of one of our agricultural journals, who hauled 
 and spread a part of his manure in the winter and a part imme- 
 diately before planting, in May, says : 
 
Mantjkes. 4:3 
 
 "Where the manure was applied in the winter, the corn 
 started earlier and continued ahead through the season ; it also 
 yielded the heaviest growth and the largest, soundest ears. I 
 have followed this plan at different times, and have always been 
 pleased with the result. In hot weather, I plow the manure 
 under immediately after spreading." 
 
 4. A Caution. — Never mix quick-lime with any animal 
 manure, as it will cause the escape of ammonia and greatly 
 deteriorate the manure. 
 
 5. Burying Manure. — Here again doctors disagree. Some 
 advocate burying manure very deeply, others slightly, and still 
 others would leave it upon the surface. The best general rule, 
 we believe, is to mix it so thoroughly as possible with every 
 part of the soU. The roots will then be sure to find it. A few 
 crops— onions and some of the grasses, for instance — must find 
 their nutriment near the surface, as the roots do not extend 
 deeply ; for these a top dressing may be best. 
 
 6. Importance of Texture. — J. J. Thomas, in an excellent 
 article on the " Effective Action of Manures," says : 
 
 "Far more important than the mere presence of fertilizing 
 ingredients, or even the chemical condition of those ingredients, 
 in many cases, is their mechanical texture and degree of pulver- 
 ization. We have elsewhere given an instance, furnished by 
 one of the most eminent scientific and practical cultivators of 
 our country, where the complete crushing of the clods of an 
 adhesive soil, and the grinding together with them into powder 
 the manure applied to the land, produced an effect upon the 
 subsequent oropj^®« times as great as the ordinary operation of 
 manure. How absurd it must be to make strict calculations on 
 the result of a given quantity of yard manure, without ever 
 inquiring into the mode of application — whether, on the one 
 hand, by spreading in large, unbroken lumps, carelessly and 
 imperfectly plowed under, and in a condition wholly useless for 
 plants, or even detrimental in case of drouth — or, on the other, 
 by a thorough harrowing of the soil and manure together, 
 before turning under and a repetition of the operation when 
 
4:4: The Farm. 
 
 necessary afterward for complete intermixture, "We have 
 ^nown the most admirable results by this practice, where 
 nothing but fresh, coar«e manure could be obtained for succulent 
 garden crops, and nearly a total failure under like circumstaQces 
 without its performance. Even the time of year that manure 
 lias been carted on tbo land, has sometimes had an injurious 
 bearing on the sur cess of its application, simply by the packing 
 and hardening reaujting from traveling over its surface wheD 
 in a wet and adhesive condition. It is a perfectly self-evident 
 truth, that a mixtire of unburned bricks and clods of manure, 
 would afford inrimeasurably less sustenance to the fine and 
 delicate fibers of growing plants, than the same mixture ground 
 down together :'.t(^ a fine powder. Hence it may be reasonably 
 believed that the general introduction and free use of pulver- 
 izers, as the most effective harrows, clod-crushers, and subsoilers, 
 assisted by tUe-draining, may be of greater benefit to the whole 
 country than the iiiportation of a million tons of guano." 
 
 T.— COMPOSTS. 
 
 Composts of various kinds have already been recommended 
 and described ; but a few words more : 
 
 Let nothing that is capable, when decomposed, of furnishing 
 nutriment to your growing crops be permitted to go to waste 
 about your premises. A compost heap should be at hand to 
 receive all decomposed refuse. The best basis for this heap 
 is well-dried swamp muck; but where this Is not readily ob- 
 tained, procure rich turf scraping from the roadside, leaves and 
 surface soil from the wood lands and the sides of fences, straw, 
 chips, corncobs, weeds, etc., aiding the decay of the coarser 
 materials by the addition of urine or the lime and salt mixture 
 mentioned in a previous section. Let this be composted with 
 any animal matter found about the premises, or in the vicinity : 
 the carcasses of all dead animals, large or small, offal of every 
 kind, woolen rags, bones, old boots, shoes, and waste leather of 
 every description, the droppings of the hen-roost, soap-suds, 
 salt, brine, all drai^ings from the sink spout, slops from the 
 
Manttees. 45 
 
 ch&m'bers, and cleanings from the privy : let all go to the com- 
 post heap. And whatever will not decay there, with sufficient 
 rapidity, without assistance, aid its decay hy the addition of 
 such substances as will facilitate the object. Bones, leather, 
 etc., may be softened so as to pulverize readi'y, by being packed 
 in ashes and kept moist a few months ; and if the whole be 
 sufficiently covered with muck during the process, there will be 
 no loss of any element ; or they may be packed in an old cask 
 in a strong solution of potash, or may be prepared with sulphur- 
 ic acid in the most scientific manner, and when thus prepared 
 in either of these ways, will add greatly to the value of the 
 compost heap. And if it still is not strong enough, add wood 
 ashes to any extent, from one to ten or twelve bushels per cord. 
 
 When thus prepared, our compost heap should be carefully 
 worked over, thoroughly mixing all the different ingredients. 
 It may then be applied to the soil in the 'lame manner with 
 that from the barn-cellar, or in any other way desirable. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing general compost and the various 
 special compounded manures already referred to, every farmer 
 who has swamp muck or peat on his farm should compost it 
 extensively with his stable manure; for it is believed, on the 
 evidence of oarefiil experiment, that two cords of compost pre- 
 pared by mixing daily one cord of dry muck with the same 
 quantity of the solid excrements of animals is fully equal, for all 
 practical purposes, to two cords of the latter preserved and 
 applied without the muck ; and also that two cords of compost, 
 prepared by using that quantity of dry muck, to absorb all the 
 liquid voided by the same animals, during the time required to 
 obtain one cord of solid excrement, to be equal in value to two 
 cords of the former compost. Thus we have four cords of equal 
 value by this process, to every one cord obtained where the 
 manure is thrown out of doors and left exposed to sun, wind, 
 and rain, and all the liquid allowed to ran to waste.* 
 
 These are a few of the ways in which your stock of maniiros 
 
 * "W. Q. "Wyman, in Oo^mtnj Gentleman^ 
 
46 The Faem. 
 
 may be greatly and cheaply increased. Tour own experience, 
 observation, and study will suggest others. 
 
 TI.— lEEIGATION. 
 
 Irrigation is manuring by means of water. "The manner of 
 irrigating must depend on the situation of the surface and the 
 supply of water. Sometimes, reservoirs are made for its recep- 
 tion from rains or inundations ; and at others, they are coUeetod 
 at vast expense, from springs found by deep excavations, and 
 led out by extensive subterraneous ditching. The usual source 
 of supply, however, is from streams or rivulets, or copious 
 springs, which discharge their water on elevated ground. The 
 former are dammed up, to turn the water into ditches or aque- 
 ducts, through which it is conducted to the fields, where it is 
 divided into smaller rills, till it finally disappears. When it is 
 desirable to bring more water on to meadows than is required 
 for saturating the ground, and its escape to fields below is to be 
 avoided, other ditches should be made on the lower sides, to 
 arrest and convey away the surplus water." 
 
 Irrigation contributes to the growth of plants in several ways. 
 
 1. It causes the deposit on the surface of the soil of more or 
 less fertilizing matter brought from a distance by the stream ; 
 
 2. It brings the gases — oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, to 
 the roots of plants in difierent proportions from those in which 
 they exist in the air (but if the water be permitted to remain 
 stagnant on the surface this effect ceases) ; 3. It disposes the 
 soil to those changes, both mechanical and chemical, which are 
 essential to its greater fertility. 
 
 " The advantages of irrigation are so manifest that they should 
 never be neglected, when the means for securing them are 
 within economical reach. To determine what economy in this 
 case is, we have to estimate, from careful experiment, the equiv- 
 alent needed in annual dressing with manures to produce the 
 same amount of grass as would be gained by irrigation ; and to 
 offset the cost of the manure, we must reckon the interest on 
 the permanent fixtures of the dam and sluices, etc. 
 
Manttees 4.7 
 
 " The increase from the application of water is sometimes 
 fourfold, when the soil, the season, and the water are all favor- 
 able, and it is seldom less than doubled. Many fields which, 
 in their natural condition, scarcely yield a bite of grass for 
 cattle, when thoroughly irrigated wiU give a good growth for 
 years, and without the aid of any manures. 
 
 " Light, porous soUs, and particularly gravels and sands, are 
 the most benefited by irrigation. Tenacious and clay soils are 
 liut slightly improved by it unless first made porous by under- 
 draining. It is not only important that water be brought on 
 to the ground, but it is almost equally important that it should 
 pass oflF immediately after accomplishing the objects sought."* 
 
 * B. !>. Alleii, in the "American F^m Book." 
 
48 
 
 The Farm. 
 
 III. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 K mancrlDp Is tlie Bteam-engine which propols the vessel, rotation la the rudder whicb SQUM 
 Bite Us progreaB. — J. J. Thomaa. 
 
 I.— THEOET OF EOTATION. 
 
 b 
 
 following statements and illustratioos of 
 the principles on which rotation in cropping 
 has its foundation, are condensed from Pro- 
 fessor Norton's " Elements of Scientific 
 Agriculture." 
 
 " Suppose the farmer to have a soil which requires, 
 as almost all soils do, the application of manure to 
 render it fertile. He adds a good coating of manure, and then 
 takes off a crop of corn or wheat. This crop will carry away 
 the largest part of the phosphates that were added in the 
 manure. In most cases, therefore, a second crop of the same 
 kind would not he so good as the first ; and the third would be 
 still less. There yet remains, however, from the manure, 
 considerable quantities of other substances, which the grain 
 crops did not so particularly require, such as potash and soda. 
 With this a good crop of potatoes, turnips, or beets may be 
 obtained; and after this there is probably still enough lime, 
 etc., left to produce an excellent crop of hay, if the ground be 
 seeded down with another crop of grain of a lighter character 
 than Indian corn or wheat. 
 
KOTATION OF OeOPS. 49 
 
 We perceive, then, that any good rotation must be founded 
 upon the principle that dilferent classes of crops require differ- 
 ent proportions of the various substances which are present in 
 BoUs, and in the numerous fertilizers which are applied for the 
 purpose of enriching them. Thus the crops may be made to 
 succeed each other with the least possible injury to the soU, and 
 with the greatest economy in the use of manures. 
 
 It would be useless to recommend here any particular sys- 
 tem of rotation as hest; for that must be determined by experi- 
 ence in each section of country, under the various circum- 
 stances of climate, location, and value of crops. Attention 
 may, however, be again called to the fact that there are several 
 distinct classes of crops, considered with reference to the sub- 
 stances which they take from the soU, and that these classes of 
 crops should bear a part in every system of rotation. The 
 principal of these are grain crops, root crops, and grass crops. 
 See table and remarks in section 11 of the previous chapter. 
 
 II.— BENEFITS OF EOTATION. 
 
 J. J. Thomas, in speaking of rotation in cropping, says : 
 " There are other very important requisites in good farming, 
 but they are all accomplished with an increase of expenditure 
 and labor. Manuring, for example, is a most powerful means 
 for improvement ; but both manures and their application are 
 expensive in proportion to the amount applied. Underdrain- 
 ing has wrought wonderful results, but the cost is always a 
 large item, and the same may be said in some degree of deep 
 plowing and subsoiling. But in the arrangement of a rotation, 
 no additional expenditure or labor is necessary ; it costs no more 
 to cultivate crops which are made to succeed each other 
 judiciously, than to cultivate those arranged in the worst man- 
 ner possible. The former may bring triple the successful results 
 of the latter — ^not by the expenditure of five hundred extra 
 days in drawing manure, or five hundred dollars' worth of ditch- 
 ing, but simply by making a proper use of one's brains. 
 " It seems surprising, under the circumstances, that so small 
 3 
 
50 The Faem. 
 
 a number seize the golden prize thus completely placed within 
 their reach — ^that there are so few, even of those reckoned good 
 farmers, who pursue anything like a systematic succession, to 
 say nothing of such a rotation that shall accomplish its pecu- 
 liarly beneficial results, namely, preservation of the riches of 
 the soU, destruction of weeds, destruction of insects, and the 
 most advantageous consumption by each successive crop of all 
 the means for its growth within reach. As a consequence of 
 this neglect, we see land overcropped with wheat, the soU 
 worn out for this particular grain, and those troublesome weeds, 
 chess and red-root, taking its place. We see pastures, left un- 
 plowed for a long series of years, become filled with " butter- 
 cups" and ox-eye daisy. A disproportion of spring crops facili- 
 tates the spread of wild mustard, and among insects, grubs and 
 wire worms increase according to the cultivation that favors 
 their labors. It appears to be but little understood how great 
 is the assistance to clean cultivation afibrded by a good rotation. 
 The best example of this sort we ever witnessed, where every 
 field of the symmetrically laid-out farm, except a wet meadow, 
 was brought under a regular, unvarying system, scarcely a 
 weed was ever to be seen; and we ascertained that not one 
 third of the labor usually expended was required for the hand 
 dressing of hoed crops." 
 
 For something more on this topic, see chapter on 'Tann 
 Management." 
 
Dkaim-ihg. 
 
 IV.- 
 DRAINING. 
 
 If one of our railroAds should be known to pay thirty per cenf. dividend annually, tromttt ng^ 
 Blar earnings, and the stock could be bought at par, what a furious rnah would be made for It 
 Yet there Is a way that farmers may Invest In stocks at home, on their own lande, that will pay 
 thirty to mty per ceut. yearly. This Is In ayatematlc iOe-draMng. We have known many who 
 have tried It, and they geneially say that It is paid for by the Increased crops In two yeai-s. 
 They are good farmere, however.— ^tijiimI lUgixter 0/ Rural ASaira. 
 
 There Is not one farm ont of every seventy-flve In this Stale but needs dralning--yes, much 
 draining— to bring It Into high caltlvatlon.— Cbm. Beport to N. Y. State Ag. Boc 
 
 I.— EFFECTS OF DEAINING. 
 
 OME of the TinfavoraMe effects of an excess 
 of moisture in a soil have already been ad- 
 verted to, and the proper remedy — thorough 
 drainage — pointed out. Thorough drainage implies 
 covered drains, and it is to the advantages of these 
 mainly that we now desire to caU the reader's atten- 
 tion; although, as we have said in a previous chapter, open 
 ditches and water-furrows are very nseM in certain situations. 
 The rain which falls upon a piece of land prepared with prop- 
 erly constructed covered drains never remains to stagnate or to 
 run over the surface, washing off the best of the soil, but sinks 
 gradually down, yielding to the roots of plants any fertilizing 
 matter which it may contain, and often washing out some 
 hurtful substances. As it descends, air and consequently warmth 
 
53 The Faem. 
 
 follow it. Under these new influences the proper decompo 
 sitions and preparations of compounds fit for the sustenance ot 
 plants go on, the soil is warm and sufficiently dry, and plants 
 flourish which formerly would never grow on it in perfection, 
 if at all. It is a curious fact, too, that such sofls resist drouth 
 better than ever before. The reason is, that the plants are able 
 ■ o send their roots much farther down in search of food with- 
 out finding anything hurtful. Every part being penetrated by 
 the air, and consequently dryer and lighter, these soils do not 
 bake in summer, but remain mellow and porous. Such effects 
 can not, in their full extent, be looked for in a stiff clay 
 in a single season ; the change must be gradual, but it is 
 sure.* 
 
 The principal benefits of a system of covered drains are sue 
 cinotly and clearly stated in the following — 
 
 "TBN BEASONS FOE tJNDBEDEAIlSnnSrO. 
 
 " 1. It prevents water which falls from resting on or near 
 the surface, and renders the soil dry enough to be worked or 
 plowed at all times. 
 
 " 2. By rendering the soil porous or spongy, it takes in water 
 without fiooding in time of rain, and gives it oflF again gradually 
 in time of drouth. 
 
 " 3. By preventing adhesion and assisting pulverization, it 
 allows the roots to pass freely through all parts of the soil. 
 
 "4. By facilitating the mixture of manure through the pul- 
 verized portions, it greatly increases its value and effect. 
 
 " 5. It allows water falling on the surface to pass downward, 
 carrying with it any fertilizing substances (as carbonic acid and 
 ammonia), until they are arrested by the absorption of the soil, 
 
 " 6. It abstracts in a similar manner the heat contained in 
 falling rains, thus warming the soU, the water discharged by 
 drain-mouths being many degrees colder than ordinary rains. 
 
 " 7. The increased porosity of the soil renders it a more per 
 
 * Norton's " Elements of Agriculture." 
 
Dkaining. 53 
 
 feet non-conductor of heat, and the roots of plants are less 
 injured by freezing in winter. 
 
 " 8. The same cause admits the entrance of air, facilitating 
 the decomposition of enriching portions of the soil. 
 
 " 9. By admitting early plowing, crops may be sown early, 
 and an increased amount reaped in consequence. 
 
 " 10. It economizes labor, by allowing the work to go on at 
 aE times without interruption from surplus water in spring, 
 or from a hard-baked soil in summer."* 
 
 II.-CONDITIONS EEQUIEING DEAnSTAGE. 
 
 The conditions from which arise the principal causes of mis- 
 chief to undrained land are thus stated by Munn in "The 
 Practical Land-Drainer :" 
 
 "1. Where water has accumulated beneath the surface and 
 originated springs. 
 
 "2. "Where, from the close nature of the substrata, it can 
 not pass freely downward, but ac.umulates and forms its level, 
 or water-line, at a short distance below the surface ; and 
 
 " 3. Whei'e, from the clayey or close texture of the soil, it 
 lies on the surface and becomes stagnant." 
 
 Farmers are. apt to consider land in which the second condi- 
 tion mentioned exists, to be too dry to need draining, yet it is 
 cold and sour, late in spring, apt to bake hard in summer, and 
 very liable to suffer from early frosts in autumn. There is no 
 remedy but underdraining. The necessity of this operation in 
 the other two cases named is obvious. 
 
 III.— PEACTICAL DIEECTIONS. 
 
 1. Preliminary. — The first thing to be done is to examine 
 the field to be drained and determine the plan of drainage best 
 adapted to effect the object in view, and the materials which 
 may most economically be used in constructing the drains. 
 
 3. Braining Springy Soils. — Where the wetness to be rem- 
 edied results from springs having their source in higher grounds 
 
 • "Annual Eogi?'.er of Eural Affairs." 
 
64 The Fabm. 
 
 above the field to be drained, the desired result is gcnerallj 
 attained by making one or more drains across the declivitj 
 about where the low grounds of the valley begin to form, thus 
 intercepting or cutting oflF the springs. These transverse 
 drains must be connected with others, made for the purpose 
 of conveying the water collected in them into some brook, 
 ravine, or other outlet which may be near. 
 
 3. Direction of Drains. — In cases characterized by either of 
 the other conditions specified in the previous section, parallel 
 drains should be cut directly up and down the inclination of 
 the field, and emptying into a main cross drain at the lower 
 side. 
 
 4. Depth and Distance Apart. — ^In reference to depth and 
 distance apart, differences of opinion and of practice prevail. 
 Some cut their drains only about two and a half feet deep and 
 from twelve to twenty feet apart, while others make them from 
 three and a half to five feet deep and from thirty to fifty feet 
 apart. The experience of seme of the most extensive drainers 
 both in this country and in Europe seems to indicate, howeverj 
 that for very heavy, clayey soils, from two and a half to three 
 feet in depth and from twelve to thirty feet apart, generally 
 produce the most satisfactory results. More porous and friable 
 soils may be successfully drained at greater depth and distance. 
 
 5. Digging. — Having marked out your drains at the distance 
 apart decided upon, and got your tiles or other materials ready 
 for laying down the ducts, you may begin to dig, commencing 
 at the lower end, cutting the main drain into which the others 
 are to empty, and then working upward on the parallel drains. 
 Their dimensions must depend mainly upon the material to be 
 used for the ducts. Where they are to be filled with broken 
 stone or brush, they are made wider than where the small, ova] 
 tile, tube, or pipe is to be laid. Where tiles of any kind are 
 to be used, their size must determine the width of the bottom 
 of the drain. The top must be wider for convenience of dig- 
 ging. A narrow spade and a peculiar hoe are necessary for 
 digging and smoothing the bottom of the drain. -There must 
 
Deaining. 
 
 55 
 
 be a gradual fall, of course, from end to end, of which the 
 regular flow of water wiU be a test. For the purpose of keep- 
 ing a uniform grade of descent in cutting drains, a common 
 mason's level will answer ; but the A or span level, represented 
 by the accompanying cut, is 
 better. Such a level may 
 easily be constructed of 
 wood. The span should be 
 either sixteen feet six inches, 
 or half that length. The 
 two feet being placed on a 
 perfectly level floor, the 
 plumb-line wiU hang in the center, where a notch should be 
 cut in the cross-bar. Then place a block of wood, exactly an 
 inch thick, under one leg, and mark the place on the cross-bar 
 that the plumb-line touches. Put a second block of one inch 
 under the same leg, and mark the place of contact of the line 
 with the bar as before, and so on so far as is necessary. Then 
 mark the other side in the same way. When thus prepared, 
 if the span of the level be sixteen feet and six inches, the 
 plumb-line wfll indicate upon the bar, by the number of spaces 
 at which it hangs from the center, the number of inches per 
 rod of the descent. If its span be eight feet and three inches- 
 it wiU, in the same way, indicate the number of inches of 
 descent in half a rod.* 
 
 6. Materials and Const/rucUon. — The ditch thus excavated 
 must now be furnished with a permanent duct through which 
 water may at all times freely pass off. This may be constructed 
 of various substances — brushwood, straw, turf, clinkers from 
 furnaces, wood, brick, stone, and tiles of burned clay. Of 
 these, stone and tUes in their various forms, when they can be 
 procured, are the only materials which we can unconditionally 
 recommend. 
 
 Brushwood Drains. — Where no better materials are avaii- 
 
 * Mann. 
 
56 
 
 The Farm. 
 
 able these will be fouDd, while they last, quite effective; and 
 they are far more permanent than might be supposed. An 
 instance is recorded where they have been found after twenty 
 years in as good condition apparently as when constructed. 
 They are formed by laying down branches or brushwood in 
 the bottom of the drain to form the duct for the passage of the 
 water. The brush are put into the cutting in a slanting direc- 
 tion with the descent of the ground, their root or large ends 
 being toward the bottom. They should be trodden down and 
 covered with inverted turf before filling in. 
 
 Stone Drains. — In reference to their mode of construction, 
 stone drains are of various kinds. The simplest form is that 
 in which the ditch or cutting is filled, to the depth of nine or 
 ten inches, with small stones, covered with inverted turf, shav- 
 ings, or something 
 of the kind. The 
 stones should be 
 about the size of a 
 hen's egg. Where 
 larger ones are 
 used, the earth is 
 apt to fall into the 
 cavities, or mice or 
 rats make their 
 burrows there, and 
 the dyain becomes 
 choked. Some, 
 how«ver, make use 
 of iarger stones, 
 merely covering them with a layer of small stones or gravel, 
 before putting on the sod. When the stones are procured, 
 whether in a natural state or broken, it is desirable to screen 
 them in order to get them assorted as to size. xTie accompany- 
 ing out represents an excellent portable harp o«- s^ireen for that 
 purpose. Having fiUed the ditch to the reqUrtjd depth, and 
 covered the surface carefully with inverted sods, the earth 
 
 THE STONE SCREEN. 
 
Deaining. 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fl^S. 
 
 should be thrown in and trampled hard upon them. The water 
 should find its way into 
 the drain from the sides, 
 and not from the top. 
 
 The accompanying cuts 
 represent other forms of 
 stone drains, in which 
 flat stones are used to 
 form a regular and con- 
 tinuous duct. A drain 
 well constructed in either of these forms may be considered 
 permanent. Where the 
 earth is hard and the quan- 
 tity of water is not large, the 
 form represented by Fig. 4 is 
 the best and cheapest in 
 which a stone drain can be 
 constructed. In making 
 I'ig- 8- stone drains in swampy or 
 very soft ground it is sometimes necessary to lay a plank oi 
 slab on the bottom, before putting in the stones, to prevent 
 them from sinking before the soil shall become dry enough to 
 be firm. 
 
 But in large portions of the country stones can not be pro- 
 cured, and where they can be had, and require to be broken and 
 screened, the expense is considerable ; and it is now found that, 
 In many cases, tiles made of clay and burned are much cheaper. 
 Tile Drains. — The first form of tile drain used was arched 
 and made to rest on a sole or flat tOe laid 
 ' under it ; but the more modern tile pipes 
 Fig. s. are to be preferred, as they are smaller, 
 
 cheaper, and more easily laid. Those with an oval bore (fig. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 6. Fig. T. 
 
 V) are considered better than those with a round one. 
 
 S* 
 
 Th« 
 
58 The Farm. 
 
 tileg are, of course, placed in the bottom of the ditch, -vrMch 
 must be smooth and straight. They are simply placed end to 
 end and wedged a little with small stones, if necessary, and 
 the earth packed hard over them. The water very readily 
 finds lis way in through the pores of the material and at the 
 :f joints. Collars or short outer tiles are 
 I sometimes used to go over the joints, to 
 secure them against getting displaced. 
 An inch pipe is sufficient for most situa- 
 tions. It may seem impossible for the 
 water freely to reach a tile pipe with the 
 earth packed close about it, especially 
 Fig. 8. where the soil is clayey ; but practically 
 
 no difBcnlty occurs. The portion of earth next the drain firs', 
 dries ; and as it shrinks on drying, little cracks begin to radiate 
 in every direction, and to spread until they penetrate the whole 
 mass of the soil within their influence, allowing the superfluous 
 oisture to pass off, and rendering the ground, in the course 
 ■ • a season or two, light, mellow, and wholesome for plants.* 
 For main drains (where the parallel drains do not discharge 
 directly into some open ditch, ravine, or brook, and the former 
 are not constructed of stone or brick), two horse-shoe or arched 
 tiles may be used, one inverted against the other. 
 
 The drains should be connected at the upper end of the fleld 
 by a small drain running at right angles with them. It should 
 be of the same depth as the other drains. 
 
 Where the ground is firm and the drain is made in the sum- 
 mer, and when the length is not great, begin at the upper end 
 to lay the tiles or put in the stones ; but where the ground is 
 liable to fall down at the sides, the safest way is to build the 
 conduit or duct immediately after the earth is taken out of the 
 bottom.! 
 
 IT.— WILL UNDEEDEAINING PAT! 
 
 The Genesee Farmer thus answers this question: This de- 
 
 • Norton. t Munn. 
 
Deaining. 59 
 
 pends on circumstances. If good naturally underdrained land 
 can be obtained in your neighborhood for from $15 to $20 per 
 acre, it would not pay in all probability to expend $30 per acre 
 in underdraining low, wet, or springy land ; but in all districts 
 where land is worth $50 per acre, nothing can pay better than 
 to expend from $20 to $30 per acre injudicious underdraining. 
 The labor of cultivation is much reduced, while the produce is 
 generally increased one half, and is not unfrequently doubled ; 
 and it must he remembered that the increase is net profit. If 
 we get $15 worth of wheat from one acre and $20 worth from 
 the other, and the expense of cultivation is $10 in both cases, 
 the profit from the one is twice as much as from the other. 
 That judicious underdraining will increase the crops one third, 
 can not be doubted by any one who has witnessed its effects. 
 If it should double the crops, as it often does, the profit would 
 be tour-fold." 
 
 It has been remarked, that " to apply manure to undrained 
 land, is to throw money away," an illustration of which is fur- 
 nished by a statement in the Transactions of the New York 
 State Agricultural Society, where seven acres of low, wet land, 
 manured annually at the rate of 25 loads to the acre, produced 
 31 bushels of oats per acre ; but after being thoroughly under- 
 drained at a cost of about $60 for the whole, the first crop of 
 oats without manure was 89J bushels per acre. 
 
 Gov. Wright, in his address before the Wayne County Agri- 
 cultural Society, estimates the amount of marshy lands in Indi- 
 ana at three million acres. These were generally avoided by 
 early settlers as being comparatively worthless, but when 
 drained they become eminently fertile. He says : " I know a 
 farm of 160 acres that was sold five years ago for $500, that 
 by the expenditure of less than $200, in draining and ditching, 
 the present owner refuses now $8,000." 
 
 No estimates of the cost of draining that we could give 
 would be of much practical value. The character of the soil, 
 the cost of the materials, the price of labor, and other circum- 
 stances, must be taken into the account, and these vary so much 
 
60 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 in different localities that they can not be made the basis of 
 any useful general estimates. The following table, showing 
 the number of tiles, of the different lengths made, which are 
 required for an acre, will be useful to those who may desire to 
 purchase just enough for a particular piece of ground. We 
 extract it from Munn's " Practical Land-Drainer :" 
 
 D(STANCE APABT. 
 
 Drains 12 feet apart require. 
 
 .. 15 
 
 " 13 
 
 " 21 
 
 " 24 
 
 " 2T 
 
 ' 80 
 
 12-lnch 
 
 13-Inoh 
 
 14-Iiich 
 
 IS-Inch 
 
 Tiles. 
 
 TiltJH. 
 
 'illtiU. 
 
 TlleB. 
 
 8,630 
 
 8,861 
 
 3,111 
 
 2,9 4 
 
 2,904 
 
 2,681 
 
 2,489 
 
 2,323 
 
 2,420 
 
 2,234 
 
 2,1 174 
 
 1,936 
 
 2,074 
 
 1,914 
 
 1,777 
 
 1.6.59 
 
 1,815 
 
 1,676 
 
 1,656 
 
 1,452 
 
 1,618 
 
 1,480 
 
 1,883 
 
 1,291 
 
 1,462 
 
 1,840 
 
 1,245 
 
 1,162 
 
 1,320 
 
 1,218 
 
 1,181 
 
 1,066 
 
 1,210 ■ 
 
 1,117 
 
 1,037 
 
 968 
 
 In reference to tile-pipe drains, it must be remembered that 
 the ditch may be much narrower than when stones are used, 
 thus making a considerable saving in the expense of digging. 
 The upper part of the earth is taken out with a common spade, 
 and the lower part with one made quite narrow for the pur- 
 pose, being only about four inches wide at the point. 
 
Fences. 
 
 61 
 
 V. 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 BlTe an pye upon your fenceB ! — Famur'i Atmonae. 
 
 I.-EEQUISITES OF A GOOD FENCE. 
 
 HE first essential in a farm fence is perfect 
 efficiency as a barrier against such animals as 
 it is desired to shut in or exclude. Without 
 this quality it is worse than useless. In the 
 second place, it must be so cheap that its cost wiU not 
 exceed, to say the least, the profit to be derived from 
 its existence. Thirdly, it must not require too frequent 
 renewal. It is desirable, also, that it occupy little space, and 
 that it do not present an unsightly appearance. The best fence, 
 therefore, for any given place and time, is the one which com- 
 bines most perfectly all these qualities. In one place this may 
 be stone fence, in another one of posts and rails, in a third a 
 live hedge, etc. In one period of a country's history it may be 
 made of logs, in another cf rails, m a third of growing Osage 
 orange or holly, and in a fourth of wire. 
 
 n.— VAEIOUS KINDS OF FENCE. 
 
 1. Stone Fence. — AV^herever there is plenty of stone, and 
 especially where loose stones abound, and must be removed 
 before the land can be properly cultivated, stone fences are the 
 
62 The Faem. 
 
 best and most economical that can be constructed. When well 
 built, broad, and high, they are perfectly efficient and very 
 permanent. In an esthetic point of view they are far less 
 offensive to the eye of taste than our wooden fences, even of 
 the least objectionable form. After a few years, as we judge 
 from the sober livery of moss with which she decks them, 
 Nature adopts these structures as her own, and they become a 
 legitimate portion of the landscape. 
 
 Where stone is not very abundant, a combination of stons 
 and rail fence is often economically constructed. A substantial 
 foundation of stones is laid, reaching two or two and a half feet 
 above ground, in which posts are placed at proper distances, 
 with two or three bar holes above the wall, for the insertion 
 of an equal number of rails, which for convenience should h» 
 put in when the posts are set. 
 
 2. The Zig-zag or Worm Fence. — In large portions of our 
 country, where there is a superabundance of timber, and econ- 
 omy of space is of little importance, the common zig-zag or 
 worm fence of the West and South is probably the most eco- 
 nomical that can be erected. When well built, it is firm and 
 durable, but unsightly and inconvenient, occupying a great deal 
 of space, harboring vermin, and encouraging the growth of 
 weeds and bushes. 
 
 3. Post-and-Eail Fences. — As timber becomes somewhat 
 more valuable, it ceases to be economical to use it so lavishly 
 as the worm fence requires, and the post-and-rail fence takes 
 its place. This is, in many respects, the best of all the wooden 
 farm fences. 
 
 " The posts," Allen says, " should be placed from two and a 
 half to three feet below the surface, in the center of a large 
 nole and surrounded by fine stone, which must be well pourded 
 down by a heavy, iron-shod rammer, as they are filled in. The 
 post will not stand so firmly at first as if surroundedbv uirt, 
 out it will last much longer. The lower end should be pcin red, 
 which prevents its heaving with the frost. If the position of 
 ttie post while in the tree be reversed, or the upper end of the 
 
Fences. 63 
 
 eplit section of tlie trunk which is used for a post, be placed in 
 the earth, it will be more durable. Charring or partially burn 
 ing the part of the post which is buried, will add to its dura- 
 tion. So also will imbedding it in ashes, lime, charcoal, or 
 clay ; or it may be bored at the surface with a large auger, 
 diagonally downward and nearly through, then filled with salt, 
 and closely plugged. 
 
 " The best timber for posts, in the order of its durability, is 
 red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the 
 Northern and Middle States. I recently saw red cedar posts 
 in use for a porch which, I was assured, had been standing 
 exposed to the weather previous to the Eevolution, a period of 
 over 70 years, and they were still perfectly sound. The avidity 
 with which sUicious sands and gravel act upon wood, renders 
 a post fence expensive for such soils."* 
 
 In some cases, boards may be economically substituted for 
 rails, and firmly nailed to suitably prepared posts. 
 
 4. The Sunlcen Fence. — The sunken fence or wall consists of 
 " a vertical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth, 
 against which a wall is built to the surface of the ground. The 
 opposite side is inclined at such an angle as will preserve the 
 sod against sliding, from the efiects of frost or rain, and is then 
 turfed over. A farm thus divided presents no obstruction to 
 the view, where it is everywhere properly walled in, besides 
 affording good ditches for the drainage of water." Such a 
 fence, properly constructed, might be considered absolutely 
 permanent ; and it would scarcely need repairing at all. 
 
 5. Iron Fences. — Wire and other forms of iron fence are 
 coming into extensive use in some portions of the country. 
 Where there is a deficiency of both timber and stone, the wire 
 fence is probably the best and most economical that can be 
 made. With the improvements lately introduced, especially 
 those made by the New York Wire Bailing Company, these 
 fences are entirely eflScient, and in every way satisfactory, 
 
 * The " Amorican Farm Book." 
 
64 
 
 The Farm. 
 
 The fences are made with horizontal wires, tightened by 
 means of an effective arrangement, so that the whole tension 
 of the rod is obtained. The posts are furnished with contriv- 
 ances of different patterns for security in the ground. The size 
 of the rods varies in accordance with the uses for which the 
 fence is designed. No ordinary domestic animal wiU break 
 through fences of considerably less than i-inch wrought wire, 
 while still larger sizes may be used with the same facility if 
 required. The bright or hard wire is now generally used.* 
 
 "WIRE FENCE, WITH "WOODEN POSTS. 
 
 f We are indebted for the accompanying illustrations of wire fences to tlie 
 Descriptive Catalogue of the New York Wire Bailing Company. John B. 
 ■Wickersham, Superintendent. 
 
 t As it may be useful to some of our readers, we give the prices per rod at 
 which this fence may be procured (packed and shipped) at the warehouse 3f 
 the New York Iron Eailing Company, in Now York. 
 
 For cattle and horses, 5 wires, with iron posts and screws $1 6f5 
 
 " " " 4 " '■• " " 1 84 
 
 " " « 5 " '.' " • 2 00 
 
 " Hogs, sheep, etc. T " " " " 8 40 
 
 « Turkeys, geese, etc 10 " « '< « SOD 
 
 Eacb additional wire, 20 cents per rod. 
 
Fences. 
 
 65 
 
 The accompanying cut exhibits the natural size of the wires 
 most commonly used for farm fences, and shows the manner in 
 
 which they pass through and support the post and are supported 
 by it. The following are the manufacturer's directions for 
 putting up the fence : 
 
 " It is absolutely necessary that the straining pillar, or start- 
 ing post, of wood or iron, at the extreme ends of the fence, 
 should be perfectly firm, as the wires can not otherwise be 
 made tight. Commencing from a tree is recommended, if pos- 
 sible. Plant the posts 12 feet apart, hook in the rails, and at 
 the distance of 150 feet place a screw on each wire. Place the 
 next set of screws at the distance of 300 feet, and so continue.' 
 
 ^N?X, 
 
 ■WIEK KETTING FENOI. 
 
 The wire netting fence furnishes an admirable barrier against 
 small animals, poultry, etc. It costs from $1 50 to |2 75 per 
 
6G 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 rod, according to the lieight and the size of the wire and 
 meshes. 
 
 Another style of iron farm fence is called the " Corrugated 
 Flat Eail Fence." It is in some respects preferable to the 
 round rail or wire, being visible at a greater distance and less 
 liable to sagging. 
 
 6. Hurdle Fence. — The hurdle, or light, movable fence is 
 formed in short panels, and firmly set in the ground by sharp- 
 ened stakes at the end of each panel, and these are fastened 
 together. This is a convenient addition to farms where heavy 
 green crops of clover, lucern, peas, or turnips are required to 
 be fed off in successive lots, by sheep, swine, or cattle. It is 
 variously constructed of wood or iron, and is much less expen- 
 sive than might be supposed, " Wickersham's Corrugated Hur- 
 dle Fence" being furnished by the Wire Railing Company at 
 from |2 50 to $5 per rod, according to weight and quality. 
 
 wiokeksham'b oorrxtgated hubdle fencb. 
 
 7. Hedges. — The live fence, almost universal In England, ia 
 Btill an experiment here. There have been a few successes and 
 many failures in the cultivation of hedges. The causes of fail- 
 ni-e have been various — a wrong choice of trees, the dryness 
 
Fences. 67 
 
 of onr climate, lack of experience in planting, neglect of proper 
 after cultivation and pruning, etc. But the few examples of 
 complete success which may be pointed out prove conclusively 
 that, under proper and easily attainable conditions, live fences 
 are perfectly practicable in this country ; and in some parts of 
 it they are doubtless economical. When well kept, they are 
 certainly very beautiful. 
 
 Among the plants employed in this country with more or less 
 success for hedges are the buckthorn, the hawthorn, the bar- 
 berry, the althea or rose of Sharon, the Osage orange, the 
 American arbor vitae, the American holly, the hemlock spruce, 
 the white cedar, the evergreen thorn {Oratmgus pyraeanthd), 
 the Cherokee rose, and the white Macartney rose. 
 
 For the Middle, Western, and some of the Northern States, 
 the Osage orange seems to be, on the whole, the best. It also 
 succeeds at the South; but there the evergreen thorn, the 
 Cherokee rose, and especially the single white Macartney rose, 
 are preferable. 
 
 The SOU for a hedge row must be deeply plowed or spaded, 
 and, if poor, manured a little. The space thus prepared should 
 be at least two feet wide, and with a soil from eighteen inches 
 to two feet deep. The best way is to open a trench of the 
 required width and depth, throw some well-rotted manure in 
 the bottom, and then fill up with the surface earth. Along the 
 middle of this filled trench stretch a line, and make holes under 
 it in the soft earth every six or eight inches, with a " dibble" 
 or pointed stick. Set your plants in the holes precisely as you 
 would plant cabbages, pressing the earth around the roots, and 
 leaving only one inch of the top visible above the surface. The 
 plants may be either one or two years old, and the tops should 
 be cut off within two inches of the root. The young hedge 
 must be well cultivated for several years, and cut back once or 
 twice a year till it shall be four feet high. The conical shape 
 is best for a hedge, as it admits every shoot to the benefit of 
 the air and light. Where vacancies occur, vigorous shoots 
 may be " layered"— that is, fastened to the ground with hooked 
 
68 The Fakm. 
 
 pegs, when they will take root and send up spronts to fill the 
 open spaces. 
 
 The editor of the Country Oentleman very truly says : " Not 
 one Osage orange hedge in twenty succeeds, simply Itecause it is 
 expected to taJce care of itself after setting out. Constant cul- 
 ture and cutting are as essential as air and food to animals." 
 
 Evergreens make the handsomest hedges ; and although less 
 stout, yet by shutting out sight are usually quite safe. The 
 Norway fir is the fastest grower — the hemlock most beantiflil, 
 and the best of any for the shade of trees; the growth is, 
 however, rather slow. It shears finely, and its interior is 
 dense. The Norway fir also does well on these points. 
 
 At the South we should choose the single white Macartney 
 rose for general cultivation ; although the Cherokee rose, when 
 properly treated, the evergreen thorn, the honey locust, the 
 jujube, and the Spanish bayonet {Yucca gloriosa) all form effi- 
 cient and beautiful hedges. 
 
 Mr. Eedmond, one of the editors of the Southern Cultivator, 
 gives the following directions for the cultivation of rose hedges ; 
 and no one is better qualified to speak on this point : 
 
 " As a general rule, both the Macartney and Cherokee roses 
 are improperly planted. To succeed with them, it is necessary 
 to open two parallel ditches or trenches about four feet apart, 
 heaping the earth along the center in the form of a sloping 
 bank. At the base of this bank, on each side, plant 12-inoh 
 cuttings in December or January, training the tops over the 
 bank from each side. Having this bank as a foundation, they 
 will constantly layer themselves and grow close at the iottom, 
 and will interlace their thorny branches so intricately that no 
 animal can pass through. The ditch on each side forms an 
 additional obstruction to the passage of animals, and forms a 
 definite boundary or limit to the hedge — to which limit only 
 the ends of the branches must be allowed to extend. In trim- 
 ming, a man passes rapidly along the' bottom of the ditch, 
 clipping off even with the inner side all the straggling ends of 
 the plants. In order to explain this system of rose hedges 
 
Fences. 
 
 69 
 
 more fully, we will endeavor to give a drawing hereafter. In 
 the mean time, let it he rememhered that the cuttings must 
 always le planted at the lottom, never at the top of the hank 
 — the latter situation heing too dry to make them grow off 
 vigorously." 
 
 SECTION OP MODEL HEDGE. 
 
 A really good and perfect hedge should form a rounded 
 pyramid, similar to the accompanying cut, hranching out 
 hroadly and close to the ground, and tapering up either sharply 
 or ohtuse, as the taste of the cultivator may determine. This 
 is a fundamental principle in all hedging, and unless it is secured 
 at the outset by proper trimming, it can never he done aftei- 
 ward. 
 
 III.— A HINT OE TWO. 
 
 But let your fence be of what kind it may, it is necessary, in 
 the words of our motto, to " keep an eye" upon it. Some acci- 
 dent may cause a breach in the best fence, and a fence that is 
 not perfectly efficient is worse than none. A fence, to accom- 
 plish the purpose of a fence, must not only be able to '' stand 
 alone," hut must hear a little jostling. Your cattle may very 
 innocently rub themselves against it. If it tumble down, who 
 can blame them if they walk into the adjoining field, or into 
 the highway, as the case may he ? And you underrate their 
 sagacity if you suppose that they will not take a hint from the 
 accident, and rub again for the express purpose of producing 
 the result obtained before without a purpose. Rail bars .are 
 
10 The Faem. 
 
 often slipped out in this way. Gates are mucli better. "When 
 bars are used, they should be let down so near the ground that 
 every animal can step over conveniently ; nor should they be 
 hurried over so fast as to induce any animal to jump. In 
 driving a flock of sheep through them, the lower bars ought to 
 be taken entirely out, or they be allowed to go over the bars in 
 single file. Animals will seldom become jumpers, except 
 through their owner's fault, or from some bad example set 
 them by unruly associates ; and unless the fences be perfectly 
 secure, such ought to be stalled till they can be disposed of. 
 The farmer will find that no animal will repay him the trouble 
 and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops." 
 
 IT.— AEE FENCES NECE8SAET? 
 
 The burden and expense of fence-making is so great that 
 the question has very naturally been raised whether it would 
 not be better, in an economical point of view, to dispense with 
 them entirely. It is said that the greatest investment of capital 
 in this country is in the common fences which divide the fields 
 from the highway, and separate them from each other. Df 
 they pay ? 
 
 In France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, and other parts of En 
 rope, fences are seldom seen. When cattle or sheep are paa 
 tured in these countries, they are placed under the care of « 
 herdsman or shepherd, who, with the aid of his sagacious and 
 well-trained dog, easily keeps a large herd or flock within pre- 
 scribed limits, which are marked by a slight ditch, or in some 
 other simple way. Does the labor of the herdsman and his 
 dog cost more than the fences which would have been required 
 without him ? In those countries undoubtedly not. In refer- 
 ence to the United States we have not the necessary estimates 
 or the exact data on which to base them ; but, according to the 
 figuies given in the following extract from an article puhhshed 
 in the OMo Farmer, it appears that fences do not always pay, 
 even here, where labor costs so much more than in Europe. 
 After mentioning the fact that the ancients had no fences, and 
 
Fences. 71 
 
 that there are none in France, and declaring them wholly un- 
 necessary here, the writer goes on : 
 
 " The fences in our State cost more than its raih-oads. Now, 
 this hnge amount of capital is, to all intents and purposes, dead. 
 More, it is a decaying capital ; annually a large amount of its 
 depreciated stock must be replaced. These repairs cost im- 
 mense sums of timber, time, and hard work. But the evil does 
 not stop here : timber is decreasing in quantity and quality ; for 
 rails, posts, and stakes require a great deal, and that of the best 
 kind, while our vast prairies have no timber at all hardly for 
 fencing. 
 
 " And there are other evUs connected with this expensive 
 and stupid modern invention. Fences become the refuge of 
 vermin and all manner of noxious weeds. Then, too, they act 
 as natural and annual distributors of these weeds. The fence 
 protects the weed till it is ripe, and then furnishes the seed to 
 the first high winds of winter and spring. 
 
 " In addition to these objections to fences, we miglit mention 
 that they occupy a great deal of ground. 
 
 " Now, what are their advantages ? They keep cattle in their 
 proper places, protecting the farmer against his own and other 
 people's cattle. But what need is there for anybody's cattle to 
 run at large? There are laws now prohibiting some kinds of 
 animals from running abroad ; why not extend it to all ? It is 
 our impression that it would be much more economical to hire 
 help to attend them in the field and in the stable than to pay 
 for fences, fencing, and waste lands occupied by fences. 
 
 " "We wiU append a few figures, from our own experience, in 
 order to present to the farming community the importance of 
 looking at this matter. "We claim no special accuracy for our 
 statistics, but they are, in the main, correct ; and if they will 
 call out from one or more of our farmers and agricultural pro- 
 fessors the facts in the case, as they exist in onr State, we shall 
 feel that our object has been accomplished. 
 
 " Taking our own observations as a guide, these are the fig- 
 ures : Chestnut rails are worth six dollars per hundred ; oak 
 
72 The Farm. 
 
 stakes, alout three dollars per hundi-ed. It takes fourteen rails 
 and four stakes per rod for a worm fence ; in round numbers, 
 it costs one dollar per rod. This would be three hundred and 
 twenty dollars per mile, and there were seven miles of fence, 
 making two thousand two hundred and forty dollars for the 
 fencing material. Now, add to this first cost the price of haul- 
 ing, of setting up, or keeping in repair, of decay, and of the 
 waste of land occupied. If you pay for bringing these rails to 
 their proper places and putting them up, the first cost of mate- 
 rial will be three thousand dollars. First cost of material and 
 work, three thousand dollars; interest at six per cent., one 
 hundred and eighty dollars; annual decay, six per cent., one 
 hundred and eighty dollars ; annual repairs, three per cent., 
 ninety dollars ; loss of land, five per cent., one hundred and 
 fifty dollars. Annual cost, five hundred dollars. 
 
 " Oonld not this sum be better used?" 
 
 We suspect that in reference to large portions of the "West, 
 at least, the writer's closing question may be answered in th< 
 a£Srmative. 
 
Faem Implements and Theie Use. 73 
 
 VL 
 
 FARM IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USE. 
 
 'Tit) time to clear your plowshare In the glebe.— Oraham, 
 
 L— THE PLOW. 
 
 i«t^IS^..c- 
 
 /^ 
 
 i ISTORY does not inform ns when plows were 
 first used ; but there are traces of them in the 
 earliest of all written authorities — the Bible. 
 By consulting the sacred records (Deut. xxii. 10) we 
 '^ find that in very early times they plowed with two oxen, 
 J\d and that their plow had a coulter and plowshare (Sam. 
 xiii. 20) ; and drawings of early Greek plows show that 
 they were furnished with wheels. The plows of Rome were 
 of the most simple form. "Nothing,'' J. J. Thomas says, 
 "shows the improvements of modern agriculture more con- 
 spicuously than the difference between the old and new plows." 
 The " old plow" is still used in many countries where farmers 
 do not enjoy the benefit of agricultural periodicals. The accom- 
 panying cut represents the plow at present used in Morocco. 
 It would hardly receive the premium of the State Agricultural 
 Society, and has probably never been patented. It may, how- 
 ever, be made very cheaply, the point only being shod with 
 Iron. In the less civOized regions of Morocco the plow consists 
 only of a crooked limb of a tree, with a projecting branch 
 
74 
 
 The Farm. 
 
 sharpened to a point for scratching up the gronnd. The Moors 
 do not take the agricultural papers.* 
 
 A MOORISH PLOW. 
 
 Compare the rude implement of the Moor with the improved 
 Eagle Plow of Nourse, Mason & Co., here represented. This 
 
 THE EAGLE PLOW. 
 
 is a No. 2, and is a medium-sized two-horse or cattle sod or stub- 
 ble plow. It is adapted to turn sod furrows froiti four to seven 
 inches deep by from twelve to fourteen inches wide, and will work 
 Boinewhat deeper in stubble plowing. It is rigged with the lock 
 coulter, wheel, draft-rod, and dial clevis, as represented by the 
 cut, and with these fixtures is a very strong, and at the same 
 time light plow for two cattle or horses, in plowing stony, 
 stumpy, or rough, uneven land. Or it is riggpd with wheel and 
 cutter, for flat furrows in smooth land. There are other sizes, 
 both larger and smaller than this, and for general use no plow 
 has given better satisfaction. 
 
 An admirable plow for turning under sward deeply is the 
 Double Michigan. " It has two mold-boards. The forward or 
 small one skims the surface, taking oflf a few inches of the top 
 of the sod, and laying it in the bottom of the previous furrow ; 
 
 * Annual Begleter of Bural Affaire. 
 
Faem Implements and Theie Use. 75 
 
 and the second or large mold-board turns up what is left, and 
 completely buries the former. Three strong horses will draw 
 this plow when of the smaller size, and will run a furrow eight 
 or nine inches deep ; but the larger sized plow requires nearly- 
 double this force, and will cut a furrow a foot deep. 
 
 " The Michigan plow prepares sod ground in the best manner 
 for plantiug corn, the mellow soil which is thrown on the sod 
 being deep enough to allow a coat of manure to be buried 
 afterward a few inches by means of a gang-plow. 
 
 " When the subsoil is of such a nature as not to enrich the 
 top soil when thrown up and mixed with it, or when it is de- 
 sirable to loosen up a deep bed of mellow earth to serve as a 
 reservoir for moisture, the subsoil plow serves a valuable pur- 
 pose. It is also useful for loosening the soil to allow the trench 
 or Michigan plow to enter more fully to a greater depth. 
 
 " The subsoil plow merely loosens the earth, but does not 
 turn it up to the surface. It is made to follow in the furrow 
 of a common plow. It runs much deeper than the trench plow, 
 with the same force of team. Four horses attached to a strong 
 plow, running in a furrow seven inches deep, will loosen the 
 earth to a depth of fifteen to eighteen inches. The benefit of 
 subsoEing depends essentially on keeping the ground well 
 drained ; for if the loosened earth is afterward allowed to be- 
 come thoroughly soaked or flooded with water, it soon becomes 
 compacted together again, and the operation proves of no per- 
 manent advantage. This is one fruitful source of failure."* 
 
 The ridging or 
 double mold- ^ 
 board plow is a 
 very useful im- 
 plement. It is 
 used for opening ' 
 drills to plant 
 potatoes, com, etc. ; in plowing between narrow rows; in dig- 
 
 ♦ J. J. Thomas. 
 
 DOUBLE MOLD-BOARD PLOW. 
 
76 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 ging potatoes, etc. No farmer should be without it. It is a 
 light one-horse plow. 
 
 The side-hill or swivel-plow is so constructed that the mold- 
 board is easily and instantly changed from one side to the other, 
 which enables the plowman to perform the work horizontally 
 npon hillsides, going back and forth on the same side, and 
 turning all the furrow slices downward. This prevents the 
 washing of the soil by heavy rains, to which all hUlsides are 
 more or less liable when plowed up and down the slope. Such 
 a plow should be considered indispensable at the South. 
 
 II.— THE HAEEOW. 
 
 Next to the plow in the order of description, as well as of 
 use, comes the harrow. Like the plow, it was anciently a very 
 
 IMPEOVBD HINGE HAEBOV. 
 
 rude implement ; and it is only quite recently that it has reached 
 the high degree of efficiency and facUity of action which char- 
 
Farm Implements and Their Use. 77 
 
 aoterize the beat implements of the present day. "He must 
 have lived to little purpose who is content to use the clumsy, 
 coarse harrow of former days." 
 
 One of the best of the improved harrows is the hinge har- 
 row represented by the accompanying cut. This harrow may 
 be folded double, or separated into two parts, for the conve- 
 nience of transportation or other purpose. Either half may be 
 lifted for any purpose while the implement is in motion ; and the 
 easy and independent play of the parts up and down upon the 
 hinges enables the instrument to adapt itself to the surface of 
 the ground in all places, so that whether going through hollows, 
 or over knoUs or ridges, it ia always at work, and every tooth 
 has an operation upon the soU. - 
 
 The Geddes harrow and the Hanford harrow, triangular in 
 shape, are also excellent implements; and for light grounds, 
 free from stones and other obstructions, the Scotch or square 
 harrow serves its purpose admirably. 
 
 
 The accompanying engraving represents a harrow recently 
 patented by Samuel J. Orange, of Grayville, 111. It involves 
 the rotary principle, the rotation being produced by the press- 
 ure of the rollers g g upon the wheels A A. It has the im- 
 portant advantage, that while it secures the rotation of the 
 wheels, it at the same time avoids side draft. 
 
78 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 m— THE ODXTIVATOE 
 
 This is a useful implement for stirring the soil and killing 
 weeds. It is generally made to be drawn by one horse, and is 
 mostly used between the rows of corn, potatoes, cotton, etc. 
 It is made so as to expand or contract, according to the width 
 of the rows. It saves a great deal of hard labor; but must 
 not be allowed to usurp the place of the plow where deep cul- 
 tivation is required. 
 
 IT.— THE H0E8E HOE. 
 
 Allied to the cultivator is the horse hoe in its various forms. 
 "Knox's patent has four teeth. The forward one is simply a 
 coulter, to keep the implement steady and in a straightforward 
 direction ; the two side or middle teeth are miniature plows, 
 which may be changed from one side to the other, so as to turn 
 the earth from the rows at first weeding, when the plants are 
 small and tender, or toward them in later cultivation — at the 
 option of the operator ; the broad rear tooth effectually disposes 
 of grasses and weeds, cutting off or rooting up all that come in its 
 way. It is a thorough pulverizer of the surface, sifting the earth 
 
 H0B8E HOI FOB COTTON. 
 
 and weeds through its iron prongs or fingers in the rear, leaving 
 the weeds on the surface to wilt and die, and the ground levei 
 
Farm Implements and Theie Use. 79 
 
 and mellow. For hoeing carrots, turnips, etc., where the rows 
 are narrow, the side teeth are taken out, and the rear tooth, 
 with the forward one as a director to guide the instrument, hoes 
 and mellows the ground between the rows very perfectly." 
 Our engraving represents a modification of Knox's horse hoe, 
 adapting it particularly to the cultivation of cotton. 
 
 v.— THE FIELD EOLLEE. 
 
 No good farmer will omit this useful implement from his list. 
 It levels and smooths the plowed land on sowing down to 
 
 "WOODEN FIELD EOLLEB. 
 
 grass, forcing sods and smaU stones into the soft ground, pul- 
 verizing all lumps of earth, pressing the light, loose soil of the 
 surface around the seeds of grain, grass, etc., securing a sure 
 and quick germination and growth of the seeds, and preparing 
 a smooth, even surface for the reaper, scythe, and rake. By 
 making the earth compact at the surface, insects are deprived 
 of shelter ; otherwise the sods, loose stones, and lumps of earth 
 afford them convenient habitations. In spring there is fre- 
 quently great advantage in rolling lands recently sowed to grain 
 and grass, as the earth that has been raised by the frost, exposing 
 the roots of plants, is replaced by the operation, with benefit to 
 the growing crop. The roller is particularly beneficial on light 
 lardf?, of soD too loose and porous to retain moisture and pro- 
 
80 
 
 The Fakm. 
 
 tect the manure from the effects of drying winds and a ecorch 
 ing sun, and too light too allow the roots of plants a firm hold 
 in the earth ; for on such lands its compressing effect, especially 
 in dry seasons, very much increases the product of crop as well 
 as preserves tlje manure from undue evaporation, thus saving a 
 greater portion of its fertilizing properties for the benefit of the 
 land and succeeding crops. 
 
 A SMALL HAND-DEILL. 
 
 TI.— SEED 80WEE9. 
 
 Every farmer or gardener needs a seed-sower of some sort ; 
 
 but one of the small- 
 est and simplest of 
 the many kinds man- 
 ufactured will serve 
 the purpose of the 
 majority of agricul- 
 turists. The light 
 hand-drUl represent- 
 ed by the accom- 
 panying cut will be 
 found entirely satisfactory where the work to be performed by 
 such an implement 
 is limited. The 
 seed sower repre- 
 sented by the next 
 engraving is larger, 
 and rather more ef- 
 fective, but still 
 light and cheap. 
 With proper care, 
 either of those little sebd-sowek. 
 
 implements will do the work required of them, in garden and 
 field, for many years, without requiring renewal or repair. 
 
 TIL— THE H0E8B BAKE. 
 
 The util'ty of this simple implement is not fully realized, we 
 
Fabm Implements and Theie TJse. 81 
 
 are sure, or it would be more generally employed. One man, 
 witli a horse and a boy (and with some of the implements the 
 boy is not required), wUl, upon a favorable surface, perform 
 the work of eight men with hand-rakes. A horse-rake is not 
 an expensive implement, and every farmer should have one. 
 The old revolver is perhaps the best for general use. 
 
 VIII.— M0WEE8, EEAPEE8, ETC. 
 
 Of the expensive labor-saving agricultural implements, like 
 the mower, the reaper, and the thrasher, it does not fall within 
 our purpose to speak, further than to recommend our readers 
 to avail themselves of the grand economies which they afford, 
 whenever they can, by combinations with their neighbors for 
 joint ownership of such machines, or by employing those kept 
 for the purpose of being hired out. The small farmer can not 
 afford to invest capital, of which he generally has too little, in 
 these implements for himself alone. Those who are engaged 
 in cultivation on a large scale, and have adequate capital, should, 
 of course, own these labor-saving machines. 
 
 For a complete list of farm implements, with an approximate 
 estimate of their cost, see the next chapter. 
 
82 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 VII. 
 
 FARM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A lutle farm well tilled ; 
 A little h&Tu -well tilled ; 
 A little wile well willed. 
 
 I.— INTEODUCTOET. 
 
 Y the permission of our muoh respected 
 friend, the author, we here present, un- 
 abridged, the interesting and valuable Essay- 
 on Farm Management, hj J. J. Thomas, 
 wliich obtained the prize from the New York State 
 Agricultural Society, in 1844. The author, in ac- 
 cording permission to use this document, expresses 
 his regret that he has not the leisure to rewrite it, as it was 
 written many years ago, under much disadvantage, and is con- 
 sequently less perfectly adapted to its purpose than he might 
 now make it. The reader will, however, find it, in its present 
 form, worth more than anything else that we could condense 
 into the same space. 
 
 n.— THE PEIZE ESSAY. 
 
 ON FAKM MANAGEMENT. 
 BY J. J. THOMAS. 
 
 The great importance of performing in the best manner the 
 different operations of agriculture is obvious to every intelligent 
 
Faem Management. 83 
 
 mind, for on this depends the success of farming. But a good per- 
 formance of single operations merely does not constitute the best 
 farming. The perfection of the art consists not only in doing every- 
 thing well individually, but in a proper adjustment and system.- 
 atic aiTangement of all the parts, so that they shall be done not 
 only in the best manner and at the right time, but with the most 
 effective and economical expenditure of labor and money. Every- 
 thing must move on with clock-work regularity, without inter- 
 ference, even at the most busy seasons of the year. 
 
 As this subject includes the whole routine of farming in a col- 
 lected view as well as in its separate details, a treatise upon it 
 might be made to fill volumes ; but this being necessarily con- 
 fined to a few pages, a general outliae, with some remarks on its 
 more essential parts, can only be given. 
 
 Capital. — The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude 
 is to "count the cost." The man who commences a building, 
 which to finish would cost ten thousand dollars, with a capital of 
 only five thousand, is as certainly ruined as many farmers are 
 who, without counting the cost, commence on a scale to which 
 their limited means are wholly inadequate. One of the greatest 
 mistakes which young farmers make in this country, in their anx- 
 ious wish for large possessions, is, not only in purchasing more 
 land than they can pay for, but in the actual expenditure of all 
 their means, without leaving any even to begin the great work of 
 farming. Hence, the farm continues for a long series of years 
 poorly provided with stock, with implements, with manure, and 
 with the necessary labor. From this heavy drawback on the prof- 
 its of his land, the farmer is kept long in debt ; the burden of 
 which not only disheartens him, but prevents that enterprise and 
 energy which are essential to success. This is one fruitful reason 
 why American agriculture is in many places in so low a state. A 
 close observer, in traveling through the country, is thus enabled 
 often to decide from the appearances of the buildings and premises 
 of each occupant, whether he is in or out of debt. 
 
 In England, where the enormous taxes of different kinds impe- 
 riously compel the cultivator to farm well or not farm at all, the 
 indispensable necessity of a heavy capital to begin with is fully 
 understood. The man who merely rents land there, must possess 
 as much to stock it and commence operations as the man who buy* 
 
84 The Farm. 
 
 and pays for a faiin of equal size in some of our best farming dig 
 tricts. The result is, that he is enabled to do everything in tha 
 best manner ; he is not compelled to bring his goods prematurely 
 to market to supply his pressing wants ; and by having ready 
 money always at command, he can perform every operation at the 
 very best season for product and economy, and make purchases 
 when necessary at the most advantageous rate. The English 
 farmer is thus able to pay an amount of tax often more than the 
 whole product of farms of equal extent in this country. 
 
 The Importance of possessing the means of doing everything at 
 exactly the right season can not be too highly appreciated. One 
 or two illustrations may set this in a clearer light. Two farmers 
 had each a crop of ruta-bagas of an acre each ; the first, by hoeing 
 his crop early while the weeds were only an inch high, accomplished 
 the task with two days' work, and the young plants then grew 
 vigorously and yielded a heavy return. The second, being pre- 
 vented by a deficiency of help, had to defer his hoeing one week, 
 and then three days more by rainy weather, making ten day.s in 
 all ; during this time the weeds had sprung up six to ten inches 
 high ; so as to require, instead of two days, no less than six days to 
 hoe them ; and so much was the growth of the crop checked at this 
 early stage that the owner had 150 bushels less in his acre than the 
 farmer who took time by the forelock. Another instance occur- 
 red with an intelligent farmer of this State, who raised two fields 
 of oats on land of similar quality. One field was sown very early, 
 and well put in, and yielded a good profit. The other was de- 
 layed twelve days and then hunied ; and although the crop was 
 within two thirds of the amount of the former, yet that difterence 
 was just the clear profit of the first crop ; so that with the latter 
 the amount yielded only paid the expenses. 
 
 Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it 
 becomes an object to know what else is needed and at what cost, 
 before cultivation is commenced. If the buildings and fences avo 
 what they-should be, which is not often the case, little immedi- 
 ate outlay will be needed for them. But if not, then an estimate 
 must be made of the intended improvements, and the necessary 
 Bum allotted for them. These being all in order, the follo^ving 
 items requiring an expenditure of capital will be required on a 
 go(xi farm of 100 acres of improved land. 
 
Faem Managemmnt. 85 
 
 I. LIVESTOCK. 
 
 The amount will vary with the fertility and products of the land, 
 its quality, and situation with regard to market. The following 
 will approximate the average on good farms taken at the spring 
 of the year or commencement of work :* 
 
 8 Horses, at $100 $800 
 
 1 Yoke oxen 150 
 
 8 Milch cows, at tSii 240 
 
 10 Steers, heifers, and calves 100 
 
 la Pigs, at $3 80 
 
 1M Sheep,at$2 51) 876 
 
 Poultry — say 5 
 
 Total $1,200 
 
 II. IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 2 Plows fitted for work $20 00 
 
 1 SmaUplow, do 6 00 
 
 1 Cultivator, best kind 7 00 
 
 1 Drill-barrow 5 00 
 
 1 EoUer 6 00 
 
 1 Harrow 10 00 
 
 1 rannlng-mill 20 00 
 
 1 Straw-cutter. 16 00 
 
 1 Eoot^slicer 8 00 
 
 1 Farm-wagon, with hay-rack etc 70 00 
 
 1 Ox-eart 50 00 
 
 1 Double farm harness 30 00 
 
 1 Horse-cart 45 00 
 
 1 Horae-cart harness 18 00 
 
 1 Eoot-steamer, or boiler 20 00 
 
 1 Shovel and one spade 2 50 
 
 8 Steel-plate hoes 1 60 
 
 2 Dung-forks 2 00 
 
 S Hay-forks 2 28 
 
 2 Hand-rakes 26 
 
 1 Eevolving horse-rake 8 00 
 
 1 Grain-cradle 4 00 
 
 2 Scythes 4 00 
 
 1 "Wheelbarrow 4 00 
 
 1 Pointed shovel 126 
 
 1 Grain-shovel, or acoop-shovel 1 25 
 
 1 Pick 180 
 
 Carried forward $361 50 
 
 * We allow the figures to stand as in our first edition. If we add to each 
 Him the premium on gold, we shall approximate present prices. 
 
86 TuE Fakm. 
 
 Brought forward $861 60 
 
 1 Mall and wedges 2 50 
 
 2 Axes 4 00 
 
 1 Hammer 50 
 
 1 Wood-saw 1 00 
 
 1 Tumip-hook 75 
 
 1 Hay-knife 1 00 
 
 2 Apple-ladders (for gathering), 1 50 
 
 2 Large baskets 125 
 
 2 Hand-baskets 60 
 
 1 Tape-lme (for laying off land) 2 00 
 
 2 8heep-sbears 2 00 
 
 1 Grindstone 8 00 
 
 1 Steel-yard, large, and one email 2 00 
 
 1 Stable lantern 50 
 
 1 Curry-comb, and one brush 75 
 
 1 Half-bushel measure 1 00 
 
 20 Grain-bags 6 00 
 
 1 Ox-chain 8 00 
 
 1 Crow-bar 2 00 
 
 1 Sled and fixtures SO 00 
 
 Total $426 7B 
 
 Other articles might be included, as subsoil plow, sowing ma- 
 cnine, threshing machine, etc. To the preceding amount ought 
 to be added one-tenth the expense of fencing the farm, as fences 
 need renewing at least once in ten years. Every farmer should also 
 be supplied with a small set of carpenter's tools, which would cost 
 about $12, for repairing implements in miny weather and other 
 useful purposes. This set should include saw, hammer, augers, 
 planes, adze, mallet, chisel, square, breast-bits, etc., and by the 
 convenience and economy afforded, would soon repay their cost. 
 
 III. SEEDS. 
 
 2} Bnsbels clover seed for 10 acres. $15 00 
 
 2 " com " " 6 " 100 
 
 20 ' potatoes " 2 " 10 00 
 
 2 " carrot " 1 " 100 
 
 40 Bushels seed wheat "20 " 40 00 
 
 10 " oats " 4 " 4 00 
 
 10 " barley " 5 " .-x 6 00 
 
 Total $77 00 
 
 IV. LABOH. 
 
 Supposing the owner to labor with his own hands, as everj 
 owner should, so far as is consistent with a general superintend 
 
Faem Management. 87 
 
 ence of all parts, which would probiibly amount to one half the 
 time, he would need besides through the season two men and one 
 boy, and in the winter one man ; during haying and harvest he 
 would require two additional hands. The men boarding them- 
 selves, could be had for twenty dollars per month in summer and 
 sixteen in winter ; if boarded, the cost of their meals would make 
 up the deficiency in the wages to the same amount. The expend- 
 iture needed, then, would be, 
 
 2 Hired men, eight months, $20 per month $320 00 
 
 1 " boy, " " 10 " 80 00 
 
 Day labor in harvest 80 OO 
 
 Total $480 00 
 
 V. MAINTENANCE OP ANIMALS. 
 
 Cattle and sheep would need hay till fresh pasture, and horses 
 hay, and also a good supply of oats till after harvest. All would 
 be benefited by a liberal feeding of roots, including swine. The 
 amount of all these supplies needed would be about, 
 
 T Tons of hay $42 00 
 
 200 Bnshels oats 80 00 
 
 400 " roots 50 00 
 
 Total $172 00 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Livestock $1,200 00 
 
 Implements 425 75 
 
 Seeds 77 00 
 
 Labor 430 00 
 
 Maintenance of animals 172 00 
 
 Total $2,804 75 
 
 — the amount of capital needed the first year, in stocking and 
 conducting satisfactorily the operations of one hundred acres of 
 improved land, several items being doubtless omitted. 
 
 If this is a larger sum than the young farmer can command, 
 let him purchase only fifty acres, and reserve the rest of the pur- 
 chase money which would be needed for the one hundred acres, 
 to commence with on a smaller farm, and he will scarcely fail to 
 make more than on a larger, with every part subjected to an im- 
 perfect, hurrying, and irregular management. He may calculate, 
 perhaps, on the return of his crops in autumn, at least to pay his 
 
88 The Faem. 
 
 hands. But he must remember that the first year of farmmg ia 
 attended with many expenses which do not usually occur after- 
 ward, which his crops may not repay, besides supporting his fam- 
 ily and paying his mechanics' and merchants' bills. The first 
 year must always be regarded with uncertainty ; and it is better 
 to come out at the end on a moderately sized farm, well tilled 
 and in fine order, with money in pocket, than on a larger one, in 
 debt, and hired hands — a class of men not to be disappointed, and 
 who ought not to be — ^waiting for their pay. There are a fer 
 greater number of farmers embarrassed and crippled by placing 
 their estimate of expenses too low, than of those who swing clear 
 and float freely by a fuU previous counting of cost. 
 
 Size of Fakms. — After what has just been said, the cultivator 
 will perceive in part the advantages of moderately sized farms for 
 men in moderate circumstances. The great disadvantage of a su- 
 perficial, skimming culture is obvious with a moment's attention. 
 Take the corn crop as an illustration. There are a great many 
 farmers, to my certain knowledge, whose yearly product per acre 
 does not exceed an average of ttoenty-jive bushels. There are other 
 farmers, whom I also well know, who obtain generally not less than 
 sixty bushels per acre, and often eighty to ninety-iive. Now ob- 
 serve the difference in the profits of each. The first gets 250 
 bushels from ten acres. In doing this, he has to plow ten acres, 
 harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres, find seed for ten acres, plant, 
 cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten acres, besides paying the interest on 
 ten acres, worth from three to five hundred dollars. The other 
 farmer gets 250 bushels from four acres at the farthest ; and he 
 only plows, plants, cultivates, and hoes, to obtain the same amount, 
 four acres, which from their fine tilth, and freedom from grass and 
 weeds, is much easier done, ^ven for an equal surface. The same 
 reasoning applies throughout the farm. Be sure, then, to culti- 
 vate 110 niore than can be done in the best manner, whether it be 
 ten, fifty, or five hundred acres. A friend who owned a four-hun- 
 dred-acre farm told me that he made less than his next neighbor, 
 who had only seventy-five. Let the man who applies a certain 
 amount of labor every year to his farm reduce its dimensions until 
 that labor accomplishes everything in the very best manner. Ha 
 will doubtless find that the amount of land will thus become much 
 gmaUer than he supposed, more so than most would be willing to 
 
Faem Management. 89 
 
 reduce It ; but, on the other hand, the net proceeds from it will 
 augment to a greater degree than perhaps could possibly bo 
 believed. 
 
 But let me not be misunderstood. Large farms are by no means 
 to be objected to, provided the owner has capital enough to per- 
 form all the work as well as it is now done on the best farms of 
 small size. 
 
 As an example of what may be obtained from a small piece of 
 land, the following products of fifty acres are given, and are not 
 more than I have known repeatedly to be taken from good land 
 by several thorough farmers : 
 
 in Acres wheat, 36 bushels per acre, at $1 00 $8S0 00 
 
 6 " corn, 90 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 40.... 
 
 ISO 00 
 
 2 " potatoes, 800 
 
 " 
 
 ti 
 
 ao.... 
 
 120 00 
 
 1 Acre mta-bagaa, 800 
 
 " 
 
 M 
 
 10 ... 
 
 81) 00 
 
 6 Acres winter apples, 250 
 
 " 
 
 • 
 
 25.... 
 
 875 00 
 
 6 " hay, 2} 
 
 tons 
 
 " 
 
 6 00.... 
 
 90 00 
 
 10 " pasture, worth 
 
 
 
 
 60 00 
 
 5 " barley, 40 bushels 
 
 per acre 
 
 40.... 
 
 80 00 
 
 5 " oats, 50 
 
 " 
 
 u 
 
 HO.... 
 
 50 00 
 
 Total products of fifty acres of very fine land $1,886 00 
 
 This aggregate yield is not greater than tliat obtained by some 
 who might be named, from a similar quantity of land. Good 
 land in most localities could be brought to that state of fertility 
 very easily, at a total cost of one hundred dollars per acre, and 
 then it would be incomparably cheaper than many large good 
 farms at nothing ; for, while the fifty acres could be tilled for 
 three hundred and eighty-five dollars, leaving one thousand dol- 
 lars net profits, large poor farms hardly pay the work spent upon 
 them. One proprietor of such a farm declared, ' ' It requires me 
 and my hired man all summer hard at work to get enough to pay 
 him onlj." 
 
 Laying oct Fakms. — This department is very much neglected. 
 The proper disposition of the different fields, for the sake of econ- 
 omy in fencing, for convenience of access, and for a full command 
 of pasture and protection of crops at all times, has received com- 
 paratively little attention from our agricultural writers and from 
 farmers. 
 
 Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of; that 
 a very few minutes, or nours at mosi, will enable a man to plan 
 
90 The Faem. 
 
 the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is a great 
 error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on a flat, uni- 
 form piece of ground, many things are to he borne in mind in 
 laying it out. 
 
 In the first place we all know that the feimng of a moderately 
 sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very desirable to do 
 it well, and use at the same time as little material as possible. To 
 do this much will depend on the shape of the fields. A certain 
 length of fence will inclose more land in the form of a square than 
 in any other practical shape. Hence fields should approach this 
 form as nearly as possible. Again, the disposition of lanes is a 
 matter of consequence, so as to avoid uimecessary length and fenc- 
 ing and occupy the least quantity of ground. 
 
 But these rules may be materially affected by other consider- 
 ations. For instance, it is very desirable that land of a similar 
 quality may be in the same inclosure. Some may be naturally 
 tx)o wet for anything but meadow or pasture : some may be much 
 lighter, and susceptible of plowing, while others are not : some may 
 be naturally sterile, and need unusual manuring with green crops. 
 All these should, as far as practicable, be included each in its own 
 separate boundary. The situation of surface drains, forming the 
 boundaries of fields, may Influence their shape ; facilities for irri 
 gation may have an essential bearing : convenience for watering 
 cattle is not to be forgotten. Where, in addition to all these 
 considerations, the land is hilly, still more care and thought are 
 required in the subdivision, which may possibly require years of 
 experience ; but where fixed fences are once made, it is hard to 
 remove them ; hence a previous thorough examination should be 
 made. A farm road, much used for heavy loads, should be made 
 hard and firm, and can not easily be altered ; it consequently should 
 be exactly in the right place, and be dry, level, and short ; the 
 shape of adjoining fields even conforming with these requisitions \ 
 but a road little used should not interfere with the outlines of fields. 
 e o i: e o c o 
 
 In laying out a farm ivith a very uneven surface or irregulai 
 shape, it would be best to draw, first, a plan adapted to smooth 
 ground, and then vary the size and shape of the fields, the dis- 
 tance of the lane from the center, its straightness, etc., accord- 
 ing to the circumstances of the case. 
 
Farm Management. 91 
 
 Fences.**— The kind of fence used, and the materials used foi 
 Its construction, must depend on circumstances and localities. A 
 good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one ; though it 
 ■will cost more, it will more than save that cost, and three times the 
 amount in vexation besides, by keeping cattle, colts, and pigs out 
 of fields of grain. A thriving farmer whose whole land, except a 
 small part with stone wall, is inclosed by common rail fence, 
 with upright cedar stakes, and connecting caps to the tops, finds 
 that it needs renewing once in six years. He accordingly divides 
 his whole amount of fences into six parts, one of which is built 
 new every year. All is thus kept systematically in good repair. 
 Stone walls, if set a foot below the surface to prevent tumbling by 
 frost, are the most durable fence. Hedges have not been sufficient- 
 ly tried. The English hawthorn is not well adapted to our hotter 
 and drier climate, and though sometimes doing well for a time, is 
 not to be depended on. 
 
 Gates. — Every field on the farm should be entered by a good 
 self -shutting and self-fastening gate. A proper inclination in 
 hanging will secure the former requisite, and a good latch, prop- 
 erly constructed, the latter. Each field should be numbered, and 
 the number painted on the gate-post. Let the farmer who has 
 bars instead of gates, make a trial of their compara'tive convenience, 
 by taldng them out and replacing them without stopping as often 
 as he does in one year on his farm, say about six hundred times, 
 and he can not fail to be satisfied which is the cheapest for use. 
 
 Buildings. — ^These should be as near the center of the farm as 
 other considerations will admit. All the hay, grain, and straw 
 being conveyed from the fields to the barn, and most of it back 
 again in manure, the distance of drawing should be as short as 
 possible. This will also save much traveling of men and cattle 
 to and from the different parts of the farm. The buildings should 
 
 * Strange as it may seem, the greatest investment in this country, tjie most 
 costly production of human industry, is the common fences which divide the 
 fields from the highway, and separate them from each other. No man dreams 
 that when compared with the outlay of these unpretending monuments of art, 
 our cities and our towns, with all their wealth, are left far behind. Tou will 
 scarce believe me when I say that the fences of ihis country have cost more 
 than twenty times the specie there is in it. In many of the counties of the 
 Northern States the fences have cost more than the farms and ffinces are worth. 
 
92 The Fabm. 
 
 not, however, be too remote from the public road, and a good, 
 dry, healthy spot should be chosen. The dwelling should be com- 
 fortable, but not large ; or it should rather be adapted to the ex- 
 tent of the lands. A large, costly house with a small farm and 
 other buildings, is an indication of bad management. The cen- 
 sure of the old Roman should be avoided, who, having a small 
 piece of land, built his house so large that he had less occasion to 
 l)low than to sweep. 
 
 The bam and out-buildings should be of ample extent. The 
 bam should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It ie a matter 
 of great convenience to have the straw for littering stables housed 
 and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of snow. 
 There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all domestic ani- 
 mals. This provihion will not only save one third of the fodder, 
 but stock will thrive much better. Cows will give much more 
 milk, sheep will yield more and better wool, and all will pass 
 through the winter more safely. The wood-house, near or attached 
 to the dwelling, should never be forgotten, so long as comfort in 
 buUding fires and economy in the use of fuel are of any import- 
 ance. 
 
 A small, cheap, movable horse-power should belong to every 
 establishment, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving wash- 
 ing machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw, and slicing roots. 
 
 There should be a large root-cellar under the bam, into which 
 the cart may be dumped from the outside. One great objection to 
 the culture of roots, in this country — the difficulty of winter keep- 
 ing — would then vanish. 
 
 Both bams and house cellars should be well coated, on the bot- 
 tom and sides, with water-lime mortar, which is a very ckeap and 
 effectual way to exclude both water and rats. 
 
 Choice op Implejients. — Of those which are much used, the verj' 
 best only should be procured. This will be attended with a gain 
 in every way. The work will be easier done and it will be better 
 done. A laborer who, by the use of a good hoe for one month, 
 can do one quarter more each day, saves, in the whole time, an 
 entire week's labor. 
 
 Choice of Andials. — The best of all kinds should be selected, 
 even if costing something more than others. Not "faiiey" ani- 
 mals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be product 
 
Faem Management. 93 
 
 Ivc> of milk, and of a form adapted for beef ; oxen hardy, and fast- 
 working ; sheep, Icept fine by never selling the best ; swine, not 
 the largest merely, but those fattening best on least food. A Berk- 
 shire at 200 pounds, fattened on 10 bushels of corn, is better than 
 a " land pike" of 300, fattened on 50 bushels. 
 
 Having now taken some notice of the necessary items for com- 
 mencing farming, it remains to glance a little at 
 
 Soils, and their Management.— Soils are of various kinds, as 
 heavy and Ught, wet and dry, fertile and sterile. They all require 
 different management in a greater or less degree. 
 
 Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than light ; 
 but they require more labor for pulverization and tillage. They 
 can not be plowed when very wet, nor so well when very dry. 
 Although containing greater or less portions of clay, they may be 
 distinguished, as a class, from lighter soils, by the cloddy surface 
 the fields present after plowing in dry weather, by their cracking 
 in drouth, and by their adhesiveness after rains. 
 
 Sandy and gravelly loams also contain clays, but in smaller 
 quantity ; so that they do not present the cloddiness and adhesive- 
 ness of heavy soils. Though possessing, generally, less strength 
 than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and may be worked 
 without difficulty in wet weather. They do not crack or break in 
 drouth. Indian com, ruta-bagas, and some other crops, succeed 
 best upon them. Sandy soils are very easily tilled, but are gener- 
 ally not strong enough. When made rich, they are fine for some 
 succulent crops. Peaty soils are generally light and free, contain- 
 ing large quantities of decayed vegetable matter. They are made 
 by draining low and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian 
 corn, broom com, barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great 
 absorbers, and great radiators of heat ; hence they become warm 
 in sunshine and cold in clear ni;ghts. For this reason they are 
 peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, conse- 
 quently, be put in late, after spring frosts are over. Corn should 
 be of early varieties, that it may not only be i)lanted late, but 
 ripen early. 
 
 Each of these kinds of soil may be variously improved. Heavy 
 soils are much improved by draining ; open drains to carry off the 
 surface-water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. An 
 acquaintance covered a low, wet, clayey field with under-diains, 
 
94 The Faem. 
 
 and from a production of almost nothing but grass, it yielded tlia 
 first year forty bushels of wheat per acre, enough to pay the expense, 
 and admitted of much easier tillage afterward. Heavy soils are 
 also made lighter and freer by manuring ; by plowing under coat- 
 ings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck ; and, in some rare 
 cases, by carting on sand, though this is usually too expensive foi 
 practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial both in wet seasons 
 and in drouth ; the deep loose bed of earth it makes, receiving 
 the water in heavy lains, and throwing it off to the soil above, 
 when needed ; but a frequent repetition of the operation is needed, 
 as the subsoil gradually settles again. 
 
 Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of 
 lime, and by frequently plowing in green crops. Leached ashes 
 have been found highly beneficial in many places. Where the 
 subsoil is clayey, which is often the case, and especially if marly 
 clay, great advantage is derived from shoveling it up and spread- 
 ing it on the surface. A neighbor had twenty bushels of wheat 
 per acre on land thus treated, while the rest of the field yielded 
 only five. 
 
 Manures. — These are among the first of requisites in successful 
 farm management. They are the strong-moving power in agxi- 
 cultural operations. They are as the great steam-engine which 
 drives the vessel onward. Good and clean cultivation is, indeed, 
 all important ; but it will avail little without a fertile SOU ; and 
 this fertility must be created or kept up by a copious application 
 of manures ; for these contribute directly or assist indirectly to the 
 supply of nearly all the nourishment which plants receive. It is 
 these which, produced chiefly from the decay of dead vegetable 
 and animal matter, combine most powerfully to give new Hfe and 
 vigor ; and thus the apparently putrid mass is the very material 
 which is converted into the most beautiful forms of nature, and 
 plants and brilliant flowers spring up from the decay of old forms ; 
 and thus a continued succession of destruction and renovation is 
 carried on through an unlimited series of ages. 
 
 Manures possess different degrees of power, partly from their in- 
 herent richness, and partly from the rapidity with which they 
 throw off their fertilizing ingredients, in assisting the growth of 
 plants. These are given off by solution in water, and in the form 
 of gas ; the one as a liquid manure, which, running down, 1« 
 
Faem Management. 95 
 
 abborbed by the roots ; aad the other, as air, escaping mostly into 
 the atmosphere, and lost. 
 
 The great art, then, of saving and manufacturing manure con- 
 sists in retaining and applying, to the best advantage, those solu- 
 ble and gaseous portions. Probably more than one half of all the 
 materials which exist in the country are lost, totally lost, by not 
 attending to the drainage of stables and farmyards. This could 
 be retained by a copious application of straw ; by littering with 
 sawdust, when saw-mills are near ; and, more especially, by the 
 frequent coating of yards and stables with dried peat and swamp 
 muck, of which many parts of our States furnish inexhaustible 
 supplies. I say dried peat or muck, because, if it is already satura- 
 ted with water, of which it will often take in five sixths of its own 
 weight, it can not absorb the liquid portions of the manure. But 
 if it will absorb five sixths in water, it will, when dried, absorb 
 five sixths in liquid manure, and, both together, form a very en- 
 ricldng material. The practice of many farmers shows how little 
 they are aware of the hundreds they are losing, every yeai, by suf- 
 fering this most valuable of their farm products to escape. Indeed, 
 there are not a few who carefully, and very ingeniously, as they 
 suppose, place their barns and cattle-yards in such a manner, on 
 the sides of hills, that all the drainage from them may pass off 
 out of the way into the neighboring streams ; and some one men- 
 tions a farmer who, with pre-eminent shrewdness, built his hog- 
 pen directly across a stream, that he might, at once, get the clean- 
 ings washed away, and prevent their accumulation. He, of course, 
 succeeded in his wish ; but he might, with almost equal propriety, 
 have built his granary across the stream, so as to shovel the wheat 
 into the water when it increased on his hands. 
 
 The loss of manure, by the escape of gas, is often very great 
 The proof of this was finely exhibited by Humphrey Davy, in an 
 experiment performed by filling a large retort from a heap of fer- 
 menting manure, and placing the beak among the roots of some 
 grass. Nothing but vapor left the vessel, yet in a few days the 
 grass exhibited greater luxuriance around the beak of the retort 
 than any of the surrounding portions. Hence the superiority of 
 unfermented manures; the rich portions are not yet lost. Aud 
 hence, too, the importance of preventing this loss by an immediate 
 application, and plo ving info the soil, or by mixing it in composts 
 
96 The Farm. 
 
 with muck, peat, swamp mud, and even common earth, in a dry 
 Btate — and of preventing its escape, from stables and yards, hy a 
 daily strewing with dried peat, lime, or plaster. 
 
 Fresh manure is generally in a state not readily mixed with soils. 
 It is thrown into large lumps over the surface, some of which are 
 plowed in, others not ; but none of them prove of immediate use 
 to the crops. But, on the other hand, fermented manure, from 
 its ready pulverization, admits of an easy admixture. But let 
 fresh manure be thoroughly ground down and worked into the 
 soil by repeated harrowings and two or three plowings, and its 
 influence will be like magic. 
 
 Swamp muck has often been spoken of as manure ; but those 
 who expect great and striking results from its application will be 
 disappointed. Even with ashes, it is much less powerful than 
 stable manure, not only because it possesses less inherent richness, 
 but because it has less soluble parts, and, consequently, imparts 
 its strength more slowly to growing plants. But this quality 
 only makes it the more enduring. By decoction in water, vege- 
 table mold loses a small portion of its weight by solution ; but if 
 the remaining insoluble part is exposed to the air and moisture a 
 few months, another part may be again dissolved. Thus, peat, 
 muck, and all decayed vegetable fiber, become a slow but lasting 
 source of nourishment to plants. 
 
 But it is when shoveled out and dried, to be mixed with farm- 
 yard manure, as a, recipient for its evanescent parts, that peat or 
 muck becomes pre-eminently valuable. Some parts of the Statu 
 abound with inexhaustible supplies in almost every neigh|)orhood ; 
 many land- owners have from twenty to a hundred thousand cubic 
 yards on their farms, lying untouched, while half-starved crops 
 are growing in the adjacent fields. There are whole counties so 
 well supplied with it that, if judiciously applied, it would, doubt- 
 less, double their aggregate products. 
 
 All neat farming, all profitable farming, and all satisfactory 
 farming must be attended with a careful saving of manures. The 
 people of Flanders have long been distinguished for the neatnesa 
 ajid excellence of their farms, which they have studied to make 
 like gardens. The care with which they collect all refuse materials 
 which may be converted into manures, and increase their composts, 
 is one of the chief reasons of the cleanliness of their towns and 
 
Faem Management. 97 
 
 residences ; and were this subject fully appreciated and attended 
 with a corresponding practice generally, it would, doubtless, 
 soon increase, by millions, the agricultural products of the State. 
 
 But there is another subject of scarcely less magnitude. This is 
 a systematic 
 
 Rotation op Ceops. — If manuring is the steam-engine which 
 propels the vessel, rotation is the rudder which guides it in its prog- 
 ress. Unlike manuring, rotation does not increase the labor of 
 culture : it only directs the labor in the most effective manner by 
 the exercise of judgment and thought. 
 
 The limits of this paper do not admit of many remarks on the 
 principles of rotation. The following courses, however, have been 
 found among some of the best adapted to our State : 
 
 I. 1st year — Corn and roots, well manured. 
 
 2d year— "Wheat, sown with clover-seed ; 15 lbs. an acre. 
 8d year — Clover, one or more years, according to fertility and amount of 
 manure at hand. 
 II. Ist year — Corn and roots, with all the manure. 
 2d year — Barley and peas. 
 8d year— "Wheat, sown with clover. 
 4th year— Clover, one or more years. 
 III. 1st year — Corn and roots, with all the manure, 
 2d year— Barley. 
 
 8d year— "Wheat, sown "with clover. 
 4th year — Pasture. 
 5th year — Meadow, 
 6th year — Fallow. 
 7th year— "Wheat. 
 8th year — Oats, sown with clover. 
 9th year— Pasture or meadow. 
 
 The number of the fields must correspond "with the number of 
 the changes in each course ; the first needing three fields to cai-ry 
 it out, the second four, the third nine. As each field contains a 
 crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole 
 number of fields collectively comprise the entire series of crops 
 every year. Thus, in the list above given, there are two fields of 
 wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn 
 and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in summer fallow. 
 
 Operations in the Order op Time. — The vital consequence of 
 doing every thing in the right season is known to every good 
 farmer. 
 
 To prevent confusion and embarrassment, and keep all things 
 5 
 
98 The Faem. 
 
 clearly and plainly before the farmer at the right time, he should 
 have a small book to carry in his pocket, having every item of 
 work for each week or each half month laid before his eyes. This 
 can be done to the best advantage, to suit every particular locality 
 and difference of climate, by marking every successive week in the 
 season at the top of its respective page. Then as each operation 
 severally occurs, let him place it under its proper heading ; or if 
 out of season, let him place it back at the right time. Any pro- 
 posed improvement can be noted down on the right page. Inter- 
 esting experiments are often suggested in the course of reading or 
 observation, but forgotten when the time comes to try them. By 
 .recording them in such a book, under the right week, they are 
 brought at once before the mind. Such an arrangement as this 
 will prevent a great deal of the confusion and vexation too often 
 attendant on multifarious cares, and assist very essentially in con- 
 ducting all the farm work with clock-work regularity and satis- 
 faction. 
 
 In reviewing the various items which are most immediately 
 essential to good farm management, some of the most obvious 
 will be — capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it well ; to 
 select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay it out in the 
 best manner ; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buUdinge ; 
 to select the best animals, and the best implements to be haa 
 reasonably ; to bring the soil into good condition, by draining, 
 manuring, and good culture ; to have every part under a good 
 rotation of crops ; and every operation arranged so as all to be 
 conducted systematically, without clashing or confusion. An 
 attention to all these points would place agriculture on a very dif- 
 ferent footing from its present condition in many places, and with 
 most farmers. The business, then, instead of being repulsive, as 
 it so frequently is to our young men, would be attended with 
 real enjoyment and pleasure. 
 
 But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth must 
 not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected without dili- 
 gence and industry. We must sow in spring and cultivate well 
 in summer, if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn. 
 When we see young farmers commence in life without a strict 
 attention to business, which they neglect for mere pleasure, well 
 may we in imagination see future crops lost by careless tillage— 
 
Farm Management. , 99 
 
 broken fences, unhinged gates, and fields filled with weeds— tools 
 destroyed by heedlessness, property wasted by recklessness, and 
 disorder and confusion triumphant ; and unpaid debts, duns, and 
 executions already hanging over the premises. But, on the other 
 hand, to see cheerful- faced, ready-handed industry, directed by 
 reason and intelligence, and order, energy, and economy, guiding 
 the operations of the farm — with smooth, clean fields, and neat, 
 trim fences — ^rich, verdant pastures, and fine cattle enjoying them ; 
 and broad, waving meadows and golden harvests, and waste and 
 extravagance driven into exile, we need not fear the success of 
 such a farmer ; debts can not stare him in the face, nor duns enter 
 his threshold. 
 
 It is such enterprise as this that must place our country on a 
 substantial basis. Agriculture, in a highly improved state, must 
 be the means which, next to the righteousness which truly exalts 
 a nation, will contribute to its enduring prosperity. All trades 
 and commerce depend on this great art as their foundation. The 
 cultivation of the soil and of plants was the earliest occupation of 
 man. It has, in all ages, been his chief means of subsistence ; it 
 still continues to furnish employment to the great majority of the 
 human race. It is truly the great art of peace, as during wars and 
 commotions it has languished and declined, but risen again, in 
 strength and vigor, when men have lived at peace with each other ; 
 it has then flourished and spread, converted the wilderness into 
 life and beauty, and refreshed and adorned nature with embellished 
 culture. For its calm and tranquil pleasures — for its peaceful and 
 healthful labors— away from the fretful and feverish life of crowd- 
 ed cities, " in the free air and beneath the bright sun of heaven'' 
 — many who have spent the morning and noon of their lives in 
 the anxious cares of commercial life, have long sighed for a sceno 
 of peace and of quietude for the evening of their days. 
 
100 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 FARM CROPS. 
 
 Let It rain potatoes. — Shak^peart, 
 
 I. — THE EDIBLE QEAIN8 
 
 1. Indian Corn — Zea Mays. 
 
 r* 
 
 AIZE 01- Indian corn is cultrv-ateil in all 
 countries and climates. It is a native of 
 America, where tlie aborigines had cnltivated 
 it from time immemorial. It now forms 
 the most important grain crop of this country, 
 growing with luxuriance in every State of the Union, 
 and yielding ample harvests everywhere. 
 The varieties of maize in cultivation are almost numberless, 
 and new sorts are constantly being produced. No plant, per- 
 haps, is equally susceptible of modification by hybridizing, 
 cultivation, soil, and climate. At the North it is dwarf in its 
 habit, and requires but three or four months to bring it to ma- 
 turity, while at the South it reaches a magnificent height, and 
 is much longer in maturing. A kind of corn cultivated in 
 Oregon has a separate sheath or envelop for every distinct ker- 
 nel; but in the climate of New York it soon loses this charac- 
 teristic, and assumes the more comprehensive husk. So the 
 low growing, early Northern corn, if cultivated for a few years 
 
Fabm Ceops. 101 
 
 at the South, becomes taller, larger, and later ; thus approxi- 
 mating to the Southern varieties. 
 
 The principal varieties of Indian corn in extensive use for 
 field culture in the United States are the Big White, Big Yellow, 
 Little White, Little Yellow, and Virginia Gourd Seed (yellow 
 and white). Of each of these there are many sub-varieties. 
 The King Philip or Brown Corn, a very early and small-growing, 
 but productive variety, is much approved in the more Northern 
 States ; and Peabody's Prolific or Tillering Corn, said to be a 
 wondei-fully productive sort, is adapted to the Southern and 
 Middle States ; but it has not yet been extensively tested. In 
 the selection of varieties, choose for general planting those that 
 have been proved in your own vicinity, as the best sort of one 
 locality may prove inferior in another. For trial, get new sorts 
 from a more northern latitude, especially where earliness is 
 particularly desirable. 
 
 The best soU for corn is a rich loam, but good crops are pro- 
 duced, with proper manuring, on light, sandy land. A strong 
 clay, or a poor, wet soil, will not produce a good crop. Corn is 
 a gross feeder, and, except on very light, sandy soils, fresh, un- 
 fermented manure is best for it. Ashes may be added, or ap- 
 plied as a top-dressing, with great advantage ; also the salt and 
 lime mixture. 
 
 Indian corn should always be planted in hills, and in straight 
 rows, both ways, for convenience of cultivation. The distance 
 apart of the hills should be from three to five feet, varying with 
 the sort of corn and the quality of the land. From three to 
 five stalks in a hUl is better than a larger number. Soak the 
 seed one or two days in a solution of common salt, or, better 
 still, of saltpeter, after which apply a coat of tar and plaster, 
 according to the directions given in Chapter II. This will not 
 only accelerate the growth of the plant, but also afford an effi- 
 cient protection against both worms and birds. As to the 
 proper depth for covering the seed, much difference of opinion 
 exists. We think a depth of one inch, in soil of medium con- 
 Bistency and humidity, and of two or two and a half inches iu 
 
102 The Faem. 
 
 a dry, sandy soil is sufficient. Plant so soon as the ground is 
 sufficiently warm and dry, without respect to the day of the 
 month. The blossoming or leafing of certain trees may be 
 taken as a guide. Our time is when the flower-buds on the 
 apple-trees begin to burst open. 
 
 The after-culture of Indian corn may mostly be performed 
 with a light plow and a good cnltivator. It should be com- 
 menced soon after the plants show themselves above ground ; 
 but deep culture of every liind should be discontinued after the 
 roots have spread through the soil, as they can not be disturbed 
 without great injury. Hilling or heaping the earth about the 
 plants is an absurd and injurious process, which, instead of 
 helping to support them, as many suppose, greatly weakens the 
 stalks, by destroying or covering up the prop-roots with which 
 Nature has supplied them. This compels them to partially 
 exhaust themselves by putting forth others, which after all can 
 not efficiently perform their office. Indian corn requires very 
 little, if any, earthing. 
 
 In reference to harvesting Indian corn, a variety of opinions 
 prevail. Some advocate topping it soon after the kernels have 
 become glazed or checked, believing that such a course hastens 
 the ripening of the grain, and that the fodder thus cut is much 
 more valuable than when left till the corn is fuUy ripened. In 
 these opinions the advocates of topping are undoubtedly cor- 
 rect ; but, on the other hand, experiments seem to prove that 
 the weight of the grain and the number of bushels per acre is 
 considerably lessened by thus cutting the stalks. The more 
 common practice at present, except at the South, is to let the 
 crop stand till the kernels are principally glazed, and then cut- 
 ting all near the surface of the ground, and shocking in the 
 field, to remain till dry enough to husk. The grain loses a little 
 in weight, no doubt, by this process, but the fodder is more 
 valuable than when it stands till fully ripened, and the crop 
 thus treated is placed beyond injury from frost. This, for the 
 Northern and Middle States, we consider the best way to har- 
 vest Indian corn ; although a somewhat greater bulk and weight 
 
Faem Okops. 103 
 
 of grain may be obtained, if the frosts be long enough deferred, 
 by allowing nature to tal^e its course. 
 
 Corn should be perfectly dried in the field, husked, and 
 stored in an airy loft, or in a properly constructed granary or crib. 
 
 The proper selection and saving of seed is of great import- 
 ance. It should be selected in the field from the earliest and 
 largest ears of the most prolific stalks. In this way astonishing 
 improvements in a variety may be gradually made. Thomas 
 N. Baden, Esq.; of Prince George County, Md., by carefully 
 selecting the best seed in his field for a long series of years, 
 having special reference to those stalks which produced the 
 greatest number of ears, ultimately obtained a variety which 
 yields from four to ten ears to the single stalk. 
 
 In husking seed corn, leave a few of the husks upon the ears, 
 with which to braid several of them together, for convenience 
 in hanging them up. They should be hung in a dry, airy loft. 
 In shelling, reject both extremities of the ear where the kernels 
 are imperfect or misshapen. 
 
 The expense per acre of cultivating corn varies greatly in 
 different parts of the country, being influenced by soil, climate, 
 cost of manure, price of labor, etc. For New York, Judge Buel 
 estimates as follows : 
 
 One plowing (suppoae a clover lay) $3 00 
 
 Harrowing and planting 2 00 
 
 Two hoeings 8 75 
 
 Harvesting 8 00 
 
 Eent of land 6 00 
 
 Total 115 76 
 
 This estimate does not include manure, which is generally 
 
 essential, and would add from five to ten dollars to the expense. 
 
 In New England the whole expense varies from twenty-five to 
 
 fifty dollars. A farmer near Philadelphia estimates it at 
 
 twenty-three dollars in his neighborhood ; another, at Eipley, 
 
 Ohio, gives the following : 
 
 " I subjoin my account with a corn-field of eighteen acres. 
 
 The ground and the com have been measured — there is no 
 
 guess work about it. 
 
104 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 '• Timber — originally waluut, ash, sugar maple, and beech- 
 has been under cultivation twenty years — last year was in 
 wheat, and the year before in corn. Tne soil dark — ^ten inches 
 deep, with a clay bottom — was broken up eight inches deep 
 with a span of horses : 
 
 Team and hand, 12i days' breaking, $2 $25 60 
 
 Cost of seed, laying off, and planting 18 05 
 
 80J days' work, harrowing, plowing, hoeing, etc., 87} cente 2fS 90 
 
 Use of team, equal to 261 days single, 52 cents 18 91 
 
 Eepairing tools 1 oo 
 
 Entire cost, board, labor, and all jgo 86 
 
 " The yield is 1,350 bushels, costing before gathering not quite 
 BIX cents per bushel."* 
 
 Here no manure is used, we presume, and the soil requires 
 less cultivation than at the East, in order to produce good crops. 
 The expense per acre, exclusive of harvesting, according to 
 this estimate, is less than $4 50. 
 
 But, leaving these estimates out of the 
 account, the fact that com is generally 
 one of the most profitable crops that a 
 farmer can cultivate, may be set down 
 as an established fact. 
 
 2. Wheat — Triticum of species. 
 
 The origip of wheat is unknown; 
 
 but it is certain that it was cultivated 
 
 upward of a thousand years before the 
 
 Christian era, and that more than one 
 
 sort was known at that time, for it is 
 
 stated in the book of Ezekiel (xxvii. 1) 
 
 that "Judah traded in wheat of Min- 
 
 nith." Columella, who wrote about the 
 
 time of Christ, observes that, " The chief and the most profitable 
 
 corns for men are common wheat and bearded wheat." 
 
 Botanists describe about thirty species of wheat, and soma 
 
 HEADB OF WHEAT. 
 
 » " W. G. A."' in Camiiry QenOeman 
 
Farm Ckops. 106 
 
 hundreds of varieties. The species mainly cultivated ia the 
 United States are the Winter Wheat and the Spring Wheat, in 
 their numerous varieties. 
 
 In your choice of varieties it is best to be governed, as in 
 the case of Indian corn, by the experience either of yourself or 
 others. From the ever- varying character of the various kinds 
 of seed, their superiority at one time and locality, and their 
 inferiority at other times and in other situations, it would he 
 worse than useless for ixS to recommend any particular variety. 
 Depend upon known and tried sorts till, by experiments on a 
 small scale, you are satisfied that you have obtained something 
 better. 
 
 Wheat thrives best on a strong, clayey loam, but many light 
 and all calcareous soils, if in a proper condition, will give a 
 good yield. A glance at the table on page 28 wiU show that 
 potash, lime, and phosphoric acid enter largely into the compo- 
 sition of the grain, and that both lime and silica abound in the 
 straw ; for this reason, rich vegetable soils generally, being de- 
 ficient in these elements, are not well adapted to wheat. On 
 such soils there is always a tendency to rapid growth, large but 
 weak straw, and light grain ; and a liability both to lodge and 
 to rust. A remedy, however, may be found in the applica- 
 tion of ashes, lime, bone-dust, etc. The soil should be deep 
 and well pulverized wiih the plow and the harrow. Under- 
 draining and subsoil plowing add greatly to the amount of 
 the crop. 
 
 Select seed that is free from the seeds of weeds and from 
 smut, if this be possible ; but, in any event, it is well, previous 
 to sowing, to wash it in a strong brine made of salt and water, 
 taking care to skim off all light and foreign seeds. If the 
 grain be smutty, repeat the washing in another clean brine, 
 when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with about one 
 twelfth of its bilk of pulverized quicklime. 
 
 The time for sowing in the Northern States is fi-om the tenth 
 to the twentieth of September, but it is often successfully sown 
 both earlier and later. Sow broadcast, at the rate of from 
 
 5* 
 
106 The Fakm. 
 
 three to five pecks to 'Jie acre, and liarrow thoronghly. EoEing 
 is beneficial, especially on light soils. 
 
 "Wheat is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown 
 too early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being 
 two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September. 
 When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the mag- 
 gots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of 
 much avail. Occasionally, other flies, and sometimes wheat 
 worms, commit great depredation. There is no effectual rem- 
 edy known against any of these marauders, beyond rolling, 
 brushing, and harrowing." 
 
 Smut is a parasitic fungus, of a brown or blackish color, 
 which grows upon the head and destroys the grain. "We have 
 indicated the only remedy with which we are acquainted, in 
 speaking of the preparation of the seed. 
 
 " The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part 
 of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet ia tho 
 dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and 
 finger. Repeated experiments have demonstrated that wheat 
 cut at this time will yield more in measure, of heavier 
 weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early 
 cut, a longer time is required for curing before storing or 
 threshing." 
 
 Spring wheat should be sown so early as the ground will 
 admit. The best crops are raised on land that has been 
 plowed the previous fall, and sown without additional plowing, 
 but harrowed-in thoroughly. 
 
 Propagation may be extended with incredible rapidity by 
 dividing the plant. The English Philosophical Transactions 
 give the result of a trial, made by planting a single grain on the 
 2d of June. " On the 8th of August it was taken up and sepa- 
 rated into eighteen parts, and each planted by itself. These 
 were subdivided and planted, between 15th of September and 
 15th of October, and again the following spring. From this 
 careful attention, in a fertile soil, 500 plants were obtained, some 
 containing 100 stalks beaiing heads of a large size ; and the 
 
Faem Oeops. 
 
 lOT 
 
 tjtal produce within the year was 386,840 grains from the single 
 one planted." 
 
 3. Eye — Secale Cereale. 
 
 This plant is supposed to be a native of the Caspian Cauca- 
 sian desert. It is more hardy than wheat, and will flourish on 
 wils too poor or too destitute of lime for wheat. It has taken 
 the place of wheat in many portions of the 
 country, where repeated crops of the latter have 
 exhausted the soil of some of the requisite ele- 
 ments for its growth. The best soil for it is a 
 rich, sandy loam, but it grows freely on the 
 lightest sandy and gravelly soils that are capable 
 of sustaining any kind of vegetation. The di- 
 rections for the preparation of soil and seed, and 
 for cultivation, harvesting, etc., are the same a3 
 for wheat; but it is sometimes sown among 
 standing corn and hoed in, the ground being left 
 as level as possible. So soon as the corn is ma- 
 tured, it is cut up by the roots and removed to 
 the sides of the field, when the ground is thor- 
 oughly roUed. 
 
 Winter rye and spring rye are varieties of the 
 same species, and may readily be transformed 
 into each other. Sow from five pecks to two 
 bushels to the acre, according to the quality of the soil, the 
 richest lands demanding most. Winter rye may be sown from 
 the 20th of August to the 20th of September, and spring rye 
 BO soon as the state of the soil will permit in the spring. 
 
 Eye, when ground and unbolted, is much used in New England 
 to mix with Indian corn meal, for bread-making. The corn 
 meal is scalded, and the loaves baked for a long time. The 
 product is known as " rye-and-Indian bread," and is much e»; 
 teemed and very wholesome. There is a peculiar aroma and 
 flavor connected with the husk of the grain, which is lost in 
 the bolted flour. Dr. Thaer, the distinguished German physi- 
 cian and agricultural writer, says that " this substance has a 
 
 KAB OP BTB. 
 
108 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 singularly strengthening, refreshing, and beneficial efteoi on the 
 animal frame.'' 
 
 4. TnB Oat — Avena Sativa. 
 
 This grain will grow on any soil and in almost any climate. 
 It is afifected less by disease, and has fewer insect enemies than 
 most of the cereals. The wire worm, 
 however, occasionally proves destruc- 
 tive to it, when sown on fresh sod. 
 The remedy in this case is to turn 
 over the sod late in the fall, just be- 
 fore the severe winter frosts. 
 
 There are many varieties and sub- 
 varieties of the oat. Loudon describes 
 the following : 
 
 " The White or Common Oat is in 
 most general cultivation in England 
 and Scotland, and is known by its 
 white husk and kernel. 
 
 " The Black Oat, known by its black 
 husk, and cultivated on poor soils in the north of England and 
 Scotland. 
 
 " The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thinner and 
 more flexible stem, and firmly-attached grains. It is early, 
 suffers little from winds, meals well, and suits windy situations 
 and a late climate. 
 
 " The Poland Oat, known by its thick, white husk, awnless 
 chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw. 
 It requires a dry, warm soil, but is very prolific. 
 
 " The Black Poland Oat is one of the best varieties ; it some- 
 times weighs 50 lbs. to the bushel. 
 
 " The Friesland or Dutch oat has plump, thin-skinned, white 
 grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned. 
 It has longer straw than the Poland, but in other respects re- 
 sembles it. 
 
 "The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned. 
 
 HEAD OF THE OAT, 
 
Faem Ceops. 109 
 
 white grains, double and treble, with longer straw than either 
 of the two last. It is now almost the only kind raised in the 
 north of England and south of Scotland, and brings a higher 
 price in London than any other variety. 
 
 " The Georgian Oat is a large-grained, remarkably profitable 
 variety, and on rich soil, in good tilth, has produced more than 
 any other variety. 
 
 " The Siberian or Tartarian is by some conceded a distinct 
 species. The grains are black or buown, thin and small, and 
 turned mostly to one side of the panicle, and the straw is coarse 
 and reedy. It is little cultivated in England, but is found very 
 suitable for poor soils and exposed situations. 
 
 " The Winter Oat is sown at the rate of two bushels per acre 
 in October, the plants are luxuriant and tiller well, and afford 
 good winter and spring pasture for ewes and lambs, and when 
 these are shut out, it affords an ample crop of grain in August." 
 
 The heaviest oat cultivated in the United States is the Impe- 
 rial ; and it is preferred by many to all others. It is bright and 
 plump, and yields a large proportion of nutritive matter. It 
 has proved very productive in the Northern and Middle States. 
 But the variety most cultivated is the common White Oat, 
 which is hardy and a good bearer. 
 
 The only oat that will mature with certainty in the Southern 
 States is the Egyptian. It is sound, hardy, and moderately 
 productive. It is sown in autumn. 
 
 At the North, oats may be sown from the first of March till 
 the last of May ; but the earliest sown usually yield the best 
 crops. From two to four bushels to the acre are sown in this 
 country ; but in England they sow from four to six. The land 
 should be prepared by plowing and harrowing, after which the 
 seed should be sown broadcast, and harrowed in. On most 
 soils roUing is beneficial. 
 
 Oats may be mowed or cut with the cradle or the sickle. 
 They are fit to harvest when they begin to turn yellow. 
 
 As an article of diet, the oat is not properly appreciated in 
 this country, oatmeal being little eaten except by foreigners. 
 
110 
 
 The Farm. 
 
 In Ireland and Scotland it is a common article of diet. It 
 would be weU for us if it were so here. It is wholesome and 
 strengthening. It is prepared by grinding the kiln-dried seeds, 
 which have been previously deprived of their hiisks and outer 
 skin. 
 
 5. Baelet — Eordeum of species. 
 
 In Europe this grain ranks next to wheat in importance; but 
 it is much leas extensively 
 cultivated in the United 
 States. 
 
 Professor Lowe enu- 
 merates six species of 
 barley, but two only are 
 in general cultivation — 
 the Two-Eowed and the 
 Six-Rowed. In England, 
 the latter»is preferred for 
 its superior hardiness and 
 productiveness; but the 
 former is more generally 
 cultivated in this country, 
 the Six-Rowed being, 
 with us, more subject to the smut. 
 
 Like rye, it may be made either a winter or a spring grain ; 
 but in this country it is almost universally sowed in the spring. 
 Sow so soon as the ground is suflBciently dry, on land plowed 
 the previous fall. If sown on sod, it may be lightly plowed in, 
 and afterward harrowed or rolled. Sow about two bushels to 
 the acre, on soil of medium richness. If sown very early, a 
 smaller quantity of seed will suffice. A loam of medium con- 
 sistency, between light and heavy, is best for it. Barn-yard 
 manures must never be applied directly to this grain. Steeping 
 the seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of saltpeter is 
 beneficial. The roller is sometimes applied to the field, when 
 the plants are two or three inches high, with great benefit. 
 
 It is of great importance to harvest barley at the proper timed 
 
 HEADS OF BABLSY. 
 
Faem Ckops. 
 
 Ill 
 
 If cut too early, the kernels shrink very much, and if suffered 
 to stand too long, the grain wastes at the slightest touch, the 
 heads breaking off and falling to the ground. It is known to 
 be ripe by the disappearance of the reddish oast from the ear, 
 the drooping of the heads, and the yellowish color of the stalks. 
 It may he stacked like wheat. 
 
 Barley is very useful as an article of human food, but, like 
 oats, is too much neglected in the United States, being used 
 principally for malting and brewing. In the form of pea/rl 
 barley, which is the small, round part of the kernel that 
 remains after the skin and a part of the seed are ground off, it 
 is excellent when cooked in the same way as rice — either simply 
 boiled or in puddings. 
 
 6. BioB — Oryza Sativa. 
 Eice probably affords food for more human beings than any 
 other plant. In China, and nearly the 
 whole length of the southern part of 
 Asia ; throughout the innumerable and 
 densely populated islands of the Pacific 
 and Indian oceans ; in the southern part 
 I of Europe, and a large extent of Africa ; 
 and through no inconsiderable portion 
 of North and South America and the 
 "West Indies, it is extensively grown, and 
 forms the staple food of the inhabitants. 
 The varieties of rice most grown in 
 South Carolina and Georgia, which have 
 hitherto been the greatest rice-producing 
 States of the Union, are the Gold-seed 
 rice, the Guinea, the Common White, 
 and the White-bearded. There are sev- 
 eral other varieties, but generally infe- 
 rior to the foregoing. The best are 
 produced by careful cultivation on soils 
 suited to this grain, and by a careful selection of seed. 
 
 HEAD OF EIOE. 
 
11:2 The Farm. 
 
 The method of cultivation pursued on the rice lands of the 
 lower Mississippi, as detailed by Dr. Oartwright, a practica. 
 planter, is as follows : 
 
 " The seed is sown broadcast about as thick as wheat, and 
 Imrro wed-in with a light harrow, having many teeth; th« 
 ground being first well plowed and prepared by ditches and 
 embankments for inundation. It is generally sown in March, 
 and immediately after sowing, the water is let on, so as barely 
 to overflow the ground. The water is withdrawn on the sec- 
 ond, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to 
 swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely. 
 When it has attained about three inches in height, the water is 
 again let on, the top leaves being left a little above the water. 
 Oomplete immersion would kiU the plant. A fortnight pre- 
 vious to harvest the water is drawn oif to give the stalks 
 strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of the 
 reapers. 
 
 " The same measure of ground will yield three times as much 
 rice as wheat. The only labor after sowing is to see that the 
 rice is properly irrigated; except in some localities, where 
 aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectually destroy- 
 ing all others. The rice grounds of the lower Mississippi pro- 
 duce about seventy-five dollars' worth of rice per acre. The 
 variety called the Creole white rice is considered to be the best."* 
 
 Upland rice is cultivated entirely with the plow and harrow, 
 and grows well on the pine barrens. A kind of shovel plow, 
 drawn by one horse, is driven through the unbroken pine for- 
 est, not a tree being cut or belted, and no grubbing being neces- 
 sary, as there is little or no undergrowth. The plow makes a 
 shallow furrow about an inch or two deep, the furrows about 
 three feet apart. The rice is dropped into them and covered 
 with a harrow. The middles, or spaces between the furrows, 
 are not brokfen up until the rice attains several inches in height. 
 One or two plowings sufiice in the piney woods for its oultivs- 
 
 • The " A iiericaii Farm Book." 
 
Farm Crops. 
 
 113 
 
 tion — weeds and grass, owing to the nature of the soil, not 
 being troublesome. 
 
 Eice prepared according to the following recipe makes a dish 
 which we prefer to the richest rice pudding, and which is cer- 
 tainly far more wholesome : 
 
 Slowly simmer the rice in milk three or four hours, or tU 
 the grains burst and absorb the milk ; add a little sugar ; put 
 the whole into a wide dish, and bake till slightly brown. Eat 
 with milk or butter. 
 
 7. BircKWHBAT — Polygonum Fagopyrum. 
 Buckwheat is extensively cultivated in the United States ; as 
 
 H5i 
 
 it affords a flour which is 
 much esteemed as an article 
 of food. It will grow with 
 considerable luxuriance on 
 the poorest land. It comes 
 to maturity so quickly that it 
 is frequently sowed upon 
 ground from which wheat or 
 some other crop has been 
 taken. When intended for 
 seed it should be sown suffi- 
 ciently early to allow the 
 kernel to become perfectly 
 ripe — say from the middle of 
 June to the first of July. In 
 New York it is often sown 
 in August with winter wheat, 
 affording a ripe crop in the 
 fall, without injury to the 
 wheat, except so far as it may exhaust the soil. It is sown 
 broadcast, at the rate of from a bushel to a bushel and a half 
 per acre. In harvesting it is usually mowed with a scythe, and 
 made into sraaD stacks. 
 Buckwheat is often used for plowing under as p, green manure 
 
 UTJCKWHEAT PLANT. 
 
lU The Faem. 
 
 Tliis can he done where the land is too poor to produce clover 
 for that purpose. When in flower, it should be first rolled, and 
 then plowed in. 
 
 8. Millet — Panicum of species. 
 
 The species generally cultivated for the seed is the P. millia- 
 eewm. As a forage crop, the German millet (P. Germanicum) 
 is preferable, and is coming into extensive use, especially at the 
 West. The common species is sown, either broadcast or in 
 drills, from the first of May to the first of July. If for hay, it 
 is best sown broadcast about five pecks to the acre. In drills, 
 which is the best way when cultivated for the grain, eight 
 quarts will suflBce. 
 
 Of the German millet or Hungarian grass we shall have more 
 to say, under the head of the grasses. 
 
 II.— HOW TO SHOCK GEAIN. 
 
 Many a valuable harvest may be preserved from ruin by 
 taking heed to the following hints from a practical farmer. 
 They are from that excellent paper, the Ohio Fa/rmer. The 
 readers of this little manual shall have no excuse for the too 
 common awkward and inefficient modes of shocking grain. 
 Here are our sensible farmer's rules : 
 
 " 1. Grain should be firmly bound in smaller sheaves than it 
 is almost universally found. Loosely bound sheaves can not be 
 well shocked. They also admit more rain than tightly bound 
 ones. 
 
 "2. Two men can shock better and more advantageously 
 than one. 
 
 " 3. Let the shocker always take two sheaves at a time, hold- 
 ing them with his elbow against his side, bringing the heads 
 together with hands well spread upon them. Lift them as high 
 as possible, bringing them with force, in as nearly a perpen- 
 dicular position as can be, to the ground. Never make the 
 Becond thrust, if the sheaves stand erect, for every one after 
 the first, by breaking the butts, makes the matter worse. 
 
Faem Crops. 115 
 
 " 4. Then let two persons bring down two sheaves each at the 
 tame time, as before described, being extremely careful to keep 
 them perpendicular. The form of shock at this * * * 
 period may be represented thus : * * * 
 
 "5. As lastly stated, two more each, thus: ^^ * 
 The reader will perceive we now have ten sheaves, * * 
 
 forming a circle as nearly as can be. ^ ^ 
 
 " 6. While one man presses the head of the * * 
 shock firmly together, let the other ireah, not bend, the two 
 cap sheaves, and place them on, well spreading heads and butts. 
 
 "The main points are, to have grain vtell hound, sheaves 
 made to stand in an erect position, and then to put cap sheaves 
 on firmly, and every gust of wind will not demolish your work. 
 
 " Grain is usually shocked in this manner : One sheaf is made 
 to stand alone, another is leaned against it, and another, some- 
 times at an angle of forty-five degrees, ' to make them stand 
 up,' until a sufficient number is thought to be leaned up. 
 
 " Now the probability is, that there is but one sheaf in the 
 whole shock that has its center of gravity within its base ; as a 
 matter of course, each depends on some other to hold it up 
 Consequently they twist ; and if the shock does not fall down 
 before the hands get the next one up, it most certainly wiU 
 during the first rain, just when the perpendicular position is most 
 necessary." 
 
 III.— THE LEGUMES. 
 1. The Kidney Bean — Fhaseolus Vulgaris. 
 
 The bush or dwarf kidney bean is frequently cultivated as a 
 field crop. There are many sorts that may be profitably used 
 for this purpose, but the Small "White ia generally preferred, as 
 it is very prolific, quite hardy, will grow in light, poor soil, and 
 is more delicately flavored than the colored varieties. The 
 Long White garden bean is also good. See " The Garden" for 
 I, list of the best varieties for horticultural purposes. 
 
 The bean succeeds best on a light, warm, and moderately 
 fertile soil. A strong soU, or too much manure, induces a 
 
116 The Faem. 
 
 tendency to run to vine, without a corresponding quantity of 
 fruit. 
 
 Plant either in hills or in drills. If you have a sower, or 
 drill for putting them in, the latter is the best mode. The drills 
 may be from two to three feet apart, the hills from eighteen 
 inches to two feet each way. From five to eight plants are 
 enough for a hUl. They must be kept clear from weeds by the 
 use of the hoe or cultivator ; but should be earthed up very 
 slightly, if at all. The fli'st of June is suflBciently early to plant 
 them. They are sometimes planted with corn, putting three or 
 four beans in each hill. This may be done either at the time 
 of planting the corn, or at the first hoeing. 
 
 The best mode of harvesting beans with which we are ac- 
 quainted is thus described by a correspondent of the GounVry 
 Oentleman : 
 
 " Place a small pole or stick a foot in the ground, and five or 
 six above ground ; around this stick lay some stones, say from 
 four to six inches high, and from twenty to thirty inches in 
 diameter ; then place your beans, with the stems against the 
 pole, allowing the roots to be on the opposite side; your next 
 handfiil you lay with the top on those last laid roots, and the 
 roots of this on the pod and leaves, and so on to the top, form- 
 ing, as you proceed, a sugar-loaf, keeping it round, or as you 
 would build a stack, tying the top with a straw band. Thus 
 you throw the water all to the outside, the beans being so com- 
 pact as not to admit water. Ton can by this means allow them 
 to remain in the field until you are ready to thresh them in 
 November or December, the stones at bottom keeping them 
 dry. In carting to the barn I loosen the pole by shaking, nd 
 take hold bottom and top, and throw pole and beans into the 
 wagon ; by doing so you do not shell the beans." 
 
 As an article of food, the bean has been undervalued. It is, 
 when properly cooked, very palatable and exceedingly nutri- 
 tious. It abounds in legumin, which is analogous to casein, the 
 animal principle in milk, and is essentially the same as the 
 fibrin of lean meat. 
 
Farm Crops. 117 
 
 Sheep are very fond of beans, and the straw or haulm makes 
 an excellent fodder for them. No other animal, we believe, 
 wUl eat beans raw ; but cattle, hogs, and poultry thrive on them 
 when cooked. 
 
 2. The Pea — Pisum Sativum. 
 
 The Marrowfat and SmaU Yellow peas are the sorts generally 
 used for field culture. The Marrowfat is the richer and better 
 pea, and is to be preferred for good soils. The Small TeUow 
 thrives on poorer soils, and Is therefore, in some cases, mora 
 profitably cultivated. In some parts of the South a very prolific 
 bush pea is cultivated and much esteemed for the table, both 
 green and dry. 
 
 Prepare the ground as for any other spring crop, by plowing 
 and harrowing, and sow broadcast, at the rate of two or two 
 and a half bushels to the acre. Cover them with the harrow 
 or the cultivator, the latter implement being preferable, and 
 smooth the ground by the use of the roller. 
 
 In harvesting the pea, some farmers hook them up with a 
 scythe, and some rake them up by hand with the common 
 rake ; but the most expeditious and best way, by far, is to use 
 the horse-rake in gathering this crop. 
 
 Peas are easily threshed and prepared for market, and may 
 be made a very profitable crop ; from thirty to forty bushels 
 per acre being not an uncommon yield. As an article of food, 
 they are excellent "both for man and beast." 
 
 The great enemy of the pea is the pea-weevil or pea-bug, 
 which is too well known to require description. It deposits its 
 egg in the growing pea, by piercing the tender pod. As a 
 remedy, some recommend keeping the seed in tight vessels over 
 one year. This plan, if universally adopted, would probably 
 lead to the total extermination of this destructive insect ; but 
 as this is not likely to be the case, the only practicable way to 
 avoid its ravages is by late sowing. It has been ascertained 
 that it is limited to a certain period for depositing its eggs; 
 peas, therefore, which are planted sufficiently late in the season 
 
118 The Faem. 
 
 to postpone tlieir seeding beyond this period, are not injured, 
 Tlie time for planting to avoid the bug ranges, in different lati- 
 tudes where experiments have been made, from May 20th to 
 June lOtL 
 
 The Chinese Prolific pea and the Japan pea are new sorts, 
 which seem to promise valuable additions to our leguminous 
 crops. 
 
 The plant called Cow-pea or Indian pea, and sometimes Stock 
 pea, is extensively cultivated in some of the Southern States, 
 both as a forage crop and a fertilizer. It is sown broadcast, in 
 drills, or hoed in among Indian corn, when the latter is laid by 
 for the season. When intended for cattle, it is harvested before 
 the seed is fuUy ripe. It may be harvested in the same way as 
 the common pea. 
 
 3. The Pea-Ndt — Arachis Hypogma. 
 
 This is a legume bearing its pods under the surface of the 
 ground. It was originally brought from Africa. 
 
 A North Carolina planter thus describes the mode of cultiva- 
 tion : " So soon as the frost is out of the ground, the land is 
 broken up, and about the middle of April laid off with the plow 
 thirty-three inches each way; two or three peas are then 
 dropped in the crosses thus made. The plants are kept clean 
 with hoes and plows until the vines cover the ground ; but no 
 dirt is put on the vines. In October they are dug with a rake 
 or plow. Hogs are then turned into the field, and they soon 
 fatten upon the peas left upon the ground. When the vines are 
 left upon the land for the hogs to feed upon, there is no crop 
 that improves the land so much. 
 
 IT.— ESOTILENT EOOTS. 
 
 1. The Potato — Solanum Tuberosum. 
 
 This most valuable of all the esculent roots is a native of the 
 American continent, and is now found in a wild state in parts 
 of South America. It was probably Introduced into southern 
 
Farm Ceops. 119 
 
 Europe by the Spanish adventurers, and into England by Sir 
 Walter Ealeigli. In this country it has been cultivated from 
 the first settlement; but until a comparatively recent period 
 only to a limited extent. 
 
 In reference to the choice of varieties for planting, the best 
 advice we can give will be simply a repetition of our recom- 
 mendations in respect to several other plants : Choose such as 
 have been well tested by yourself or others, and found adapted 
 to the soil and purposes for which they are to be cultivated. 
 Try your experiments with new sorts, on a small scale, and 
 with close observation of the results. Experiment also, if lei- 
 sure serve, in the production of new varieties from the seeds 
 found in the balls. See directions in " The Garden.'' 
 
 A fair crop of potatoes may be produced on almost any soil, 
 properly manured and prepared and well cultivated, but a rich 
 loam, of medium humidity, is best. If fresh or unfarmented 
 manures be used, they should be spread on the land, and plowed 
 under, and not scattered in the drills or hOls, as they are apt to 
 injure the flavor of the potatoes. Lime, crushed bones, gypsum, 
 salt, and ashes are excellent special manures for the potato. 
 The sou should be made loose and mellow before planting. 
 
 In reference to seed, planting, and cultivation, opinions and 
 practices differ widely. "We have not room to discuss the va- 
 rious points in controversy between different scientific and 
 practical agriculturists. AU that our plan will permit is to give 
 our own mode of cultivation, leaving our readers to try it in 
 connection with other methods, and adopt the best. 
 
 "We choose for seed good, well ripened, medium-sized pota- 
 toes, such as we would select for the table. These we should 
 prefer to plant whole, but, seed being scarce and dear, we think 
 it economical to out each into two or four pieces, according to 
 the size. We cut them three or four days, at least, before they 
 are wanted for planting, roll them in plaster of Paris, and 
 spread them on the floor in an airy loft to dry. 
 
 We plant in drills from two and a half to three and a half 
 feet apart, according to the strength of the soil and the sort of 
 
120 The Faem. 
 
 potatoes planted, some varieties producing much larger topa 
 than others. On some soils we should plant in hills, for conve- 
 nience of cultivation with the plow and cultivator, hut on light 
 and loamy soils tolerably free from weeds and unobstructed by 
 stones, we prefer the drills. We drop our sets from six to nine 
 inches apai-t in the driUs, and cover to a depth of three or four 
 inches. 
 
 When the shoots have fairly made their appearance above 
 giound, we run a plow between the rows, throwing the earth 
 well to the plants, and following with a hoe, if necessary. This 
 plowing, or plowing and hoeing, are repeated once or twice 
 before the blossoms appear, but not afterward. 
 
 The harvesting is commenced so soon as the tops are mostly 
 dead. We allow only sufficient exposure to the sun to dry the 
 tubers, and then store them at once in bins or barrels, where 
 they will be secure against frost, covering them with straw or 
 dry sand, to prevent the circulation of air. 
 
 For ail early crop we plant only the seed ends, hut for the 
 earliest possible crop we should proceed as follows : 
 
 Select medium-sized or large tubers early in February, and 
 prepare them by carefully cutting out all the eyes, except the 
 crow-eye or eyes (for there are sometimes two of them), and 
 then place them in a layer, on some dry sand, in a shallow box, 
 and cover them with sand, chaff, or straw, and keep them in a 
 warm room, where light can be freely admitted. When the 
 shoots appear, they must be exposed to the light as much as 
 possible, by partially removing the covering during the day, 
 but keeping them carefully covered at night, when there is any 
 danger from cold. The leaves soon become green and tolerably 
 hardy. Early in March they may be planted out in a warm 
 southern exposure, covering them so as to just expose the leaves 
 above ground. Give them a covering of straw or litter at night, 
 whenever there is danger from frost. By this means you may 
 have potatoes fit for the table two or three weeks earlier than 
 by planting in the ordinary way. A modification of this plan 
 is to forward the sets prepared, as before, on a heap of fer- 
 
Farm Ceops. 121 
 
 meriting manure, in some warm exposure in the open air, cov- 
 ering them well at night when the weather is cold. 
 
 In " The Garden" (page 76) we have given a description of 
 the method pursued hy Mr. Peabody, of Georgia, for raising 
 potatoes under straw. We are convinced that his plan is a 
 good one for the South, and late experiments seem to prove 
 that it works well at the North also. A correspondent of the 
 Ohio Valley Farmer, for instance, says : 
 
 " Having a quantity of wheat straw near a piece of ground I 
 was planting with potatoes, I concluded to try the straw-cover- 
 ing process. The soil, if I may so call it, was hard yellow 
 clay. On the surface, and without any prepa/ration of the 
 ground, I distributed my potatoes, covering them some six or 
 eight inches with straw, and did nothing more to them. They 
 grew finely, and in the fall I took hold of the tops and '■'■drawed" 
 my crop. I found the tubers of a good size, and nice, bright, 
 and clean enough for the boiler! and the yield much greater 
 than of those planted in sod ground in the usual way." 
 
 Another correspondent of the same paper makes the follow- 
 ing strong statement : 
 
 " "We have the three last years planted our potatoes under 
 straw, and home got more than double the quantity, on the 
 same ground, with less work in planting and gathering. Our 
 plan is to prepare the ground as thoroughly as possible, then 
 mark it out with the plow, as close as we can ; drop the pota- 
 toes six inches apart in same, cover as lightly as possible with 
 the soil, then take the wagon containing the straw, and spread 
 lightly to cover the ground. In this manner the work is done 
 tiU harvest-time. "We then take the potato-hook, and rake the 
 straw into winrows, and our crop is nearly all in sight, ready 
 to be gathered." 
 
 "We have not ourself sufiiciently tested this mode of planting, 
 to speak with confidence from our own experience. Let our 
 thousands of readers try it, and report through the papers I 
 
 " Of the potato disease or rot," as we have remarked in "The 
 Garden," "little can profitably be here said. Its cause and 
 
 6 
 
122 The Farm. 
 
 remedy have yet to be made known. As preventives, a dry, 
 or an underdrained soil ; the use of lime, salt, and ashes ; the 
 absence of fresh stable manure; early planting; and new, 
 healthy varieties, may be confidently recommended." Thorough 
 underdraining alone is, we believe, generally effective in pre- 
 venting the disease. 
 
 2. The Sweet 'PoTKio—Convolvulv^ Batatas. 
 
 This is the potato of the South, and is much cultivated in the 
 Middle and Western States. In its perfection, as it grows in 
 South Carolina and the other extreme Southern States, it is the 
 best of aU the esculent roots. 
 
 The varieties most cultivated are the Small Spanish, long, 
 purplish color, grows in clusters, very productive, and of good 
 quality ; Brimstone, sulphur-colored, long, large, and excellent ; 
 Red Bermuda, the best early potato ; Common Yam, root ob- 
 long and large, the best keeper, and very productive. 
 
 A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet po- 
 tato. The manure should be plowed in, and the ground well 
 pulverized. A top-dressing of wood ashes is very beneficial. 
 
 The Spanish varieties are generally planted where they are 
 to remain, either whole or cut up into sets. But these may, 
 and the yams must be, propagated by slips, as they grow larger 
 and yield more abundantly. 
 
 To raise slips, select a sunny spot, sheltered by fences or 
 buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, with alleys of 
 the same width between them. Slope the beds a little toward 
 the sun, and add plenty of well-rotted manure, if the soil be 
 not already rich. Do this in February or early in March. 
 Choose large, smooth, healthy-looking potatoes, and lay them 
 regularly over the bed, an inch or two apart, and cover them 
 with three or four inches of soil from the alleys. It requires 
 ten bushels of potatoes, thus bedded, for an acre of ground. 
 
 Lay off your ground in low, horizontal ridges or beds, the 
 crowns of which should be tliree feet apart, and about six 
 inches high, on which, when the slips are ready, ■which wUl be 
 
Faem Crops. 123 
 
 about the middle of April, plant them out eighteen inches 
 apart, one plant in a place, choosing a wet or cloudy day for 
 the operation. Draw the slips when from three to four inches 
 high, by placing the left hand on the bed, near the sprout, to 
 steady the root and prevent it from being pulled up m ith the 
 sprout. This is loosened with the right hand fron; the parent 
 tuber, which will continue, if undisturbed, to produce a suc- 
 cession of sli] s till the first of July. Stir the soil frequently, 
 keeping the weeds well .subdued. Be careful not to cover the 
 vines, but if they become attached to the soil, loosen them from 
 it, so that the whole vigor of the plant may go to the forma- 
 tion of tubers. Make the hills large and flat. When they have 
 been laid by, it is a good plan to fill up the spaces between the 
 rows with litter, when the ground is wet, to retain the moisture. 
 
 So soon as the tops are dead or touched by the frost, the 
 *rop should be gathered. 
 
 Sweet potatoes are difficult to keep. The following is Mr. 
 Peabody's plan : 
 
 "Let the small heaps dry during the day. In handling 
 them, take care not to bruise or injure the skin, as the least 
 bruise produces rapid decay. Put them up in hills containing 
 thirty or forty bushels each. Make a circular trench as large 
 as the hill you wish to make. Elevate the earth surrounded by 
 it six inches, or at least sufficiently to prevent the access of 
 moisture. Cover this with straw, and heap the potatoes upon 
 it in a regular cone. If the weather be good, cover them only 
 with pine or other straw for two or three days, that the pota- 
 toes may be well dried before earthing up. The covering of 
 straw should be three or four inches thick. Cover this with 
 strips of pine bark, commencing arthe base, and covering as in 
 shingling, leaving a small aperture at the top for the escape of 
 the heat and moisture generated within. Cover this, except 
 the aperture, with earth, to the thickness of four or five inches. 
 Some cover the opening in the top with a piece of pine bark, 
 to keep out the rain, but a board shelter for the whole hea]^ is 
 preferable. In the spring take up the potatoes, rub oflf the 
 
124 The Fakm. 
 
 sprouts, and keep them on a dry floor. If put up with care, 
 thej will keep till July."* 
 
 Baked, or roasted in hot ashes, the sweet potato is one of the 
 most delicious and nutritive of all vegetables. They are also 
 used for pies and puddings, and sweet-potato rolls are excellent. 
 
 3. The Ttjenip — Brassica Eepa. 
 
 In England the turnip crop is one of the most extensive and 
 important in the whole compass of agricultural production. 
 Fields of hundreds of acres are sometimes seen, and inclosures 
 of fifteen or twenty are common. Here they are cultivated to 
 a more limited extent, differences of opinion existing in refer- 
 ence to the profit of their cultivation as a crop for feeding stock. 
 
 "In the corn-growing regions of the fertile West, from the 
 facility with which Indian corn can be grown, and the low 
 price of it in many sections of the country, and its nutritive 
 value over that of roots is such, that it is doubtless more profit- 
 able growing corn than roots for feeding puiposes. But in the 
 Northern States, where corn is usually worth from 80 cents to 
 $1 per bushel, we believe farmers would generally find it for 
 their interest to grow a certain amount of roots, proportioned 
 to the number of cattle and other stock they winter. Aside 
 from the actual amount of nutritive food that roots afford, we 
 think there can be no doubt that the winter condition of our 
 farm stock would be greatly improved by a daUy feed of succu- 
 lent food, even if it were but four quarts per day to each animal, 
 with their dry hay and straw ; but with a larger allowance of 
 roots, cattle can he kept in good condition through our long 
 winters on hay of poor quality, or on straw, and so they can in 
 freely feeding Indian meal or oil cake ; but in sections of the 
 country where corn is worth one dollar per bushel, and oil cake 
 in a similar ratio, it is presumed roots would be found the 
 cheapest, "t 
 
 The varieties of the turnip are numerous. The flat English 
 
 * Whi'ifi's " Gardening for the SoaUb" t Oaxmtry OentUmcM- 
 
Faem Ckops. 125 
 
 turnip has been longest in cultivation, and still holds its place 
 among most farmers as a field crop. It thrives best on new 
 land and freshly turned sod, but wlU grow wherever Indian 
 com can be raised. 
 
 The English turnip may be sown from the middle of June to 
 the first of August, either broadcast or in drills. If sown 
 broadcast, about two pounds of seed per acre will be required. 
 The seed should be lightly harrowed or bushed in. DrUliag it 
 in with the seed sower and cultivating with the cultivator or 
 hoe is the better way. The crop will be materially assisted by 
 a top-dressing of lime, ashes, and plaster, at the rate of fifteen 
 or twenty bushels of the first two, and from one and a half to 
 three of the last. 
 
 English turnips are often sowed among Indian corn at the 
 last hoeing, producing, in many cases, a fair crop. 
 
 The Euta Baga or Swedes turnip is a far more valuable root 
 than the English, but requires a little more attention in cultiva- 
 tion. It win grow on a heavier soU, yield as good a crop, fur- 
 nish a more nutritive root, and keep longer. 
 
 "The Swedes turnip is generally sown in drills about two 
 feet apart, and on heavy lands these should be slightly ridged. 
 The plants must be successively thinned, to prevent interfering 
 with such as are intended to mature, but enough should remain 
 to provide for casualties. Where there is a deficiency, they 
 may be supplied by transplanting during showery weather. 
 They should be left six or eight inches apart in the driUs. The 
 Swede turnip is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soU or 
 heavy manuring ; though the use of fresh manures has been 
 supposed to facilitate the multiplication of enemies. Bones, 
 ground and drUled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes, 
 gypsum, and salt, are the best appUcations that can be made. 
 The Swede should be sown from the 20th May to the 15th 
 -June, and earlier than the English turnip, as it takes longer to 
 mature; and two or three weeks more of growth frequently 
 adds largely to the product. An early sowing, also, gives time 
 to plant for another crop, in case of failure of the first. 
 
126 The Faem. 
 
 " Tlie tarnip is exposed to numerous depredators, of which 
 the turnip flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the 
 plant so soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys two 
 or three successive sowings. When the fly or bug is discovered, 
 the application of lime, ashes, or soot, or all combined, should 
 be made upon the leaves, whUe the dew or a shght moisture is 
 on them."* 
 
 Harvesting should be deferred till the approach of severe 
 frosts, and at the South the crop may remain in the ground till 
 wanted in the winter. 
 
 The Purple-Topped Swede, Skirving's Swede, and Ashcroft's 
 Swede are approved varieties. 
 
 4. Kohl Eabi — Brassiea Oleracea. 
 
 In England and Ireland, where the turnip has, in some places, 
 shown signs of degeneracy, the Kohl Kabi has been proposed 
 as a substitute, and has already come into somewhat extensive 
 cultivation. It seems to possess all the good qualities of the 
 turnip, with the addition of some excellences peculiar to itself 
 It has been proved to be perfectly hardy, to stand severe frosts 
 better, and to keep in store for a longer period than the Swedish 
 turnip. It also resists the attacks of the fly and grub. Its 
 feeding qualities have been fully tested, and all kinds of stock 
 are exceedingly fond of it. When fed to milch cows it does 
 not impart that turnip taste to the milk and butter, as is fre- 
 quently the case when cows are freely fed with turnips. 
 
 The average weight per statute acre has been fi-om 27 to 31 
 tons, of tops and bulbs. 
 
 The seeds of the Green and Purple -Topped varieties have 
 been extensively distributed through the agency of the Patent 
 Office, during the past two or three years. So far as we have 
 learned, they have fallen short of the Swedes in productiveness 
 or weight per acre. But in aU cases tha,t have come to our 
 knowledge, the seed of the Kohl were sown at the time of 
 
 * Allen. 
 
Fakm Ceops 127 
 
 sowing the turnips. This is too late for sowing Eabi seed. 
 The Irish Fa/rmer's Gazette says : " The seed is sown in a well- 
 prepared seed-bed ; about the end of February, in drills about 
 a foot apart ; and in May they are transplanted in the field 
 (when the plants are six or eight inches high), in rows about 
 two feet asunder, and eighteen inches apart in the rows." 
 
 6. The Oakrot — Daucus Caroia. 
 
 The carrot is looked upon with much favor as a field crop in 
 some parts of the United States. It is preferred by many 
 farmers to every other vegetable for feeding cattle, horses, and 
 swine. A bushel of carrots cut and mixed with an equal quan- 
 tity of oats is thought to be equivalent to two bushels of oats ; 
 and five orsiz hundred bushels may easily be raised on an acre 
 of good land. Eev. Mr. Coleman, of Massachusetts, says that 
 he has raised them at the rate of more than a thousand bushels 
 to the acre. 
 
 The varieties mostly used for field culture are the Altringham, 
 the Orange, and the White Belgian. The last-named is very 
 productive, and, growing high out of ground, is more easQy 
 harvested than the other sorts; but, on the other hand, it is 
 considered below the others in nutritive value. 
 
 " It is very important to have both the soil and the manure 
 for carrots free from the seeds of weeds and grasses ; the plants 
 in the early stages of their growth are small and feeble, which 
 makes it a slow and expensive process to eradicate the weeds, 
 if abundant. Well manured sandy, or light, loamy soUs are 
 best adapted to the carrot crop. The ground should be deeply 
 worked, and brought to a fine tilth before sowing the seed. 
 For field crops, the drills should be eighteen inches distant ; the 
 plants in the rows should be thinned to six or eight inches 
 apart. This ' thinning out' is a matter too frequently neglected. 
 We have frequently seen carrots growing so thickly that they 
 would average a dozen or more plants to the foot; when left 
 to grow in this crowded manner, the roots must necessarily bo 
 small, and the expense of harvesting greatly increased." 
 
128 The Fakm. 
 
 6. Thb Paesijep — Pastinaca Satita. 
 
 This root is nearly equal to the carrot in value, and large 
 crops may be obtained on deep, rich, weU-pulverized soil. The 
 best variety for field culture ia the Isle of Jersey. The cultiva- 
 tion is similar to that of the carrot. The harvesting should be 
 deferred tUl spring, unless the roots may be wanted for winter's 
 use, as they keep best in the ground. 
 
 The parsnep is one of the best of all our table vegetables, 
 and is also excellent for cattle, sheep, and swine. The leaves 
 of both parsneps and carrots are good for cattle, either green 
 or dried. 
 
 v. The Bbbt— ^eto Vulgaris. 
 
 The varieties most in use for field culture are the Sugar beet 
 and the Mangold-Wurzel, of both of which there are several 
 Bub-varieties. 
 
 Beets do well in any soil of sufBcient depth and fertility, but 
 they are perhaps most partial to a strong loam. If well tilled, 
 they wU] produce large crops on a tenacious clay. "We have 
 raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which 
 had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil 
 can not be made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh 
 or unfermented manures are much the best. 
 
 The beet should be planted in drills from twenty to twenty- 
 four inches apart, at the rate of six pounds of seed to the acre. 
 Cover about an inch deep. The seed should be early planted, 
 or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly ; but it must first 
 be soaked by poaring soft, scalding water on it, allowing it to 
 cool to "blood-heat, and remain for three or four days, then roll 
 in plaster and drill it in. The culture is similar to that of car- 
 rots and parsneps. 
 
 As an article of human food, the beet is a universal favorite. 
 Domestic animals are very fond of it, and swine prefer it to 
 any other root except the parsnep ; and on no vegetable can 
 they be kept in a better condition. 
 
Farm Crops. 129 
 
 8. Chinese Yam — Dioscorea Batata*. 
 
 This root was introduced into France seven or eight years 
 ago, and seems to have won a considerable degree of public 
 estimation there. It has not had so long a period of trial here, 
 but has been experimented with more or less in all parts of the 
 United States, generally with iU or indifferent success. We can 
 speak of it only as an object of experiment. 
 
 The mode of culture required by the Chinese yam is not yet 
 well determined. It evidently needs a deeply spaded or trenched 
 sou, and probably should be cut into sets and planted in rows 
 three or four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, and 
 treated like the sweet potato, except that it requires no earth- 
 ing up. The plants may be forwarded in a hot bed or in a cold 
 frame under glass. 
 
 v.— THE GEA8SE8. 
 The grasses cultivated for the food of animals are too nu- 
 merous to admit of a description in such a work as this. It is 
 said that no less than two hundred varieties are cultivated in 
 England. In this country we make use of fewer sorts for cul- 
 tivation ; but the number and excellence of our natural grasses 
 are probably unsurpassed in any quarter of the globe. 
 
 ^& will speak briefly of a few of the leading species culti- 
 vated among us, noting some of their peculiar excellences and 
 adaptations. 
 
 1. TiMOTHT — Phleum Pratense. 
 
 AUen says: "For cultivation in the northern portion of the 
 United States, I am inclined to place the Timothy first in the 
 list of the grasses. It is indigneous to this country, and flour- 
 ishes in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy ; 
 and it is found in perfection on the rich clays and clay loams 
 which lie between 38° and 44° north latitude. It is a peren- 
 nial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of luxuriant growth, and on 
 it3 favorite soil yields from one and a half to two tons of hay 
 per acre at one cutting." 
 
 It may be sown either in Auerust or September with the 
 6* 
 
130 The Faem. 
 
 wintor grains, or in the spring. " Twelve quarts of seed pet 
 acre on a fine mellow tilth are sufficient ; and twice this quan- 
 tity on a stiff clay." This is the Herds grass of New England. 
 
 2. The Smooth-Staleed Mbadow Geass — Poa Pratensis. 
 
 This is one of the best of grasses, both for hay and for pas- 
 ture. It is a native species, and is found almost everywhere, 
 bnt does not grow in its greatest perfection north of the valley 
 of the Ohio. It is seen in all its glory on the fertile soils of 
 Kentucky and Tennessee. Every animal that eats grass is fond 
 of it. " The seed ripens in June, and is self-sown upon the 
 ground where the succeeding rains give it vitality and it pushes 
 out its long slender leaves two feet in length, which in autumn 
 fall over in thick winrows, matting the whole surface with a 
 luscious herbage." 
 
 The Eoughish Meadow grass (P. triniaUs) has the appear- 
 ance of the smooth variety, but is rough to the touch, and pre- 
 fers moist situations and clayey soils. This, also, is an excel- 
 lent grass. 
 
 8. Bed Top — Agrostis Vulgaris. 
 
 A hardy and luxuriant species, much relished by cattle, but 
 possessing only a moderate nutritive value. It is much culti- 
 vated in some portions of New England and elsewhere ; but 
 where better grasses will grow, this should be rejected. It is 
 sometimes called Foul Meadow and Bent Grass. 
 
 4. Tall Oat Geass — Averia Elatior. 
 An early and luxuriant grass, flourishing in a loamy M 
 clayey soil, and making good hay. It grows to the height of 
 four or five feet on good soils. It is well suited to pasture. 
 
 5. The Fescue Geasses — -Festuca of species. 
 
 The Tall Fescue grass (F. elatior)^ according to some experi- 
 ments made in England, yields more nutritive matter per acre, 
 when cut in flower, than any other grass cut either in flower of 
 
Faem Crops. 131 
 
 seed. It is an American grass, but has found less favor at 
 home than abroad. 
 
 The Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis) ; the Spiked Fescue (F. 
 loleacea) ; the Purple Fescue {F. rubra) ; and the Floating 
 Fescue {F. Jimtans), are all indigenous grasses of fine qual- 
 ities and great value. 
 
 6. Oeohaed Grabs — Bactylis Olomerata. 
 
 The Orchard or Cock's Foot grass is excellent for shaded sit- 
 uations. It should be out before it is ripe, and will furnish 
 three or four crops a year. Twenty or thirty pounds of the 
 seed should be sown per acre. It will grow in almost any 
 climate, being found in this country from lie extreme north 
 to the extreme south. 
 
 7. The Egyptian Grass — Sorghum Shlpense. 
 
 A cane-like grass which grows in profusion in some of the 
 Southern States. It is a superior stock-sustaining plant ; but 
 as it is difficult to remove when once embedded in the soil, its 
 introduction into cultivated fields is considered a great evil. 
 
 8. Gbemah Millet — Panicwm Germanicum. 
 
 This plant, known at the West as Hungarian grass, seems to 
 have been introduced into Iowa by a Hungarian immigrant, 
 and to have spread thence to other parts of the country. It 
 had, however, been previously cultivated in small quantities 
 under its proper name of German Millet. As a forage crop, 
 for the West, at least, its value seems to be well proved. It 
 has been less extensively tested at the East. 
 
 An Iowa farmer thus describes the mode of cultivation pur- 
 sued in his vicinity : 
 
 " We prepare the ground the same as for oats, and sow about 
 eleven quarts to the acre when we want grass ; but if seed is 
 the object, eight quarts to the acre. Good seed will weigh 
 fifty pounds to the bushel. I will say in general terms that 
 wterever a crop of Indian corn will grow, the Hungarian 
 
132 The Fakm. 
 
 grass will succeed. It loves warm weather, but it requires but 
 about six weeks to mature. If cut green, it will put out an 
 excellent second growth, making the richest kind of pasturage. 
 I have seen, this season, one plant that stood rather isolated 
 produce seventy shoots, and each shoot produce a head. It is 
 a great thing to stool, or send out suckers ; eo if you sow thin 
 or thick, you are sure of a crop. It usually grows from three 
 to four and a half feet high with us. The best time for sowing 
 is about the 20th of May, or when the ground gets warm, on 
 clean ground, harrowed both ways. 
 
 " The usual yield of this grass with us is from four to six tons 
 to the acre, according to the pains taken in its cultivation ; but 
 the premium crop of this county, as returned to our last fall's 
 fair, was eight tons and some two hundred pounds to the 
 measured acre of good, dry hay, suitable to put in stack, duly 
 sworn to by disinterested parties, to the satisfaction of the 
 committee, in order to receive the premium." 
 
 9. The Clovees — Trifolium of species. 
 
 According to botanical arrangement, the clovers belong 
 among the legumes, and not among the grasses ; but we find it 
 more convenient to speak of them in connection with the other 
 common forage plants. 
 
 The Common Bed clover {T. pratense) is a hardy and easily 
 cultivated species, of which there are several varieties. It 
 grows luxuriantly on every well-drained soil of sufficient 
 strength to afford it nutriment. 
 
 It may be sown broadcast either in August or September, or 
 early in the spring, with most of the grains. Sow from ten to 
 twelve pounds per acre on well-prepared loams, and from 
 twelve to sixteen on clayey lands. It should be very slightly 
 covered. A top-dressing of plaster, at the rate of three or four 
 bushels to the acre, has a most beneficial and striking effect 
 upon this plant. 
 
 Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed and as- 
 Bumed a brownish hue. 
 
Faem Cuops. 133 
 
 Southern Clover {T. medium) is a smaller species than 
 the common Eed, and matures earlier. It succeeds better, 
 on a light soil than the latter, and sl^uld be sown more 
 thickly. 
 
 The White or Creeping clover (T. repens), of which there are 
 several varieties, is a self-propagating plant, and adds greatly 
 to the richness of many of our pastures, especially on clayey 
 soils. It is very nutritious, and cattle, sheep, and horses are all 
 fond of it. 
 
 10. Othbb Gbassbs. 
 
 The Muskeet Grass, found growing on the plains of Mexico 
 and Texas, is considered one of the best of the indigenous 
 grasses. "We have seen it growing on the plantations of Lou- 
 isiana, where it has been successfully trzmsplanted. 
 
 Winter Grass is known on the low, moist fertile soils of 1V.S- 
 sissippi and adjoining States. It springs up in the autumn, 
 grows all winter, and seeds in the spring. It fattens all ani- 
 mals that feed upon it. 
 
 Grama {La Grama, or the grass of grasses) is held in the 
 highest estimation by the Mexicans. It attains a medium 
 height, and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural grasses 
 in our southwestern frontier prairies, in California, and parts 
 of Mexico. It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, on side hills, 
 and on the swells of the prairies. 
 
 The Prairie Grasses abound in the Western prairies, and are 
 of great variety, according to the latitude and circumstances 
 under which they are found. They afford large supplies of 
 nutritive food, both as pasturage and hay. They possess differ- 
 ent merits for stock, but as a general rule they are coarse when 
 they have reached maturity, and are easily injured by the early 
 frosts of autumn. Some of the leguminose or wfld pea vines, 
 which are frequently found among them, yield the richest 
 herbage. We are not aware that any of these grasses have 
 been cultivated with success. 
 
 Dr. Darlington, of Pennsylvania, gives the following as ths 
 
134 The Faem. 
 
 * 
 species of grasses most valuable in our meadows and pastures, 
 
 naming them in the order of their excellence : 
 
 1. Meadow or gre»n grass {Poa prateTisis). 2. Timothy 
 
 {Phleum prateiwe). 3. Orchard grass {Dactylis glomeratd). 
 
 4. Meadow Fescue {Festuca pratemii). 5. Blue grass {Foa 
 
 compreasa). 6. Ray grass {Lolium pererme). 7. Red top 
 
 (Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet-scented vernal grass {Anthox- 
 
 antJium odoratum).* 
 
 VI.— MISCELLAITEOUS OBJECTS OF OUITITATION. 
 1. Cotton — Qossypium of species. 
 
 As cotton is generally cultivated on large plantations, and 
 does not strictly come under the head of farm crops, we shall 
 content ourself with a few words only upon this grand object 
 of culture and commerce. 
 
 Cotton can not be profitably cultivated north of Tennessee. 
 It requires a dry, rich loam to produce the largest and most 
 profitable crops. 
 
 " During the winter, the land intended for planting should 
 be thrown up in beds by turning several furrows together. 
 These beds may be four feet from center to center for a mod- 
 erate quality of upland soil, and five feet for the lowlands. 
 But these distances should be increased with the increasing 
 strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet, and in some in- 
 stances even to a greater distance for the strongest lands, 
 These may lie until the time of planting, from 20th of March to 
 20th of April, when no further danger from frost is apprehend- 
 ed ; then harrow, and with a light plow mark the center of the 
 beds, and sow at the rate of two to five bushels per acre. A 
 drilling-machine might be made to answer this purpose better, 
 and save much time. An excess of seed is necessary, to pro- 
 vide for the enemies of the plant and other contingencies. If 
 all the seed germinates, there will be a large surplus of plants, 
 which must be removed by thinning. There is an advantage 
 
 * Allen. 
 
Fabm Ceops. 135 
 
 in mixing the seed, before it is sown, with moistened ashes or 
 gypsum, as it facilitates sowing and germination. It should be 
 buried about an inch deep, and the earth pressed closely over 
 it," 
 
 Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have begun to ex- 
 pand and the cotton is protruded, and is continued as the bolls 
 Buccessively ripen and burst their capsules. 
 
 2. The Suoak-Oane — Saccharum Officinarum. 
 
 This is another plantation crop, and lies beyond the scope of 
 this little book. It is indigenous both in the Old and the New 
 "World, but is restricted in its cultivation to a belt or zone ex- 
 tending from 35° to 40° on each side of tlie equator. In the 
 United States the cultivation can not be profitably can-ied on 
 advantageously higher than about 32°. 
 
 3. Ohutese Susae-Oane — Sorghum Saccharatum. 
 
 Although the value of this plant as an object of general cul- 
 tivation is not universally conceded, we think it may be safely 
 set down as worthy the farmer's attention, both as a forage 
 crop and for making syrup. Its habits and mode of cultivation 
 are similar to those of Indian corn. It may be planted at the 
 same time as corn, about three feet apart each way, and two 
 or three plants in a hill ; or in drills three feet apart, and the 
 plants, one in a place, two feet apart in the row. When the 
 plants are from six inches to a foot high, turn over the earth 
 on each side of the row with a plow and afterward keep the 
 weeds down with the hoe. On good soil it will grow from six 
 to twelve or fourteen feet high, furnishing a very heavy and 
 nutritious crop of fodder; and one hundred and seventy-five 
 gallons of syrup, equal to the best molasses, and worth at least 
 one dollar per gallon, have been made from an acre of the cane, 
 and that with very imperfect apparatus. A correspondent of 
 one of the agricultural journals, in closing a narrative of his 
 experiments, says: 
 
 " The result, therefore, of my experiments lead me to the con- 
 
136 The Faem. 
 
 elusion that the accounts heretofore published, as to the valus 
 of the Chinese Sugar-Oane, are not exaggerated ; that it may bo 
 grown upon almost any ordinary soil, requiring no more atten- 
 tion than is profitably bestowed upon a crop of Indian corn ; 
 that as a soiling crop it is far superior both in quantity and 
 quality to Indian corn, producing as a first crop more than can 
 be obtained from any other plant in cultivation ; and after once 
 cut, again producing a valuable crop ; and that a superior arti- 
 cle of syrup can be produced at little cost or trouble." 
 
 An African sorgho, called Im/phee, has been experimented 
 with both in Europe and America, in connection with the Chi- 
 nese. It has the advantage of maturing earlier, but in refer- 
 ence to its value as a sugar-producing plant, in. comparison 
 with the other, opinions, founded probably on imperfect ex- 
 periments, difier widely. M. Velmarin, of Paris, who has 
 experimented largely with the various saccharine plants, pro- 
 nounces it greatly inferior. It has hardly had a fair trial yet 
 in this country. 
 
 4. Beoom Coen — Sorghum Saccha/ratum. 
 
 Broom corn requires similar soil to Indian corn. A green 
 sward turned over late in the fall is best. Well-rotted horse or 
 sheep manure and wood ashes may be liberally scattered in the 
 drills or hills. A situation not subject to early or late frosts 
 should be chosen. Clayey lands are not suitable. 
 
 Plant so soon as danger from frosts will permit, in drills 
 three feet apart ; or in hills from two to two and a half feet 
 apart each way, from twelve to fifteen seeds in a hill, thinning 
 out to ten plants at the first hoeing. The after-culture consists 
 in frequent stirring of the soil with a light plow or cultivator, 
 and keeping the crop clear of weeds with the hoe. 
 
 " Break the tops before fully ripe, or when the seed is a lit- 
 tle past the milk ; or if frost appears, then immediately after 
 it. This is done by bending down the tops of two rows toward 
 each other for the convenience of cutting afterward. They 
 (should be broken some fourteen inches below the brash, and 
 
Faem Ceops. 137 
 
 allowed to hang till fully ripe, wlien they may he cut and car- 
 ried under cover, and spread tiU entirely dry." 
 
 6. Flas — Linum TTsitatmimum. 
 
 A deep, rich loam or alluvial soil is hest for flax. The proper 
 fertility should be secured by a surplus of manure applied to a 
 previous crop, as fresh manures are injurious to it. It is sown 
 broadcast, on well-prepared soil, at the rate of from sixteen to 
 thirty quarts when wanted for seed, and two bushels when 
 cultivated for the fiber. 
 
 6. Hemp — Cannabis Sativa. 
 
 This is a plant of the nettle tribe, and came originally from 
 India. The Russians are at present its chief cultivators ; but 
 in our Western States, and especially in Kentucky, it is begin- 
 ning to be widely raised. 
 
 A rich loam or a vegetable mold suits the hemp plant. The 
 ground should be carefully prepared by plowing and harrow- 
 ing till it is perfectly pulverized, smooth, and even. The seeds 
 are sown broadcast at the rate of a bushel and a half to the 
 acre, and plowed or harrowed in. Plowing is best on ground 
 liable to bake. In Kentucky they sow any time from the first 
 of April to the tenth of May. It is desirable to sow just before 
 a rain. 
 
 For a full description of the mode of cultivation, harvesting, 
 and preparing hemp, as practiced in Kentucky, see the '• Amer- 
 ican Farmer's Encyclopedia;" article "Hemp." 
 
 7. The Hop — Humulua Lupulus. 
 
 The hop is found growing spontaneously on the banks of 
 rivers and brooks in various parts of this country. 
 
 The best soil for the cultivation of hops is a sandy loam, 
 rather low and moist; but they will grow on soils very differ- 
 ent from this. New lands are to be preferred. 
 
 The following is the mode of cultivation recommended by 
 Allen in the " American Farm Book :" 
 
138 The Faem. 
 
 " If the land lias been long in use, it should be dressed with 
 a compost of alkaline manures ; or, what is nearly equivalent, 
 with fresh barn-yard manures, on a previously well-hoed crop, 
 and made perfectly free from all weeds, and deeply plowed 
 and harrowed. Then mark out the ground at intervals of six 
 feet each way and plant in the intersection of the furrows, and 
 unless the ground be already rich enough, place three or four 
 shovels of compost in each hill. The planting is done with the 
 new roots taken from the old hills, which are laid bare by the 
 plow. Each root should be six or eight inches long, and must 
 contain two or more eyes, one to form the root, and the other 
 the vine. Six plants are put in a hill, all of which should be 
 within the compass of about a foot, and covered to a depth of 
 five inches, leaving the ground level when planted. The first 
 season the intermediate spaces between the hills may be planted 
 with com or potatoes, and the ground carefully cleared of 
 weeds, and frequently stirred. No poles are necessary the first 
 year, as the product will not repay the cost. The ground 
 should receive a dressing of compost the following spring, and 
 the plants be kept well hoed and clean. 
 
 " Poles may be prepared at the rate of two or three to each 
 hiU, twenty to twenty-four feet long, and selected from a 
 straight, smooth undergrowth of tough and durable wood, 
 from four to seven inches diameter at the butt end. These are 
 sharpened and firmly set with an iron bar, or socket bar with 
 a wooden handle in such a position as will allow the fullest 
 eflfect of the sun upon the hills or roots. When the plants 
 have run to the length of three or four feet in the spring, train 
 them around the poles, winding In the direction of the sun's 
 course, and fasten below the second or third set of leaves, 
 where there is sufficient strength of vine to sustain themselves. 
 They may be confined with rushes, tough grass, or more easily 
 with woolen yarn. This operation is needed again in a few 
 days, to secure such as may have got loose by the winds oi 
 other causes, and to train up the new shoots. 
 
 "The gathering of hops takes place wheft they have acquired 
 
Fakm Oeops. 139 
 
 a strong scent, at wMcli time the seed becomes firm and 
 brown, and the lowest leaves begin to change color. This pre- 
 cedes the frosts in September. The vines must first be cut at 
 the sm-face of the ground, and the poles pulled up and laid in 
 convenient piles, when they may be stripped of the hops, 
 which are thrown into large, light baskets ; or the poles may 
 be laid on long, slender boxes with handles at each end (to ad- 
 mit of being carried by two persons), and as the hops are 
 stripped they fall into the box. Be careful to select them free 
 from leaves, stems, and dirt. 
 
 " After gathering in the fall, the hops should be hilled or 
 covered with compost, and all the vines removed. The follow- 
 ing spring, when the ground is dry, the surface is scraped from 
 the hiU, and additional compost is added, when a plow is run 
 on four sides, as near as possible without injury to the plants. 
 All the running roots are laid bare and cut with a sharp knife 
 within two or three laches of the main root, and the latter are 
 trimmed, if spreading too far. It is well to break or twist 
 down the first shoots and allow those which succeed to run, 
 as they are likely to be stronger and more productive. Out- 
 ting shonld be avoided, unless in a sunny day, as the profuse 
 bleeding injures them. The poles will keep much longer, if 
 laid away under cover tUl again wanted the following spring. 
 Drying may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade 
 and stirring them often enough to prevent heating ; but when 
 there is a large quantity, they can be safely cured only in s 
 kiln." 
 
1.40 
 
 The Faem. 
 
 IX. 
 
 THE ORCHARD. 
 
 There hang the red-cheeked apples, blQBhlng In the eun. — Poihwl 
 
 I.— "THE GAEDEN." 
 
 N a previous number of this series of man- 
 uals ("The Garden") we have devoted a 
 long chapter to the subject of fruits, giving 
 instructions for planting, grafting, cultiva" 
 tion, and gathering ; with lists of the best varieties, 
 etc. As the lai-ger portion of our readers will possess 
 that volume also, it will not be profitable to go over 
 the same ground again here ; but some additional hints on sev- 
 eral points not sufficiently dwelt upon in the work referred to 
 will be useful in this. 
 
 II.— LAYING OUT ORCHAEDS. 
 
 We copy from Tucker's " Annual Eegister of Rural Affairs," 
 for 1857, the following useful directions for laying out orchards: 
 
 We have often observed a good deal of inconvenience and 
 perplexity in measuring off and laying out orchards, from a 
 want of accuracy at the commencement. If the rows are begun 
 crooked, stake after stake may be altered, without being able 
 to form straight lines, and with only an increase of the confu- 
 sion. If the first tree, in a row of fifty, be placed only sis 
 
The Oechaed. 141 
 
 inches out of the way, and be followed as a guide for the rest, 
 the last one will deviate fifty times six inches, or twenty -five 
 feet from a right line, even if the first error is not repeated. 
 We have seen large apple orchards with rows nearly as crooked 
 as this. To say nothing of the deformed appearance to the eye, 
 they proved exceedingly inconvenient every time the crooked 
 space between the rows was plowed, and every time the ground 
 was planted and cultivated with crops in rows. 
 
 aiedefghi 
 ********* 
 
 ********* 
 *'*•*«**«** 
 
 ********* 
 
 ahcdefghi 
 Fig. 1. — Common ob Bquase Abrahoement. 
 
 The most simple and convenient arrangements for orchards 
 in aU ordinary cases is in squares, as shown in fig. 1. But 
 planters are often puzzled to know how to lay out such orchards, 
 with trees at equal distances throughout, and in perfectly 
 straight rows. The easiest and most successful mode is first to 
 measure off one side along the boundary, with a chain or tape- 
 line (a chain is best), and drive in a stake perpendicularly at 
 equal distances (say two rods or 33 feet), in a straight line, and 
 at a proper distance from the fence for the first row of trees. 
 Then measure off each end in the same way ; and between the 
 last two stakes in these end rows, form another line of stakes 
 like the first, which will be parallel and opposite to it. The 
 more accurately the measuring is done, the less labor will be 
 required in rectifying small errors — no stake should stand half 
 an inch out of a straight line. These rows are represented by 
 the letters a, h, c, d, «, f, g, h, i. Then measure off the distance 
 between a and a, driving in a small stake or peg at each dis* 
 
142 The Faem. 
 
 tance of two rods, and then in the same waj- between » \ 1 1. 
 etc. If accurately done, these will all form perfeotL-y sirifigi^t 
 rows. The holes may then be dug without the least diflSculty 
 or embarrassment, and the trees set out. But a difficulty 
 arises, as the stakes must be removed in digging the holes ; thb 
 is at once ohviated by the plan here proposed, by placing the 
 tree in a line with the row of stakes on one side, and with the 
 newly-set trees on the other, as the holes are successively dug 
 and the trees set. 
 
 These directions may seem quite simple, but from want of 
 being generally understood, a great many crooked lines of trees 
 are seen through the country. 
 
 The second mode of arranging trees is in the old quincum 
 form (fig 2), which is nothing more than a series of squares laic 
 off diagonally, and has no special advantage to recommend if 
 except novelty. 
 
 ■1^ -1^ -if. 4: 4: 4; :f: 
 
 ******* 
 ****** 
 
 Fig. 8.^0ld QtriNonifx Obdes. 
 
 The "hexagonal or modem quincunx (fig. 3) possesses two im- 
 portant advantages. One is its more picturesque appearance, 
 ********** 
 
 ********* 
 ********** 
 
 ********* 
 
 ********** 
 
 ********* 
 
 rig. S. — HEXAeOITAL OB MOSBB27 QuiXOUlfX. 
 
 and its consequent fitness for proximity to ornamental planta- 
 tions ; and the other is its greater economy of space, as the 
 
The Oechaed. 143 
 
 trees are more evenly distributed over the gronnd. This is 
 shown in flg. 4, where each tree stands in the center of a circle, 
 surrounded at equal distances by six other trees, and each single 
 circle leaves but little vacant space beyond it. If cultivated 
 with horses, the furrows may be drawn in three different direc- 
 tions, instead of only two, as in the square arrangement. 
 
 One principal reason why the hexagonal mode is so little 
 adopted, is the supposed difficulty in laying out the ground. 
 But like many other apparent difficulties, it becomes very sim- 
 ple and easy when once understood. 
 
 To lay off a piece of ground for this purpose, measure off 
 one side of the field at equal distances, as already described for 
 squares, as at a, h, e, d, e, flg. 4. These distances must be the 
 distance apart at which the trees are to stand, because they 
 form the sides of the equilateral triangles into which the whole 
 / a 
 
 "^^ --''' '• ''\ --''' i 
 
 ,^---. ."-K .>?C I 
 ^ J /K" i ~~:< i >'" 
 
 "^--. i J< \^:^^. I .''"' 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 ground becomes divided. The next thing is to find the dis- 
 tances, a, f, g, for the line of trees at right angles to the first- 
 
144: The Faem. 
 
 mentioned row. An arithmetioian will easily determine this, 
 for the triangle, i a f, being a right one, the square of J a 
 (which is 33 feet) subtracted from the square of J / (which is 
 66 feet) will leave the square of af, the root of which extracted 
 win give the distances of ^ /, ff, etc., which is 57 feet and half 
 an inch. Divide this and the opposite side of the field, there- 
 fore, into distances of 57 feet and half an inch, and the side 
 opposite the first, at 33 feet distances, and proceed to stake off 
 all intermediate intersections, as described for squares. If the 
 distances are less than 33 feet, as they would be for any other 
 kind of fruit-trees, a corresponding proportion is of course to 
 be taken, and which is easily determined as above. 
 
 III.— SOIL AND SITUATION. 
 
 Downing says that strong loams, by which is meant loams 
 with only just sufficient sand to render them friable and easily 
 worked, are, on the whole, by far the best for fruit in this 
 country. The trees do not come into bearing so soon as on a 
 light, sandy soil, but they bear larger crops, are less liable to 
 disease, and are much longer lived. Clayey loams, when well 
 drained, are good, and trees growing on them are generally 
 free from insects. 
 
 It is difiBcult to give any precise rules in reference to aspect. 
 Good orchards may he found in all aspects ; but a gentle slope 
 to the southwest is generally to be preferred to any other. 
 "Where fruit is very liable to be killed by late spring frosts, and 
 the season is long and warm enough to ripen it in any exposure, 
 planting on the north sides of hills is practiced with advantage. 
 Deep valleys with small streams of water should be avoided, 
 as the cold air settles down in such places, and frosts are apt to 
 prove fatal; but the borders of large rivers and lakes are 
 favorable for orchards, as the climate is rendered milder by the 
 presence of large bodies of water. 
 
The Okchaed. 146 
 
 IT.— PLANTING AND CtrLTITATlNG AN OEOHAED. 
 
 At the risk of repeating in part what has already been pub- 
 lished in "The Garden," we will add a hint or two under this 
 head. 
 
 The first thing is to prepare the ground by underdraining (if 
 it require it, as most land does), subsoUing, or trench plowing, 
 harrowing, manuring, etc. 
 
 Choose sound, healthy trees for planting, and set them out 
 carefully, as directed in " The Garden." Apple-trees should bo 
 thirty feet apai-t in orchard culture. Set the same kind in rows 
 together. This will facilitate the gathering of the fruit, and 
 improve the appearance of the orchard. 
 
 "It is an indispensable requisite in all young orchards to 
 keep the ground mellow and loose by cultivation ; at least for 
 the first few years, until the trees are well established. In- 
 deed, of two adjoining orchards, one planted and kept in gi'ass, 
 and the other plowed for the first five years, there will be an 
 incredible difierence in favor of the latter. Not only wiU these 
 trees show a rich, dark, luxuriant foliage, and clean, smooth 
 stems, while those neglected wiU have a sickly look, but the 
 size of the trees in the cultivated orchard will be treble that of 
 the others at the end of this time, and a tree in one wiU be 
 ready to bear an abundant crop before the other has commenced 
 yielding a peck of good fruit. Fallow crops are best for or- 
 chards — ^potatoes, beets, carrots, bush beans, and the hke ; but 
 whatever crops may be grown, it should be constantly borne in 
 mind that the roots of the tree require the sole occupancy of 
 the ground, so far as they extend, and therefore that an area 
 of more than the diamet>. of the head of the tree should be 
 kept clean of crops, weeds, and grass."* 
 
 To keep your trees in a healthy, bearing state, regular ma- 
 nuring is requisite. They exhaust the soU, like any other crop, 
 
 • Downing;. 
 
 7 
 
146 The Faem. 
 
 Top-dressings of marl, or mild lime, may alternate tvith barn- 
 yard manure, muck composts, etc. 
 
 To prevent the attacks of tlie apple-borer, place about the 
 trunks early in the spring a small mound of ashes or lime. 
 Nursery trees may be protected by washing the stems in May, 
 quite down to the ground, with a solution of two pounds of 
 potash in eight quarts of water. 
 
 T.— THE PE0FIT8 OF APPLE CUITUEE. 
 
 " There is no question of the propriety and necessity of the 
 farmer planting apples enough to supply abundantly his own 
 table with the best of this fruit through the whole year ; but 
 further than this, we require to know whether a large extent 
 of land may be usefuDy applied to raising apples for sale ; and 
 about what returns may be expected from such orchards, with 
 good management; and what 'good management' ia. 
 
 " There are some varieties, which, although possessing supe- 
 rior qualities for home use, and therefore necessary in the family 
 orchard, are not salable, and, of course, worthless for market- 
 ing. A fruit for sale must at least be fair and good looking ; it 
 ought, also, to be of fine quality, to bring the best price ; it 
 must also be a sure and good bearer, and one that keeps long 
 enough to insure carriage to market, and a reasonable period 
 for selling. We find among all the sorts which are known tt 
 our nurserymen and orchardists, that there are few that have 
 all these qualifications to such an extent that they can safely hf 
 recommended. A close inquiry wiU show that, in all mixed 
 orchards, the profit has been derived from a very few sorts. 
 Other kinds are found to yield some superior specimens, and to 
 be well worth raising for one's own satisfaction, but, so far as 
 money is concerned, the soU would be more profitably employed 
 if planted with other crops. 
 
 " Soil and situation fit for an apple orchard must always be 
 valuable for other purposes ; and as none but the best of lands 
 can be depended upon, the value of such lands is consequently 
 high. We are safe in assuming that land fit for such use, in 
 
The Okchaed. 147 
 
 Western New York, is worth, on an average, one hundred dol- 
 lars per acre, the annual rent of which should be at least ten 
 dollars per acre. 
 
 "This is more than would generally be realized net profit 
 from the crops for some years after the planting of an orchard 
 upon it ; and at the end of ten years (at which time we might 
 presume the trees to be in a bearing state), there would be a 
 balance due from the orchard to the planter. After this time, 
 the crops from the orchard should not be reckoned worth much, 
 as the trees will occupy the whole soil with their roots, and the 
 Bun and air with their branches. 
 
 " Ten years from planting, Baldwin and Rhode Island Green- 
 ing apple-trees can be relied upon to bear about three barrels 
 per tree, each bearing year, which occurs each alternate year 
 with the Baldwin, and generally so with the Greening. This 
 gives us sixty barrels of fine winter apples per year, from trees 
 planted two rods apart, or forty trees per acre. The whole 
 annual expense of cultivation, and the gathering and barreling, 
 win scarcely amount to twenty-five dollars, leaving the net 
 proceeds, if sold at one doUar per barrel, about thirty-five dol- 
 lars per acre. This sum per acre will soon repay any balance 
 due the planter, and the rapidly increasing produce of the trees, 
 for many years, will satisfy any reasonable man of the expedi- 
 ency of planting large orchards, where the conditions of success 
 are observed ; but it will readily be seen that an orchard of any 
 but the best varieties wiU not pay interest and care. 
 
 " It is important that the fruit-grower should base his ex- 
 pectations entirely upon the results to be derived from a aeriet 
 of yea/rs, and not from any less period of time ; otherwise he 
 wiU be found wide from the truth."* 
 
 • " Bural AnnnaL" 
 
149 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MEA8TIEING IA2n). 
 Fabmebs often desire to lay off small portions of land for the purpose of ex- 
 perimenting with mannres, crops, etc. ; but sometimes find difficulty in doing 
 It correctly, for the lack of a few simple mles. The following table and ac- 
 companying explanation, which we copy from the JiTm) England Fwnner 
 earefolly studied, will make the whole matter perfectly clear. 
 
 ONIS AOBB 00NTAII75 
 
 160 square rods ; 4,840 square yards ; 43,660 square feet 
 
 OME BOD OONTAUIfl 
 
 80.23 square yards; 272.26 square feet 
 One square yard contains nine square feet 
 
 THE BIDE OF A SQUABS TO CONTAIN 
 
 One acre 208.T1 feet 12.66 rods 64pacei. 
 
 One-half acre 14T.88 " 8.94 " 46 " 
 
 One-third acre 120.50 " 7.80 " 8T " 
 
 One-fourth acre 104.36 " 6.32 " 82 " 
 
 One-eighth acre 7S.T9 " 4.4T " 221 " 
 
 208.71 feet 
 
 12.65 rods. 
 
 104ML 
 
 B2.18. 
 
 52.18. 
 
 1-16. 
 52.18. 
 
 104.86. 
 
 3.71 feet. 
 
150 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 It will be seen by reference to the plan that a practice sometimee followed 
 by farmers is verj' erroneous ; if the side of a square containing one acre mea- 
 sures 308.71 feet, one half that length will not make a square containing one 
 half an acre, but only one fourth an acre, and one third the length of line will 
 inclose a square of one ninth an acre, and one fourth the line, squared, will 
 contain one sixteenth an acre, and so on. 
 
 B. 
 
 HO"W TO ESTIMATE CKOPS PEE ACEE. 
 
 A friend communicates the following method of making an estimate of the 
 yield per acre of a growing crop, of -frheat, rye, oate, or barley^ which he saya 
 has been found correct in England. Ab it seems easy of application, and ap- 
 ptoxiraately correct, we give the plan, and hope it will be tried at the next 
 harvest-time. 
 
 Frame together four light sticks, measuring exactly a foot square inside, and, 
 with this in hand, walk into the field and select a spot of fair average yield, 
 and lower the frame square over as many heads as it will inclose, and shell ont 
 the heads thus inclosed carefully, abd Weigh the grain. It is fair to presume 
 that the product will be tlie 43,560th pai*t of An acre's produce. To prove it, 
 go through the field, and make ten or twenty similar calculations, and estimate 
 by the mean of the whole number of results. It "frill certainly enable a farmer 
 to make a closer calculation of what a fleld will produce, than he can do by 
 guessing. — iTmb York Tribum. 
 
 0. 
 
 KUMBEE OF PLANTS PEE ACEE. 
 
 KUMBEB OF PLAHTB OE TKKE8 THAT CAN BE PLANTED ON AN AOBE OF GBOUin), 
 
 AT THE FOLLOWING DISTAMOEB APAKT, IN FEKT. 
 
 Dlutaiicee apart. 
 
 1 byl 
 
 n 
 
 No. nf PlaiitH. 
 .43,560 
 
 U 19,860 
 
 1 21,780 
 
 2 10,890 
 
 H 6,969 
 
 1 14,520 
 
 2 7,260 
 
 8 4,840 
 
 81 8,565 
 
 1 10,890 
 
 2 5,445 
 
 8 8,680 
 
 4 2,722 
 
 4t 2,151 
 
 1 8,712 
 
 2 4,856 
 
 8 2,904 
 
 4 2,178 
 
 5 1,742 
 
 61 1,417 
 
 1,210 
 
 Si " 6J 1,081 
 
 Distancea apnrtl 
 
 T by - 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 18 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 24 
 25 
 27 
 30 
 40 
 60 
 60 
 
 No. of Plants- 
 
 7 
 
 S88 
 
 8 
 
 680 
 
 9 
 
 687 
 
 10..- 
 
 435 
 
 11. 
 
 860 
 
 12. 
 
 802 
 
 18 - 287 
 
 14. 
 
 222 
 
 
 ;<is 
 
 16. .. .... 
 
 m 
 
 17 
 
 160 
 
 18 
 
 134 
 
 19 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 108 
 
 24 
 
 76 
 
 
 69 
 
 27 
 
 69 
 
 80 
 
 .... 48 
 
 
 2T 
 
 60 i . . 
 
 IT 
 
 60 
 
 12 
 
 66 
 
 M 
 
Appendix. 
 
 151 
 
 Multiply the distances into each other, and divide it by the square feet In an 
 acre, or 48,560, and the quotient is the number of plants. 
 
 D. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 
 
 WEMHT OF OBAXN, ETC. 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~:~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 AKTIOLBS. 
 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 S 
 
 .2 
 
 « 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 5, 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 •^ 
 
 ^ 
 K 
 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 Wheat, lb 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 6" 
 
 BO 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 m 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 on 
 
 Kye 
 
 bb 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 
 hH 
 
 •iH 
 
 
 
 'i6 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 2*^ 
 
 
 
 56 
 S3 
 
 S6 
 SO 
 
 48 
 60 
 
 66 
 82 
 46 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 56 
 34 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 Oats 
 
 .1?, 
 
 ^? 
 
 flo 
 
 ^*> 
 
 fl'> 
 
 9^) 
 
 fto 
 
 fl") 
 
 "70 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 '18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 Buclcwheat 
 
 48 
 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 4fi 
 
 46 
 
 
 5ft 
 
 Clover-seed 
 
 6U 
 
 64 
 
 
 60 
 
 6<l 
 
 60 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Timothy-seed . . 
 
 44 
 
 4a 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 4,5 
 
 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 Flax-seed 
 
 bt> 
 
 66 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 Hemp-seed 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blue-grass seed. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apples, dried . . 
 
 1!2 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 2H 
 
 24 
 
 
 2S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Peaehes, dried. 
 
 32 
 
 «S 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 .S.B 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Coarse salt 
 
 66 
 
 611 
 
 R6 
 
 611 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 BO 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 66 
 
 Fine salt 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 
 ,60 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peas 
 
 60 
 62 
 
 66 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 60 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 Beans 
 
 Castor beans... 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 5T 
 60 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Mineral coal... 
 
 
 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A law of New York, in force at the present time, adopts the United States 
 Imhel of measure, viz. : 2150.43 cubic inches per bushel, 1075.21 half bushel; 
 and the wine gallon, 281 cubic inches. 
 
 To reduce cubic feet to bushels, struck: measure, divide the cubic feet hj 56, 
 and multiply by 45. 
 
 BOX MEASUEES. 
 
 Farmers and market gardeners will find a series of box measures very use* 
 fUl; and they can readily be made by any one who understands the two-foot 
 rule, and can handle the saw and the hammer. The following measurements, 
 It will be seen, vary slightly from the United States bushel adbpted by some of 
 the States, but are sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes : 
 
 A box 16 by 16i inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain a bushel^ 
 2150.4 cubic inches, each inch in depth holding one ga,llon. 
 
 A box 24 by 11.2 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will also contain a bushel 
 or 2150.4 cubic inches, each in depth holding one giallon. A box 12 by 11.3 
 inches square, an 1 8 inches deep, will contain half a bushel) or 1076.2 cubia 
 inches, each met in depth holding half a gallon. 
 
152 Appendix. 
 
 A box 8 by 8.4 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain half a peck, oi 
 S9S.8 cubic inches. TLe gallon, dry measure. 
 
 A box 4 by 4 inches square, and 4.2 inches deep, will contain one quart, or 
 67.2 cubic inches. 
 
 WEIGHT PBK CUBIC FOOT. 
 
 WeftghU of a Cubic Foot of 'oa/rious SubataTices, from which the Bulk of a Load 
 of one Ton may he easily calculated. 
 
 Cast iron 450 lbs. 
 
 Water 62 " 
 
 TVliite pine, seasoned, about . . 80 " 
 White oak, " " .. 52 " 
 Loose earth, about 95 " 
 
 Common soil, compact, about. 124 " 
 
 Clay, about 185 « 
 
 Clay with stones, about. .• ... .160 ** 
 Brick, about 125 " 
 
 JSulk of a Ton of different Substances. 
 23 cubic feet of sand, 18 cubic feet of earth, or 17 cubic feet of clay, make a 
 ton. 18 cubic feet of gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet when 
 dug ; or the bulk is increased as three to two. Therefore, in filling a drain two 
 feet deep above the tile or stones, the earth should be heaped up a foot above 
 the Burface, to settle even with it, when the earth is shoveled loosely in. 
 
 E. 
 
 UNPROFITABLE FARMING. 
 
 Manure is a necessary application, in order to bring an impoverished soil 
 Into a productive state. Nothing is more certain, all agree. And yet how 
 much of the unprofitable farming of the country results from the attempt to 
 grow crops on worn-out soils without manure ! Plant corn on such land— the 
 crop is a meager one, both from want of strength in the soil to grow it, and 
 length of the season to mature it A rich or well-manured soil will ripen this 
 crop weeks earlier than a. poor one. An acre of land, rich, deeply tilled, 
 planted in good season, and thoroughly and cleanly cultivated, will produce 
 more com than five acres poor, shallow-plowed, late-planted, and half-culti- 
 vated, and at perhaps one half the expense of the latter. 
 
 Stagnant water, either in or upon the soil, is another cause of unprofitable 
 farming. A soil which has no escape or outlet for the water which falls upon 
 it save evaporation, can not be made to produce a paying crop. In a dry sea- 
 eon it is baked and hard— in a wet one it is often flooded with stagnant water, 
 and is never in a condition very favorable to the growth of cultivated crops, 
 however well suited it may be to the production of wild grass, flag, and rushes. 
 And partially drained land of this character is little better. Flooded in spring, 
 the water passes off but slowly ; nothing can be done upon it until the " sub- 
 siding of the waters," which, as they must in great part go cloudward, is a 
 tedious process. 
 
 Poor manure— made so by exposure and leaching while jet in the yard— ia 
 another sturce of loss to the fanner. The contents of the barn-yard are gen- 
 erally dignified with the name of manure ; even if they consist of little more 
 than a leached mass of straw and excrement, the real strength of which has 
 loDg ago passed ofi" into some stream, or n-ialcd down the roadside ditch, and 
 
Appendix. 153 
 
 Into some provident neiglibor's field, it is still " manure," and is carted to the 
 field and ofitered to the crop, with the expectatioa that it wUl find therein nu* 
 triment, and the material for large productiveness. One thought will show 
 how futile this expectation. How does manure benefit a plant ? By its soluble 
 constituents— they receive only liquid food. This leached manure has lost the 
 greater share of the soluble elements of fertility, and acts in great part only 
 mechanically upon the soil. 
 
 Attempting too much is another great cause of loss to the farmer. " Much 
 labor on little land" is the secret of success— enough labor, at least, to do every 
 thing in the best manner. Look at it— is it good policy to expend the labor of 
 putting In a crop over six acres, when, at the same cost, a like result may be 
 realized from three or four ? "Will you be content with thirty bushels of corn 
 per acre, at an expense of, say $12, when, by adding $3 in manure and better 
 culture, you may realize sixty or one hundred bushels ? Will you grow infe- 
 rior stock with the same amount of food, when by a larger outlay at first you 
 may have the best — those always salable at good prices— while the unimproved 
 scarcely find purchasers at any price? Is it not best, either to concentrate 
 your labor on less land, or increase your expenditure so as to embrace the 
 whole farm in a thorough system of cultivation ? 
 
 The acknowledged causes of unprofitable farming are not exhausted, and it 
 Is a proper subject for the examination of the farmer. Let him look into the 
 matter, and ^e^wMre and why he has failed. — Country GenUema/n. 
 
 FACTS ABOUT WEEDS. 
 Dr. Lindley estimates as a low average the following number of seeds from 
 each of these four plants : 
 
 1 plant of Groundsel produces 2,080" 
 
 16,860 plants, 
 
 1 " Dandelion " 2,740 
 
 1 « SowThistle " 11,040 
 
 1 " Spurge " 540, 
 
 or enough seed from these four plants to cover three acres and a half, at three 
 feet apart. To hoe this land, he says, will cost 6s. (sterling) per acre, and 
 hence a man throws away 5s. 8d. a time, as often as he neglects to bend his 
 back to pull up a young weed before it begins to fulfill the first law of nature. 
 He recommends every farmer, whose vertebral column will not bend, to count 
 the number of dandelions, sow thistles, etc., on the first square rod he can 
 measure off. 
 
 This operation may be repeated in this country by applying all the above 
 estimates to pig-weed, burdock, fox-tail, chick-weed, and purslane. 
 
 Q. 
 
 SUCCESSFUL PAEMIBfG. 
 
 James Gowen, of Mount Airy, near PMladelpUa, raised, in 1845, a ten-acre 
 
 Held of com, Trhicli averaged 95 bushels of shelled com per acre. It had been 
 
 in grass withont mannre, Are years ; it was plowed, and the field manured 
 
 7 
 
154: Appendix. 
 
 with a ton of guano, costing $40. The rows were 8} feet apart, and the planta 
 12 Inches. (This distance would be too great for small Northern corn.) Judi* 
 cious harrowing, in preparation, cleared the ground thoroughly of grass and 
 weeds, and it was kept perfectly clean afterward at little cost. There were 7 
 acres of winter wheat, and one of spring wheat, the whole computed to aver* 
 age over 40 bushels per acre. The spring wheat was after an acre of canots, 
 of 900 bushels, and was followed by an acre of turnips of 1,000 bushels ; the 
 whole worth over $600— from one acre in two years. The carrot crop the same 
 year was 1,000 bushels per acre; sngar-parsnep, 800 bushels; rnta-baga, over 
 600 bushels ; potatoes, 8 acres, over 200 bushels each. These were only part 
 of the crops. Besides, there were more than 100 tons of excellent hay, ttiongh 
 the season was unfavorable. All on an upland farm of about 100 acres, which 
 maintained during the summer over 60 head of cattle. So much for manure, 
 Bubsoiling, fine culture, draining, rotation, etc. — Afi/n/ual BegUter^ 
 
 H. 
 
 BTIEEING THE SOn.. 
 
 Every observant farmer must h^ve noticed the cmst which forms Qn the snr? 
 face of newly^tirred aoils, alter lying a f^w days to the actiop of the dews. A 
 much heavier cnjst is fonoed by each shower of raiii which fall^. Good anfl 
 Buccessfbl cultivfition require^ that Qiifl newly-form&d crpsti b^ ot^if. 4x1,4 i'^pe§tc 
 cdly broken by the hoe, harrow, or other instrument. 
 
 A striking Instance in proof of the importance of this practice has Just been 
 stated by an extensive farmer. He planted a field of broom com, and, by way 
 of banter, told the man who assisted him that each should choose a row as 
 nearly alike as possible, and each should hoe his row, and the measoied 
 amount of crop on each should be the proof which was hoed best Our inform'* 
 ant stated the result in substance as follows : **■ Determined not to be beaten^ 
 I hoed my row, well, once a week the summer through- I had not sepn my 
 assistant hoe his at aU* but had observed that for * long time he was up in the 
 morning before me. At length I found him before sunrise, hpeing hi^ j^roon^* 
 com, and I aeked him how often he hoed it ; be ansTrered, ' Onpe a 4^y, rega- 
 larly.' The result of the experiment was» bis row beat mine by nearly d^ab^i 
 tte amount."— i&id 
 
u& 
 
 Ilf DEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Agricnltnre History of 9 
 
 " Improvement of 11 
 
 Ashes 4l 
 
 Apple Culture, Profits of 146 
 
 B. 
 
 Bones, how to prepare them 8T 
 
 Barley 110 
 
 Buckwheat 113 
 
 Beans 115 
 
 Beet 128 
 
 Broom Com 136 
 
 C. 
 
 Crop8,What they take from the Soil 27 
 
 '' Botatioa of 48, 9T 
 
 " Farm 100 
 
 " How to Estimate 150 
 
 Composts 45 
 
 Capital 83 
 
 Com, Indian 100 
 
 Carrot 127 
 
 Cotton 134 
 
 Chinese Sugar-Cane 135 
 
 D. 
 
 Brains, Construction o£ 55 
 
 Braining 51 
 
 " Ten Reasons for. 52 
 
 " Conditions requiring... 53 
 
 " Practical Birections for. 53 
 
 " 'WillitPay? 58 
 
 F. 
 
 Fences 61,91 
 
 " Iron. 63 
 
 " Hurdle 86 
 
 " Are they Necessary ? 70 
 
 Facts about "Weeds. 153 
 
 Farm Management, Essay on ... . 82 
 
 Farm Crops 100 
 
 Farming, Unprofitable 152 
 
 " Successful. 158 
 
 Flax 187 
 
 PAoa 
 
 Guano 83 
 
 Gypsum 89 
 
 Gates 91 
 
 Grains, Edible 100 
 
 Grain, How to Shock 114 
 
 Grasses 129 
 
 H. 
 
 Hedges 69 
 
 Harrow ... 76 
 
 Hoe, Horse 78 
 
 Hemp 187 
 
 Hop 18T 
 
 How to Estimate Crops 150 
 
 I. 
 
 Irrigation 46 
 
 Implements 73 
 
 " List and prices of 86 
 
 " Choiceof 92 
 
 Indian Corn 100 
 
 K. 
 KohlEabi 12« 
 
 Lime 83 
 
 Livestock 85 
 
 " Maintenance of 87 
 
 Land, How to Measure 149 
 
 M. 
 
 Manures, Necessity of. 25 
 
 " Classification and Be- 
 
 scription of. 28 
 
 " Management of 42, 94 
 
 Marl 88 
 
 Mowers 81 
 
 Millet 114, 181 
 
 Measuring Land 149 
 
 M easures, "Weights and 151 
 
 Maintenance of Livestock 87 
 
156 
 
 Index. 
 
 N. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 NightSoU 35 
 
 Number of Plants to the Acre 150 
 
 Oat 108 
 
 Orchards, Laying out 140 
 
 " Soil and SltuatloQ for.. 144 
 
 P. 
 
 Plants, Pood of. 26 
 
 " Number to the Acre 150 
 
 Plow 78 
 
 Pea. 117 
 
 Pea-nut 118 
 
 Potato 118 
 
 " Sweet 122 
 
 Faranep 128 
 
 E. 
 
 Eotatlon, Theory of 48 
 
 " Benefltaot 49,97 
 
 Eoller, Field. 79 
 
 Eake, Horse 8(1 
 
 Eeapers 81 
 
 Eye 107 
 
 Hoe. Ill 
 
 S. 
 
 PAdB 
 
 Soils, Classification of 18 
 
 " Analysis of 16 
 
 " Physical Properties o£ 18 
 
 " Improvement of 21, 93 
 
 " Importance of stirring the. 154 
 
 Subsoils 28 
 
 Salt 40 
 
 Seeds 86 
 
 Seed-Sowers 80 
 
 Sweet Potato 122 
 
 Sugar-Cane 185 
 
 " Chinese. 135 
 
 Snccessful Farming 158 
 
 Stirring the Soil 164 
 
 T. 
 Tomlp 125 
 
 U. 
 
 Urine 83 
 
 Unprofitable Farming 162 
 
 W. 
 
 Wheat 104 
 
 Weights and Meaanres 114 
 
 Weeds, Facta aboaL US 
 
THE BARN-YARD: 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 OR, HOW TO BREED AND BEAK 
 
 THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS: 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 DIBECnONB FOB TUB BBGEDINO, REABtNG, AND OBHEBAL HAITAOEMEITT Or 
 
 EOBSBS, UULBS, CATTLE, SUBBF, BWINE AND POULTBY; THE QEHEBAft 
 
 LAWB, PAEENTAQE, AND nBKIDITABT DESCENT, APPLIED TO AOT- 
 
 MAL8, AND UOW BREEDS MAT BE IMPROVED ; IIOTT TO IN80TJS 
 
 THE HEALTU OF ANIMALS ; AND HOW TO TREAT THEJI 
 
 FOB DISEASES WITUOtTT THE FSB OF DRUGS ; 
 
 WITH A 
 
 By D. a JACQUES, 
 
 &DTHOB OF "The Home," *'Thb GARDBif," "TnB Farm," "How to Wbitb," 
 " How TO Do BcsiHEaB," Kia 
 
 Our power •▼ or tha lowor imlmalfl, If rightly ezerclaed, radonndi to their eleratioD «id happiness 
 □0 le&e than to oar eourenience and profit. — Tbb Authob. 
 
 nEvisEr) El ID I T I o isr. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, 
 
 S9 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET. 
 
entered, ucording to Act of Congresa, In the year 1918, ly 
 
 QBO. E. WOODWARD, 
 
 fa Ok Clerk's Office of the District Conrt of the tTnited Ststea for tht 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
PREFiCE. 
 
 We commenced this little manual with the intention of mating 
 the most useful compilation possible, within the space allowed us, 
 from the great number of larger works on the subjects treated to 
 which we had access. In the progress of our work, however, we 
 found occasion to depart, in some degree, from our original plan, 
 and introduce more new matter and re-write and condense more 
 that is, in substance, derived from others, than we at first in- 
 tended ; but our claims on the score of originality will not be 
 large. If the matter and arrangement of our book shall prove 
 acceptable to the public, and serve the purposes intended, we 
 shall be satisfied. The humble merit of having presented, in an 
 attractive and available form a mass of useful information, prac- 
 tical hints, and valuable suggestions, on a, number of important 
 topics, is all that we purpose to iasist upon. This the great pub- 
 lic, for whose good we have labored, will, we are sure, readily 
 accord to us. 
 
 We have given credit in the body of the work, whenever prac- 
 ticable, to the authors from whom we have derived aid lq the 
 various departments of our labor ; but we here gladly make an 
 additional record of our indebtedness to the works of Youatt, 
 Martin, Stuart, Randall, Wiugfield, Dixon, Bement, Browne, 
 Quimby, etc. The Gauntry Oentleman, the American Agriculturist, 
 the Souihem Cultivator, and other agricultural papers, have been 
 examined with Batisfaction to ourselves and with profit to our 
 readers. 
 
vi Peefaoe. 
 
 We have endeavored to make our little work thorough and re- 
 liable, so far as it goes, and to give the largest possible aiuount 
 of useful information that can be condensed into so smaU a num- 
 ber of pages. We have occupied a large field, we are aware, and 
 can not hope to have been so full on all points as many readers 
 will desire. We have not aimed, of course, to render the larger 
 works on the special topics to which our chapters are devoted un- 
 necessary. We hope rather to create a demand for them ; but 
 there are thousands whom this little manual will furnish with all 
 the information they desire on the subjects on which it treats, 
 and on whom the detaUs with which the larger and more expen- 
 sive works are filled would be thrown away. To such, in an es- 
 pecial manner, we commend it, hoping that it will not wholly fail 
 to meet their expectations. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I.— THE HORSE. 
 
 A Historical Sketch — Bange of the Horse in Reference to Climate— Effects of 
 Climate and Food — Tarietiea or Breeds— The Eace-Horse— Origin and 
 Characteristics — Half-bred Horses— The Arabian Horse— Wonderful Gene- 
 alogies—Description—The Arabian "Tartar"— The Morgan— Opinions in 
 Reference to the Morgans— Sherman Morgan — The Canadian Horse- The 
 Norman— "Louis Philippe"— The Cleveland Bay— The Conestoga— The 
 Clydesdale Horse — The Virginian — Wild Horses— American Trotting Horses 
 — Points of a Horse Illustrated— Color, and what it Indicates — Common 
 Terms Denoting the Parts of a Horse— Stables— Stables as they are— Situation 
 of Stables — Size— Windows— Floors— Draining— Backs and Mangers — Yen- 
 tilalion of Stables — Warmth, etc.— The best Food for Horses— Work and Di- 
 gestion — Bulk of Food— Quantity — Water— General Management of tho 
 Horse— Air — Litter— Grooming — Exercise — Vices and Habits — Eestiveness 
 — Backing and Balking — Biting — Kicking- Running Away — Rearing — Over- 
 reaching— Rolling— Shying — Slipping the Halter— Tripping— Hints to Buy- 
 ers—Warranty—Form of a Receipt Embodying a Warranty— What a War- 
 ranty Includes— What constitutes Unsoundness Page 9 
 
 IL— THE ASS AND THE MULE. 
 
 Why the Asa has been Neglected and Abused— Eastern Appreciation— The 
 Ass compared with the Horse— The Ass in Guinea and Persia— The Mule- 
 Adaptation as a Beast of Burden — Trade in Keotucky- Use on a Farm^ 
 How to have large and handsome Mules 45 
 
 III.— CATTLE. 
 
 Historical Sketch— Breeds — The Devons— New England Cattle — The Hereford 
 Breed — The Sussex Breed— The Ayrshire Cattle— The Welsh Breeds— Irish 
 Cattle— The Long Horns— The Durham or Short-Horned Breed — Alderney 
 or Jersey Cattle — The Galloway Breed or Hornless Cattle— Other Polled 
 Cattle— The Cream-Pot Breed- Points of Cattle — General Management of 
 Cattle— The Cow-House Feeding— Rearing Calves— Milking— How to Esti- 
 mate the Weight of Livestock 49 
 
 IV.— SHEEP. 
 
 Characteristics of tho Sheep— Mutton— Breeds in the United States — The Na- 
 ^ve Breed— The Spanish Merino — American Merinos— Saxon Merinos- The 
 New Leicester Breed — The South-Downs— Mr. Taylor's Facts and Figures 
 —The Cotswold Breed— New Oxfordshire Sheep— The Cheviot Breed— Tha 
 
viii Contents. 
 
 Lincoln Breed -On the Choice of a Breed — The Improved English Varletieg 
 as Mutton Bheep — The Merinos as Wool-Producers— General Management 
 — ^Barns and Sheds— Feeding Eacks — Feeding — Salt— "Water — Shade- 
 Lambs— Castration— Docking— "Washing — Shearing— Value of Sheep to the 
 Farmer— An Anecdote 78 
 
 V— SWINE. 
 
 Natural History of Swine — The Wild Boar— Opinions Eespecting the Hog— 
 The Hog among the Greeks and Eomans— Swine Breeding in Gaul ana 
 Spain— Abhorrence toward Swine's Flesh among the Jews, Egyptians, Mo- 
 hammedans, and Others— Cuvier's Opinion — Unwholeaomeness of Bwlne'a 
 Flesh in Warm Climates— Breeds of Swine— The " Land Pike"— The ChW 
 nese Hog— The Berkshire Breed— The Suflfolk Breed— The Essex Breed— 
 The Chester Hog — Points of the Hog— Feeding— The Piggery 95 
 
 VI.— IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 
 Brf.ection of the Sire and Dam — How the Cream Pot Breed was Produced— 
 In-and-in Breeding — Touatt's Opinion — Crossing — Origin of La Chamois 
 Sheep— The best Breeds most Profitable— How to Improve One's Stock- 
 How Improvements may be bred Out as well as In 108 
 
 Vlt— DISEASES AND THEIR CURE. 
 About throwing Physic to the Dogs — Wild Animals seldom Sick -The Eeason 
 why — Causes of Disease among Domestic Animals— How they may be kept 
 in Perfect Health — Treatment of their Diseases — ^The Water-Oure for Ani- 
 mals 114 
 
 Vm.— POULTRY. 
 The Domestic Fowl — Wild Origin Unknown — General Characteristics of the 
 Domestic Fowl— The Spanish Fowl— The Dorking— The Polish Fowl-The 
 Hamburg Fowl— The Dominique Fowl^The Leghorn Fowl— The Shang- 
 hais and Cochin Chinas— The Bantam — T)ie Game Fowl— Mongrels— Choice 
 of Breed — Accommodations— Incubation— Bearing Chickens— Five Rules— 
 The Guinea Fowl— The Domestic Turkey — The Principal Eequisites in 
 Turkey Eearing — General Directions— The Domestic Goose— How to Eear 
 Geese— Shearing instead of Plucking— The Domestic Duck— Best Varieties 
 —How to Eear Ducks —Fattening— Preparing Poultry for Market 118 
 
 IX.— BEE-KEEPINa. 
 Wonders of the Bee-Hive— The three kinds of Bees— The Queen and her Dn- 
 ties— Curious Facts— How the Cells are Made— Bee-Bread- Ventilation by 
 the Bees on Scientific Principles— The Apiary— Bee-Hives— How to Make 
 them— Sectional Hives— Mr. Luda's Hive- Swarming— Eobbing the Hive— 
 Wintering— Feeding— Killing the Drones 148 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 Horee Taming 1^ 
 
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 A horse I a horse I My kingdom for a horse I— flTiafaijwaf*. 
 
 I.-HISTOET. 
 HE horse is probably a native of the warm conn 
 tries of the East, where he is found wild in a 
 considerable state of perfection. Its use, both 
 as a beast of burden and for the purposes of war, 
 early attracted the attention of mankind. Thus 
 when Joseph proceeded with his father's body from Egypt into 
 Canaan, "there accompanied him both chariots and horsemen" 
 (Gen. xix.) ; and the Oanaanites are said to have gone out to fight 
 against Israel " with many horses and chariots" (Joshua ii. 4). 
 This was more than sixteen hundred years before Christ. 
 
 The horse was early employed on the course. In the year 
 1450 B. 0. the Olympic games were established in Greece, at 
 which horses were used in chariot and other races. 
 
 No horses were found either on the continent or on the 
 islands of the New World ; but the immense droves now ex- 
 isting in parts of both North and South America, all of which 
 have descended from the two or three mares and stallions left 
 by the early Spanish .voyagers, prove very clearly that the 
 climate and soU of these countries is well adapted to their 
 propagation. 
 Professor Low says : " The horse is seen to be affected in his 
 1* 
 
10 Domestic Animals. 
 
 character and form by the agencies of food and climate, and it 
 may he by other causes unknown to us. . He sustains the tem- 
 perature of the most burning regions ; but there is a degree of 
 cold at which he can not exist, and as he approaches this limit 
 his temperament and external conformation are affected. In 
 Iceland, at the Arctic Circle, he has become a dwarf; in Lapland, 
 at latitude 65°, ho has given place to the reindeer ; and in Kamt- 
 schatka, at 62°, he has given place to the dog. The nature 
 and abundance of his food, too, greatly affect his character and 
 form. A country of heaths and innutritious herbs wiU not 
 produce a horse so large and strong as one of plentiful herbage; 
 the horse of the mountains will be smaller than that of the 
 plains ; the horse of the sandy desert than that of the watered 
 valley."* 
 
 U.— BEEED8. 
 
 The genus Equus, according to modern naturalists, consists 
 of six different animals — the horse {M. caballug) ; the ass {E. 
 (Minus} ; the quagga {E. qiLogga) ; the dziggithai {E. hemiomus) ; 
 the mountain zebra (E. zebra) ; and the zebra of the plains 
 (E. turchelli). 
 
 Of the horse there are many varieties or breeds. Ineffect- 
 ual attempts have been made to decide which variety now 
 existing constitutes the original breed ; some contending for the 
 Barb and others for the wUd horses of Tartary. It is of the 
 latter that Byron thus speaks in "Mazeppa:" 
 
 "With flowing tail and flying mane, 
 With nostrils never streaked with pain, 
 Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein, 
 And feet that iron never shod. 
 And flanks uuscarred by spur or rod, 
 A thousand horse — the wild, the free — 
 Likes waves that follow o'er the sea, 
 Game thundering on. 
 
 The principal breeds of horses now bred in the United States 
 are the Eace-Horse, the Arabian, the Morgan, the Canadian, 
 
 * niustrations of the Breeds of Animals. 
 
The Hoese. 11 
 
 the Norman, the Cleveland Bay, the Oonestoga, the Virginia 
 Horse, the Clydesdale, and the "Wild or Prairie Horse. 
 
 1. The Race-Hone. — "There is much dispute," Mr. Touatt 
 says, " with regard to the origin of the TliorougTi-'bred Horse. 
 By some he is traced through both sire and dam to Eastern pa- 
 rentage ; others believe him to be the native horse, improved 
 and perfected by judicious crossings with the Barb, the Turk, 
 or the Arabian. The Steed Book, which is an authority with 
 every English breeder, traces all the old racers to some Eastern 
 origin; or it traces them until the pedigree is lost in the 
 uncertainty of an early period of breeding. 
 
 " Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race- 
 horse, the strictest attention has for the last fifty years been 
 paid to pedigree. In the descent of almost every modern racer 
 not the shghtest flaw can be discovered." 
 
 The racer is generally distinguished, according to the same 
 authority, by his beautiful Arabian head ; his fine and finely- 
 set neck ; his oblique, lengthened shoulders ; his weU-bent 
 hinder legs ; his ample muscular quarters ; his flat legs, rather 
 short from the knee downward, although not always so deep 
 as they should be ; and his long and elastic pastern. 
 
 The use of thorough-bred and half-bred horses for domes 
 tic purposes is becoming common in England. The half-bred 
 horse is not only much handsomer than the common horse, but 
 his speed and power of endurance are infinitely greater. 
 
 " The acknowledged superiority of Northern carriage and 
 draught stock," the editor of the New York Spirit of the Times 
 says, " is owing almost entirely to the fact that thorough-bred 
 horses have found their way North and East from Long Island 
 and New Jersey, where great numbers are annually disposed of 
 that are unsuited to the course." 
 
 For the farm, the pure thorough-bred horse would be nearly 
 useless. He lacks weight and substance to give value and power 
 for draught. For road work the same objections will apply, 
 although not to the same extent, perhaps. The best English 
 road horse is a cross of the thorough-bred and the Cleveland. 
 
12 Domestic Animals. 
 
 2. The Arabian Horse. — The genealogy of the Arabian 
 horse, according to Arab account, is known for two thousand 
 years. Many of them have written and attested pedigrees ex- 
 tending more than four hundred years, and, with true Eastern 
 exaggeration, traced by oral tradition from the stud of Solo- 
 mon. A more careful account is kept of these genealogies than 
 of those of the most ancient family of the proudest Arab chief, 
 and very singular precautions are taken to prevent the possi- 
 bility of fraud, so far as the written pedigree extends. 
 
 The head of the Arabian horse is inimitable. The broadness 
 and squareness of the forehead, the shortness and fineness of the 
 muzzle, the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the smallness 
 of the ears, and the beautiful course of the veins, are its char- 
 acteristics. In the formation of the shoulders next to the head, 
 the Arabian is superior to any other breed. The withers are 
 high and the shoulder-blades inclined backward, and so nicely 
 adjusted that in descending a hill the point or edge of the ham 
 never ruffles the skin. The fineness of the legs and the oblic[ue 
 position of the pasterns may seem to lessen his strength; but 
 the leg, although small, is flat and wiry, and its bones uncom- 
 monly dense.* 
 
 Eichardson says : " Often may the traveler in the desert, on 
 entering within the folds of a tent, behold the interesting spec- 
 tacle of a magnificent courser extended upon the ground, and 
 some half dozen little dark-skinned, naked urchins scrambling 
 across her body, or reclining in sleep, some upon her neck, 
 some on her body, and others pillowed upon her heels ; nor do 
 the children ever experience injury from their gentle playmate. 
 She recognizes the family of her friend, her patron, and toward 
 them all the natural sweetness of her disposition leans, even to 
 overflowing." 
 
 The Arabian horse Tartar, whose portrait we give on the next 
 page, is thus described in ih^ New England Fa/rmer : "Thia 
 beautiful horse was bred by Asa Pingree, of Topsfield, Mass. 
 
 • Touatt. 
 
14 Domestic Animals. 
 
 He now stands fifteen and one fourth hands high; weighs 
 nine hundred pounds ; is of dark-gray color, with dark mane 
 and tail. He was sired by the imported, full-blood Arabian 
 horse 'Imaum,' and is seven years old this spring. This 
 engraving, copied Irom life, gives the figure of ' Tartar,' but can 
 not represent the agile action, flashing eye, and cat-like nimble- 
 ness of all his movements. It shows the beautiful Arabian 
 head and finely-set-on neck; his ample muscular quarters; 
 his flat legs, rather short from the knee downward ; and his 
 long and elastic pastern. All his motions are light and exceed- 
 ingly graceful, and his temper so docile that a child may 
 handle him." 
 
 3. The Morgan i7or««.— This celebrated American breed is 
 probably a cross between the English race-horse and the com- 
 mon New England mare. It is perhaps, all things considered, 
 the very finest breed for general usefulness now existing in the 
 United States. Mr. S. W. Jewett, a celebrated stock breeder, 
 in an article in the Gultvoator, says : 
 
 " I believe the Morgan blood to be the best ever infused into 
 the Northern horse. The Morgans are well known and esteem- 
 ed for activity, hardiness, gentleness, and docility; well adapted 
 for all work ; good in every spot except for races on the turf. 
 They are lively and spirited, lofty and elegant in their action, 
 carrying themselves gracefully in the harness. They have 
 clean bone, sinewy legs, compactness, short, strong backs, 
 powerful lungs, strength, and endurance. They are known by 
 their short, clean heads, width across the face at the eyes, 
 eyes lively and prominent; they have open and wide under 
 jaws, large windpipe, deep brisket, heavy and round body, 
 broad in the back, short limbs in proportion to size (of body) ; 
 they have broad quarters, a lively, quick action, indomitable 
 spirit, move true and easy in a good, round trot, and ai-e fast 
 on the walk ; color dark bay, chestnut, brown, or black, with 
 dark, flowing, wavy mane and tail. They make the best of 
 roadsters, and live to a great age." 
 
 All do not agree, however, with this estimate of the Morgans. 
 
The Hoksb. 
 
 16 
 
 A distingmshed judge of horses in Vermont, quoted byEandall 
 in his Introduction to Touatt on the Horse, says : 
 
 " They [the Morgans] are good for an hour's drive — ^for short 
 stages. They are good to run around town with. They are 
 good in the light pleasure-wagon — ^prompt, lively (not spirited), 
 and 'trappy.' There is no question among those who have 
 had fair opportunities of comparing the Morgans with horses 
 of purer blood and descended from different stocks, in regard to 
 the relative position of the Morgan. He is, as he exists at the 
 present day, inferior in size, speed, and bottom — in fact, in all 
 those qualities necessary to the performance of ' great deeds' 
 
 SniRMAN MOHGAN. 
 
 on the road or the farm, to the descendants of Messenger, Dn- 
 roc, imported Magnum Bonum, and many other horses of de- 
 served celebrity." 
 
 Sherman Morgan, whose portrait we are permitted to copy 
 from Linsley's "Morgan Horse," was foaled in 1835, the prop- 
 erty of Moses Oook, of Oamptou, N. H. Sired by Sherman, g 
 sire, Justin Morgan. The pedigree of the dam not fully estab- 
 lished, but conceded to have been a very fine animal, and said to 
 
16 Domestic Animals. 
 
 be froin the Justin Morgan. Sherman Morgan is fifteen hanJg 
 high, weighs about 1,050 lbs., is dark chestnut, and very much 
 resembles his sire Sherman, but heavier, stockier, and not as 
 much action. A fine horse, and is now kept in the stable at 
 Lancaster, N. H., where the Sherman died. He is owned bj 
 A. J. Oongdon. 
 
 4. TTie Canadian Horse. — This horse abounds in the Cana 
 dian Provinces and in the Northern States of the Union, and is 
 too well known to require a particular description. It is mainly 
 of Norman-French descent. It is a hardy, long-lived animal, 
 is easily kept, and very useful on a farm, although generally too 
 small for heavy work. A cross between stallions of this breed 
 and our common mares produces a superior horse, and such 
 crosses are finding favor among farmers. 
 
 5. The Norman Hone. — The French or Norman horse, from 
 which the Canadian is descended, is destined to take a more 
 prominent place than has hitherto been assigned to it among 
 our working horses. We introduce an engraving of one of this 
 breed, called Louis Philippe, which was bred by Edward 
 Harris, of Moorestown N. J., by whom the breecTwas imported 
 from France. 
 
 The Nornian horse is from the Spanish, of Arabian ancestry, 
 and crossed upon the draught horses of Normandy. Mr. 
 HaiTJs had admired the speed, toughness, and endurance of the 
 French stage-coach horses, and resolved to import this valuable 
 stock, and deserves the thanks of the American public for his 
 perseverance and sacrifices in this enterprise. The Nonnan 
 horses are enduring and energetic beyond description, and keep 
 their condition on hard fare and brutal treatment, when most 
 other breeds would quail and die. This variety of horse is 
 employed in France to draw the ponderous stage-coaoheSj called 
 "diligences," and travelers express astonishment at the extra- 
 ordinary performances of these animals. Each of these huge 
 vehicles is designed for eighteen passengers, and when thus 
 loaded are equal to five tons weight. Five horses are attached 
 to the clumsy and cumbrous carriage, with rude harness, and 
 

 i: 
 
 tVi 
 
 4\v 
 
 ^/ nil 
 
18 Domestic Animals. 
 
 their regular rate of speed with this enormous load is seven 
 miles an hor.r, and this pace is maintained over rough and 
 hOly regions. On some routes the roads are lighter, when the 
 speed is increased to eight, nine, and sometimes to ten miles an 
 hour. 
 
 6. Glmela'nd Bay. — According to Mr. Youatt, the iyrue Cleve- 
 land Bay is nearly extinct in E.-:gland. They were formerly 
 employed as a heavy, slow coach-horse. Mr. Youatt says: 
 " The origin of the better kind of coach-horse is the Cleveland 
 Bay, confined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with 
 perhaps Lincolnshire on one side and Northumberland on the 
 other, but diflBcult to meet with pure in either count-y. The 
 Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourths or through-bred 
 horse of sufficient substance and height, and the produce is the 
 coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high 
 action. From the thorough-bred of sufficient height, but not of 
 so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand and superior 
 curricle-horse. 
 
 Cleveland Bays were imported into western New York a 
 few years since, where they have spread considerably. They 
 have often been exhibited at our State fairs. They are mon- 
 strously large, and for their size are symmetrical horses, and 
 possess very respectable action. Whether they would endure 
 on the road at any but a moderate pace, we are not informed, 
 and have some doubts. Whether they spring from the genu- 
 ine and unmixed Cleveland stock, now so scarce in England, 
 we have no means of knowing. The half-bloods, the produce 
 of a cross with our common mares, are liked by many of our 
 farmers. They are said to make strong, serviceable farm 
 beasts — ^though rather prone to suUenness of temper.* 
 
 7. The Conestoga Horse. — This horse, which is found chiefly 
 in Pennsylvania and the adjacent States, is more remarkable 
 for endurance than symmetry. In height it sometimes reaches 
 seventeen hands ; the legs being long and the body light. 
 
 * Bandoll. 
 
The Hoese. 
 
 19 
 
 The Oonestoga breed makes good carriage aud teavy draft 
 horses. 
 
 8. The Clydesdale Eorse. — The Clydesdale horse is descended 
 from a cross between the Flemish horse and the Lanarkshire 
 (Scotland) mares. The mare is derived from the district on the 
 Clyde where the breed is chiefly found. Horses of this breed 
 are deservedly esteemed for the cart and for the plow on 
 heavy soO. They are strong, hardy, steady, true pullers, of 
 sound constitution, and from fourteen to sixteen hands high. 
 They are broad, thick, heavy, compact, well made for durabil- 
 
 THE OLYSBSDALB HOBBB. 
 
 [ty, health, and power. They have sturdy legs, strong shoul- 
 ders, back, and hips, a well-arched neck, and a light face and 
 head. 
 
 9. The Virginia Eorse. — This breed predominates in the 
 State from which it takes its name, and abounds to a greater 
 or less extent in all the Southern, Western, and Middle States. 
 It derives its origin from English blood-horses imported at 
 various times, and has been most diligently and purely kept 
 m the South. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day, 
 
20 Domestic Animals. 
 
 •was sire of the best Virginian horses, while Tally-ho, son of 
 Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys.* 
 
 10. The Wild or Prairie Horse. — In the Southwestern 
 States wild horses abound, which are doubtless sprung from 
 the same Spanish stock as the wild horses of the pampas and 
 other parts of the southern continent, all of which are of the 
 celebrated Andalusian breed, derived from the Moorish Barb. 
 The prairie horses are often captured, and when domesticated 
 are found to be capable of great endurance. They are not, 
 however, recommended by the symmetry or elegance of ap- 
 pearance for which their type is so greatly distinguished, 
 being generally rather small and scrubby.t 
 
 11. Tlie American Trotting-Horse. — " We can not refrain," 
 H. S. Randall says, in the Introduction to Youatt on the Horse, 
 already referred to, "from calling attention to our trotting- 
 horses, though in reality they do not, at least as a whole, con- 
 stitute a breed, or even a distinct variety or family. There i» 
 a family of superior trotters, including several of the best our 
 country has ever produced, the descendants of Abdallah and 
 Messenger, and running back through their sire Mambrino to 
 the thorough-bred horse, old Messenger. But many of our 
 best trotters have no known pedigrees, and some of them, 
 without doubt, are entirely destitute of the blood of the race- 
 horse. Lady Suffolk is by Engineer, but the blood of Engineer 
 is unknown (she is a gray mare, fifteen hands and two inches 
 high). Dutchman has no known pedigree. Other celebrated 
 trotters stand in the same category — though we are inclined to 
 think that a decided majority of the best, especially at long 
 distances, have a greater or less infusion of the blood of the 
 race-horse. 
 
 " The United States has undoubtedly produced more superior 
 trotters than any other country in the world, and in no other 
 country has the speed of the best American trotters been 
 equaled." 
 
 ♦ Farmers' Eeglster. t Farmere' Encyclopedia. 
 
The Hoese. 21 
 
 hi.— points of houses. 
 
 Every one who has anything to do with the horse should 
 know something of the "poirts" by means of which a good 
 animal is distinguished from a bad one. It is necessary to 
 understand this, no matter for what particular service the horse 
 may be required ; and the qualities indicated by these points 
 are universal in aU breeds. 
 
 To illustrate this subject and teach the uninstructed how to 
 correctly judge the horse, we introduce the accompanying let- 
 tered outlines. 
 
 It is evident that to be a good judge of a horse, one must 
 have in his memory a model by which to try aU that may be 
 presented to his criticism and judgment. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents such a model. It is a thoioagh-bred 
 horse, in which the artist has endeavored to avoid every fault. 
 Fig._ 6 is designed to represent a horse in which every good 
 point is suppressed. It may not be common to see a horse 
 totally destitute of every good point ; but injudicious breeding 
 has so obliterated the good ones, that the cut fig. 6 is not a 
 caricature, though we confess that its original is little less than 
 a caricature on the true ideal of a horse. Such a head is com- 
 mon, so is such a shoulder, such a back, quarters, and legs ; 
 and if they are not very often aU combined in one animal, they 
 are, unfortunately, often found distributed among the common 
 breeds in such abundance as to mar the beauty and the service 
 of three quarters of all the horses in ordinary use. The letters 
 are alike on both figures, and wiU enable the reader to draw a 
 comparison between the respective points of each. We copy 
 the description of the cuts from the Fa/rmer's Companion : 
 
 " The most important part of all is probably the direction of 
 the shoulder, from A to B. Next to this, the length from the 
 hip to the hock, to D. The point which next to these prob- 
 ably most contributes to speed and easy going, is the shortness 
 of the canon bone between the knee and the pastern joint, E 
 to E, a point without which no leg is good. A horse which 
 has all these three points good will necessarily and infallibly 
 
22 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 stand over a great deal of ground, W to X, that is, the distance 
 
 between his fore and hind feet will be great ; while one which 
 
 is deficient in all of them, or, indeed, in the two first, wiU as 
 
 fig. 5. 
 
 assuredly stand like a goat with all its feet gathered under him, 
 and wUl never be either a fast horse or safe under saddle. A 
 
 horse, not in motion, may be more speedily judged of by this 
 feature than by any other. One consequence of a fine receding 
 shoulder is to give length in the humcrtis, or upper arm, from 
 
The Hokbe. 23 
 
 B to P, without wHch a great stride can hardly he attained, 
 hut which will seldom if ever be found wanting if the shoulder- 
 blade be well placed. A prominent and fleshy chest is admired 
 by some, probably because they think it indicative of powerful 
 lungs and room for their use. "We object to it as adding to 
 what it is so desirable to avoid — the weight to be lifted forward 
 in the act of progression — while all the space the lungs require 
 is to be obtained by depth instead of ireadtli, as from A to H, 
 in which point, if a horse be deficient, he will seldom be fit 
 for fast work. The other points which we have marked for 
 comparison are G to E, or the width of the leg immediately 
 below the knee, which in a well-formed leg will be equal all the 
 way down ; in a bad one it wiU be narrowish immediately below 
 the knee, or what is called ' tied in.'' The shape of the neck 
 is more important than might at first thought be supposed, as 
 afiecting both the wind and the Tiandineas of the mouth ; no 
 horse with a faulty neck and a head ill-attached to it, as at Q 
 to K in fig. 6, ever possesses a good or manageable mouth. 
 The points of the face are not without significance, a feebly 
 developed countenance generally showing weakness of courage 
 if not of constitution. We therefore like to see a large and 
 bony protuberance above the eye, as at L in fig. 5, giving the 
 appearance of a sinking immediately below, followed by a 
 slightly Roman or protruding inclination toward the nose. 
 These when present are generally signs of 'blood,' which is in 
 some proportion or other a quality without which no breed of 
 horses will ever improve or long entitle itself to rank as other 
 than a race of drudges, fit only for sand or manure carts." 
 
 Bearing these points in mind, you may, by observing and 
 comparing the different animals which fall under your eyes, 
 soon qualify yourself to give an intelligent opinion of a horse. 
 One can not become perfect in this branch of knowledge in a 
 week or in a year. Certainly no careful student of this little 
 book will allow himself to be imposed upon in the purchase of 
 an animal having many of the bad points represented in fig. 6. 
 The perfect horse (fig. 5) you will not expect to meet every day. 
 
34 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 A badly formed horse is not profitable for any purpose; 
 because, if so formed, they are either clumsy, inactive, dull 
 in mind, or tender and easily broken down. It costs just aa 
 much to breed, raise, and keep a poor horse as a good one, and 
 the poor one is low in value and unsalable; besides, he is un- 
 able to do good service in any sphere, or to endure. 
 We copy from Lavater six heads of horses, which indicate 
 Fig. T. different temperaments and a great 
 
 diversity of character and disposition. 
 The accompanying remarks are from 
 the American Phrenological Jour- 
 nal : 
 
 "Fig. 7 has a slow, heavy temper- 
 ament ; is without spirit, awkward in 
 motion, lazy, stupid in intellect, diffi- 
 cult to teach, bears the whip and 
 needs it, though it is soon forgotten. He is too lazy to hold up 
 his ears or under lip, and is a Fte. 8. 
 
 regular hog-necked, heavy-footed 
 animal. 
 
 "Fig. 8 has more intelligence 
 and spirit, a more active temper- 
 ament, and is disposed to anger, 
 will not bear the whip, and shows 
 his anger, when teased or irritated, 
 in a bold, direct onset with the 
 teeth. 
 
 "Fig. 9 is a very active temperament; is a quick, keen, 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 active, intelligent animal, but is sly, 
 cunning, mischievous, and trickish; 
 will be hard to catch in the field, in- 
 clined to slip the bridle, will be a great 
 shirk in double harness, and wiU re- 
 quire a sharp eye and steady hand to 
 drive him, and will want something 
 besides a frolicsome boy for a master." 
 
The Hoese. 
 
 2f 
 
 " Fig. 10 is obstinate, headstrong, easily irritated, deceitful, 
 and savage ; will be hard to drive, 
 unhandy, unyielding, sour-temper- 
 ed, bad to bick, inclined to balk, 
 disposed to fight and crowd his fi 
 mate, and bite and kick his driver." 
 
 "Fig. 11 has a noble, proud dis- 
 position, and a lofty, stately car- 
 riage, but he is timid, restive, and 
 easily irritated and thrown oif his 
 mental balance. Such horses should 
 be used by steady, calm men, and on roads and in business 
 which have little variety, change, or means of excitement. 
 Pig. 11. Fig. 12. 
 
 " Fig. 12 is a calm, self-possessed animal, with a noble, eleva- 
 ted disposition, trustworthy, courageous, good-tempered, well 
 adapted to family use, but not remarkable for sharpness of 
 Fig. 18. mind or activity of body. 
 
 " Figs. 13 and 14 show a 
 great contrast in shape of 
 head, expression of coun- 
 tenance, temperament, dis- 
 position, and intelligence. 
 The first is a most noble 
 animal. 
 
 "Fig. 13 is broad be- 
 tween the eyes, fuU, round- 
 ed, and prominent in the 
 2 
 
26 Domestic Animals. 
 
 forehead, indicating benevolence and intellect ; broad between 
 the ears, showing courage ; broad between the eyes, evincing 
 quickness of perception, memory, and capacity to learn. He 
 can be taught almost anything, can be trusted, and loves and 
 trusts-man; is not timid, will go anywhere, and stand without 
 Fig. 14. fastening ; never kicks, bites, 
 
 or runs away. 
 
 "Eig. 14 shows a marked 
 contrast with fig. 13 in almost 
 every respect ; his narrow and 
 contracted forehead shows a 
 lack of inteUigenoe, kindness, 
 and tractability ; is timid and 
 shy in harness, vicious, un- 
 friendly, disposed to kick, 
 bite, balk, or run away, and 
 is fit only for a mill or horse-boat. For all general uses he 
 should be avoided, and by no means should such an organiza- 
 tion be employed for breeding purposes." 
 
 IT.— COLOE. 
 
 "W. 0. Spooner, author of several veterinarian works, lias the • 
 following remarks on color as a sign of other qualities in the 
 horse: 
 
 " We have found both good and bad horses of every color, 
 and the only rule we can admit as correct is, that certain colors 
 denote deficient breeding, and therefore such animal is not 
 likely to be so good as he looks, but is probably deficient in 
 bottom or the powers of endurance. These colors are black, 
 which prevails so much with cart-horses, and sorrel, dun, pie- 
 bald, etc. ; the possessors of which come from the North, and 
 possess no Eastern blood. Black horses, unless evidently high 
 bred, are very often soft and sluggish, with breeding insuf- 
 ficient for their work ; the pedigree of the majority of theiri 
 may be dated from the plow-tail, whatever admixtures there 
 may have been since. White hair denotes a thin skin, which 
 
The Hoese. 27 
 
 is objectionable when it prevails on the legs of horses, as such 
 
 Fig. IB. 
 
 Muzzle 
 
 
 Common TEmis denoting the Paetb of a Hobsb. 
 
 animals are more disposed to swelled legs and cracked heels 
 Fig- 16. than others. Bay horses with black 
 
 legs are greatly esteemed, yet we 
 have known many determined slugs 
 of this hue. Their constitution is, 
 however, almost invariably good. 
 Chestnut is the prevailing color 
 with our race-horses, and conse- 
 quently chestnut horses are gener- 
 ally pretty well bred, and possess 
 the good and bad qualities which 
 obtain most among thorough-breds. 
 The Suffolk cart-horse is also dis- 
 Sr-cnou or -> iiuksb'8 p'S^ tiuguished by his light chestnut col- 
 
28 Domestic Animals. 
 
 or ; and it is no small recommendatiDn to find that this breed 
 has, for several years past, carried away the principal prices at 
 the annual shows of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England. 
 Gray is a very good color, and generally denotes a considerable 
 admixture of Eastern blood." 
 
 v.— STABLES. 
 
 We condense from Stewart's admirable " Stable Book" the 
 larger portion of the following useful hints and suggestions in 
 reference to stables and their management. 
 
 1. Stables as they Are. — Stable architects have not much to 
 boast of. When left to themselves they seem to think of little 
 beyond shelter and confinement. If the weather he kept out 
 and the horse be kept in, the stable is sufiicient. If light and 
 air be demanded, the doorway will admit them, and other 
 apertures are superfluous. 
 
 The majority of stables have been built with little regard to 
 the comfort and health of the horse. Most of them are too 
 small, too dark, too close, or too open; and some are mere 
 dungeons, destitute of every convenience. 
 
 2. Situation of Stables. — When any choice exists, a situation 
 should be chosen which admits of draining, shelter from the 
 coldest winds, and facility of access. Damp places are especially 
 to be avoided. It is in damp stables that we expect to find 
 horses with bad eyes, coughs, greasy heels, swelled legs, mange, 
 and a long, dry, staring coat, which no grooming can cure. 
 Take every precaution, then, against dampness in your stables. 
 
 3. Size of Stables. — They are seldom too large in proportion 
 to the number of stalls ; but are often made to hold too many 
 horses. Horses require pure air as well as human beings ; and 
 the process of breathing has the same effect in their case as in 
 ours — -changing it to that poisonous substance, carbonic acid 
 gas. With twenty or thirty horses in a single apartment no 
 ordinary ventilation is sufficient to keep the air pure. Large 
 stables, too, are liable to frequent and great alterations of tem- 
 perature. When several horses are out, those which remain 
 
The Hoese. 29 
 
 are often rendered uncomfortably cold, and when the stable is 
 fall the whole are fevered or excited by excess of heat. Effi- 
 cient ventilation — a very important object — is also much more 
 difficult in a large than in a small stable. 
 
 In width the stable may vary from sixteen to eighteen feet ; 
 and in length it must have six feet for each stall. Large cart- 
 horses require a httle more room both in length and breadth of 
 stable. The number of stalls should not exceed sixteen, and it 
 would be better if there were only eight. 
 
 Double-rowed stables, or those in which the stalls occupy 
 both sides, require least space, and for horses kept at full work 
 are sufficiently suitable, but for carriage horses single-rowed 
 stables are better. If the double-rowed are used, the gangway 
 should be wide, to prevent the horses from kicking at each 
 other, as they are apt to do when they grow playful fi-om half 
 idleness. 
 
 4. Windows, — Windows are too much neglected in stables, and 
 where they exist at all are generally too few, too smah, and ill 
 placed. Some think horses do not require hght — that they 
 thrive best in the dark ; but many a horse has become blind 
 for the want of light in his stable. When side windows can 
 not be introduced, a portion of the hay loft must be sacrificed 
 and light introduced from the roof. Side windows should be 
 so arranged that the light wUI not fall directly upon the eyes 
 of the horse. 
 
 5. Floors. — Stable floors may be of stone, brick, plank, or 
 earth. One of the best kinds of stable floor, where the soil is 
 dry, is made of a composition of lime, ashes, and clay, mixed 
 up in equal parts into a mortar and spread from twelve to fif- 
 teen inches deep over the surface of the ground forming the 
 bottom of the stable. It wUl dry in ten days and makes a very 
 smooth, fine flooring, particularly safe, easy, and agreeable for 
 horses to stand upon, and free from all the objections to stone, 
 brick, and wood.* 
 
 * A. B. Allen. 
 
30 Domestic Animals. 
 
 6. Draining. — A gutter or other contrivance for carrying off 
 the urine should always be made in a stable, otherwise it will 
 be foul and damp. It should be conveyed into a tank and care- 
 fully saved as manure. 
 
 7. Hacis and Mangers. — These should be so placed that the 
 horse can eat from them with ease. The face of the rack next 
 the horse should be perpendicular, or as nearly so as possible. 
 Sometimes the face is so sloping and the rack so high that the 
 horse has to turn his head almost upside down to get at his food. 
 
 The mangers or troughs from which the horse eats his grain 
 are now sometimes made of cast iron, which we deem a great 
 improvement over wood. The manger should be concave and 
 not flat at the bottom. Mangers are generally placed too low. 
 The bottom should be from three feet and a half to four feet 
 from the ground, according to the height of the horse. 
 
 8. Ventilation of Stables. — Impure air, as we have already 
 remarked, is hurtful to the horse as well as to the human being 
 inducing disease and shortening life. To avoid it in our own 
 case, we (sometimes!) ventilate our houses. If we would have 
 our horses healthy we must do the same for the stable. Aper- 
 tures, one for each stall, should be provided for carrying off the 
 impure air. These should be so near the top of the building as 
 practicable. It should be eight or ten inches square. Smaller 
 apertures near the floor or not far from the horse's nostrils wiU 
 serve to admit fresh air.* 
 
 9. Warmth, etc. — If you wish to have your horses thrive 
 and continue healthy, you can not pay too much attention to 
 their comfort. Their stables should be warm in winter and 
 cool in summer. To secure these conditions, they should be 
 properly constructed. [For plans, see " The House."] To keep 
 stables suflioiently warm, no artificial means are required. It 
 is enough that the outside air, except so much as is required 
 for ventilation, be excluded during the coldest weather. "Warm 
 blankets should pf course be used at the same time. 
 
 ♦ See Chapter on Barns and Stables, in " The House " 
 
The Hoese. 31 
 
 vi.— feeding. 
 
 1. The Best Food for ITorses. — Considerable care and system 
 are necessary in feeding horses, so as to keep them in the best 
 health and the highest working order. 
 
 " The best food for ordinary working-horses in America," 
 A. B. AUen says, "is as much good hay or grass as they will 
 eat, corn-stalks or blades, or for the want of these, straw, and 
 a mixtm-e of from sixteen to twenty-four quarts per day, of 
 about half and half of oats and the better quality of wheat bran. 
 When the horse is seven years old past, two to four quarts of 
 corn or hominy or meal ground from the corn and cob is 
 preferable to the pure grain. Two to four quarts of wheat, 
 barley, rye, buckwheat, peas, or beans, either whole or ground, 
 may be substituted for the corn. A pint of oil meal or a giU of 
 ■ flax-seed mixed with the other food is very good for a relish, es- 
 pecially in keeping up a healthy system and the bowels open, and 
 in giving the hair a fine glossy appearance. Potatoes and 
 other roots, unless cooked, do not seem to be of much benefit 
 in this climate, especially in winter — they lie cold upon the 
 Btnmaoh and subject the horse to scouring; besides, they a-;-e 
 too watery for a hard-working animal. Corn is fed too much 
 at the South and West. It makes horses fat, but can not give 
 them that hard, muscular flesh which oats do; hence their 
 softness and want of endurance in general work and on the 
 road, in comparison with Northern and Eastern horses, reared 
 and fed on oats and more nutritious grasses." 
 
 2. Wori; and Digestion. — Slow work aids digestion, empties 
 the bowels, and sharpens the appetite. Hence it happens that 
 on Sunday night and Monday morning there are more cases of 
 cclic and founder than during any other part of the week. 
 Horses that never want an appetite ought not to have an un- 
 lii iiited . allowance of hay on Sunday ; they have time to 
 eat a great deal more than they need, and the torpid state of 
 the stomach and bowels, produced by a day of idleness, renders 
 an additional quantity very dangerous. Far;n and cart horses 
 are fed immediately before commenciug their labor, and the 
 
32 Domestic Animals. 
 
 appetite with which they return shows that the stom nch is not 
 fuU. 
 
 During fast work digestion is suspended. In the general 
 commotion excited by violent exertion, the stomach can hardly 
 he in a favorable condition for performing its duty. The blood 
 circulates too rapidly to permit the formation of gastric juice 
 or its combination with the food ; and the blood and the nerv- 
 ous influence are so exclusively concentrated and expended 
 upon the muscular system, that none can be spared for carry- 
 ing on the digestive process. 
 
 3. Bulk Essential. — Condensed food is necessary for fast- 
 working horses. Their food must be in less compass than that 
 of the farm or cart horse. But to this condensation there are 
 some limits. Grain aifords all, and more than all, the nutri- 
 ment a horse is capable of consuming, even under the most . 
 extraordinary exertion. His stomach and bowels can hold 
 more than they are able to digest. Something more than nu- 
 triment is wanted. The bowels must suffer a moderate degree 
 of distension ; more than a wholesome allowance of gram can 
 produce. 
 
 When hay is very dear and grain cheap, it is customary in 
 many stables to give less than the usual allowance of hay, and 
 more grain. The alteration is sometimes carried too far, and 
 is often made too suddenly. The horses may have as much 
 grain as they will eat, yet It does not suflice without fodder. 
 Having no hay, they wiU leave the grain to eat the litter. 
 When the ordinary fodder, then, is very dear, its place must 
 be supplied by some other which will produce a wholesome 
 distension, though it may not yield so much nutriment. Straw 
 or roots, either or both, may be used in such oases. The ex- 
 cessively tucked-up flank, and the horse's repeated efforts to 
 eat his litter, show when his food is not of suflicient bulk, and 
 this indication must not be disregarded. 
 
 4. Quantity of Food.—ThQ quantity of food may be insuffi- 
 cient, or it may be in excess. The consumption is influenced 
 by the work, the weather, the horse's condition, age, temper, 
 
The Hokse. 33 
 
 fcnn, and health ; these droumstances, especially the work, 
 must regulate the allowance. 
 
 When the horse has to work as much and as often as he is 
 able, his allowance of food should be unlimited. 
 
 "When the work is such as to destroy the legs more than it 
 exhausts the system, the food must be given with some restric- 
 tion, unless the horse be a poor eater. 
 
 When the work is moderate, or less than moderate, a good 
 feeder will eat too much. 
 
 When the weather is cold, horses that are much exposed tf ■ 
 it require more food than when the weather is warm. 
 
 When the horse is in good working condition, he needs lejs 
 food than while he is only getting into condition. 
 
 Young growing horses require a little more food than those 
 of mature age ; but, as they are not fit for full work, the dif- 
 ference is not great. 
 
 Old horses, those that have begun to decline in vigor, require 
 more food than the young or the matured. 
 
 Hot-tempered, irritable horses seldom feed well ; but those 
 that have good appetites require more food to keep them in 
 condition, than others of quiet and calm disposition. 
 
 Small-bellied, narrow-chested horses require more food than 
 those of deep and round carcass ; but few of them eat enough 
 to maintain them in condition for full work. 
 
 Lame, greasy-heeled, and harness-galled horses require an 
 extra allowance of food to keep them in working condition. 
 
 Sickness, fevers, inflammations, all diseases which influence 
 health so much as to throw the horse off work, demand, with 
 few exceptions, a spare diet, which, in general, consists of 
 bran-mashes, grass, carrots, and hay.* 
 
 5. Watering. — This is a part of stable management little 
 regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and 
 night, and they go to the nearest pond or brook and drink their 
 fill, and no harm results, for they obtain that kind of water 
 
 * Stewart's Stable Book. 
 2* 
 
34 Domestic Animals. 
 
 ■which nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared 
 •for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as 
 well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. 
 
 The difference between hard and soft water is known to 
 every one. There is nothing in which the different effect of 
 hard and soft water is so evident as in the stomach and di- 
 gestive organs of the horse. Hard water drawn fresh from the 
 well wUl assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to 
 it stare, and it wUl not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure 
 him. He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of 
 the well-water as by its coldness — particularly by its coldness 
 in summer, and when it is in many degrees below the tempera- 
 ture of the atmosphere. The water in the brook and the 
 pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as 
 having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it withoutdanger. 
 
 If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially 
 in summer, he would often be saved from the sad torture of 
 thirst, and from many a disease. Whoever has observed the 
 eagerness with which the over-worked horse, hot and tired, 
 plunges his muzzle into the pail, and the diflBculty of stop- 
 ping him until he has drained the last drop, may form some 
 idea of what he had previously suffered, and will not won- 
 der at the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden 
 death that often result. There is a prejudice in the minds of 
 many persons against the horse being fully supplied with water. 
 They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick 
 and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too often is, immedi- 
 ately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ; but 
 if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals 
 of rest he would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspect- 
 ed by those who have not carefully observed the horse, that 
 if he has frequent access to water he will not drink so much 
 in the course of the day as another will do, who, to cool his 
 parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can and knows not 
 when to stop. 
 
 On a journey a horse should be liberally supplied with 
 
The Hoese. 35 
 
 water. "When he is a little cooled, two or three quarts may be 
 given to him, and after that his feed. Before he has finished 
 his corn, two or three quarts more may be offered. He will 
 take no harm if this is repeated three or four times during a long 
 and hot day.* 
 
 TIL— GENEEAl MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. Air. — "We have spoken of the necessity of ventilation. 
 Hear what that great authority, Youatt, says : 
 
 "If the stable is close, the air wiU not only be hot but foul. 
 The breathing of every animal contaminates it ; and when in 
 the course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes 
 again and again through the lungs, the blood can not undergo 
 its proper and healthy change ; digestion will not be so per- 
 fectly performed, and all the functions of life are injured. Let 
 the owner of a valuable horse think of his passing twenty or 
 twenty-two out of the twenty-fonr hours in this debilitating 
 atmosphere ! Nature does wonders in enabling every animal 
 to accommodate itself to the situation in which it is placed, 
 and the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it 
 than would scarcely be conceived possible: but he does not, 
 and can not, possess the power and the hardihood which he 
 would acquire under other circumstances. 
 
 " The air of the improperly close and heated stable is still 
 further contaminated by the urine and dung, which rapidly 
 ferment there, and give out stimulating and unwholesome 
 vapors. "When a person first enters an ill-managed stable, and 
 especially early in the morning, he is annoyed not only by the 
 heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling 
 hartshorn ; and can he be surprised at the inflammation of the 
 eyes, and the chronic cough, and the i lisease of the lungs, by 
 which the animal, who has been all night jhut up in this vitia- 
 ted atmosphere, is often attacked; or if glanders and farcy 
 should occasionally break out in such stables ? It has been 
 ascertained by chemical experiment that the urme of the horse 
 
 • Touatt 
 
36 Domestic Animals. 
 
 contains in it an exceedingly large quantity of hartshorn ; and 
 not only so, but that, influenced by the heat of a crowded 
 stable, and possibly by other decompositions that are going for- 
 ward at the same time, this ammoniacal vapor begins to be 
 rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided." 
 
 a. Litter. — The facts just stated in reference to the plenti- 
 ful escape of ammoniacal gas from the urine, show the necessity 
 of frequently removing the litter which is soon saturated with 
 it. It rapidly putrefies, emitting noisome odors and contami- 
 nating the air. Everything hastening decomposition should be 
 carefully removed where life and health are to be preserved. 
 Litter that has been much wetted and has begun to decay 
 should be swept out every morning. 
 
 No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain 
 during the day in the corner or any part of the stable. 
 
 3. Chooming. — Of this little need be said to the farmer in 
 reference to his working horses, since custom, and apparently 
 without 01 effect, has allotted to them so little of the comb 
 and brush. " The animal that is worked all day and turned 
 out at night," Youatt says, "requires little more to be done to 
 him than to have the dirt brushed off his limbs. Kegular 
 grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to the alteration 
 of temperature and the inclemency of the weather, would be 
 prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out, needs no 
 grooming. The dandruff or scurfj which accumulates at the 
 roots of the hair, is a provision of nature to defend him from 
 the wind and the cold. 
 
 "It is to the stabled horse, highly fed and little or irreg- 
 ularly worked, that grooming is of so much consequence. 
 Good rubbing with the brush or the curry-comb opens the 
 pores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of 
 the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in 
 the room of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without 
 either unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect the same 
 purpose ; they both increase the insensible perspiration ; but 
 the first does it at the expense of health and strength, whil« 
 
The Hoese. 37 
 
 the Becond, at the same time that it produces a glow oil the 
 skin and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies 
 of the frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse 
 if he were to insist — and to see that his orders are really obeyed 
 — ^that the fine coat in which he and his groom so much delight 
 is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and 
 thick clothing, and, most of all, not by stimulating or injurious 
 spices. The horse should be regularly dressed every day, in 
 addition to the grooming that is necessary after work. 
 
 " When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, 
 he should never be groomed in the stable, unless he is an 
 animal of peculiar value, or placed for a time under peculiar 
 circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness, 
 when the scurf and dust that are brushed from the horse lodge 
 in his manger and mingle with his food, experience teaches, 
 that if the cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invig- 
 orated to a degi-ee that can not be attained in the stable, from 
 being dressed in the open air. There is no necessity, however, 
 for half the punishment which many a groom inflicts upon the 
 horse in the act of dressing ; and particularly on one whose 
 skin is thin and sensible. The curry-comb should at all times 
 be lightly applied. With many horses, its use may be almost 
 dispensed with ; and even the brush needs not to be so hard, 
 nor the points of the bristles so irregular, as they often are. 
 A soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be 
 equally effectual and a great deal more pleasant to the horse. 
 A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be 
 almost sufficient with horses that have a thin skin, and that 
 have not been neglected. After all, it is no slight task to dress 
 a horse as it ought to be clone. It occupies no little time, and 
 demands considerable patience as well as dexterity. It wiU be 
 readily ascertained whether a horse has been well dressed, by 
 rubbing him with one of the fingers. A greasy stain will detect 
 the idleness of the groom. When, however, the horse is chang- 
 ing his coat, both the curry-comb and the brush should be 
 used as lightly as possible. 
 
38 Domestic Animals. 
 
 " "WTioever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to 
 the horse's skin and to the horse generally, needs only to ob- 
 serve the effects produced by well hand-rubbing the legs of a 
 tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the pain- 
 ful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their natural warmth 
 and become fine, the animal is evidently and rapidly reviving ; 
 he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down 
 to rest." 
 
 4. Ezercue. — Of this the farm horse generally has enough. 
 His work is tolerably regular, not exhausting, and he generally 
 maintains his health and has his life prolonged to an extent 
 rare among horses of " leisure." But a gentleman's or a trades- 
 man's horse suffers a great deal more from idleness than he 
 does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours' 
 exercise every day, if he is to be kept free from disease. Noth- 
 ing of extraordinary, or even of ordinary, labor can be effected 
 on the road or in the field without snfSoient and regular exercise. 
 It is this alone which can give energy to the system or devel- 
 ope the powers of any animal. The animal that, with the 
 usual stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, as is the 
 case in many establishments, must suffer. He is predisposed to 
 fever, or to grease, or, most of all, to diseases of the foot ; and 
 if, after three or four days of inactivity he is ridden far and 
 fast he is almost sure to have inflammation of the lungs or of 
 the feet. 
 
 Tin— VICES AND BAD HABITS. 
 
 The vices and bad habits of the horse, like those of his mas 
 ter, are oftener than otherwise the consequence of a faulty ed- 
 ucation. We are convinced that innately vicious horses are 
 comparatively few. We condense from Touatt the following 
 hints on this subject. 
 
 1. Sestiveness. — At the head of aU the vices of the horse is 
 rsstiveness, the most annoying and the most dangerous of alL 
 It is the produce of bad temper and worse education; and, 
 like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by edn* 
 eation, it is inveterate. Whether it appears in the form of 
 
The Hoese. 39 
 
 kicking or rearing, plunging or bolting, or in any way that 
 threatens danger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of 
 cure. A determined rider may, to a certain extent, subjugate 
 the animal ; or the horse may have his favorites, or form his 
 attachments, and with some particular person he may be com- 
 paratively or perfectly manageable ; hut others can not long 
 depend upon him, and even his master is not always sure of 
 him. 
 
 2. Backing or Balhing. — Some horses have the habit of 
 backing at first starting, and that more from playfulness than 
 desire of mischief. A moderate application of the whip will 
 usually be effectual. Others, even after starting, exhibit con- 
 siderable obstinacy and viciousness. This is frequently the 
 effect of bad breaking. 
 
 A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel be- 
 fore starting, when the horse, finding it more difficult to back 
 than to go forward, will gradually forget this unpleasant trick. 
 It will likewise be of advantage as often as it can be managed, 
 go to start that the horse shall have to back up-hill. The dif- 
 ficulty of accomplishing this will soon make him readily go 
 forward. A little coaxing or leading will assist in accomplish- 
 ing the cure. 
 
 3. Biting. — This is perhaps sometimes the consequence of 
 natural ferocity, but is more frequently acquired from the fool- 
 ish teasing play of hostlers and stable-boys. At first his biting 
 is half playfiil and half in earnest, hut finally becomes habitual 
 and degenerates rato absolute viciousness. It is seldom that 
 anything can be done in the way of cure. Kindness will aggra- 
 vate the evil and no degree of severity will correct it. " I have 
 seen," Professor Stuart says, " biters punished until they trem- 
 bled in every joint and were ready to drop, but have never in 
 any case known them cured by this treatment or by any other. 
 The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and 
 determined to repeat the offense as before. He appears unable 
 to resist the temptation, and in its worst form biting is a spe- 
 cies of insanity." 
 
40 Domestic Animals. 
 
 But if biting can not be cured it may almost always be pre- 
 vented, and every proprietor of horses, while he insists upon 
 gentle and humane treatment of his animals, should strictly 
 forbid this horse-play. 
 
 4. KicTcing. — This, as a vice, is another consequence of the 
 culpable habit of grooms and stable-boys of teasing the horse. 
 That which is at first an indication of annoyance at the pinch- 
 ing and tickling of the groom, and without any design to injure, 
 gradually becomes the expression of anger, and the effort to do 
 mischief. The horse, likewise, too soon recognizes the least 
 appearance of timidity, and takes advantage of the discovery. 
 There is no cure for this vice after it has become a confirmed 
 habit, and he can not be justified who keeps a kicking horse 
 in his stable. Before the habit is inveterately established, a 
 thorn-bush or a piece of furze fastened against the partition or 
 post wOl sometimes effect a cure. When the horse finds that 
 he is pretty severely pricked he will not long continue to 
 punish himself. 
 
 5. jRearing. — This sometimes results from playfulness, car- 
 ried, indeed, to an unpleasant and dangerous extent ; but it is 
 oftener a desperate and occasionally successful eflfort to unhorse 
 the rider, and consequently a vice. The horse that has twice 
 decidedly and dangerously reared should never be trusted 
 again, unless, indeed, it was the fault of the rider, who had 
 been using a deep curb and a sharp bit. Some of the best 
 horses will contend against these, and then rearing may be 
 immediately and permanently, cured by using a snaffle bridle 
 alone. 
 
 6. Eunning Away. — There is no certainty of cure for this 
 vice. The only method which afibrds any probability of suc- 
 cess is, to ride or drive such a horse with a strong curb and 
 sharp bit ; to have him always firmly in hand ; and if he wUl 
 run away and the place wUl admit of it, to give him (sparing 
 neither curb nor whip) a great deal more running than he likes. 
 
 7. Overreaching. — This unpleaaant noise, known also by the 
 term "clicking," arises from the toe of the hind-foot knocking 
 
The Hoese. il 
 
 against the shoe of the fore-foot. If the animal is young, the 
 action of the horse may be materially improved ; otherwise 
 nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind-foot as 
 short and as round as it can safely be, and to bevel off and round 
 the toe of the shoe, like that which has been worn oif by a 
 stumbling horse, and, perhaps, to lower the heel of the fore-foot 
 a Uttle. 
 
 8. Boiling. — Some horses have the habit of rolling in the 
 stable, by which they are liable to get cast, bruised, and half 
 strangled. The only remedy is to tie such a horse with just 
 length of halter enough to lie down, but not allow of his resting 
 his head on the ground. This is an unpleasant means of cure, 
 and not always a safe one. 
 
 9. Shying. — This vice is often the result of cowardice, or 
 playfulness, or want of work, but at other times it is the con- 
 sequence of a defect of sight ; and in its treatment it is of great 
 importance to distinguish between these different causes. For 
 the last, every allowance must be made, and care must he taken 
 that the fear of correction is not associated with the imagined 
 existence of some terrifying object. The severe use of the whip 
 and the spur can not do good here, and are likely to aggravate 
 the vice ten-fold. A word half encouraging and half scolding 
 win tell the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give 
 him confidence in his rider on a future occasion. 
 
 The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different 
 affair, and must be conquered : but how ? Severity is altogether 
 out of place. If he is forced into contact with the object by 
 dint of correction, the dread of punishment will afterward be 
 associated with that object, and on the next occasion his start- 
 ings will be more frequent and more dangerous. The way to 
 cure him is to go on, turning as little as possible out of the road, 
 giving a harsh word or two and a gentle touch, and then taking 
 no more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever 
 may have been the object which he chose to select as the pre- 
 tended cause of affright, he will pass it almost without notice. 
 
 10. Slipping the Salter. — Many horses are so clever at this 
 
4:2 Domestic Animai^s. 
 
 trick that s arcely a niglit passes without their getting loose. 
 It is a habit which may lead to dangerous results, and should be 
 cured at once by some extra means of securing the halter in its 
 place, or by a strap attached to it and buckled securely (but 
 not tight enough to be a serious inconvenience), aroimd the 
 neck. 
 
 11. Tripping. — ^He must be a skillful practitioner or a mere 
 pretender who promises to remedy this habit. If it arises from 
 a heavy fore-hand and the fore-legs being too much under the 
 horse, no one can alter the natural frame of the animal ; if it 
 proceeds from tenderness of the foot, grogginess, or old lameness, 
 these ailments are seldom cured. Also, if it is to be traced to 
 habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping wUl rouse the 
 drone. A known stumbler should never be ridden or driven 
 by any one who values his safety or his life. 
 
 If the stumbler has the foot kept as short and the toe pared 
 as close as safety will permit, and the shoe is rounded at the 
 toe, or has that shape given to it which it naturally acquires in 
 a fortnight from the peculiar action of such a horse, the animal 
 may not stumble quite so much ; or if the disease which pro- 
 duced the habit can be alleviated, some trifling good may he 
 done, but in almost every case a stumbler should be got rid of, 
 or put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative ia 
 adopted, he may trip as much as he pleases, for the weight of 
 the load and the motion of the other horses wiU keep him upon 
 his legs. 
 
 IX.— HINTS TO BTTTEES. 
 
 1. Warranty. — A man should have a more perfect knowledge 
 of horses than falls to the lot of most men, and a perfect knowl- 
 edge of the seller also, who ventures to buy a horse without a 
 warranty. This warranty is usually embodied in the receipt, 
 which may be expressed as follows : 
 
 Eeceived at Louisville, August 10th, 1868, from 0. D., one hundred dollare 
 tor a gray horse warranted only five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet 
 to ride or drive. A. V. 
 
 "A receipt, including merely the word 'warranted,' ex- 
 
The Hoese. 43 
 
 tends only to soundness ; ' warranted sound' goes no fiu-ther ; 
 the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and drive, 
 should be especially named. This warranty comprises every 
 cause of unsoundness that can he detected, or that lurks in the 
 constitution at the time of sale, and to every vicious habit that 
 the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a breach of war- 
 ranty, and to be enabled to tender a return of the horse and 
 recover the difference of price, the purchaser must prove that 
 it was unsound or viciously disposed at the time of sale. 
 
 " No price will imply a warranty or be equivalent to one ; 
 there must be an express warranty. A fraud must be proved 
 in the seller, in order that the buyer may be enabled to return 
 the horse or maintain an action for the price. The warranty 
 should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a promise 
 to warrant the horse, given at any period antecedent to the 
 sale, is invalid ; for horse flesh is a very perishable commodity, 
 and the constitution and usefulness of the animal may undergo 
 a considerable change in the space of 'a few days. A warranty 
 after the sale is invahd, for it is given without any legal con- 
 sideration. In order to complete the purchase, there must be 
 a transfer of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement, or 
 the payment of the earnest-money. The least sum will suflBce 
 for earnest. No verbal promise to buy or to sell is binding 
 without one of these. The moment either of these is effected, 
 the legal transfer of property or delivery is made, and what- 
 ever may happen to the horse, the seller retains, or is entitled 
 to, the money. If the purchaser exercises any act of owner- 
 ship, by using the animal without leave of the vender, or by 
 having any operation performed, or any medicine given to him, 
 he makes him his own. 
 
 " If a person buys a horse warranted sound, and discovering 
 no defect in him, and relying on the warranty, re-sells him, 
 and the unsoundness is discovered by the second purchaser, 
 and the horse returned to the first purchaser, or an action com- 
 menced against him, he has his claim on the first seller, and 
 may demand of him not only the price of the horse, or the dif- 
 
iA Domestic Animals. 
 
 ference in value, but every expense that may have been in- 
 cmred. 
 
 " Absolute exchanges of one horse for another, or a sum of 
 money being paid in addition by one of the parties, stand on 
 the same ground as simple sales. If there is a warranty on 
 either side, and that Is broken, an action may be maintained : 
 if there be no warranty, deceit must be proved." 
 
 2. WTiat constitutes JJnsoundTiessf — " That horse is sound in 
 whom there is no disease, and no alteration of structure that 
 impairs or is liliely to impair his natural usefulness. The horse 
 is unsound that labors under disease, or has some alteration of 
 structure which does interfere, or is likely to interfere, with 
 his natural usefulness. The term ^natural usefulness' must 
 be borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is 
 soon knocked up ; another will work all day, but can not be 
 got beyond a snail's pace ; a third with a heavy fore-hand is 
 liable to stumble, and is continually putting to hazard the neck 
 of his rider; another, with an irritable constitution and a loose, 
 washy form, loses his appetite and begins to scour if a little 
 extra work is exacted from him. The term unsoundness must 
 not be applied to either of these ; it would be opening far too 
 widely a door to disputation and endless wrangling. The buy- 
 er can discern, or ought to know, whether the form of the 
 horse is that which will render him likely to suit his purpose, 
 and he should try him suflSciently to ascertain his natural 
 strength, endurance, and manner of going. Unsoundness, we 
 repeat, has reference only to disease, or to that alteration of 
 structure which is connected with, or wUl produce, disease and 
 lessen the usefulness of the animal."*- 
 
 • Touatt. 
 
Ihb Ass and the Mttle. 
 
 45 
 
 n. 
 
 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 
 
 Oi that 1 had been writ down an ass I — DogifTrf/, 
 
 I.— THE ASS. 
 
 HFFON has -well observed that the aso is de- 
 spised and neglected only because we possess a 
 more noble and powerful animal in the horse, 
 and that if the horse were unknown, and the 
 care and attention that we lavish upon him 
 were transferred to his now neglected and despised rival, th& 
 latter would be increased in size and developed in mental qual- 
 ities to an extent which it would be difficult to anticipate, but 
 which Eastern travelers, who have observed both animals in 
 their native chmates, and among nations by whom they are 
 equally valued, and the good qualities of each justly appreci- 
 ated, assure us to be the fact. 
 
 The character and habits of the hoirse and the ass are in 
 many respects directly opposed. The one is proud, fiery, im- 
 petuous, nice in his tastes, and delicate in his constitution; 
 subject, like a pampered menial, to many diseases, and having 
 many wants and habits unknown in a state of nature. The 
 other, on the contrary, is humble, patient, quiet, and hardy. 
 
 For food the ass contents himself with the most harsh and 
 disagreeable herbs, which other animals wiH scarcely touch; 
 in the choice of water he is, however, very nice, drinking only 
 that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks with which he is 
 acquainted. 
 
 The qualities of the ass as a working animal are almost or 
 quite unknown in this country, but in other lands he is found 
 
4S Domestic Animals. 
 
 very serviceable to the poor who are not able to buy or to keep 
 horses. He requires very little care, bears correction with 
 firmness, sustains labor and hunger with patience, and is sel- 
 dom or never sick. 
 
 The varieties of the ass, in countries favorable to their de- 
 velopment, are great. In Guinea the asses are large, and in 
 shape even excel the native horses. The asses of Arabia 
 (Ohardin says) are perhaps the handsomest animals in the 
 world. Their coat is smooth and clean ; they carry the head 
 elevated; and have fine and well-formed legs, which they 
 throw out gracefully in walking or galloping. In Persia also 
 they are finely formed, some being even stately, and much used 
 in draught and for carrying burdens, while others are more 
 lightly proportioned, and used for the saddle by persons of 
 quality ; frequently fetching the large sum of 400 livres ; and 
 being taught a kind of ambling pace, are richly caparisoned 
 and used by the rich and luxurious nobles.* 
 
 n.— THE MULE. 
 
 The principal objection to the ass, as a beast of burden, being 
 his small size, the ingenuity of man early devised means to 
 remedy this defect by crossing him with the horse ; thus pro- 
 ducing an intermediate animal with the size and strength of 
 the latter, and the patience, hardiness, and sure-footedness cf 
 the former. 
 
 The mule is the ofispring of the ass and the mare, or the 
 female ass and the horse. In the latter case the produce is 
 called a jennet, and is much less hardy, and therefore rarely 
 bred. 
 
 Miiles are much used in warm climates, where they are pre- 
 ferred to horses for many purposes. They are very numerous 
 in our Southern States and not uncommon in the Middle and 
 Western States. 
 
 Kentucky is the great mule-breeding State. Many thou- 
 
 * Blane's Encyclopedia of Eural Sports. 
 
The Ass and the Mfle. 47 
 
 sands are annually raised there for the New York and Southern 
 markets. A correspondent of the American Veterinary Jour- 
 nal says: 
 
 " The mule trade is one of the largest of Kentucky, and af- 
 fords one of her chief sources of revenue. The mule is fed from 
 weaning time (which is generally at the age of five or six 
 months) to the full extent of its capacity to eat, and that, 
 too, on oats and corn, together with hay and fodder. In lieu 
 of the long food, soiling is usually adopted in the summer, as 
 they are kept confined in a pound or paddock, containing an 
 acre or two of ground, which is usually partiaUy shaded, in 
 herds of one hundred or one hundred and fifty. In this way 
 they are kept until the faU after they are two years old, receiv- 
 ing a sort of forcing hot-house treatment. At this age they 
 are taken to the Southern market, not always hy the feeder, 
 but more generally by the speculator or trader ; there they are 
 sold to the planter entirely unbroken. The planters are too 
 cautious to buy a broken mule, lest it should prove to be an an- 
 tiquated, broken-down beast, fattened up and sold for a young 
 one — as it is more difficult to judge of his age than that of a 
 horse. The external marks of time and service are not gener- 
 ally so apparent upon him. But it is a small job to break a 
 mule. It is only necessary to have a steady horse to work him, 
 with a second hand to drive Mm an hour or two to keep him 
 ap, after which he is considered ready for any service that the 
 farmer may require of him. He may kick once or twice, but 
 is unlike the spirited horse, who when he commences is apt to 
 kick himself out of the harness before he stops. 
 
 " Persons who have tried them on the farm are pleased with 
 them. They never get sick and rarely get lame, wiU do as 
 much work as horses which will cost twice as much money, 
 and at the same time wOl subsist on less and inferior food ; for 
 a mule will work very well on wheat straw and corn shucks, 
 whereas the horse must have grain as well as a good allowance 
 of long food. They are better for our servants to handle, as 
 they can stand neglect and violent treatment better than the 
 
48 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 horse, and a blemish, such as the loss of an eye, does not 
 impair their value so much as that of the horse." 
 
 To have large and handsome mules, the mare should be of a 
 jarge breed and weU proportioned, with rather small limbs, a 
 moderate sized head, and a good forehead ; and the ass should 
 be of the large Spanish breed. 
 
Cattle. 49 
 
 III. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Tbe noble, patient ox and gentle cow 
 Kind usage claim ; and he*a a bmte Indeed* 
 Unworthy of companionship with them. 
 Who with neglect or cruelty repays 
 The debt he owea their race.— ifiHW!. 
 
 I.— HI8T0ET 
 
 F the ox tribe (Bovidm) there are eight species 
 — the ancient hison (£os wua); the bison or 
 American buffalo {B. bison} ; the musk ox (5. 
 mosehatus) ; the gayal {B. frontalis) ; the grunt- 
 ing ox {B. grunniens) ; the buffalo of Southern 
 Africa (S. eaffer) ; the common buffalo (B. tubulus) ; and the 
 common domestic ox {B. taurm). It is with the last only that 
 we have to do in the present work. 
 
 The ox has been domesticated and in the service of man 
 from the remotest antiquity. The Bible informs us that cattle 
 were kept by the early descendants of Adam (Gen. iv. 20). 
 That their value has been duly appreciated in all ages and in 
 all climates, is shown by authentic history. Both the Hindoos 
 and the Egyptians placed the ox among their deities ; and no 
 quadruped certainly is more worthy to be thus exalted. 
 
 The parent race of the ox is supposed by some to have 
 been much larger than any of the present varieties. The urus, 
 in his wild state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal, 
 and ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mys- 
 tery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in 
 England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found 
 far exceeding in size those of the present day ; but these may 
 have belonged to exceptional individuals. 
 
 3 
 
60 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Of the original race of British cattle no satisfactory descripi 
 tion occurs in any ancient author ; but it is believed that, with 
 occasional exceptions, they possessed no great bulk or beauty. 
 They were doubtless numerous, for Osesar tells us, in his Com- 
 mentaries, that the ancient Britons neglected tillage and li+ed 
 on milk and ilesh. It was that occupation and mode of life 
 which suited their state of society. A few specimens of the 
 pure ancient breed, descendants of cattle which escaped from 
 their masters centuries since and became wild, may now be 
 seen in the parks of gentlemen in England. They are very 
 wUd, and are said to be untamable. 
 
 The breeds of cattle in England are remarkable for their 
 numerous varieties, caused by the almost endless crossings of 
 one breed with another. 
 
 The breeds of cattle now found in America are all derived 
 from Europe, and those of the United States mainly from Eng- 
 land. The early importations were of inferior grades, as the 
 grand improvements in British cattle, commenced by Bake- 
 well, date back no farther than about the time of the Revolu- 
 tion. In New England the primitive stock is believed to have 
 undergone considerable improvement, while in parts of the 
 Middle and Southern States it has undoubtedly deteriorated. 
 
 II.— BEEEDS. 
 
 A strict classification of the numerous breeds of cattle new 
 existing in the United States would be difficult. Youatt 
 arranges British cattle under three heads, according to the com- 
 parative size of their horns — ^the Long Horns, the Short Horns, 
 and the Middle Horns. These classes are all represented here. 
 The prevailing stock of the Eastern States is believed to be 
 derived from the Middle Horns or North Devons, most of the 
 excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. They 
 have frequently been called the American Devons, and are 
 highly esteemed. The most valuable working oxen are of this 
 breed, which also contributes largely to the best displays of 
 beef found in the markets of New York, Philadelphia, and Bos- 
 
Cattle 
 
 61 
 
 ton. The Long Horns or Craven cattle, although not numer- 
 ona, are occasionaUy met with. The Short Horns are of mora 
 recent introduction, but this breed, with various crosses, is now 
 perhaps the predominant one of the country. 
 
 It will he profitable to speak somewhat in detail, although 
 briefly, of tlie several breeds — at least the more prominent ones 
 — and we will begin with 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 A Bkton Bt7ll. 
 
 1. The Bmon Breed,. — This is a handsome and valuable 
 breed. The bull should have yellow horns ; clear, bright, and 
 prominent eyes ; small, flat, indented forehead ; a fine muzzle ; 
 small cheek ; a clear yellow nose ; a high and open nostril ; a 
 thick neck, with the hair about the head curled ; a straight 
 back ; and be well set npon the legs. The head of the ox is 
 smaller, otherwise he does not difier materially in shape from 
 
62 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 the bull. He is quicker in Ms motions than any other ox, and 
 is generally docile, good tempered, and honest. 
 
 The cow is much smaller than the bull, but roomy for breed- 
 ing, and distinguished for her clear, round eye and general beau- 
 ty of features. With regard to the comparative value of the 
 Devon cows for the dairy there is much difference of opinion, 
 it being pretty generally asserted that their acknowledged 
 grazing qualities render them unfit for the dairy, and that their 
 milk is rich but deficient in quantity. Many superior judges, 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 
 A Dbyoit Hbitkb. 
 
 however, prefer them even for the dairy. Both cows and oxen 
 fatten faster and with less food than most others.* In color 
 Devon cattle are generally red. 
 
 Our New England cattle, as we have said, are generally de- 
 rived from this breed. Their horns are moderately long, 
 
 • TOURtt 
 
Cattle. 
 
 53 
 
 smooth, and slender, and their prevaHing color deep red; but 
 sometimes they are dark brown, brindle, or nearly black. The 
 oxen are remarkable for their docility, strength, and quickness, 
 The cows are fair mUkers. Both oxen and cows fatten readOy.' 
 2. The- Hereford Breed.— QaXtla of the Hereford breed are 
 larger than those of the North Devon. They are broad across 
 the hind-quarters; narrow at the sirloin ; neck and head well 
 
 Slg. 19. 
 
 The Hbkbpoed Bull, Tbokp. 
 
 proportioned; horns of a medium size and turned up at the 
 points ; color a deep red, with the face, throat, and belly gener- 
 ally white. A spirited contest has been kept up for some time 
 between the partisans of the Herefords and those of the Short 
 Horns, both here and in England, each stoutly maintaining the 
 superiority of their favorite breed. We are not disposed to 
 take part in the controversy. The experience of persons not 
 
54: Domestic Animals. 
 
 engaged in breeding eitlier sort as a special business must finally 
 settle it ; in the mean time, candid people will acknowledge tliat 
 both are excellent, each in its way. 
 
 Touatt says that the Herefords fatten to a much greater 
 weight than the Devons, and that a Hereford cow will grow fat 
 where a Devon would starve. They are very hardy, and will 
 do well with only the same care required by our native breeds. 
 
 3. The Sussex Breed. — The Sussex ox holds an intermediate 
 place between the Devon and the Hereford ; with much of the 
 activity of the first and the strength of the second, and the pro- 
 pensity to fatten, and the beautiful fine-grained flesh of both. 
 Experience has shown that it combines as many of the good 
 qualities of both as can be combined in one frame. The Sus- 
 sex cow does not answer for the dairy, her milk, although of 
 good quality, is so small in quantity that she is little regarded 
 for making butter and cheese. The prevailing color of the 
 Sussex cattle is a deep chestnut red.* 
 
 4. Ayrshire Breed. — The Ayrshire breed, which is considered 
 the most valuable in Scotland, is of the small size and middle- 
 horned race. In modern times it has been much improved. Mr. 
 Alton, in his Survey of Ayrshire, thus describes this fine breed : 
 
 "The most approved shapes in the dairy breed are, small 
 head, rather long and narrow at the muzzle ; eye small, but 
 smart and lively; the horns small, clear, crooked, and their 
 roots at considerable distance from each other ; neck long and 
 slender, tapering toward the head, with no loose skin below ; 
 shoulders thin ; fore-quarters light ; hind-quarters large ; back 
 straight, broad behind ; the joints rather loose and open ; car- 
 cass deep, and pelvis capacious and wide over the hips, with 
 round, fleshy buttocks; tail long and small; legs small and 
 short, with firm joints ; udder capacious, broad, and square, 
 stretching forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor loose; 
 the milk- veins are large and prominent ; teats short, aU point- 
 ing outward, and at considerable distance from each other; 
 
 • Touatt 
 
Cattle. 55 
 
 Bkin thin and loose; hair soft and woolly; the head, bones, 
 horns, and all parts of least value, small ; and the general fig- 
 ure compact and well proportioned." 
 
 "The qualities of a cow," adds Mr. Alton in another place, 
 " are of great importance. Tameness and docility of temper 
 greatly enhance the value of a milch cow. Some degree of 
 hardiness, a sound constitution, health, and a moderate degree 
 of spirits, are qualities to he wished for in a dairy cow, and 
 what those of Ayrshire generally possess. The most valuable 
 qualities which a dairy cow can possess are that she yields 
 much milk, and that of an oily, butyraceous, and caseous na- 
 ture ; and that after she has yielded very large quantities of 
 milk for several years, she shall be as valuable for beef as any 
 other breed of cows known ; her fat shall he much more mixed 
 through the whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any 
 other." 
 
 There have been several importations of Ayrshires into the 
 United States, but they have, up to the present time, failed to 
 establish themselves in general favor. 
 
 5. Welsh Cattle. — " The cattle of Wales are principally of 
 the Middle Horns, and stunted in their growth from the poverty 
 of their pastures. Of these there are several varieties. The 
 Pembrokeshire are chiefly black, with white horns ; are shorter 
 legged than most other Welsh cattle ; are larger than those of 
 Montgomery, and have round and deep carcasses ; have a lively 
 look and good eyes ; though short and rough, not thick ; have 
 not large bones, and possess, perhaps, as much as possible, the 
 opposite qualities of being very fair milkers, with a propensity 
 to fatten. The meat is equal to the Scotch. They wiU thrive, 
 says Mr. Youatt, where others starve, and they rapidly outstrip 
 most others when they have plenty of good pasi ure. The Pem- 
 broke cow has been called the poor man's cow. The Pembroke 
 ox is a speedy and an honest worker, and when taken from hard 
 work fattens speedily. Many are brought to London, and rarely 
 disappoint the butcher." 
 
 6. Irish Cattle. — Of th^ """rish cattle there are two breeds — 
 
56 Domestic Animals. 
 
 the Middle Horns and the Long Horns. The Middle Homs are 
 the original breed. " They are,'' Mr. Yonatt says, " small 
 light, active, and wild ; the head commonly small ; the horns 
 short but fine, rather upright, and frequently, after projecting 
 forward, turning backward ; somewhat deficient in hind-quar- 
 ters ; high-boned, and wide over the hips, yet the bone not 
 commonly heavy ; the hair coarse and long, black or brindled, 
 with white faces. Some are finer in the bone and in the neck, 
 with a good eye and sharp muzzle, and great activity; are 
 hardy, live upon very scanty fare, and fatten with great rapidity 
 when removed to a better soil ; they are good milkers. The 
 Kerry cows are excellent in this respect. These last, however, 
 are wild and remarkable leapers. They live, however, upon 
 very little food, and have often been denominated, like those of 
 Pembroke, the poor man's cow." 
 
 The other breed is of a larger size. It has much of the blood 
 of the Lancashire or Craven breed, or true Long Horn. Their 
 horns first turn outward, then curve and turn inward. Of 
 each of these kinds, an immense number of both lean and fat 
 stock are annually exported to England. 
 
 7. The Long Horns. — The Long Horns of England came 
 originally from Craven, In Yorkshire, and derived their name 
 from the length of their horns. 
 
 " The improved breed of Leicestershire is said to have been 
 formed by Webster, of Oauley, near Coventry, in Warwick- 
 shire. Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, afterward got 
 the lead as a breeder, by selecting from the Cauley stock ; and 
 the stocks of several other eminent breeders have been traced 
 to the same source. 
 
 "The Lancashire breed of long-horned cattle may be distin- 
 guished from other cattle by the thickness and firm texture of 
 their hides, the length and closeness of their hair, the large 
 size of their hoofs, and their coarse, leathery, thick necks. 
 They are likewise deeper in their fore-quarters, and lighter in 
 their hind-quarters than most other breeds ; narrower in their 
 shape, less in point of weight than the Short Horns, though 
 
Cattle. 
 
 57 
 
 better weighers in proportion to their size ; and though tliey 
 give considerably less nrilk, it is said to yield more cream in 
 proportion to its quantity. They arc more varied in color 
 than any other breed ; but whatever the color may be, they 
 have in general a white streak along their back, which the 
 breeders te,rm flnched, and mostly a white spot on the insids of 
 the hough."* 
 
 8. The Short Horn or Burhxim Breed. — Durham and York- 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 '_^^'^^yyx>3. j^ 
 
 The Shoet-Hoened Bttll, Lobd Ektholm 
 
 shire, England, have for ages been celebrated for a breed of 
 short-horned cattle possessing extraordinary value as milkers, 
 " in which quality," the Rev. Henry Barry says, " taken as a 
 breed, they have never been equaled. The cattle so distin- 
 guished were always, as now, very different from the improved 
 race. They were generally of large size, thin skinned, sleek 
 haired, bad handlers, rather delicate in constitution, coarse in 
 
 * Culley. 
 
 3* 
 
58 Domestic Animals. 
 
 the offal, and strikingly defective in the substance of girth in 
 the fore-quarters. As milkers they were most excellent, but 
 when put to fatten, as the foregoing description will indicate, 
 were found slow feeders, producing an inferior quahty of meat, 
 not marbled or mixed as to fat and lean ; the latter sometimes 
 of a very dark hue. Such, toe, are the unimpTO'oed Short 
 Horns of the present day." 
 
 The improved Short Horns are even more celebrated as 
 feeders than as milkers, and in other respects differ widely from 
 the original breed. 
 
 " The colors of the improved Short Horns," Mr. Touatt says, 
 " are red or white, or a mixture of both ;" "no pure imprmecL 
 Short Horns,'''' he adds, "are found of any other color but 
 those above named. That the matured Short Horns are an 
 admirable grazier's breed of cattle is undoubted ; they are not, 
 however, to be disregarded as milkers ; but they are inferior, 
 from their fattening qualities, to many others as workers." 
 
 Mr. Dickson, an eminent cattle breeder, thus eloquently de- 
 scribes the Short Horn : 
 
 " The external appearance of the short-homed breed is irre- 
 sistibly attractive. The exquisitely symmetrical form of the 
 body in every position, bedecked with a skin of the richest 
 hues of red, and the richest white approaching to cream, or 
 both colors, so arranged or commixed as to form a beautiful 
 fleck or delicate roan, and possessed of the mellowest touch ; 
 supported on clean, small limbs, showing, like those of the race- 
 horse and the greyhound, the union of strength with fineness ; 
 and ornamented with a small, lengthy, tapering head, neatly 
 set on a broad, firm, deep neck, and furnished with a small 
 muzzle, wide nostrils, prominent, mUdly-beaming eyes, thin, 
 large, biney ears set near the crown of the head and protected 
 in front with semicircularly bent, white, or brownish colored 
 short (hence the name), smooth, pointed horns ; all these parts 
 combine to form a symmotrioal harmony, which has never been 
 surpassed in beauty and sweetness by any other species of the 
 domesticated ox." 
 
Cattle. 59 
 
 The graziers of Kentucky anJ. other parts of the "West have 
 heretofore shown the greatest preference for the Short Horns, 
 hut, in their case, they are found to be subject to one serious 
 objection. It is this : while they take on fat so readily when 
 well fed and become so heavy, they are unable to retain it 
 during the long journeys to the Eastern markets, where they 
 generally arrive in too meager a condition to command the 
 price of fat cattle. They require some breed which will be 
 able to carry their fat along with them.* 
 
 9. The Alderney or Jersey Breed. — This breed of cattle is 
 from Normandy and the Isle of Jersey, and, although small and 
 awkwardly shaped, are much esteemed on account of the rich- 
 ness of their mUk, of which, however, the quantity is small. 
 English noblemen keep Alderney cows in their parks to fur-* 
 nish cream for their coffee. 
 
 "When dried, the Alderney cow fattens with a rapidity that 
 would hardly be thought possible from her gaunt appearance. 
 In color, the Alderney breed is light red, dun, or fawn colored. 
 
 10. The Galloway Breed. — The Galloway breed of cattle is 
 well known for various valuable qualities, and is easily distin- 
 guished by the want of horns. The Galloways are broad across 
 the back, with a very slight curve between the head and the 
 quarters, and broad at the loins, the whole body having a fine 
 round appearance. The head is of moderate size, the ears 
 large and rough, the chest deep, and the legs short. The pre- 
 vailing color is black. This breed is highly esteemed, as there 
 is no other kind which arrives at maturity so soon ; and their 
 flesh is of the finest quality. Their milk is very fine, but is 
 not obtained ia very large quantities. It is estimated that 
 30,000 cf these cattle are annually sent out of GaUoway. 
 
 Anotler valuable breed of polled (or hornless) cows is bred 
 in Angus, which much resemble, in appearance, those of Gallo- 
 way ; they are, however, rather larger and longer in the leg, 
 flatter sided, and with thinner shoulders. 
 
 * American Fanner'a Encyclopedia, 
 
60 Domestic Animals. 
 
 In Forfoli and Suifolk a hornless breed of cows prevails, 
 ■wMoli are almost all descended from the Galloways, " whose 
 general form," Mr. Touatt says, "they retain, with some of, 
 hut not all, their excellences ; they have been enlarged, hut not 
 improved, by a better climate and soU. They are commonly 
 of a red or black color, with a peculiar golden circle around 
 the eye. They are taller than the Galloways, hut thinner in 
 the chine, flatter in the ribs, and longer in the legs; rather 
 better mUkers ; of greater weight when fattened, though not 
 fattening so kindly, and the meat is not quite equal in quality.'' 
 
 The Suffolk Dun cow, which is also of Galloway descent, is 
 celebrated as a milker, and there is little doubt is not inferior 
 to any other breed in the quantity of milk which she yields : 
 this is from six to eight gallons per day. The butter produced, 
 however, is not in proportion to the mUk. It is calculated that 
 a Suffolk cow produces annually about 1^ cwt. of butter. 
 
 The Suffolk Duns derive the last part of their name from 
 their usual pale yellow color. Many, however, are red, or red 
 and white. They are invariably without horns, and small in 
 size, seldom weighing over 700 lbs. when fattened.* 
 
 11. The Oream-Pot Breed.- — This is an American breed, and 
 was originated by Colonel Jaques, of Ten Hills Farm, Somer- 
 ville, Mass. It is a cross between the Short Horn and the na- 
 tive breed of ITew England. Mr. Jaques gives the following 
 account of the origin of this famous breed : 
 
 " Hearing of cows that pi-oduoe seventeen pounds of butter 
 each per week, the inquiry arose, why not produce a breed of 
 such cows that may be depended on ? This I attempted, and 
 have accomplished. I have made from one of my Cream-Pot 
 cows nine pounds of butter in three days on grass feed only. 
 
 "The bull Ocelebs, an imported thorough-bred Durham, and 
 Flora, a heifer of the same breed, and imported, and a native 
 cow, whose pedigree is entirely unknown, comprise the ele- 
 ments of the Cream-Pot breed of cattle. The native cow was 
 
 • American Farmer's Ilncyclopedla. 
 
Cattle. 61 
 
 bought in consequence of her superior qunlity as a milker, giv- 
 ing eighteen quarts a day, and averaging about fifteen. In the 
 month of April the cream of two days' milk produced two and 
 three-fourths pounds of butter, made of two and one-sixteenth 
 quarts of cream, and required but two minutes' churning. Thus 
 much for the mother of the Oream-Pots. 
 
 " I have bred my Oream-Pots with red or mahogany colored 
 hair and teats, and gold-dust lq the ears, yeUow noses and skin, 
 the latter silky and elastic to the touch, being like a fourteen- 
 doUar cloth. My Oream-Pots are full in the body, chops deep 
 in the flank, not quite as straight in the belly, nor as full in the 
 twist, nor quite as thick in the thigh as the Durhams ; but in 
 other respects like them. They excel in affording a great 
 quantity of rich cream, capable of beuig converted into butter 
 in a short time, with little labor, and with a very small propor- 
 tion of buttermilk, the cream producing more than eighty per 
 cent, of butter. I have changed the cream to butter not unfre- 
 quently in one minute, and it has been done in forty seconds." 
 
 The late lamented Henry Oohnan, while Oonunissioner for 
 the Agricultural Survey of Mt.ssachusetts, wrote'as follows : 
 
 " Mr. Jaques is entitled to great credit for his care and judi- 
 cious selection in continuing and improving his stock. I have 
 repeatedly seen the cream from his cows, and its yellowness 
 and consistency are remarkable, and in company with several 
 gentlemen of the Legislature, I saw a portion of it converted to 
 butter with a spoon in one minute. The color of Mr. Jaques' 
 stock is a deep red, a favorite color in New England ; they are 
 well formed and thrifty on common feed ; and if they continue 
 to display the extraordinary properties by which they are now 
 so distinguished, they promise to prove the most valuable race 
 of animals ever known among us for dairy purposes, and equal 
 to any of which we have any information." 
 
 III.— POINTS. 
 
 Were an ox of fine symmetry and high condition placed be- 
 fore a person not a judge of livestock, his opinion of iti 
 
Cattle. 63 
 
 exoellenceB would be derived from a very limited view, and 
 consequently from only a few of its qualities. He could not 
 possibly discover, without tuition, tliose properties which had 
 chiefly conduced to produce the high condition in which he 
 saw the ox. He would hardly believe that a judge can ascer- 
 tain merely by the eye, from its general aspect, whether the ox 
 were in good or bad health ; from the color of its skin whether 
 it were of a pure or a cross breed ; from the expression of its 
 countenance whether it were a quiet feeder ; and from the na^ 
 ture of its flesh whether it had arrived at maturity. The 
 discoveries made by the hand of the judge might even stagger 
 belief. He understands the "points" of cattle, and experience 
 enables him to appreciate their individual and aggregate value. 
 Th6 " points" by which cattle are characterized may profit- 
 ably be described in detail : 
 
 1. The nose or muzzle in the Durhams or Short Horns should 
 be of a rich cream color. In the Devon, Hereford, and Sussex it 
 is preferred when a clear golden color. A brown or dark color 
 indicates a cross. 
 
 2. Th^ forehead should be neither narrow nor very broad. 
 The eye should be prominent, and the nostril between the eye 
 and the muzzle thin, particularly in the Devons. 
 
 3. The Tiorm should be small, smooth, tapering, and sharp 
 pointed, long or short, according to the breed, and of a white 
 color iJivoughout in some breeds, and tipped with black in 
 others. The shape is less essential than the color. 
 
 4. The neeh should be of medium length, full at the sides, not 
 too deep in the throat, and should come out from the shoulders 
 nearly on a level with the chine. 
 
 B. The top of the plate tones should not be too wide, but, 
 rising on a level with the chine, should be well thrown back, 
 so that there may be no hollowness behind. 
 
 6. The slwulder point should lay flat with the ribs, without 
 sny projection. 
 
 7. The Ireast should be wide and open, projecting forward. 
 
 8. The chine should lay straight and be well covered with flesh. 
 
64 Domestic Animals. 
 
 9. The loin should he flat and wide ; almost as wide at the 
 fore as the hinder part. 
 
 10. The hip 'bones should he wide apart, coming upon a level 
 with the chine to the setting of the tail. 
 
 11. The tip of the rump should be tolerably wide, so that 
 the tail may drop to a level between the two points ; and the 
 tail should come out broad. 
 
 13. The thigh should not be too fall outside nor behind; 
 but the inijide or twist should be full. 
 
 13. The hach should be flat and rather thin. 
 
 14. The hind leg should be flat and thin ; the legs of medium 
 length, and the hock rather turning out. 
 
 15. The/«6i5 should not be too broad. 
 
 16. The^orai should be full and heavy when the animal is fat. 
 IT. The lelly should not drop below the breast, but on a line 
 
 with it. 
 
 18. The shoulder should be rather flat, not projecting. 
 
 19. The /ore leg should also be flat and upright, but not fleshy. 
 
 20. The round should not project, but be flat with the outside 
 of the thigh. 
 
 21. The ja«)s should be rather wide. 
 
 22. The ribs should spring nearly horizontally from the china 
 and form a circle. 
 
 23. The shin should be loose, floating, as it were, on a layer 
 of soft fat, and covered with thick, glossy, soft hair. 
 
 24. The expression of the eye and /ace should be calm and 
 complacent. 
 
 A writer in the Fa/rmer''s Magazine, a number of years ago, 
 described what are properly considered the good points of a 
 cow, as exhibited in the Short Horn breed, in the following 
 doggerel lines : 
 
 She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn ; 
 She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn ; 
 She's clean in her jaws, and full in her chine ; 
 She's heavy in flank, and wide in her loin ; 
 She's hroad in her riba, and long in her rump ; 
 She's straight in her back, with never a hump ; 
 
Cattle. 05 
 
 Sbe'a -wide in her hip, and calm in her eyes ; 
 She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thigh* 
 She's light in her neck, and small in her tail ; 
 She's wide in her breast, and good at the paU ; 
 She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin ; 
 She's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within. 
 
 rr.— QENEEAL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. The Oow-home. — The cow-house should be a capacioui, 
 well-lighted, and well-ventilated building, in which the cowa 
 or oxen can be kept dry, clean, and moderately warm. It is a 
 mistaken idea that cattle suffer materially by dry cold. It is 
 the wet and the damp walls, yard, and driving rains and fogs 
 of winter, that are so injurious to them. In this respect the 
 Dutch farmers are very particular. They have their cows 
 regularly groomed, and the walks behind them sprinkled with 
 sand.* 
 
 As a general thing, our farmers pay too little attention to 
 the health and comfort of their cattle, and especially the cows. 
 In many cases they are kept in a shamefully dirty condition. 
 The floor of their stalls is allowed to be disgustingly filthy, the 
 floors and walls full of vermin, and the hides of the animals 
 covered with dust and dung. It is not only at the expense of 
 their comfort that cattle suffer this neglect, but to the farmer's 
 loss also. When you see a cow rubbing herself against a post, 
 yon may depend upon it that the animal is ill kept and requires 
 a good scrubbing. Oattle, as well as horses, are greatly injured 
 by want of proper attention to the cleanliness and ventilation 
 of their habitation. They should stand on a sUghtly raised 
 platform, which should be well littered with straw, refuse hay, 
 leaves, sawdust, or some other dry material. 
 
 Tor tying up cattle, chains, leather straps, wooden bows, 
 and stanchions are used. The stanchions are the most conve- 
 nient for the person having charge of the cattle, but, we think, 
 less comfortable for the cattle themselves than the other con- 
 
 * British Husbandry. 
 
66 Domestic Animals. 
 
 trivances mentioned. A good and cheap stanchion is con- 
 structed as follows : 
 
 " The sUls of the stanchions are of oak joist, six by two 
 inches ; the top timbers are of hemlock, of the same dimen- 
 sions ; the stanchions of ash, one and a half by four inches ; 
 one of each set of stanchions is pinned between the siUs and 
 the corresponding top pieces. From the bottom of the siUs to 
 the top of the stanchions is five and a half feet. The slip stan- 
 chions are of the same size and material as the first named, 
 but only pinned at the bottom, which allows of their sliding 
 back at the top about sixteen inches, to admit the animal's 
 head ; it is then pushed to an upright position and fastened at 
 the top by a drop-bntton or clapper, which is much more 
 secure than when fastened by pins. 
 
 " For oxen and large cows, there is allowed a space for each 
 of three and a half feet ; for younger cattle about three feet to 
 each. We have frequently seen the sill and top piece for stan- 
 chions made of solid timber, and mortices made for the stan- 
 chions. But there is much labor required in morticing, espe- 
 cially the top timber, so as to allow of the sliding back and for- 
 ward of the slip stanchions. The kind we have attempted to de- 
 scribe can be readily and cheaply made by almost any farmer."* 
 
 2. Feeding. — While confined to the bam or cow-house and 
 barn-yard, during the cold season, cattle should be fed with 
 the utmost regularity ; and a sufficient quantity of nutritious 
 food supplied to keep them in good condition. In this country, 
 hay is the principal common food of onr oxen and cows. Boots 
 are too seldom employed in ordinary feeding ; and we have no 
 doubt but that the health and, consequently, the condition and 
 value of our cattle would be improved by giving them more 
 turnips, beets, carrots, parsneps, etc., during the winter. 
 
 An English writer says : " Supposing a cow to calve early in 
 April or May, there is no keeping to be compared with a sweet 
 pasture for affording the best flavored milk and butter ; therefore, 
 
 * Country Gentleman. 
 
Cattle. 67 
 
 dthongn on a principle of economy I have always recommend- 
 ed the house feeding of a cow (as one acre of good clover will 
 support three cows during the summer, whereas an acre of pas- 
 ture wiU but barely suflSce for one during the same period, irre- 
 spectively of the manure saved by the former management), I 
 make a decided exception where there is no necessity for 
 minutely regarding economy at the expense of the discomfort 
 of the cow, and the inferiority m flavor, if not in quantity, of 
 cream and butter. Yet, even with hberty, and the animal's 
 enjoyment of picking her food as she pleases, there wiU be 
 necessity in summer for some artificially grown grasses, to sup- 
 ply any deficiency that may occur in the pasture, and provide 
 for the house feeding, when the heat of the sun, the stinging 
 of flies, or the bursting of a storm may render the shade and 
 security of the cow-shed very grateful to your cows. In the 
 early and cold spring, and before the grass has sufiiciently 
 sprung up, it is not any kindness to the cow, and it is a decided 
 injury to the ground and vegetation to turn her out ; at that 
 season she requires the warmth which her stall affords, and the 
 nourishment that nutritious hay and roots and bran impart." 
 
 The following hints from the pen of Henry Oolman should 
 be well heeded by every farmer. It is their own fault if Amer- 
 ican agriculturists do not profit by such truthful warnings. 
 
 " The farmers prejudice very greatly their own interest in 
 Buffering their mUch cows to come out in the spring in low 
 condition. During the time they are dry, they think it enough 
 to give them the coarsest fodder, and that in limited quantities; 
 this, too, at a time of pregnancy, when they require the kind- 
 est treatment and the most nourishing food. The calf itself 
 under this treatment of the cow is small and feeble. He finds 
 comparatively insufficient support from his exhausted dam; 
 and the return which the cow makes in mUk during the sum- 
 mer is much less than it would be if she came into the spring 
 in good health and fiesh. It requires the whole summer to 
 recover what she has lost. The animal constitution can not be 
 trifled with in this way. 
 
68 Domestic Animals. 
 
 " It is so with all livestock, and especially with young ani- 
 mals, at the period of their most rapid growth. They should 
 not be prematurely forced ; hut, on the other hand, they should 
 not he stinted or checked. 
 
 " In the feeding of cattle for market a great deal of practical 
 skill is required, and constant observation of their condition, 
 otherwise they may be surfeited and their appetite destroyed, 
 or their digestive powers be overtasked, and the feed fail of its 
 object. 
 
 " The articles usually employed in fattening cattle are hay 
 and Indian meal, or corn and rye meal mixed, or pease and 
 oats, or oats and com ground together. Besides this, many 
 farmers are in the practice of giving their staU-fed cattle occa- 
 sionally certain quantities of potatoes. An excellent farmer, 
 of fifty years' experience in the fatting of cattle, is of opinion 
 that potatoes are good feed for fatting cattle in the fall and 
 spring, when the weather is warm; but they do no good in 
 cold weather unless they are cooked. I rely much upon his 
 judgment and experience. The value of potatoes is differently 
 estimated by different individuals ; some considering five bush- 
 els, others rating four bushels, as equivalent to one bushel of 
 com." 
 
 An extensive cattle-dealer who has tried a variety of mix- 
 tures of feed, such as oats, brown-corn seed, etc., prefers Indian 
 meal to every other feed. He disapproves of excessive feed- 
 ing, and thinks it a great error to give too much. He deems 
 four quarts, with hay, ordinarily enough ; and ten quarts a day 
 sufficient for any animal. He feeds twice a day with great 
 regularity. His present cattle have never received over eight 
 quarts per day each ; and at first putting up, a much less quan- 
 tity. He deems it best to reduce their feed of provender a few 
 days before starting for market. He buys his cattle for feeding 
 in the fall ; and his present stock averaged in the cost seventy- 
 five dollars per pair.* 
 
 * American Farmer's Encyclopedia. 
 
Cattle. 69 
 
 "It is sometimes asked," Mr. Colman says, "whether oxen 
 »re injured in their growth from being worked. It their 
 ■strength is prematurely and too severely taxed, or if they are 
 subjected to severe usage, undoubtedly it must prove injurious; 
 but, if otherwise, if reasonably worked and carefully and kindly 
 attended, there is no doubt that their health and growth are 
 proriioted by it. It is often matter of inquiry, whether fatting 
 cattle should be kept in close stalls, or be suffered to lie out- 
 doors. The experience of all the farmers whom I have consult- 
 ed, who have made any trial, is conclusive in this case, in favor 
 of the superior thrift of animals kept constantly in the barn, or 
 turned out only for watering and immediately put up again, 
 over those which are kept in open sheds, or tied up for feeding 
 only, and at other times allowed to lie in the yard. No exact 
 experiments have been made in this country in relation to this 
 subject; but experiments made abroad lead to the conclusion, 
 that cattle thrive best in a high and equable temperature, so 
 warm as to keep them constantly in a state of active perspi- 
 ration, and that their thrift is much hindered by an exposure 
 to severe alternations of heat and cold. It is certain, that in 
 order to thrift, cattle can not be made too comfortable ; their 
 mangers should be kept clean ; their stalls be well littered ; 
 and the cattle protected from currents of air blowing through 
 crevices or holes in the floors or the sides of the stables, which 
 prove often much more uncomfortable than an open exposure." 
 
 8. Hearing Oahes.—Manj different opinions prevail on the 
 subject of rearing calves. The following plan, detailed by a 
 Western breeder, we deem an excellent one : 
 
 " I have my cows so managed that they come in early in 
 spring. I wean the calves after they have drawn the milk 
 two or three times, while I milk at the same time, all clean, 
 that which the calf may not be strong enough to draw. Then 
 I allow the calves nearly all the milk the cows give, for four 
 or six weeks, which gives them a good start ; next, I teach 
 them, when two or three weeks old, to eat some little of meal 
 or tiireshed oats, and lick a little salt ; at the same time I let 
 
70 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Ihem have access to some good hay; next, I reduce the quan- 
 tity of new milk, and give them sweet milk minus the cream, 
 and by degrees teach them to drink coppered milk, feeding ten 
 or twelve together in a trough. This I consider better than 
 milk which is just on a change from sweet to sour. As soon as 
 practicable after there is a good bite of grass, I turn them into 
 pasture, even with the cows, for they know not their dams. 
 I still feed them with milk until about three months old, and 
 all through the season if it can be had. In this wise calves are 
 hearty, learn easy to eat anything which may be oifered, and 
 will winter better than calves which have drawn the milk from 
 cows, and have received 'more knocks than nubbins.' They 
 are also more gentle, easier turned to the yoke, or to milk, and 
 are not afraid of their masters ; but, on the contrary, learn to 
 know the hands that feed them. By giving them a good 
 chance the first winter, they generally make good thrifty 
 cattle." 
 
 4. Milking. — In reference to milking, Martin Doyle says: 
 " Oows in general are milked but twice a day, morning and 
 evening ; but some of the Durham cows, particularly when in 
 fall season and abundantly fed, will require to be milked at 
 noon also. In this case nothing is really gained in the quantity 
 of milk, and its quality is weakened, as twelve hours are re- 
 quired for the due chemical preparation of the milk. There- 
 fore the tendency to this want of retention in a cow is not to 
 be encouraged ; the milk should only be drawn ofi' at supernu- 
 merary times, if the udder be excessively distended, and the 
 milk flows spontaneously. At each regular time of milking, 
 the contents of the udder should be completely drawn off — the 
 last drop is the richest : when there are two, three, or more 
 cows, the dairy-maid, if she understands her business, will go 
 with a separate vessel and milk the strippings into it until 
 each udder is perfectly dry. This small portion of rich milk 
 will give her more cream than a larger quantity, and she re- 
 serves it, if she be a prudent person, for her own tea. 
 
 " A cow should be handled witli exceeding gentlenesB, other 
 
Cattle. 71 
 
 mse milking may become an nnpleasant or even a painful 
 operation to iier. If a cross-grained man or woman, with a 
 vinegar face, handles tlie teats roughly, and bullies a cow of 
 sensitiveness, she may refuse to let her mUk flow, though she 
 would yield to the first touch of a good-tempered person. If 
 the udder be hard, it will require fomentation with lukewarm 
 water and gentle rubbing. It sometimes happens that the teats 
 become sore; in this case an application of sweet oU, after 
 washing the affected, part with soap and water, will probably 
 cure it. 
 
 " A cow may be mUked until within a month of calving, 
 provided the milk does not curdle on being slightly warmed, or 
 possess a salt taste ; either would be an indication that no more 
 milk should, be taken." 
 
 T.— WEIGHT or LIVE CATTLE. 
 
 Experienced drovers and butchers are in the habit, in buy- 
 ing cattle, to estimate their weight on foot. Long experience 
 and much practice enables them to judge with considerable 
 accuracy. They thus have the advantage of the less experi- 
 enced farmer, who, for this reason, very often comes off 
 "second best" in a bargain. We recommend to them the 
 foUowing rule, by means of which the weight of cattle may be 
 ascertained, with a very close approach to the accuracy of the 
 scales. 
 
 Sule. — Take a string, put it around the breast, stand square 
 just behind the shoulder-blade, measure on a rule the feet and 
 inches the animal is in circumference ; this is called the girth ; 
 then, with the string, measure from the bone of the tail which 
 plumbs the line with the hinder part of the buttock; direct 
 the line along the back to the forepart of the shoulder-blade ; 
 take the dimensions on the foot rule as before, which is the 
 length ; and work the figures in the following manner : Girth 
 of the animal, say 6 feet 4 inches, length 5 feet 3 inches, 
 which multiplied together, makes 31 square superficial feet, 
 and that multiplied by 23, the number of pounds allowed to 
 
72 Domestic Animals. 
 
 each superficial foot of cattle measuring less than 7 and more 
 than 5 feet in girth, makes 713 pounds. "When the animal 
 measures less than 9 and more than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the 
 number of pounds to each superficial foot. Again, suppose a 
 pig or any small beast should measure 2 feet in girth and 2 
 along the baclr, which multiplied together makes 4 square feet, 
 that multiplied by 11, the number of pounds allowed to each 
 square foot of cattle measuring less than 3 feet in girth, makes 
 44 pounds. Again, suppose a calf, a sheep, etc., should meas- 
 ure 4 feet 6 inches in girth, and 3 feet 9 inches in length, 
 which multiplied together make 15i square feet; that multi- 
 plied by 16, the number of pounds allowed to cattle measuring 
 less than 5 feet and more than 3 in girth, makes 265 pounds. 
 The dimensions of girth and length of horned cattle, sheep, 
 calves, and hogs, may be exactly taken in this way, as it is all 
 that is necessary for any computation, or any valuation of 
 stock, and will answer exactly to the four quarters, sinking 
 ofial.* 
 
 This rule is so simple that any man with a bit of chalk can 
 work it out, and its application will often save the farmer from 
 .oases which mere guess work is liable to occasion. 
 
 • Tsller Fanner. 
 
Sheep. 
 
 73 
 
 IV. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 Thy flocks the verdant hmaide range— ^non, 
 
 I.-CHAEACTEEISTICS. 
 
 HE sheep {Ovis aries) is naturally a denizen of 
 the hills. Its instincts, even in its domesti- 
 cated state, attach it to the upland slopes ; and 
 when free to do so, it always seeks the highest 
 grounds, where aromatic plants ahound and the 
 herbage is less succulent than in the valleys. The wild sheep, 
 like the deer, is found to frequent all those places where saline 
 exudations ahound and to lick the salt earth. In its wild 
 state it generally has horns, hut these have nearly disappeared 
 in most of the domestic breeds. The female goes with young 
 twenty-one weeks, and usually produces only one at a birth. 
 Twins, however, are not uncommon. 
 
 Immense flocks of sheep have been kept by man in aU ages, 
 but more generally for their wool and skins than for their flesh ; 
 for that is by no means generally relished. The Oalmuoks and 
 Cossacks still prefer that of the horse and the camel, and the 
 Spaniard, if he can procure other flesh, rarely eats that of the 
 Merino. To a majority of Americans it is an object of dislike, 
 although it is gaining in favor among us. Englishmen consume 
 more mutton than any other people, but the taste for it is of 
 modern origin with them. 
 
 The natural age of the sheep, according to Touatt, is ahcrut 
 ten years, up to which age they will breed and thrive well ; 
 but there are instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen, 
 and living twenty years. 
 
 4 
 
74 Domestic Animals. 
 
 ii.— breeds. 
 Specimens of nearly or quite all the valuable breeds of sheep 
 now known may, it is believed, be found in the United States. 
 The principal of these are the Native (so called) ; the Spanish 
 Merino ; the Saxon Merino ; the New Leicester or Bakewell ; 
 the South-Down ; the Cotswold, the Cheviot, and the Lincoln. 
 Between these breeds an almost infinite variety of crosses have 
 taken place ; so that, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the 
 United States preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of 
 any one breed, or that can lay claim to purity of blood.* 
 
 1. The Native Breed. — This name is applied to the common 
 coarse-wooled sheep existing here previous to the importation 
 of the improved breeds. They are, however, of foreign, and 
 mostly of English origin, and probably are the result of the ad- 
 mixture of various breeds. This common stock of sheep, as a 
 distinct family, has nearly disappeared, having been univer- 
 sally crossed, to a greater or less extent, with foreign breeds of 
 later introduction ; and especially with the Spanish and Saxon 
 Merinos. 
 
 2. The Spanish Merino Breed. — Of this excellent breed there 
 have been many importations from France and Spain. There 
 are several varieties of the Merino, differing essentially in 
 form, size, and quality of wool. American Merinos may be 
 classed under three general heads, and are thus described : 
 
 "The^rsf is a large, short-legged, strong, and exceedingly 
 hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to 
 fine, somewhat inclined to throatiness, bred to exhibit external 
 concrete gum in some fiooks, but not commonly so. 
 
 " The second general class of American Merinos are smaller 
 than the preceding, less hardy ; wool, as a general thing, finer, 
 and covered with a black, pitchy gum on its extremities. The 
 fleece is about one third lighter than in the first class. 
 
 " The third class, which have been bred mostly at the South, 
 are stiU smaller and less hardy, and carry Hghter and finer 
 
 * Eandall's Sheep Husbandry. 
 
Sheep. 
 
 75 
 
 fleeces, destitute of external gum. The sheep and the wool 
 bear a close resemblace to the Saxon, and if not actually mixed 
 with that blood, they have been formed into a similar variety 
 by a similar course of breeding. 
 
 " Class first are larger and stronger sheep than those orig- 
 inally imported from Spain, and in well-selected flocks or indi- 
 viduals the fleece is of a decidedly better quality."* 
 
 The Merino, although a native of a warm climate, becomes 
 readily inured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing even 
 80 far north as Sweden without degenerating in fleece or form, 
 rig. 22. 
 
 The Spanish Merino. 
 
 It is patient, docile, hardy, and long lived. Its flesh, in spite 
 of the prejudice which exists on the subject, is short-grained, 
 and of a good flavor when killed at a proper age. It is longer 
 in coming to maturity than most other breeds, and does not 
 attain its fall growth till it is about three years old.t 
 
 ' Bandall. 
 
 t Transactions of New York State Agricultural Society. 
 
76 Domestic Animals. 
 
 3. The Saxon Merino Breed.— The. Saxon Merinos are. de- 
 scended from the Spanish, having been imported from Spain 
 into Saxony in 1765. They have been considerably modified 
 by their German breeding, the German shepherds having 
 sacrificed hardiness, and indeed almost everything else, to fine- 
 ness of staple. 
 
 There are very few flocks of pure Saxon sheep in the United 
 States, the importations in several instances having been grade 
 sheep, although sold as pure stock. Most flocks have again 
 been crossed with Native or Spanish Merino sheep or vyith 
 both ; but the mixed breed thus produced, which we may caU 
 the American Saxons, have so long been bred toward the Sax- 
 ons, that their wool equals that of the pure breed. They are 
 hardier than the parent German stock, but still comparatively 
 tender, requiring regular supplies of good food, protection from 
 storms of all kinds, and good shelter in winter. In docility, 
 patience under confinement, late maturity, and longevity, they 
 resemble the Spanish Merinos.* 
 
 4. The New Leicester Breed. — This celebrated English breed 
 comprehends the most excellent of the breed of Mr. Bakewell, 
 their great improver, and of Mr. OuUey's variety or improve- 
 ment upon it. " The principal recommendations of this 
 breed," Oulley says, " are its beauty and its fullness of form ; 
 in the same apparent dimensions greater weight than any other 
 sheep ; an early maturity and a propensity to fatten equaled by 
 no other breed ; a diminution of the proportion of oifal, and 
 the return of the most money for the food consumed." 
 
 "The wool of the New Leicester," according to Randall, "is 
 long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches, and 
 the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It 
 is of a coarse quality, and is little used in the manufacture of 
 cloths. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and ia 
 used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, etc." 
 
 In England, the mutton of this breed is in great demand, and 
 
 Eandall. 
 
Y8 Domestic Animals. 
 
 brings good prices. It is not generally considered a profitable 
 breed in this country, except, perhaps, on rich lowland farnois 
 in the vicinity of considerable markets. 
 
 5. The South-Down Breed. —The South-Down is an upland 
 sheep of medium size, and its wool, in point of length, belongs 
 to the medium class. There has been considerable controversy 
 in reference to the value of the Downs in comparison with the 
 other favorite breeds. Mr. Randall does not rate them very 
 high for wool-bearing. But they are cultivated in England 
 more particularly for their mutton, which in the English mar- 
 kets takes precedence of every other sort. 
 
 " The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at 
 that age in England is from eighty to a hundred pounds. Not- 
 withstanding its weight, the Down has a patience of occa- 
 sional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking equal to 
 any other sheep. It is hardy, healthy, quiet, and docile. It 
 withstands our American winters well. A sheep possessing 
 such qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in 
 the vicinity of markets."* 
 
 Mr. J. 0. Taylor, of Holmdel, N". J., in a communication 
 published in the Country Oentleman, says : 
 
 "I contend that under a high state of management, the 
 South-Downs are a very profitable sheep to keep, in proof of 
 which (for I have the figures) I will cite my now yearling ram. 
 Last July he was worth five dollars to sell for butchering, 
 without anything more than good pasture ; he served several 
 ewes from the middle of September to the first of December, 
 which was ipuch against his growth. At seven cents pet 
 week, from July to December, say $1 50 — cost of keep from 
 December to May 2d, $5 41, making, with his worth in July, a 
 total of $11 91. Had he been a wether I could have sold him 
 on May 2d for $22 fpr butchering, leaving a' clear gain of over 
 $10 at from thirteen to foui-teen months old ! I ask the stock- 
 raiser and feeder if this is not as profitable as long wools, or 
 
 * Eandall. 
 

80 Domestic Animals. 
 
 any other stock 1 Is it not more profitable? But the Downs 
 are a superior sheep for crossing with common ewes to pro- 
 duce butcher's lambs, superior to ani/ long wools. 
 
 " A few years ago a Mr. Beers went to Canada and procured 
 a large lot of the Canada Leicester, and many of our farmers 
 were induced by their large size (with their wool on) to buj- 
 them. I expected to be driven out of the market with my 
 South-Downs ; but at the first county fair (South-Downs hav- 
 ing to show against long wool) I made a clean sweep of it, and 
 there has never been one of them shown since. A certain 
 farmer procured one of Mr. Beers' bucks, and also a South- 
 Down ; he divided his flock of ewes as nearly as possible be- 
 tween the two bucks ; the result was, the half-blood Down 
 lambs were all fat, and sold before any of the half-blood Leices- 
 ters were fit for market. This farmer finds the South-Downs 
 so profitable that he keeps no other than a South-Down buck." 
 
 6. The CoUwold Breed. — " The Cotswold," Spooner says, 
 " is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fieece, and 
 the ewes are very prolific and good nurses. They have been 
 extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their 
 size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their car- 
 casses considerably improved, and their maturity rendered 
 earlier. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, al- 
 though rather coarse, from six to eight inches in length, and 
 from seven to eight pounds per fleece. The quality of the mut- 
 ton is considered superior to the Leicester." 
 
 We believe the Ootswolds have not been extensively bred in 
 the United States, although there have been several importa- 
 tions. An improved variety of the Ootswolds, under the name 
 of the New Oxfordshire sheep, have lately attracted consider- 
 able attention, and have frequently been successful candidates 
 for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at agricultural 
 shows. 
 
 7. The Cheviot Breed. — The Cheviot sheep are a peculiar 
 breed, which are kept on the extensive range of the Cheviot 
 HiUs. They are described as having " the face and legs gen- 
 
Sheep. 81 
 
 erally white ; tlie eye lively and prominent ; the conntenance 
 open and pleasing ; the ear large, and with a long space from 
 the ear to the eye ; the body long ; and hence they are called 
 'long sheep,' in distinction from the black-faced breed. They 
 are full behind the shoulder, have a long, straight back, are 
 round in the rib, and well-proportioned in the quarters ; the 
 legs clean and smaU-boned, and the pelt thin, but thickly cov- 
 ered with fine, short wool ; they possess very considerable fat- 
 tening qualities, and can endure much hardship, both from 
 starvation and cold."* 
 
 We have no acquaintance with this breed. There are prob- 
 ably but few of them in this country. Mr. Kandall speaks very 
 disparagingly of those which had fallen under his observation, 
 but which may have not been fair specimens of their breed. 
 
 8. The Lincoln Breed. — OuUey described the old breed of 
 Lincolnshire sheep, half a century ago, as having " no horns, 
 white faces, long, thin, and weak carcasses ; the ewes weighing 
 from 14 to 20 lbs. per quarter, the three-year old wethers from 
 20 to 30 lbs. ; thick, rough, white leg, large bones, thick pelts, 
 and long wool, from 10 to 18 inches, and weighing from 8 to 
 14 lbs. per fleece, and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained 
 carcass of mutton." Oulley, however, ran into the opposite 
 extreme ; if the Lincolnshire farmers bred only for the wool, 
 he regarded only the mutton. A cross between the two pro- 
 duced a very profitable and much improved animal. 
 
 III.— CHOICE OP BREED. 
 
 "In selecting a breed for any given locality," Mr. Randall 
 says, " we are to take into consideration, first, the feed and cli- 
 mate, or the surrounding natural circumstances ; and second, 
 the market facilities and demands. We should then make 
 choice of that breed which, with the advantages posssessed, 
 and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net 
 value of marketable product. 
 
 • American Farmer's Encyclopedia. 
 
 4* 
 
82 Domestic Animals. 
 
 "Eich lowland heibage, in a climate which allows it to re- 
 main green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to 
 the production of large carcasses. If convenient to markets 
 where mutton finds a ready sale at good prices, then all the 
 conditions are realized which call for a mutton as contradis- 
 tinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such circum- 
 stances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest 
 between the improved English varieties — the South-Down, the 
 New Leicester, and the improved Ootswold or New Oxford- 
 shire. In deciding between these, minor and more specific 
 circumstances are to be taken into account." 
 
 For wool-growing purposes he thinks the Merino " possesses 
 a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and 
 families of coarse-wooled sheep ;" and its inferiority as a mut- 
 ton sheep, he thinks is not so great as is generally supposed. 
 
 IT— GENEEAL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The following hints are all condensed from Randall's excel- 
 lent work on Sheep Husbandry, to which the reader who may 
 desire further details is referred. 
 
 1. Barns, Sheds, etc. — "Humanity and economy both dictate 
 that sheep be provided with shelters to lie under nights, and 
 to which they can resort at will. In our severe winter storms 
 it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best, to feed 
 under shelter for a day or two. It is not an uncommon cir- 
 cumstance, in New York and New England, for snow to fall to 
 the depth of twenty or thirty inches, within twenty-four or 
 forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and in- 
 tensely cold west or northwest wind of two or three days' con- 
 tinuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling 
 huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc. A flock without 
 shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the 
 storm, constantly stepping and thus treading down the snow 
 as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not 
 
 * These terrible wind-storms are of mucli longer continuance in many parts 
 of New England. 
 
Sheep. 83 
 
 seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would 
 be expected ; but it is next to impossible to feed them enough 
 or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense 
 waste of hay — entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is 
 whirled away in an instant by the wind ; and even if racks are 
 used, the sheep leaving their huddle where they were kept 
 warm and even moist by the melting of the snow in their wool, 
 soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle. 
 Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is low- 
 ered, and at the end of the second or third day the feeble ones 
 have "sunk down hopelessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have 
 received a shock which nothing but careful nursing will recover 
 them from, and even the strongest have suffered an injurious 
 loss in condition. 
 
 " The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles 
 or rails, the upper ends resting on a strong horizontal pole sup- 
 ported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may he ren- 
 dered rain-proof by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs. 
 
 " In a region where lumber is very cheap, planks or boards 
 (of sufficient thickness not to spring downward, and thus open 
 the roof), battened with slabs, may take the place of the poles 
 and boughs ; and they would make a tighter and more durable 
 roof If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a 
 couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them 
 the shed wiU shelter more sheep. 
 
 "These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns, 
 ' hay-barracks,' stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space 
 with a stack in the middle. In the latter case, however, the 
 yard should be square^ instead of romid, on account of the 
 divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which the 
 round form would render necessary." 
 
 2. Feeding-EacTcs.—'' When the ground is frozen, and espe- 
 cially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on 
 the ground than anywhere else. When the land is soft, muddy, 
 or fonl with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it. 
 It shoTild then be fed in racks. 
 
84 Domestic Animals. 
 
 " These are of various forms. Fig. 25 gives the common 
 box rack in the most general use in the North. It is ten feet 
 long, two and a half wide, the lower boards a foot wide, the 
 upper ones about ten inches, the two about nine inches apart, 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Box Rack. 
 
 »nd the corner posts three by three, or three and a half by two 
 and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these posts by 
 large flat-headed naUs wrought for the purpose, and the lower 
 edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower 
 ones are rounded so they shall not wear the wool off from the 
 sheep's necks. The lower boards and the opening for the 
 heads should be two or three inches narrower for lambs. If 
 made of light wood, as they should be, a man standing in the 
 inside and middle of one of these racks, can easily carry it 
 about — an important desideratum. Unless over-fed, sheep 
 waste very little hay in them." 
 
 An improvement upon the common box rack has holes eight 
 inches wide, nine inches high, and about eighteen inches apart, 
 instea,d of the continuous opening represented in the foregoing 
 cut ; but it is a little more expensive. 
 
 3. Feeding. — " In Gei-many great stress is laid on variety 
 m the winter fodder, and elaborate systems of feeding are 
 given. Variations of dry fodder are weU enough, but hundreds 
 and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary 
 hay, consisting mainly of timothy (Phleum pratense), some red 
 and white clover [Trifolium pratense et repeni), and frequently 
 a sprinkling of June or spear-grass (Poa pratensis), during tha 
 entire winter. Others receive an occasional fodder of corn- 
 stalks and straw, and some farmers give a daily feed of grain 
 
Sheep. 85 
 
 tlirongh the muter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may 
 he well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or 'hlades') 
 every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day ; or the daUy feed, 
 ru)t of hay, might alternate hetween hlades, pea-straw, straw 
 of the cereal grains, etc. Should any other fodder hesides hay 
 be the principal one, as, for example, corn-blades or pea- 
 haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the 
 same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of conve- 
 nience with the flock-master, provided a, proper mpply ofpal- 
 atable rmtriment within a proper compass is giyen. Hay, 
 clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn-blades are palatable 
 to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply of nutri- 
 ment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its 
 stomach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can 
 derive its entire subsistence. Sheep should not run or he fed 
 in yards with any other stock. 
 
 " The expediency of feeding grain to store sheep in the wiur- 
 ter depends upon circumstances. Bemote from markets, it is 
 generally fed by the holders of large flocks. Oats are com- 
 monly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a giU a head 
 per day. Some feed half the same amount of (yellow) corn. 
 Fewer sheep^ — particularly lambs, yearlings, and crones — get 
 thin and perish, where they receive a daily feed of grain ; they 
 consume less hay, and their fleeces are increased in weight. 
 On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. 
 Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. It is 
 a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats, in 
 the dundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay — one at 
 morning and one. at night. A few feed greenish cut peas in the 
 same way. In warm, thawing weather, when sheep get to the 
 ground, and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in 
 keeping up their strength and condition. This may furnish a 
 useful hint for many parts of the South. When the feed is 
 shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities 
 where sheep would get enough grass to take oflf their appetite 
 for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep them in pri-ne con- 
 
86 Domestic Animals. 
 
 dition. A moderate daily feed of oats oi peas, placed in the 
 depository racks, would keep them strong, in good plight for 
 the lambing season, and increase their weight of wool. 
 
 "Rnta-bagas, Irish potatoes, etc., make a good substitute for 
 grain, as an extra feed for grown sheep. I prefer the ruta- 
 baga to the potato in equivalents of nutriment. I do not con- 
 sider either of them, or any other root, as good for lambs and 
 yearlings as an equivalent in grain. Sheep may be tauglit to 
 eat nearly all the cultivated roots ; this is done by withholding 
 salt from them, and then feeding the chopped root a few times 
 rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root 
 to obtain it, but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt 
 before they have acquired a taste for the roots. 
 
 " If there is one rule which may be considered more impera- 
 tive than any other in sheep husbandry, it is that the utmost 
 regularity be preserved in feeding. First, there should be reg- 
 ularity as to the timeB of feeding. However abundantly pro- 
 vided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour 
 and sometimes at another — sometimes three times a day and 
 sometimes twice — some days grain and some days none — ihey 
 can not he made to thrine. . They will do far better on inferior 
 Tceep, if fed with strict regularity. In a climate where they 
 require hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are 
 about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an hour tefore darh 
 at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not eat well in 
 the darh, and therefore they should have time to consume their 
 food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feed- 
 iug grain or roots, and is the best time if but two fodderings of 
 hay be given. If the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a 
 matter of much consequence with which feeding the grain is 
 given, only that the practice be uniform. 
 
 " It is also highly essential that there be regularity preserved 
 in the amount fed. The consumption of hay wUl, it is true, 
 depend much upon the weather. The keener the cold, the 
 more sheep will eat. In the South, much would also depend 
 upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places a light, 
 
Sheep. 87 
 
 daily foddering would suffice — ^in others, a light foddering 
 placed in the depository racks once in two days would answer 
 the purpose. In the steady cold weather of the North, the 
 shepherd readily learns to determine about how much hay will 
 be consumed before the next foddering time ; and this is the 
 amount which should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In 
 feeding grain or roots there is no difficulty in preserving entire 
 regula/rity, and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. 
 Of the latter a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the 
 former it wiU. And if not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, 
 but stiU over-plenteously, it wiU expect a like amount at the 
 next feeding, and failing to receive it will pine for it and manifest 
 uneasiness. The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and 
 system of any animal is bad, and the sheep suffers more from 
 it than any other animal. I would much rather that my flock 
 receive no grain at all than that they should receive it without 
 regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd should be re- 
 quired to measure out the grain to sheep in all instances — instead 
 of guessing it out — and to measure it to each separate flock. 
 
 " In the North the grass often gets very short by the 10th or 
 15th of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness 
 from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, though no 
 snow has yet fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily 
 foddering of bright hay, or a few oats in the bundle. Given 
 thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of 
 the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any 
 other time during the yeai\'' 
 
 4. Salt. — " Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health 
 of sheep, particularly in the summer ; and I know not a flock- 
 master among the hundreds, nay, thousands with whom I am 
 acquainted, who differs with me in this opinion. It is common 
 to give it once a week while the sheep are at grass. 
 
 "It is still better to give them free access to salt at all times 
 by keeping it in a covered box, open on one side." 
 
 5. Water.— '^ "Water is not indispensable in the summer pas- 
 tares, the dews and the succulence of the feed answering as a 
 
88 Domestic Animals. 
 
 substitute. But my impression is decided that free access to 
 water is advantageous to sheep, particularlj to those having 
 lambs ; and I should consider it a matter of importance, oa a 
 sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to 
 bring water into each of them." 
 
 6. Shade. — " No one who has observed with what eagerness 
 sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and 
 apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down on their 
 nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of hu- 
 manity and utOity, they should be provided, during the hot 
 summer months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a 
 common rail fence. Forest trees are the most natural and best 
 shades, and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to 
 strip them entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone 
 wall or close board fence en the south and west sides of the 
 pasture will form a passable substitute for trees ; but in the 
 absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can 
 be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner 
 as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter already 
 described." 
 
 7. Lamls. — " Lambs are usually dropped in the North from 
 the first to the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might 
 safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped 
 when the weather is cold and boisterous, as they require too 
 much care ; but the sooner the better after the weather has 
 become mild, and the herbage has started suflBoiently to give 
 the ewea that green food which is required to produce a plenti- 
 ful secretion of milk. It is customary in the North to have 
 fields of clover, or the earhest of grasses, reserved for the early 
 spring feed of the breeding ewes ; and if these can be contigu- 
 ous to their shelters, it is a great convenience — for the ewes 
 should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, 
 during the lambing season. 
 
 " If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer 
 to have the lambing take place in the pastures. I think sheep 
 are more disposed to own and take kindly to their lambs thus, 
 
Sheep. 89 
 
 than in the confusion of a small inclosure. Unless particularly 
 docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd from one side to another 
 when any one enters, running over young lambs, and pressing 
 them severely, etc. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and 
 then run violently round from one to another, jostling and 
 knocking them about. Young and timid ewes get separated 
 from their lambs, and frequently will neglect them for an hour 
 or more before they wiU again approach them. If the weather 
 is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, stands a 
 chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a dirty 
 inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the 
 ~ membrane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt 
 and dung — and the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much 
 increases the hazard of freezing. 
 
 " Lambs should he weaned at four months old. It is better 
 for them and much better for their dams. The lambs when 
 taken away should be put for several days in a field distant 
 from the ewes, that they may not hear each other's bleatihgs. 
 The lambs when in hearing of their dams continue restless 
 much longer, and they make constant and frequently successful 
 efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One 
 or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to 
 teach them to come at the call, find salt wheti thrown to them, 
 and eat grain, etc., out of troughs when winter approaches. 
 
 "The lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and 
 tenderest feed. I have usually reserved for mine the grass and 
 clover sown, the preceding spring, on the grain fields which 
 were seeded down. 
 
 " The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on 
 shorty dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked 
 to once or twice, and should the bags of any be found much 
 distended, the milk should be drawn and the bag washed for a 
 little time in cold water. But on short feed they rarely give 
 much trouble in this particular. When properly dried off they 
 should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition for 
 winter." 
 
90 Domestic Animals. 
 
 8. Emasculation and Docking.—^'' These should usually pre- 
 cede washing, as at that period the oldest lamhs will he about 
 a month old, and it is safer to perform the operations when 
 they are a couple of weeks younger. Dry, pleasant weather 
 should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe process. 
 Let a man hold the lamb with its back pressed firmly against 
 his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in 
 his nands. Out off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle 
 from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, or 
 clip the cord with a knife, if it does not snap off at a proper 
 distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles 
 at once with their teeth. It is common to drop a little salt into 
 the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch the 
 end of the pouch (and that of the taU, after that is out off) 
 with an ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In 
 ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, however, they wiU do just 
 as well, here, without any application. 
 
 " The tail should be cut off, say one and a half inches from the 
 body, with a chisel on the head of a block, the skin being slid 
 up toward the body with a finger and thumb, so that it wiU 
 afterward coyer the end of the stump. Severed with a knife, 
 the end of the tail being grasped with one of the hands in the 
 ordinary way, a naked stump is left which takes some time to 
 heal. 
 
 " It may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is 
 unnecessary to cut off the taU. If left on, it is apt to collect 
 filth, and if the sheep purges, it becomes an intolerable nui- 
 sance. 
 
 9. Washing. ~-'''' This is usually done here about the first of 
 June. The climate of the Southern States would admit of its 
 being done earlier. The rule should be to wait until the water 
 has acquired suflBcient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains 
 and storms, and cold nights are no longer to be expected. 
 
 10. Shearing. — " It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intel- 
 ligible practical instructions which would guide an entire nov- 
 ice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Practice is requisite. The 
 
Sheep. 91 
 
 following directions from the American Shepherd* are correct, 
 and are as plain, perhaps, as they can he made : 
 
 " ' The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor 
 assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture 
 with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the hack of the animal 
 resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half- 
 way from the point to the how, resting his thumb along the 
 blade, which affords him better command of the points. He 
 may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and pro- 
 ceeding downward, aU upon the sides of the belly to the ex- 
 tremity of the ribs, the external sides of both thighs to the 
 edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence up- 
 ward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both sides 
 of the neck — but not yet the back of it — and also the poll or 
 fore-part, and top of the head. Now the "jacket is opened" of 
 the sheep, and its position and that of the shearer is changed, by 
 being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting 
 on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore-quarter 
 of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes 
 cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the 
 head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned 
 on to the other side, in doing which great care is requisite to 
 prevent the fleece from being torn, and the shearer acts as upon 
 the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near 
 to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim 
 the legs, and leave not a solitary lock anywhere as a harbor 
 for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from 
 his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuflf from the legs be- 
 comes intermingled with the fleece wool. In the use of the 
 shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the skin as possible, not 
 lower the points too much, nor cut more than from one to two 
 inches at a clip, frequently not so much, depending on the part 
 aad compactness of the wool.' 
 
 " Cold storms sometimes destroy sheep, in this latitude, soon 
 
 * Pages 179, 180. 
 
92 Domestic Animals. 
 
 after shearing — particularly the delicate Saxons. I have known 
 forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, from one night's 
 exposure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house 
 them, or in default of the necessary fixtures to efiect this, to 
 drive them into dense forests. I presume, however, this would 
 be a calamity of rare occurrence in the 'sunny South.' "* 
 
 T.— VALUE OF SHEEP TO THE EARMEE. 
 
 The following suggestive remarks are from the Oount/ry 
 Gentleman, and are worthy of every reader's attention : 
 
 " Sheep are profitable to the farmer, not only from the pro- 
 duct of wool and mutton, but from the tendency which their 
 keeping has to improve and enrich his land for all agricultural 
 purposes. They do this : 
 
 " 1. By the consumption of food refused by other animals in 
 summer; turning waste vegetation to use, and giving rough 
 and bushy pastures a smoother appearance, and in time erad- 
 icating wild plants so that good grasses and white clover may 
 take their place. In this respect sheep are of especial value to 
 pastures on soils too steep or stony for the plow. In winter, 
 the coarser parts of the hay, refused by horses and cows, are 
 readily eaten by sheep, while other stock will generally eat 
 most of that left by these animals. 
 
 "For these reasons, among others, no grazing farm should be 
 without at least a small flock of sheep, for it has been found 
 that as large a number of cattle and horses can be kept with 
 as without them, and without any injury to the farm for other 
 purposes. A small flock, we said — perhaps half a dozen to 
 each horse and cow would be the proper proportion. A va- 
 
 * Bheep Husbandry ; with an Account of the Different Breeds and G-eneral 
 Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding, and 
 Treatment of Diseases. With Portraits and other Engravings. By Henry S. 
 Bandall. New York : A. O. Moore. This work is bound with " Touatt on 
 the Sheep," under the general title of " The Shepherd's Own Book," and the 
 volume should be in the hands of every one who would make sheep-breeding 
 his principal business. 
 
Sheep. 93 
 
 riety of circumstances would influence this point ; snch as the 
 character of the pasturage, and the proportion of the same 
 fitted and desirahle for tUlage. 
 
 " 2. Sheep enrich land by the manufacture of considerable 
 quantities of excellent manure. A farmer of long experience 
 in sheep husbandry, thought there was no manure so fertilizing 
 as that of sheep, and (of which there is no doubt) that none 
 dropped by the animal upon the land suffered so little by waste 
 from exposure. A German agricultural writer has calculated 
 that the droppings from one thousand sheep during a single 
 night would manure an acre sufficiently for any crop. By using 
 a portable fence, and moving the same from time to time, a 
 farmer might manure a distant field with sheep at less expense 
 than that of carting and spreading barn manure. 
 
 " The value of sheep to the farmer is much enhanced by due 
 attention to their wants. Large flocks kept together are sel- 
 dom profitable, while small assorted flocks always pay well, if 
 fed as they should be. To get good fleeces of wool, and large, 
 healthy lambs from poor neglected sheep, is impossible. It is 
 also true that the expense of keeping is often least with the 
 flocks that are always kept in good condition. The eye and 
 thought of the owner are far more necessary than large and 
 irregular supplies of fodder. Division of the flock and shelter, 
 with straw and a little grain, wiU bring them through to spring 
 pastures in far better order than if kept together, with double 
 rations of hay, one half of which is wasted by the stronger 
 animals, while the weak of the flock pick up but a scanty liv- 
 ing, and oftentimes fail to get that through the whole winter. 
 
 " We commend this subject to the consideration of our corre- 
 spondents ; it is one which needs greater attention on the part 
 of the farming public." 
 
 TI.— AFFECTION OF THE EWE. 
 
 The Ettriok Shepherd tells the following story of the con- 
 tinued affection of the ewe for her dead Iamb : 
 
 " One of the two years while I remained on the farm at Wil- 
 
94 Domestic Animals. 
 
 lenslee a severe blast of snow came on by night, aboat the lat- 
 ter end of April, which destroyed several scores of our lambs, 
 and as we had not enow of twins and odd lambs for the mothers 
 that had lost theirs, of course we selected the best ewes and 
 put lambs to them. As we were making the distribution, I 
 requested of my master to spare me a lamb for a ewe which he 
 knew, and which was standing over a dead lamb in the end Ot 
 the hope, about four mOes from the house. He would not let 
 me do it, but bid me let her stand over her lamb for a day or 
 two, and perhaps a twin would be forthcoming. I did so, and 
 faithfully she did stand to her charge. I visited her every morn- 
 ing and evening for the first eight days, and never found her 
 above two or three yards from the lamb ; and often as I went 
 my rounds, she eyed me long ere I came near her, and kept 
 stamping with her foot, and whistling through her nose, to 
 frighten away the dog. He got a regular chase twice a day as I 
 passed by ; but however excited and fierce a ewe may be, she 
 never offers any resistance to mankind, being perfectly and 
 meekly passive to them. 
 
 " The weather grew fine and warm, and the dead lamb soon 
 decayed ; but stDl this affectionate and desolate creature kept 
 hanging over the poor remains with an attachment that seemed 
 to be nourished by hopelessness. It often drew tears from my 
 eyes to see her hanging with such fondness over a few bones, 
 mixed with a small portion of wool. For the first fortnight 
 she never quitted the spot ; and for another week she visited 
 it every morning and evening, uttering a few kindly and heart- 
 piercing bleats ; tiU at length every remnant of her offspring 
 vanished, mixing with the soil, or wafted away by the winds." 
 
8WINE. 
 
 95 
 
 V. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 Where oft the Bwlne, from ambaah warm aod Ary, 
 Bolt out and acamper headlong to their hiy.—BJaon^J^ 
 
 I.— NATUEAL HI8T0ET. 
 
 HE hog {Suidm sus of Linnaeus), according to 
 Ouvier, belongs to " the class Mammalia, order 
 Paehydermata, genus Suidm or siis." 
 
 Professor Low remarks, that " the hog is sub- 
 ject to remarkable changes of form and charac- 
 ters, according to the situation in which he is placed. When 
 these characters assume a certain degree of permanence, a 
 breed or variety is formed ; and there is no one of the domes- 
 tic animals which more easUy receives the characters we de- 
 sire to impress upon it. This arises from its rapid powers of 
 increase, and the constauoy with which the characters of the 
 parents are reproduced in the progeny. 
 
 There is no kind of livestock that can be so easily im- 
 proved by the breeder and so quickly rendered suited to the 
 purposes required; and the same characters of external form 
 indicate in the hog a disposition to arrive at early maturity of 
 muscle and fat as in the ox and the sheep. The body is long in 
 proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, the limbs are short 
 in proportion to the body ; the extremities are free from coarse- 
 ness; the chest is broad and the trunk round. Possessing 
 these characteristics, the hog never fails to arrive at early ma- 
 turity, and with a smaller consumption of food than when he 
 possesses a different conformation." 
 
 The wild boar, which was undoubtedly the progenitor of all 
 the European varieties, and also of the Chinese breed, was for- 
 
96 Domestic Animals. 
 
 merly a native of the British Islands, and very common in the 
 forests mitil the time of the civil wars in England. 
 
 The wild hog is now spread over the temperate and warmer 
 parts of the old continent and its adjacent islands. His color 
 varies with age and climate, but is generally a dusky brown 
 with black spots and streaks. His skin is covered with coarse 
 Hairs or bristles, intersected with soft wool, and with coarser 
 and longer bristles upon the neck and spine, which he erects 
 when in anger. He is a very bold and powerful creature, and 
 becomes more fierce and indocile with age. From the form of 
 his teeth he is chiefly herbivorous in his habits, and delights in 
 roots, which his acute sense of smell and touch enables him to 
 discover beneath the surface. He also feeds upon animal sub- 
 stances, such as worms and larvse which he grubs up fipom the 
 ground, the eggs of birds, small reptiles, the young of animals, 
 and occasionally carrion ; he even attacks venomous snakes with 
 impunity. 
 
 The female produces a litter but oace a year, and in much 
 smaller numbers than when domesticated. She usually carries 
 her young for four months or sixteen weeks. 
 
 In a wild state the hog has been known to live more than 
 thirty years ; but when domesticated he is usually slaughtered 
 for bacon before he is two years old, and boars killed for brawn 
 seldom reach to the age of five. When the wild hog is tamed, 
 it undergoes the following among other changes in its conforma- 
 tion. The ears become less movable, not being required to 
 collect distant sounds. The formidable tusks of the male 
 diminish, not being necessary for self-defense. The muscles of 
 the neck become less developed, fi-om not being so much exer- 
 cised as in the natural state. The head becomes more inclined, 
 the back and loins are lengthened, the body rendered more 
 capacious, the limbs shorter and less muscular ; and anatomy 
 proves that the stomach and intestinal canals have also become 
 proportionately extended along with the form of the body. 
 The habits and instincts of the animal change ; it becomes diur- 
 nal in its habits, not choosing the night for its search of food ; 
 
SwilSTE. 9Y 
 
 is more insatiate in its appetite, and the tendency to obesity 
 increases. 
 
 The male forsaking its solitary habits, becomes gregarious, 
 and the female produces her young more frequently, and in 
 larger numbers. With its diminished strength and power of 
 active motion, the animal also loses its desire for liberty. These 
 changes of form, appetites, and habits, being communicated 
 to its progeny, a new race of animals is produced, better 
 suited to their altered condition. The wild hog, after it has 
 been domesticated, does not appear to revert to its former state 
 and habits ; at least the swine of South America, carried thith- 
 er by the Spaniards, which have escaped to the woods, retain 
 their gregarious habits, and have not become wild boars.* 
 
 II.— OPINIONS EB8PB0TING THE HOO. 
 
 From the various allusions to the hog in the writings of the 
 ancient Greeks and Romans, it is plain that its flesh was held 
 in high esteem among those nations. The Eomans even made 
 the breedmg, rearing, and fattening pigs a study, which they 
 designated as Porculatio. 
 
 Varro states that the Gauls produced the largest and finest 
 swine's flesh that was brought into Italy ; and according to 
 Strabo, in the reign of Augustus, they supplied Eome and 
 nearly all Italy with gammons, hog-puddings, and sausages. 
 This nation and the Spaniards appear to have kept immense 
 
 droves of swine, but scarcely any other kind of livestock 
 
 In fact, the hog was held in very high esteem by all the early 
 nations of Europe ; and some of the ancients have even paid it 
 divine honors, t 
 
 On the other hand, swine's flesh has been held in utter abhor- 
 rence by the Jews since the time of Moses, in whose laws they 
 were forbidden to make use of it as food. The Egyptians also 
 and the followers of Mohammed have religiously abstained from 
 it. Paxton, in his " Illustrations of Scripture," says : 
 
 * American Farmer's Encyclopedia. + Touatt. 
 
 5 
 
98 Domestic Animals. 
 
 " The hog was justly classed by the Jews among the vilest 
 animals in the scale of animated nature ; and it can not be 
 doubted that his keeper shared in the contempt and abhorrence 
 which he had excited. The prodigal son in the parable had 
 spent his all in riotous living, and was ready to perish 
 through want, before he submitted to the humiliating employ- 
 ment of feeding swine." 
 
 "Swine," Heroditus says, "are accounted such impure beasts 
 by the Egyptians, that if a man touches one even by accident, 
 he presently hastens to the river and, in all his clothes, plunges 
 into the water. For this reason swine-herds alone of the 
 Egyptians are not aiiowed to enter any of their temples ; neither 
 will any one give his daughter in marriage to one of that pro- 
 fession, nor take a wife born of such parents, so that they are 
 necessitated to internjarry among themselves." 
 
 The Brahminical tribes of India share with the Jews, Moham- 
 medans, and Egyptians this aversion to the hog. The modern 
 Copts, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, rear no swine, and 
 the Jews of the present day abstain from their flesh as of old. 
 
 It was Ouvier's opinion that " in hot climates the flesh of 
 swine is not good ;" and Mr. Sonnini remarks that " in Egypt, 
 Syria, and even the southern parts of Greece, this meat, though 
 very white and delicate, is so far from being firm, and is so 
 overcharged with fat, that it disagrees with the strongest 
 stomachs. It is therefore considered unwholesome, and this 
 will account for its proscription by the legislators and priests 
 of the East. Such abstinence was doubtless indispensable to 
 health under the burning suns of Arabia and Egypt." How 
 is it under the burning suns of Carolina and Georgia ? 
 
 III.— BREEDS. 
 The various breeds which have been reared by crosses be- 
 tween those procured from difierent countries aie so numerous, 
 that to give anything like a detailed description of them would 
 fill a large volume. "We shall refer to only a fefw of the moro 
 important of them. 
 
Swine. qq 
 
 1. The Land Fike.—'Ihe old common breed of the country, 
 iometimes called "land-pikes," may be described as "large', 
 -oug^, long-nosed, big-boned, thin-backed, slab-sided, long-leg- 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 The Land Pike Hog. 
 ged, ravenons, ugly animals." Speaking of this race, A. B. Allen 
 says: "No reasonable fence can stop them, but, ever restive 
 and uneasy, they rove about seeking for plunder; swilling 
 grunting, rooting, pawing ; always in mischief and always de- 
 stroying. The more a man possesses of such stock the worse 
 he is off." But this breed is rapidly disappearing. Crosses 
 between the land-pike and the Chinese or the Berkshire pro- 
 ducing a fine animal, the original breed is being very generally 
 improved. 
 
 2. T7ie Chinese Breed. — This breed was introduced ihto this 
 country from China some forty years ago. The Chinese hog is 
 small in limb, round in body, short in head, and very broad in 
 cheek. When fattened, it looks quite out of proportion, the 
 head appearing to be buried in the neck, so that only the tip of 
 the nose is visible. It has an exceedingly thin skin and fine 
 bristles. 
 
 The pure-blooded Chinese hog has been bred to only a limited 
 extent in the United States, on account of the smaUness of its 
 size (it seldom attaining more than two hundred and fifty 
 pounds), and its lack of hardiness in a cold climate. In thi? 
 last respect, however, it is well adapted to the South. Crossed 
 
100 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 with the native hog it forms an excellont breed, which we ma/ 
 call the improved China breed. Hogs of this mixed breed are 
 various in color — black, white, spotted, and gray and white ; 
 they are longer in body than the pure Chinese breed ; small in 
 the head and legs ; broad in the back ; round in the body ; the 
 hams well let down ; skin thin ; flesh delicate and finely flavor- 
 ed. They are easy keepers ; small consumers ; quiet in dis- 
 position ; not disposed to roam ; and when in condition may be 
 kept so upon grass only. 
 
 3. T?ie BerksMre Breed. — This was one of the earliest im- 
 proved of the English breeds, and is deemed by many the most 
 excellent of all the varieties at present known. It is certainly 
 the most widely distributed and most generally approved. It 
 is a breed which is distinguished by being, in general, of a 
 tawny white, or rufous-brown color, spotted with black or 
 brown ; head well placed, large ears, generally standing forward, 
 though sometimes hanging over the eyes; body thick, close, 
 and weU made ; legs short, small in the bone ; coat rough and 
 curly, wearing the appearance of indicating both skin and flesh 
 of a coarse quality. Such, however, is not the case, for thej 
 
 Fig. 2T. 
 
 sT' 
 
 TnE Beekshieb Hog. 
 
 have a disposition to fatten quickly : nothing can be finer than 
 the bacon, and the animals attain to a very great size. 
 
SWIHTE. 
 
 101 
 
 The Berkshires, from which most of the present American 
 stock has sprung, were imported in 1822. The breed has spread 
 very rapidly over the country. 
 
 _ Fig. 28. 
 
 The Butfolk Hog. 
 
 4. TTie Suffolk Breed. — The improved Suffolli breed originated 
 in a cross between the original Suffolk hog and the Chinese. 
 It is a very valuable breed, but much smaller in size than the 
 Berkshire. The Suffolks are thick through the shoulders, very 
 handsomely proportioned in body, and possessing beautiful 
 hams. Their color is either white or light flesh color, when 
 of the pure breed, and they are indeed an ornament to the 
 farm. 
 
 It is said that they are less inclined to cutaneous diseases 
 than numerous others, and do not, under any circumstances, 
 produce that strong, musky flavored pork we sometimes find in 
 market. They are not a gross, unwieldy animal, generally 
 ranging from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds 
 
102 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 weight at twelve montLs of age, wHch latter weight they sel- 
 dom exceed. They are clean feeders, and require much less 
 than any other breed known. 
 
 For large hogs, a cross between these and the Berkshire is 
 very desirable, and is preferred by Western breeders ; but for a 
 STuall breeder, or for family use, the pure Suffolks are prefer- 
 able.* 
 
 5. The Essex Breed,. — The Essex hogs are mostly black and 
 white, the head and hinder parts being black and the back and 
 belly white. The most esteemed Essex breeds, Youatt says, 
 are entirely black, and are distinguished by having small teat- 
 like appendages of the skin depending from the ander part of 
 the neok. They have smaller heads than the Berkshire hogs, 
 and long, thin, upright ears ; short bristles ; a fine skin ; good 
 hind quarters, and a deep, round carcass. They are also small 
 boned, and their flesh is delicately flavored. They produce 
 large litters, but are reputed bad nurses. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 
 The Essex Hog, 
 
 6. The Chester Breecl.~-Th\^ breed originated in Chester 
 Comity, Pennsylvania, and is not so widely known as, according 
 
 Country Gentleman. 
 
Swine. 103 
 
 to all x*a^c'^ it deserves to be. A correspondent of the Coutv- 
 try Gentlnnan gives the following account of the Chester hog: 
 
 " The Chester hog is the result of continued careful breeding 
 and judicious crossing in this county during the last thirty-five 
 or forty years. The first impulse to this improvement, it is 
 said, was the importation of a pair of handsome hogs from 
 China, some forty years since, by a sea-captain then residing in 
 this vicinity. Of late years, however, many of our breeders 
 have been laboring to bring the Chester hog up to an acknowl- 
 edged Standard of excellence — to define its points, and make it 
 as distinctive in character, and as easily recognized, as a Berk- 
 shire or Sufiblk. Their efforts, we think, have been successful. 
 
 " The genuine Chester is a pure white, long body and square 
 built, with small, fine bone, and will produce a greater weight 
 of pork, for the amount of food consumed, than any other breed 
 yet tried among us. A very important characteristic of the 
 breed is, that it will readily fatten at amy age. Many hogs, it 
 is well known, will not fatten while they are growing, or until 
 they have reached their full size. 
 
 " The average weight of the Chester stock, at sixteen months 
 old, is from 500 to 600 lbs., and when kept till two years old, 
 they frequently run up to 700 and 800 lbs. Our spring pigs, 
 when killed the following fall, weigh from 300 to 400 lbs., 
 which is considered the most desirable weight for pork^ — pro- 
 ducing hams of a more salable size and better quality. As a 
 general rule, our farmers do not care to have their hogs weigh 
 over 350 to 400 lbs. To reach this weight at nine months old, 
 our hogs, of course, must be well fed. The Chester is not dif- 
 eront from other stock in this respect — to thrive well, it must 
 be well taken care of. 
 
 " Exiieriments have been made in crossing the Chester with 
 other breeds — such as the Berkshire, Suffolk, etc., and the re- 
 sult has been an inferior stock to the pure Chester. It dioa 
 improve the Berkshires to cross them with the Chester, but 
 we have found no advantage in crossing the Chester with any 
 other." 
 
104 Domestic Animals, 
 
 it.— points. 
 
 " There is evidently mucli diversity in swine in different 
 circumstances and situations. Like other descriptions of stock, 
 they should be selected with especial reference to the nature 
 of the climate, the keep, and the circumstances of the manage- 
 ment under which the farm is conducted. The chief points to 
 be consulted in judging of the breeds of this animal are the 
 form or shape of the ear, and the quality of the hair. The 
 pendulous or lop ear, and coarse, harsh hair, are commonly 
 asserted to indicate largeness of size and thickness of skin; 
 while erect or prick ears show the size to be smaller, but the 
 animals to be more quick in feeding. 
 
 " In the selection of swine, the best formed are considered 
 to be those which are not too long, but full in the head and 
 cheek ; thick and rather short in the neck ; fine in the bone ; 
 thick, plump, and compact in the carcass ; full in the quarters, 
 fine and thin in the hide; and of a good size according to the 
 breed, with, above aU, a kindly disposition to fatten well and 
 expeditiously at an early age. Depth of carcass, lateral exten- 
 sion, breadth of the loin and breast, proportionate length, mod- 
 erate shortness of the legs, and substance of the gammons and 
 fore-arms, are therefore absolute essentials. These are quali- 
 ties to produce a favorable balance in the account of keep, and 
 a mass of weight which will puU the scale down. In propor- 
 tion, too, as the animal is capacious in the loin and breast, will 
 be generally the vigor of his constitution ; his legs will be 
 thence properly distended, and he wiU have a bold and firm 
 footing on the ground."* 
 
 v.— FEEDING. 
 
 Have regular hours for feeding your hogs ; nothing is more 
 important. Irregularity irritates the digestive organs, and 
 prevents the system from receiving the full benefit of the meal 
 when it does come. Do not give them too much food at once, 
 
 • American Farmer's Encyclopedia. 
 
Swine. 105 
 
 as they are apt to gorge themselves ; or, if any he left in the 
 trough, to return to it frequently tUl it is all gone. In hoth 
 cases their digestive organs, and consequently their abUity to 
 fatten, are impaired. 
 
 Swine wiU eat animal food, hut it is not favorable to the 
 flavor of their flesh, and should always be withheld while they 
 are fattening. 
 
 Pigs always eat more when first put up to fatten than they 
 do afterward, therefore the most nutritious food should be re- 
 served till they are getting pretty fat. 
 
 In reference to fattening the hog, a writer in the Boston 
 Cultivator remarks : 
 
 " If circumstances are favorable, he is inclined to lay up such 
 a supply of fat during autumn as would render it unnecessary 
 for him to undergo much exercise or exposure during inclement 
 weather. With plenty of lard oil to keep his lamp burning, 
 he would prefer dozing in a bed of leaves in the forest while 
 the ground is covered with snow, rather than to grub daily for 
 a living. He fattens most rapidly in such a state of the atmo- 
 sphere as is most congenial to his comfort — neither too hot nor 
 too cold; hence the months of September and October are 
 best fbr making pork. The more agreeable the weather, the 
 less is the amount of food required to supply the waste of life. 
 
 " Against fattening hogs so early in the season, it may be 
 objected that Indian corn, the crop chiefly depended on for the 
 purpose, is not matured. Taking everything into considera- 
 tion, it may be better to begin to feed corn before it is ripe, or 
 even at the stage of considerable greenness. After the plant 
 has blossomed it possesses a considerable degree of sweetness ; 
 hogs will chew it, swallow the juice, and leave nothing but the 
 dry fibrous matter, which they eject from their mouths when 
 no more sweetness can be extracted. They thrive on this 
 fodder, and will continue to eat it till the nutriment is concen- 
 trated in the ear, and then they will eat the cob and grain 
 together till the cob gets hard and dry. Farmers who have 
 practiced this mode of feeding consider it more advantageous 
 
 5* 
 
106 Domestic Animals. 
 
 than to leave the whole crop to ripen, unless thej- have a sup- 
 ply of old com to feed with. Even in the latter case, it is 
 questionable whether hogs will not do better on corn some- 
 what green than they would on hard corn, unground. True, 
 it is not necessary that com should be fed unground, but much 
 is fed in this condition, no doubt at a loss. 
 
 " In many parts of the country, swine are fed considerably 
 on articles which are not readily marketable, as imperfect 
 fruits, vegetables, etc. Where such articles are used, ooolcing 
 them is generally economical. A mixture of squashes (either 
 summer or winter squashes), pumpkins — the nearer ripe the 
 better — potatoes, beets, and apples, boiled or steamed, and a 
 fourth or an eighth of their bulk of meal stirred in while the 
 mass is hot, forms a dish on which hogs will fatten fast. If 
 skimmed milk or whey can be had, the cooked food may be 
 put with it into a suitable tub or vat, and a slight degree of 
 fermentation allowed to take place before the whole is fed out. 
 The animals will eat it with avidity, and probably derive more 
 beneSt from it than if it had not been fermented. Articles 
 which are of a perishable nature should be used first in fatten- 
 ing swine, in order to prevent waste and turn all the products 
 of the farm to the best account. 
 
 " Another quite important advantage of early feeding is the 
 less trouble in regard to cooking the food and keeping it in 
 proper condition to feed out. The cooking may be done out 
 of doors, if convenience of feeding would be promoted by it, 
 and there is no expense or trouble to guard the food against 
 freezing." 
 
 The manner of fattening hogs, where Indian corn is used, as 
 at the South and West, is to put them up in large, open pens 
 on the ground, without litter and without shelter. Here they 
 are left to burrow and sleep in mud and mire, exposed to all 
 weathers, consuming, probably, before they get " ripe fat," one 
 third if not half more than would be necessary were they shel- 
 tered in a warm pen, with clean litter, clean water, and rich 
 •bod in abundance, free alike from exposure and excitement. 
 
Swine. 107 
 
 An ample supply of good drinking water shonld be kept 
 within the reach of every animal. 
 
 TI.— THE PIGGEET. 
 
 In constructing a piggery, reference should be had to the 
 comfort of the animals as well as to convenience in feeding 
 them. It should be large, airy, and well-ventilated, and should 
 have (at least in a large establishment) conveniences for cook- 
 ing their food. It should by aU means be comfortable and clean. 
 It has been generally believed that the hog is naturally a filthy 
 animal, delighting in mud and mire. This is certainly, in part 
 at least, untrue. No animal more fully appreciates a clean, dry 
 bed. To illustrate the value of cleanliness, a gentleman in 
 Norfolk (England) put up six pigs of almost exactly the same 
 weight, and all in equal health to fatten ; treated them all, 
 except in one particular, exactly alike, giving equal quantities 
 of the same food to each for seven weeks. Three of these pigs 
 were left to shift for themselves, so far as cleanliness is con- 
 cerned, while the other three were carefully curried, brushed, 
 and washed. The latter consumed, during the seven weeks, 
 less food by five bushels than the former, and yet, when killed, 
 weighed more by thirty-two pounds oii an average. [For a 
 plan for a piggery, see "The House."] 
 
108 Domestic Animals. 
 
 VI. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 
 
 Like produces like. 
 
 I.— SELECTION. 
 
 ITH such examples before us as are furnished 
 by the English Eace Horse, the Durham Oow, 
 and the South-Down sheep, where shall we 
 place hmits to the improvability of our various 
 domestic animals? The ameliorations through 
 which these improved breeds have been established were not 
 accidental. They took place according to the fixed laws of 
 animal life, brought to bear by the intelligence of man upon 
 special points and for special objects. Other breeds even bet- 
 ter than these may be produced by similar means. Bakewell, 
 OuUey, Seabright, Jaques, Knight, and other distinguished 
 breeders and improvers of stock, have made use of no patented 
 or secret process. "What they have done, any intelligent farmer 
 may do by the use of the same easily available means. To 
 furnish a few hints in reference to these means is the purpose 
 of this chapter. 
 
 In setting about originating a new breed of any particular 
 species of animal, the first grand point is the selection of sire 
 and dam. This must be made with reference to the particular 
 qualities to which you desire to give prominence, as well as to 
 the general excellence of constitution, form, and disposition 
 which should distinguish the species. Thus Colonel Jaques, 
 in originating the Oream-Pot breed of cows, already referred 
 to, had the dairy and not the butcher in view, and took his 
 measures accordingly. The results of a continued selection of 
 
Impeotement op Beeeds. 109 
 
 breeders with reference to their qualities as milkers has been 
 the establishment of a permanent breed distinguished probably 
 above aU others as dairy cows. So the sheep breeders of 
 England, having the production of mutton as their principal 
 object, have produced the New Leicester, the South-Down, and 
 the New Oxfordshire breeds, distinguished for form, size, flavor, 
 and fattening qualities ; while the Spanish and German breed- 
 ers of Merinos, caring only for the wool, have given their breeds 
 pre-eminently excellent fleeces. Breeding carefully for a few 
 generations with a distinct purpose in view, will not fail to pro- 
 duce astonishing and satisfactory results. 
 
 " The alteration," Sir John Seabright says, " which may be 
 made in any breed of animals by selection can hardly be con- 
 ceived by those that have not paid some attention to the sub- 
 ject." 
 
 To breed in the most successful manner, the male and female 
 should be taken when they are in the highest state of health, 
 and when aU the powers and attributes which are wished for 
 and which it is designed to propagate are in the most complete 
 order and state of perfection. 
 
 IL— IN-AND-m BEEEDUTG. 
 
 It is a well-estabhshed fact in human physiology that the in- 
 termarriage of near relatives tends to both physical and mental 
 degeneracy. Analogy would lead us to infer that the same 
 results must follow close breeding among the lower animals ; 
 and facts, we think, prove conclusively that this is the case. 
 Touatt, high authority on this subject, says : 
 
 "Breeding in-and-in has many advantages to a certain ex- 
 tent. It may be pursued until the excellent foi-m and quality 
 of the breed are developed and established. It was the source 
 whence sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the 
 superior cattle of OoUtog ; but disadvantages attend breeding 
 'in-and-in,' and to it must be traced the speedy degeneracy, 
 the absolute disappearance, of the new Leicester cattle, and in 
 the hands of many an agriculturist, the impairment of consti- 
 
110 Domestic Animals. 
 
 tution and decreased value of tlie new Leicester sheep and 
 the short-horned beasts. It has therefore become a kind of 
 principle with the agriculturist to effect some change in his 
 stock every second or third year; and that change is moat 
 conveniently effected by introducing a new bull or ram. These 
 should be as nearly as possible of the same sort, coming from 
 a similar pasturage and climate, but possessing no relationship, 
 or at most a very distant one, to the stock to which he is in- 
 troduced." These remarks apply to all descriptions of live- 
 stock. In cattle, as weU as in the human species, defects of 
 organization and permanent derangements of function obtain, 
 and are handed down when the relationship is close. 
 
 III.— 0E0S3ING. 
 
 It is by judicious crossing of breeds that some of our best 
 varieties of domestic animals have been obtained. A cross 
 between a superior and an inferior breed results in a progeny 
 superior to the latter, and, for a particular use, climate, or 
 locality, often better than the former. Thus the cross between 
 the English thorough-bred horse and the inferior mare of the 
 common breed of New England gave us the Morgan breed, 
 which for all the common purposes for which a horse is used 
 is superior to the thorough-bred animal himselfl 
 
 In breeding from stock with qualifications of different descrip- 
 tions and in different degrees, the breeder wiU decide what are 
 indispensable or desirable qualities, and will cross with animals 
 with a view to establish them. His proceeding will be of the 
 "give-and-take" kind. He will, if necessary, submit to the in- 
 troduction of a trifling defect in order that he may profit by a 
 great excellence ; and between excellences perhaps somewhat 
 incompatible he wiU decide which is the greatest, and give it 
 the preference. 
 
 The following account of the way in which the new French 
 breed of sheep. La Chamois, was originated, throws light upon 
 an important principle in breeding; namely, that the infiuence 
 of the male upon the offspring will be the stronger the purer 
 
Improvement OF Beeeds. Ill 
 
 and more ancient in the first place his own race may be ; and 
 in the next place, the less resistance is offered by the female 
 through the possession of those qualities of purity and long 
 descent which are so valuable in the sire. 
 
 The French writer says : " With a view to the experiment 
 proposed, it was necessary to procure English rams of the 
 purest and most ancient race, and unite with them French 
 ewes of the modem breeds, or rather of mixed blood forming 
 no distinct breed at all. It is easier than one might have 
 supposed to combine these conditions. On the one hand, I se- 
 lected some of the finest rams of the New-Kent breed, regen- 
 erated by Goord. On the other hand, we find in France 
 many border countries lying between distinct breeds, in which 
 districts it is easy to find flocks participating in the two neigh- 
 boring races. Thus, on the borders of Berry and La Sologne 
 one meets with flocks originally sprung from a mixture of the 
 two distinct races that are established in those two provinces. 
 Among these, then, I chose such animals as seemed least defect- 
 ive, approaching, in fact, the nearest to, or rather departing 
 the least from, the form which I wished ultimately to produce. 
 These I united with animals of another mixed breed, picking 
 out the best I could find on the borders of La Beauce and 
 Touraine, which blended the Tourangelle and native Merino 
 blood of those other two districts. From this mixture was ob- 
 tained an oflfepring combining the four races of Berry, Sologne, 
 Touraine, and Merino, without decided character, without 
 fixity, with little intrinsic merit certainly, but possessing the 
 advantage of being used to our climate and management, and 
 bringing to bear on the new breed to be formed, an influence 
 almost annihilated by the multiplicity of its component ele- 
 ments. 
 
 " Now what happens when such mixed-blood ewes are put 
 to a pure New-Kent ram ? A lamb is obtained containing 
 fifty hundredths of the purest and most ancient English blood, 
 with twelve and a half hundredths of four different French 
 races, which are individually lost in the preponderance of 
 
112 Domestic Astimals. 
 
 Englisli blood, and disappear almost entirely, leaving the im- 
 proving type in the ascendant. The influence, in fact, of this 
 type was so decided and ao predominant, that all the lambs 
 produced strikingly resembled each other, and even Englishmen 
 took them for animals of their own country. But what was 
 stiU more decisive, when these young ewes and rams were put 
 together they produced lambs closely resembling themselves, 
 without any marked return to the features of the old French 
 races from which the grandmother ewes were derived. Some 
 slight traces only might perhaps be detected here and there by 
 an experienced eye. Even these, however, soon disappeared, 
 such animals as showed them being carefully weeded out of 
 the breeding flock. This may certainly be called ^fixing a 
 treed,^ when it becomes every year more capable of repro- 
 ducing itself with uniform and marked features." 
 
 IT.— ADDITIONAL HINTS. 
 
 Farmers, like men in other branches of business, have an eye 
 on the profits of their industry ; and the more intelligent of 
 them are now fully convinced of the fact, that with proper care 
 and protection the improved and finer breeds do give a greater 
 product with the same amount of food than the inferior and 
 coarser breeds. It costs hut little if any more to keep a cow 
 that will give a large quantity of rich milk than one that does 
 not pay for her food ; strong, active horses are far more profit- 
 able than poor, lazy ones ; a bushel of corn will make twice as 
 much pork when fed to a Berkshire or a Suffolk as to a Land- 
 Pike or Eacer, and the best sheep will yield double the wool 
 and bring triple the price of the poorer kinds. 
 
 ISTow every farmer may, in a few years, make great improve- 
 ment in his stock by selecting his best animals to breed from, 
 with an occasional infusion of fresh blood from other flocks 
 and herds (without reference to any of the celebrated improved 
 breeds), combined with proper attention to their feeding and 
 general management ; but unless he has a particular taste for 
 breeding animals, and unusual facilities for the business, he wil] 
 
Impeovembnt of Beeeds. 113 
 
 find it more convenient and cheaper to make an infusion of the 
 improved blood into his stoclc, choosing such as is best fitted 
 for his purpose. A bull or a ram of one of the best breeds 
 will soon, if judiciously managed, make a great change for the 
 better in Ms stock. 
 
 Another important fact must be borne in mind. " Improved 
 breeds owe their present degree of perfection, whatever it may 
 be, only to the skill which has been exercised in their selection, 
 breeding, and management for a number of generations and a 
 long series of years. This attention, we learn from the extract 
 above, m'mt he continued if we wish to retain the valuable 
 qualities that it has placed within our reach ; and careful atten- 
 tion to the selection, the wants, the comfort, and the health of 
 one's stock is thus shown to be not only the dictate of economy 
 for the time being, but a matter of importance in the future, 
 from the influence it exerts on the progeny as well as on the 
 parent. Improvements may be l>red out as fast or faster than 
 it can be Irred in. Until the average of care which our farm 
 stock now receives becomes much greater, it may be inexpedi- 
 ent to advise the maintenance of a herd or flock of pure im- 
 proved blood for ordinary farm purposes ; but, by beginning 
 with grades — employing the services of an improved male to 
 engraft upon "native" stock— and by degrees acquiring the 
 habit of paying closer attention to their necessities and com- 
 forts, not only will our cattle and sheep be gradually and fun- 
 damentally bettered, but the farmer will be preparing to avail 
 himself of breeds already rendered capable of giving, with 
 proper attention, the greatest product for a specified amount of 
 food ; and animals bred to this point will then come into his 
 hands to be improved, not to be deteriorated."* 
 
 * Countfy Oeatleman. 
 
114 Domestic Animalb. 
 
 VII. 
 
 DISEASES AND THEIR CURE. 
 
 Tbrow physic to the doeB.~SItak6peare. 
 
 I.-HTGIENE. 
 
 HROW physic to the dogs," if you will, but, 
 be assured, they are quadrupeds of too much 
 good sense to swallow it ; and the other domes- 
 tic animals wUl hardly take, except under com- 
 pulsion, what their canine companions and pro- 
 tectors thus reject. You will find less difiiculty in forcing it 
 down the throats of their more frequently diseased and oftener 
 doctored masters. 
 
 A large portion of almost every work on domestic animals 
 is taken up with directions for the treatment of their diseases. 
 Our limits do not permit us to dwell long on this point, nor do 
 we deem it necessary. 
 
 In their wild state, animals are ordinarily subject to few if 
 any diseases. They live according to the laws of their being — 
 live naturally and healthfully, and, unless they meet a violent 
 death at the hands of man or of some of their natural enemies, 
 die a natural death. Our domestic animals, as they are gener- 
 ally managed, live under conditions less favorable to health, 
 and sometimes, although with comparative infrequency, get sick. 
 The fault is generally in the keeper or breeder, and not in thf 
 animal or in the conditions inseparable from its domestic 
 state. "With animals, as with men, disease arises from some 
 infringement of the organic laws; but their masters, and not 
 themselves, are responsible for the infringement. When they 
 get sick, however, in consequence of the false conditions under 
 
Diseases and theie Ottee. 115 
 
 which they are forced to live, man adds insult to injury by 
 forcing his nauseous and poisonous drugs down their reluctant 
 throats. If they recover in spite vf both the disease and the 
 remedy, drugs get the credit. 
 
 Well, let those use drugs who have faith in them, either in 
 the treatment of themselves, their families, or their domestic 
 animals; but the reader who looks in this little manual for 
 directions for their use will be disappointed. We can not con- 
 scientiously give them. 
 
 Animals born of well developed and perfectly healthy parents 
 (and none but perfectly healthy and weU developed animals 
 should ever be permitted to become breeders) may almost uni- 
 versally he loept in perfect health. With a sufficient quantity of 
 wholesome food, pure water, protection against storms and cold 
 in winter, complete ventilation and perfect cleanliness in their 
 habitations, and general attention to their comfort and health, 
 there wiU be little call for medical treatment of any kind ; and 
 in the rare oases which may occur, we would trust mainly to 
 Nature, co-operating with her as we could by means of diet, air, 
 exercise, and water, on the same principles precisely that are 
 applied in the treatment of human beings without drugs. 
 
 The Water-Oure or Hydropathic system has not yet been ex- 
 tensively applied to animals ; but so far as it has been adopted, 
 it has produced the most satisfactory results ; and for the bene- 
 fit of such of our readers as may have lost their faith in drugs, 
 and desire to make a trial of a more rational method, we lay 
 before them the following essay, kindly furnished for this work 
 by that distinguished physician and writer, R. T. TraU, M.D., 
 Principal of the New York Hygeio-Therapeutic College. 
 
 n.— "WATEE-OUUB FOE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 BY K. T. THAHL, M.D. 
 
 The habits of domestic animals being, on the whole, less 
 nnphysiological than those of human beings, their diseases are, 
 as a necessary consequence, less numerous and less complicated. 
 They may all be' grouped under the head oi feners, inflam- 
 
116 Domestic Animals. 
 
 matioTis, spasms or colics, fliixes, eruptions, and glanJ,ula/f 
 affections. And for all of these disorders we are satisfied that 
 proper attention to hygiene, as understood by the term Hy- 
 dropathy or Water-Treatment, is as much superior to drug med- 
 ication as it has proved to he in the case of human heinga 
 similarly afieoted. 
 
 Fever is easily known by the languor and lassitude which 
 the animal manifests, with great indisposition to exercise, fol- 
 lowed by chiUs or shivering, and this succeeded by preternatu- 
 ral heat on the surface, loss of appetite, furred tongue, frequent 
 or hard or bounding pulse, etc. The animal should be placed 
 in a clean, quiet, well- ventilated room, protected from currents 
 of cold air in winter or the scorching rays of the sun in sum- 
 mer, and the temperature should be kept at a uniform and 
 moderate degree continually. 
 
 When the skin becomes very hot, it should be washed or 
 bathed all over, and a blanket or two immediately applied, so 
 as to promote moderate perspiration. Or the wet sheet may 
 be applied, taking care to cover it well with blankets, so as 
 to arrest chilliness. When the sheet becomes quite warm, it 
 should be removed, and the surface washed with cold water ; 
 and if the fever heat continues, it may be re-applied for an hour 
 at a time, two or three times a day, until the morbid heat is 
 entirely subdued. 
 
 The same general plan of treatment, with a slight modifi- 
 cation, applies to all inflammatory complaints. With domestic 
 animals as with human beings, the organs most liable to acute 
 inflammation are the lungs and the bowels, and the only spe- 
 cialty of treatment in these affections, in addition to the gen- 
 eral plan applicable to the constitutional disturbance we call 
 fever, is the continual application of wet cloths well covered 
 with dry ones to the chest or bowels, as either is the seat of 
 the inflammation, and the employment of copious enemas of 
 tepid water to free the bowels. 
 
 Spasmodic diseases of all kinds, and all the varieties of colic, 
 are the results of local obstruction caused by over-exertioi>« 
 
Diseases and theie Cube. 117 
 
 over-heating, or something improper or indigestible in the food. 
 Grain, and especially Indian meal, fed to a horse while in a 
 state of great heat or great fatigne from violent exertion, is fre- 
 quently the immediate cause of colic and spasms. In these oases 
 the animal should have his abdomen fomented with wet cloths 
 applied as warm as can be borne ; warm water should be given 
 the animal to drink, or poured down his throat from a bottle, 
 and copious enemas of warm water should be administered. 
 
 riuses — as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, influenza, catarrh, 
 etc. — are the indications of a general obstruction of the system 
 or impurity of the fluids, with an effort at depuration in a par- 
 ticular direction. The usual practice of checking the discharge 
 suddenly by pungents, stimulants, and astringents is always 
 injurious and generally dangerous. On the contrary, the action 
 of the surface should be restored by bathing, with friction or 
 the dripping-sheet, and aU irritating matters removed from the 
 stomach and bowels by means of warm and tepid water, as in 
 the case of colics. There will be no danger from the discharges 
 if the cause is removed, and if it is not removed, the sudden 
 suppression of the evacuations may terminate in a worse in- 
 flammation or speedy death. 
 
 Affections of the skin and glands are only to be cured by 
 purifying the whole mass of blood. To repel an eruption from 
 the surface, or rather a glandular tumor, is not curing the ani- 
 mal ; indeed, it is only changing an external disease to an inter- 
 nal one. Thus attention to a pure diet, to fresh air, and to 
 clean apartments, each and all are essential to recovery. Many 
 of these cachexies, as they are called in medical books, originate 
 from the effluvia of their own excretions, as in cases where 
 the urine and feces are permitted to accumulate in the stalls, 
 or under the floors of the stables. 
 
118 Domestic Animals. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 AlBo fowls were prepared for me. — Nehemidh T. 18. 
 
 I.— THE DOMESTIC FOWL. 
 
 OBODY knows when or by whom fowls were 
 first domesticated. There are at most only two 
 or three allusions to them in the Old Testa- 
 ment, and these are of doubtful import. In 
 our motto, for instance, the word fowls may 
 mean simply birds. 
 
 In the time of Aristotle, who wrote three hundred and fifty 
 years before Christ, however, they were evidently common ; 
 for he speaks of them as famiharly as a naturalist of the pres- 
 ent day. Everybody is familiar with the beautiful allusions to 
 them in the New Testament. 
 
 The wild origin of our domestic fowl is entirely unknown. 
 The race, like that of the Dodo, is probably extinct. The Wild 
 Turkey will sooner or later share the same fate. 
 
 Crested or top-knotted fowls appear to have been unknown 
 to the ancients. The earliest notice of them occurs in Aldro- 
 vandi, who speaks ot a hen with " a crest like a lark." 
 
 Domestic fowls now abound in all warm and temperate 
 climates, but disappear as we approach the poles. They were 
 found in abundance on the islands of the Pacific Ocean by their 
 earliest discoverers. How they got there nobody knows. 
 Probably in the same way that their human inhabitants found 
 their insular homes. Ellis, in his "Polynesian Researches," 
 says; "The traditions of the people state that fowls have 
 existed on the islands (Tahiti) as long as the people ; that they 
 
POITLTET. IIQ 
 
 came with the first colonists by whom the islands were peo- 
 pled; or that they were made by Taarva at the same time 
 that men were made." 
 
 The courage of the cook is emblematic, his gaUantry ad- 
 mirable, his sense of discipline and subordination most exem- 
 plary. See how a good game-cock of two or three years' ex- 
 perience wiU, in five minutes, restore order into an uproarious 
 poultry-yard ! He does not use harsh means of coercion when 
 mUd will suit the purpose. A look, a gesture, a deep chuck- 
 ling growl, gives the hint that turbulence is no longer to be per- 
 mitted; and if these are not effectual, severer punishment is 
 
 fearlessly administered His politeness to females is 
 
 as marked as were Lord Chesterfield's attentions to old ladies, 
 and much more unaffected. Nor does he merely act the agree- 
 able dangler ; when occasion requires, he is also their brave 
 defender, if he be good for anything. 
 
 " The hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of mater- 
 nal love. When her passion of philoprogenitiveness is disap- 
 pointed by the failure or subtraction of her brood, she will 
 either go on sitting till her natural powers fail, or will violent- 
 ly kidnap the young of some other fowl and insist upon adopt- 
 ing them."* 
 
 The varieties of the domestic fowl are almost numberless, 
 but only a few of them are worthy of more than a mere men- 
 tion here. Among these we give the first place to — 
 
 1. The Spanish Fowl. — The thorough-bred Spanish fowl is 
 entirely black, so far as feathers are concerned, with a greenish 
 metallic luster. The combs of both the male and the female 
 are very large and of a brilliant scarlet ; that of the hen droops 
 over on one side. Their most singular feature is a large white 
 patch, or ear-lobe, on the cheek, which in some specimens ex- 
 tends over a large part of the face. It is a fleshy substance, 
 similar to the wattle, and is small in the hens but large and 
 oonspicuous in the cocks, giving them a very striking appear- 
 
 * Eev. Edmund Saul Dixon. 
 
120 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 ance. There are few, if any, handsomer fowb than the genuine 
 Spanish ; although some that are called by that name, hut are 
 reaUy nameless mongrels, are ugly enough for scarecrows. 
 
 The hens are great layers, being in this respect, we believe, 
 superior to every other breed. Their eggs are very large, quite 
 white, and of a peculiar shape, being quite thick at both ends, 
 although tapertag off a little at each. A correspondent of the 
 Country Oentleman, relating his experience with them, says : 
 " My last year's June pullets commenced to lay in December, 
 and the first of February all of my Spanish hens laid more or 
 less. I got, in the six months, from the first of March to the 
 first of September, eighty-five dozen of eggs from seven pullets, 
 and I now get from four to six eggs per day ; and my honest 
 
 Pig. 80. 
 
 The Spanish Fowl. 
 
 conviction is, that the true Black Spanish hen will laj from 
 'five to ten per cent.' more weight of eggs than any other 
 breed." 
 
POULTET. 121 
 
 On the other hand, it must be confessed that these Spanish 
 dames are not good mothers or nurses, even when they do sit, 
 " which," as Dixon remarks, " they will not often condescend 
 to do." This last trait of character will prove a recommend- 
 ation rather than otherwise with those who care for eggs 
 rather than chickens. When the latter are wanted, it is better 
 to place the eggs under a hen of another and more motherly 
 breed — a Dorking, for instance. 
 
 The Spanish fowls bear conflnement very well ; are not 
 large eaters ; grow rapidly ; mature early ; and are only excel- 
 led for the table by the Game fowl and the Dorking. The aver- 
 age weight of the mature birds is about six pounds for the male 
 and five for the female. 
 
 It is important, but somewhat difficult at present, to procure 
 the true, immixed, white-faced Black Spanish breed. 
 
 There is another breed called the Gray or Speckled Spanish, 
 but, however excellent they may be (and they are highly 
 spoken of), they are probably a mixed breed. 
 
 2. The Dorhing Fowl. — The Dorking takes its name from 
 a town in Surrey County, England, where it is supposed to 
 have originated. ' 
 
 The Dorkings are divided into the Colored and the White 
 varieties ; the former including the Gray, Speckled, Spangled, 
 Japanned, etc. These are not permanent varieties, however, 
 as they can not be bred true to color. The Gray and Spangled 
 comprise the more common forms in which the Colored Dork- 
 ing family is presented to us. 
 
 The White Dorking is a smaller-framed bird than the Gray, 
 and should be perfectly white in plumage, bill, and legs. They 
 sho'ild have rose-combs. They are less hardy than the colored 
 variety, and not well adapted to a northern climate. 
 
 The Dorking is a fowl of rare beauty, large in size, symmet- 
 rical in form, and often gorgeous in plumage. Its flesh is 
 white, firm, and of excellent flavor ; and for the general pur- 
 poses of the table it is inferior to none, although, as regards 
 flavor alone, the Game fowl would perhaps take precedence. 
 
 6 
 
122 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 As layers, the Dorking hens take high rank, hut are, we think, 
 inferior to the Spanish. They are persistent sitters, and make 
 excellent mothers and nurses. The editor of the American 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 The Dorking Fowl. 
 
 Agriculturist says : " A little knowledge in keeping them 
 [the Dorkings] justified us in pronouncing them entitled to the 
 same rank among barn-yard fowls that the Short Horns have 
 taken among cattle ; and years of experience in breeding them 
 have confirmed us in this opinion.'' 
 
 John Giles, a well known poultry breeder of Woodstock, 
 Conn., expresses the following opinion : " After forty-odd 
 years' experience with the gallinaceous tribes, I say that, in my 
 humble opinion, no breed of fowls will compare with the true 
 Dorking as good mothers, sitters, and layers, giving eggs in 
 abundance, chickens easily reared, and which come to perfec- 
 tion sooner than any other poultry. The flesh is of a delicatti 
 white, fine in the grain, and delicious flavor. The Black Span- 
 
POTJLTET. 
 
 123 
 
 Ish is only second to the true Dorking, in not raising tlieir own 
 yonng, seldom or ever wanting to sit ; but what they lose in 
 that point is more than made up by the abundance of eggs 
 By some they are called the everlasting layers ; eggs large ; 
 flesh and skin beautifully white and juicy ; chickens grow rap 
 idly." 
 
 A cross between the Dorking and the Game fowl is greatly 
 esteemed, and is thought to be more profitable than the thor- 
 ough-bred Dorking. 
 
 The possession of the fifth claw is generally considered as an 
 essential characteristic of the Dorking, but it is not always 
 present, and might and should be " bred out." The weight of 
 the Dorking at maturity varies from five to eight pounds. 
 
 3. Tlie Polish Fowl. — The origin of this family of fowls is 
 
 entirely unknown. They do not exist in Poland at the present 
 
 time, and there is no evidence that they were ever known 
 
 there ; but this is a matter of small moment. Their beauty 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 Thb Polish Fowl. 
 
124 Domestic Animals. 
 
 and excellence are undisputed. The large top-knot is one of 
 the principal characteristics of the Polish fowl, and is conspic- 
 uous in all its varieties. 
 
 The varieties of the Polish or Poland fowl are numerous ; 
 hut the principal ones are the White-Crested Black, the Golden 
 Spangled, and the Silver Spangled. 
 
 In the White-Orested Black Poland cock the plumage, with 
 the exception *of the crest, should he uniformly Hack, with rich 
 metallic tints of green. The shorter crest feathers at the base 
 of the bill are black, the rest of the purest white. The beak 
 and legs are generally black. The same colors are required in 
 the hen. Their form and bearing are remarkably good. The 
 cock should weigh from five to five and a half pounds, and th& 
 hen about four pounds. 
 
 The Golden Spangled and the Silver Spangled Polands are 
 splendid birds. " The beautiful regularity of their markings, 
 the vivid contrasts in their colors, together with their unique 
 appearance generally, entitle them to the first rank among the 
 more ornamental varieties." 
 
 The Polands, and especially the Black variety, are gener- 
 ally but not invariably great layers, commencing early in the 
 spring, and seldom wanting to sit tUl late in the summer, if 
 at all. They can not always be depended upon to hatch a 
 clutch of chickens, even when they manifest a desire to sit, fre- 
 quently deserting the nest after five or six days' occupation.* 
 They are not quite so hardy as some other breeds, but with a 
 fair degree of attention are easUy reared. As a table fowl, the 
 Polish is among the best. 
 
 4. The Hamburg Fowl. — Of the Hamburgs there are sev- 
 eral varieties. The Silver Penciled, known also as the Bolton 
 Gray, have the plumage white, with the exception of the wings 
 and tail, which are furred with black. The average weight of 
 the cock is about four and a half pounds. The hen usually 
 weighs about a pound less. The Golden Penciled Hamburg 
 
 * 'Wingfleld, 
 
POTJLTET. 
 
 125 
 
 differs from the Silver Penciled chiefly in the ground color of 
 its plumage, which is a yellowish huff or yellowish hay, and in 
 being rather larger. The legs of both these varieties should he 
 blue. The Silver Spangled and Golden Spangled differ from 
 the Penciled sorts, in having black, circular, oval, or cresoent- 
 ■shaped spangles on the taU and wipg, instead of bars. They 
 are somewhat larger than the Penciled birds and have darker 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Thb Siltek Bpansled HAMBtriiQ Fo-wi. 
 
 legs. The Black Hamburg has a plumage of a uniformly rich, 
 glossy-green black. 
 
 AU the Hamburgs are beautiful fowls, rich in plumage and 
 fine in form ; great layers (the eggs, however, are small); sel- 
 dom desire to sit; and are good for the table, faUing but little 
 below the best varieties in this respect, although not so large 
 as some others. 
 
 They are impatient of confinement, and to do weU must have 
 
126 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 TnB Golden Spangled Hamburg Fowl. 
 
 a wiJft range of grassy lawn or pasture. Of the different vari- 
 eties we prefer the Golden Spangled, hut others may chooae 
 differently. 
 5. Tht Dominique Fowl. — This is a very common breed in 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 ..-4*4. >,??r .- .w-is^ 
 '*^ • ■ ' - .- ^ 
 
 The DoMnnQTJKi Coos. 
 
PotTLTRT. 127 
 
 this country, but none the less valuable or beautifol on that 
 account. 
 
 " The prevailing and true color of the Dominique fowl is a 
 lightish ground, baried crosswise, and softly shaded with a 
 slaty-blue, as indicated in the portrait of the cock figured on 
 the previous page. The comb is variable, some being single, 
 while others are double— most, however, are single. The iris, 
 bright orange; feet, legs, and bill, bright yeUow; and some 
 light flesh color. We prefer the yellow legs and bill, and con- 
 sider them well worthy of promotion in the poultry-yard. 
 
 "We seldom see bad hens of this variety; and take them 
 'aU-in-all,' we do not hesitate in pronouncing them one of the 
 test and most profitable fowls, being hardy, good layers, care- 
 ful nurses, and aifording excellent eggs, and the quality of their 
 flesh highly esteemed. The hens are not large, but plump and 
 fuU breasted. The eggs average about two ounces each, and 
 are of porcelain whiteness."* 
 
 6. The Leghorn Fowl. — The Leghorns are believed to be 
 cousins of the Spanish, whom they resemble in general form. 
 They have been considerably experimented with in this country, 
 and are highly extolled by some breeders ; but the general ver- 
 dict is that they are inferior to the Spanish.t 
 
 7. The Shanghai Fowl. — The Shanghai fowl was originally 
 brought from the northern part of China, particularly about 
 the city of Shanghai, from which it takes its name. It is the 
 common domestic fowl of that part of the country. 
 
 The Shanghai cock is a large, bold, upright bird, strongly 
 distinguished for the length, loudness, hoarseness, and awk- 
 wardness of his half guttural crow. Most of the sub-vai-ietics 
 
 * Country Genaeman. 
 
 t A correspondent of one of the agricultural papers, however, gives the fol- 
 lowing testimony in their favor : " I have Inept in different inclosures six of tlie 
 most approved varieties of fowls, for four months (from the 1st of April to the 
 present)— have registered the number of • ggs laid by each variety every day, 
 and the Leghorns have laid almost three eggs to any other bird's one not ex- 
 cepting the far famed Blaoli Spanish."— E. W. Pbakbali., Har'^m, X Y 
 
128 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 have large, single, serrated combs, the top running considerably 
 beyond its point of attachment to the head. His neck is about 
 nine inches long, and is somewhat arched ; wings short, round- 
 ed outward, their shoulders concealed in the breast-feathers, 
 and their tips covered by the body-feathers and the saddle- 
 hackle. His breast is broad, but wanting in fullness ; the 
 thighs are ^\ide apart, large, comparatively short, smooth in 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 The Shanghai Fowl. 
 
 some, in others heavily feathered quite down to the knees; 
 shanks should be short, and, with the booted, more or less 
 feathered down the outer edge, quite to the end of the outer 
 toe ; the stern is densely covered with long downy feathers, 
 technically called "fluff," well rounded out; the hackle, both 
 of neck and saddle, is long and abundant; while the tail is 
 short and sometimes covered by the long saddle-feathers. Th« 
 
POULTET. 129 
 
 weight of a full-growTi bird is from ten to twelve ponnds, 
 while a few have weighed more. The hen agrees in general 
 character with that of her liege lord, hut is two or three poands 
 lighter. 
 
 The legs of both sexes should be yellow, though we have 
 seen some very fine white birds with a greenish-blue leg, and 
 superior black ones with dark legs. ' 
 
 The principal sub-varieties of the Shanghai family are the 
 White, the Buff, the Cinnamon, the Partridge-colored, the Gray, 
 or Brahmapootra of a few writers, the Dominique, and the 
 Black. 
 
 About ten years ago there raged among our fowl fanciers a 
 most alarming Shanghai fever. It had its " run," and its vic- 
 tims mostly survived. We presume they will never have a 
 second attack. 
 
 We can not advise our readers to breed Shanghai fowls, and 
 regret being obUged to mention them at all. 
 
 8. The Cochin China Fowl, etc.— A missionary in China 
 says: "There is no difference at all between the Shanghais 
 and Cochin Chinas. In reality they all are Shanghais. Coch- 
 in Chinese fowls are a sttmU, inferior kind, not equal to the 
 natives of the United States, and it is not believed that any 
 have ever been taken to America;" and the editors of the 
 " Poultry Book," lately published in London, quote from a let- 
 ter they received from Mr. Kobert Fortune, who has passed 
 many years in various parts of China, as follows : " I firmly 
 believe that what are called ' Cochin Chinas' and ' Shanghais' 
 are one and the same. 
 
 Whether this testimony should be considered conclusive or 
 not we leave the reader to judge, and believing none of the un- 
 couth, awkward, and coarse-grained Asiatic fowls desirable, we 
 herewith dismiss them. 
 
 9. The Bantam, Fowl— The Bantam is the smallest specimen 
 of fowl, and may with propriety be called the Tom Thumb of 
 the gaEinaceous tribe, and stands comparatively, in size, to the 
 Malay and Cochin fowl as that of the noble and stately Du.- 
 
 G* 
 
130 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 ham to the diminntive Alderney cow. Though extremely 
 Email in size, the Bantam cock is elegantly formed, and remark- 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 White Bantam Cock and Hbn. 
 
 able for ula grotesque figure, his courjjgeous and passionate 
 temper, bis amusing pompousness of maaiier, his overweening 
 assumption and arrogance ; and his propensity to make fight, 
 and force every rival to "turn tail," has caused him many diffi- 
 culties. 
 The Bantam must be considered more as an object of curioB- 
 
 Black Bantau Cock and Hen. 
 
 Ity than utility, and of course must expect to be received with 
 no peculiar favor, in this country, except as a "pet," Thej 
 
FotTLTET. 
 
 131 
 
 arrive at H.aturity early, are faithful sitters, good motliers, and 
 will lay more eggs, though small, than any other variety. They 
 are very domestic, often making their nests in the kitchen, de- 
 positing their eggs in the cradle or cupboard of the dwelling 
 when permitted.* 
 
 The most beautiful of the Bantams is the Seabright, of which 
 there are two sub-varieties — the Gold-laced and the SUver- 
 laced. 
 
 The ground color of the Gold-laced should he a clear, gold- 
 en, yellow-white ; whUe in the Silver-laced it should be a pure 
 silvery- white. The accompanying cut will give the reader a 
 good idea of the form and bearing of these remarkable and 
 beautiful fowls, as well as of the markings of their plumage. 
 
 The Seabright Bantam is emphatically the English gentle- 
 man's Bantam. Even lords and duchesses strive for the mas- 
 tery in breeding this beautiful bird. This bird was first bred 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 The SEABEianT Bahtam. 
 
 and introduced to the notice of English fanciers by th« late Sir 
 John Seabri? A,, from whom they received their name.t 
 
 * Eement 
 
 t Country Gentlemsn- 
 
132 Domestic Animals. 
 
 10. The Game Fowl. — The Game fowl is hardy, easily kept, 
 and extra good for the table. The hens are fair layers, excel- 
 lent sitters, exemplary mothers, and in every way weU behaved 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 ^m 
 
 ■ ■ 'S 
 
 Qakb Cook ahs Hbh. 
 
 fowls. The cocks have the reputation of being quarrelsome 
 and tyrannical; but those who have studied their character 
 most closely are of the opinion that, on this ground, they have 
 been unjustly condemned. They are brave and powerful, but 
 not pugnacious or vindictive. Bement says : " For those who 
 do not wish to give much attention to fowls, there is, accord- 
 ing to our opinion, no breed equal to the Game." 
 
 11. Mongrel Fowls. — The collections usually known under 
 the name of Barn-door fowls or Dunghill fowls are merely rab- 
 bles of mongrels, in which the results of accidental or injudi- 
 cious crosses have become apparent in aU sorts of ways. There 
 is a tendency among them to revert back to some one of the 
 original breeds, and good fowls for all common uses are often 
 found among them. 
 
 12. Ohoice of Breed. — We have mentioned the leading char- 
 acteristics of the different kinds of fowls, in order to enable the 
 reader to decide which is best adapted to -his purpose. Were 
 our advice asked in reference to the choice of a breed, we would 
 recommend the Spanish where e<5gs are to be made the prin- 
 
POULTET. 133 
 
 cipa] object, and the Gray Dorking where chickens are wanted 
 for the table or for market. In reference to merely ornamental 
 poultry, let "fancy" rule. 
 
 13. Accommodations—TSo one should attempt to keep fowls 
 without providing for them the proper accommodations to in- 
 sure their comfort and health. These need not be expensive. 
 A very simple house with appropriate accessories in the fonn 
 of a yard, nests, feedmg troughs, water basins or fountains, 
 roosts, etc., can all be very cheaply furnished; or they may be 
 more extensive, elaborate, and costly, if the proprietor's wants 
 require and his means permit. For plans and descriptions of 
 these structures we must refer the reader to "The House," 
 which forms another number of this series of manuals. "We 
 need only say here that they should be such as to secure 
 warmth and efficient shelter from storms, without excluding 
 light or air, both of which are essential to the weU-heing of 
 fowls as well as human beings. 
 
 "Most farmers," Mr. Bement truly says, "pay little or no at- 
 tention to their fowls, suffering them to roam and run about 
 when and where they please ; to lay and hatch where it suits 
 ihem best, and to roost on trees, under sheds, on the wagon, 
 cart, hay-rigging, etc. — soiling by their droppings plows, har- 
 rows, or whatever may chance to be within reach. This treat- 
 ment is no less unprofitable than inhuman. No wonder such 
 fanners get no eggs during the winter, and generally come to 
 the conclusion that poultry keeping does not 'pay.'" 
 
 Whatever may be the form or size of your poultry-house, it 
 should be so constructed as to secure as equable a tempera- 
 ture as possible. This end is best attained by having the 
 walls and roof lined, leaving an open space of from four to six 
 inches between the outer and inner walls, which may be filled 
 in with chaff, saw-dust, or dry tan. This will make it warm 
 in winter and cool in summer. In addition to the inclosed por- 
 tion, the house should have a broad piazza or shed attached, 
 to which the fowls may retire for shelter in stormy weather. 
 
 Hens always seek to avoid observation when laying, and it is 
 
134: Domestic Animals. 
 
 well to gratify this natural feeling in the construction of their 
 nests. A screen of lattice-work in front of the boxes, or a few 
 evergreen boughs properly placed, will secure the required 
 seclusion withort preventing the circulating of the air. 
 
 In reference to the poultry-yard Mr. Bement says : 
 
 "Where it is intended to keep a large number of fowls, let 
 the yard be of ample dimensions, which of course must be reg- 
 ulated by the number intended to be kept. Those contracted 
 seven-by-nine pens which meet our eyes throughout the country 
 are not calculated to answer the purpose for which they were 
 intended. Half an acre, at least, for every hundred fowls (and 
 more than that number should never be kept in one flock), is 
 little space enough for them to roam in ; and in order to unite 
 all the advantages desirable in a poultry-yard, it is indispensa- 
 ble that it neither be too cold during winter nor too hot during 
 summer ; and it must be rendered so attractive to the hens as 
 to prevent their laying in any chance place away from it. To 
 shield them from the chilling blasts of winter and the scorch- 
 ing rays of the sun in summer, we would recommend planting 
 evergreens on the borders of the yard, and shade trees in the 
 center. This, with a good covering of grass, would leave little 
 to be desired on that part. And if the fowls can have access to 
 a grass field occasionally, and the soil dry, then, so far as the 
 ground and situation are concerned, nothing to be wished for 
 remains. 
 
 " A picket fence, from six to seven feet high, will be suffi- 
 cient to prevent the fowls from flying over." 
 
 14. Feeding. — The fowl is as omnivorous as a pig or a man, 
 and perhaps a little more so ; nevertheless grain is their staple. 
 Of this they ought to have a variety, as they do not thrive so 
 well when fed constantly with one kind. Corn, wheat, barley, 
 oats, and buckwheat make good feed for them. It is better to 
 nave all kinds of grain, intended for feeding fowls, and espe- 
 cially com, coarsely ground or cracked. It will be found that 
 they require a smaller quantity in this state. It should be 
 ecalded, or at least mixed to the consistency of a stiff battel 
 
POULTKT. 135 
 
 with water, before feeding it to them. Vegetables, such as 
 potatoes, carrots, parsneps, beets, etc., boiled and mashed, are 
 acceptable and wholesome. Lettuce, cabbage, Scotch kale, etc., 
 chopped up fine, are excellent for all kinds of poultry in the 
 winter. A few chopped onions may occasionally be added; 
 and also a little flesh-meat, either raw or cooked, cut into small 
 pieces. 
 
 The editor of the Country Gentleman Hhmka that it is better 
 to feed poultry in winter from three to four times daily, than 
 twice, which is the ordinary custom. By frequent feeding, the 
 birds eat but a little at a time, and never injure themselves ; 
 but when fed but once or twice daily, there is danger of theii 
 overeating, which frequently produces fatal results. Our rule 
 iS, to so regulate the quantity given at each time, that each 
 fowl shall have all it wishes, and have nothing left. Our ex- 
 perience confirms what many have said, that regular and fre- 
 quent feeding is better for the health of the fowl, at any season 
 of the year, than it is to fill a vessel with grain and allow them 
 access to it at all times. We also think that poultry will eat 
 less with frequent feeding than by twice feeding daily. 
 
 Lime is necessary for the formation of egg-shells, and should 
 always be accessible. The best form is that of calcined oyster 
 shells, pounded in small fragments. A box of sand and gravel, 
 and another of ashes, should be added. 
 
 Pure water is another essential that can not be too strenuously 
 insisted upon, impure water being a grand source of the dis- 
 eases of poultry. 
 
 Cleanliness must be strictly attended to in all your arrange- 
 ments for fowls ; and the inside of the poultry-house should be 
 whitewashed twice, at least, during the year, as a preventive 
 against vermin. 
 
 15. Incubation, and Searing C/mkens.— For sitting, choose 
 good-sized hens. Those with short legs, broad body, and large 
 wings are best adapted to the duty. It is also generally re- 
 marked that the worst layers are the best sitters. All the 
 eggs for a brood, which should not exceed thirteen, should be 
 
136 Domestic Animals. 
 
 BO nearly as possible of the same age. None of them shotilcl 
 be more than ten days old ; and the reason why they should 
 be of about the same date is, that they may be hatched simul- 
 taneously. Select eggs of average size and ordinary shape. 
 Give the hen a quiet place to sit, and take care that she be not 
 disturbed. In twenty-one days (sometimes a day or two earlier 
 in warm weather) a good sitter wiU bring out the chicks. The 
 first day after hatching they do not want food and should be 
 left in the nest. The nezt day they may be put into a good 
 coop in a dry, sheltered situation, and fed with coarse corn- 
 meal mixed up with water, hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, or 
 fresh curd. Feed a little at a time and often, and beware of 
 overfeeding. When a little older, cracked corn, millet, wheat, 
 barley, etc., may be fed to them. Have plenty of pure water 
 in a shallow dish (so that they may diink without getting into 
 it and wetting their feathers) always before them. After five 
 or six days they may be allowed to range at will outside of the 
 coop, but should not be allowed to come out while the dew is 
 on the ground. When two or three weeks old, or, indeed, 
 with the hardier breeds much earlier, the hen may be permit- 
 ted to lead them out. The most important caution now is to 
 guard them well against sudden unfavorable changes of tem- 
 perature, and especially against cold rain-storms. 
 
 16. The Poultry Pentahgue. — Somebody in England has 
 written a little work which he calls the " Poultry Pentalogue," 
 in which the wholfi art of fowl-breeding is summed up ia five 
 grand rules : 
 
 1. Pure breed ; 
 
 2. A constant infusion of fresh blood, and the careful avoid- 
 ance of in-and-in breeding ; 
 
 3. A varied diet ; 
 
 4. Equable temperature ; and — 
 
 5. Strict cleanluiess. 
 
 Good rules and easily remembered. We commend them to 
 our readers, who may profitably apply them to other stock 
 besides fowls. 
 
Pou 
 
 LTET. 
 
 137 
 
 II.— THE GUTiraA FOWL. 
 "There is no doubt," Wingfield says, "from the descriptioa 
 given by Oolumella and Varro, that the Guinea fowl was 
 reared on the fa-ms of the Romans, and that it was first made 
 known to them during their wars in Africa." They have 
 hardly found the favor among poultry keepers that their merits 
 would warrant. They are prolific layers of excellent eggs, and 
 as table birds are by no means to be despised. They are 
 shy, and love to make their nests in dark, obscure places, far 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 IT ^^rti^l 
 
 _ ■ ■ , • "r i 
 
 The Gfihea Fowl. 
 
 from home ; for which reason their eggs are generally placed 
 under a common hen to be hatched and fostered. They give 
 no notice of laying or sitting. 
 
 A brood of Guinea fowls is an excellent guard. They love 
 roosting in the trees ; and at night, if any footstep disturb them, 
 their loud cries are sure to give notice to the farmer that a 
 trespass is committing. 
 
 The Guinea fowl is delicate eating, and is in fine season about 
 
138 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Lent. The young chickens must be treated in the same man- 
 ner and with the same food as yomig turkeys, and they must 
 be kept warm and dry. In fatting, they should be shut up in 
 a house for a fortnight, and fed four or five times a day with 
 sweet barley-meal, moistened with milk and good lard. They 
 pine if confined any length of time. 
 
 The great drawbacks to the rearing of Guinea fowls are the 
 vigilance required to watch for their nest, and the harsh scream- 
 ing of their cry. 
 
 ni.— THE DOMESTIC TCEKET. 
 
 The domestic turkey is not so far removed fi-om the wild 
 state as the domestic fowl. There is no dispute about his ori- 
 gin, the wild turkey not being yet extinct, and not differing so 
 widely from the tenants of our barn-yards as to give room for 
 doubt on that point. In fact, as it is stated in . the " American 
 Poulterer's Companion," if kept in the neighborhood of large 
 forests they will often stroll thither, without any design to 
 return, such is the natural wildness of their species. 
 
 We have three varieties of the domestic turkey in this 
 country — the Black, the Buff-colored, and the White. The 
 Black is generally preferred, it being the most hardy. The 
 Buff-colored is placed next in the order of merit. The White 
 variety is very beautiful, but is smaller and less hardy. 
 
 Turkeys are generally considered very difficult to rear ; and 
 it is undoubtedly true that considerable care, patience, and skill 
 are required to insuie uniform success. Mr. Bement says: 
 " If attempts to rear turkeys have not been crowned with suc- 
 Bess, it is entirely owing to the unskillfulness and inexperience 
 of those to whom they have been intrusted ; and so long as one 
 persists in thwarting the females when sitting ; in opening the 
 shells of the eggs in order to help the passage of the tardy 
 chicks ; in pressing them, so soon as they are born, to eat 
 against their wiU ; and in leaving them exposed to intense heat, 
 or to cold and dampness, so long wiU their death, in the course 
 of a month, be the undoubted consequence. It is less trouble 
 
POULTET. 139 
 
 to say the breed is diffloult to rear, than to acknowledge at onee 
 that negligence, unskillfulness, and barbarity are the causes." 
 
 The principal requisites for the successful rearing of turkeys, 
 according to the experienced author of the " Poulterer's Com- 
 panion," are: 
 
 1. Good stock to breed from, both male and female. Both 
 should be large and fuUy grown. They ought to be at least 
 two years old. 
 
 2. Presh blood, secured by changing the cock every year. 
 
 3. Good keeping through the winter. 
 
 4. !N"o unnecessary interference with the process of incuba- 
 tion, which lasts four weeks. 
 
 5. Shelter, protection, and carefal feeding of the chicks for a 
 few weeks, after which the mother may be liberated from the 
 coop to lead them out. 
 
 Curd chopped fine, crumbs of bread softened in water or 
 mUk, are good for their first food ; but they wiU soon eat any- 
 thing that is fit for the parent turkey, except unbroken grain. 
 
 Early in the fall they should be fed night and morning with 
 dry corn ; and when the weather becomes colder they may 
 profitably be supplied at frequent intervals with boiled potatoes, 
 mashed with corn meal and skimmed mUk, given to them 
 warm. On this diet they will grow and fatten rapidly. 
 
 The turkey is an out-door bird and requires, at most, only an 
 open shed for shelter during severe storms, and even this will 
 seldom he occupied if a good tree be at hand. They have not 
 yet acquired all the effeminate artificial habits of the domestic 
 fowl. 
 
 The critical periods with the turkey are about the third day 
 after they are hatched, and when they have thrown out the 
 " red head," as it is called, which they do when about six weeks 
 oli To carry them safely through the first, avoid overfeeding, 
 and secure them against unfavorable changes of temperature. 
 In the latter case, give them a plenty of food, and render it as 
 nutritious as possible by adding boiled eggs, wheaten grits, 
 bruised hemp seed, or bruised beans. 
 
140 
 
 Domestic Ahimals. 
 
 Cobbett says : " As to fattening turkeys, the best w&j is to 
 never let them get poor. Barley meal mixed with skimmed 
 milk and given them fresh wUl make them fat in a short tiin'e. 
 Boiled potatoes mixed with corn meal wiU furnish a change of 
 sweet food which they relish much, and of which they may 
 eat as much as they can." 
 
 IV.— THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. 
 The domestic goose has acknowledged the sway of man for 
 ages — perhaps since the days of Noah. Homer mentions them, 
 where Penelope, relating her dream, says : " I have twenty 
 geese at home, that eat wheat out of water, and I am delighted 
 to look at them." Their cackling, it wUl be remembered, saved 
 
 Fig 42. 
 
 £UBDEN OB BREMEN GeeSB. 
 
POTTLTET. 141 
 
 Borne from the Gauls, b.o. 388. Their wild original is tmknown, 
 the wild geese of the present day being of a different species. 
 
 Of the common domestic goose there is really but one vari- 
 ety divided into several sub-varieties, marked by more or less 
 permanent distinctive characteristics — -of these the Toulouse 
 goose and the Bremen goose are probably the best. The for- 
 mer is gray and the latter white. The "White China goose prob- 
 ably belongs to a distinct species. It is a beautiful bird, but 
 comes properly under the head of ornamental poultry, of which 
 we have little to say. It can be kept with advantage only ia 
 a warm climate. 
 
 Where there are facilities for keeping them, geese are consid- 
 ered the most profitable of all our domestic birds. The chief 
 requisites for goose keeping are a pond or pool of water and a 
 pasture for grazing. 
 
 The domestic gander is polygamous, but should not, Mormon- 
 like, be allowed an unlimited number of wives. Three is suf- 
 ficient, and some recommend to allow only two geese to each 
 gander. Comfortable and well-ventilated apartments should 
 be provided for geese, so constructed as to secure them against 
 rats, weasels, skunks, etc. A separate room for the sitting 
 goose is desirable. Her period of incubation is about thirty 
 days. Thirteen eggs are the usual number given to the goose. 
 She always covers them when absent from the nest. 
 
 " On the first day after the goslings are hatched," Mr. Bement 
 says, "they may be let out, if the weather be warm, care being 
 taken not to let them be exposed to the unshaded heat of the 
 sun, which might kill them. The food given them is prepared 
 with some barley or Indian meal coarsely ground, bran, and 
 raspings of bread, which are still better if soaked and boiled in 
 milk, or lettuce leaves and crusts of bread boiled in milk. On 
 the second day a fresh-cut turf is placed before them, and its 
 fine blades of grass or clover are the first objects wLich seem 
 to tempt their appetites. A little boiled hominy and rice, with 
 broad crumbs, form their food for the first few days, fresh 
 water in a shallow vessel, which they can dabble in and out 
 
142 Domestic Animals. 
 
 ■witiout difficulty, being duly provided. Afterward advantage 
 must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out on grast 
 for a few hours ; but if cold and damp, they should remain in 
 their house, in which every attention should be paid to cleanli- 
 ness by a constant supply of clean straw. After two weeks 
 we cease these special precautions against exposure to the 
 weather, and find them perfectly able to shift for themselves, 
 in company with their mothers and the others of their race. 
 For some weeks, however, extra supplies of food, such as bran 
 or corn meal mixed with boiled or steamed vegetables, may be 
 given them twice a day, morning and evening, continuing to 
 give them this food tiU the wings begin to cross on the back, 
 and after this, green food, which may be mixed with it, such 
 as lettuce, cabbage, beet leaves, and such like. The pond is 
 strictly forbidden them under aU circumstances for the first two' 
 weeks, and in severer weather for a longer period. Exposure 
 to heavy rain out of doors, and a damp floor in the house where 
 they are placed at night, are the main hazards to be avoided." 
 One of the greatest sources of profit in goose keeping is the 
 sale of the feathers ; but plucking them from the living geese 
 is a practice so full of cruelty that we can not conscientiously 
 give any directions for the process. A writer in one of the 
 magazines recommends sTiearing instead of plucking. He 
 says: "Feathers are but of a year's growth, and in the moult- 
 ing season they spontaneously fall o^ and are supplied by a 
 fresh fleece. When, therefore, the geese are in fuU feather, let 
 the plumage be removed, very close to the skin, by sharp scis- 
 sors, clipping them off as sheep are shorn ; they wiU be renew- 
 ed at moulting in the usual course of nature. The produce 
 would not be much reduced in- quantity, while the quality 
 would be greatly improved, and an indemnification be experi- 
 enced in the consciousness of not having tortured the poor bird, 
 and in the uninjured health of the fowl, and the benefit obtain- 
 ed in the succeeding crop. After this operation shall have 
 been performed, the down from the breast may be removed 
 by the same means." 
 
POTTLTET. 14.3 
 
 T.— THE BOME8TI0 DtTCK. 
 
 The origin of the tame duck is not a well settled point. 
 Dixon supposes it to have been imported from India and China 
 in or about the year 1493. 
 
 Of the numerous varieties known to the poulterer, Mr. 
 Giles, of Woodstock, Conn., whom we have already had occa- 
 sion to quote, recommends, for those who desire to keep ducks 
 for use and not for ornament merely, the Eouen, the Java, and 
 the Aylesbury. 
 
 The Eouen duck, originally from Rouen, France, is of a 
 dark-brown plumage; legs and feet a dark dusky red; bill at 
 the base black, tapering down toward the point a dark green, 
 sometimes streaked with yellow; long in the body, with a 
 small neck. The drakes are invariably the color of the wild 
 Mallard drake, having a white ring around the neck ; legs and 
 feet a bright red ; bill a bright yellow ; flesh darker and higher 
 flavored than the common duck. Very prolific, hardy, and 
 easy to raise ; will weigh at foil maturity from eighteen to 
 twenty pounds a pair. 
 
 The Java duck, originally from Java. Plumage a glossy 
 black ; neck long ; round body ; legs and feet black, and black 
 bill. Drakes <are black, head and neck bordering on a dark 
 green ; yellow bill ; with bright red legs and feet. The Java 
 ducks will attain to nearly the same weight as the Rouens — 
 flesh similar. 
 
 The Aylesbury duck, originally from the town of Aylesbury, 
 England. Plumage a beautifiil white, with white bill; legs 
 and feet a bright pink, ornamental in appearance; easy to 
 propagate; producing white downy feathers, white skin, and 
 delicate, savory flesh; wiU weigh from fifteen to eighteen pounds 
 the pair. Sit the eggs under hens, and have them hatch out 
 early. With care you can have large ducks. 
 
 The Wild Mallard duck is often domesticated. It is a very 
 beautiful bird and becomes quite tame, rearing broods like the 
 common duck; but no permanent tame race has yet been de- 
 rived from them. 
 
144 Domestic Animals. 
 
 The Mnsk or Brazilian duck is from the tropical regions ot 
 South America. It is a singular bird In appearance and in 
 habits, but we see little to recommend it, either for use or orna- 
 ment. 
 
 The Wood duck, the most beautiful of its genus, so common 
 in all parts of the North American continent, is also easily 
 domesticated. It also wiU breed in its domesticated state. 
 
 Ducks are easily kept where there is access to a pond, pool, 
 stream, or swamp. They wiU eat almost anything, animal of 
 vegetable. The refuse of the kitchen garden is always accept- 
 able to them, and where grass is not attainable, something of 
 this kind must be regularly supplied. 
 
 " The duck-house," Bement says, " should, if possible, be of 
 brick, and paved with the same material, with considerable in 
 olinaHon, so that the wet, when the floor is sluiced down^ may 
 s^ once pass off. Wood is seldom secure against rats, and does 
 not so weU suit the cleaning process of water and the lime- 
 brush, and few places require their application more frequently. 
 Do not crowd your birds, and always arrange for good venti- 
 lation. When the flook is large, separate the young ones, that 
 they may thna have the advantage of better food, and that no 
 risk may be incurred of finding the eggs of the cider ones trod- 
 den under foot and broken at your morning visit. On this ac- 
 count the laying ducks should always have plenty of room, and 
 be kept by themselves. Ducks, for these reasons, as well as 
 for the sake of cleanliness, should never share the habitation of 
 fowls, and ft-om geese they are liable to persecution. Yet, 
 where fowls are kept, a little contrivance will suffice to make 
 their berth, even in a fowl-house, tolerably comfortable. In 
 winter, a thin bedding of straw or rushes should be placed on 
 the floor, and frequently changed." 
 
 The duck is a prolific layer, and her eggs are very rich and 
 highly flavored, and are much relished by some persons. One 
 duck's egg is considered of equal culinary value to two fowl's 
 
 According to Mr. Parmentier, one drake is sufficient 
 
146 Domestic Animals. 
 
 eight or ten ducks, but others limit the number to from fom 
 to six. 
 
 Ducks are not so easily persuaded to lay in nests prepared 
 for them, but prefer to choose a place out-of-doors to deposit 
 their eggs. If the nest selected he tolerably secure, it is bettef 
 to allow them to sit there than to attempt their removal. 
 Thirteen eggs are a full aUoTvance for a duck, and these should 
 be as fresh as possible. The period of incubation varies con- 
 siderably, but twenty-eight days is perhaps about the average 
 time. The treatment of the young brood should be similar to 
 that recommended for goslings. Boiled potatoes and hominy, 
 or coarse corn meal, make excellent food for them. It is better 
 to give them no uncooked food for several weeks after they are 
 hatched. 
 
 To fatten ducks you must give them a plenty of good grain 
 (corn and oats are to be preferred), and not allow them access 
 to too much garbage. AH fish and flesh, and especially putrid 
 animal matter, of which they are fond, must be excluded fi:om 
 their diet, or the flavor of their flesh will be destroyed. 
 
 VI.— PEEPAEATION OP POULTRY FOR MAEKKT. 
 
 Messrs. Drew & French, extensive dealers in farm and 
 market-garden produce, fruits, eggs, poultry, etc., 85 Barclay 
 Street, New York, in answer to various inquiries addressed to 
 them, carefully prepared and published, some time ago, the fol- 
 lowing directions, which should be as carefully followed by all 
 who send poultry to the city markets and wish to get the 
 highest price for it : 
 
 '^ Pirai^-GiYQ no food for twenty-four hours previous to 
 killing. Food in the crop is liable to sour, and always injures 
 the sale. Purchasers objeot to paying for undigested food. 
 
 ''Second— 'Sticking' m the neck with a penknife is the best 
 mode of killing. If the head is cut off, the skin recedes, and 
 the neck bone looks repulsive. 
 
 " TMrcl^M.ost of the poultry coming to this market is badly 
 scalded' or ' wet picked.' ' Dry picked' is preferred, and sella 
 
POTJLTET. 14.7 
 
 a Kttle higher, other things being equal. Great care should 
 be taken m picking to remove aU the pin-feathers, and to avoid 
 tearing the skin, particularly upon the legs, where it is most 
 likely to be broken. If properly scalded, it looks best. 
 
 " Fourth — The Intestines should not be drawn. After pick- 
 ing, the head may be taken ofiF, and the skin drawn over the 
 neck bone and tied. This is best, though much comes with 
 heads on. 
 
 "Fifth — Next in order, it should be 'plumped,' by being 
 dipped about two seconds into water nearly or quite boiling 
 hot, and then at once into cold water about the same length of 
 time. Some think the hot plunge suflacient without the cold. 
 It should be entirely cold but not frozen, before being packed. 
 If it reaches market sound without freezing, it will sell all 
 the better. 
 
 " Sixth — For packing, if practicable, use clean hand-threshed 
 rye straw. If this can not be had, wheat or oat straw will an- 
 swer, if clean and free from dust. Place a layer of straw at 
 the bottom of the box, then alternate layers of poultry and 
 straw — taking care to stow snugly, backs upward, Ming vacan- 
 cies with straw, and filling the package so that the cover will 
 draw down snugly upon the contents. Boxes holding not over 
 300 lbs. are the best packages. 
 
 "Seventh — Number the packages; mark the contents of 
 each on the cover ; place the invoice of the lot in one package, 
 marked 'bill,' sending duplicate by mail; direct plainly to the 
 consignee, placing the name of the consigner in one corner." 
 
us 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 IX. 
 
 BEE-KEEPING. 
 
 Oh, Nature kind I Oh, laborer wUe t 
 
 Tliat Toam'ut along the aummer ray, 
 Gleau'Bt ev'i-y hlian thy life eapplles. 
 
 And meet'at prepar'd thy wintry day : 
 Go— envied, go — with crowded gates, 
 The hive thy rich return awaltu ; 
 Bear home thy store in triumph gay. 
 And shame each Idler on thy way, — Anon, 
 
 -THE 'WONDEES OF THE BEE-HITE. 
 
 HE accounts given, by naturalists and writers on 
 bee-keeping, of the instincts and habits of the 
 bee seem truly fabulous ; and yet they are all 
 founded on observation, and there seems to be 
 no reason for calling them in question. 
 A hive of bees, we are told, consists of three kinds — ^females, 
 males, and workers. The females are called queens, and only 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 The Queen Bbe. 
 
 The Dbohe. 
 
 one is permitted to live in the same hive ; but one is essential 
 to its establishment and maintenance. The males are called 
 drones, and may exist in hundreds, or even thousands, in a 
 
Bee-Keeping. 
 
 149 
 
 hive. The workers, or neuters, are tlie most numerous, and 
 perform all the labor, collecting the honey, secreting the wax, 
 and building the cells. The females Fig. 46. 
 
 and workers have stings at the end 
 of the abdomen, but the drones have 
 none. The queen lives in the inte- 
 rior of the hive, and seldom leaves 
 it except to lead forth a swarm. If 
 she be removed from the hive, the 
 whole swarm will foUow her. The The Woekee. 
 
 queen is not only the governor, but also the mother of the com- 
 munity, she being the only breeder out of 20,000 or 30,000 
 bees, on which account she is loved, respected, and obeyed with 
 all the external marks of devotion which human beings could 
 give to a beloved monarch. 
 
 The queen deposits her eggs in cells previously prepared by 
 the workers to receive them. The eggs producing workers are 
 deposited in six-sided horizontal cells ; the cells of the drones 
 are somewhat irregular ; those of the queens are larger than 
 the others, circular, and hang perpendicularly. The eggs pro- 
 ducing workers are laid first, the queen laying about two hun- 
 dred eggs daily. The eggs of the drones afterward laid are less 
 numerous than those of the workers, in the proportion of about 
 one to thirty. Eggs for queens are deposited in their proper cells. 
 Fig. 4T. one in each, at intervals of one or two days. 
 
 The eggs and larva of the royal family do not 
 differ in appearance from those of the work- 
 ers, but the young are more carefully nurs- 
 ed, and fed with a more stimulating kind of 
 food called "royal jelly," which causes them 
 to grow so rapidly that in five days the larva 
 is prepared to spin its web, and on the six- 
 teenth day becomes a perfect queen. But 
 as only one queen can reign in the hive, 
 A EoTAL Cell, the young ones are kept close prisoners; and 
 carefully guarded against the attacks of the queen mother 
 
150 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 BO long as there is any prospect of her leading out a s-wann. 
 When the old queen departs with a swarm, a young one is 
 liberated, who immediately seeks the destruction of her sisters, 
 but is prevented by the guards. If she lead forth anothei 
 swarm, a second queen is liberated, and so on until further 
 swarming is considered impossible, when the reigning queen is 
 permitted to destroy her sisters. In oases where no new 
 swarm is to be sent off, the queen mother is permitted to 
 assume the office of destroyer. If at any time two queen* 
 happen to come out simultaneously, it is said that a mortal 
 combat takes place at once, and the victor is acknowledged to 
 be the rightful sovereign. On the loss of a queen, the whole 
 swarm is thrown into the greatest confusion, and if there bft 
 no worker eggs or brood out of which a queen can be made 
 by the peculiar process of feeding already mentioned, aU laboi 
 ceases and the bees soon die. 
 
 There are three substances for which the bees forage the 
 fields. First, a resin, or gum, which is on trees; next, the 
 pollen, or fine dust, of flowers ; and lastly, the saccharine mat- 
 ter that is in the flowers. When the cells are to be built, they 
 *«ring home the resin, and stop all the cracks or crevices in the 
 Fig. 43. hive, so that neither the 
 
 rain nor any insect can 
 get in to trouble them. 
 Then they set forth to 
 bring materials for wax, 
 to construct their cells. 
 The wax is made from 
 
 pollen. The bees swallow 
 it, and then hang them- 
 selves in festoons in the 
 hive. In the course of 
 twenty-four hours small 
 rings make their appear- 
 ance on the body. Then 
 the bee detaches itself from the rest of the group, and, descend- 
 
 Festoons op Bees SEOBErnra "Wax. 
 
Bee-Keeping. 
 
 151 
 
 ing to the bottom of the hive, removes the substance which 
 Fig. 49. has now become wax. Each bee fol- 
 
 lows in its turn, and deposits its con 
 tribution, which is directly made use 
 of by the architects in building the 
 cells. 
 
 A Wax-Woezbb. The honey-cells are all six-sided, and 
 
 of the most perfect regularity. Were they squares, or trian- 
 gles, or circles, they would Fig. 51). 
 not fit as closely together, 
 consequently there would 
 be a waste of room. 
 
 "There is a substance 
 called bee bread, which is 
 necessary to the life of the 
 bee. It is made from pol- 
 len, but is entirely unlike 
 wax. In securing it, the 
 bee darts into a flower, Oj.^„_ 
 
 and covers its body with the yellow dust. Now it must con- 
 trive some way to get rid of it, and God has made the last joint 
 but one of each leg hke a brush. These brushes are passed all 
 over the body, and the pollen is collected 
 in two little heaps. The thighs of the last 
 pair of the bees' legs are furnished with 
 two cavities, and these make nice little bas- 
 kets to carry home their treasure. The 
 dust collected from a thousand flowers is 
 now kneaded into little balls, and when 
 these have increased to the size of a grain 
 of pepper, the bee flies home, and enters 
 the cell head foremost. The balls are then 
 Bee's Lbo Maokified. taken from the baskets, and, being moist- 
 ened with a little honey, become bee bread." * 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 * Student and Sclioolmat«. 
 
152 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 One of the greatest wonders of the bee-Mve is the mode in 
 vMch it is ventilated. Fresh air is no less necessary to bees 
 
 than to human beings, and as 
 no provision is made for its sup- 
 ply in the construction of their 
 dwelling, they secure it in this 
 way : " They arrange them- 
 selves in flies along the bottom 
 of the hive. Those outside 
 place their heads toward the 
 entrance, and those within in 
 an opposite direction. When 
 thus stationed, they flap their 
 wings so rapidly that we can 
 GiAss Hive, Showing the Aeeanoe- not see that they have any 
 MENT OF Comb. ^i^gg ^^ g^_ jhis rapid motion 
 
 drives a current of air into the hive, to keep the honey and 
 comb cool." 
 
 II.— THE APIAET AND HITES. 
 
 The situation selected for an apiary or bee-house should be 
 well sheltered from strong winds, and should not be near any 
 large sheet of water. The hives should face the south, the 
 east, or the southeast. They should be placed in a right line ; 
 and it is better to place them on shelves, one above another, 
 than in rows upon the ground. The distance between the 
 hives should be not less than two feet, and their height from 
 the gi-ound about the same. Near the apiary should be some 
 small trees and shrubbery, on which swarms may alight ; but 
 large trees are objectionable. The grass should be frequently 
 mowed around the bee-house, to prevent dampness and destroy 
 the lurking-places of noxious vermin. 
 
 Much difierence of opinion exists in reference to the best 
 form and construction for a bee-hive, and many ingenious plans 
 have been offered by the inventive genius of our country for 
 their improvement. Some of these have peculiar excellences 
 
Bee-Zeeping. 153 
 
 and are worthy of a careful trial, but few if any of them are 
 without some serious objections ; so that practical bee-keepers 
 generally prefer hives of the simplest construction. One of the 
 best hives is made of pine boards an inch or an inch and a 
 quarter thick. The best size is twelve inches square inside and 
 fourteen mches deep. The top should be made of boards fifteen 
 inches square. The boards should be joined carefully, and it is 
 well to apply a coat of paint to the edges before putting them 
 together. Small notches should be made at the bottom for the 
 passage of the bees ; and cross sticks put in for the support of 
 the comb. If the inside of the hive be planed and covered with 
 a thin coating of melted beeswax, it wiU save the bees much 
 labor. Boxes for caps or covers may be fitted to these hives. 
 These may be about seven inches deep and twelve square. 
 They must fit closely the tops of the hives, and may be furnished 
 with glass jars or other vessels for the reception of the honey. 
 Several holes should be made in the top of the hive for the pas- 
 sage of the bees. 
 
 In Poland, where finer honey is produced and bees more 
 successfully cultivated than anywhere else, the excavated trunks 
 of trees are used for hives. Logs a foot or more in diameter 
 and nine feet long are scooped or bored for the length of six 
 feet from one end, the bore being from six to eight inches in 
 diameter. A longitudinal slit is made in this hollow cylinder 
 nearly the whole length and four inches wide. Into this slit is 
 fitted a slip of wood with notches on the edges large enough to 
 admit a single bee. This slip is hung on hinges and forms a 
 door, by the opening of which the condition of the swarm can 
 be seen and the honey be taken out. The top being covered, 
 the trunk is set upright, with the opening toward the south. 
 Sections of hollow trees are often used in this country for hives. 
 
 It is often desirable to carry honey to market without re- 
 moving it jfrom the hive in which it was made, and as few 
 persons will purchase the contents of a large hive, one con- 
 structed in sections has a great advantage in that pavticalar at 
 least. 
 
 7* 
 
154 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 According to the views of Mr. Harasti, a skillful bee-cultiva- 
 tor, as quoted in the "Farmer's Encyclopedia," a good bee-Hve 
 ought to possess the following properties: First, it should be 
 capable of enlargement or contraction according to the size of 
 the swarm. Secondly, it should admit of being opened with- 
 out disturbing the bees, either for the purpose of cleaning it 
 from insects, increasing or dividing the swarm, etc. Thirdly, 
 it should be so constructed that the produce may be removed 
 without injury to the bees. Fourthly, it should be internally 
 clean, smooth, and free from cracks or flaws. All these prop- 
 erties seem best united in the section-hive, which is constituted 
 I'ig- 53. of two, three, four, or more 
 
 square boxes of simOar size 
 as to width, placed over 
 each other. Such hives 
 are cheap, and so simple 
 that almost any one can 
 construct them. 
 
 The boxes A, B, 0, D 
 may be made from ten to 
 fourteen inches square and 
 about five inches in depth, 
 inside measure. Every 
 bee-keeper should have his 
 boxes made of the same 
 Every hive must have a 
 common top-board, a, which should project over the sides of the 
 hive. The top-board of each section should have about sixteen 
 holes bored through at equal distances from each other, and not 
 larger than three fourths or smaller than four fifths of an inch. 
 Or, instead of such holes, chinks of proper size may be cut 
 through to allow the bees to pass up and down. At the lower 
 part of each box or section, in front, there must be an aperture 
 or little door, c, c, c, d, just high enough to let the bees pass, 
 and about an inch and a half wide. The lowermost aperture, 
 Ay is to be left open at first, and when the hive is filled the uppei 
 
 A Sectional Hive. 
 
 size, so as to fit on to each other. 
 
Bee-Keeping. 155 
 
 ones may be successively opened. By placing over the holes in 
 the top of the upper section, glass globes, jars, tumblers, or 
 boxes, the bees will rise into and fill them with honey. These 
 may be removed at any time after being filled. The holes in the 
 tops of the hive which do not open into the glasses or boxes 
 should of course be plugged up. These glass jars, etc., must 
 be covered over with a box, so as to keep them in the dark. 
 Every box or section, on the side opposite the little door, 
 should have a narrow piece of glass inserted, with a sliding 
 shutter, by drawing out which the condi- '^'e- 54. 
 
 tion of the hive can always be inspected. 
 To make the bees place their combs in par- 
 allel lines, five or six sticks or bars may be I 
 placed at the top of every section, running 
 from front to rear. The bees wiU attach 
 their combs to those bars, and the interme- j 
 diate space will aflford sufiicient light to see them work. The 
 slides covering the glasses should never be left open longer than 
 is just necessary for purposes of inspection. 
 
 When one section is removed from the top, a wire or long 
 thin knife must be previously run between this and the one 
 immediately below, so as to destroy the attachments. Then 
 remove the upper section, placing the top upon the one below, 
 which is now the highest division of the hive. Another section 
 is to be placed beneath, lifting up the whole hive for the pur- 
 pose. Sometimes a second section has to be put under during 
 a good season. If the swarm is not very large, three or even 
 two boxes win be suflacient for its accommodation. The boxes 
 or sections may be secured upon each other by buttons, b, i, 
 or rabbets, and the joints closed with cement. 
 
 The plan of Mr. Luda, of Connecticut, by which the bees are 
 made to build their cells and deposit their honey in the cham- 
 ber of a dwelling-house appropriated for the purpose, in neat 
 little drawers, from which it may be taken fresh by the owner, 
 without killing the bees, has obtained deserved celebrity. The 
 hive has the appearance of, and is, in part, a mahogany bureau 
 
156 Domestic Animals. 
 
 or sideboard, with drawers above and a closet below, with 
 glass doors. This case or bureau is designed to be placed in 
 the chamber of a house, or any other suitable building, and 
 connected with the open air or outside of the house by a tube 
 passing through the wall. The bees work and deposit their 
 honey in drawers. When these or any of them are foil, or it 
 is desired to obtain honey, one or more of them ipay be taken 
 out, the bees allowed to escape into the other parts of the hive, 
 and the honey taken away. The glass doors allow the work- 
 ing of the bees to be observed ; and it is said that the spacious- 
 ness, cleanliness, and even the more regular temperature of 
 such habitations, render them the more industrious and suc- 
 cessfol. 
 
 m.— GENERAL DIEECTI0N8. 
 
 1. Swarming. — Huish, in his "Treatise on Bees," says: 
 " The swa/rming of iees generally commences in June ; in some 
 seasons earlier, and in cold climates or seasons later. The first 
 swarming is so long preceded by the appearance of drones and 
 hanging out of woi-king bees, that if the time of their leaving 
 the hive is not observed it must be owing to want of care. 
 The signs of the second are, however, more equivocal, the 
 most certain being that of the queen, a day or two before 
 swarming, at intervals of a few minutes, giving out a sound a 
 good deal resembling that of a cricket. It frequently happens 
 that the swarm wiU leave the old hive and return again several 
 times, which is always owing to the queen not having accom- 
 panied them, or from having dropped on the ground, being too 
 young to fly to a distance. Gooseberry, currant, or other low 
 bushes, should be planted at a short distance from the hives, 
 for the bees to swarm upon, otherwise they are apt to fly 
 away." 
 
 When they collect where they can not be shaken oflf and the 
 hive can not be placed near them, they may be brushed off 
 into a gauze sack, or any vessel in which they can be kept and 
 carried to the hive, which should be set upon a table a littla 
 
Bee-Keeping. I57 
 
 raised on one side to aUow their passage. If seen before they 
 alight, they may often be secured by drawing a large woolen 
 stocking upon the end of a pole and holding it up among them, 
 as they are apt to consider it a favorable object on which to 
 collect. 
 
 "When a hive yields more than two swarms, these should 
 uniformly be joined to others that are weak, as, from the late- 
 ness of the season and deficiency in number, they will other- 
 wise perish. This junction is easily formed, by inverting at 
 night the hive in which they are, and placing over it the one 
 you intend them to enter. They soon ascend, and apparently 
 with no opposition from the former possessors. Should th© 
 weather fbr some days after swarming be unfavorable for the 
 bees going out, they must be fed with care until it clears up, 
 otherwise the young swarm will run great risk of dying." 
 
 Some recommend drawing off swarms without waiting for 
 them to set forth of their own accord. We find the process 
 thus described in the Southern Homestead, : 
 
 "Those who are using a common hive when desiring to 
 draw off a swarm, should let the hive be turned bottom up- 
 ward, and the new hive set upon it ; strike lightly upon the 
 lower hive, and many of the bees wUl ascend into the upper 
 hive ; when a sufficient number has collected in the new hive 
 for a swarm, take it off and set it upon the bench, and return 
 the old one to its former position. In doing this, to insure 
 success, it is necessary that one of the queens should accompany 
 the new swarm, which may be known in the course of a day 
 or two, for if they have no queen, they wiU not stay in the 
 new hive, but will return to the old one ; but if they have a 
 queen, they soon manifest a disposition to commence work, and 
 in the course of twenty-four hours some of the bees may be 
 seen standing near the entrance of the hive, amusing themselves 
 by raising their bodies to the full length of their legs, and giv- 
 ing their wings a rapid motion, making a steady buzzing 
 noise. This may be considered as an indication of their satis- 
 faction and the success of the operation. Some consider mid- 
 
158 Domestic Animals. 
 
 day the most favorable time for doing tliis ; others again prefer 
 the evening — but either vrill answer, and the trouble attending 
 is not greater than that of hiving them when the swarms are 
 allowed to come out in the common manner, and the danger of 
 having them go off is avoided. Another very great advantage 
 of this method is, the young swarms commence working early, 
 by which they are more likely to lay up suflBoient food for the 
 winter." 
 
 2. Rdbhing the Hives. — The old practice, stiU followed by 
 many, is to kOl the bees by suflfooation, whenever the most 
 favorable time has arrived for taking the honey. To suffocate 
 the bees, the hive is inverted over an empty hive or a hole in 
 the ground in which some rags smeared with sulphur are burn- 
 ing. The bees drop down and are buried to prevent resuscita- 
 tion. This is believed by some shrewd and experienced bee- 
 keepers to be the most profitable if not the most humane plan. 
 
 Polish apiarists cut out the comb annually to lessen the 
 tendency to swarming, and thus obtain the largest amount of 
 honey. In sectional hives it is readily taken out without killing 
 the bees ; and where these improved hives, as they are called, 
 are not used, the comb may be cut out by merely stupefying 
 the bees with sulphur or tobacco smoke. The time for taking 
 tip hives depends somewhat upon the season and pasturage; 
 but the quantity of honey does not generally increase after the 
 first of September. 
 
 3. Wintering. — To winter safely a swarm of bees, thirty 
 pounds of honey are considered requisite. Only strong swarms 
 are profitable to winter ; therefore those that are found in the 
 fall to be weak in numbers and with little honey had better be 
 taken up. In the northern portions of the United States means 
 are generally used to protect the swarms in winter, by removal 
 to some cool and dry out-house or cellar ; but many apiarists 
 contend that this practice is not only useless but hurtful, and 
 that hives should not be removed from their usual situations. 
 
 4. Feeding.- — Bees are sometimes fed, when not able to sup- 
 ply their own wants, with a syrup made by dissolving brown 
 
Bee-Keeping. 159 
 
 sugar in water and then boUing it to evaporate the water. 
 Honey is the best food, but is generaUy (unless " Southern" or 
 West India honey be used) too expensive; and, in fact, as a 
 matter of profit, feeding should never be attempted. 
 
 5. Killing the Drone*.— Knowing that the drones consume 
 an immense amount of honey without producing any, and be- 
 lieving that a few of them will answer all the purposes required, 
 Mr. P. J. Mahan, of Philadelphia, recommends getting rid of 
 them, and thus saving the honey that they would consume. 
 His plan for accomplishing this is to cut out the comb contain- 
 ing the cells in which they are to hatch. This, he says, is dif- 
 ficult in the common or box-hive and quite impossible in nearly 
 aU patent hives; but quite easy in Eev. L. L. Langstroth's 
 Movable Comb Hive, in which the combs are built in a frame, 
 similar to a slate or a picture in a frame, which being suspend- 
 ed on a narrow rabbet do not touch or come in contact with 
 the hive at the top, bottom, or sides. Old combs can be put 
 into the frames and be given to the bees to flU for their own 
 use or for breeding combs. 
 
 " By cutting out the combs referred to," Mr. Mahan contin- 
 ues, " the bee-keeper makes a saving of aU the honey fed to 
 them before they are matured; the time occupied by the bees 
 in feeding and nursing them ; and last, though not least, assum- 
 ing one foot as the average, which is capable of producing over 
 4,000 drones, by destroying this there is space sufficient to build 
 combs in which 7,200 ceUs for hatching the workers will be 
 erected ; which, as we have done away with the drones, is fully 
 equal to an accession of 14,400 working bees."* 
 
 This matter is certainly worthy of the attention of bee-keep- 
 ers, and should be fully investigated.! 
 
 * Southern Planter. 
 
 t A large portion of the matter in th'a chap ler, not credited to other sources, 
 has been condensed from the excellent articles on " Beea and Bee-Keeping," 
 Ja the " New American Encyclopedia." 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 HOESE-TAMING— EAEET'S SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The Theoet, 
 
 Thb one principle whicli you must establish flrmly in your mind, and which 
 Is BO cBsenlial in horse-taming that it is almost the corner-stone of the theory 
 ifl the law of kindness. Next to kindness you must have patience, and next to 
 patience indomitable perseverance. "With these qualities in us, and not pos- 
 sessing fear or anger, we undertake to tame horses, with perfect assurance of 
 success, if we use the proper means. The horse receives instruction in, nnd 
 by the use of, four of his senses— namely, seeing, hearing, smelling, and feel- 
 ing. Yoa must remember that the horse is a dnmb brute, has not the faculty 
 of reasoning on experiments that you make on him, but is governed by instinct. 
 In a natural state he is afraid of man, and never, until you teach him that you 
 do not intend to hurt him, will that fear cease — we mean that wild, natural fear 
 — for you must have him fear you as well as love you, before you can absorb his 
 attention as much as is necessary to break him to your liking. It is a principle 
 In the nature of a horse not to offer resistance to our wishes, if made known in 
 a way that he understands, and in accordance with the laws of his nature. 
 
 In subjugating the horse, we must make a powerfal appeal to his intelligence. 
 This can only be done by a physical operation. It is an undisputed fact that 
 the battles of all animals (except such as are garnished with horns) are fought 
 by seizing each other by the throat. A dog that has been thus held by his an- 
 tagonist for a few minutes, on being released, is often so thoroughly cowed that 
 no human artifice can induce him to again resume the unequal contest This 
 is the principle upon which horse-taming is founded. 
 
 2. Peactioal Eijles. 
 
 1. Choking— First Method.— Cho^lug a horse is the first process in taming, 
 and is but the beginning of his education. By its operation a horse becomes 
 docile, and will thereafter receive any instruction which he can be made to un- 
 derstand. Teaching the animal to lie down at our bidding, tends to keep him 
 permanently cured, as it is a perpetual reminder of his subdued condition. 
 
 It requires a good deal of practice to tame a horse successful^ ; also a nice 
 
162 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 judgment to knoTV when he is choked 8ufficient?y, as there is a bare possibility 
 that he might get more than would be good for him. We advise persons not 
 perfectly familiar with a horse to resort rather to the strapping and throwing- 
 down process (unless he is very vicious) described below ; this, in ordinary 
 cases, will prove successful. It is the fault of most people who have owned a 
 horse to imagine that they are expert in his management; while, on the con- 
 trary, many professional horsemen are the very worst parties to attempt a sub- 
 jugation. Unless a man have a good disposition, he need not attempt horse- 
 taming. 
 
 In practicing the method exhibited in fig. 55, retire with the animal to be 
 operated upon into a close stable, with plenty of litter upon the floor (tan-bark 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 or sawdust is preferable). In 
 the first place fasten up the left 
 fore-leg with the arm strap, in 
 such a manner that it will he 
 permanently secured. Then 
 take abroad strap and buckle 
 and pass it around the neck 
 just back of the jaw-bone. 
 Draw the strap as tight as 
 possible, 80 tight as to almost 
 arrest the horse's breathing. 
 The strap must not be buck- 
 led, but held in this position 
 to prevent slipping back. The 
 animal will struggle for a few 
 minutes, when he will become 
 perfectly quiet, overpowered 
 by a sense of suffocation ; the 
 veins in his head will swell ; his eyes lose their fire ; his knees totter and be- 
 come weak ; a slight vertigo will ensue, and growing gradually exhausted, by 
 backing him around the stable, he will come down on his knees, in which po- 
 sition it is an easy matter to push him on his side, when his throat should be 
 released. Now pat and rub him gently for about twenty minutes, when, in 
 most instances, he will be subdued. It is only in extreme cases necessary to 
 repeat the operation of choking. The next lesson is to teach him to lie down 
 which is described in the account of the fourth method of taming. No horse 
 can effectually resist the terrible effects of being choked. 
 
 It must be constantly borne in mind, that the operator must not be boisterous 
 or violent, and that the greatest possible degree of kindness is absolutely es- 
 sential. "When the horse is prostrate, he should be soothed until his eyes show 
 that he has become perfectly tranquil. 
 
 2. Second Method.~The plan described in fig. 56 is very simple, though not 
 as expeditious as the previous one. Buckle or draw a strap tight around the 
 neck, lift a fore-leg, and fasten around it the opposite end of the strap, the 
 shorter the better. In the engraving, for the sake of elearness, the strap ii 
 
Appendix. 
 
 163 
 
 represented too long. It will be seen that in this plan the horse is made the 
 Instrument by which the punishment is inflicted. "When he attempts to pul 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 hia foot aown, Ms head goes with it, and ho thus chokes himself. Care should 
 be taken that he does not pitch on his head, and thus endanger his neck. 
 
 3. Tliird MeGhod. — Secure the horse with a stout halter to the manger. If 
 extremely unruly, muz- Fig. B7. 
 
 zle him. Booth him 
 with the handa for a 
 few minutes, until he 
 becomes somewhat pa- 
 cified. Then seize him 
 by the throat (as in fig. 
 57), close to the jaw- 
 bone, with the right 
 hand, and by the mane 
 with the left. Now forc- 
 ibly compress his wind- 
 pipe until he becomes 
 80 exhausted that, by 
 lightly kicking him on 
 the fore legs, he will lie 
 down, after which he 
 should be treated as 
 previously described. This process requires courage in the operator, and als* 
 great muscular strength. 
 
 4. Fourth, MetTtod.—The horse to be operated upon should be led into a close 
 stable. The opowtor should be previously provided with a stout leather hal- 
 ter; a looped strap to slip over the animal's knee ; a strong surcingle, and a 
 long and short atrap-the first to fasten round the fore-foot which is at Uberty. 
 
164: Appendix. 
 
 and the second to permanently secure the leg which ia looped up. The appl> 
 cation of the straps "will be better understood by reference to fig. 58. 
 
 In the first place, if the horse be a biter, muzzle him; then lift and bend his 
 left fore-leg, and slip a loop over it. The leg which is looped up must be secur- 
 ed by applying the short strap, buckling it around the pastern joint and fore- 
 arm ; next put on the surcingle, and fasten the long strap around the right fore- 
 foot, and pass the end through a loop attached to the surcingle ; after which 
 fasten on a couple of thick leather knee-pads— these can be put on in the first 
 place if convenient. The pads are necessary, as some horses in their struggles 
 come violenUy on their knees, abrading them badly. Now take a short hold 
 of the long strap with your right hand ; stand on the left side of the horse, 
 grasp the bit in your left hand ; whUe in this position back him gently about 
 the stable, until he becomes so exhausted as to exhibit a desire to lie down, 
 which desire should be gratified with as little violence as possible ; bear yoiu" 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 Weight firmly against the shoulder of the horse, and pull steadily on the strap 
 with your right hand ; this will force him to raise his foot, which should be im- 
 mediately pulled from under him. This is the critical moment ; cling to the 
 horse, and after a few struggles he will lie down. In bearing against the ani- 
 mal do not desist fi*om pulling and pushing until you have him on his side. 
 Prevent him from attempting to rise by pulling his head toward his shoulder. 
 As soon as he is done struggling, caress his face and neck ; also, handle every 
 part of his body, and render yourself as familiar as possible. After he has lain 
 quietly for twenty minutes let him rise, and immediately repeat the operation, 
 removing the straps as soon as he is down ; and if his head is puHed toward his 
 shoulder it is impossible for htm to get up. After throwing him from two to 
 five times the animal will become as submissive and abject as a well-trained 
 dog, and you need not be afraid to indulge in any liberties with him. A young 
 horse is subdued much quicker than an old one, as his habits are not confirm- 
 ed. An incorrigible horse should have two lessons a day ; about the fourth 
 
Appendix. 165 
 
 lesson he will be permanently conquered. If the operation is repeated several 
 times, he can be made to lie down by simply lifting up his fore-leg and repeat- 
 ing the words, " Lie down, sir," which he must be previously made familiar 
 with. 
 
 5. Additional HinU. — The following rules will serve as a guide to the ama- 
 teur operator, and should be strictly observed : 
 
 Pirst. The horse must not be forced down by violence, but must be tired out 
 till he has a strong desire to lie down. 
 
 Second. He must be kept quiet on the ground until the expression of the eye 
 shows that he is tranquillized, which invariably takes place by patiently waiting 
 and gently patting the horse. 
 
 Third. Care must be taken not to throw the horse upon his neck when bent, 
 pvs it may easily be broken. 
 
 Pourth. In backing him, no violence must be used, or he may be forced on 
 his haunches, and his back broken. 
 
 Pifth. The halter and otf-rein are held in the left hand, so as to keep the 
 head away from the latter ; while, if the horse attempts to plunge, the halter is 
 drawn tight, when, the off-leg being raised, the animal is brought on his knees, 
 and rendered powerless for offensive purposes.— -JTot York TribuM. 
 
168 
 
 Index. 
 
 PAGE 
 P. 
 
 Piggery 107 
 
 Poultry 118 
 
 " Pentalogxie 136 
 
 " Preparation of for Market .. 946 
 
 S. 
 
 Sheep, Breeds of T3 
 
 " Native 74 
 
 " Spanish Merino 74 
 
 " Saxon do. 76 
 
 " New Leicester 76 
 
 " Sontli-Down 78 
 
 " Cheviot 80 
 
 " Lincoln 81 
 
 " Choice of Breed 81 
 
 " General Management of ... 82 
 
 " Value of to the Farmer 92 
 
 Swine, Natural History of. 9S 
 
 PAOR 
 
 Swine, Opinions respecting 97 
 
 " Breeds 98 
 
 " The Land Pike 99 
 
 " Chinese 99 
 
 " Berkshire lOu 
 
 " Suffolk 101 
 
 " Essex 102 
 
 " Chester 102 
 
 " Pointsof 1114 
 
 " Feeding 104 
 
 Stables 29 
 
 Swarming 156 
 
 T. 
 
 Turkey 188 
 
 Taming Horses Jftl 
 
 ■w. 
 
 Water-Gure for Ani^iils US 
 
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