THE GIFT OF 
 
 SlHrci C. Barnes. 
 
Cornell University Library 
 BS620 .Ml 5 
 
 Pible manners and customs. 
 
 olin 
 
 3 1924 029 281 116 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924029281 1 1 6 
 
BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
BIBLE MANNERS 
 
 AND 
 
 CUSTOMS 
 
 REV. G. M. MACKIE, M.A. 
 
 For Twenty Years Missionary of the Church 
 of Scotland at Beyrout 
 
 THIRTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 New York Chicago Toronto 
 
 Fleming H. Revell Company 
 
 Publishers of Evangelical Literature 
 
 T 
 
AUTHORISED EDITION 
 
PREFACE 
 
 An artist engaged on a classical picture and wishing to 
 paint a Greek lyre inquired of a young university friend 
 as to the ordinary colour of that instrument. The student 
 had seen illustrations of its form, could quote from the 
 Latin poets about it, and tell the familiar story of Orpheus 
 and his lyre, but he had never pictured to himself its 
 actual coloured appearance. 
 
 The endeavour to supply such local colouring to the 
 common objects and occupations referred to in the Bible 
 will excuse the enumeration in the following pages of 
 many details that in themselves might seem insignificant. 
 
 It is hoped that the study of these manners and 
 customs will convey an impression similar to that which 
 is produced by residence in Palestine. With much that 
 explains and confirms Scripture, the chief teaching of the 
 Holy Land is a demonstration of something absent. The 
 body is not the spirit and the form is not the life. These 
 earthly accompaniments of revelation confess, by their 
 impotent survival to-day, that they originated nothing. 
 But in a very special manner this land has heard the 
 voice of the Lord, and its customs and institutions still 
 preserve echoes of the tone and teaching of the Divine 
 Word. 
 
 Of the books that may be profitably consulted, the 
 standard work of reference is Thomson's Land and the 
 
xii BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Booh. Its arrangement, agreeably to its twofold title, 
 is that of a pilgrimage under the charge of a well-informed 
 guide rather than a classified treatment of the different 
 subjects. More on the lines of the present text -book 
 are Eastern Customs in Bible Lands by Canon Tristram, 
 and Dr. Trumbull's Studies in Oriental Social Life, both 
 published by Hodder and Stoughton. 
 
 G. M. MACKIE. 
 
 Beyrout, Stria, 
 iUh June 1898 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. Inteoduotion 
 
 II. Climate, Seasons, Scenery, and "Weather 
 
 III. SlIEl'IIEKDS AND PEASANTS 
 IV. TilADHS AND PeOFES.SIONS 
 
 V. Domestic Life and Family Relationships 
 VI. Social, Political, and Eeligious Life 
 
 FAOB 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 56 
 
 88 
 
 128 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Festival Procession passing Gethsemane . . Frontispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jar foe Olives 6 
 
 fokding the jordan 19 
 
 GOTTKDS AND EAKTHEN PlTOHERS 30 
 
 Shepherd's Rod and Staff 31 
 
 Oriental Plough 39 
 
 Threshing-Floor ... .... 40 
 
 Threshing and Winnowing Instruments ... 41 
 
 Winepress 45 
 
 Vineyard Booth 48 
 
 Chequer-Work 60 
 
 Broidered-Woek 61 
 
 Mason's Tools 64 
 
 Engraving in Wood and Metal 67 
 
 Bracelet and Necklace 69 
 
 A Tray of Bread ... .... 71 
 
 Labourers Waiting at Daybreak ... 77 
 
 Potter's Wheel 78 
 
 Oriental Pottery 79 
 
 Shepherd's Tent go 
 
XVI 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Okiental House 
 
 Latticed Window 
 
 Hand-Mill 
 
 Oriental Ewer and Basin . 
 
 Cloak and Embroidered Shirt 
 
 Oriental Male Costumes 
 
 Shoes and Sandals 
 
 Sacred Fringe 
 
 Female Costumes . 
 
 City Gate 
 
 Amulet 
 
 PAGE 
 
 91 
 96 
 
 106 
 109 
 111 
 113 
 114 
 116 
 132 
 152 
 
BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTKODtrCTION 
 
 He tliat is older tlian you by a day is wiser than you by a year. 
 
 Kespectfor Age — Syricm Proverb. 
 
 1. The Subject. Bible Illustration by means of present- 
 day Manners and Customs in Bible Lands — such is the 
 subject of this text-book. 
 
 In modern Palestine and Syria there are a great many 
 things in the climate and landscape, in plant and animal 
 life, in the habits and occupations of the people, in their 
 modes of dress and forms of speech, that are exactly the 
 same as those alluded to in the Bible. 
 
 This wonderful continuance of unchanged custom, 
 during so long a period, is chiefly due to the following 
 causes : (1) the Oriental kinship of the present inhabitants 
 with the ancient Israelites; (2) the close resemblance 
 between the Hebrew language and the Arabic which is 
 now spoken ; (3) the suitableness of the customs to the 
 climate and industries of the land ; (4) the reluctance to 
 admit changes under what is called the patriarchal form 
 of government, where the sheikhs or heads of chief 
 families, from father to son, rule over their several 
 districts. 
 
 1 
 
2 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 So great is this resemblance with regard to natural 
 surroundings, dress, and occupations, with reference also 
 to common opinion and sentiment about life, work, home, 
 and religion, that if the same events were to happen 
 again in Palestine, and the truths of Scripture were now 
 to be told for the first time, the description and statement 
 of them would inevitably take the mould and form with 
 which we are already familiar in the Bible. 
 
 2. Its Importance. — There are three principal advan- 
 tages connected with this study of Bible Manners and 
 Customs. 
 
 (1) /< helps us to v/nderstand better the life and character 
 of the men, and women of the Bible. — In the scientific study 
 of plants and animals it is a recognised principle that 
 while ultimately ministering to our needs, they, in the first 
 instance, exist for their own. Thus, the colour and scent 
 of flowers, the honey of the bee, the iridescence on the 
 bird's wing, the tusk of the elephant, the "recognition 
 marks " of the dove and deer, can only be accounted for 
 on the principle that they are first of all useful to those 
 they belong to ; after that they are prized in the great 
 human market, and serve us for food and clothing. 
 Similarly, we should not grudge to those of whom we 
 read in the Bible the first right to their own lives. They 
 have served as encouragements and warnings to other 
 generations, but they had actual personal lives that were 
 lived in their own day, and were affected by the oppor- 
 tunities and difiiculties that belonged to it. We want to 
 speak of them, not merely as book-names, but as living 
 people. They would not have lived for us if they had not 
 first lived in their own generation, and for it. The more 
 we know about their human life and its conditions, the 
 better we shall understand what the word of God did for 
 them and through them. One of the advantages, there- 
 fore, of this study is to impart to our reading of the Bible 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 that sense of reality which Shakespeare coveted when he 
 said, appealing to the sympathy of his audience : — 
 
 Think when we talk of horses that you see them, 
 Printing their proud hoofs i' the receiving earth. 
 
 (2) It explains wnd emphasises the figurative language 
 of Scripture. — Thus when Christ said (John xv. 5) " I am 
 the vine, ye are the branches," and "Apart from me, ye 
 can do nothing," He expressed in both cases the same fact 
 of dependence ; but in the first instance a figure is used, 
 that of the vine and its branches. Whoever would lift up 
 this simile to see and show to others its rich clusters of 
 spiritual truth, would do well to visit the vineyard and 
 watch what the husbandman does in the time of ploughing, 
 pruning, staking, picking, etc. In this way he would 
 come nearest to the meaning that passed from the Speaker 
 to the hearers when the words were first used. 
 
 Such figurative language is much used and appreciated 
 by Orientals. They can employ tefehnical and abstract 
 terms where exactness is required, but they turn to figure 
 when they wish to arouse thought, create interest, and 
 carry conviction. Thus when we say '■'■Necessity has no 
 law," they say " Hunger is an. infidel," that is, has no moral 
 scruples. Instead of saying of any man that he has 
 influence with his master, they say that his hand is strong. 
 The most persuasive form of argument in the East is to 
 show that something in conduct or character corresponds 
 with something in nature. Both in Hebrew and in Arabic 
 a proverb means a resemblance, and this fact of resemblance 
 lies at the root of all Oriental wise sayings. The quotation 
 of an appropriate proverb of this kind in a missionary 
 address always wins for the preacher attention and confi- 
 dence with regard to what he infers from it. It was this 
 charm of resemblance, and the authority of proverbial 
 form that Christ made use of, when He taught and 
 
4 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 influenced the people by His wonderful parables. He 
 pointed to the objects in nature, the customs and occu- 
 pations with which His hearers were familiar ; and those 
 who had eyes and ears found with submission and delight 
 that something within was like something else in the world 
 without. Apart from the power of His own holiness and 
 love, it was an intellectual act that produced an intellectual 
 illuminating result. While their attention and sympathy 
 were given to some tale of human life and labour there 
 rose before them the vision of Salvation, Sainthood, and 
 Service. Somehow, one was like the other. As the 
 Bible abounds in such figurative language, it is important 
 that in our reading of it we should know the objects, 
 occasions, and customs from which it was originally drawn. 
 
 This study of Bible Antiquities will constantly show a modern 
 face. While we study the Oriental life in which the Lord Jesus 
 found the resemblances He needed, we must seek to imitate Him 
 by finding them in our own. Such illustrations will only flash 
 upon a heart full of love to Him and surrendered to His service. 
 Then things before unnoticed at our feet will rise up and walk in 
 parable ; many of the common details of our own daily life will be 
 touched with new spiritual light, and begin to speak with other 
 tongues. 
 
 (3) It explains the relationship of the Divine and 
 human elements in the Bible. — This is important on 
 account of two mistakes. The fact that there is so much 
 in the Bible that is Oriental has led some to declare that 
 it is altogether and only human literature, and that its 
 claim to be the word of God is like the clothing of the 
 Gibeonites, professing to be far -travelled when it was 
 really manufactured close at hand. Others again have 
 regarded the human factor in the Bible as the Israelites 
 regarded the Canaanite in the Land of Promise, as an 
 element to be shunned and eliminated. This has tended 
 to make the Bible unreal and uninviting, and a mystery 
 in the hands of a special class. The truth is rather that 
 the word of God has always been, as it was in the days 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 of the ■wilderness -journey, a holy place and presence 
 encircled by the comings and goings of men, and meant 
 for them. There was indeed a centre that few could reach, 
 but it was in the Tabernacle of the Congregation. It is 
 with the Bible as it was with the Living Word, and as the 
 Christian is commanded to be — in the world, but not of it. 
 
 As the fitly- spoken word of man must have suitable 
 conditions of time, place, and circumstance, so it is with 
 the word of God addressed to man. The apples of gold 
 are placed in a dish of wrought silver. This also is of 
 noble metal, and to make it, many threads are bent and 
 blended together into a design, and the design is repeated 
 to form a vessel of usefulness and beauty, but is inferior to 
 the fruit of gold, and its purpose that of service. So the 
 word of revelation shines in a setting of human disposi- 
 tion, domestic incident, social customs, and amid special 
 surroundings of climate, country, and race. 
 
 We may take another illustration and go a step farther. 
 The relationship of the Divine and human in the Bible is 
 like what happens when olives are put in a new earthen- 
 ware jar. Some of the oil and of the preserving salt 
 penetrates the material of the vessel, and in turn a slight 
 taste of the earth is noticed in the fruit. After a few 
 seasons of continuous use the inner pores are filled with 
 the oil of the olive, and the jar ceases to tell what it is 
 made of. Thus the Holy Spirit was with Peter at Joppa 
 (Acts X. 28), and with the Church at Antioch when it met 
 to hear the first missionary report (Acts xiv. 27), but the 
 joy over the discovery of God's purpose to save the 
 Gentiles also was at first a shock to Jewish prejudice. 
 The Bible shows how this taint of former associations was 
 removed. 
 
 When the human element is recognised within its own 
 limits, it implies at the same time a clearer recognition of 
 that spiritual power working in and with the Bible, what- 
 
6 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 ever our names, definitions, and theories about it, which 
 has already behind it a great cloud of witnesses, and still 
 sustains and sanctifies the children of God. In this 
 endeavour to know more about the people of the Bible, 
 to understand its spiritual language more clearly, and to 
 learn how God's grace was entrusted to earthen vessels, 
 and His power passed through human channels, it will be 
 
 JAR FOR OLIVES. 
 
 both interesting and helpful to study the climate and 
 conditions, the surviving habits, familiar folk-lore, and 
 popular proverbs of the people now living in the land. 
 
 3. Arrangement. — In exploring this field of parable 
 and Scripture illustration, the description will resemble 
 the natural features of the country, which rises from 
 boundary plains and valleys to central hills and mountains. 
 That is to say, there will be something to learn from (1) 
 the Scenery, Climate, and Seasons of Palestine ; then the 
 humble walks of (2) Pastoral and Agricultural life will 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 invite attention ; these in turn will bring under our notice 
 (3) the various Trades and Professions; we shall then pass 
 to (4) the Home and Family relationships ; and, finally, 
 from the foregoing, we shall have a general view of (5) 
 the Social, Political, and Religious life of Palestine. 
 
 4. There is one important requisite without which this 
 excursion can neither be pleasant nor profitable. An 
 interest in the holy life must go along with its illustration 
 from the Holy Land. It is told of the great painter. 
 Turner, that once, when visited by two friends who had 
 come to see his pictures, he kept them in a closely-shuttered 
 room for a short time before he told the servant to show 
 them upstairs to his studio. He then apologised for the 
 apparent discourtesy, by telling them that they had to get 
 their eyes emptied of the common outside glare before 
 they could see the colours of his pictures. Let us seek 
 this preparation of the shaded room in prayer and 
 meditation upon the life of holiness. 
 
CHAPTEK II 
 
 CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 
 Custom is the fifth element in the universe. — Syrian Proverli. 
 
 Life in Palestine whUe it was largely affected by its 
 industries and institutions, also stood closely related to 
 natural conditions that were beyond the control of man, 
 such as climate, seasons, and weather. The Arabs of 
 to-day recognise this when they say that the Universe is 
 composed of earth, air, fire, water,^ — and custom. As the 
 Bible often refers to the climate and scenery of Palestine, 
 an acquaintance with these gives interest and exactness to 
 its meaning. 
 
 1. Climate. — Palestine is a land of sunshine and out- 
 door life. Although the familiar term " from Dan to 
 Beersheba " indicates quite a small area, about the size of 
 Wales, there is considerable variety of temperature, owing 
 to difference of elevation ; Mount Hermon, with streaks 
 of snow in midsummer, being 9000 feet above the sea, 
 and the Dead Sea 1292 feet below it. Yet, over all, it is 
 characteristically a land of blue skies and sunny warmth. 
 Snow does not fall on the plain along the coast, and there 
 is uninterrupted sunshine from the beginning of May to 
 the end of September. This made it possible for vast 
 numbers to congregate at Jerusalem at the different Feasts, 
 and for large multitudes to remain for several days with 
 Christ in desert places. 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 9 
 
 2, Seasons.' — In the circle of the year, the successive 
 months have much the same relationship to heat and cold 
 as in Great Britain, except that in Palestine it is always 
 considerably warmer. The four seasons are not so dis- 
 tinctly marked as in more northern countries. The 
 leading features of the year are those indicated in the 
 promise to Noah — "seed-time and harvest, cold and heat, 
 summer and winter" (Genl viii. 22). The rainless period 
 makes a natural division of five and seven months, and 
 the Arabs usually speak of the year as summer and 
 winter. Spring is referred to by its special name as 
 Growing-time, but autumn loses some of the meaning that 
 it has at home, owing to the fact that, while grapes, 
 olives, and other fruits mature then, the important grain 
 harvest is earlier in May and June. This is the time of 
 harvest referred to in Josh. iii. 15, 1 Sam. xii. 17. In 
 the same way, alluding to the grain harvest, the prophet 
 follows the natural course of events when he says, " The 
 harvest is past, the summer is ended " (Jer. viii. 20). 
 
 3. Months. — A short account of the months will show 
 what the year brings to young and old in Palestine. 
 
 (1) January. — This is the month of severest cold, 
 darkest days, and heaviest rain. Snow falls on Lebanon 
 and highest ridges, and is preserved there until the warm 
 weather of March and April melts it to supply the 
 fountains for summer use. 
 
 (2) February. — Showers and sunshine rapidly alternate. 
 The Arabs call it " the one-eyed " — a face dark on one side 
 and bright on the other. They also say of it " February 
 has no rules,'' and " Though February storms and blusters, 
 it has the smell of summer in it." Almond-trees blossom, 
 late barley is sown. 
 
 (3) March. — High winds, but more sunshine. The 
 showers of March and April are "the latter rain" of 
 Scripture, not usually affecting the deep roots of the fruit- 
 
10 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 trees, but refreshing the standing crops of barley and 
 wheat before they whiten to the harvest. Sometimes, 
 however, the heaviest rainfall of the year occurs at this 
 time. Apricot-trees join the almond in white array, like 
 the hawthorn hedges at home. 
 
 (4) April. — This is the month of flowers, and the land 
 looks more green and beautiful than at any other season 
 of the year. Now and then hot, dry winds from the 
 Syrian desert blow for three days at a time, melting the 
 snow and hastening all forms of vegetation. Harvesting 
 begins in the Jordan valley and in early parts of the 
 sea^side plain. Fruit-trees generally — peach, pomegranate, 
 olive, and such like — are in blossom and young foliage. 
 
 (5) May. — The sun increases in strength ; rain ceases 
 for about five months. Flowers disappear and grass 
 withers. Harvesting in plains and low land. Spring 
 fruits are ready, such as green almonds, apricots, and 
 early plums. Vines are in blossom. 
 
 (6) June. — Harvesting is continued on higher ground. 
 The land lies bare and parched for summer rest, except 
 where there are fruit-trees, vines, and irrigated gardens 
 for vegetables. 
 
 (7) July. — The increasing summer heat is tempered by 
 cool westerly breezes. During this and the following 
 month the peasants are busy on the threshing-floors. 
 
 (8) Auffust. — The hottest month of the year, the 
 average on the coast plain being 87° in the shade at mid- 
 day, and considerably higher by the Sea of Galilee and in 
 the lower Jordan valley. Grapes, figs, peaches, apples, 
 and pears ripen. 
 
 (9) September. — The ordinary summer heat is often 
 intensified by siroccos or desert winds more prolonged 
 than those of spring, with temperature ranging from 90° 
 to a little over 100°- Figs are dried for winter use, and 
 grapes are made into raisins, syrup, and wine. Pome- 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 11 
 
 granates, quinces, and bananas ripen. The first shower 
 after the long drought of summer usually falls about the 
 end of this month, followed by a fortnight of bright, hot 
 weather. 
 
 (10) October. — Conclusion of grape and fig harvest, 
 olives are gathered, fatted sheep killed, and storage of 
 supplies for winter use attended to. Sugar-cane and dates 
 are ripening. Heavier showers fall — " the early rain'' of 
 Scripture. Ploughing commences, the hard, dry ground 
 having now been softened by rain. 
 
 (11) November. — Continuance of ploughing and wheat 
 and barley sowing. 
 
 (12) December. — Heavier rains and cooler weather, 
 with snow on Lebanon towards the end of the month. 
 Oranges, citrons, and lemons ripen. Vines are pruned in 
 this and following month. 
 
 4. Day and Night. — In Palestine there is a difierence 
 of about four hours between the longest and shortest days 
 of the year. Sunrise is a distinct moment, bringing a 
 swift and unmistakable change over the landscape. The 
 stars rapidly vanish, a flush of lilac spreads over the 
 eastern sky, with long streaks of pink radiating from a 
 yellow centre that every moment grows brighter and 
 brighter. Then in a moment, with a suddenness that 
 almost suggests some accompanying sound, the sun 
 emerges from behind the hills, a glittering disc in a 
 cloudless sky. Instantly " the shadows flee away." They 
 hasten out of sight as if detected in evil-doing. You can 
 see the swiftly-moving line of division between the light, 
 with its sparkle and detail, and the shadow lying dull and 
 indistinct. As the sun rises rapidly higher and sends 
 shafts of light over the plains and down into the open 
 valleys and mountain glens, you see clumps of pine, slopes 
 of olive, and gray nestling villages suddenly springing into 
 life as if startled out of sleep. The Bible allusions to the 
 
12 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 approach of light and the dispersion of darkness, whether 
 natural or spiritual, all belong to the Oriental sunrise, and 
 carry an emphasis that would scarcely suggest itself in 
 northern lands, where the dawn, beautiful in its own 
 way, advances imperceptibly towards a milder radiance. 
 It is this authority of the sunrise, the sudden call, and 
 the sharp distinction between light and shade, that we 
 find in Is. Ix. 1, 2, "Arise, shine, for thy light is come.' 
 See also Ps. cxxxix. 12, Is. Iviii. 8, Matt. v. 14, Acts 
 xxvi. 18, 2 Cor. iv. 4, vi. 14, Eph. v. 8. So the blessing 
 of Moses (Num. vi. 24-27) takes its form from the sun- 
 rise, and implies the same good to the soul that the sun 
 brings to the world. To the Oriental mind sunlight means 
 Light, Life, and Purity. Regarding purity, one of their 
 proverbs says, "The eye of the sun needs no veil," 
 meaning that it has no sin to hide — it is absolutely pure. 
 These are also the leading thoughts in Ps. xix. 7, 8, where 
 the law of the Lord is compared to sunlight. The same 
 associations give the beautiful simile of the just ruler in 
 2 Sam. xxiii. 4. 
 
 From 12 to 3 p.m. is the time of greatest heat. 
 Matt. XX. 12. The fierce rays strike down from above, 
 the glare flashes up from the stony ground, the air quivers, 
 and the mountains have a flattened-down appearance 
 under the heat-haze. Plants hang limp and drooping, birds 
 cease to twitter in the branches, at times the cicalas or 
 tree- crickets make the silence startling by a pause in 
 their deafening zee-zee chirping, and the shepherd gathers 
 his flock around him under the shelter of a walnut-tree 
 by the brook, or under the shadow of a rock goes to 
 sleep with his reed-flute in his hand. It is an hour that 
 gives vividness and reality to many familiar phrases and 
 allusions. To one resting in the cool shade from such 
 oppression, there comes a new wealth of meaning into the 
 words, "He restoreth my soul" (Ps. xxiii. 3), "under the 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHEE 13 
 
 shadow of the Almighty" (Ps. xci. 1), "the sun shall not 
 smite thee by day " (Ps. cxxi. 6), " above the brightness 
 of the sun" (Acts xxvi. 13), "neither shall the sun light 
 on them nor any heat" (Rev. vii. 16). 
 
 As the afternoon advances the air becomes cooler, and 
 beautiful shades of colour take the place of dusty gray and 
 common brown, especially where the light falls on the 
 lofty Lebanon, the hills around Galilee, or the cliffs that 
 rise up behind the Dead Sea. 
 
 The sun sets as rapidly as it rose. As one watches 
 the bright descent behind the Mediterranean, the familiar 
 words come to mind, " the sun knoweth his going down " 
 (Ps. civ. 19). And everybody in the land knows it; not 
 only the labourer in the open field, but also the workman 
 down in the narrow street of the town. There is no need 
 of city clock or factory bell to announce the hour. " Man 
 goeth forth unto his work and to his labour until the 
 evening " (Ps. civ. 23). When the sun sets, aU work 
 ceases. 
 
 The short time before and after sunset is the cool of 
 the evening, when the dry wind from the land begins to 
 blow, and quickly becomes cooler than the moist day- 
 breeze from the sea. Isaac availed himself of it ; and at 
 Beyrout, Damascus, Sidon, and Jerusalem it is still the 
 time when the citizens go out to walk or ride for health 
 and pleasure. 
 
 " The beasts of the forest " (Ps. civ. 20) have now for 
 the most part suffered the fate of the forest, but in the 
 mountain villages, as the evening shadows move up the 
 glens, the jackals creep out and yelp to one another and 
 provoke the challenge of the village dogs. 
 
 Half an hour after sunset the stars begin to rush forth 
 and sparkle in the cloudless sky. As we look up at them, 
 with so much of the diameter of the earth between us and 
 the light, the sky appears darker and the stars larger, 
 
14 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 softer, and more lustrous than in northern lands. They 
 seem to stand out and reach down, as if expecting to be 
 noticed. When Jacob at Bethel lay down to rest, footsore 
 and weary, under the open sky, it was not strange that the 
 Divine word of promise should gather shape and meaning 
 from the two things that the day had forced upon his 
 attention — the infinite dust of the earth, and the infinite 
 glory of the stars. Travellers in the desert usually prefer 
 to journey by night for greater coolness and safety, and 
 still, like the Magi, take their guidance from the stars. 
 
 The moon, especially in autumn, shines with astonishing 
 brightness, and the promise " nor the moon by night " is 
 fuU of meaning in a land where it is dangerous to sleep 
 under its rays, and where the traveller sometimes opens 
 his sunshade to ward off the bewildering dazzle. 
 
 As Orientals reckon time by the lunar month, the day 
 begins and ends with sunset. Thus among the Jews, 
 Saturday night is our Friday evening, a reckoning that 
 survives in the West in our Christmas Eve. The hour of 
 the working -day is reckoned from sunrise; thus, taking 
 sunrise at six, noon is the sixth hour, and the eleventh 
 hour is an hour before sunset. The time varies so little 
 from day to day, and brings such a decisive change as to 
 light and darkness, that appointments made with reference 
 to sunrise and sunset have a precision that would be 
 impossible in a land of clouds and prolonged twilight. 
 
 5. Atmosphere. — As there areneither mists nor mines ii 
 Palestine the air is wonderfully clear. Travellers starting 
 on a day's journey of twenty-five or thirty miles see their 
 point of destination lying distinctly in front of them, and 
 at first wonder why they never seem to come any nearer 
 to it. To one standing on Mount Ebal in Samaria, the 
 southern heights around Jerusalem are visible, and north- 
 wards there is a clear view of Hermon at the southern 
 end of Lebanon rising up behind Dan and the sources of 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 15 
 
 the Jordan. Again from Hermon one can see the plain 
 between the Lebanon ranges narrowing towards the 
 entrance to Hamath. From each of these mountain 
 prospects there is a full view of the plateau esist of the 
 Jordan, and on the west, of the straight coast-line of the 
 Mediterranean. Under this enamelling light remote 
 objects show up clear in outline that in England would lie 
 folded away in blue haze. Visitors to the country are apt 
 to suppose that the land is smaller than it really is, being 
 deceived by the clearness of the atmosphere. For the 
 same reason the Lebanon range rising from 3000 to 10,000 
 feet above the sea looks less sublime . than the hills of 
 Scotland, as its appearance, at least in slimmer, gets no 
 help from moist air and dark clouds shrouding the 
 summits. 
 
 In the Bible all references to distance are in keeping 
 with this extraordinary clearness of the air. 
 
 Abraham saw Moriah " afar off " (Gen. xxii. 4) ; Moses 
 had a complete view of the land he was not to enter 
 (Deut. xxxiv. 1, 2, 3). When John says of the new 
 Jerusalem, "I saw no temple therein" (Rev. xxi. 22), the 
 impression is that of one gazing upon the earthly Jerusalem 
 where, under the beating sunshine and cloudless sky, every- 
 thing stands out sparkling, particular, and unmistakable. 
 
 Thus also we have the distant recognition of Ahimaaz 
 and Jehu. Again in the parables, the prodigal son is seen 
 "afar off," and in the same way, beyond the great gulf, 
 the rich man sees Abraham and Lazarus in his bosom. 
 One of the forms of Christ's Temptation was a mountain- 
 vision of the kingdoms of the world. In Palestine this 
 distinctness of remote objects is too familiar to be noticed 
 by the Oriental, and after a time even to the Western 
 resident it becomes more real though not more beloved 
 than the soft blue obscurities of the English horizon. The 
 transmission of sound in the clear elastic air of these lands 
 
16 BIBLE MANNERS AND CtJSTOMS 
 
 is also remarkable. Visitors newly arrived in Palestine 
 are apt to think that voices in the street are speaking in 
 the house ; proclamations are made to a whole village from 
 the roof of the sheikh's house ; in the city the voice of 
 the muezzin in the mosque-tower calls the neighbourhood 
 to prayer from sleep and work, and peasants converse on 
 opposite sides of a wide valley. 
 
 The Bible also speaks of such public announcement 
 from the house-top (Luke xii. 3). Again, when Moses and 
 Joshua were coming down from the Mount, the shout of 
 battle was distinguished from the sound that floated up 
 to them — the rhythmic beating of the idolatrous dance 
 (Ex. xxxii. 17, 18). Similarly Saul recognises the voice 
 of David on the distant height (1 Sam. xxvi. 13, 17), 
 cf. Judges ix. 7. Other instances might be mentioned, 
 such as the reading of the law at Ebal and Gerizim (Josh, 
 viii. 33),_the open-air utterances of Solomon (2 Chron. vi.) 
 and Ezra (Neh. viii.), and generally the preaching of the 
 Lord Jesus to large multitudes. 
 
 6. Landscape. — When Palestine is seen for the first 
 time, the eye is charmed with the bright distinctness of 
 everything and with the beautiful blue of sea and sky. 
 Then comes a feeling of disappointment as favourite features 
 of beautiful scenery in other lands are looked for in vain. 
 There are no farm-houses dotting the landscape ; no fields 
 of grass, no horses or cattle grazing at liberty ; no forests 
 are visible ; the lakes lie low in the Jordan valley ; the 
 rivers are small, and the brooks are dry in summer. 
 Where are the cedars, vines, fig-trees, and the beauty of 
 the olive? Is this the Promised Land? Was this the 
 inheritance of the chosen people 1 
 
 Notwithstanding the deterioration that the land has 
 undergone since the time of the kingdom of Israel and the 
 Eoman Empire, it is still beautiful when the eye has learnt 
 what to look for. The chief glory of Palestine is in its 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 17 
 
 colour, the beautiful tints of morning and evening, and tlie 
 purity of its atmosphere. There is much to enjoy and 
 admire in the restful outline of the great Lebanon range, 
 the sublimity of the mountain gorges, the weird desolation 
 of the wilderness, the great olive forest of Beyrout, the 
 green loveliness of Damascus and Nablous (Shechem), the 
 palm-adorned plains of Acre and Jaifa, and the gorgeous 
 sunsets on the Lake of Galilee and the Dead Sea. 
 
 Have you ever wondered why the Bible seldom 
 describes scenery after the manner of modern travellers ? 
 Why is there not more notice of the effect of landscape- 
 beauty on the mind, and of companionship with what 
 we call the moods of nature 1 Nature is rather a servant 
 who has to wait and bring what is wanted, than a teacher 
 to whom the pupils come for inspiration and beautiful 
 ideals. The inquiry is instructive when we remember 
 that the Bible abounds in instances of accurate indication 
 of artistic effect when the occasion requires it. Thus in 
 Ps. Ixxx. the resemblance between Israel and a ruined 
 vineyard is wrought out with much detail. An artist 
 reads with rapture the description of the downfall of Tyre 
 (Ezek. xxvii.), and calls it pre-Raphaelite, bold in particu- 
 lars of reality. Again, in the Song of Songs iv. 1, dark, 
 glossy hair is very effectively likened to the i;itense luminous 
 black of a flock of goats on the hillside, and in ver. 3, the 
 comparison of an olive brow to the smooth rind of a pome- 
 granate, with its pale skin-like gloss and green shading 
 for the temples, is a simile that would satisfy the fastidious 
 eye of a Herkomer or Tennyson. But one feels that a 
 different range of feeling is reached when the Christian 
 poet says : — 
 
 And beauty 'born of murmuring sound 
 
 Sliall pass into her face.^ 
 
 In one case nature remains outside, passive and appealing 
 
 1 Wordsworth's " Teaching of Nature.' 
 
 2 
 
18 BIBLE MANN-EES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 to the senses ; in the other she has passed within, is 
 active, and moulds the disposition. 
 
 In explanation of this three reasons may be given : — 
 (1) The special 'purpose of the Bible. — The Bible is the 
 Word of God, its message is from Him, about Him, and 
 ultimately, even in our salvation, for Him. Its first 
 place is not for nature, but for the God of nature and of 
 the soul. When reference is made to the sublime and 
 beautiful in the external vrorld, it is to proclaim that the 
 Lord rejoices in His works and rules over all. This 
 supreme connection is never lost although nature is some- 
 times represented as a personality and rejoicing in herself. 
 (Ps. xxix., Ixv., cxiv.) Thus in Ps. civ. the survey of wonder- 
 ful adaptation becomes a hymn of praise to the wisdom and 
 power of the Creator. " O Lord, how manifold are Thy 
 works ! " Compare Job xxviii., Ps. cxlvii., cxlviii., Is. Ix., 
 Hab. iii. Much in the same way, when an Oriental is 
 shown anything beautiful or wonderful in nature he almost 
 invariably exclaims, " Praise to the Creator ! " Such 
 absorbing pre-occupation with God's glory and the moral 
 life explains how in the Psalms, Prophecies, Gospels, and 
 Epistles the objects and effects of natural scenery are only 
 referred to when serving the purposes of illustration. It 
 is owing to this important connection with solemn and 
 sacred subjects, that natural objects in Palestine, the 
 humble implements of its trades, and the various parts and 
 furnishings of its houses, have a sanctity and symbolism 
 unmet with elsewhere. It is almost with a feeling of pro- 
 fanation that the Western resident watches the people of 
 Palestine in their ordinary work doing things that to us, 
 but not usually to them, wear a high meaning of parable, 
 and handling with simple unconcern things that to us 
 have become exponents of the Gospel and preachers of 
 immortality. 
 
 Thus the Lebanon peasant stands on the threshing-floor 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AKD WEATHER 19 
 
 witli Ms fan or -wooden pitchfork in his hand, and separates 
 the wheat from the chaff. Peasants come to the Jordan 
 ford and wade waist-deep across the stream, and one stands 
 mid-way in the current and looks back to see how the others 
 are faring, without any thought of Bunyan's vision and the 
 hopes of the dying Christian. Similarly the fisherman 
 mends his net by the Sea of Galilee without thinking that he 
 
 FOKDING THE JOEDAN. 
 
 has a soul to be caught, and the farmer sets up pillars of 
 rough stone in his vineyard and splashes them with a wash 
 of lime to gleam in the night and frighten away the jackals, 
 without thinking that there are far more important grapes to 
 be protected. And so, busy and expanding Jerusalem of 
 to-day, with its sects and impostures, has a wall far wider 
 than the explorer sinks his shaft to discover ; its name 
 Zion now belongs to many nations, and the city of God 
 to the whole world. 
 
 (2) The Oriental ■mind and landscape. — The enjoyment 
 of landscape beauty for its own sake is a modern product 
 of Western life, and the ordinary Oriental has no eye for 
 it His mind is practical rather than aesthetic or scientific. 
 
20 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 He accepts devoutly the signs and results of adaptation 
 in the natural 'world, but he does not trouble about the 
 process. He is indifferent to botany, geology, and 
 archseology, and generally regards the study of secondary 
 causes and the explanation of nature as an impertinence. 
 He is interested in plants for food and medicine, in the 
 forest for fuel, in the hiUs for health and defence, in ancient 
 ruins for hidden treasure, and in the stars for direction 
 and destiny. Thus Lot was an Oriental artist when he 
 looked upon the plain of Sodom and saw that it was well 
 watered (Gen. xiii. 10) ; similarly Achsah in her petition 
 for the water-springs of her inheritance (Josh. xv. 1 9) ; 
 also Isaac when the woodland smell of Esau's raiment 
 reminded him of " a field which the Lord hath blessed " 
 (Gen. xxvii. 27). Doubtless the ordinary Israelite of 
 ancient times, like the modern Syrian, generally regarded 
 the world around him from the point of view of industrial 
 thrift ; it was a world that he had been appointed to till 
 and subdue, and into which labour, as curse or counter- 
 active, had entered because of sin. The modern Syrian 
 simply sees in nature what the heroes of Homer and Virgil 
 usually looked for, namely, fertility and refreshment, 
 the beauty of the abundant crop, and the pleasure of the 
 shading tree and cool fountain. In all likelihood the 
 Israelite of ancient times was the same, with a strong 
 sense of attachment, however, to familiar and favoured 
 localities, as we see in the just pride with which al\ 
 Israelites regarded Jerusalem, in Naaman's chivalrous 
 protest on behalf of the rivers of Damascus, and in the 
 Samaritan woman's championship of Jacob's well. 
 
 (3) Idolatry and landscape. — A third reason that 
 affected the outlook upon nature was the surrounding 
 heathen worship of the powers of nature. This polluted 
 the beautiful in creation, just as gambling threatens now 
 to take possession of some of our best in-door games and 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 21 
 
 out-door recreations. The "high places'' of Baal and 
 Asht6reth had their green trees, cool air, sparkling 
 fountains, and pleasant prospects. In such scenes, away 
 from the common routine, where the sun's heat could not 
 oppress, and the fountain bursting from the cavern spread 
 life and beauty wherever it went, it seemed not only an 
 impulse from within but a call from above to cast aside 
 care, and give the heart up to merriment and revelry. 
 The Israelite had his ancestral seat under the vine- 
 trellis and sweet-scented fig-tree, and his legitimate re- 
 joicings at the Feasts of Pentecost and Tabernacles, but 
 the heart had always a secret and dangerous set towards 
 the festivities of nature-worship. The keeping of the Law, 
 which was their political protection, and the .safeguard of 
 the weak against the strong, left a loveless, unfilled place 
 in the common hearts of men. While securing morality, 
 it did not create the joyful, purified heart. Constraint 
 was not comfort, and the law was not life ; and it needed 
 the express prohibitions in the second commandment, and 
 the constant warnings of the prophets, to make Palestine 
 the Holy Land, that is, with all its scenery, industries, 
 and institutions devoted to the Lord and to Him only. 
 Hence there might have been a note of defiance mingling 
 with the adoration when the Psalmist said, " The heavens 
 declare the glory of Qod" (Ps. xix. 1) — not the grandeur 
 of Baal or the fancies of the heathen soothsayer. Such 
 contamination would tend to alienate the earnest Israelite, 
 and make him suspicious and silent towards the beautiful 
 in nature. This antagonism between holiness and happi- 
 ness was removed when Christ said, " I came that they 
 may have life, and may have it abundantly" (John x. 10), 
 rebuking at once the narrowness of the letter and the 
 heathen debasement of the physical world. Since then 
 the book of the Law has been to us a larger volume than 
 it was to the ancient Israelite ; and nature, delivered from 
 
22 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 the bondage of idolatry, has given us many beautiful 
 thoughts about the mind of God. At the present day in 
 Syria and Palestine, the Christian monasteries occupy 
 many of the sites of the idolatrous high places, and in 
 cloisters built of the great stones and pillars of the Baal- 
 temples perpetuate the error of the Pharisee — that religion 
 means separation from the world. 
 
 The time when Palestine looks greenest and most 
 beautiful is the beginning of April (Song of Solomon ii. 
 11-13). There is, then, a great simultaneous outburst of 
 flowers — daisies, poppies, and red anemones appearing in 
 astonishing abundance. This sudden and short-lived 
 greenness of the landscape, along with the multitude of 
 bright flowers, is much more impressive in Palestine than 
 in a country where one walks on turf and sees green fields 
 during the greater part of the year. In the month of 
 May it rapidly disappears as the crops ripen and are 
 gathered in, and the plants wither for want of rain. This 
 fact of climate enters into the frequent allusion to the 
 brevity of life in connection with grass and flowers, and it 
 gives a special emphasis to the appeal, " If God so clothe 
 the grass of the field " (Matt. vi. 30). The modern Arabs 
 notice the same features of brevity, profusion, and beauty, 
 saying in their familiar proverbs, " The sons of flesh are 
 like grass," " The troubles of life are more than the grasses 
 of the field," and " Children are the flowers of the world.'' 
 
 7. Weather Changes. — The state of the weather is 
 seldom a topic of conversation among Orientals. The 
 Syrian peasant, when asked as to whether the day is 
 likely to keep fair, usually says, "As the Lord wills," or, 
 with a haphazard look around him, replies, "At present 
 there is no rain." He has not given a thought to the 
 subject, and has no opinion to offer. Among themselves 
 such matters are not referred to in saluting a fellow- 
 traveller on the road. There are several reasons for this 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 23 
 
 reticence: (1) A certain kind of weather is so uniformly 
 characteristic of the different months and periods of the 
 year that the habit of observation is not called for. 
 When there is rain the Oriental says, " This is its time ; " 
 when the heat is overpowering he wipes his brow and 
 says, "It is the custom; what can we do?" Hence the 
 wonderfulness of the shower in wheat harvest in the 
 beginning of June, when the rain had ceased, not to return 
 for several months (1 Sam. xii. 17). (2) The introduction 
 of something springing fresh from the actual circumstances 
 of the moment is out of harmony with the dignified but 
 cut-and-dry formalities of Oriental salutation. The 
 weather belongs to nobody, and a reference to it does not 
 lead up to any assurance of good-will, or offer of service, 
 or expectation of benefit. (3) A suspicion of indolence 
 and impiety is apt to attach itself to the critical observa- 
 tion of the signs of the sky. The thought of Eccles. xi. 4 
 is repeated by the Arabic proverb : " The lazy man 
 becomes an astrologer." A missionary hurrying home in a 
 heavy shower saw from under his umbrella a Moslem friend 
 plodding along unprotected in the wet, and said to him, 
 " This is a dreadful day of rain ! " With a solemn upward 
 look the old man replied, "Do you think He does not 
 understand His work?" The wretchedness of the situation 
 could not be disputed, but the thought was that of the 
 patriarch, "Shall we receive good at the hand of God, 
 and shall we not receive evil?" (Job ii. 10). 
 
 While the weather does not furnish a topic of con- 
 versation in, the East, its leading signs are understood and 
 acted upon. In a limited territory like Palestine, bordered 
 by the sea, the desert, and the mountain range, everything 
 with regard to heat and cold, dryness and moisture, depends 
 upon the direction of the wind. 
 
 The west wind is the most pleasant and refreshing. 
 It brings clouds and showers from the Mediterranean 
 
24 BIBLE MAKNEKS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 (1 Kings zviii. 44 ; Luke xii. 54). At the end of summer 
 there is often a repetition of what happened when Elijah 
 prayed and Gehazi watched on Moant Carmel. A small 
 gray cloud rises over the clear sea-line in the south-west, 
 and the sky becomes rapidly darkened by heavy masses 
 of cloud driven by a strong wind, soon accompanied by 
 thunder and lightning. When this wind begins to blow 
 at this particular time, and the thistledown to fly over the 
 bare fields, the peasants know what to expect, and hurry 
 to the vineyards and housetops to gather in the drying 
 raisins and figs before the rain falls in torrents. 
 
 The north wind is remarkable for its power of arresting 
 rain and dispersing clouds. The translation of the 
 Authorised Version in Prov. xxv. 2.3 has thus the support 
 of the climate. In the Hebrew the word translated 
 " back - biting " means concealment, as the word for 
 " north " means originally the hidden quarter. The sense 
 probably is that as the north wind dispels rain, so a tongue 
 of self-restraint does an angry countenance. This would 
 be true to life and the climate, and in harmony with the 
 context. The north wind deposits its moisture on the 
 Taurus and Lebanon mountains, but brings with it the 
 impurities it has contracted in its passage over towns and 
 malarial districts. It is a cool current of air when it 
 enters Syria, intermittent and gusty in its action. It is 
 local in its area, being chiefly confined to the sea-side 
 plain and nearer slopes ; inland it either dies away in 
 scorching heat or passes into a strong east wind. It is 
 probably owing to these impurities and the unusual com- 
 bination of cold wind and blazing sunshine that it 
 generally causes headache and neuralgia, and sometimes 
 blights delicate vegetation like a sea-fog. It is called by 
 the Arabs the poison-wind (from samm, poison ; hence 
 simoom). Travellers, muleteers, and farmers always rely 
 upon fair weather while it lasts. 
 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, SCENERY, AND WEATHER 25 
 
 The east wind is the usual breeze by night, and as such 
 is cool and dry ; but when it prevails also during the day, or 
 for several days at a time, it becomes exceedingly hot and 
 oppressive, especially when the direction is south-east. It 
 then carries fine sand-dust, giving the sky the appearance 
 of burnished metal, the sky of brass in Deut. xxviii. 23, 
 and sometimes covering it with dull gray clouds (Is. xxv. 
 5, Jude ver. 12). The heat increases with the elevation, 
 as in the gallery of a crowded theatre or church, — a 
 temperature of 85° in the shade at the sea-side rising to 
 97° on the Lebanon. On account of its extreme dryness 
 and its being almost as hot during the night as in the 
 day-time, it is very trying to both animal and vegetable 
 life. The thin ears of corn in Pharaoh's dream appeared 
 blasted by it (Gen. xli. 6). The word sirocco (s = sh) 
 preserves the Arabic origin from shirk, east, as also 
 appears in the word Saracens — the people of the East. 
 Fortunately this wind seldom lasts long, and its brief 
 visits are usually welcomed in spring, as it causes a rapid 
 advance of vegetation while the- ground is still moist, and 
 also in autumn when growth has ceased, and hot weather 
 is needed to dry the fruits for winter preservation before 
 the long summer comes to an end with " the early rain." 
 
 The south wind indicates heat (Luke xii. 55), dry if 
 south-east, and soft and relaxing if south-west. It is 
 more uniform in its action, and less characterised by 
 sudden onslaught and hurricane blasts than the north- 
 west and east winds. The west wind is especially dreaded 
 on the-Sea of Galilee, often descending suddenly and with 
 the power of a gale, and preventing boats from getting 
 back to the western shore of the lake. 
 
 The ordinary action of the wind is to blow from the 
 west in the forenoon, northerly in the afternoon, east in the 
 night, working round by south and returning to the west 
 in the morning, after the sun has been shining for several 
 
26 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 hours upon tlie land. This uniformity of the wind was 
 one of the laboured vanities (Eccles. i. 6) of the jaded 
 spirit seeking independent pleasure in creation instead of 
 in the service of God (Eccles. xii. 13). The red sunset 
 (Matt. xvi. 2) indicates the presence of east wind, and is 
 a sign that a season of warm weather may be expected. 
 
 The rainfall for the year is about thirty-five inches. 
 The showers are usually much heavier than those in 
 northern countries. In spring and autumn waterspouts 
 are frequently seen over the sea, and sometimes burst on 
 the land, causing much damage to property. As the rain- 
 gauge sometimes records four or five inches to the hour, 
 one can understand what must be the nature of the " over- 
 flowing shower" (Ezek. xiii. 11) which causes the walls of 
 gardens to bulge and fall (Ps. Ixii. 3), sweeps away stables, 
 affects the foundations of dwelling-houses (Luke vi. 48, 49), 
 and, by the sudden swelling of streams, endangers the 
 lives of men and cattle (Ps. xviii. 16, xc. 5; Is. xxviii. 2, 
 lix. 19). But usually the rain is a shower of blessing and 
 in season (2 Sam. xxiii. 4 ; Ps. Ixxii. 6 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 36). 
 In the rainless summer the evaporation blown in from 
 the sea during the day settles during the still, cool night 
 in refreshing dew upon the vineyards, fig-trees, olive-trees, 
 and all vegetation, and makes the morning cloud, which 
 lies like a white veil in the valleys for an hour or two 
 after sunrise. 
 
 In this land of sunshine so great is the appreciation 
 of moisture in all its forms, that the tenet of ancient 
 philosophy, preserved in the Koran, is still sometimes 
 seen in ornamental relief over city fountains : " From 
 water We have made all things live." 
 
 Such are some of the natural conditions by which life 
 in Palestine is affected. 
 
CHAPTER m 
 
 SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 
 
 The hope of the field is not the heap of the threshing-floor. 
 
 . Proverb. 
 
 L Pastoral Life 
 
 1. Shepherds and Farmers, their Mutual Belations. — 
 
 The charge of flocks and the tillage of the soil have always 
 been the two chief employments in Palestine. They were 
 supplementary to each other, one providing clothing, the 
 other food. The Bible makes them equally primitive (Gen. 
 iv. 2). The home life was affected by them ; they created 
 the trades, and shaped the civilisation of the villages and 
 towns. In the Bible the duties and dangers of the 
 shepherd, and the methods and implements of the farmer, 
 are constantly referred to when natural objects are used 
 to explain and emphasise spiritual truths. 
 
 But while the two flourished side by side, of equal 
 antiquity, and mutually helpful, they were rival com- 
 petitors for the soil, and wherever an exclusively pastoral 
 class came in contact with an exclusively agricultural class 
 the relationship became one of distrust and defiance. 
 This was chiefly owing to the nature of the land itself 
 and the pesition of the Israelites in it. 
 
 There were plains and valleys for corn, but they lay open 
 on all sides to the sheep and goats. With the exception 
 
28 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 of vineyards and vegetable gardens, the fields were never 
 protected by walls and fences. Each man's property had 
 its boundary stones or natural land -marks. There was 
 no rotation of crops ; hay was unknown, and there were 
 no fields of meadow-grass. There were hills and wilder- 
 nesses suitable for pasture, but to whom did they belong? 
 If strangers wished to occupy them, who could hinder 
 them 1 The shepherd's chief thought was to feed his sheep, 
 and he naturally wanted as much of the land as he could 
 get for that purpose. He did not remain in one place, 
 but moved with the season of the year, taking his flock to 
 the higher hills in the hot summer, and in winter going 
 southwards and descending to the warmer plains. Jacob 
 put three days' journey between his own and Laban's 
 flocks, and Jacob's sons setting out from Hebron went as 
 far north as Shechem and Dothan. 
 
 The different villages had common access to the un- 
 cultivated lands around them, and as their flocks were in 
 the charge of their owners, or of keepers appointed by 
 them, any trespass upon the local corn-fields, or any act 
 of oppression, could be punished by village law. But the 
 case was different when a large pastoral encampment like 
 that of Abraham with over three hundred men approached 
 the borders of agriculture. Such shepherd bands came in 
 force, and as they passed along did not scruple to send 
 their flocks among the standing corn, or to reap and carry 
 off the ripe harvest of the farmer. These were the 
 Children of the East, now called the Bedawin, who are 
 always referred to in the Bible as a menace to social rights 
 and civilised life. Where there was no central govern- 
 ment ruling over all each class attended to its own 
 interests, and might was right. It was the penalty that 
 Israel paid for failing to possess the whole land of promise, 
 that it had on its eastern border the lawless pastoral 
 tribes who, whenever the kingdom was brought low by 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 29 
 
 internal strife or war with its neighbours, were always 
 ready to pour in and recover lost ground. 
 
 Such was the class difference and rivaby of interest in 
 the soil that separated agriculture and the shepherd life. 
 Owing to the danger from this cause, the citizenship of 
 the village formed not so much a municipality for the 
 management of internal affairs as a sort of militia for 
 resisting outside oppression. 
 
 The sheikh of the wandering tribe was met by the 
 sheikh of the village, and in this way the village was able 
 to receive strangers either as guests to be welcomed with 
 honour, or as enemies to be driven off. 
 
 To this day when one inquires as to the population 
 of a certain village, the answer is given in military terms 
 that it has so many guns. Its fighting power is its 
 population. On the pastoral side it has been the same 
 ever since Israel marched out of Egypt. 
 
 Thus shepherds from a distance, like the patriarchs 
 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, with their retinue of servants 
 and large flocks, had to make a covenant with the local 
 authorities. Abraham strengthened his position by alliance 
 with Aner, Eschol, and Mamre. Lot seems to have identi- 
 fied himself with Sodom and its peasant proprietors, 
 leaving his tent, and dwelling in a hou'se within the city 
 gate. 
 
 2. The Shepherd's Outfit.— In the Bible the allusions 
 to shepherd life and the figurative terms borrowed from 
 it refer chiefly to its peaceful aspects. Its enemies were 
 wild animals and robbers. The chief occasion of strife 
 among the shepherds, as among the farmers, was connected 
 with the water-supply, the right of access to wells, 
 springs, and brooks (Gen. xiii. 7, xxix. 8 ; Ex. ii. 17). 
 The care of the flocks and the work of the field flourished 
 side by side. The shepherd belonged to the village, and 
 was maintained in his right to feed his sheep and goats 
 
80 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 among the rocks and trees of neighbouring hills, and in 
 the corn-fields lying bare after the harvest in May. 
 
 The personal appearance of the Eastern shepherd has 
 changed as little as his sheep and his simple duties 
 towards them. 
 
 (1) Cloak — He still wraps himself in his large cloak 
 of sheep-skin, or thick material woven of wool, goat-hair, 
 or camel-hair. This protects him from cold and rain by 
 day, and is his blanket at night. The inner pouch in the 
 breast is large enough to hold a new-born lamb or kid 
 
 GOURDS AND EAETHEN PITCHERS. 
 
 when it has to be helped over rough places, or on account 
 of sickness or injury has to be taken to a place of shelter, 
 or nursed by the family at home (Is. xl. 11). 
 
 (2) Scrip. — In the summer he may remain in the 
 mountains a month at a time, his only communication 
 with the village being when a fresh supply of bread is 
 brought to him. This he puts into a bag which hangs 
 at his side, the shepherd's scrip (1 Sam. xvii. 40), used 
 also by muleteers and others on a journey. It is a bag 
 made of the dressed skin of a kid, and into it he puts his 
 stock of bread, olives, cheese, raisins, and dried figs. 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 31 
 
 (3) Gourd. — As a drinking-vessel for holding either 
 water or milk he carries a liglit uiilireakaljlc pitcher made 
 of a gourd. Its shape seems to be the original of the 
 vases in glass and earthenware. 
 
 (4) Hod. — Hanging by his side, or sheathed in a long 
 narrow pouch attached to his cloak, is his oak club. It is 
 carefully chosen, a straight young tree being often torn 
 nj) for this purpose, and the bulb at the beginning of the 
 root being trimmed to make the head of the club. The 
 handle is dressed to the required thickness, with a hole at 
 the end by which it is tied to the belt, or hangs from the 
 
 < HJL I W l l |lll , lll|W» IJ III! ■ M III MP ! ■ H ill — W ^^ W 
 
 SHErHERD S ROD AND STAFF. 
 
 wrist like a riding whip. Into the head he drives nails 
 with large heads like those of a horse-shoe. It is the 
 " rod " of Ps. xxiii. 4. It appears in Assyrian sculpture, 
 as the emblem of power in the hand of the king, and was 
 the original of the sceptre, mace, and baton. 
 
 (,5) S,taf. — The " staff," mentioned along with the rod 
 in Ps. xxiii., is made of the same wood, but is about 6 
 feet long, quite plain, rarely with a fork or crook at one end. 
 It is a help in clambering over rocks, in striking off leaves 
 and small branches, in chastising loitering sheep and 
 fighting goats, and on it the shepherd leans as he stands 
 watching his flock. The ordinary walking staff of Orientals 
 is rather longer than that used in the West, is held 
 
32 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 by the thin end a few inches from the top, and serves the 
 double purpose of rod and staff, a weapon of defence and 
 a support when standing or walking. Such was the stafi 
 in the hand of the prophet as he journeyed from place to 
 place (2 Kings iv. 29) — a peaceful help on the toilsome 
 and dusty road. The two uses, for leaning upon and for 
 striking, are contrasted in Ex. xxi. 19, 20. Both are 
 included in the metaphors suggested by it. Pharaoh is com 
 pared to an untrustworthy staff of bruised reed (Is. xxxvi. 
 6) ; and bread is a staff (Ps. cv. 16) "which strengtheneth 
 man's heart" (Ps. civ. 15). 
 
 (6) Sling. — The shepherd's sling, with which David 
 was familiar, and in the use of which the men of Benjamin 
 were so skilful (Judg. xx. 16), was made of goat-hair. 
 The pad for the stone was of a rounded, diamond shape, 
 with a small slit in the middle, so that when a stone was 
 pressed into it, it closed around like a bag. It received 
 its name in Hebrew, as in Arabic, from the slightly con- 
 cave form in which it was woven. It was " the hollow of 
 a sling" (1 Sam. xxv. 29, R.V.) In the two strings 
 strands of white and black hair were artistically interwoven, 
 one of them at least having an opening at the end for the 
 fingers. Besides being used against robbers and wild 
 animals, it did the work of the Western sheep-dog, for 
 with it the shepherd could drop a stone near a sheep 
 lagging behind, and startle it into a sense of loneliness 
 and danger. At the present day, when a quarrel arises 
 between the youth of neighbouring villages, a sorl^ie of 
 lads is sometimes made from each, and sling-practice is 
 indulged in, usually at long range. 
 
 The leading idea of the Oriental sling, in a figurative 
 sense, is distance, rather than accuracy of direction. An 
 Arabic proverb describes the habitual tale-bearer as one 
 who puts a secret in a sling. He tries how far he can 
 throw it. This is the thought of Prov. xxvi. 8, and the 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 33 
 
 translation given in the Authorised Version, and. in the 
 margin of the Revised, seems to be the correct one. The 
 mors firmly the stone is packed into the sling, the better 
 it is discharged from it, and so it happens when honour is 
 thrust upon a fool, that is, a man who has no idea of 
 religious duty and moral consequences. 
 
 The use of the sling was exactly the opposite of that of 
 the scrip — the one throwing out, the other keeping what 
 was put into it. This is probably the meaning of Abi- 
 gail's words to David, when she contrasted " the bundle 
 of life" and its contents with the sling and its stones 
 (1 Sam. XXV. 29). The man standing in front of her most 
 likely had both his sling and provision-pouch on his 
 person, and while the souls of his enemies would be like 
 stones in the sling, things to be thrown away, his soul 
 would be guarded and kept by the Great Shepherd like 
 the necessaries in the scrip of life. The meaning in one 
 case is so precise and picturesque that an allusion equally 
 exact and obvious is required for the other. 
 
 3. Management of the Flock. — (1) The shepherd's 
 presence. — By day and by night the shepherd is always 
 with his sheep. As already explained, this was necessary 
 on account of the exposed nature of the land, and the 
 presence of danger from wild animals and robbers. 
 One of the most familiar and beautiful sights of the 
 East is that of the shepherd leading his sheep to the 
 pasture. He often has a dog or two with him, 
 especially in the lonely and remote parts of the mountain 
 pasture. But these are large, fierce animals, that can 
 offer battle to the wolf, and by night give warning of the 
 approach of thieves. He depends upon the sheep to 
 follow, and they in turn expect him never to leave them. 
 They run after him if he appears to be escaping from 
 them, and are terrified when he is out of sight, or any 
 stranger appears instead of him. He calls to them from 
 
34 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 time to time to let tliem know that he is at hand. The 
 sheep listen and continue grazing, but if any one else tries 
 to produce the same peculiar cries and guttural sounds, 
 they look around with a startled air and begin' to scatter. 
 
 (2) The shepherdCs protection. — As he is always with 
 them, he is constantly providing for them. He is not 
 only ready to protect them, but conducts them to the most 
 suitable ground by the best way ; gives them music on his 
 reed flute, to which the younger ones sometimes respond 
 by capering around him ; strips leaves from the branches j 
 leads them at noon to the shelter of a elitf, or to the shade 
 of a walnut or willow tree beside the well or brook ; and 
 in every possible way lives among them and for them. 
 At sunset he conducts them back to' the fold, where, during 
 the night, they may lie down in safety, and mix with 
 several other flocks. 
 
 The sheepfold is often a large cave, or an enclosure in 
 a sheltered hollow made by a rough stone wall, which has, 
 along the top, a formidable fringe of thorns like furze and 
 blackthorn, kept in position by stones laid upon it. At 
 the mouth of the cave, or at the side of • the wall near 
 the entrance, the shepherds have a covered place made of 
 branches, a tabernacle such as Peter wished to make on the 
 Mount of Transfiguration, and here, as on the night of the 
 Nativity at Bethlehem, they keep watch over their flocks 
 by night. The sheep require this constant and complete 
 protection, as they have no thought of defending them- 
 selves. While goats, on the appearance of a wolf, will 
 run together and form a solid mass, with horns to the 
 front, the sheep are immediately scattered and fall an easy 
 prey (John x. 12). 
 
 One of the most interesting sights of shepherd life is 
 to watch a flock fording a stream. The shepherd leads as 
 usual, and the sheep follow in a string at his heels, but in 
 the middle of the stream they begin to lose their footing 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 36 
 
 and drift with the current. The shepherd hurries forward, 
 grasping first one and then another, pushing as many as 
 he can reach in front of him and hauling others up against 
 the pressure of the water. As soon as he reaches the 
 opposite side he hastens along the bank and draws out 
 those that have been swept down, and have reached the 
 other side faint with the struggle. The sheep fare best 
 that keep nearest the shepherd. Such a deliverance seems 
 to be referred to in Ps. xviii. 16, "He took me. He drew 
 me out of many waters.'' 
 
 (3) The shepherd's hnowledge. — As he is always with 
 them, and so deeply interested in them, the shepherd 
 comes to know his sheep very intimately. Many of them 
 have pet names suggested either by the appearance or 
 character of the particular sheep, or by some incident con- 
 nected with it. At sunset the sheep are counted, usually 
 two by two ; but as a rule when they are brought together, 
 the absence of any one is immediately /eft. It is not only 
 that one sheep is amissing, but the appearance of the 
 whole flock seems to want something. This knowledge 
 is so intimate and instinctively reliable that the formality 
 of counting is often dispensed with. One day a missionary, 
 meeting a shepherd on one of the wildest parts of the 
 Lebanon, asked him various questions about his sheep, 
 and among others if he counted them every night. On 
 answering that he did not, he was asked how he knew if 
 they were all there or not. His reply was, " Master, if 
 you were to put a cloth over my eyes, and bring me any 
 sheep and only let me put my hands on its face, I could 
 tell in a moment if it was mine or not." Such is the 
 fulness of meaning in the words of the Good Shepherd, "I 
 know mine own, and mine own know Me" (John x. 14). 
 
 There is, however, the hireling shepherd, and he is as 
 notorious for unfaithfulness as the true shepherd is for 
 fidelity to his charge. His witness, like that of a pigeon- 
 
36 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 breeder (on account of using decoys) is not accepted in an 
 Oriental law-court. He is in a position of duty, without 
 any sense of duty, and no one to watch how he does it. 
 Prowess can get no praise, and desertion can be screened 
 by lies. He receives very little pay, and he has frequent 
 opportunities of selling kids and sheep to passing travellers, 
 or of sending them to the market by the hand of relatives. 
 And at the end of the season he accounts for them as- 
 stolen by Bedawin, devoured by wolves, or fallen from 
 precipices. 
 
 The shepherd's season of rejoicing is at the time of 
 sheep-shearing in May and June. The flocks have been 
 increased by the season's lambs ; milk, butter, and cheese 
 are abundant ; pasture is still plentiful for those who 
 know where to seek it, and the warm summer weather 
 makes out-door life delightful by day and night. It is 
 the time of invitations and feasting both among the 
 Bedawin and the shepherds of the villages. It was 
 most probably at such a time that Job's sons met for 
 festivity. The same celebration is referred to in Gen. 
 xxxi. 19, xxxviii. 13, and 1 Sam. xxv. 2. 
 
 As might be expected from a calling so important and 
 familiar to the Israelites, many comparisons and lessons 
 are drawn from the pastoral life. The constant presence 
 of the shepherd among his sheep and his protection of 
 them were arresting features that were easily transferred 
 to higher relationships. Ps. xxiii. remains the simplest 
 and profoundest expression of trust in God. The de- 
 pendence of the sheep upon the shepherd is not a figure 
 for the beginning of the spiritual life merely — to be left 
 behind when we know as we have been known ; the 
 redeemed and glorified are still being led to the living 
 fountains of waters (Eev. vii. 17). 
 
 The bond was such that under this form rebellious 
 Israel could plead, "Why doth thine anger smoke against the 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 37 
 
 sheep of thy pasture?" (Ps. Ixxiv. 1). Everything in the way 
 of devoted love, intimate knowledge, and protective power 
 was summed up in the title, "Jesus that great Shepherd 
 of the sheep " (Heb. xiii. 20). The parables of Luke 
 XV. 3-7 and John x. 1-18 are in the same line. Compare 
 also Ps. Ixxix. 13, xcv. 7 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 8. When Peter 
 was made glad and strong by forgiveness and restoration, 
 the renewed trust of Christ's service was given to him 
 in a form rich with chivalrous associations, " Feed my 
 sheep " (John xxi. 16). 
 
 The utter helplessness of sheep vsdthout a shepherd is 
 very frequently alluded to in the Bible, and the figure is 
 applied in all its fulness to moral and religious matters, 
 such as the manifold facilities for concealment, loitering 
 and error in the wilderness of life, the losses and sorrows 
 that occur when the will is without definite leading and 
 submission, and the evils that attend both false alarms and 
 real dangers (Num. xxvii. 17 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 2 ; 1 Kings xxii. 
 17 ; Ps. cxix. 176 ; Is. liii. 6 ; Jer. 1. 4, 17 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 6, 12). 
 
 Finally, there was the dumb submission of the sheep, 
 when being shorn or about to be killed, that was made 
 the emblem^ of silent resignation and hopeless doom. 
 Israel could often plead the resemblance of its condition 
 to such sealed fate and calm despair ; and the figure 
 enters— into the great prophecy of Is. liii. He who sent 
 out His disciples to be " as sheep in the midst of wolves " 
 (Matt. X. 16) was to be first "a Lamb slain" (Eev. 
 V. 12). 
 
 II. Ageicultueal Life 
 
 When it is mentioned that French railway trucks are 
 now supplanting the camels in bringing in wheat from the 
 rich plain south of Damascus, that an American engineer is 
 sinking Artesian wells at Sidon for irrigating the land, and 
 that every summer English steamers lie off Gaza loading 
 
38 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 barley for Scotland, the suspicion naturally arises that 
 the farmer of Palestine has left the shepherd behind, and 
 that his life is no longer a reminder of patriarchal methods. 
 But the land is still a land of corn and wine and oil ; and 
 the sowing and reaping, the treading of grapes in the wine- 
 press, the beating of the olive-tree for its berries, — these 
 and many other details of peasant life are the same to-day 
 as when Ruth gleaned and Elisha followed the plough. 
 
 1. Grain. — The chief grain-fields are the Syrian plain 
 between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, the Hauran east 
 of Galilee, the plains of Esdraelon and Sharon, and the 
 plateau around Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron. The 
 appearance of the level land without walls, fences, or 
 hedges is that of a great green sea. On the sloping 
 ground, as on the sides of all the watercourse valleys, 
 called wMies, the land is laid off in stair-like ridges, each 
 leading into the one above or below it so that all can 
 be ploughed continuously. These terraces serve a double 
 purpose ; the ground is cleared of rock and large stones 
 in building the low walls, and by the succession of levels 
 the soil is kept in its place and not swept down to the 
 foot of the valley by the winter rains. All over the land 
 there are terraces fallen down, and overgrown, and hardly 
 to be recognised, indicating at once the resemblance and 
 the difference between the ancient and modern civilisar 
 tions. The cereals sown are chiefly wheat, plain and 
 bearded, barley, and spelt or vetch, translated rye in Ex. 
 ix. 32 ; Is. xxviii. 2.5 ; and in Ezek. iv. 9, fitches. Oats 
 are unknown. Besides the above are millet, beans, and 
 lentils (Ezek. iv. 9), also pulse (Dan. i. 12), under which 
 is included everything of the nature of pease or beans, 
 in fact all seed-food apart from wheat and barley. 
 
 (1) Sowing. — The time for sowing grain is when the soil 
 has been softened for the plough by the first rains in 
 the beginning of October. Millet, however, is sown in 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 39 
 
 summer upon irrigated land. When winter comes on 
 cold and wet, before the barley is put into the ground, it 
 is sown in the beginning of February. When the soil is 
 very rough it is customary to plough twice, but ordinarily 
 the seed is sown and then ploughed in. The farmer 
 walks in front scattering the seed, and one of the family 
 or a servant follows immediately with the plough. In 
 the parable the seed that fell on the footpath could be 
 
 ORIENTAL PLOUGH. 
 
 picked up by the birds as it was not cQvered like the rest 
 (Matt. xiii. 4). 
 
 The levelling-up of the ground in terraces often causes 
 broad slabs of rook to be thinly covered over with soil. 
 Thorns abound everywhere, growing with great rapidity 
 and strength. They are either collected and burnt on the 
 field, or used as fuel, or ground on the threshing-floor as 
 fodder for the cattle (Matt. xiii. 5-7). 
 
 Barley is ripe in April and May, wheat in May and 
 June, there being much variety as to time, owing to 
 difference in elevation from the Jordan valley to the fields 
 around the cedars over 6000 feet above the sea. The 
 latter rains in March refresh the standing crops, delaying 
 
40 
 
 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 the time of harvest, but filling out the grain before it 
 finally ripens. A field of wheat or barley has the pale 
 white appearance of oats at home. The rain has ceased 
 for three months and the stalks and ears become perfectly 
 dry. 
 
 (2) Harvest. — The stalks are either cut with the sickle 
 or torn up by the roots, and the sheaves are carried to the 
 threshing-floors on the backs of men, donkeys, horses, and 
 
 THKESHING-rLOOE. 
 
 camels, carts not being used for this purpose as they once 
 were (Am. ii. 13). The chief perils to the crop apart 
 from the nature of the soil and the hands of robbers, are 
 from mildew or sweating in soft misty weather, or blasting 
 by the dry heat of the east wind (Deut. xxviii. 22 ; 
 2 Chron. vi. 28 ; Am. iv. 9), and occasionally from locusts. 
 
 Though the crops in Syria do not present such an 
 appearance of solid mass as in Egypt, the soil is in many 
 places exceedingly fertile, and the return corresponds with 
 the standards cited in the parable (Matt. xiii. 8). 
 
 (3) Threshing. — The threshing-floor is a circular piece of ' 
 
SIIErilEKDS AND PEASANTS 
 
 41 
 
 level ground about 20 to 30 feet in diameter, in an open, 
 breezy locality near the village. The ground is carefully 
 levelled and cleaned, and has around it a roughly-placed 
 row of large stones to keep the straw from being scattered 
 about. iSheaves are unliouud and sprinkled over it, till 
 the straw lies about a foot deep. The simplest mode of 
 threshing is to drive cattle and donkeys over the dry straw, 
 but the contrivance of the threshing-board is generally 
 
 THRESmNO AND WINXOWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 resorted to. This consists of thick planks nailed together, 
 making an oblong of 5 by 4 feet, having lumps of rough 
 basaltic rock let into the under-surface of the boards. Less 
 frequently it is a wooden frame furnished with small 
 wheels below it. A pair of oxen are yoked to it, and a 
 man stands upon it, goad in hand, and drives the oxen 
 round from morning till evening. These are the oxen 
 that must not lie muzzled, but are allowed to pick up 
 straws as often as they wish to do so (Deut. xxv. 4 ; 
 1 Cor. ix. 9 ; 1 Tim. v. IS). When sufficiently threshed the 
 
42 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 broken straws, grain, and chaff are piled up in the centre 
 of the threshing-floor, more sheaves are sprinkled over the 
 surface, and the threshing is resumed till the work is 
 done, or there is no room for more in the centre of the 
 ring. 
 
 (4) Winnowing. — This is done by the shovel and the fan 
 (Is. XXX. 24). The fan is a simple wooden pitchfork. By 
 it the compound of straw, chaflF, and grain is tossed in the 
 air. The chaff flies away over the hillside (Ps. i. 4), and 
 where it accumulates at the great public threshing-floors it 
 is burnt up. The straw is deposited a few yards off, while 
 the grain falls at the feet of the winnower. In this pile 
 there is still a good deal of husk and straw, and it is at 
 this concluding stage of the winnowing that the shovel is 
 brought into use. This work at the threshing-floors is 
 carried on all day, and from harvest time tiU the ripened 
 grapes claim attention in the month of August ; and in the 
 great grain-growing districts it is continued till the close of 
 September. The owners sleep by the threshing-floors or 
 appoint watchmen. When the grain is piled into a cone 
 it is sealed by having a large wooden seal pressed upon it 
 here and there all around. The attempt to abstract any- 
 thing would instantly obscure the marks of the seal. The 
 sealing is either in the interests of the working-partners or 
 owners, or that the gross yield may remain intact until the 
 Government official takes his tithe. It is sealed unto the 
 appointed day of weighing and measuring. The use of 
 the seal is often referred to in connection with documents 
 and treasures, as well as with the threshing-floors, and 
 suggests profound spiritual meanings (Dan. xii. 8 ; Rom. 
 XV. 28 ; Eph. i. 13, iv. 30). Among the peasantry of the 
 present day any recommendation of a winnowing-machine 
 is met by the remonstrance that their fathers did it in this 
 way, and at the winnowing season there is nothing else to 
 do. The further and final cleansing that the grain under- 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 43 
 
 goes by means of the sieve we shall speak of in connection 
 with food and domestic life. 
 
 2. The Vineyard. — The vine has always had an im- 
 portant place among the industries of Palestine. Its 
 culture is one of the leading characteristics of the land 
 (Deut. viii. 8 ; Ps. Ixxx. ; Is. v. ; Ezek. xvii.) 
 
 (1) Locality. — Vineyards are found all over the country, 
 but the position most suitable is the hillside, or .the 
 gently- sloping ground at the foot of a hill. The vine 
 likes open, loose soil into which it can sink its deep roots 
 and reach the moisture that drips down over the surface 
 of the mountain rock. Above ground it must have plenty 
 of air and sunshine, and by night the dew rests upon its 
 leaves refreshingly, but its source of nourishment and 
 strength is in the deep crevices of the rock beyond the 
 reach of the sun's heat. 
 
 (2) Preparation. — The vineyard requires a great deal 
 of preparatory work. A wall has to be built round it. 
 The irregular rocky ground has to be laid ofif in terraces, 
 one below the other on the slope, varying in width from 
 1 to 4 or 5 yards ; large rocks have to be broken up 
 and built with other stones into these successive rough 
 walls, varying in height from 2 to 6 feet. Then, much 
 more thoroughly than is thought of for the grain fields, 
 the ground must be cleared of thorns and thistles. In 
 the case of a large vineyard a winepress has then to be 
 dug, and a room made for the watchman. The ground 
 has to be well gone over with the hoe, and repairs on 
 the terraces have to be attended to. On account of the 
 constant attention required by the vineyards we read that 
 at the time of the captivity of Judah, some of the poorest 
 of the land were left to sow the fields and to keep the 
 vineyards in order (2 Kings xxv. 12). 
 
 The neglected vineyard is described as covered with 
 thorns and strong hardy weeds, and as having the wall 
 
44 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 broken down by the rain torrent (Prov. xxiv. 30, 31). It 
 is the sum total of such labours that is spread to view 
 when the question is asked, " What could have been done 
 more to my vineyard that I have not done in it ? " 
 (Is. V. 4.) 
 
 (3) Growth of the, vine. — This is very rapid and 
 luxuriant. The slips are set in the ground about 12 
 feet or more apart to give space for the running branches. 
 The young vine is cut back and not allowed to bear fruit 
 till after the third year. In April and May the vine 
 blossom is out and gives forth a sweet, delicate perfume 
 (Song of Sol. ii. 13). The branches covered with large 
 richly-green leaves rapidly cover the ground ; the tendrils 
 droop over the terrace-walls, run over rocky boulders, or, 
 taking possession of an oak-tree, brighten its quiet foliage 
 with their sparkle and transparency, and wave from its 
 topmost branches in a perfect riot of life and endless 
 energy. It must be a very rich, happy, and triumphant 
 life that is described by the figure, " I am the vine, ye are 
 the branches " (John xv. 5). 
 
 (4) Fruit. — There may be many kinds of grapes, even 
 in one vineyard, both of the purple and the green sorts. 
 Some villages are celebrated for this variety, one having 
 as many as twelve or twenty different kinds in its vine- 
 yards ; others are famous for the perfection to which 
 they have brought one particular kind. There are many 
 forms and varieties of flavour. Names are suggested by 
 something in the size or colouring of the grape or the 
 general appearance of the cluster. Thus we haVe on 
 Lebanon, Brides fingers (of long tapering form, very 
 smooth and translucent). Maiden's cheehs (with a blush of 
 colour on each side), Mule's head (a large clumsy-looking 
 purple grape), and Hen-and^Chickens (a cluster having 
 large green grapes surrounded by many small seedless ones 
 about the size of currants). 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 
 
 45 
 
 (5) Uses nf llip. ijrape. — (it) Fresh ripe grapes, eaten 
 with breail, fonu a cluef article of food iluriiig )Septeniber 
 and October. (/>) llaixins. Tliese are dried in a prepared 
 levelled corner of the vineyard. During the proces.s of 
 drying under the sun, they are frequently turned over and 
 .sprinkled with olive oil to keep the skin moi.st. They are 
 preserved in bunches or .scattered over tlie ground. They 
 form an important item of the winter's stores among the 
 
 WlNEIilESS. 
 
 peasantry, and they seem to have been highly valued in 
 liiljle times as a convenient and refreshing article of food 
 (1 .Sam. XXV. IS, xxx. 12 ; 2 Sam. xvi. 1 ; 1 C'hron. xii. 
 40). ((') Wine and syrup. These were made at the wine- 
 press, when the grapes were fully ripe and the vintage 
 season began to near its end in the beginning of October. 
 The winepress consists of two troughs cut in the solid 
 rock, with a partition about 3 inches thick left between 
 them. One is higher than the other, and this upper one 
 is a large flat sc|uare, about a foot or a foot and a half deep. 
 
46 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Here the grapes are thrown in and trodden by tlie feet of 
 men, women, and children — usually of the same family, or 
 relatives having a joint interest in the -vineyard. As they 
 tread they keep time with hand-clapping and snatches of 
 song (Is. xvi. 10 ; Jer. xlviii. 33). Such social gladness 
 contrasts with the case of solitude and sorrow referred to 
 in Is. Ixiii. 3. After being thus pressed by the feet, the 
 grape skins are collected into a heap, a large flat stone 
 is laid upon them, and they are subjected to pressure 
 from a large weighted beam. The juice flows into the 
 lower trough through the opening in the partition. It is 
 smaller but deeper ; if the upper be 6 feet long by 5 
 feet broad, the lower one will be about 4 feet long by 2 
 feet broad, but about 3 feet deep. If the position of the 
 rook allows it, a hole near the bottom lets off the juice 
 into vessels for collecting it. Some of it is allowed to 
 become sour for use as vinegar. The juice of the dark 
 grape is generally made into claret of a somewhat sour, 
 astringent taste, and that of the white or green grape is 
 boiled a little and made into sweet wine. Some of it is 
 distilled and made into a spirit, which the modern Jews 
 call by a Hebrew name, burning wine. 
 
 The people of the land know nothing of unfermented 
 wine. There is no custom of drinking newly-strained 
 grape-juice such as might be suggested by the dream of 
 Pharaoh's butler. The meaning evidently is that, dream- 
 like, the wine-making process was in the vision as rapid 
 as the ripening of the grapes. Intemperance is too far- 
 reaching and deep-seated an evil to be settled by the 
 etymology of a word or the customs of one people or 
 country. Orientals are not inclined to intemperance. 
 The warm climate very quickly makes it a cause of dis- 
 comfort and disease, and under the influence of wine the 
 excitable Orientals are easily tempted into quarrelling 
 and crime. It is regarded as a shameful vice, is of rare 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 47 
 
 occurrence, and when it does occur is kept out of sight 
 (1 Thess. V. 7). Wine is entirely forbidden to the 
 Moslems on account of the moral evil so often connected 
 with it. In the recitation of poetry and the stories of 
 the heroes of Islam the bringing in of wine is constantly 
 referred to, but it is regarded merely as a stage expression 
 that has nothing to do with real life. The Arabs in their 
 proverbs speak of it as expelling reason and putting in 
 its place remorse. When used by Orientals it is in the 
 winter season and at meals, but while its strengthening 
 value at certain times is recognised, the habit of wine- 
 drinking is generally associated with excessive festivity 
 and abuse. . 
 
 In the Jewish Prayer-book one of the thanksgivings is 
 for the creation of the vine, and on the return from the 
 synagogue, to which in the morning they go fasting, a 
 glass of wine is drunk with this blessing pronounced over 
 it. This custom was perhaps alluded to by Peter on the 
 day of Pentecost as showing the impossibility of intoxication 
 at 9 A.M. — an hour when Jews had but newly returned 
 from morning prayer. 
 
 Syrup is made by boiling the juice of the grape until 
 it reaches the consistency of honey. It is intensely sweet, 
 and, having much the same colour and consistency, it is 
 in Hebrew called by the same name as honey. 
 
 (6) Dangers to the vineyard. — The chief enemies are 
 the locust ; the east wind withering the grapes with dry 
 heat, and the south-west wind bringing up soft mist and 
 moist warmth from the sea; the wild animals, such as 
 jackals, foxes, and bears ; and the attempts of robbers and 
 petty thefts of passing travellers. Against men and animals 
 the w-atchman is appointed over a vineyard or group of 
 vineyards. He is there day and night to frighten away 
 animals and challenge and report upon intruders. He 
 roams about at night, and in the daytime he has in a 
 
48 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 conspicuous spot a booth (Is. i. 8, R.V.) made of four 
 stout poles fixed into the ground, with a boarding lashed 
 across half-way up, and all covered with oak leaves. 
 Here the watchman sits and watches by day. When the 
 season is over and the vineyard bare, the booth gets stripped 
 and bent by the wind and rain, and is a picture of neglect 
 and desolation. 
 
 VINEYABD BOOTH. 
 
 Such was the daughter of Zion in the time of Isaiah 
 (Is. i. 8). Sometimes a permanent stone-built room takes 
 the place of the booth. It serves both as a watch-tower 
 and a place of shelter, in which the wine can be boiled 
 and syrup made if the weather should prove cold and 
 rainy at the time. Such was the tower of the parable 
 (Matt. xxi. 33). 
 
 Pruning has to be done in December or January, not 
 when the vine is in blossom and foliage, as it bleeds so 
 profusely. 
 
 Vineyards are either tended by their owners, or are 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 49 
 
 let out to husbandmen who receive for their labour half of 
 the produce. 
 
 The promise of fruitful seasons (Lev. xxvi. 5) made 
 the time of corn-threshing in July and August run into 
 the grape harvest of September and October, and this 
 again trenched upon the time of ploughing and sowing in 
 November. 
 
 3. The Olive- Tree. — The olive-tree is a very character- 
 istic feature of Oriental landscape. It is of a dusty 
 silvery gray, and contrasts with the bright pure green 
 of the mulberry, apricot, orange, and other trees. It 
 presents many changes of colour as it is seen with the 
 light upon or against it, in the morning, at mid-day, or at 
 evening. A grove of olive-trees resembles a clump of 
 willows or silver birches in foliage, though inferior in the 
 grace of form and movement of the branches. The dark 
 stems shine through the branches, and the light red soil 
 which it likes best' gives the warmth of tone which the 
 tree itself lacks. Such is the beauty of the olive. It 
 bears fruit after seven years, and is at full fruit-bearing 
 strength in its fourteenth year. It is fruitful in alternate 
 years, and one tree will yield from a dozen to twenty 
 gallons of oil. 
 
 The berries are gathered in October, about the time 
 of the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles. As the trees have 
 seldom any enclosing wall around them, or those in one 
 enclosure may have different owners, the sheikh appoints 
 a day for the gathering, so that each may attend to his 
 own. 
 
 The tree is about twenty feet high and is easily climbed, 
 and the branches are beaten from the ground by a long 
 stripped palm branch (Is. xvii. 6, xxiv. 13). Whatever 
 remains after the appointed day may be gleaned by any 
 one (Deut. xxiv. 20 ; Is. xvii. 6). 
 
 Old trees have suckers rising from the stem, close to 
 4 
 
50 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 the ground, six or seven, or a dozen or more of them 
 rising in a circle around the gnarled and often rent bole. 
 These are the " olive-branches " springing up to take the 
 place of the parent tree (Ps. cxxviii. 3). 
 
 A graft is inserted into the stem of a wild olive, which 
 for the purpose is cut down near to the ground, and all 
 below is reckoned as root and feeder. Hence the grafting 
 of the heathen Gentile upon the stock of the Bible- 
 taught Israelite was contrary to nature or custom (Kom. 
 si. 24). Even the planted slip of a fruitful olive is 
 improved by being cut down and grafted. It is remark- 
 able for the multitude of blossoms that it casts off (Job 
 XV. 33). Olives form the principal accompaniment and 
 relish of the bread of the labouring man. Bread and 
 olives in Syria correspond to the porridge and milk of 
 Scotland. Hiram's workmen were supplied with them 
 (2 Chron. ii. 10). Olive oil is extensively used in soap- 
 making and cooking. The wood was used in Solomon's 
 temple (1 Kings vi. 31), and is still in Jerusalem put to 
 ornamental uses. 
 
 4. Fig-Trees. — These take rank after the vines and 
 olive-trees in number and fruit-bearing value, although 
 at the present day the most important after wheat and 
 barley is the mulberry-tree, as its leaves are the food of 
 the silkworm. 
 
 (1) Appearance. — The olive, fig, and pomegranate 
 trees, and also the larger walnut and locust-bean trees, 
 while differing in the colour of their foliage, are all wide- 
 spreading, well -filled trees, and at a distance resemble 
 large apple and pear trees, the pomegranate being usually 
 rather smaller and more like an elder-tree in form and 
 size. When stripped of its leaves the fig-tree looks like 
 a mere tangle of ropes, but by this multitude of small 
 branches a great many points are presented to the sun- 
 light, and in summer these are all studded with figs and 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 51 
 
 screened over with large leaves. The tree affords a 
 pleasant shelter beside the house, and in this connection 
 is mentioned in the Bible along with the trained vine 
 (1 Kings iv. 25 ; Mio. iv. 4 ; John i. 48). 
 
 (2) Fruit. — There may be said to be three fig seasons, 
 (a) Early figs. These are few in number, and it is not 
 every tree that has them. They are ripe a month before 
 the regular crop. They are not really, better than the 
 ordinary summer figs, being indeed rather inferior in 
 flavour though large and juicy, but they are esteemed a 
 delicacy because they are the first of the season and 
 limited in quantity. They are often sent by the owner 
 of the tree as a present to his friends. This appreciation 
 and the fact that they fall off easily, are noticed in the 
 Bible, and are made to point to moral resemblances 
 (Hos. ix. 10; Jer. xxiv. 2; Nah. iii. 12). (6) Ordinary 
 summer figs. These are extensively used for food in August 
 and September, and when dried on the flat house-tops 
 are stored for winter use (1 Sam. xxv. 18, xxx. 12). 
 (c) Winter figs. These mature slowly, and remain along 
 with the deep-green leaves on the tree until late in 
 autumn, or even to the end of the year. They are large 
 and fleshy, but inferior in flavour to those of the summer 
 season. The quantity of them is comparatively small, 
 though much larger, of course, than that of the early figs. 
 
 While good figs are very good, bad figs can be very 
 bad. They may become dry and shrivelled, gluey and 
 insipid, or infected by small worms (Jer. xxiv. 8). 
 
 (3) The fig-tree as a sign of the season. — The fig-tree 
 comes into foliage later than the almond, apricot, and 
 peach trees, and when its tender leaves are unsheathed, 
 and expand and deepen in colour, it is a sign that summer 
 days are at hand (Matt. xxiv. 32 ; Mark xiii. 28). At the 
 time of opening buds and blossoms the fig-tree sends out 
 a peculiar odour, like sweetly-perfumed incense. It is 
 
52 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 this fragrance, like that of the sweet spices used in em- 
 balming, that seems to be indicated among the signs of 
 approaching summer in Song of Solomon ii. 13. There 
 the literal meaning of the word translated "putteth forth," 
 and "ripeneth," E.V., is that of perfuming and giving 
 scent. 
 
 (4) The fig-tree that withered (Matt. xxi. 19; Mark xi. 
 13). — We have all at times felt secret drawings of sympathy 
 towards this tree as we have also at times towards Esau, 
 Saul, Joab, and a few others. Now, in order to under- 
 stand the case of the fig-tree, the first thing to attend to 
 is the fig-tree's law of growth and fruit-bearing. What is 
 it? It is that leaves and fruit appear together and dis- 
 appear together. As soon as the leaves begin to bud the 
 figs begin to form. 
 
 At the end of summer some of the figs may survive the 
 leaves around them at the tips of the branches, but the 
 presence of leaves is uniformly a guarantee of fruit. It is 
 instructive to compare this tree and its fate with the other 
 fig-tree mentioned in the parable (Luke xiii. 6-9). It also 
 was unfruitful, and had been so for three years, but it was 
 a case of simple failure under ordinary circumstances, at 
 the ordinary season. It is made to teach a difierent 
 lesson — a lesson of forbearance and encouraging trust. 
 
 But with regard to the tree on the Mount of Olives, 
 we are told that it was not yet the time of figs (Mark xi. 
 13). This fact, which seems at first to excuse the tree, 
 was what really led to its condemnation. If it was not 
 the time of figs, it was not the time of foliage. The tree 
 was in advance of its companions as to leaves, and by its 
 own law of life, that is, the custom of having foliage and 
 figs at the same time, such leadership in outward show 
 should have been accompanied by a similar forwardness 
 in fruit-bearing. But " He found nothing thereon, but 
 leaves only." It was a vegetable Sanhedrim. It seemed 
 
SHEPHERDS AND PEASANTS 53 
 
 to be possessed by the spirit that created the long robe 
 and large phylactery-box. Sins against God were bad 
 enough, but Pharisaism claimed to be for God. Pharisee 
 and fig-tree were alike as to profession without practice. 
 It was the only thing that called forth the stern indigna- 
 tion of Christ. 
 
 " Scribes, Pharisees " — and this unnatural fig-tree — 
 " hypocrites ! " 
 
 Our Lord said, " I am the Truth " (John xiv. 6), and 
 to love Him is to become like Him. Among the things 
 that we are exhorted to think upon, the first place is 
 given to "Whatsoever things are true" (Phil. iv. 8). 
 
 5. Gardens. — The usual Oriental garden is a walled 
 enclosure for fruit-trees as the vineyard is for vines. There 
 is no thought of flowers, bordered walks, or green turf. 
 The ground is made level, or arranged in a series of levels 
 by low terrace walls, it is then laid out in narrow, shallow 
 drills and irrigated. As each furrow gets its sufficiency 
 of water it is closed at the end by the hoe and naked 
 foot. This may be the reference to watering by the foot 
 in Deut. xi. 10 ; or the contrast between Palestine and 
 Egypt there indicated may point to some kind of tread- 
 mill wheel for lifting water from the river or canal that 
 it might be distributed over the land. Near towns, and 
 where the water-supply is abundant, there are gardens for 
 vegetables which are cultivated in great abundance and 
 variety. 
 
 The usual garden trees are olive, fig, orange, lemon, 
 citron, pomegranate, palm, almond, apricot, peach, banana, 
 and occasionally apple and pear trees. Olive and fig 
 trees are planted sufficiently apart to allow of wheat or 
 barley being sown between them. Olive-trees are thus 
 seen in the garden at the foot of " the green hill," where 
 a rock-cut tomb is situated that is thought by many to 
 fiave been the tomb of Christ (John xix. 41). 
 
54 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 The almond-tree bursts into blossom in the short, dark, 
 cold days of January and amid the blustering winds ^t the 
 beginning of February. As its flowers are out before the. 
 leaves appear, its snowy array seems to emphasise the 
 leafless desolation of the world around it (Eccl. xii. 5). 
 
 The apple of Scripture is sometimes thought to be rather 
 the citron or quince ; the term may be a somewhat general 
 one, but the translation given in the Bible has in its 
 favour the fact that the same word in Arabic means an 
 apple. The palm-tree towers aloft among the foliage of 
 the sea- side plain, and rises picturesquely among the 
 villages in the lower valleys. In Arabic poetry and 
 compliment it is the standard simile with regard to 
 stateliness and elegance (Ps. xoii. 2 ; Song of Sol. vii. 7 ; 
 Jer. X. 5). 
 
 The walnut and locust-bean trees are often found 
 outside of garden enclosures, either belonging to the owner 
 of the ground or the common property of the village. 
 Locust-beans are ground like olives and the boiled syrup 
 is mixed with figs for winter use. The walnut or nut- 
 tree is found in many localities, but prefers a mountain- 
 valley with its roots beside the brook or spring (Ps. i. 3). 
 It affords a dense and delightful shade, the leaves being 
 refreshingly aromatic (Song of Sol. vi. 11). 
 
 Sycamore-trees are often met with singly by the road- 
 side, of gigantic size, and with wide-spreading arms. 
 
 Their figs are insipid in taste, about the size of a goose- 
 berry, and growing thick upon small leafless twigs spring- 
 ing out from the trunk and principal branches. They are 
 eaten only by the poorest of the people (Amos vii. 14-). 
 
 6. Gleaning. — The ancient rules about gleaning are 
 not now observed so carefully as they used to be. On 
 the small farms the harvest field is gleaned very 
 thoroughly by the owners, but a small corner is sometimes 
 left unreaped out of religious scruple. Eecently a Scotch 
 
SHEPHERDS AISTD PEASANTS 55 
 
 engineer took an American reaping-machine to the great 
 wheat plain between the Lebanon ranges, to exhibit its 
 powers to the assembled sheikhs and landowners. He 
 astonished and delighted them, but was mobbed by the 
 poor labourers and gleaning women, who saw that such 
 clean quick work left nothing for them. 
 
 In a grove of olive-trees belonging to several owners, 
 and where no walls ever separate one person's property 
 from that of another, gleaning is allowed after the day 
 or days publicly announced for the beating of the trees 
 (Deut. xxiv. 20) and the gathering of the fruit. A 
 similar permission generally holds good among the vines 
 and fig-trees after the Feast of the Cross, which occurs 
 towards the end of September. 
 
 From the above it will be seen that with regard to 
 pastoral and agricultural life in Bible times the people 
 now living in Syria and Palestine need no commentary on 
 such matters. Their traditional customs and surrounding 
 conditions not only explain and confirm such references, 
 but help to make the spiritual teaching in connection 
 with them more interesting and impressive. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 The hand of Honour is a balance, 
 
 All roads lead to the flour mill. — Syrian Proveris. 
 
 One of the happiest sights in family life is to watch the 
 bright, instantaneous way in which a child awakes out of 
 sleep, rejoicing that the darkness is past and a new day 
 has come. City life in the East shows this feature of 
 childhood. The stars of the dawn melt away rapidly in 
 the increasing light, and as soon as the sun arises the 
 day's work begins. The first to be astir are the bakers, 
 firing the cakes that are sold in the streets, with hot milk, 
 to .the early labourers. Those who have charge of horses, 
 mules, donkeys, and camels stretch themselves and rise, 
 ready-dressed, to prepare the food for which their animals 
 have been waiting patiently. Day-labourers, with or 
 without tools, begin to assemble in the accustomed place, 
 salute each other, and stand waiting to be engaged. 
 Workers from the suburbs of the town pour in on foot 
 and on donkey-back. The sound of the anvil is heard, 
 the clinking of the coppersmith at his work, the whirr of 
 the wheel in the open yard where string is twisted, then 
 the loud fumbling in the lock as the door of the Arab 
 shop is opened, and so the new, noisy, bright, busy day 
 begins. As soon as the sun sets the work ceases, the 
 shops are closed, the streets grow empty, and the town 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 57 
 
 settles down to the rest and silence of another night 
 (Ps. civ. 23). 
 
 The Bedawi shepherd is lost in wonder when he enters 
 the town and sees life under conditions so different from 
 his own. His own wants are so few and simple, and the 
 necessaries of food, clothing, and tools are mostly supplied 
 by his own hands and the labours of his family. But in 
 the town each craft has its own street or market-place ; 
 the coppersmiths and silversmiths, the sellers of grain, 
 wood, vegetables, mutton, and cloth, makers of shoes and 
 mattresses, are all grouped together, each industry in its 
 own place. It is the distribution of energy and develop- 
 ment of special skill that must always come with expanded 
 life. 
 
 The trades of the East are remarkable for the skill 
 shown in the use of simple tools, the excellent work pro- 
 duced by rude appliances. The history of Oriental handi- 
 crafts is one of expert masters rather than of improved 
 methods. This delicacy of touch, facility in designing, 
 and good eye for proportion and effect, are largely due to 
 the ancient trade -guilds, in which the same work was 
 usually engaged in by father and son from generation to 
 generation. With regard to any improvement in the 
 processes of the work, a trade secret was also a family 
 secret, and was closely guarded. The private profit which 
 thus secured efiiciency had its element of danger to the 
 public, as we see to-day in the lost arts of the ancient 
 lacquer-work and the tempering of bronze. 
 
 Eecent contact with European machinery and manu- 
 facture has added a few new occupations, and to some 
 extent modified the old. In Syria and Palestine as else- 
 where art exists not for art merely, but for the profit that 
 can be made out of it. This is the moral responsibility 
 of inventions. Orientals are now as fond of our flashy 
 and fading aniline dyes as we are of their rich and 
 
58 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 permanent tones in cloth and carpets. The one great 
 trade that is now awanting is that of the image-maker. 
 Perhaps the last trace of it is seen in the silver lamps and 
 vessels that are made as votive offerings for the churches 
 and saint-shrines, and the six-foot candles of the altar that 
 supplement the Syrian sunshine. 
 
 Let us now turn our attention to some of these trades 
 and industries, and as we do so we shall be surprised to 
 find in how many places the Bible will be opened, and 
 how interesting and helpful these allusions will be 
 to us. 
 
 1. Weaving, Dyeing, and Embroidery. — (1) Weaving 
 is still found in its simplest form among those who were 
 the first to begin it, namely, the wandering shepherds or 
 Bedawln. A Bedawi woman stufis a bunch of goat-hair 
 under her arm, and drawing out a tuft of it ties it to a 
 stone. She spins it round and gradually adds more hair. 
 She thus gets a roughly uniform thread, the twisted strand 
 that is woven into hair-cloth for the nose-bags of donkeys, 
 horses, and camels, sacks for holding grain and flour ; and 
 the lengths that are over-edged and joined together to 
 make the black "houses of hair" — the Bedawi tents. 
 This is the sackcloth of the Bible, which was worn as a 
 mark of penitence or grief, and was the standard simile for 
 anything intensely black. Somewhat softer and more 
 flexible is the cloth of camel-hair ; the softest and most 
 valuable being that of sheep's wool. As sheep and goats 
 are black or white, and camels buff-coloured or dark brown, 
 decoration is introduced in the form of broad alternate 
 stripes of light and dark colour. Through all Oriental 
 weaving we find these two features, the suspended stone- 
 weight and the love of striped ornamentation. Among 
 the pastoral tribes the weaving of tent-cloth, the outer 
 large cloak, and a few similar things, is still the work of 
 the women. Among the village peasantry also a woman 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 69 
 
 is often seen twisting thread of cotton or wool as she 
 walks along, but the supply of cloth is now chiefly from the 
 looms of such towns as Aleppo, Beyrout, and Damascus, 
 or imported from Europe. In the Oriental hand-loom, 
 the foundation threads of the warp are fixed to a beam 
 near the roof of the room, and slope downwards and 
 forwards in close parallel lines to a horizontal revolving 
 beam at the feet of the weaver. These give the length 
 and breadth of the cloth, and the woof threads of cotton, 
 linen, silk, or wool are one by one passed through them 
 from side to side, each line being pressed into position by 
 a wooden bar brought down upon the web. The weaver 
 sits at his work. 
 
 (2) Dyeing. — Many of the Oriental dyes are extremely 
 rich and permanent. The brilliant crimson, their favourite 
 colour, is named in Arabic as in Hebrew from the insect 
 that makes the nut in a kind of oak-tree. Indigo is 
 prepared from the rind of the pomegranate. The shell- 
 fish, from which the precious Phoenician " purple " was 
 made that Lydia sold (Acts xvi. 14), is still met with on 
 the beach at Acre. 
 
 Bright crimson and soft, faded-looking blue, " dragon's- 
 blood " (Turkey) red, canary yellow, and indigo, with here 
 and there a softening of the sacred Moslem green, the 
 whole broken up and relieved with white — such, ever 
 moving and yet remaining always the same, is the motley 
 effect of an Oriental crowd. 
 
 Orientals are very sensitive to light and dark, warm 
 and cold values in colour, but do not feel quite as we do 
 about the relationship of primary and secondary colours 
 of the same strength. Scarlet and purple, blue and green 
 are constantly placed side by side (Ex. xxvi. 1). If a 
 Moslem woman, dressed for the festival, were to appear 
 among the ladies of an English or American drawing- 
 room, they would regard her as decidedly spectacular. 
 
60 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 while she would wonder what evil some of them had done 
 or suffered that they 'should dress so soberly. In her own 
 land her dress is a response to the bright sunshine which 
 harmonises everything. Even the zebra in its own haunts 
 is made invisible by its stripes. Along with such bright 
 and often glaring colours, Oriental fabrics have many 
 
 CHEQ0EE-WOKK. 
 
 subtle shades of gray and olive, delicate flushes of lilac 
 and opal, and salmon -pink like the heart of almond - 
 blossom. 
 
 (3) Emhroidery, hroidered work. — This is the orna- 
 mentation of any kind of cloth, cotton, linen, silk, or wool 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 61 
 
 by different colours and designs. There are two principal 
 kinds. 
 
 (A) Monochrome design, or the effect of a pattern 
 without any additional colour. Here also there are two 
 varieties. (a) On the cloth. — This is a very intricate and 
 tedious kind of needlework, seldom attempted except for 
 
 EEOIDERED-WORK. 
 
 the robe or dress -coat of Oriental male costume. The 
 robe of dressing-gown shape, made of smooth bright linen 
 or coloured silk, is cut out and laid upon its lining of 
 white cotton. Then threads of cotton-twist, like merchant's 
 cord, are laid between and sewn in according to pattern in 
 zig-zags, squares, curves, etc. The sewing running close 
 along each side of the string gives a raised effect like fine 
 
62 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 quilting in the yoke of a lady's dress, or as is seen on a 
 larger scale in our manufactured white bed-covers of the 
 honeycomb pattern, except that the Oriental cloth is 
 exactly the same on both sides. Such work upon linen or 
 silk under bright sunlight is very rich and lustrous ; when 
 upon cloth of gold (Ps. xlv. 13) the effect would be exceed- 
 ingly resplendent. (6) In the doth. — Here the same 
 style of pattern in lines, squares, circles, zig-zag, and 
 key-pattern is obtained in the process of weaving without 
 any raising of the surface. It is woven in Damascus in 
 a great variety of beautiful designs, and is the familiar 
 damask of home manufacture. Something of this kind 
 (a) or (b) must have been the material and style of the 
 high priest's coat (Ex. xxviii. 39). It is "chequer worh." 
 
 {B) Design in different colours — (a) With raised 
 surface. — This was a superadded pattern in gold thread 
 and different colours. The appearance is that of emboss- 
 ing in metal, as when an Oriental bridal dress of rich, 
 heavy silk is ornamented with large gold lilies in massive 
 relief. (6) In the cloth. — The coloured design is in this 
 case introduced during the weaving, the prevailing form 
 of decoration, as in the tabernacle curtains, being that of 
 stripes. 
 
 These Eastern fabrics are usually the same on both 
 sides. They are called in the Bible " broidered-work 
 of divers colours " when the chief impression is that of 
 rich and varied colouring. It is the work of the 
 variegator (Ex. xxvi. 36 ; Ezek. xvi. 10). The further 
 descriptive term " cunning-work " is added when a chief 
 feature of the elaboration consists in the beauty and 
 intricacy of the design, the interweaving of geometrical 
 figures, eflfects of chain armour and tartan crossings, and 
 drawings of human, animal, or floral design in the 
 pattern. It is the work of the designer (Ex. xxvi. 1, 
 xxviii. 6, xxxvi. 8). 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 63 
 
 2. Masonry. — Many of the most wonderful antiquities 
 of the East, like its most characteristic present-day features, 
 are due to the work of the mason. His implements and 
 methods are further interesting to the student of Scripture 
 because of its frequent reference to them by way of 
 illustration and teaching. 
 
 The farmers everywhere are skilful in the building of 
 the low terrace walls of undressed stone for their corn- 
 fields and vineyards, but when a building has to be con- 
 structed of stone and lime the experience of the master 
 mason is usually resorted to. Certain villages are famous 
 for their masons, who travel all over the land fulfilling 
 their engagements. 
 
 (1) The foundation. — Great attention has to be paid to 
 this on account of the shrinkage and expansion of the 
 ground by summer drought and winter rain. The 
 necessity of getting down to the rock often involves a 
 great deal of labour and expense, and is the most frequent 
 cause of the disappointment referred to in Luke xiv. 9. 
 Deep broad trenches are cut and filled with thick walls of 
 stone and lime. These are carried up to the surface of 
 the ground and allowed for a time to dry and settle. All 
 this work is of course afterwards invisible ; hence the 
 implied discourtesy of building upon another man's 
 foundation (Rom. xv. 20 ; 1 Cor. iii. 10). 
 
 (2) Tlie corner-stone. — When the first tier of oblong 
 stones is laid upon the foundation prepared for it, a broad 
 square one is chosen for each corner so as to make a sure 
 foundation where the two walls meet (Is. xxviii. 16; Ps. 
 cxviii. 22 ; Matt. xxi. 42). A similar square block, but 
 thinner, is often placed at each corner of the top row of 
 stones on which the roof beams are to be laid. Its un- 
 inviting shape would naturally cause this stone to be passed 
 by when the masons were trimming the ordinary oblong 
 stones, until a special need revealed its special fitness 
 
64 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 for clasping the two walls. When laying the foundation 
 of an important building for a government office or 
 public institution, the Moslems are accustomed to kill 
 one or more sheep as a feast to the poor. It is the 
 dedication ceremony. 
 
 (3) The measuring reed. — At the laying of the founda- 
 tion row, and from time to time during the construction of 
 the walls, the master mason uses a long straight cane, about 
 20 feet in length, for measuring the spaces of the walls 
 
 MASON S TOOLS. 
 
 and between the windows and doors (Ezek. xl. 3 ; Rev. 
 xxi. 16). A somewhat shorter reed or cane is used very 
 simply, but with wonderful correctness, in the building of 
 the arches that are so numerous in Oriental architecture. 
 
 (4) The plumb-line. — This is a small inverted cone of 
 lead attached by a cord to a cylindrical piece of wood of the 
 same diameter, so that when the wood is laid to the stone 
 newly set in the row the lead suspended below should 
 barely touch the wall. It is in constant use for preserv- 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 65 
 
 ing the perpendicular. To stand this test is the secret of 
 permanence. Whatever is " ofif the straight " must fall to 
 the ground however many sheep may have been sacrificed 
 at its dedication (Is. xxviii. 17 ; Jer. xxii. 13). In its 
 moral application this teaching of uprightness applies 
 very specially to "God's building" (1 Cor. iii. 9), the 
 building founded upon holy faith (Jude 20), and the 
 erection of the " spiritual house " (1 Peter ii. 5). 
 
 (5) The levelling -line. — This is used along with the 
 plumb-line. When a fresh course is to be laid on, two 
 stones of the same height are placed at each end of the 
 wall, or about 20 feet apart, and each is tested for the 
 perpendicular by the plumb-line. Then a length of cord 
 is unwound from its pin and passed several times round 
 one of the stones, and stretched from its outside top corner 
 to the same point of the other stone where it is also made 
 fast. About the middle point of this string the plumb- 
 line is applied again, and then the whole course is laid on, 
 thus securing both perpendicular and horizontal accuracy. 
 This levelling-line seems to be referred to in 2 Kings xxi. 
 13, where it is prophesied that the line that had been passed 
 over Samaria and the house of Ahab would be stretched 
 over Jerusalem, that is, it would be made level with the 
 ground. 
 
 These details of the measured foundation, and the use 
 of the line, and the festivities of the dedication, are alluded 
 to in Job xxxviii. 4-7. 
 
 (6) Tools of the mason. — These are seen in the accom- 
 panying illustration, and are variously adapted to splitting, 
 chipping, and facing the stones. The hammer with the 
 toothed edge is especially interesting, from the fact that 
 the gigantic stones of Baalbek show a graining that must 
 have been produced by a similar instrument. 
 
 The small basket for carrying off earth is also of 
 interest, inasmuch as it is found with its hoisting ropes 
 
66 BIBLE MANITERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 preserved underground through the centuries, and lying 
 where it had been laid down by the toilers of ancient 
 Egypt. 
 
 3. Carpentry. — Oriental custom does not make such an 
 extensive demand upon the carpenter as it does upon the 
 mason. His chief work is in making roofs, doors, window- 
 shutters, lattice-squares, and divan frames for the houses. 
 Along the coast there is a small industry in boat building. 
 
 Chairs and tables are referred to in the Bible, and 
 their construction is described on the Egyptian monuments, 
 but it is likely that the ordinary peasants, in ancient times 
 as at present, sat and ate on the floor or the divan. In 
 carrying loads the pack-saddle takes the place of the 
 waggon, and gardens are marked off by boundary-stones, 
 walls, and hedges of wild cactus or reed, so that here also 
 the work of the carpenter is not required. The scarcity 
 of timber in certain localities, such as Jerusalem, causes 
 many houses to be covered with a vault or dome of stone 
 instead of a wooden roof. 
 
 The ancient Egyptian monuments show the adze, saw, 
 square, awl, and glue-pot, as the chief necessaries of the 
 ancient carpenter, and with these and a few additional 
 implements, his modern successor in the East does his 
 simple work. His most ornamental work is in the 
 panelling of the roof, the making of lattice for the 
 windows, and the arabesque decoration of doors. The 
 adze is his favourite implement. In ripping a board with 
 the saw, he sits on the board and saws away from himself. 
 
 An avaricious man is compared by the Arabs to the 
 long double - handed saw for cutting logs into boards, 
 because it " eats " both in going up and coming down. 
 
 4. Metal -work. — All the records of the East 
 abundantly support the Bible in indicating that from 
 the earliest times there has been a knowledge of plain 
 and ornamental work in the various metals connected 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 6? 
 
 ■with mechanical art. The ornamental work is called 
 engraving, and corresponds in wood, stone, metal, and 
 jewels to the effect of embroidery in cloth (Ex. xxviii. 11 ; 
 
 ENGRAVING IN WOOD AND METAL. 
 
 1 Sam. xiii. 19 ; 2 Sam. v. 11). It exists at the present 
 day in all the forms referred to in the Bible, in the etched 
 line of the graving tool (Ex. xxxii. 4), in punched-out 
 design, embossing, perforation, the combined effect of 
 
68 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 removal and insertion in inlaying and mosaic work, and 
 the complete removal of the carved object, as in the ancient 
 image (Ex. xxxii. 4, xxxix. 14; 1 Kings vi. 18; Ezek. 
 viii. 10 ; Acts xvii. 29). 
 
 The East has always been famous for colossal masonry, 
 but recent exploration in Egypt has revealed that there 
 was equal skill in the most intricate work of the goldsmith 
 and jeweller. The inventiveness in design, delicacy of 
 handling, and mastery over hard surfaces, are unsurpassed 
 by anything in the art of the present day. Their successors 
 in the East of the present day retain much of the delicate 
 touch of the cunning workers of ancient times, but their 
 taste for design is usually satisfied with the repetition of 
 the traditional patterns. The metal-worker of to-day uses 
 the same tools in the same way and for the same objects 
 that his forefathers used them. The graving tool, tongs, 
 hammer, anvil, and bellows are found in all, only differing 
 in size and strength as they are applied to iron and copper 
 or gold and silver. 
 
 The primitive anvil (Is. xli. 7) is a simple cube in- 
 serted in a block of oak-log, and the bellows (Is. liv. 16; 
 Jer. vi. 29) is made of the skin of a goat or cow with the 
 hair left on. 
 
 (1) Iron. — The smith of the present day makes many 
 things in iron that were formerly made of copper or bronze. 
 The farmer and mason are his chief customers. He is 
 usually engaged in making ploughs, hoes, pick - axes, 
 sickles, horse-shoes, nails, window-bars, and masons' tools. 
 When the Philistines oppressed Israel, iron was made an 
 object of special prohibition (1 Sam. xiii. 19), much in the 
 same way as the Bible has been during the conflict for 
 religious liberty. 
 
 (2) Copper.^ — Ordinary copper is chiefly used for cooking 
 utensils, and for the large vessels of the wine-press, olive- 
 press^ and ajso for the preparations of the d^yer. They are 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 69 
 
 hammered into shape out of flat circular plates of the 
 metal. To prevent copper-poisoning these pots are heated 
 over the smith's charcoal fire, and receive a lining of tin, 
 "which melts on the hot metal, and is spread by a cloth and 
 sal ammoniac. Tin in the European form does not belong 
 to the East ; it is only used for coating copper vessels, and 
 in alloy with copper to make brass, which is called by the 
 
 BEAOBLET AND NECKLACE. 
 
 Arabs yellow copper. This is used for more ornamental 
 articles such as trays, ewers, lamps, and vases. 
 
 (3) Gold and silver. — Silver is of course much more 
 extensively used than gold. It is largely obtained from 
 the head-dress coins and old ornaments of the Bedawin 
 and peasant women. Eefining is done by means of alkalis, 
 and dross and alloy are removed as described in Is. i. 25 ; 
 Jer. vi. 29 ; Zech. xiii. 9 ; Mai. iii. 3. 
 
 The commonest forms of ornament are the following : 
 (a) Ear-rings (Gen. xxxv. 4; Ex. xxxii. 2- Ezek. xvi. 12). 
 
70 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 These are in tlie form of balls, long pendants, crescents, 
 and discs. The large crescents have a loop that passes 
 over the ear, where it is generally tied to a lock of hair. 
 (b) ]f ec7clar.es (Is. iii. 19). These "chains" are composed 
 of balls, squares, or hollow cylinders of filigree, or are 
 made of massive twist or intricately woven chain-work. 
 The chain on the neck was often a symbol of office 
 (Gen. xli. 42). Neck-bands with crescents attached are 
 still worn on camels (Judges viii. 26). (c) Finger-rings 
 (1 Kings xxi. 8). These are often referred to in the 
 Bible. They are not only for ornament with inserted 
 jewels, but also used as signets. These seal-rings are often 
 worn suspended by a cord round the neck, (d) Bracelets 
 (Gen. xxiv. 22; Is. iii. 19). These have the same varieties 
 of pattern as the necklaces, thin bangles of gold, silver, 
 brass, and coloured glass being very common, (e) Armlets 
 (2 Sam. i. 10). These are of solid twist, or flat bauds, 
 with engraved pattern, and sometimes jewelled, clasping 
 the arm by the elasticity of the metal, and leaving an 
 opening of half an inch or more. They are chiefly worn 
 by the Bedawin, as they still wear the primitive sleeves 
 with long points, which are tied behind the neck when the 
 arm is bared for active exercise. Any ornament upon the 
 arm is thus displayed. (/) Anklets (Is. iii. 18) are open 
 rings of plain twist, or with bells and discs attached, now 
 chiefly worn by Bedawin women, {g) Nose-rings (Is. iii. 21 ; 
 Ezek. xxiii. 25) are confined to the same class, being thin 
 plain rings attached to the centre or wing of the nose. 
 In the Bible the context does not always determine whether 
 the ring mentioned was for the ear or nose, and in such 
 cases the E. V. gives simply " ring." It seems to have 
 been the most primitive of all, and may have first passed 
 into ornamental use as a symbol of religious dedication 
 and a token of guardianship. (A) Amulets (Is. iii. 20, K.V.) 
 To the Oriental mind all the above-mentioned ornaments 
 
TEADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 71 
 
 have more or less an amulet value, protecting especially 
 against the evil eye. Some are made solely for this 
 purpose in the shape of silver discs and caskets, but as 
 they are also made of other things they will be referred to 
 in connection with the religious life, (i) The work of the 
 goldsmith and silversmith is also required for such church 
 furniture as candlesticks, lamps, censers, and the vessels 
 of Holy Communion. 
 
 A TRAY OP BREAD. 
 
 5. Bakers. — Among the peasantry and Bedawin, the 
 
 baking of bread is one of the chief household duties, but 
 in the towns and principal villages the larger oven of the 
 regular baker is required. The superiority of this bread 
 is implied in the Arabic proverb, which teaches that the 
 best is the cheapest in the end — " Send your bread to the 
 oven of the baker though he should eat the half of it." 
 
 The modern Oriental baker does not as a rule prepare 
 the dough, but confines himseK to the firing of what is 
 sent to him for that purpose. One of the common sights 
 
72 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in an Oriental town is that of the baker's boy carrying 
 on his head a tray of new bread for one house, and on his 
 side a similar tray for another house. The batch is 
 prepared in the house and sent to the baker in the form 
 of round balls of dough, which he kneads into flat cakes 
 for the oven. Jewish women have a custom of taking out 
 a small handful of the dough and rubbing it vidth earth, 
 or wrapping it in a rag and then laying it beside the 
 dough on the tray so that the baker may throw it into 
 the fire at the side of the oven. It is evidently a relic of 
 sacrificial custom (Lev. vi. 5), and meant to be a token of 
 gratitude to God, but popular superstition gives it another 
 name which in Arabic means "Satan's portion." It is to 
 keep off the evil eye. 
 
 The oven. — The Oriental oven is a long, low, stone- 
 built vault, like half a railway -engine's boiler, with a 
 stone pavement down the middle, and a long narrow 
 strip at each side for the firewood. In the evening the 
 ashes are raked out and the children of the poor often 
 bring a piece of tin, or broken water-jar, on which to 
 carry home some of the glowing embers for the cooking of 
 the evening meal (Is. xxx. 14). In the night the brush- 
 wood and logs are laid in position for the baking of the 
 next morning, the door of the oven being closely shut to 
 keep in the heat and prevent the rapid consumption of 
 the fuel. The reference to this in Hosea vii. 4, 6 rather 
 implies that the bakers attended to the preparation of the 
 dough as well as the baking of the loaves. Ancient 
 Jerusalem had its Baker's Street (Jer. xxxvii. 21). 
 Besides the ordinary bread, many kinds of cakes, sweet- 
 meats, and seasoned dishes are baked in these public ovens, 
 especially during the days before and after religious fasts. 
 
 6. Apothecaries. — This word is translated " per- 
 fumers " in the Revised Version. The original word 
 includes both meanings, referring to the medicinal value 
 
TEADES AND PROFESSIONS 73 
 
 of certain herbs and the essential oils obtained from their 
 flowers and seeds, as well as to their application to 
 cosmetics and the flavouring of food. All large Oriental 
 towns such as Alexandria and Beyrout have their Per- 
 fumer's Street. Their stock includes anything fragrant 
 in the form of loose powder, compressed cake, or essences 
 in spirit, oil, or fat, as well as seeds, leaves, and bark 
 
 Such perfumes are mentioned in connection with the 
 holy oil and incense of the tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 5, 35), 
 the rich ritual of Baal-worship (Is. Ivii. 9), and the em- 
 balming of the dead and the rites of burial (Gen. 1. 2 ; 
 2 Ch. xvi. 14 ; Luke xxiii. 56). The smell of incense is 
 perceived on entering an Oriental church, and the smok- 
 ing censer always accompanies the funeral procession. 
 Orientals are very fond of scents and flavours, some of 
 those they like best, however, being considered heavy 
 and oppressive by Europeans. When the orange -trees, 
 violets, and roses are in blossom, the women make scented 
 waters which they keep in large, closely-sealed bottles for 
 use in summer as cooling syrup-drinks. These are pre- 
 sented to guests in tumblers on brass and silver trays. 
 The king's female " confectionaries " (1 Sam. viii. 13) 
 would be occupied with the preparation and mixing of 
 such flavouring essences. One of the picturesque figures 
 in the streets of an Oriental town in summer, is that of 
 the man who walks up and down with his large leather 
 or glass bottle, selling iced water flavoured with violet 
 essence, rose-water, liquorice, or mastic. He calls out to 
 the idle and the active, among the merchants sitting at 
 their shop doors and the carpenters and blacksmiths busy 
 at their trades, temptingly clapping his brass saucers and 
 cups, and crying " Ho, thou thirsty one ! For nothing, 
 for nothing ! " The refreshing effect of a cool tumblerful 
 for a farthing makes it seem as if his advertisement was 
 almost true. It is always suggestive of Is. Iv. 1. 
 
74 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 The enjoyment of perfume is referred to in Prov. xxvii. 
 9 ; Song of Sol. i. 3. It is especially connected with 
 festivities and crowded gatherings. In the Jewish 
 synagogue, on a warm summer morning, the servant of 
 the congregation sprinkles a little rose-water among the 
 worshippers. 
 
 The passage of a carriage occupied by musk-scented 
 Oriental ladies makes a distinct lingering train in the air, 
 like the Gulf Stream in the ocean. Thus Solomon's palan- 
 quin with its dust-blown escort filled the air of the wilder- 
 ness with its rich fragrance (Song of Sol. iii. 6). Certain 
 scents were and still are very costly. Such in its con- 
 centrated and purest form is otto of roses, the name being 
 a corruption of the Arabic 'atar — essence, perfume. These 
 perfumes were kept in beautiful vases of translucent 
 alabaster, and the term was applied to any precious vases 
 of similar form although made of metal and other materials. 
 When it is said that the vase was broken (Mark xiv. 3), 
 the reference is to the breaking open of the seal at the top 
 of it. Such scent vases are found in the ancient tombs 
 with something of the scent still clinging to them. The 
 knowledge of the healing virtues of certain herbs was the 
 great contribution of Jewish and Saracen doctors to 
 European medicine. 
 
 It is when we understand the higher value set upon 
 these perfumes and essences by Orientals that we realise 
 how much is meant by the words of the Preacher, "A 
 good name is better than precious ointment" (Eccl. 
 vii. 1). 
 
 7. Fishermen. — The Bible speaks of the fish of the 
 Nile (Is. xLx. 8), and of the sea (Neh. xiii. 16 ; Hos. iv. 3; 
 Zeph. i. 3), but the most frequent allusions to the art of 
 fishing are in connection with the Sea of Galilee. These 
 of course are fresh -water fish. The Lake contains vast 
 quantities of them, and the danger of the breaking net 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 75 
 
 and sinking boat is still at times encountered (Luke v. 6). 
 There are three principal ways of fishing. 
 
 (1) The casting-net. — When using this, the fisherman 
 stands on the bank or wades breast-deep into the water, and 
 skilfully throws the net which he had arranged on his 
 arm into the water in front of him. It falls in the shape 
 of a ring, and as the lead weights around the fringe drag 
 it down, the net takes the shape of a dome or cone in 
 sinking, and finally falls upon the fishes it encloses. The 
 fisherman then dives down and draws the leads securely 
 together, and carries net and fish to the bank. Favourite 
 spots are the warm springs above Magdala, where the fish 
 congregate in vast swarms, and the fisherman frequently 
 fiings in some bait to bring them to one spot, and near 
 enough to the shore for his purpose. 
 
 (2) The drag net is of the same open form as is used 
 in herring and salmon fishing, with floats along the top 
 and leads along the bottom of the net. It is worked from 
 boats by forming a loop, and thus enclosing the fish. 
 
 (3) Hooks. — Fishing by the hook or angle is referred 
 to in Is. xix. 8; Am. iv. 2; Hab. i. 15; Matt. xvii. 27. 
 On calm summer nights on the Mediterranean coast fish 
 are speared (Job xli. 7) by a trident, being attracted to 
 the surface by a moving torch held over the stern of the 
 boat. 
 
 The application of the fisher's art to the service of the 
 Gospel (Matt. iv. 19) inculcates patience, self-effacement, 
 and the use of appliances in perfect order. 
 
 8. Fowlers and Hunters. — The chase has always been 
 a favourite pastime wherever a high value has been set on 
 skill, courage, and endurance. 
 
 The sculptures of Assyria and the paintings of Egypt 
 portray hunting scenes in which large game is attacked 
 with spears, panthers, and dogs, and smaller game on land 
 and water is caught with snares. The sarcophagi recently 
 
76 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 discovered at Sidon contain beautiful panels in marble re- 
 presenting hunting scenes. Hunting is frequently referred 
 to in the Psalms and Prophets, and three principal methods 
 are mentioned. These are (1) shooting with the how and 
 arrows (Ex. xxvii. 3), now superseded by the fowling- 
 piece ; (2) snaring by the spring net (Am. iii. 5) and cage 
 (Jer. V. 27), especially for birds, such as quail, partridge, 
 and duck; (3) pits covered with a net and brush-wood 
 for deer, foxes, wolves, bears, etc. (Ps. xxxv. 7 ; Is. xxiv. 
 18, xlii. 22). 
 
 Sparrows, linnets, and other small birds are caught by 
 bird-lime set on trees beside a decoy cage. Some are 
 kept as song-birds, but most of them are hung like trout 
 on twigs, a dozen or so in each bunch, and sold for food 
 as cheaply as when Christ taught from their lives the 
 lesson of our heavenly Father's care (Matt. x. 29). 
 
 The partridge is not only ever watchful and ready to 
 take flight, but when suddenly come upon it has wonderful 
 confidence in the protective value of its spots. A brood 
 or covey of them will lie motionless, almost at the hunter's 
 feet, without being discovered. David was acquainted 
 with these ways and resources of the bird when he 
 compared the trouble Saul was giving himself to the 
 hunting of the partridge (1 Sam. xxvi. 20). 
 
 Serpent charmers are seen from time to time, who 
 entice the snakes from their hiding-places, and make a 
 livelihood by exhibiting them twisting harmlessly around 
 their persons. Usually after a time the man with the 
 snake-bag is missed from his usual rounds, and on inquiry 
 one is told that he died of snake-bite. The Bible refers 
 to the serpent that refuses to be charmed, and makes it an 
 emblem of the deadened conscience (Ps. Iviii. 3, 4, 5) and 
 of implacable hatred (Jer. viii. 17). 
 
 The moral suggestiveness of the fowler's art turns on 
 the power that evil acquires when concealed behind an 
 
TRADES AND PEOFESSIONS 
 
 77 
 
 apparent good, the revelry of recovered freedom, the 
 unexpectedness of calamity, and the vengeance of the 
 moral law when a man lays a snare for himself (Ps. 
 cxxiv. 7 ; Eccl. ix. 12 ; Judges viii. 27 ; Pr. xxvL 27). 
 
 9. Day-labourers. — Every Oriental town has a well- 
 known place where men congregate at dawn and wait to 
 be engaged in manual labour for the day. Such labour 
 
 LABOUBEES WAITING AT DAYBREAK. 
 
 includes gardening, ditching, repairing walls, white- 
 washing, and porterage. 
 
 The labourer stands either without any tools, or with 
 the trowel, spade, hoe, or rope that he is accustomed to 
 use. The common time of engagement is shortly after 
 sunrise ; the unengaged hang about for a few hours and 
 then generally go elsewhere in search of small jobs. Such 
 day-labourers are usually too lazy, irregular, or inefficient 
 to follow a regular trade. They expect to have an over- 
 
78 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 seer over them to keep them from loitering, and ■when 
 the time of payment comes, some incident in the day's 
 proceedings is frequently discovered on which to found a 
 claim for more than the sum agreed upon. The altercation 
 of Matt. XX. 1 2, from a variety of causes, is often repeated. 
 These day-labourers live from hand to mouth, and each 
 day's hire is needed at sunset to purchase the family 
 supper, which is always the chief meal of the day (Deut. 
 xxiv. 14, 15). 
 
 potteb's wheel. 
 
 10. Pottery. — (1) Its usefulness. In the East the 
 expensiveness of copper vessels, the unsuitableness of 
 leather bottles for many of the requirements of town and 
 village life, and the fragility of earthenware, create a large 
 and constant demand for the potter. Earthenware jars 
 are also preferred for holding drinking-water, as the 
 evaporation from the porous substance helps to keep the 
 water cool. In the warm East it is a point of courtesy to 
 give " a cup of cold water " (Matt, x, 42). 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 
 
 79 
 
 (2) The wheel. — The clay is trodden by the feet until 
 it is reduced to a suitable and uniform consistency. A 
 quantity of it is then lifted and laid on the table beside 
 the potter. He keeps beside him a dish of water into 
 which at any moment he can dip his fingers. The 
 instrument consists of an upright, revolving wooden rod 
 to which two horizontal wooden discs are firmly attached, 
 
 ORIENTAL POTTEKT. 
 
 SO that whatever turns one turns the other also. Hence 
 the prophet speaks of the wheels of a certain potter (Jer. 
 xviii. 3). The lower and larger one is driven by a spurn of 
 the heel, the upper by a push of the hand. The potter 
 has a considerable variety to choose amongst, even in the 
 shapes and sizes of the common water pitchers, apart from 
 such articles as cooking-pots and jars for olives, cooking- 
 butter, grape-syrup, etc. When during the process of 
 moulding the lump seems to be insuflScient or too much 
 
80 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 for one form, he can convert it into a somewhat different 
 form. To break off or add a fresh lump of clay would 
 involve a fresh commencement. The potter can do what 
 he likes with the clay, but not with himself ; he must 
 make the best possible use of each lump. His liberty is 
 directed by wisdom. The form, ornamentation, and to a 
 large extent the colour of the pottery, as drab, red, or 
 black, are determined at the moist stage. The baking 
 makes these unchangeable. 
 
 (3) The baking. — After being lifted from the wheel the 
 vessel is set on a shelf along with rows of others, where 
 they are all exposed to the wind from every direction, but 
 sheltered from the sun until they are considerably dried 
 and hardened. They are then arranged in the brick-kiln, 
 a shallow well of brickwork or stone about four feet deep 
 and eight or ten feet in diameter, with a small oven of 
 brick at the base. The pottery is piled up over this 
 until the wall rises like a cone to the height of some twelve 
 feet. It is thickly covered with brushwood to keep in the 
 heat and prevent sudden chilling from outside. The fire 
 is kept burning below until the pottery is sufficiently 
 hardened. A few of the jars come out bent at the neck, 
 with a dint in the middle, or a general lean to one side, 
 and the ground around a potter's kiln is always thickly 
 strewn with the broken pieces of the vessels that, in spite 
 of his skill and care, have proved unable to stand the test 
 of fire. The expression "make strong the brick-kiln" 
 (Nah. iii. 14), refers to the reconstruction of the circular 
 wall and the dome when the kiln is to be filled with 
 bricks to be fired. 
 
 Besides the uses referred to, clay was the writing- 
 material of Assyria and Babylon. Job refers to the 
 impression produced upon it by the seal or mould, and 
 compares the clay tablet under its relief - design to 
 embroidered cloth (Job xxxviii. 14). 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSION'S 81 
 
 Clay bricks dried in the sun or by fire were extensively 
 used for underground stone houses, cisterns, fortresses, 
 and dwelling-houses. The successive demolitions of 
 Lachish (Tel-el-Hesy), recently explored by the Palestine 
 Exploration Fund, lie like the layers of a Scotch pebble. 
 At the present day in Syria, wherever building-stone is 
 scarcCfi houses are built of sun-dried brick except on the 
 side or gables facing the western rainy quarter. Hence 
 the reference to the thief as digging through the walls of 
 houses (Job xxiv. 16). 
 
 (4) The Scripture illustrations drawn from pottery 
 emphasise three important resemblances between it and 
 the spiritual life. (a) The subjection of the clay to the 
 potteries,, xxix. 16, xlv. 19, Ixiv. 8; Jer. xviii. 4-11 ; Eom. ix. 
 21). This teaches the possibilities of faith and the 
 iniquity of rebellion against the will of God. An Arabic 
 proverb says, " The potter can put the ear where he likes." 
 (6) Its cheapness and insignificance. — Hand pitchers cost 
 one halfpenny, and large ones for carrying water from 
 the fountain about twopence. Such is the humiliation 
 of Zion described in Lam. iv. 2. Fervent words from a 
 wicked heart are compared to silver dross over an earthen 
 vessel (Prov. xxvi. 23). The earthen vessel can hold what 
 is valuable without having any value of its own. Such is 
 the condition of Christian grace and the Christian service 
 (2 Cor. iv. 7). (c) Fragility. — It is very easily broken 
 and cannot be mended. Sometimes a small hole in a jar 
 can be stopped up with mud, rag, or dough, but usually 
 the knock or fall that breaks one part breaks it altogether 
 and instantaneously (Ps. ii. 9, xxxi. 12 ; Is. xxx. 14; Jer. 
 xix. 11 ; Kev. ii. 27). This frailty is alluded to in a 
 familiar Arabic proverb which teaches patience amid 
 provocations : " If there were no breakages, there would 
 be no potteries." David speaks of his strength as " dried 
 up like a potsherd" (Ps. xxii. 15). These fragments lie 
 
 6 
 
82 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 about everywhere, exposed to all kinds of weather, and 
 are practically indestructible. Archseologists tell us that 
 they often render very important service. The sorrows 
 of God's people have been as helpful as their songs. 
 
 11. Hewers of wood and Drawers of water (Deut. 
 xxix. 11 ; Joshua ix. 21). — These are still among the 
 humblest occupations in the land. Timber is scarce aU 
 over western Palestine, especially in Judsea. Charcoal 
 burners go up to the mountains where oak and pine trees 
 may still be met with, but the hewer of wood is generally 
 content to glean among trees and tree-roots left in less 
 remote localities. It is one of the common sights in 
 Jerusalem to see the small load of twigs and roots, chiefly 
 of old olive-trees, being brought in for sale on a man's 
 back or that of his donkey. It involves so much toil and 
 time, and is so poorly paid, that only the poorest and 
 those unskilled in labour attempt to gain a living in this 
 way. Similarly the drawer of water, who brings water 
 from the fountain and carries it to the houses, often has a 
 long way to go, and a long time to wait before his turn 
 comes round to fill his jars or skins. It is generally a 
 feeble old man who now does it, and the water is carried 
 on the back of a donkey too old and infirm to keep pace 
 with the other baggage - animals. Jeremiah mentions 
 among the sorrows of Israel in its days of humiliation, 
 that the young men were made to do donkey's and mule's 
 work in turning mill-wheels, and the children were set to 
 carry wood, and often stumbled under loads that were too 
 heavy for them (Lam. v. 13). 
 
 12. Tax-gatherers. — The publicans of the Roman 
 Empire are represented by a numerous and flourishing 
 class in the modern East. The farming out of import and 
 export duties, excise on tobacco, salt, etc., and of the 
 Government tithe on produce, is universally practised. A 
 commercial company guarantees to the Government a fixed 
 
TRADES AND PEOFESSIONS 83 
 
 sum for a certain tax or monopoly, and then directly or 
 by further sub -letting proceeds to fix such a scale of 
 charges as will ensure a profit by the transaction. It 
 leads to much oppression and injustice, and fosters a 
 feeling of hostility towards anything connected with 
 the Government. Through long continuance it has ceased 
 to be regarded as a social wrong. The public conscience 
 accepts it as a necessity ; and in a Turkish custom - 
 house men may be met with of the type of Zacchseus, 
 with honest instincts and even spiritual desires (Luke xix. 
 23). 
 
 13. Money - changers. — The work of the money- 
 changers is twofold, namely, to change money from 
 one kind of currency to another, and to give change in 
 the same currency. He charges about twopence for 
 changing a pound, and the change received has always to 
 be carefully scrutinised, both as to quantity and quality. 
 At times they systematically keep a small, useful coin out 
 of circulation, until its scarcity increases its value by a 
 farthing or more, and then let it return to the shops. 
 These small profits to them are a great inconvenience to 
 the public. 
 
 The money-changer sits all day at the street corner 
 with his little box in front of him, occasionally clinking 
 his coins to advertise his presence. The variety of coinage 
 in Syria and Palestine is exceedingly perplexing to those 
 recently arrived in the country. In a church collection 
 there may be found, besides ordinary Turkish coins, francs 
 and half-francs of Austria, France, and Italy, with copper 
 and silver coins from England and India. 
 
 In ancient Jerusalem the presence of worshippers from 
 the different lands of their commercial residence and 
 political dispersion must have brought many different 
 coins into circulation (Acts ii. 9, 10, 11). In the time 
 of Christ, a custom begun for the convenience of strangers 
 
84 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 and the general public had become a mercenary scandal 
 in the temple, and the money-changers were expelled 
 with the others who had converted the house of prayer 
 into a noisy Oriental bazaar (Matt. xxi. 12). 
 
 14. Bankers. — Small sums of money are frequently 
 lent and borrowed among Orientals on the strength of 
 friendship and kinship. Very often they remain unpaid, 
 and this light treatment of a promise within a privileged 
 circle of relationship is easily extended to ordinary business 
 engagements. When money is advanced, or goods are 
 forwarded to a merchant on the guarantee of a mutual 
 friend, if some plausible excuse can be found for non-fulfil- 
 ment of contract, the mere breaking of one's word is not 
 regarded as disgraceful. The unforeseen obstacle is in- 
 terpreted as something sent from above, and to be 
 accepted with pious submission ! The party imposed 
 upon has no tribunal of business honour or public opinion 
 to appeal to by which the defaulter might be put to shame 
 and inconvenience, and prosecution would likely lead to a 
 competition in legal bribery. The loser feels that his 
 business capacity has been discredited by the transaction, 
 and expatiates to sympathetic friends on the cleverness with 
 which he has been duped (Luke xvi. 8). Notwithstanding 
 such drawbacks, which are due to general want of veracity 
 and of moral tone, rather than to a purpose of deliberate 
 villainy, the practice of lending out money at interest is 
 widespread and popular. Servant-girls loan out their 
 earnings in petty usury. Syrian cabmen were among the 
 sufferers by the recent depreciation of South African mine- 
 shares. Many of the wealthy Syrian Christians made 
 their money by mortgaging the lands of the Egyptian 
 peasantry under the regime of the old Khedives, and 
 bitterly lament the interference caused by the British 
 occupation of that country. Among the Moslems the 
 taking of interest is prohibited by the Koran as unbrotherly 
 
TRADES AND PROFESSIOlSrS 85 
 
 and inhuman, but ways of evasion are easily found. The 
 common charge is about one per cent per month, but this 
 is often exceeded. The Jewish money-lender who wins 
 an ugly notoriety in Christian lands of the West is only 
 walking in the steps of Oriental tradition. When an 
 Oriental Christian shows signs of independent thought 
 and a spirit of religious inquiry, it is a common device 
 of the monks to find some way of lending him money, 
 after the manner of a friendly Shyloek, and when he is 
 unable to repay it, to screw him into dutiful submission to 
 the Church. For the past two hundred years Armenians 
 have been the leading money-changers, bankers, and tax- 
 gatherers of the East, and the hatred thus accumulated by 
 a few was one of the chief incentives to the persecution 
 that recently destroyed so many of their innocent and 
 helpless countrymen. Usury and deceit are among the 
 chief causes that make Oriental Christianity weak and 
 contemptible in the presence of Islam. 
 
 Such are some of the colours that have to be put on 
 the palette when the rich man of Scripture sits for his 
 portrait. 
 
 15. Merchants. — The Bible references to merchandise 
 are chiefly to the trading caravans of the overland route 
 passing east and west, north and south, through the 
 Promised Land. Their halting-stations at such places as 
 Palmyra and Jerash are marked by broken pillars, amphi- 
 theatres, and general desolation, for their merchandise is 
 now with the trade-carrying nation that rules the sea. 
 They are now poorly represented by the travelling pedlar 
 with the box or bundle of wares on his back : their profits 
 and practices are found in the bazaar-shops of the Oriental 
 towns and villages. 
 
 (1) Shops. — A collection of small shops in a square or 
 in rows of streets is called the Bazaar. The goods of the 
 travelling merchant used to be stored in 3, khan, or large 
 
86 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 building, composed of a number of rooms built round an 
 open square, and in charge of a keeper. Here the com- 
 modities were exposed for sale during the day and guarded 
 during the night. The open city square or row of shops 
 under the protection of city police is an expansion of this. 
 The shop is a small room without windows, whose whole 
 front opens on the street. There the shopkeeper sits, and 
 passers-by see all that is exposed for sale. 
 
 (2) Weights. — When the goods are sold by the piece 
 or by length a standard measure properly marked is used, 
 but when by weight the customer is very much at the 
 mercy of the merchant. The weights are very often mere 
 lumps of black stone, broken chain-links, or irregular small 
 blocks of iron. Probably the merchant in ancient times 
 had the same facilities for cheating (Prov. xi. 1, xvi. 11, 
 XX. 10). 
 
 (3) The price. — This in common Oriental usage is 
 determined partly by the value of the article and partly 
 by the appearance of the customer. A few shops invite 
 Europeans by a placard of " fixed price," but on nearer 
 approach this usually fades into an aspiration. A fair 
 price is described as one that is " good for the wolf and 
 good for the sheep." 
 
 Several other trades, handicrafts, and manufactures 
 remain to be referred to briefly, or noticed afterwards in 
 other connections : Soap, in which mineral or vegetable 
 alkali and olive oil are used in the composition, is made in 
 several places, that of Tripoli and Haifa being especially 
 esteemed. The tanning of hides for leather bottles, harness, 
 and shoes, and for export in the raw condition, is an 
 industry at most large towns, and extensively at Jaffa 
 (Joppa) and Hebron, at which latter place glass vessels and 
 ornaments are also manufactured. The hutclier among the 
 Jews is a kind of ecclesiastic, who exercises official censor- 
 ship at the slaughter-house, extracts the prohibited sinew 
 
TRADES AND PEOFESSIONg 87 
 
 (Gen. xxxii. 32), and kills fowls in the proper way with 
 the proper knife, especially the sacrificial white fowls for 
 the Day of Atonement. Some of these customs seem to 
 us rather odd and antiquated, but they served a sanitary 
 purpose in the past, and it is still especially safe to 
 purchase meat in the shop of an Oriental Jewish butcher. 
 Millers will be spoken of in connection with the domestic 
 hand-mill, the door-keeper with the house, the forerunner 
 with travel, the letter-writer and teacher with education, 
 and law and medicine along with property and religion. 
 
CHAPTEE V 
 
 DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 
 
 The owner of a house knows what is in it. 
 
 The garment of peace never fades. 
 
 Birth is the messenger of death. — Syrian Proverbs. 
 
 Having seen the shepherd with his sheep, lihe farmer in 
 his fields, and the tradesmen at their different labours, we 
 shall now notice the family life for the sake of which those 
 occupations exist. 
 
 We shall first inspect the house and its arrangements, 
 the preparation of food and the table customs, the different 
 articles and styles of dress, and so pass to the chief 
 relationships and incidents of family life. We shall then 
 be prepared in a concluding chapter to observe how the 
 conditions and customs we have been studying are repeated 
 and expanded in public affairs, giving its peculiar character 
 to the social, political, and religious life of the East. 
 
 1. The House. — As in other lands, the house is a 
 place of privacy and protection against cold, but in the 
 East it is very specially a place of shelter from the heat. 
 There are traces here and there of the caves in which pre- 
 historic man dwelt, and shepherds take their sheep to 
 similar caves ; tliey were the retreats of fugitives in times 
 of oppression in Israel, and at the present day the deserted 
 stone dens of Bashan and the rock-cut cells of Christian 
 monks show this primitive cave-type of architecture. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 89 
 
 (1) The tent. — This is the simplest form of dwelling in 
 general use, and is characteristic of the Bedawin class or 
 ■wandering shepherds. It is a low covering of black goat's 
 hair, with its open front kept up by two poles. This 
 opening may be regarded as the original of aU doors, and 
 reached its largest and most beautiful form in the gates of 
 the cities, and of the temple at Jerusalem. The tent is 
 held in position by ropes of the same material tied 
 
 SHEPHERD S TENT. 
 
 to rough oak pegs driven into the ground by a mallet 
 (Judges iv. 21, v. 26). A curtain hangs down in the 
 middle, separating the women's apartment from the public 
 room. While thus screened from view the women can 
 easily hear what is being said in the public room or at the 
 door of the tent (Gen. xviii. 10), and can look out through 
 the cane-lattice. 
 
 The tent remained in use after Israel had largely 
 settled down to agriculture It was the emblem of a simple, 
 unlettered life, and when any national measure was to be 
 rejected, the cry was raised, " To your tents, O Israel " 
 
-. I 
 
 90 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 (2 Sam. XX. 1 ; 1 Kings xii. 16). The dignity of ancestral 
 associations gave the tent a place above the stone-built 
 house in the language of poetry and prophecy (Ps. Ixxxiv. 
 1-10 ; Song of Songs i. 5 ; Jer. iv. 20). At the present day 
 those who are brought up in the tent are very reluctant to 
 leave it. It is socially a degradation in their eyes, and 
 personally a sacrifice of preference. A few years ago the 
 young wife of a Bedawi sheikh in Damascus died of 
 longing for the life she had left behind her. Her husband 
 had been previously married to an English lady of aristo- 
 cratic family, who used to live part of the year with him 
 in the desert, and the rest of the year he lived with her 
 in Damascus, where she had adorned the house with 
 many articles of taste and beauty, and laid out the garden 
 with a choice variety of plants and flowering shrubs. 
 When she died the sheikh married a young princess of his 
 own people and took her to his city house. In a very 
 short time she began to lose health and spirits, and though 
 her husband botight for her beautiful dresses and jewellery, 
 and Oriental ladies visited her and invited her to their 
 houses, she drooped and died. Her heart was with the 
 gatherings around the well, the camels and kids about the 
 tent, and all the simple free life of the wilderness. 
 
 In Jer. xxxv. 2-7 the obedience of the Rechabites to 
 a family vow is contrasted with the unfaithfulness of 
 Israel in departing from the commandments of God. 
 
 (2) Houses of the village and town. — The ordinary 
 house of the peasant often consists of one i-oom. The 
 Arabic word for a house also means a room, and doubtless 
 it was so among the ancient Hebrews. In the middle of 
 the room a wooden or stone pillar supports the large cross 
 beam of the flat roof, and on this pillar there is usually a 
 small shelf for the oil lamp, which thus gives light to all 
 in the room or house (Matt. v. 15). 
 
 If the house is to contain two rooms they are not built 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 91 
 
 side by side, but with the breadth of a room left between 
 them. Between the ends a wall is built connecting the 
 two rooms, and the house has thus its open court. 
 
 If the house is to have three rooms, a room takes the 
 place of the wall at the end of the court. If more than 
 three rooms are needed, additions are made to those at the 
 side, thus increasing the length of the court. For a large 
 family of the wealthy class, where the grand-parents have 
 
 OEIBNTAL HOUSE. 
 
 several married sons staying with them, there may be 
 several courts leading into one another with rooms around 
 each, set apart for the several households. The rooms do 
 not usually communicate with each other, but have their 
 doors opening into the court. As a protection against 
 sun and raiii a roofed colonnade often runs round the 
 area, or a verandah projects from the wall. In a small 
 house of one or two rooms an awning of leaves and brush- 
 wood or of old boarding casts its shade over the door, or 
 partly covers the court to protect the entrance to the 
 
92 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 room at the end of it. This must have been the part of 
 the roof removed when the sick of the palsy was lowered 
 and laid at the feet of Christ (Mark ii. 4). 
 
 (3) The roof. — This is composed of one or more large 
 logs laid across, with small pieces resting upon them. 
 The whole is covered with a layer of broom, heath, and 
 reeds, and upon this earth is spread to a thickness of several 
 inches. When this has been trodden, rolled, and pressed 
 down, the surface of the flat roof is finally made water- 
 proof with a coating of lime or cement, with openings in 
 the low parapet wall by which the rain may flow off. 
 
 (4) This hattlement-vjall (Deut. xxii. 8) is not so care- 
 fully attended to as it used to be, and the want of this 
 precaution is a frequent cause of accident. Corner pieces 
 are built about six feet high, and clothes-lines are stretched 
 between them. In Moslem houses the spaces between these 
 corner pillars are often filled in with boards or perforated 
 brick-work, so that the roof may be resorted to by the 
 family without their being seen by their neighbours. 
 
 It is regarded as unneighbourly for men to walk about 
 on the roof, as they might look down into the open courts 
 of other houses. Among the peasantry one of the chief 
 uses of the roof is for the drying of grain, summer fruits, 
 and fuel for winter use (Josh. ii. 6). 
 
 Village proclamations are made from the roof, and at 
 marriages it is often a place of assemblage, where the 
 guests sing songs and keep up a rhythmic stamping and 
 clapping of hands (Judges xvi. 27). 
 
 (5) The upper room (2 Kings ii. 1, xxiii. 12 ; Mark 
 xiv. 15; Acts i. 13, ix. 37, xx. 8). — This is a familiar 
 feature of Oriental houses. It is an adaptation to the 
 climate. In summer, booths or arbours of leaves and 
 branches are put up as sleeping-places for greater coolness 
 at night. The upper room is the same in a permanent 
 form. Where several rooms were thus built on the roof 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 93 
 
 it became what the Bible calls the summer house as con- 
 trasted with the winter house downstairs (Judges iii. 20 ; 
 Jer. xxxvi. 22 ; Amos iii. 15). A similar change is effected 
 in large houses by occupying the eastern side in winter 
 and the western in summer. The roof is reached by a 
 rough wooden ladder, or flight of stone steps, passing up 
 the outside wall of the house, or along one of the walls of 
 the court. The upper room, as a place of quiet retreat 
 and refreshing coolness, is usually better built and furnished 
 than the ordinary rooms, and a guest spending the night, 
 as distinguished from a mere visitor, is accommodated there. 
 The room on the wall built for the man of God (2 Kings 
 iv. 10) was meant to be a place of retirement in keeping 
 with his sacred office and habits of prayer. 
 
 (6) The guest-rooTn. — Orientals do not usually set apart 
 a room for a guest, as this would be considered discourtesy 
 almost amounting to dismissal. Orientals dislike being 
 left alone, and at night prefer to have a small light in the 
 room. As they sleep with their clothes on there is not 
 the same need for privacy, and if the bed for a guest be 
 spread in the upper room, some of the sons of the family 
 usually have theirs spread beside his for the sake of 
 companionship. An Oriental feels himself deserted when 
 made at home in a European family, and conversely, a 
 European finds himself oppressed by the constant presence 
 and attentions of his Oriental host. 
 
 The ordinary guest-room for the reception of casual 
 visitors in small houses is the room at the end of the 
 court. It is usually more open than the other family 
 rooms of the house. It corresponds to the raised divan 
 at the end of the one-roomed house as the place of honour 
 to which guests are conducted. In larger houses a 
 specially large and well-furnished room is assigned for this 
 purpose conveniently near the door, so that visitors may 
 not be kept waiting, and that the family may be disturbed 
 
94 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 as little as possible. As refreshment is usually offered to 
 guests, the guest-room is also the banqueting-hall. 
 
 (7) The floor. — Wooden floors are rarely seen. In 
 villages the usual floor is of mud pressed down by wooden 
 stamps, and rubbed smooth by a large flat pebble ; a more 
 cleanly and durable form is that of cement composed of 
 lime and small pebbles stamped down in the same way ; the 
 best floor is of square slabs of limestone. In good town 
 houses the public rooms are paved with white marble 
 relieved by bands of black slate, or designs in marble 
 of different colours. Large open courts are often paved 
 in this way, with an ornamental marble fountain in the 
 centre, and spaces are left in the pavement for orange, 
 lemon, and other fragrant evergreen trees and shrubs. 
 
 (8) Furnishing and ornament. — The walls are usually 
 of plaster coated with a wash of lime, but in the houses 
 of the rich, especially in Damascus, the walls of the more 
 public rooms are adorned with beautiful mosaic of wood, 
 marble, mother-of-pearl, crystal, and ivory. The decoration 
 is usually in the form of intricate geometrical designs, but 
 flowers and animals are occasionally introduced. Swords, 
 daggers, and guns often adorn the walls. There is no 
 attempt at wall-paper, or desire for the small busy patterns 
 stamped upon them. The warm climate, with its relaxing 
 influence, creates a demand for the restfulness of blank 
 spaces. In the richly adorned reception-rooms there is 
 little to suggest the harmonious surroundings of a cul- 
 tivated mind. The impression is not of something needed 
 and naturally enjoyed by the owner in his beautiful 
 home, but of something that a rich man wants to announce 
 to his visitors. Beautiful carpets of wool, camel-hair, and 
 silk lie on the marble floor ; a divan runs round three 
 sides of the room, the cushions having coverings of cotton, 
 wool, silk, and gold thread from the native looms. These, 
 with a large mirror at one end of the room, a glass 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIOKSHIPS 95 
 
 candelabrum suspended from the roof, and a marble 
 fountain sometimes placed below it, witli a few small 
 inlaid tables here and there, are the usual ornaments of 
 the Eastern drawing-room. 
 
 (9) Doors. — The door is a place of peculiar sanctity 
 and importance. The difference between the outside and 
 inside is that of two different worlds. In large houses 
 the door-keeper sits at the entrance to answer inquiries 
 and conduct visitors within, and at night he sleeps in a 
 small room within the entrance at the side of the door, 
 keeping guard over the premises. He corresponds to the 
 watchman of 'the city-gate and the vineyards. He is 
 charged with the protection of the family without being 
 included in its membership, and after conducting guests 
 to the door retires to his post of duty. This menial and 
 external position of the door-keeper is alluded to in Ps. 
 Ixxxiv. 10. 
 
 In smaller houses that have no door-keeper, a servant 
 or member of the family looks over the balcony, or calls 
 out "Who?" If the visitor be one of the family, he 
 answers " Open ! " If he be a well-known friend he 
 exclaims "I ! " The recognised tone of the voice is 
 sufficient (Actsxii. 13). 
 
 (10) Windows. — Window-panes of glass are a recent 
 introduction. The usual Oriental window has wooden bars 
 for protection against intrusion and theft, while a frame 
 of lattice screens the lower half of the window, so that 
 those within may look out without being seen. At night 
 windows are closed with wooden shutters, chiefly for 
 privacy and safety, and partly to ward off the light and 
 heat of the sun in the early morning. Hence the allusion 
 to the opening of the windows in Mai. iii. 10. In upper 
 rooms the bars are not needed, as they are above the 
 reach of passers-by ; hence the possibility of such incidents 
 as those alluded to in Josh. ii. 15 ; 1 Sam. xix. 12 ; Acts 
 
96 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 XX. 9. In the houses of the city windows do not usually 
 look out upon the street, but in the upper stories balconies 
 often project over the street, with windows commanding 
 a view, and receiving a current of air from either side. 
 In these the lattice -work is frequently of a highly 
 ornamental character. Pitchers of water for drinking are 
 placed beside such windows to be kept cool by the draught 
 
 LATTICED WINDOW. 
 
 of air. From this circumstance such ornamental lattice- 
 work is called mashrahiyeh, from the Arabic mashrab, a 
 place for drinking. It is sometimes seen in English 
 drawing-rooms as an artistic screen, without any connec- 
 tion with its original use. 
 
 The mother of Sisera is described as looking anx\ously 
 from such a window waiting for the son who never 
 returned (Judges v. 28). 
 
 Over city gates, and the entrance to fortresses, a small 
 window is placed in the wall or the watch-turret from 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIONSHIPS 97 
 
 which any one approaching could be seen without danger 
 to the observer. 
 
 (11) Sleeping arrangements. — Orientals assemble rather 
 than retire to rest. Thus the father in the parable (Luke 
 xi. 7) pleads that his children are with him, sleeping on 
 their mattresses on the floor around him. When the time 
 for sleep arrives the bedding materials are taken out of 
 the wardrobe, box, or recess in the wall where they have 
 been lying rolled up during the day. Each mattress is 
 stuffed with cotton or wool, and has belonging to it a 
 thick quilt covered with coloured calico or silk, and 
 sewn in longitudinal or diagonal stripes. During sleep 
 an Oriental covers the head as well as the rest of the body 
 with the quilt. It belongs to the sanctities of Oriental 
 life not to disturb sleep or interrupt a meal. It is with 
 the greatest difficulty that a Syrian servant can be got to 
 awake his master at an early hour. When a Moslem has 
 to arouse a fellow-believer from sleep he does so by calling 
 to him, " God is one I " The statement of this supreme 
 truth is always in season to the believer, and only an 
 infidel could object to its utterance ! 
 
 2. Food. 1. Bread. — The chief article of food is 
 bread, and the chief work of the house among the 
 peasantry and working classes of the towns is its prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 (i.) Cleansing. — When brought from the threshing-floor 
 the wheat is carefully and skilfully sifted (Is. xxx. 28 ; 
 Amos ix. 9 ; Luke xxii. 31), in order to remove small 
 stones and particles of clay, and especially to shake out 
 the small poisonous seeds, translated cockle, darnel, and 
 tares, which abound in thorny, neglected fields (Matt. xiii. 
 7). The prayer for Peter was that his faith might not be 
 tossed aside among the refuse. 
 
 The wheat is then washed to purify it from any dust 
 clinging to it, and is dried on sheets spread upon the 
 
 l7. 
 
98 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 liouse-top. It is then stored for family use in tlie Louse 
 in large churn-like barrels made of wicker-work and clay, 
 with an opening near the foot by which the quantity 
 required at a time may be taken out. Larger quantities, 
 to be kept for flour or next season's sowing, are stored in 
 underground cisterns or dry wells with narrow openings, 
 which are carefully covered over so that only the owners 
 may know where the cistern is. 
 
 (ii.) Grinding. — When wheat or barley is ground for 
 
 HAND-MILL. 
 
 the market it is sent to the mill, which in some places 
 works all the year round, but usually only in winter, when 
 there is a sufficient supply of water to turn the wheel. 
 
 The Jiand-^mill consists of two circular stones about a foot 
 and a half in diameter, the lower often with a sKghtly 
 convex surface, and the upper hollowed out to fit it. The 
 lower is made of limestone or basalt, and being thicker is 
 the heavier of the two ; the upper is made of porous lava- 
 stone, so that the surface may not become polished by the 
 friction. On one side, near the circumference, it has a 
 wooden peg which the two women hold each with a hand 
 upon it as they sit on opposite sides and grind the wheat. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 99 
 
 A pivot rises from the centre of the lower stone, and is 
 inserted in an opening in the centre of the upper one, thus 
 keeping it in its place. The turning of the hand-mill is 
 referred to in Ex. xi. 5; Judges xvi. 21 ; Lam. v. 13; Matt, 
 xxiv. 41. It was forbidden to keep it as a pledge 
 (Deut. xxiv. 6), and to do so is still considered disgraceful. 
 The hardness of the lower stone is alluded to in Job 
 xli. 24. The removal of the millstone is one of the 
 forfeitures of captive Israel (Jer. xxv. 10) ; the cessation 
 of the cheerful sound is one of the vanished pleasures in 
 Eccl. xii. 3, 4. 
 
 Oriental bread resembles our morning roUs, oat-cakes, 
 and pancakes. It is not made in large loaves to be cut 
 with a knife, but is torn or broken by the hand (Matt, 
 xxvi. 26 ; 1 Cor. xi. 24). 
 
 (iii.) Baking in the family is chiefly done in three ways. 
 
 (a) Cakes of dough are laid on hot ashes or heated 
 stones (Gen. xviii. 16; Ex. xii. 39; 1 Kings xvii. 12, 
 xix. 6 ; John xxi. 9). This is the most primitive way, and 
 comes nearest to the singed or parched corn in the 
 ear, eaten at harvest time before the grain is hard (Josh. 
 V. 11; Euth ii. 14). Wheat, after being steeped in water, 
 is sometimes put in cauldrons over a fire until it is 
 thoroughly dried. It is then loosely ground like very 
 coarse oatmeal, or what is called cracked-wheat. A kind 
 of porridge is made of it, and it is often cooked along with 
 lentils. As it is mentioned along with lentils in 2 Sam. 
 xvii. 28, it was probably one of the parched preparations in 
 Barzillai's gifts to David. When finely ground it is the 
 familiar home grocery called semolina, which is also used 
 in most Oriental cakes and sweetmeats. 
 
 (6) A simple oven is made by puttiug fuel, generally 
 grass, thorns, and small twigs, into a large earthenware 
 jar, and when the jar is sufficiently heated thin cakes are 
 laid on the outside of it. More frequently a hole is made 
 
100 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in the ground and plastered round, and into it the same 
 kind of fuel is put, along with a few large pebbles to 
 retain the heat. When the smoke and flame have left a 
 glow of hot embers, large thin cakes are slapped upon the 
 sides, and are fired in a minute or two. 
 
 (c) A convex griddle, such as is used for oat^cakes, is 
 put over an open-air fire between two stones, and thin 
 cakes are baked on it. 
 
 (iv.) Calces. — Various kinds of bread and cakes are 
 made by these simple contrivances, and in the baker's oven 
 already described. Many of them resemble those of the 
 Egyptian monuments, and are suggested by some of the 
 descriptive terms in the Bible. There are crisp network 
 discs covered with sesame seed, paste -buns filled vdth 
 pounded nuts and folded in triangular shape ; threads of 
 vermicelli are twisted together to the thickness of a rope, 
 steeped in a sauce of honey and nuts, and arranged in 
 a flat coil to make a large cake on a flat tray ; thin wafers 
 are coated with grape-syrup and powdered with pungent 
 or fragrant seeds and leaf dust ; common loaves before 
 being sent to the oven sometimes have the surface rubbed 
 with oil and covered with aromatic seeds, and cakes are 
 occasionally soaked or fried in boiling oil. Thin cakes of 
 unleavened bread, often prepared with whimsical pre- 
 cautions against any contact with leaven, are eaten by 
 the Jews during passover-week (Ex. xvi. 31 ; Lev. vi. 21, 
 vii. 12; 1 Chron. xxiii. 29). 
 
 2. Water. — This is next in importance to bread. 
 Orientals drink a great deal of water both at meals and at 
 other times. When sitting at food the small hand-pitcher 
 is constantly passed round. They are able to drink from 
 the mouth or small spout of the jar without touching it 
 with their lips. It belongs to the etiquette of Oriental 
 water-drinking to be careful, in this matter, of the feelings 
 of others. A. Persian Moslem regards a pitcher touched by 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 101 
 
 the lips of a Christian as defiled, and instantly throws 
 it to the ground. Orientals distinguish between different 
 kinds of water to an extent unknown in the West. In a 
 town with several public fountains, they can tell very 
 decisively from which the water in the pitcher has been 
 taken. The water-carrier does not attempt to impose upon 
 those whom he serves. Beggars at the door often ask for 
 water. The demand of the Israelites for water would be 
 a specially imperative one. The pitcher is set within 
 reach at the bedside at night, and Saul's cruse would be 
 missed in the morning as much as his spear (1 Sam. 
 xxvi. 11). When David longed for the water of the well 
 of Bethlehem (2 Sam. xxiii. 15), it was not only because 
 of its association with happy untroubled days, but because 
 he had a distinct remembrance of its peculiar taste. Thus 
 an Arabic proverb sums up the comforts of the prosperous 
 and contented man by saying, " His bread is baked, and 
 his jar is full." 
 
 Israel's double condemnation is stated in terms of the 
 vital need and refreshing effect of water (Jer. ii. 13, 18). 
 See also Numb, xxiii. 5 ; 1 Kings xiii. 8, xvii. 10, xix. 6 ; 
 Prov. XXV. 25 ; Is. xxx. 16 ; Am. viii. 11; Matt. v. 6, x. 42. 
 
 3. Meat, fish, milk, and fruits. — One of the commonest 
 family dishes is made of cut pieces of meat stewed with 
 vegetables, such as beans, tomatoes, vegetable marrow, 
 and many others. It is put into a dish, and each one 
 helps himself by making a spoon or small scoop out of a 
 piece of bread freshly torn from the thin loaf at his side 
 By practice this is done with much cleanliness and expert- 
 ness. When one prepares such a mouthful and hands it 
 to another at table, it is an assurance of friendly regard 
 (John xiii. 26). A lamb or kid is sometimes stewed in 
 milk. The dish is called by the Arabs mother's milk, and 
 when it is eaten some apologetic allusion is generally made 
 to the ancient rule against it (Ex. xxiii. 19). At an 
 
102 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Oriental feast a lamb or kid is frequently roasted entire, 
 with the head and legs drawn together and the inside 
 stuffed with rice and seasoning, the whole being served on 
 a large tray. The meat is so thoroughly cooked that it 
 separates easily from the bone, and is lifted off by the 
 fingers in such portions as each one wants to eat. As 
 with the sop, so with this dish, the sheikh or head of the 
 house occasionally lifts off a choice morsel and presents it 
 to one of his guests as a token of affectionate interest and 
 regard. 
 
 The Hebrew word for food is teref, something snatched 
 or plucked, and evidently originating in this custom of 
 eating with the fingers. 
 
 The national dish of Syria is a compound of minced 
 meat and roughly-ground wheat, pounded together in a 
 mortar along with suitable seasoning, until all is reduced 
 to a uniform consistency. It is then spread about an inch 
 thick in a shallow pan, marked off by a knife into 
 diamond-shaped sections, covered with the native cooking 
 butter, and sent to the oven to be baked. Something of 
 this kind seems to be referred to in Prov. xxvii. 22, when 
 it is said that a man of coarse, defiant selfishness will not 
 lose his individuality even after he has been wrought upon 
 in this way by trial and adversity. 
 
 Another of the most savoury dishes of the East is that 
 which had such fatal influence upon Esau (Gen. xxv. 34). 
 Lentils are soaked and boiled in as much water as they 
 will absorb. Small parings of onion are fried in oil till 
 they are slightly singed, and added. Cracked - wheat or 
 rice is often cooked along with the lentils. When it is 
 being cooked the smell is very deinonstrative, and its 
 appetising relish always makes a very strong appeal to' the 
 hungry. 
 
 Orientals are not accustomed to make soups : when 
 meat is boiled the water is reduced to a strong sauce 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AKD FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 103 
 
 to be eaten with the meat. Such were the seething 
 and boiling referred to in Scripture. 
 
 Fowls are served roasted and stewed. An Arabic 
 proverb follows the thought of Prov. xv. 17 in saying, 
 " Better to have bread and an onion with peace than 
 stuffed fowl with strife.'' 
 
 In the East the pig is heard rather than seen. The 
 name is constantly on the lips as a term of contempt 
 and abuse, but the flesh is only eaten occasionally by 
 Christians. Unless its food be specially attended to, 
 the scavenger habits of the animal, and the careless ways 
 of the people with regard to refuse, make pig's -flesh an 
 article of food to be prohibited and avoided in this warm 
 country. Even in connection with the flesh of the wild 
 boar fatal outbreaks of trichinosis or pig-worm some- 
 times occur. 
 
 Native Christians occasionally eat the raw flesh of 
 sheep and goats. On the other hand, from a scrupulous 
 desire to remove all the blood, the Jews rub salt into meat 
 before it is cooked. 
 
 Fish is abundant in the Mediterranean and the Sea of 
 Galilee, but the Government tax on its sale is prohibitive, 
 and the permissive use of it on Friday among the Oriental 
 Christians causes it to be regarded as inferior and sugges- 
 tive of penance. 
 
 Milk, besides being used in its fresh state, is generally 
 made into a curd -and -whey form either by rennet or 
 by a similar fermentation that gives it a taste of cool 
 sourness. Most likely it was in this last form that Jael 
 gave refreshment to Sisera (Judges iv. 19, v. 25). 
 
 Cream is rocked in skins until butter is formed, and 
 this on being boiled is made into cooking-butter, which is 
 stored in jars and used for cooking purposes throughout 
 the year. It is mentioned in books of Arabic travel as 
 saman or samani, and in India is called ghee. Cheese 
 
104 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in its different stages of preparation is constantly used. 
 (1 Sam. xvii. 18). 
 
 Salads and relishes are made of cress, lettuce, endive, 
 mallows, mint, cucumber, and many other things. Vege- 
 tables of all kinds are largely used, and Orientals have 
 much skill and economical resource in preparing sour, 
 pungent, and aromatic sauces. At the Passover feast the 
 Jews have a sauce that resembles thin lime or liquid chalk 
 in appearance. They dip their bitter leaves of wild endive 
 or dandelion into it as a memorial of the Egyptian bondage. 
 
 Fresh fruits are eaten in their season, grapes and 
 oranges lasting longest ; eaten with bread they make the 
 meal of a labouring man. Figs, raisins, walnuts, almonds, 
 and pistachio nuts, are the commonest dried fruits (Gen. 
 xliiL 11 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 18). 
 
 Locusts are mentioned as the food of John the Baptist ; 
 they are used as a poor kind of food by the Arabs of the 
 southern desert, the hind legs of the locust being plucked 
 off and pickled. 
 
 4. The chief meal-time is a little after sunset. Rest of 
 mind and body are regarded by Orientals as necessary to 
 the enjoyment of food, and the condition of being refreshed 
 and strengthened by it. This means that the duties of 
 the day must be over. Farmers work in fields at some 
 distance from the village, and tradesmen live on the out- 
 skirts of the city, and these cannot well come home to a 
 meal at mid -day. Also as the warmth of the climate 
 seldom allows of meat being kept for any time in the 
 house, each day brings its own marketing, so that for men 
 and women the evening meal is the time of family reunion 
 and refreshment. Cushions are taken from the divan and 
 placed around the tray that rests on a small low table. 
 Bread is eaten with everything, at all stages of the meal. 
 Each guest or member of the family has a few thin loaves 
 laid beside him, three being a' common number. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIOISTSHIPS 105 
 
 For the reason mentioned, all the cooked food is usually 
 eaten at the evening dinner. A proverb says, " The evening 
 guest gets no supper." He may claim shelter and rest 
 at all times, but coming unannounced after supper-time 
 he has no claim on the law of hospitality for food. 
 But Oriental courtesy always considers it better to 
 disturb a neighbour than to disappoint a stranger (Luke 
 xi. 5). 
 
 When at a large feast all cannot be accommodated at one 
 time, they seat themselves round the table in relays, each 
 party rising when finished with a salaam bf thanks to the 
 host and making room for another. 
 
 At family meals the women of the household are the 
 usual attendants ; among the wealthier classes servants 
 wait upon the family and its guests. Ordinary domestic 
 servants are chiefly found among Europeans or those 
 Orientals who have adopted their ways. 
 
 Originally such service in the higher families of the 
 land was rendered by poor relatives, who received in 
 return occasional gratuities, or by slaves obtained in 
 war or purchased in thfe market. The taint of such old 
 associations is seen in the reluctance of parents to let 
 their daughters enter service, and in the frequent non- 
 payment of the servant's wages. When a company of 
 Orientals are to enter a room one by one, or take their 
 seats on a divan or at table, considerable attention has 
 to be given to the competing claims of seniority, family 
 dignity, and ofiicial position. Some little time is usually 
 spent in protests of self-abasement, each esteeming the 
 other better than himself. Among the Jews a man 
 instructed in the law, although poor in worldly goods, is 
 considered superior to a rich man who has little religious 
 position. It is the reverence of heart towards God's 
 service which the Pharisees accepted and abused when 
 they claimed for themselves the place of honour at social 
 
106 
 
 BIBLE MAjSTN-EKS AKD CUSTOMS 
 
 and religious assemblies. An Arabic proverb expresses 
 tlie thouglit of Luke xiv. 10, by saying, "Never sit in 
 the place of the man who can say to you, ' Ilise.' " As an 
 act of respect the master of the house sometimes attends 
 personally on his guest. 
 
 After the meal the hands are washed in the usual 
 
 ORIENTAL EWER AND BASIN. 
 
 Oriental way, by having water poured over them by one 
 holding a brass ewer. Servants render this office to guests 
 and, at ordinary times, the members of the family do 
 it for each other. The custom is alluded to in 1 Kings 
 iii. 11. 
 
 3. Dress. — Oriental dress differs from ours with regard 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 107 
 
 to material, shape, and colour. The commonest material 
 is cotton, either white or dyed indigo-blue ; silk, however, 
 being largely used for the outer cloak of women, and wool 
 for that of men. Orientals prefer a long continuous robe 
 covering the body to a costume made up of several smaller 
 articles. Men and women also wear brighter colours than 
 we are accustomed at the present day to see at home. 
 The warmth of the climate is the chief explanation of this 
 preference for light, unconfined, and brightly - coloured 
 costume. 
 
 The love of ornament also plays an important part in 
 Oriental dress. The long flowing robes give a heightened 
 appearance to the stature, and the dififerent articles, 
 especially the various styles of the outer cloak, indicate 
 distinctions of social rank. 
 
 These are forfeited when the European form of dress 
 is adopted, but, on the other hand, a connection with 
 higher culture and civilisation is thus implied. It is 
 considered that, owing to the recent introduction of 
 European customs and manufactures, a greater change has 
 come over the dress of the people of Syria during the 
 present generation than during the previous thousand 
 years. The transition stage is sometimes trying to both 
 Eastern and Western good taste. A lady has her dress 
 made in the latest European style, but the colour chosen 
 is of Oriental brightness : in the same way a man wearing 
 a European overcoat thinks it more decorative to throw it 
 loosely over the shoulders like an Oriental cloak, leaving 
 the empty sleeves dangling at each side. 
 
 The original articles of Oriental dress are the under- 
 shirt and the outer cloak. These two garments are still 
 the ordinary outfit of the Bedawin. Modifications of 
 these and additions to them were due to the more civilised 
 life of the villages and towns and to contact with other 
 nations. A short description of these as at present worn 
 
108 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in Syria will help us to understand the literal and 
 figurative references to clothing in the Bible. 
 
 (1) The shirt, sheet, linen garment (Judges xiv. 12 ; 
 Prov. XXX. 24 (R.V.); Is. iii. 23; Mark xiv. 51).— The 
 people of Palestine, and still more their neighbours in 
 the warmer climate of Egypt, sometimes cover the body 
 quite effectively and picturesquely by means of a large 
 cotton sheet or woollen blanket. It is wound round the 
 figure with an end thrown loosely over the shoulder. It 
 is very characteristic of Oriental preference in matters of 
 dress : they dislike knots, pins, and brooches, in fact, 
 anything by which their clothing would be firmly and 
 finally fixed. In a warm climate anything close-fitting 
 and immovable causes perspiration and discomfort. 
 The under-shirt is commonly made in a very simple 
 manner. A long width of cotton is folded into two equal 
 parts ; the sides are sewn up, with the exception of two 
 holes at the top corner for the arms ; an opening for the 
 head and neck completes the dress. When sleeves are 
 worn they reach nearly to the wrist, with long points 
 hanging down a little lower than the knee. These 
 apparent impediments are really conveniences, because 
 when men are engaged in fighting or active employ- 
 ment, and when the women are busy milking, sweeping, 
 or grinding, the sleeves are drawn up and kept up by 
 having the long points tied behind the neck. This 
 became emblematic of activity, as when the prophet says, 
 "The Lord hath made bare His holy arm (Is. Iii. 10). 
 
 Sometimes the neck-openiiig and the lower parts of the 
 front are ornamented with coloured needlework of black, 
 yellow, green, and red silk, as this part is visible when 
 the only garment over it is the large shepherd cloak. 
 When another garment is worn between these two the 
 under-shirt is of plain cotton. It is usually fastened with 
 a belt when only the cloak is worn over it. When men 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIONSHIPS 109 
 
 are engaged in summer in sucli work as sawing timber, 
 fitiliing, or treading clay for the potter, the under dress is 
 merely a cloth fastened round the waist and reaching to 
 the knees. In any case, whether the under garment be 
 large or small, a man wearing this only is said to be 
 naked or undressed (John xxi. 7). 
 
 (2) Cloak. — This is the outside garment proper, and is 
 not usually bound with a girdle. It is the outer coat of 
 
 CLOAK AND EMBROIDERED SfflET. 
 
 the Eastern traveller and shepherd. The broad black and 
 white stripes are constantly seen in pictures of Oriental 
 life. From its size, usefulness, and value it came to 
 represent clothing in general. It is made by taking two 
 lengths of cloth, usually thick woollen stuff, each about 
 seven feet long and two or two and a half feet wide. 
 These are sewn together, and about a foot and a half is 
 folded back at each end, making the piece about four feet 
 
110 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 square. The doubled part is then over-edged along the 
 top, and an opening is made at each corner for the hand 
 to pass through. The cloak is sometimes made out of one 
 broad width, with no seam running across the back. Such, 
 most likely, was the garment without seam (John xix. 23). 
 
 When made as a light cloak for protection against dust 
 and heat, it is called a burnous; as worn by important 
 sheikhs, of black wool with needlework in colours on the 
 front and back, it is called a mashlach ; in its commonest 
 form it is made of wool, goat-hair, or camel-hair, and 
 woven in broad alternate bands of black and white. This 
 is the ahaa of the shepherd and peasant, the cloak worn by 
 night and day, and not to be kept as a pledge (Ex. xxii. 
 26). The peasants also have a somewhat smaller and 
 more convenient form of cloak woven in stripes of white 
 and red, and made of wool or cotton of the thickness of 
 sail-cloth. This is fitted with short sleeves, and is often 
 fastened with a girdle during active farm -work. The 
 cloak is referred to in Gen. xxv. 25 ; Josh. vii. 21 ; 2 Kings 
 ii. 14; Matt. iii. 4, v. 40. 
 
 (3) Coat. — This is worn over the shirt, resembling it in 
 length, but with the front cut open. Though still light, 
 it is of better material than the garment under it. The 
 overlapping fronts are clasped by the girdle, and form a 
 recess or pouch in which articles are carried with safety. 
 It resembles a clergyman's cassock or tightly-drawn dress- 
 ing-gown, and is the most frequently seen dress in the 
 Oriental street. A man wearing this is clothed, but not 
 in the fullest sense dressed. It is all that is needed for 
 the house, the shop, and for working people moving about 
 in the town. The coat and cloak are contrasted in Matt. 
 V. 40 ; Luke vi. 29. 
 
 In Oriental dress this long tunic-coat is very commonly 
 divided at the girdle into two parts, the upper being a 
 short jacket or vest of richer and heavier material, often 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIOSTSHIPS 111 
 
 highly ornamented after the manner of the priestly ephod, 
 and the lower part is changed into skirt-trousers. For 
 this a very wide sack is made with an opening at each 
 corner through which the feet are passed, and it is 
 gathered at the waist by a cord passing through the hem 
 along the top. It is referred to in Ex. xxviii. 42, and 
 Daniel iii. 21, hosen E.V. 
 
 ik 
 
 &ji 
 
 1^ 
 
 M 
 
 m/M 
 
 wm 
 
 
 W^K^fM 
 
 L ' WaSi ' -^^^^^K^^v 
 
 
 -^2'S41^^!SSBk^SI^^^^ "■•"' 
 
 ORIEHTAL MALE COSTUMES. 
 
 (4) Sobe. — In addition to the coat worn over the under 
 dress there is another worn over the coat, like it in shape, 
 except that it is ampler and worn loose without a belt or 
 sash. It is, however, superior to the ordinary gown-coat 
 in material, being generally of woollen cloth, and often 
 lined with fur. It may be classed as a cloak, for in towns, 
 among those who wear it, it is as much a public garment 
 and completion of the costume as the large square cloak is 
 in the country and villages. It is the professional dress of 
 Government officials and religious dignitaries among the 
 Moslems, and is worn by priests of the Oriental Church. 
 
112 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 In Egypt it is generally a large black gown, not open 
 down the front, in shape like a surplice, and thus re- 
 sembling the original under-dress of shepherd life. With 
 its opening for the head and neck protected by a cord, its 
 long folds and dignified appearance, it is suggestive of the 
 robe of the ephod worn by the high priest (Ex. xxviii. 
 31, 32). Joseph's "coat" (Gen. xxxvii. 3) may have been 
 the shepherd's under-dress adorned with embroidery, or it 
 may have been a robe to be worn over the gown, instead 
 of the ordinary broad cloak of the shepherds. For Bible 
 references see 1 Sam. ii. 19, xv. 27, xviii. 4, xxiv. 4; 
 Is. iii. 22; Zee. iii. 4; Luke xx. 46; Rev. vii. 13. Its 
 Arabic name means "a suit of exchange," and it is 
 always suggestive of public life, official dignity, and 
 special occasions. 
 
 (5) Girdle (1 Sam. xviii. 4; Ex. xxviii. 4; Is. iii. 24). — 
 The girdle is worn as a plain leather belt by Bedawin and 
 the religious orders, and by the people of the villages and 
 towns in the form of a woven band like a saddle-girth, or 
 a large beautiful sash of striped silk. Money, bread, and 
 various small articles may be carried in the folds of the sash : 
 in the belt it is customary to have the material doubled 
 for a foot and a half from the buckle, thus forming a deep 
 and safe pocket. It is the girdle-pocket of Matt. x. 9. 
 The chief uses of the waist-band or girdle are to clasp the 
 gown and make a breast-pocket, to hold the drawn-up part 
 of the skirt in front, behind, or at the sides, when the 
 loins are girt for exercise ; to make the purse just now 
 alluded to, and to hold the ink-horn of the writer. 
 
 (6) Head-dress. — This is translated bonnet, R.V. head- 
 tires in Ex. xxviii. 40, xxxix 28 ; turban, Dan. iii. 21, R.V. 
 marg. The sash and head-dress are the most ornamental 
 articles of Eastern dress. The latter is chiefly used as a 
 protection against the sun and a finish to the costume, 
 "for glory and beauty" (Ex. xxviii. 40; Is. Ixi. 10). 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 113 
 
 To make it, a square yard of coloured cotton or silk 
 with tassels is folded diagonally and arranged over the 
 head and shoulders. It is held in position by several thick 
 coils of soft woollen twist, or a smaller ornamental cord. 
 The cloth thus worn on the head by Bedawin and travellers 
 generally is the napkin or handkerchief of Luke xix. 20 ; 
 John xi. 44, XX. 7 ; Acts xix. 12. In villages this cloth is 
 folded in a long strip, and wound round a small cotton or 
 woollen cap to form a turban. Orientals do not remove 
 
 SHOES AND SANDALS. 
 
 the turban when entering a room ; when for any purpose 
 it is taken off it is laid down carefully and in as high a 
 place as possible, as if in some way it represented their 
 allegiance to their sovereign. The turban is carved in 
 marble at the top of Moslem tombstones. 
 
 (7) Sandals, shoes. — These are associated with degrada- 
 tion (Ps. cviii. 9 ; Joshua v. 15 ; Luke ix. 5 ; John i. 27). 
 In walking, Syrians from time to time pause to shake out 
 the dust from their shoes, either by removing the shoe 
 altogether, and slapping it on a stone or on the wall, or by 
 letting it hang from the toe of the naked foot while the 
 dust is shaken out. The original form consisted of a sole 
 
114 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 with straps, by -which, it was tied to tlie foot, but a partial 
 leather upper must soon have been found more convenient. 
 The sandal is now seldom worn except by monks. Shep- 
 herds wear rough simple shoes, with leather gaiters 
 covering the calf of the leg, on account of the rocks and 
 thorns among which they climb. Shoes are seen in the 
 Egyptian and Persian monuments. 
 
 SAOEED FKINQE. 
 
 A very common kind of shoe is made of a piece of 
 wood with a strap of leather over the instep. Those for 
 brides are especially high and ornamental. 
 
 (8) Border, frinr/e, skirt. — Fringes made of the loose 
 threads of the web are often seen at the end of Oriental 
 cloth. It is the same with carpets, the threads being 
 gathered and knotted into tassels. The most interesting 
 survival is seen in the Jewish prayer-cloth, a covering of 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 115 
 
 white cotton or wool with black stripes for throwing over 
 the head and figure during prayer, and called a tallith. 
 It has small fringes along the sides, and a larger one at 
 each corner inserted in a little square of coloured silk, and 
 so arranged that its knots and threads, along with the 
 numerical value of the Hebrew word for tassels, amount' 
 to 613, the number of commandments according to 
 Eabbinical explanations. This tassel is put to the 
 lips at certain times during the synagogue service to 
 express obedience to the entire law (Mark vii. 6). 
 
 (9) Female dress. — The under-dress and gown-coat of 
 women resembled those of men, and their upper robe 
 corresponded to the suits of apparel or festival robes of 
 men. These are referred to in 2 Sam. xiii. 18 ; Is. iii. 22, 
 23 ; Song of Sol. v. 3. There is still this resemblance in 
 costume, the women's garments being, however, generally 
 longer in proportion to the figure. 
 
 The turbans are made of deep bands of folded cloth, 
 sometimes of ornamental silk, but usually of white cotton 
 (Is. iii. 23). Until recently the head veil of the women 
 of Mount Lebanon was drooped from a silver horn or 
 upright funnel that was fixed securely on the head, 
 and worn night and day. It was about a foot in height. 
 The most characteristic features of female attire are the 
 different veils. The women of the Moslem religion are 
 very particular as to the screening of the face from view. 
 Druze women expose one eye unveiled, and Christian and 
 Jewish women merely veil the head and shoulders, but 
 leave the face uncovered. The face veil is made of 
 flowered gauze muslin (Is. iii. 19); there is also a larger 
 and more ornamental lace veil for the head and shoulders. 
 The cauls of Is. iii. 18 may refer to this latter class of veil. 
 It is worn by women when making visits, and on their 
 arrival it is the first duty of their entertainer to come 
 forward and remove these veils as quickly as she can. 
 
116 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 The same in its stronger original form is the head-dress 
 of Bedawin women. It is a shawl of stout, tough muslin 
 wrapped round the head and neck and greater part of the 
 figure (Is. iii. 22 ; Euth iii. 15). The largest of all is the 
 sheet -veil, called in Arabic izar, enveloping the whole 
 body. The simplest form is a white sheet, but they are 
 often made of rich^ beautiful silk stuffs of native work- 
 
 FE5IALE COSTUMES. 
 
 manship. A large square is folded in the middle and tied 
 round the waist with a cord. The lower half thus forms 
 a skirt, the upper being lifted over the shoulders and head 
 to form a mantle-veil. Such are the wimples or shawls of 
 Is. iii. 23. It is worn by Jloslem women, and sometimes 
 by others, when walking from place to place in the town. 
 (10) Eye-paint, consisting of a paste of brown antimony 
 powder, is in common use. Applied to the eyes of children 
 it is supposed to strengthen and protect them. When 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY KELATION-SHIPS 117 
 
 used by women it is for the purpose of giving an enlarged 
 appearance and increased brilliancy to the eyes by means 
 of the gleaming black stain. It is kept in small orna- 
 mented vases having a rod attached to the stopper by 
 which the paint is applied to the eye-lashes. One of 
 Job's daughters was called Keren-happftch, horn of eye- 
 paint (Job xlii. 14). The practice is alluded to in 
 2 Kings ix. 30; Jer. iv. 30; Eev. iii. 18. 
 
 4. The Family. — In every land the home is the 
 nursery of all that is best and most beautiful in human 
 life. In Syria and Palestine there is no drink curse to 
 deaden and destroy natural feelings, and the parental 
 devotion of the poorest is as happy and self-denying as 
 that of the rich and refined. Nothing bewilders and 
 shocks the Oriental mind more than the paragraphs of 
 police news sometimes copied from English into Arabic 
 newspapers about the desertion and ill-treatment of children 
 by their parents. Occasionally an infant is laid by night 
 at the door of a convent or boarding-school, but almost 
 universally a child born into the poorest homes is welcomed 
 as a gift from God. Matters socially connected with the 
 family, such as neighbourhood, hospitality, and inheritance, 
 will be touched upon in the next chapter : we shall 
 here confine ourselves to the three chief events of family 
 life, namely. Birth, Marriage, and Death. 
 
 (1) Birth. — The leading and distinguishing feature of 
 Oriental family life is its preference of sons to daughters. 
 This of course is a result of social life rather than of domestic 
 affection. The want of public law and justice makes the 
 family a guild or union of common interests, not merely 
 for the cultivation of truth, obedience, and loving self- 
 sacrifice, but for marriage alliances, mercantile enterprises, 
 and social advancement generally. When a son marries, 
 he usually brings his young wife into the home of his 
 parents, to be for a time at least under his mother's 
 
118 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 instruction. A daughter goes fortli to be the purchased 
 or bargained possession of another family, and gradually 
 becomes identified with its interests. Her origin is not 
 forgotten, however, and she is protected by her family 
 influence. Often a wife who would be dismissed because 
 of some petty provocation, is treated with respect and 
 forbearance because any aflfront put upon her would 
 alienate all her relatives. The union of all within the 
 house under its recognised head against all that exists 
 outside, is one of the leading ideas of Oriental life. An 
 often quoted proverb says, " Better a thousand enemies 
 outside the house than one inside.'' When an Oriental 
 suspects that he is being over-reached, he can politely 
 decline the proposal that seems injurious to his interests 
 by saying, " Good-morning, neighbour, you are in your 
 court and I am in mine." In Arabic the word family 
 means "those who are cared for.'' Another proverb 
 says, "In social matters act as kinsmen, in business 
 matters be strangers." The moment the Oriental passes 
 beyond his own door and the circle of his immediate 
 neighbours, he encounters officials who have paid for their 
 appointment, in whose election he has no vote, and over 
 whose conduct he has no control. The home is not a 
 training-place for noble service in the State, but a bulwark 
 against its tyranny. Any family may grow into a clan 
 the head of which may have sufficient means and influence 
 to obtain a Government appointment, and then he can help 
 and favour those who recognise his leadership. On account 
 of this struggle for wealth and worldly promotion, and the 
 importance of having an heir to succeed to it and use it, the 
 birth of a male child brings joy to a family, and that of 
 an infant daughter sorrow and disappointment (Jer. xx. 
 15 ; John xvi. 21). When a child is born, two or three 
 local musicians are usually waiting outside to know if the 
 new arrival be a boy or girl. If the former, they 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIONSHIPS 119 
 
 immediately beat the drum, and play upon whatever 
 instiruments they have, accompanying the din with im- 
 provised rhymes complimentary to the dignity of the 
 family, and prophetic of the career lying before the son 
 and heir. But the moment they learn from the silence 
 and sad looks of the visitors that a daughter has been 
 thrust upon the family, the drum is shouldered, and the 
 musicians walk away. Music at such a time would be an 
 unpaid affront. The grandmother sometimes refuses to 
 visit a daughter who has thus brought discredit on the 
 family. When natural affection and financial interest pull 
 in opposite directions, victory too often goes to the latter. 
 But God's ink does not lose colour although it is applied 
 to such poor paper, and in spite of this disappointment at 
 the beginning, the little daughter's claims to family love 
 are soon more fully recognised. 
 
 This idea of the Oriental family as a business syndicate, 
 quite as much as a sanctuary of affection, is expressed in 
 the Koran, where it says, "Wealth and sons are the 
 ornaments of life." Thus also in Psalm cxxvii. the family 
 circle is compared to a quiver, and the sons are the 
 arrows ready for service. Their father can command 
 attention in the council of the elders at the city gate. 
 
 The new-born infant has its arms laid by its side and 
 is wrapped in swaddling clothes. Among some of the 
 peasantry the custom still prevails of rubbing the child's 
 body with a powder of salt (Ezek. xvi. 4), but washing 
 with water is usually avoided until after forty days. The 
 little figure wrapped tightly in folds of cotton, and with 
 its black eyes intensified by the eye-paint on the lashes, 
 looks more like a mummy than a happy human child, and 
 it is sometimes difficult to find the words of praise that 
 the mother is expecting to hear. 
 
 The names of Oriental children, after the familiar Bible 
 custom, usually express the parents' gratitude to God, or 
 
120 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 something connected witli the personal appearance of the 
 child or the circumstances under which it was born. Very 
 frequently the name is given in remembrance of some 
 relative. These names are thus personal registers of the 
 happiness and hopes of their parents. Those of Jacob's 
 family will be recalled as instances of this custom, and 
 such names as Isaac, Ishmael, Moses, Ichabod, Samuel. 
 It is not usual to call a son after his own father. The 
 father's name is added as a kind of surname, as David, 
 son-of-Jesse, Simon, son-of-Jonah. A name given after a 
 member of the family in a former generation is a memorial 
 of one who though still living is absent, and so might be 
 forgotten. This seems to be the meaning of the question, 
 "Why are they then baptized for the dead?" (1 Cor. 
 XV. 29). To be named after some honoured relative 
 implies a promise and hope that one child will inherit the 
 character of the departed. According to this meaning, 
 many of the ecclesiastical teachings connected with the 
 rite in Christian baptism would float away with the other 
 bubbles, and little would remain but the simple supreme 
 purpose to live the very life of Christ. 
 
 A certain class of names is expressive of family 
 anxiety and sorrow. Such are Dibb (bear), Nimr 
 (leopard), and Saba (lion), given when one child after 
 another has died in infancy, and it is hoped that the 
 name of a common wild animal may take off the evil 
 eye, and put a stop to such misfortune. This may have 
 been the trouble when Caleb (dog) was born. Students 
 of Oriental folk-lore find deeper meaning in such customs, 
 but at the present day it is simply a form of humiliation 
 to deliver a family from its dark fate, and in a dim 
 superstitious way recognises the fact that a new life 
 requires a new spirit. 
 
 The names of female children are usually taken from 
 beautiful objects in nature, or pleasant graces of character. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 121 
 
 Thus Astronomy gives Shems (sun), Kaukab and Nejmeh 
 (star), Kumr (moon). Favourite flower-names are Zambak 
 (lily), Yasmtn (jessamine), and Wurdeh. (rose). Jewellery 
 is of course very popular : the school register is always 
 richly ornamented with such names as Lulu (pearl), 
 Almaz (diamond), Zumurrud (emerald). Many again 
 are suggestive of the pleasant appearance or kindly dis- 
 positions of their owners. Such are Selma (peace), 
 Simha (joy), Farideh (special), Latifeh (gracious), 
 Sultaneh (princess), Jamileh (pleasant). 
 
 Bible examples are Jemima (dove), Tabitha or Dorcas 
 (gazelle), Ehoda (rose), Eachel (lamb), Salome (peace), 
 Deborah (bee), Esther (star). 
 
 A quaintly sad name is Kafah (enough), an implied 
 remonstrance, meaning that after the birth of several 
 daughters the parents would have reverently preferred to 
 have had at least one son. 
 
 In the East there is very little of the child-life with 
 which we are familiar in our Western homes. Great 
 allowance is made for the impulsive ways of children, 
 but parents never attempt to draw them into companion- 
 ship, and there is no literature for young people. Thus 
 in the Arabian Nights the interval between birth and 
 marriage is usually a blank. Dolls are greatly enjoyed by 
 the little girls, but Moslems, Jews, and Druzes find a taint 
 of idolatry in them. Boys play with marbles, tops, and 
 balls, and both boys and girls imitate in their games, the 
 things that occupy the serious attention of their elders. 
 Thus juvenile bands form into a marriage procession with 
 sword-play, music, and shouting. They dramatise funerals 
 and make lamentation in the same way. Bedawin robbers 
 attacking travellers and law courts are also popular. The 
 selling of Joseph, the sorrows of Job, and the raising of 
 Lazarus are described in poetry, which is learnt by many, 
 and passes down unchanged from generation to generation 
 
122 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 like our nursery rhymes. The account of Job's misfortunes, 
 for example, tells how his wife cut her hair and her 
 husband's to sell it for food, and such graphic touches 
 come to be regarded as part of the original story. It is 
 easy to conceive how a scribe copying one of the books of 
 Scripture might introduce an explanatory comment from 
 such floating traditions. The references to the book of 
 Jashar are perhaps instances of this (Josh. x. 13; 2 Sam. L 
 18). The children in Christ's time evidently played at 
 marriage and funeral processions as they do at the present 
 time. The lack of response to His appeal and the impossi- 
 bOity of His complying with Jewish expectations could be 
 compared to children playing in the open market-place, 
 until, wearied with their sport or distracted by other 
 things, they paid no attention either to the marriage music 
 or funeral wail (Matt. xi. 17). Among the little girls of 
 the East the chief entertainment is to play at bride. One 
 of their number is selected and dressed up with contribu- 
 tions from the others, and sits with downcast eyes and 
 folded hands to be admired by her young companions. 
 
 2. The chief event in Oriental family life is Marriage. 
 This is usually planned by parents in the infancy of their 
 children. The formal betrothal may take place some 
 years before the marriage. The bridegroom-elect sends a 
 present to the girl, the dowry is settled, and if sometime 
 afterwards the engagement be broken off, the young woman, 
 if a Jewess, cannot be married to any one else without 
 receiving first a paper of divorce from the rabbi. 
 
 The marriage is a great occasion of festivity, some- 
 times prolonged over several days. To be omitted in 
 the invitations is a grave offence. A proverb says : " He 
 who does not invite me to his marriage will not have me 
 at his funeral." 
 
 The wedding customs of to-day strongly resemble those 
 mentioned in Scripture, but do not exactly repeat them. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 123 
 
 The Jews introduce European elements, the Christians 
 have new traditions belonging to the Christian Church, 
 and the. Moslems who usually preserve most of the ancient 
 practices are here affected by the severe seclusion of women. 
 
 At a Jewish wedding the most interesting feature is 
 the canopy under which the bridegroom and bride sit or 
 stand during the ceremony. It is erected in the court or 
 large room of the house where the guests are assembled, 
 and is made of palm-branches and embroidered cloth. It 
 is suggestive of the dome sometimes seen above pulpits, 
 and gives to the wedding the appearance of a coronation. 
 In Is. Ixi. 10 the bridegroom is described, E.V. marg., as 
 decked like a priest, and he still wears at such a time the 
 prayer -cloak of public worship called the tallith. The 
 Jews say "the bridegroom is a king." The husband is 
 priest and king in his own household. Amid all the 
 countries in which the Jews are scattered, and the 
 dififerent languages that they learn to speak, the canopy 
 is called by its Hebrew name, the Huppah. The sight of 
 the robed bridegroom issuing from the canopy (tabernacle) 
 and receiving with smiles the congratulations of his friends 
 suggested the simile of the sunrise in Ps. six. 6. At a 
 Jewish marriage one item of sad significance is never 
 omitted. The glass that holds the wine of marriage 
 consecration is dropped on the floor and broken to pieces. 
 This is explained as a memorial of the destroyed temple, 
 and teaches the Jew that in the moment of his own 
 supreme happiness he must not forget the deep sorrows 
 of his nation. The thought recalls Ps. cxxxvii. 6. 
 
 In the Parable of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 1-13), 
 the reader of Scripture naturally wishes to know where 
 the maidens were when they slumbered and slept, and 
 where and why the bridegroom tarried. 
 
 The following description will throw some light on 
 those difficulties : — Oriental marriages usually take place 
 
124 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in the evening. Among Jews and Christians the ceremony 
 is usually performed in the house of the bride's parents, 
 though among the Christians frequently in the church ; 
 among the Moslems always in the house of the bride- 
 groom. The whole attention is turned to the public 
 arrival of the bridegroom to receive the bride prepared for 
 him and waiting in the house among her female attendants. 
 
 If we make allowance for some changes in detail 
 caused by their rules as to the seclusion of women, the 
 Moslem customs are those which help us most in trying 
 to understand how marriages took place in Bible times. 
 During the day the bride is conducted to the house of 
 her future husband, and she is there assisted by her 
 attendants in putting on the marriage robes and jewellery. 
 During the evening, the women who have been invited 
 congregate in the room where the bride sits in silence, 
 and spend the time commenting on her appearance, com- 
 plimenting the relatives, discussing various family matters, 
 and partaking of sweetmeats and similar refreshments. 
 
 As the hours drag on their topics of conversation 
 become exhausted, and some of them grow tired and fall 
 asleep. There is nothing more to be done, and everything 
 is in readiness for the reception of the bridegroom, when 
 the cry is heard outside announcing his approach. 
 
 The bridegroom meanwhile is absent spending the day 
 at the house of one of his relatives. There, soon after 
 sunset, that is between seven and eight o'clock, his male 
 friends begin to assemble. Their work for the day is 
 over ; they have taken a hasty supper, and dressed them- 
 selves, and have come to spend the evening with the 
 bridegroom and then escort him home. The time is 
 occupied with light refreshments, general conversation 
 and the recitation of poetry in praise of the two families 
 chiefly concerned and of the bridegroom in particular. 
 After all have been courteously welcomed and their con- 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY EELATIONSHIPS 125 
 
 gratulations received, the bridegroom, about eleven o'clock, 
 intimates his wish to set out. Flaming torches are then 
 held aloft by special bearers, lit candles are handed at the 
 door to each visitof as he goes out, and the procession 
 sweeps slowly along towards the house where the bride 
 and her female attendants are waiting. A great crowd 
 has meanwhile assembled on the balconies, garden-walls, 
 and fiat roofs of the houses on each side of the road. It 
 is always an impressive spectacle to watch the passage of 
 such a brilliant retinue under the starry stillness of an 
 Oriental night. The illumination of the torches and 
 candles not only makes the procession itself a long winding 
 array of moving lights, but throws into sharp relief the 
 white dresses and thronging faces of the spectators seen 
 against the sombre walls and dark sky. The bridegroom 
 is the centre of interest. Voices are heard whispering, 
 " There he is ! there he is 1 " From time to time women 
 raise their voices in the peculiar shrill, wavering shriek by 
 which joy is expressed at marriages and other times of 
 family and public rejoicing. The sound is heard at a 
 great distance, and is repeated by other voices in advance 
 of the procession, and thus intimation is given of the 
 approach half an hour or more before the marriage escort 
 arrives. It was during this interval that the foolish 
 vir'gins hurried out in quest of oil for their lamps. Along 
 the route the throng becomes more dense, and begins to 
 move with the retinue bearing the lights. As the house 
 is approached the excitement increases, the bridegroom's 
 pace is quickened, and the alarm is raised in louder tones 
 and more repeatedly, " He is coming, he is coming ! " 
 
 Before he arrives, the maidens in waiting come forth 
 with lamps and candles a short distance to light up the 
 entrance, and do honour to the bridegroom and the group 
 of relatives and intimate friends around him. These pass 
 into the final rejoicing and the marriage supper ; the others 
 
126 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 who have discharged their duty in accomj,anying him to 
 the door, immediately disperse, and the door is shut. 
 
 Such is the simple incident in the earthly home that 
 has found such wonderful correspondences in the heavenly 
 life. The bridal procession has been taken into the house 
 of Parable, and there robed with beautiful vesture of 
 spiritual truth. If we are careful to interpret the latter 
 by the former, we shall learn : (1) from the bride's 
 adorning what varied and skilful attendance the Church, 
 the Bride of Christ, needs, in order to wear properly 
 the Bridegroom's gifts ; (2) from the bright, forward- 
 moving procession, that every servant of Christ should be a 
 light-bearer and never stand still ; and (3) from the turning 
 of all eyes upon the bridegroom, how great is the trespass 
 when any Church official or creed-banner displaces or obscures 
 the great central personality, the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 3. Funerals. — When a death occurs in an Oriental 
 home, a wail is immediately raised that announces the 
 sad event to those living in the neighbourhood. It is 
 customary and expected at such times of sorrow that the 
 relatives should tear their hair and clothes, beat the 
 breast, weep and cry aloud until sheer physical exhaustion 
 brings on a necessary reaction of dulness and depression. 
 Orientals are unsurpassed in the quiet, unmurmuring 
 acceptance of the will of God ; but, in giving social proof 
 and manifestation of their felt loss, the expression of 
 grief becomes the chief burden of grief. The wail at the 
 moment of death, and the lamentation around the corpse 
 during the short interval before interment, are referred to 
 in Gen. xii. 30 ; Mark v. 38 ; John xi. 31 ; and Acts ix. 39. 
 The tears of Christ at the grave of Lazarus have been 
 a comfort in many a darkened home, allowing the heart 
 to feel and tell its bitterness, even while faith in God 
 remains sure and strong. Some of the common language 
 of Oriental lamentation is preserved in Jer. x'xii. 18. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 127 
 
 Weeping relatives lean over the cold form of him who was 
 so recently interested in the smallest affairs of the family 
 and the chief object of its ministry, and with words of 
 loving endearment they plead for a response from the lips 
 that never move and the face that makes no sign. Other 
 names, the names of those in the family who have died 
 lately, are mentioned and make the tears gush forth 
 afresh. The women who attend professionally to assist 
 at such lamentation , are skilful in interweaving family 
 references and in improvising poetry in praise of the 
 departed. When a new band of mourners arrives from a 
 neighbouring village, they lift up their arms and exclaim, 
 " Hope is cut off ! " (Job viii. 13; Is. Ivii. 10 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 
 11). When a young person dies unmarried, the funeral 
 lamentation is made more pathetic by first going through 
 some of the forms of a wedding ceremony. That which is 
 is thus contrasted with what might have been. Thus 
 Jephthah's daughter bewailed her virginity in the presence 
 of the fate that awaited her (Judges xi. 37). 
 
 In the warm climate of the East the interval between 
 death and interment has to be very brief, the funeral 
 generally taking place the same day, or on the day 
 following. The formulated frenzy that to some extent 
 displaces true grief in the house of mourning often turns 
 into pious selfishness on the way to the grave. Among 
 modern Orientals, accompanying a funeral procession is 
 called attending the merit, an act that will secure a reward 
 from God. 
 
 Thus when the letter of useful form is killed by slavish 
 obedience, religious hypocrisy, its next of kin, comes as 
 the avenger of blood and takes away the last remnants of 
 natural feeling. 
 
 Among the Jews a cemetery is solemnly called the 
 House of Eternity (Eccl. xii. 5), and sometimes the House 
 of the Living. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIPB 
 
 Escape from self is better than escape from a lion. 
 
 There are two that are never satisfied — the seeker of knowledge 
 
 and the seeker of wealth. 
 The best wealth is that which is pleasing to God. 
 
 Syrian Proverbs. 
 
 The present chapter brings us to a point of view that 
 commands a very extensive and variegated prospect. 
 It is the illustration of Scripture from the social life, 
 public government, and literary, scientific, and religious 
 institutions of the East. 
 
 1. Oriental Villages. -^(1) Their origin. — The land- 
 scape of the East shows no farm-houses scattered here and 
 there over the plains and valleys. Those who cultivate the 
 soil in any district build their houses beside each other in a 
 village. As already mentioned, one of the chief reasons 
 for this was the unsettled state of the country. The 
 produce and various possessions of the farmers, and their 
 own lives also, had to be protected against the shepherd 
 tribes. Further, the leading sheikhs of the different clans 
 were constantly at war with each other, and the peasantry 
 who tilled the property of their local prince had to make 
 common cause with him. His enemies were their enemies. 
 How thorough this submission must have been may be 
 inferred from the recent remark of an old sheikh, who 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND EELIGIOUS LIFE 129 
 
 maintained that government on the present national 
 plan was not so good as that of the old system of ruling 
 families. When asked what he meant by good govern- 
 ment, he pointed to a large gray rock and said : " When I 
 said to one of my people, ' That stone is red,' he used to 
 answer ' It is red ' ; if I said ' No, it is green,' he would 
 answer ' It is green.' That is good government, but it is 
 lost now.'' 
 
 These local feuds meant a constant exposure to attack, 
 and the village became offensively and defensively the home 
 of the clan, as the house was of the family. 
 
 A third reason pointing in the same direction was the 
 necessity of water. . This was required not only for the 
 inhabitants and their animals, but also for vegetable 
 gardens. In this way the village often got its name from 
 the fountain ('am) or well (beer) beside which it was built, 
 coupled with the cliff, tree, meadow, castle, or some such 
 natural feature in the vicinity. Bible examples of this 
 were Abel-ma-im, Beersheba, Endor. 
 
 (2) Appearance. — The small villages of the peasantry 
 in the wheat plains are mere mud-brick hovels, allotted by 
 the proprietor to those who till the surrounding fields. 
 Those on the hill-sides are built of limestone; their 
 inhabitants have more independence and greater variety 
 of occupation, and the whole appearance of such villages 
 is very much better. The houses with their flat roofs 
 look like so many large boxes that have rolled down from 
 above and been suddenly arrested in their descent. They 
 are often so near each other that the door of one leads 
 out to the flat roof of the house below it. The white 
 walls gleam out of the surrounding mulberry foliage, the 
 monotony being usually broken by the larger dimensions 
 and better architecture of the sheikh's house, and some- 
 times the houses cluster round the prominent nucleus of 
 the village church, leaving a few to straggle up the slope 
 
130 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 towards the ridge where the old shrine-tomb under its 
 oak-tree gives a picturesque outline to the background. 
 
 (3) Village life. — The farmers go out to their work in 
 the fields, which are often at a considerable distance, and 
 usually they do not return till sunset. This is the going 
 forth referred to in the Bible in connection with the labours 
 of the field (Ps. civ. 23, cxxvi. 6 ; Luke xiv. 19, xv. 25). It 
 is village life that is also referred to in Isaiah i. 3, where 
 it is said, " The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his 
 master's crib." At sunset, the village cattle and donkeys 
 that have been out all day in the neighbouring common and 
 bare fields are brought by the herdsman to the entrance of 
 the village. There they all leave him, and find their way 
 through the village lanes each to its own place of rest for 
 the night. Some of the trades that receive their fullest 
 development in the towns have their beginning among 
 the peasantry of the village. The village oven is heated 
 on alternate days ; one of the inhabitants does simple 
 carpenter work ; another shoes the horses, mules, and 
 donkeys, and is resorted to when branding is considered 
 necessary ; once, or oftener, according to the size of the 
 village, the butcher has mutton or kid's-flesh for sale, 
 and the muleteer transports merchandise between the 
 village and the neighbouring towns. Life is very simple, 
 kindly, and laborious ; there is intimate knowledge of each 
 other's afiairs, and ready sympathy in all times of family 
 rejoicing and sorrow. The arrival of any stranger is im- 
 mediately known through the village, and any of its residents 
 returning from a journey is courteously waited upon and 
 welcomed (Ruth i. 19). The women have much to speak 
 about at the fountain as they wait their turn to fill the 
 jar, and the elders meet in the evening to discuss village 
 matters and receive and give the latest news. Feuds 
 abound between the rival sects, the older and the more 
 recent residents, and the families that compete for the 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 131 
 
 place of chief influence and honour. All, however, unite 
 in resenting any affront put upon the village by those 
 who do not belong to it. 
 
 The annual capitation tax, or sum paid by each adult 
 to the Government, is reckoned and paid in the village in 
 which he is born. His relatives are there, and any 
 ancestral land he may have inherited. If he goes else- 
 where he must first appoint those who shall be responsible 
 for the payment. Though his employment may make him 
 live in another village, and his children and grandchildren 
 may have been born and brought up away from the 
 original home, their tax also must be paid there. Thus 
 Joseph returned to Bethlehem because he was of the 
 lineage of David (Luke ii. 4). 
 
 2. The City. — The growth of the town or city is chiefly 
 due to the neighbourhood of large wheat-growing plains, 
 or of extensive vineyards, or to its appointment as a seat 
 of government, or the opportunity of maritime commerce. 
 In ancient times the halting-places on the great caravan- 
 routes became towns of wealth and luxury. 
 
 (1) The wall. — The great high wall enclosing all the 
 houses continued and emphasised the chief purpose of the 
 house and the village, namely, protection. The distant 
 glimmer of the white turreted wall rising out of the bare 
 desert or green surrounding foliage was a vision of 
 comfort and encouragement to the weary traveller. Once 
 within these walls there would be rest and release from 
 danger, the society of those he loved, and the supply of 
 every want. These features of the ancient city appear in 
 the description of the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi.), and give 
 their beautiful symbolism to the mediseval hymns and 
 meditations about " the city of God." 
 
 Under the more settled conditions of the present day 
 in Syria and Palestine the city walls are being rapidly 
 obscured by the houses of the open suburbs. 
 
132 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 As the ancient masons had no explosives for blasting 
 purposes, the stones were laboriously cut out of the solid 
 rock. As it was less trouble to cut one thick one than 
 two thinner ones, some of these stones are of gigantic 
 size. Those of the wall of Jerusalem are very large, and 
 
 CITY QATE. 
 
 in their variety of Jewish, Roman, Crusading, and Saracen 
 styles of workmanship they are emblematic of the different 
 nations that have received the Gospel. 
 
 (2) The gate. — The city gate is often referred to in 
 Scripture. It is large and massive, made of oak with a 
 facing of studded iron or bronze. A foot or tv/o above 
 the ground there is inserted in the middle of the great 
 door a smaller one about 2i x 2 feet in size, by which the 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 133 
 
 porter at his discretion may admit one who arrives after 
 sunset. The city gate was a precaution against the 
 approach of an unseen enemy attacking the city under 
 cover of the night. Hence the Heavenly city, where 
 there is no darkness and nothing hostile can ever enter, 
 has its gates always open in token of friendly welcome 
 (Kev. xxi. 25). 
 
 (3) The streets. — The Oriental street is a mere lane 
 for foot passengers and baggage animals. No names are 
 needed for the chief streets, as each is set apart for a 
 particular trade or the sale of special commodities. You 
 have only to enter it to know when you are in Vegetable 
 Street, Perfumers' Street, Silversmiths' Street, etc. The 
 narrowness of the streets shelters the tradesmen and 
 passers-by from the heat of the sun. Here and there a 
 high roof is thrown over the street, deepening the shade 
 and protecting against rain. These intervals of subdued 
 light make the dazzle all the greater when a widening or 
 turn of the street allows the sunlight to pour down upon 
 the variegated costumes and bright wares of an Oriental 
 town. A walk through the bazaars of Damascus with its 
 silk stuffs, cloth of gold, ornaments of brass, and ancient 
 perfumes of incense and various gums, makes it easy to 
 follow and realise the prophet's description of ancient 
 Tyre (Ezek. xxvii.) 
 
 As one leaves the bazaars or rows of shops, and walks 
 through the quiet part of the town occupied by dwelling- 
 houses, one is impressed by the suspicious, prohibitive 
 appearance of the houses. No windows look out upon the 
 streets near the ground, and those of the upper rooms are 
 closely latticed. No one is seen, and no sound is heard, 
 unless occasionally the shrill, peevish voices of women 
 engaged in some domestic quarrel. Beautiful houses, with 
 large marble courts adorned with fountains and evergreen 
 trees, and having reception-rooms enriched with carpets and 
 
184 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 ornamental carvings, are entered by a narrow lane and a 
 mere stable door. It is more easily defended in any time 
 of sudden attack, and its humble appearance averts the 
 punishment of pride and the curse of the evil eye. The 
 street is for the passer-by, and the house is a sacred and 
 guarded enclosure. Everything vfithin it speaks of 
 welcome, and everything without of exclusion. In cities 
 where there are Jews, Christians, and Moslems, these 
 occupy separate quarters, forming a city within the city, 
 with the religious name for a bond of union. 
 
 No description of an Oriental city would be complete 
 without some reference to the dogs that lie about in the 
 streets. They are of wolf -like appearance, black or tawny- 
 yellow in colour, lazy and unclean, and tolerated because 
 they devour the kitchen refuse that is thrown into the 
 street, and act as sanitary police without payment. The 
 town is carefully divided by them into districts, each of 
 which is occupied by the dogs belonging to it, and beyond 
 which they must never pass. When one of their number 
 goes beyond his proper boundary, the dog who first sees 
 him gives a yelp of alarm ; this is caught up and passed 
 on by those who hear it, and in a minute or two the whole 
 pack is seen tearing along like a fire-brigade towards the 
 point where the first bark was heard.- If the intruder has 
 not already made his escape, he is rolled over, worried, 
 and pursued a good way into his own district. 
 
 Lying in the road, a menace and impediment to ordinary 
 traffic, most numerous where men most congregate, and yet 
 seeking no real companionship with them, happiest when 
 twenty of them can get together and jump upon one poor 
 offender, and disturbing the public peace with their code 
 of honour about dust-heaps and old refuse — such are the 
 similarities that unite Oriental dogs and Pharisees (PhiL 
 ii. 2). 
 
 3. Neighbourhood. — As Oriental houses are always 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 135 
 
 either in villages or towns, the fact of neighbourhood is 
 of great social importance. All the Bible references to 
 friends, neighbours, and sojourners apply to these relation- 
 ships at the present day. 
 
 The Oriental is never alone, and the most numerous 
 and familiar class of proverbs is that which deals with the 
 necessity of neighbourhood, and all the advantages and 
 disadvantages connected with it. 
 
 Its influence for good or evil is described in the 
 maxims : " If you live forty days with people, you will 
 then either leave them or become like them " ; " We are 
 your neighbours, and have learnt from you." To one 
 about to build or rent a house, or go on a journey, the 
 advice is given : " Consider the neighbour before the 
 house, and the companion before the road." 
 
 Identification of interest is taught in the words : " If 
 it is well with your neighbour, it is well with you ; " " He 
 who cropped your neighbour will crop you ; " and " A loaf 
 more or less, but never let your neighbour want." 
 
 The patience due to this relationship is stated in the 
 proverb : " Your neighbour is your neighbour though he 
 should act otherwise." The thought of Pro v. xxv. 17 is 
 repeated in figurative form : " If your friend be honey do 
 not eat him." Prov. xxvii. 10 is constantly quoted. 
 
 The neighbours are present on all occasions of family 
 sorrow and joy (Luke xv. 6, 9). Such intimate knowledge 
 of each other is implied in the words, " I have called you 
 friends" (John xv. 15). The commandment against 
 bearing false witness is framed for the special protection 
 of the neighbour, as, in his constant contact with those 
 around him, he may at times give offence and so provoke 
 reprisals. The strength of the Oriental law of neigh- 
 bourhood is seen in the various abuses it endures. Its 
 kindly provisions originated under circumstances of social 
 equality, mutual helpfuluess, and common danger, but the 
 
136 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 law of neighboudy duty as an obligation of honour is 
 often appealed to by those who have no opportunity or 
 thought of doing anything in return. Thus the merchant 
 is expected to sell cheaper and the doctor to lower his 
 fees to those in the neighbourhood, though they may have 
 no acquaintance with them, and even the European 
 manager of a Waterworks Company will be urged to 
 reduce the rate for those who live near his dwelling-house. 
 Oriental neighbourhood enlarges the family, but contracts 
 the world. It is a trade union on family lines. Any one 
 outside of the circle is a foreigner, alien, enemy, heathen 
 (2 Kings v. 20). Christ recognised the law of neighbour- 
 hood in commanding that the preaching of the Gospel 
 should begin at Jerusalem, the place where the Apostles 
 were, but its terminus was the ends of the earth. The 
 parable of the Good Samaritan taught the true meaning 
 and fulfilment of neighbourhood. In the Sermon on the 
 Mount it was pointed out that a religion of mere social 
 selfishness and mutual catering was impossible for those 
 who would be children of the Highest (Matt. v. 43-48). 
 
 4. Hospitality. — The East is celebrated for its laws 
 of hospitality. Among the Bedawin and those living in 
 remote villages these laws retain their primitive meaning 
 and veneration, and in the towns the parade of compliment 
 with which a caller or guest is received is still suggestive 
 of the original custom. Taken in connection with the laws 
 of neighbourhood and the generally avaricious tone of 
 Oriental life, the importance assigned to hospitality is not 
 only beautiful but mysterious. The attentions shown to 
 invited guests (Luke xiv. 12) present no diflSculty, as they 
 belong rather to the courtesies of neighbourhood ; also 
 the motive of the feast of Ahasuerus is always more or 
 less in evidence (Est. i. 4). 
 
 The peculiar feature of Oriental hospitality is that it 
 commands the most devoted service to be rendered to those 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 137 
 
 who are passing strangers, and have none of the claims 
 that belong to kinship and acquaintance. Towards an 
 explanation of the mystery two facts deserve to be 
 mentioned. 
 
 (1) There is the greatness of the favour. — It is an appeal 
 to what is noblest and best in the human heart. The 
 stranger who comes to the door has reached his limit. 
 He can go no farther (Eev. iii. 20). He is at the mercy 
 of those within, either to receive him or rob him. The 
 moment he enters by permission he becomes virtually the 
 master of the house. He is told that the house is his. 
 The owner waits upon him, all the supplies of the house 
 are for his necessities, all its strength is for his defence. 
 The guest's act of trust is responded to by a chivalrous 
 readiness on the part of the host to lay down his life for 
 the stranger. 
 
 In addition to the fact of safety, there is the great 
 comfort of rest after labour, food and drink after exhaustion, 
 and society after solitude. A proverb says, " He who sows 
 kindness reaps gratitude," and the many worries and un- 
 expected dilemmas incident to Oriental travel make the 
 moment of release from them one of heart-felt thankfulness. 
 
 (2) The sanctity of the guests. — These customs were 
 established long before travel was undertaken in the 
 interests of commerce or exploration, and some very strong 
 reason was needed to make a man face the dangers and 
 hardships of a journey. The arrival of a stranger was a 
 rare occurrence, and the law of hospitality forbade any 
 inquiry as to where he had come from or where he was 
 going, until the expiry of at least three days showed that 
 his case was not one of urgency or personal danger. It 
 would be generally supposed that the reason of his journey 
 was either flight from an enemy, some grave family 
 necessity, or the performance of a religious vow. With 
 regard to the first of the three causes, the bitterness of the 
 
138 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 blood-feuds made every entertainer feel that lie might 
 be the next to need shelter. The arrival of the stranger 
 showed that whatever his trouble might be, God had so 
 far favoured him, and a grave danger was thus incurred 
 by any one who treated him with unkindness. Hence a 
 mysterious sacredness became connected with a guest, and 
 with the duty of protecting him and ministering to his 
 wants. There was a deeper necessity than that of hunger 
 and thirst ; " / was a stranger and ye took me in " (Matt. 
 XXV. 35). The Koran echoes the exhortation of Heb. 
 xiii. 2 by the negative statement, " The house that receives 
 no guests never receives angels." 
 
 The act by which the claim of hospitality is established 
 is the partaking of the family bread, salt or water, or even 
 the laying hold upon the tent pole. If a fugitive approaches 
 a shepherd in the wilderness he will be invited to partake 
 of the bread and cheese which the latter has in his scrip, 
 and the moment he has done so the shepherd must protect 
 him against any pursuers who may arrive to kill him. The 
 appointment of the Cities of Kefuge in the land of Israel 
 will occur to the mind in this connection as an endeavour 
 to mitigate the ferocities of the blood-feuds by national 
 legislation. 
 
 A case occurred some years ago near Tripoli in Syria, 
 which shows what a strong sense of duty and honour is 
 pledged for the protection of a guest. A man had com- 
 mitted manslaughter, and in his flight from the avengers 
 of blood came to the mountain hut of a shepherd. The 
 shepherd was absent with his flock, and the fugitive begged 
 and received protection in the name of God from his wife 
 and young son. Half an hour afterwards the house was 
 surrounded by horsemen. Their law of courtesy made it 
 impossible for them to enter the only room of the house, 
 which was sacred as being the women's apartment, and 
 they demanded that the criminal should be brought forth. 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 139 
 
 The poor woman came to the door holding by the hand 
 her son, twelve years of age, and said, " I cannot surrender 
 my guest, but take my only son and kill him instead." 
 Her resolute chivalry so impressed them that after a short 
 pause they told her that for her sake the fugitive was 
 pardoned and free. Then they rode away. 
 
 This devotion has no thought of the sanctity of life for 
 its own sake, or the claims of humanity as such. The 
 guest-law is entirely a creation of place and circumstance. 
 When a traveller is met by Bedawin in the desert, their 
 ordinary salutation is "Strip!" If resistance is offered 
 they think very lightly of the crime of murder. The 
 authority of the guest^law within its own area shows to what 
 a deep state of misery the Israelites and their friends 
 must have been reduced when Jael killed her guest, and 
 such profanation of the law of hospitality was publicly 
 commended. 
 
 In the East work of any kind is generally regarded as 
 degrading, but there are three recognised exceptions, 
 namely, a man's service to his guest, to his household, and 
 to his horse. 
 
 5. Property. — (1) Possession. — Land in the East is 
 held in three ways. 
 
 (a) The arable ground around a village, like the pasture 
 land, is held in common by its inhabitants, and allotted in 
 proportion to the number of oxen belonging to a villager 
 for the purpose of ploughing. The first disciples at 
 Jerusalem applied this already familiar principle to their 
 personal wealth (Acts ii. 44, 45). 
 
 (5) Under more settled government the above arrange- 
 ment presented difficulties in the collection of taxes and 
 the punishment of those who failed to pay them. Thus 
 land came into the possession of personal owners, or was 
 bought in the name of a commercial company. 
 
 (c) Large portions of the country belong to the Govern- 
 
140 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 ment, as crown lands. These are rented to the highest 
 bidder, who re-lets them to peasant cultivators at such a 
 price as will secure him a profit by the transaction. 
 
 (2) Cultivation. — The peasants who till the land 
 belonging to a large proprietor have houses built for them, 
 and as they generally remain in charge even when the 
 land changes owners they thus become in a manner serfs 
 upon it. 
 
 In grain-land, if the owner supplies seed and oxen for 
 ploughing, and pays the government -tithe, the peasant- 
 labourer in charge gets one-fourth of the produce ; if the 
 owner only pays the tax the peasant has two-thirds, or 
 one-half if the land be very remunerative in proportion to 
 the labour expended upon it. 
 
 For vineyards and the cultivation of fruit-trees generally, 
 the peasant receives for his labour one-third of the produce, 
 but after some years, during which the property has been 
 improved by cultivation and additional vines and trees, he 
 is entitled to one-half, and can claim to be regarded as co- 
 proprietor (Matt. xxi. 33-41). 
 
 (3) Sale. — When property, either in the form of house 
 and garden or cultivated land, is to be sold, the particulars 
 are mentioned with elaborate detail, and the deed of sale 
 is attested in the local court and recorded in its books. 
 These formalities, however, often afford very insecure pro- 
 tection to the purchaser. After the money has been paid 
 other part-owners present their claims and prohibit the new 
 owner from taking possession. 
 
 When land is sold, the first right of purchase belongs 
 to a partner, and after him to a neighbour, especially if 
 the same water irrigates both lands. 
 
 When it is desired to defeat his claim, and also to 
 obviate the danger of future claimants appearing to 
 dispute the ownership, a peculiar device is resorted to. 
 
 The land is divided into two sections, A and B. 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 141 
 
 Thus a piece of ground, 400 yards square, is to be sold 
 for £300. Section A is about one-sixth of the whole — 
 a mere strip adjoining that of the objectionable neighbour, 
 and its price is fixed at £200 : the remaining five-sixths 
 of the ground are priced at £100. The two sections are 
 bought on these terms by the new purchaser, and he and 
 the seller repair together to the court to have it made 
 legal. Here the neighbour may enter his protest and 
 obtain the strip A nearest his own, but he must pay £200 
 for it. He has no claim on B, because the new owner has 
 now a neighbour's claim on it, from having paid the price 
 of A. If the original neighbour should purchase the strip 
 A for £200, he could only sell it to him who purchased 
 the B section because the latter has now the pre-emption 
 right of a neighbour! 
 
 Much of the artificiality that pervades the Jewish 
 observance of the law is doubtless due to the Talmudic 
 incorporation of strictly religious duties with petty legal 
 details about property. They are thus reduced to the 
 same moral level, and the business instinct that seeks its 
 own advantage, and purchases in the cheapest market, is 
 put on the alert to find out the minimum of service that 
 will secure a name for piety and a place in the heavenly 
 inheritance. The purchase of property among modern 
 Orientals often resembles Abraham's transaction with the 
 sons of Heth (Gen. xxiii.) It is usually a matter 
 abounding in indirect preliminaries, solemn conference, 
 ostentatious politeness, shameless lying, and hard haggle. 
 
 (4) Inheritance. — In modern Oriental law property is 
 divided equally among the sons, each daughter receiving 
 half the share of a son. 
 
 6. Law and Government. — The administration of law 
 reveals the best and worst of Oriental life. The basing of 
 statutes on moral and religious principles was originally 
 intended to teach forbearance and charity by bringing 
 
142 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 litigants before the Unseen Judge of all. It had much in 
 its favour as long as those principles were honestly 
 interpreted and reverently obeyed, but when they ceased 
 to be regarded, and public opinion was intimidated and 
 debased, the judge could do very much as he pleased. It 
 became of the first importance to secure the personal 
 favour of the judge. The unjust judge of the parable 
 (Luke xviii. 1-7), who had no fear of God, would find it very 
 easy to disregard men. An Arabic proverb says, " When 
 the judge's mule dies, everybody goes to the funeral ; 
 when the judge himself dies, nobody goes." 
 
 Bribery and perjury are the two sides of the cloven 
 hoof in both ancient and modern courts of law in the East. 
 
 Thus Samuel, in reviewing his administration, emphasised 
 
 the fact that he had never taken bribes, and the corruption 
 
 • of the judges in the kingdom of Israel is stigmatised by the 
 
 prophets as one of the chief causes of the nation's rejection 
 
 and ruin. 
 
 Modern Orientals are extremely subtle and insidious in 
 their manner of making presents. The fact that " a man's 
 gift maketh room for him" (Prov. xviii. 16) is constantly 
 acted upon. In private life, the sending of a gift is usually a 
 prelude to a request for some favour or exercise of influence. 
 In Oriental courtesy the rejection of a gift is a serious 
 affront, and its acceptance implies a debt of honour call- 
 ing for some suitable return. Sometimes the authorities 
 plainly indicate that money is required, but usually the 
 initiative comes from the people. Upright pashas and 
 judges for a time purge the administration of these abuses, 
 but when they are removed the contending parties who 
 seek the favour of their successors soon restore the old 
 corruptions. Eeligious influence, instead of helping the 
 cause of mercy and justice, runs in the line of ecclesiastical 
 parties and institutions, and these always do battle for 
 their own ends. At every point the religious sanction 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 143 
 
 makes a family covenant, and the family bond in Oriental 
 use and wont protects its membership without regard to 
 the rights of common citizenship or the supreme claims of 
 truth. 
 
 Perjury is very common. In the New Testament one 
 is shocked to read how the Pharisees, the leaders of religion, 
 got witnesses to swear to what they either knew nothing 
 about or knew to be untrue. Such witnesses are only 
 too easily obtained for any emergency in the East, and 
 in this respect the witness of priests and monks is 
 proverbially untrustworthy. 
 
 Prisons. — The Oriental prisons of the present day 
 vividly recall the allusions to those of ancient times. 
 
 There is the common prison for debt, arrears of taxes, 
 and ordinary offences. Besides this there is the inner or 
 underground prison for criminals, called the prison of 
 blood. There Paul and Silas were kept (Acts xvi. 24), 
 and though cut off from companionship with others, their 
 voices were heard as " they sang praises unto God." 
 
 The difficulty of getting out of prison (Matt. v. 26) is 
 exemplified not only in the postponement of the day of 
 trial, but after the term of imprisonment has expired, in 
 meeting the various claims of the jailors, such as a fee 
 exacted for the handcuffs or chain utilised by the prisoner. 
 Most of these abuses resemble those in the English prisons 
 at the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Owing to this hard treatment and the frequent mis- 
 carriage of justice, and also the kindly uncritical sym- 
 pathies of Orientals generally, imprisonment is regarded 
 as a misfortune rather than a disgrace. Friends go about 
 to collect money for the relief or release of those im- 
 prisoned. The Saviour did not mean that humanity should 
 cease from hoping, serving, and rescuing at the prison 
 gates (Matt. xxv. 36). 
 
 7. Rich, and Poor. — (1) Poverty. — Beggars are very 
 
144 BIBLE MANJSTEES AND CUSTOMS 
 
 numerous in the East. The usual types are given in 
 Luke xiv. 13, "the poor, the maimed, the lame, and the 
 blind." Besides these there are those who are simply 
 indolent. An Arabic proverb says, " Begging is an easy 
 trade, only the standing at the" door is tiresome." 
 
 Among those v?ho suffer from bodily iniirmity, loss of 
 limb by machinery is seldom met with, but disease in 
 skin, blood, and bone is frequent and often assumes loath- 
 some forms, the chief instance being that of leprosy. 
 
 The commonest and most pathetic form of infirmity 
 that has nothing repulsive about it is blindness. Some of 
 these blind beggars, either led by children or guiding 
 themselves by their long sticks, move about from door to 
 door, but usually they are found at regular places in the 
 town. The blind and lame are conducted or carried to the 
 doors of churches at the time of service, especially on fast 
 days, and line the steps at marriage and funeral ceremonies. 
 They also congregate in front of chief houses on any 
 occasion of family rejoicing or sorrow. 
 
 Sometimes blindness, deformity, and disease meet in 
 one poor shrivelled frame ; and year after year the beggar 
 is borne daily to his place at a public corner in the town, 
 or at the end of a bridge on its outskirts, and sitting on 
 the ground under the rain or burning sun, with the dust 
 flying over him in clouds from carriages and baggage 
 animals, he recites the promises of God to those who care 
 for the poor. Thus it was with Lazarus at the rich man's 
 gate (Luke xvi. 20), Bartimaeus by the road - side at 
 Jericho (Mark x. 46), and the cripple at the Temple gate 
 (Acts iii. 2). 
 
 (2) Mode of appeal. — This is sometimes a simple state- 
 ment of poverty, " I am poor,'' " I want a loaf of bread," 
 " Give me the price of a loaf " (half-penny). 
 
 The plea is occasionally enforced by the expressive 
 gesture of bringing the forefinger across the teeth and 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 145 
 
 holding it up as a proof that there is absolutely no trace of 
 food there. It is " cleanness of teeth " (Am. iv. 6). 
 
 Usually, however, the appeal is to religious feeling or 
 duty. 
 
 As the beggar stands at the door, he calls out, " I 
 am your guest ! I am God's guest ! God will direct 
 you ! God will recompense you ! God will preserve 
 your children ! God will prolong your days ! " If 
 this fails, he tries the effect of rebuke : " Is there 
 nothing here for God ? " " You are all servants ! " When 
 there is nothing for him, he is told, " God will give you ! 
 The Lord will relieve you ! " (James ii. 16). 
 
 The beggars are thus the great street-preachers of the 
 East. The thought of 1 Sam. ii. 7 pervades the whole 
 relationship of poverty and wealth. God has a purpose 
 in giving wealth and permitting poverty (Prov. xiv. 31). 
 
 Beggars apportion the shops among them, and at the 
 close of the week go their rounds to get their allowance. 
 The rich and poor are thus brought into personal touch 
 with each other, but Oriental benevolence has no thought 
 of attacking the cause of poverty (Deut. xv. 11). The 
 absence of alcohol prevents the Oriental beggar from 
 having the degraded appearance of the Western tramp, 
 and the cause of poverty, apart from cases of pure 
 indolence, is usually found in sickness, or the loss of the 
 breadwinner in the family or his indefinite imprisonment. 
 A proverb says, "Never teach an orphan how to weep." 
 
 A great deal of Oriental almsgiving arises from the 
 love of praise, or a superstitious hope that coppers given 
 away may atone for pounds obtained by cheating. Alms- 
 giving has a high place among the religious virtues of the 
 East (Deut. xv. 10 ; Prov. xxviii. 27). In the Jewish 
 synagogue there is often a box for receiving anonymous 
 contributions with an inscription in Hebrew, " A gift in 
 secret" (Prov. xxi. 14). 
 
 10 
 
146 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Sometimes a mother belonging to one of the richer 
 Oriental families puts on beggar's clothes and goes out 
 barefoot to beg for the poor, in the hope that her alms- 
 giving and self-abasement may avail with God to spare the 
 life of her beloved child lying dangerously ill. 
 
 (3) Riches. — This subject has already been referred to 
 in connection with the Trades. In the East the desire of 
 gain is regarded as an instinct that imperatively seeks its 
 own ends like hunger and thirst, and is common to 
 humanity. A proverb says, "It is better to hear ' take ' 
 a thousand times than once the word ' give.' " The words 
 of Christ, "It is better to give than to receive,'' were in 
 such defiant contrast to common Oriental sentiment that 
 they were remembered though unrecorded by the Evangelist 
 (Acts XX. 35). The East has neither the eminent saints 
 nor the great criminals of the West, but a dull air of 
 avariciousness pervades every relationship. Marriage is a 
 money-bargain ; murder has its equivalent price, piety is 
 prudential, to go to a funeral is to attend the merit, and 
 almsgiving is a current account with God. 
 
 8. Travel and Transport. — (1) Oriental idea of travel. 
 — Among Orientals travel means discomfort, danger, and 
 expense. It is avoided as much as possible. Their 
 proverbs say, " All strangers are relatives to each other," 
 "If three go on a journey, one must be elected chief," 
 " A man in a strange place is blind though he has eye- 
 sight," " There are three states of wretchedness — sickness, 
 fasting, and travel." The following is the Oriental recipe 
 or statute for one setting out upon a journey : " Pay all 
 debts, provide for dependants, give parting gifts, return 
 all articles under trust, take money and good temper for 
 the journey ; then bid farewell to all, and be merciful to 
 the animal you ride upon." In the East the road is 
 usually a mere bridle path, rough and stony. When it 
 passes along the side of their fields, the farmers empty the 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 147 
 
 stones upon it, as it belongs to nobody ; in the wilderness 
 it often forks off unexpectedly or disappears altogetlier. 
 In the long blank distances between the villages and 
 towns there is little chance of getting direction or help in 
 any difficulty. Something goes wrong with the harness, 
 a saddle-bag drops off noiselessly, the wrong path is taken, 
 or the distance is miscalculated and the night has to be 
 passed under the stars and without the needed water. 
 Orientals care little for beauty of scenery. The wild 
 gorges and precipices belong to jackals and bats, and the 
 traveller cannot turn the trees into charcoal or carry the 
 sheaves to his own threshing-floor. Travel for the enjoy- 
 ment of the exercise and the pleasure of seeing new scenes 
 is a mystery to most of them. 
 
 The Bedawin and peasants are often puzzled and 
 moved to laughter and pity when they see the companies 
 of English and American travellers who annually visit the 
 ancient sites of interest in the Holy Land. Until they 
 come to understand the reason, their own surmise is that 
 they are searching for treasure in the ruins by means of 
 magic books, or visiting the shrines in order to atone for 
 their sins. 
 
 (2) Mode of travel. — Travelling is usually done by 
 riding, the animals being horses, mules, donkeys, and in 
 the sandy desert camels. Summer is especially the time 
 for travel, as the rains are over, and the rivers can be 
 easily forded or crossed dry-shod. Bridges are not 
 mentioned in the Bible. The transport of goods and 
 merchandise is almost all done by baggage animals. 
 When muleteers are engaged to bring a certain number of 
 animals on an appointed day, it is customary to demand 
 a guarantee in money which is forfeited if they fail, and 
 returned if the contract be faithfully carried out. In Jer. 
 XXX. 21, there is the beautiful figure of a heart given as a 
 ■pledge of good faith. In the great waterless deserts 
 
148 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 encountered in the journey to Palmyra, Baghdad, or Sinai, 
 camels are used, and the travelling is chiefly done by night 
 to escape the heat, and to escape the notice of the Bedawin 
 tribes, whose neighbourhood is generally indicated by 
 lights or sounds of some sort. Under such circumstances 
 the guide takes his direction from the stars. In ancient 
 times the Bedawin tribes were the great escorts of the 
 overland caravans. During the time when they trans- 
 ported the treasures of the East to the Koman market 
 of the West, they became very rich and influential, and 
 founded under Zenobia the wonderful kingdom of Palmyra 
 or Tadmor. The nation that does the trade of the world 
 by sea has now entered into their labours, and the Union 
 Jack in the Suez Canal takes the place of the camel's bell 
 in the star-led caravan. 
 
 (3) Road-making. — In different parts of the country 
 small pieces of the ancient Koman paved roads are still 
 seen as the memorial of work well done, but the ordi- 
 nary roads of to-day are soon made almost impassable 
 by the rush of the winter rains. When a distinguished 
 visitor arrives in the country, or the governor sets out on 
 a tour of inspection through his district, the roads are all 
 put into temporary repair by removing boulders and 
 filling up clefts and hollows, so that the passage over them 
 may be easy, quick, and safe.' 
 
 (4) The forerunner. — In the narrow streets of the 
 town thronged with men and baggage animals, high 
 officials have a servant in uniform walking in front of 
 them. He calls out to the people to move aside, touches 
 
 1 During the present summer several hundred men are engaged, ty 
 order from Constantinople, on the roads leading from the coast to 
 Jerusalem and to the Sea of Galilee, preparing for the expected visit 
 of the Emperor of Germany in autumn. When the occasion is over 
 the roads return to their usual Oriental condition. Such preparations 
 are alluded to in Isaiah xl. 3-5. 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE M9 
 
 with his rod the inattentive, stirs up the dogs lying in the 
 path, and so clears the way for his master. In Syria they 
 are represented by the eavasses or guards of the consuls 
 and the out-riders of the Pasha. In Egypt two of them 
 race in front of the carriage of the Khedive, and those of 
 some of the principal native families have also one or two 
 runners. 
 
 When the cry is heard all move aside instinctively, and 
 in an instant there is the swift flutter of his white robes, 
 the sparkle of a bright sash, a swing or two of the black 
 tassel of the turbin, then comes the carriage, and the 
 cry of the forerunner is already sounding faint in the 
 distance. 
 
 Being athletic young men specially selected and trained 
 by constant exercise, they keep well in front of the 
 carriage and its trotting horses, running along with the 
 easy unspent lurch of a deer-hound. 
 
 Such was the cry raised in front of Joseph, the new 
 vizier, long ago (Gen. xli. 43) ; thus Elijah raced in front 
 of Ahab's chariot to Jezreel (1 Kings xviii. 46) ; and the 
 office of the forerunner is especially associated with the 
 name and work of John the Baptist (John i. 23). 
 
 (5) Salutations. — The formalities of Oriental salutation 
 are chiefly derived from the dangers of travel. It is the 
 hail of approaching parties to know whether they are 
 friends or foes (Josh. v. 13). From the following epitome 
 it will be seen how important was the command to the 
 Gospel heralds to salute no man by the way. Many other 
 matters of compliment and courteous solicitude are intro- 
 duced, and the same inquiries as to health, etc., are repeated 
 over and over again. As each must consider his own 
 matters of no consequence compared with those of his 
 friend, at the end of the salutation very little information 
 is really obtained about either. 
 
 A- ^nd B, are represented as meeting on the road, 
 
150 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 A. Blessed is lie that cometh. 
 
 B. And you twice blessed. 
 
 A. How is your health ? 
 
 B. Well, by your favour. 
 
 A. By the favour of God. 
 
 B. God is merciful. 
 
 A. How is your work? 
 
 B. Praise be to God. 
 
 A. How is your father? 
 
 B. He sends you his salutation. 
 
 A. I have been longing to see him. 
 
 B. And he still more. 
 
 A. Can I do anything for you 1 
 
 B. The Lord prolong your days. 
 
 A. That is a fine horse you have. 
 
 B. He would like to carry you. 
 
 A. When do you return, meaning no harm ? 
 
 B. As the Lord wills. 
 
 A. The Lord be with you. 
 
 B. May you have peace. 
 
 The consideration of the labours, anxieties, and dangers 
 incident to Oriental travel made the Israelites look back 
 on the journey through the wilderness as a memorial and 
 triumph of God's providence. It put the Queen of Sheba 
 among those who have borne privation in the pursuit of 
 knowledge (Matt. xii. 42). It gave depth and endearment 
 of meaning to the "place of habitation" and the "city to 
 dwell in." Oriental travel also helps us to understand, in 
 its spiritual applications, what help is offered when our 
 Lord calls Himself " the way," and what hope is held out 
 with regard to welcome, rest, and blessedness, when life's 
 pilgrimage leads at last to the City with open gates. 
 
 9. Medicine and Sickness. — The East has two names 
 for its healers of disease, " the wise man " and " the holy 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIJE 151 
 
 man." In modern language this expresses the modern 
 truth that medicine requires intelligence in the physician 
 and the restfulness of trust on the part of the patient. 
 
 (1) The wise man. — Orientals have a great number of 
 herbal remedies, but in their traditions the chief place is 
 given to branding the flesh. They have not much faith 
 in any one doctor, and call in one after another, and 
 frequently summon consultations of doctors. It is a 
 matter of family pride to have a large consultation, a 
 gathering of eight or nine being quite common for a rich 
 and important man. The experience of the woman 
 mentioned in Mark v. 26 suggests that a similar custom 
 prevailed in ancient times. The variety of treatment 
 which the sufferer thus draws upon himself creates a 
 wisdom that is supposed to be above that of the doctor, 
 and gives rise to their proverbial saying, " Consult the 
 patient, not the physician." The commonest ailments, 
 apart from the effects of over-eating common to East and 
 West, are ophthalmia, skin - disease, consumption, and 
 fevers of the malarial and typhoidal types. The term 
 applied to the sickness of Peter's mother-in-law (Luke iv. 
 38), "a strong fever," now describes a sharp attack of 
 ague or malaria. It is not, of course, of an infectious 
 character. Job seems to have suffered from the same 
 trouble (Job xxx. 17-18), judging from the symptoms of 
 aching bones and fever sweat. 
 
 (2) The holy man. — The religious or superstitious view 
 of healing regards health as the natural condition, and 
 disease the departure to be accounted for. God is on the 
 side of life and has power over permitted sickness, but 
 commits this power only to those who commit them- 
 selves to Him. This is the point at which in Oriental 
 custom truth departs and imposture enters. The reputa- 
 tion for sainthood is obtained by fasting, pilgrimage, 
 magic books, and attention to the forms of religion. In 
 
152 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 riding through the land one sometimes sees far up on a 
 lonely but conspicuous cliff a rude contrivance of poles 
 and leaves, and learns on inquiry that a man is spending 
 his days and nights there, living upon the bread and 
 ■water brought to him, giving his whole time to prayer. 
 
 AMULET. 
 
 and so accumulating the merit and holiness that in course 
 of time will bring to him inquirers with suitable presents. 
 The Christian saints, Moslem dervishes, and Jewish 
 chachams, who heal by religious power, appeal to the 
 superstitious veneration of the people, and, with all 
 their absurd and often disgusting orders, they show a 
 shrewd knowledge of how the troubled heart can be 
 comforted, and the will may receive a new determination 
 to live and not die. Their help is chiefly appealed to in 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 153 
 
 cases that have the appearance of Satanic possession, such 
 as insanity, epilepsy, and estranged affection. 
 
 The first preaching of the Gospel in Samaria, Cyprus, 
 Philippi, Ephesus, and other places, encountered opposition 
 from such holy men and their vested interests. The 
 ceremony of exorcism is still practised, chiefly among the 
 uneducated Moslems, and the process and result are 
 described by them with much confidence and in full 
 detail. The good-humoured smile of the European doctor 
 is its worst enemy. Associated with this form of treat- 
 ment is the popular and almost universal device of wearing 
 amulets of some sort to guard against the evil eye and 
 Satanic influences. 
 
 Among the Jews the chief protective symbol is the 
 phylactery, a small black box about a cubic inch in size, 
 containing Ex. xiii. 5-9 ; Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21. At 
 prayer on week-days one is fastened on the brow and 
 another on the left arm by the leather straps attached to 
 them. The Pharisees made these boxes large and the 
 straps broad. Matt, xxiii. 5. 
 
 In the case of Asa (2 Chr. xvi. 12), who consulted the 
 physicians instead of entreating the Lord for recovery, we 
 should not understand that a contrast is implied between 
 faith - healing and physical remedies. Those Oriental 
 lihysicians would also appeal to supernatural influences ; 
 but, like the rabbis of the present day, it would be to 
 angels or demons whose names are too mighty and sacred 
 to be pronounced, such as Senoi, Sansenoi, and Samnan- 
 galeph. To accept the great science of medicine as a gift 
 from God is at once the largest exercise of religious feeling 
 and of reason. 
 
 Orientals show the value they attach to faith by the 
 often quoted proverb, " Have faith, though it be only in 
 a stone, and you will recover.'' 
 
 The tendency to superstition is seen in another maxim 
 
154 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 which resembles one of the so-called Sayings of Christ 
 recently discovered in Egypt, namely, " The church that 
 is close at hand can work no cures." i 
 
 The deep-laid conviction that while the use of means 
 is a human duty, the healing is a work of Divine power, 
 survives the ancient impostures that have been heaped 
 upon it, and at the present day gives special appropriate- 
 ness and influence to the medical missionary in all Oriental 
 lands. 
 
 10. Education. — Oriental education is especially in the 
 interests of religious knowledge and morality. The school 
 is an appendage to the church, mosque, or synagogue. 
 Its importance is indicated by the proverb : " The teach- 
 ing of children is like engraving in stone, the teaching of 
 adults like waves on the sea." Children are sent to school 
 almost in infancy, and remain till the twelfth or thirteenth 
 year. The Oriental theory of instruction includes the 
 influences of both education and heredity. "You can 
 only take out of a pot what you put into it," and, " If the 
 father be onion and the mother garlic, how can there be 
 any sweet perfume ? " 
 
 The teaching is chiefly done by making the chUdren 
 recite sentences and passages after the teacher. His 
 ambition is that the clamour of the voices chanting in 
 concert may be well heard by those who pass by in the 
 street. It proves to the parents that work is being done, 
 and brings other children to his school. The school 
 among the Jews is called "the house of the book" — that 
 is the Bible, especially the Pentateuch. In the reading of 
 the Bible and the Jewish Prayer-book a knowledge of 
 manuscript Hebrew writing is also taught, having different 
 characters for the Askenazim or European Jews and the 
 Sepharidim or Oriental Jews. This Hebrew script is used 
 
 ^ "Jesus saith, 'A prophet is not acceptable in his own ooimtry, 
 neither dotli a physician work cures upon them that l^now liiui.' " 
 
SOCIAL, rOLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 156 
 
 1 letter-writing and book-keeping whatever may be the 
 .j,nguage that is used — English, Arabic, Russian, German, 
 or Sanscrit. 
 
 Next in importance to the rules of religion is the teach- 
 ing of languages as a means of social contact and com- 
 mercial success. Education as a mental discipline is not 
 understood. 
 
 Popular literature is represented by the crowds sitting 
 in the cafe in the evenings and listening to the story- 
 teller reciting tales of demon influence, war exploits, and 
 discovered treasure, such as abound in the Arabian Nights. 
 A favourite study among the more thoughtful is found in 
 proverbial literature. The Book of Proverbs is prized by 
 Jews, Christians, and Moslems alike. 
 
 The Arabs have a vast stock of proverbial sayings 
 gleaned from the whole field of nature and experience. 
 Great and guiding thoughts of the wise are expressed in 
 forms of much force and beauty, though the emphasis 
 often goes far beyond the requirements of plain fact. This 
 exaggeration is an onslaught on the door of Truth in order 
 to awaken the porter Judgment who lies asleep within. 
 The rhymed poetical form in which most of the Proverbs 
 are cast makes them easily remembered and keeps them in 
 constant use. Many of them show great acuteness in the 
 detection of a resembling point between things that differ 
 in kind. The beautiful and persuasive parables of Christ 
 appealed to this enjoyment and appreciation of similitudes 
 among Orientals. 
 
 11. Religion. — Religion is the great fact of Oriental life. 
 
 " Of Him, and through Him, and to Him are all things " 
 (Rom. xi. 36), such is the acclamation of everything that 
 lives or has a name to live in the East. 
 
 Christianity, Judaism, and Islam have many deep 
 distinctions, but they are all one with regard to the exist- 
 ence and power of God. In the East, to be without 
 
156 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 religion is not an intellectual view but a moral void. 
 Scepticism is still regarded as the self-defence of a 
 disobedient heart (Ps. xiv. 1). To deny and to prove the 
 existence of God are considered almost equally frivolous. 
 
 So strong and universal is this conviction with regard 
 to the glory of God's name, that if the Missionary. Gospel 
 could only find an entrance into the mind and heart, and 
 cause love to be added to faith, the East might again send 
 forth a wave of religious influence that would carry 
 blessing to the world. 
 
 Oriental religion has a heart of profound reverence, 
 but it is almost paralysed by superstition, fatalism, and 
 formality. 
 
 A. Superstition. — In the multiplying of mediators 
 between God and man. Oriental Christianity has fallen 
 into an error from which Judaism and Islam are com- 
 paratively free. Faith in amulets is, however, common to 
 all, and the power of the evil eye and the discovery of 
 secret things by means of witchcraft are widespread 
 superstitions. The revealer of secrets by necromancy or 
 communication with the dead is called in Arabic a seer. 
 This name and practice go back to the days of Samuel. In 
 1 Sam. ix. 7 an embarrassment arises about consulting 
 
 o 
 
 the man of God without having a present to give him. 
 The word translated "present" means in Hebrew and 
 Arabic a direction fee, and the creation of this technical 
 term implies that such appeals to the seer were popular ' 
 and had a recognised commercial value. Another similarity 
 that shows the continuity of these dark traditions is that 
 the Hebrew name for a wizard, "one who knows" is in the 
 living Arabic of to-day " one who tells." Again, when 
 the Bible speaks of a man or woman with a familiar 
 spirit, the term means one who makes use of a bottle. 
 This is explained by the modern practice in the East. If 
 a sum of money disappears in a house, the witch who is 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 157 
 
 summoned to reveal wliere it is hidden and by whom it 
 has been stolen always brings an empty bottle with her. 
 By this medium she professes to appeal to the dead 
 relatives of the party who has lost the money, and the 
 audible answers are declared to proceed from the bottle. 
 
 B. Fatalism. — The doctrine of fate is constantly 
 resorted to, not only in submitting to the inevitable, 
 but in excusing carelessness and indolence. Personal 
 disposition cannot, and public custom must not be 
 changed. The Jew fulfils all righteousness in following 
 Jewish traditions, and so with the Christian and Moslem. 
 All admit that the supreme end of religion is to glorify 
 God, but the way to that end is rutted and blocked by 
 the transport waggons of ceremonial and legal ordinance. 
 Israel has the certainty of the commandments, and to this 
 Islam adds the duty of submission, but only the Gospel of 
 the grace of God can change the outward law into inward 
 preference, and self-surrender into perfect freedom. It is 
 the hope and prayer of the Christian Church, which sends 
 its missionaries to labour in Syria and Palestine, that the 
 Holy Spirit may speedily bless the means used towards the 
 accomplishment of this great result. God has not cast off 
 His ancient people, it is not His will that Ishmael should 
 perish, nor is it in vain that the Christian name has been 
 preserved through centuries of trial and oppression. 
 There is blessing in store for the land in which "the 
 Word was made flesh and dwelt among us." 
 
 Even now the religious thought of the East teaches a 
 lesson that is often greatly needed in more enlightened 
 lands. Those who have handed down so much of the 
 outward form from ancient times have also preserved this 
 inward truth, that the mission of religion is not so much to 
 satisfy the highest claims of the intellect as to supply the 
 deepest needs of the heart. In the West, God does a 
 certain thing because He is good ; in the East, the same 
 
158 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 thing is good because He has done it. God is greater 
 than East and West, but these have much to learn from 
 each other. The East shrinks from prescribing what God 
 must do. There may be fatalism in definitions as well as 
 in destiny. It is hard to enclose the purpose of eternity 
 in the formula of a day. The religion that has for its 
 first truth and its terminus " the name of Jesus,'' will 
 constantly find its system of theology thrown out of 
 perspective by the changing face and new proportions of 
 an ever-expanding Ideal. 
 
 C. Formality. — While this abounds in the Oriental 
 Church as well aj3 in the Synagogue, its illustration in the 
 latter presents details of greater interest on account of the 
 connection with Bible history, and because it shows what 
 things are preferred to the still rejected Gospel of the 
 Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 The life of a Jew is religious from the cradle to the 
 grave. In the room occupied by the mother and her new- 
 born infant the rabbi puts a paper containing Ps. cxxi. in 
 Hebrew, with an intercession for the favour of Adam and 
 Eve' and the good angels, and an anathema against the 
 power or approach of Leilith, the demon of the night. 
 
 After completing his thirteenth year a Jewish boy is 
 taken by his father to the synagogue, and there made " a 
 son of the Commandment." The father thanks God for 
 release from moral responsibility over the boy's actions, as 
 he has now received the spirit of discernment between 
 good and evil (comp. Phil. i. 9, 10). When the Jew rises 
 in the morning he puts on under his vest the small 
 tallith or prayer-cloth with its sacred fringes, and goes 
 through the prescribed morning devotions in the house or 
 synagogue. 
 
 There are set and separate graces in Hebrew to be said 
 in connection with bread, meat, wine, and fruit. Those for 
 scents are specialised as adapted to bark, blossoms, leaves, 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 159 
 
 or fragrant powder. There are similar phrases for the sight 
 of anything beautiful or wonderful in nature, for hearing 
 a word of wisdom, or meeting a man eminent in piety. 
 These are all learnt by heart in childhood, in a language 
 that is not used for common conversation and daily life. 
 
 In the house, on the right-hand door-post of each 
 inhabited room, there is the mezilza, a small box containing 
 the commandment in Deut. vi. 4-9. The custom may at 
 one time have had a beautiful significance as a reminder 
 of the unseen Guest in the house Whose presence should 
 control and hallow all that is said and done in it, but it is 
 now merely an amulet or charm protecting the sleepers 
 against the entrance of any demons of the night. Outside 
 of the house there are the synagogue prayers for morning, 
 afternoon, and evening, with special additions for the 
 weekly Sabbath and the religious Festivals. The service 
 of God is always presented as a law that has to be 
 carried out both in its evident meanings and in the far- 
 fetched and often facetious inferences drawn from them. 
 Eabbinical teaching resembles a statute on copyright or 
 the game-laws. Thus, with regard to the sin of seething 
 a kid in its mother's milk (Ex. xxiii. 29) : (1) The dish is 
 utterly prohibited ; (2) to guard against the accidental 
 mingling of the two things, the same vessel must not be 
 used for milk and meat ; (3) an interval must be allowed 
 between the eating of meat and milk ; (4) if the former 
 be eaten first, the interval must be longer, as it takes 
 longer to digest ; (5) curded milk must be classified as 
 meat because it contains rennet. To trace such filigree 
 inferences from a hypothetical case is, rabbinically, to 
 deepen the spiritual life. It is profoundly natural that 
 after such rules are all carried out a loving heart should 
 say, " What lack I yet "i " (Matt. xix. 20). 
 
 Apart from the regulations about special matters and 
 the weekly Sabbath, the religious life of the Jews is 
 
160 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 controlled by the round of the sacred Festivals, and can 
 be best illustrated by a brief description of them and the 
 manner of their observance. At every turn we shall have 
 to notice how "the letter killeth," but as we do so, let us 
 remember that the same loveless formality which has 
 brought this blight on the natural branches may do as 
 much or more to the engrafted. 
 
 There are eight principal Festivals, of which five have 
 their origin in the Pentateuch.' 
 
 (1) Passover, Ex. xii. 1-28, from the 15th to the end of 
 the 21st of lunar April (Abib or Nisan). — This is a time of 
 great preparation and rejoicing in the Jewish families. It 
 is the beginning of the religious year. When the sun sets 
 on the 14th day and the stars begin to appear, everything 
 is in readiness for the celebration. The great house-cleaning 
 is over, the members of the family are dressed in new 
 clothes, and through the fastened doors and windows in 
 the Jewish quarter of the town one hears on every side the 
 high nasal swing of many voices reading Hebrew in con- 
 cert. The Samaritans alone keep up the custom of roasting 
 lambs according to the original directions, but all have 
 the bitter herbs, chiefly dandelion leaves, and the mortar- 
 like sauce with which they are eaten in remembrance of 
 the bondage in Egypt. During the reading the head of 
 the family explains the circumstances commemorated, and 
 asks each of the young sons present where he is going, 
 and receives the answer, " I am going from the land of 
 Egypt to the land of Jerusalem." This form is used 
 
 ' It "will be remem'bered that the Jews observe the lunar year, 
 which being shorter than tlie solar, causes the dates to move forward 
 until they are checked and brought bade to solar time by the insertion 
 of an extra twelfth month, Adar ; that the lunar mouth does not 
 always begin on the same day as that of the solar year, and usually 
 includes days from two different months according to the Western 
 reckoning, and that the Jewish day always begins with the sunset of 
 the previous evening (Gen. i. 5). 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 161 
 
 because the names Mizraira and Yerashalaim (Egypt and 
 Jerusalem) form a rhyme. Four cups of wine are 
 appointed to be drunk during the celebration. For 
 obvious reasons of comfort and decorum the wine is 
 diluted with water. It must be of the best quality 
 obtainable, and free from Gentile contamination. The 
 poor may use raisin-water. 
 
 During the time of preparation great care is taken to rid 
 the house of leaven and leavened bread, and every utensil 
 used for making, holding, or carrying it. When the house 
 has been thoroughly searched and cleansed by the women, 
 the master makes his official and solemn search. As he 
 does so in the name of God, a piece of bread is laid in a 
 conspicuous place, as, if he found nothing, it would be like 
 taking God's name in vain ! Sometimes a man is engaged 
 to make a nominal purchase of everything fermented in 
 the house or that might become so, such as vinegar, wine, 
 syrup, and preserved fruits. He asks to have them left 
 there till he calls for them. He calls after the seven days 
 of the Passover feast are over and gives them back for the 
 same sum. During the interval the articles in question 
 did not belong, rabbinically, to the family ! In making the 
 unleavened bread, the modern Pharisee has a piece of 
 muslin put over the mouth of the jar in which the water 
 is brought from the fountain in case a crumb of common 
 bread might accidentally float into the vessel. Nothing is 
 ever said in the spirit of 1 Cor. v. 8. 
 
 (2) Pentecost. — This occurs fifty days after the begin- 
 ning of Passover, on the 7th lunar day of June (Siv§,n). 
 It is also called the Feast of Harvest (Ex. xxiii. 16), and 
 the Feast of Weeks (Deut. xvi. 6). In the synagogue the 
 appointment of the seventy elders is commemorated (Ex. 
 xxiv. 1 ; Num. xi. 16). 
 
 (3) The ninth of August (Ab). — This is kept in remem- 
 brance as the dark day on which the first and second 
 
 11 
 
162 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Temples were destroyed and Jerusalem was ploughed over. 
 The synagogue furniture is overthrown and littered about, 
 the worshippers fast, and have their clothes soiled and 
 disordered, the Book of Lamentations is read, and prayer 
 is offered for the coming of the promised Deliverer. 
 
 (4) The Feast of Trumpets (Lev. xxiii. 24 ; Num. xxix.) 
 — This, the 1st of October (Ethanim or Tisri) is the be- 
 ginning of the secular year. It acquires religious import- 
 ance as the first of the ten days of repentance before the 
 Day of Atonement. Tradition teaches that on this New 
 Year's day the names of those Israelites who are to die 
 during the current year are written down in the Book of 
 Death, and the names of those who are to survive it in 
 the Book of Life. 
 
 The opportunity afforded by the ten days is that of 
 having the name possibly transferred from one book to 
 the other by means of increased attention to prayer, 
 penance, and the rules and claims of the synagogue. 
 This superstition is superior to that of the Eoman Catholic 
 Confessional and Mass, inasmuch as the decision rests with 
 God and not with the priest, but it serves the same pur- 
 pose of moral intimidation and mercenary pressure, and 
 represents blessing as laboriously wrung from God. 
 
 (5) Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 3-10; Num. xxix. 7-11). 
 — This day, 10th October, is one of special solemnity. Jews 
 who absent themselves from the synagogue during the rest 
 of the year are present and take part in the all-day service. 
 White cocks and hens are killed as symbolical of forgive- 
 ness and purity. White clothes are worn for the same 
 reason, and the whole day is spent in reciting prayers of 
 humiliation and penitence. The vehement gestures and 
 voices choked with sobs make the stranger feel that he is 
 looking upon the anguish of some great bereavement. It 
 is like a soul trying to recover a lost instinct or re-enter 
 some previous state of existence. It is the annual pageant 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND EELIGIOUS LIFE 163 
 
 of penitence, but it is powerless to change the heart 
 (Heb. X. 3, 4). 
 
 (6) The Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 34 ; Num. 
 xxix. 12 ; Deut. xvi. 30). — This begins after sunset on the 
 1 4th of October. It was the harvest home or thanksgiving 
 day for the ingathering of the fruits of the summer, 
 especially raisins, figs, and olives. During the eight days 
 of this feast the Jews erect tabernacles or arbours of 
 branches and calico awnings on the balconies and flat roofs 
 of their houses and take their meals there. 
 
 (7) The Feast of Lights, 25th December (Chisleu), John 
 x. 22, commemorates the restoration of the Temple service 
 after the sacred place had been desecrated in the time of 
 the Maccabees by Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 168-165. 
 
 (8) The Feast of Furim (Est. ix. 19) is held on the 14th 
 of March (Adar). The roll of the Book of Esther is read 
 through in the synagogue, the name of Mordecai being 
 hailed with blessings and that of Haman with impreca- 
 tions. It is the Gunpowder-plot Day of Jewish history 
 with Haman as conspirator. His effigy is made and pelted 
 by the children, and the rich send gifts of food to the 
 poor so that all Israel may rejoice. It is customary to 
 say of a well-furnished table or a hearty meal that it 
 is a, feast of Furim. 
 
 The synagogue service and festivals are chiefly valued 
 by the Jews as a means, the only one left to them, of 
 declaring and preserving their distinction as a race. They 
 become the substitute rather than the support of true 
 religious feeling, as every commemoration of the past finds 
 its contradiction in the facts of present-day circumstance. 
 Thus Passover recalls the fact of the national name and 
 place to those who have neither. The agricultural feasts 
 of Pentecost and Tabernacles are celebrated by those who 
 shrink from manual labour. The Jew is proverbially the 
 emigrant and wanderer of the earth, but he daily recites 
 
164 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 in his Prayer-book, " Lord, I thank Thee that Thou hast 
 not made me a foreigner." 
 
 It is a strange anomaly that the national bond of union 
 should be found in those very formalities that emphasise 
 the fact of the people's severance from their original con- 
 ditions. There is much in these particulars that should 
 appeal pathetically to the sympathy of the Christian who 
 knows that what is needed is God's gift of pardon and 
 righteousness and the constraining love of Christ. 
 
 Perhaps the crowning instance of such contradiction 
 between the past and the present is seen at the close of the 
 synagogue service, when the priest's face is veiled with the 
 tallith as he pronounces the benediction of Moses (Num. 
 vi. 24-26). This precaution is observed lest the utterance 
 of the words of Moses by one occupying his place should 
 bring up the glory that shone upon the face of the great 
 lawgiver, and so strike the people dead. 
 
 This tyranny of empty form and the limiting to one 
 nation of what God has thrown open to the 'whole world 
 give to the Christian Church its missionary duty towards 
 Israel. It is the message of the younger brother who 
 once wasted his substance to the elder who is now in 
 danger of being impoverished by his. This exclusive 
 claim to God's favour was and remains the line of cleavage 
 between the synagogue and the church. It is zeal, but 
 not according to knowledge ; for the truth which the Jews 
 reject is that God's glory is exhibited in the saving of all 
 nations (Acts ii. 21-39, iii. 25, vi. 14, x. 28-43, xiii. 47, 
 xiv. 27, xvii. 27, xxii. 21, 22 ; 1 Tim. ii. 7). 
 
 Palestine is a land of sacred memories. Some of them 
 still retain the tones of the living voice, while others 
 are bleached and faded inscriptions recording on the 
 tombstone what was done when the breath of life was 
 warm. 
 
 The great truth of personal religion which the East during 
 
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE 165 
 
 the centuries has taUght by symbol and sacrifice, and often 
 debased by formality and superstition, is that God entrusts 
 His power to those who entrust themselves to Him. The 
 story of its institutions and their expansion from primitive 
 times is an unfolding of the great social law that the 
 individual exists for the family, the family for the nation, 
 the nation for the world, and the world for God. 
 
 With regard to the Bible itself this study of Manners 
 and Customs has set before us a great array of surviving 
 thoughts, habits, and institutions that explain and confirm 
 the allusions to similar details in the Bible. It has shown 
 us how fully and familiarly the message of revelation was 
 adapted to human circumstances. 
 
 The impression thus left upon the mind is that the Bible 
 is a book that is meant to be studied, and to be taken on 
 its merits as a record of the past, and above all that it 
 is to be loved and reverenced as the voice of Him who 
 through it speaks for ever, and to all nations. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 Agriculture, 37-55 
 A.lmoud-tree, 9, 54 
 Almsgiving, 145 
 Amulets, 70, 153, 156, 159 
 Anklets, 70 
 Anvil, 68 
 Apothecaries, 73 
 Apples, 6, 54 
 Ass, 130 
 
 Atmosphere, 14, 15 
 Atonement, Feast of, 162 
 Autumn, 9 
 Avarice, 146 
 
 Bakers, 71, 72 
 Bankers, 84 
 Banqueting-hall, 94 
 Basket, 65 
 Battlement, 92 
 Bazaar, 84, 85 
 Bedawin, 28, 139, 148 
 Beggars, 144, 145 
 Betrothal, 122 
 Bible and Nature, 18-20 
 
 twofold element in, 4-6 
 Birth, 117-119 
 Bitter herbs, 104, 160 
 Blindness, 144 
 Bonnet, 112 
 Booth, 48 
 Border, 114 
 Bread, 71, 72, 97-100 
 Bribery, 142 
 Bridal procession, 125 
 Bride, adorning of, 124 
 Bridegroom, 123 
 Bridges, 147 
 
 Broidered work, 62 
 Bundle of life, 33 
 Butcher, 86 
 Butter, 103 
 
 Cakes, 72, 100 
 Canopy, 123 
 Caravan, 148 
 Carpentry, 66 
 Casting-net, 75 
 Caul, 115 
 Cemetery, 127 
 Cheese, 103 
 Chequer-work, 60, 61 
 Children, amusements of, 12], 
 122 
 
 names of, 119, 120 
 
 of the East, 28 
 Cities of refuge, 138 
 City, growth of, 131 
 
 occupations of, 56 
 
 streets of, 57 
 Cleanness of teeth, 145 
 Climate, 8 
 Cloak, 30, 109, 110 
 Coat, 110 
 
 Joseph's, 112 
 Colour in dress, 59 
 Commandment, son of, 158 
 Confectionaries, 73 
 Copper, 68 
 Corner-stone, 63, 64 
 Court, 91 
 Cunning-work, 62 
 Customs, importance of, 2, 8 
 
 permanence of, 1 
 
168 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Day and night, 11, 12 
 
 labourer, 77 
 
 of Atonement, 87 
 Deceit, 85 
 Dedication, 64, 65 
 Divorce, 122 
 Dogs, shepherds', 33 
 
 in the street, 134 ' 
 Door, 95 
 
 keeper, 95 
 Drag-net, 75 
 Drawer of water, 82 
 Dress, 107-117 
 
 Ear-rings, 69 
 
 Eating, manner of, 101, 105 
 
 Education, 154, 155 
 
 Embroidery, 62 
 
 Engraving, 67 
 
 Ephod, 111 
 
 Esther, Feast of, 163 
 
 Evil-eye, 71, 72 
 
 Exorcism, 153 
 
 Eye-paint, 116, 117 
 
 Familiar spirit, 156 
 
 Family, 117, 118 
 
 Fan, 41 
 
 Fatalism, 157 
 
 Festivals, 159-163 
 
 Feuds, 130 
 
 Fever, 151 
 
 Figs, 50, 51 
 
 Fig-tree, the fruitless, 52, 53 
 
 Figurative language, 3, 4, 18, 19 
 
 Fish, 103 
 
 Fishing, 74, 75 
 
 Floor, 94 
 
 Flowers, 22 
 
 Food, 97 
 
 Forerunner, 148, 149 
 
 Formality, 158 
 
 Foundation, 63 
 
 Fountain, 130 
 
 Fowl, 103 
 
 Fringe, 114 
 
 Fruits, 104 
 
 Funerals, 126, 127 
 
 Furniture, 94 
 
 Games, 121 
 Gardens, 53 
 Gate of city, 132 
 Gifts, 142, 145 
 Girdle, 112 
 Gleaning, 54, 55 
 Gtourd, 31 
 Graces, 158 
 Grafting, 50 
 Grains, kinds of, 38 
 Grapes, 44 
 Grinding, 98 
 Guest-room, 93 
 Guest, sanctity of, 137 
 
 Handkerchief, 113 
 Hands, washing of, 106 
 Harvest, 39 
 Head-dress, 112 
 Hebrew, 154 
 Hewer of wood, 82 
 High-places, 21 
 Hook, 75 
 Hosen, 111 
 Hospitality, 136-139 
 House, 88-97, 133 
 Hunting, 75 
 
 Idolatry, 20-22 
 Inheritance, 141 
 Ink-horn, 112 
 Interest, 84, 85 
 Iron, 68 
 Irrigation, 53 
 
 Jewellery, 70 
 
 Judaism and Christianity, 164 
 
 Khan, 85 
 
 Labourers, day, 77 
 
 in vineyard, 48, 49 
 Lamp, 90 
 Land, cultivation of, 140 
 
 possession of, 139 
 Landscape, 16, 17 
 Lattice, 66, 89, 96 
 Law, 142 
 Leaven, 161 
 Lentils, 102 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 169 
 
 Lights, Teast of, 163 
 Line, levelling, 65 
 Linen garment, 108 
 Locust-bean, 54 
 Locusts, 47, 104 
 Lunar year, 160 
 
 Marriage, 122-126 
 Masonry, 63 
 Meal-times, 104 
 Meat, cooldng of, 101-103 
 Medical missionary, 154 
 Medicine, 150-154 
 Merchants, 85 
 Metal-worlc, 66-71 
 Mezflza, 159 
 Milk, 103 
 Mill-stone, 98 
 Money-changer, 83 
 Money-lender, 85 
 Months, 9-11 
 Moonlight, 14 
 Morsel, 102 
 Mortar, 102 
 Mourning, 126, 127 
 
 Nalced, 109 
 
 Naplcin, 113 
 
 Neclilace, 70 
 
 Necromancy, 156 
 
 Neighbours, 135, 136 
 
 Ninth of August, Feast of, 161 
 
 Oil, jar for, 5, 6 
 
 Ointment, 74 
 
 Olive branches, 49, 50 
 
 grafting, 50 
 Olives, gathering of, 49 
 Ornaments, 69, 71 
 Oven, 72, 99, 100, 130 
 
 Palestine, 8, 164 
 
 Palm-tree, 54 
 
 Parables and Proverbs, 3, 4, 155 
 
 Parched corn, 99 
 
 Partridge, 76 
 
 Passover, 160, 161 
 
 Pasture, 28 
 
 Patriarchal government, 1, 129 
 
 Pentecost, Feast of, 161 
 Perfumers, 73, 74 
 Perjury, 143 
 Pharisees, 134 
 Phylacteries, 153 
 Physicians, 151-153 
 Pig, 103 
 
 Pledge, 110, 147 
 Plough, 39 
 Plumb-line, 64, 65 
 Pocket, 112 
 Pottery, 78-82 
 Poverty, 143 
 Presents, 142 
 Price, 86 
 Prisons, 143 
 Property, 139-141 
 Purim, Feast of, 163 
 
 Rabbinisi^, 159, 161 
 Eain, 26 
 
 early, 9 
 
 latter, 11 
 Eaisins, 45 
 Bank, 105 
 Eeaping, 40 
 Reed, measuring, 64 
 Religion, 155-164 
 Repentance, ten days of, 162 
 Riches, 146 
 Rings, 70 
 Roads, 146-148 
 Robe, 111, 112 
 Rod, 31 
 Roof, 92 
 Room, 90-92 
 
 Sackcloth, 58 
 Sale of land, 140, 141 
 Salt, 103, 119 
 Salutations, 149, 150 
 Samaritans, 160 
 Sandals, 113, 114 
 Satanic possession, 153 
 Scepticism, 155 
 Schools, 164 
 Scrip, 30 
 Seals, 42, 70 
 Seasons, 9 
 Seething, 103, 159 
 
170 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Serpents, 76 
 Servants, 105 
 Sheep, care of, 33-37 
 
 fold, 34, 88 
 
 shearing, 36 
 Sheet, shirt, 108 
 Shepherd-tribes, 27, 28, 128 
 
 hireling, 35, 36 
 Shops, 85 
 Sickness, 150-154 
 Sifting, 97 
 
 Sights and sounds, 15, 16 
 Sirocco, 10 
 Skirt, 114 
 Sleep, 97 
 Sling, 32 
 Sowing, 38, 39 
 Sparrow, 76 
 Spring, 9 
 Staff, 31 
 Streets, 133 
 Summer, 9 
 
 house, 93 
 Sunrise and sunset, 11-14 
 Superstition, 152, 153 
 Swaddling-clothes, 119 
 Sycamore, 54 
 
 Synagogue, 154, 158, 159, 163 
 Syrup, 47 
 
 Tabernacle, 123 
 Tabernacles, Feast of, 163 
 Tallith, 158, 164 
 Taxes, 131 
 Tax-gatherer, 82 
 Temperature, 13 
 Tent, 89, 90 
 
 Terraces, 38, 39, 63 
 Threshing-floor, 41 
 Tin, 69 
 Tools, 65, 66 
 Tradesmen, 57 
 Travel, 146-150 
 Treading of gi'apes, 45 
 Trumpets, Feast of, 163 
 
 Unleavened bread, 100, 161 
 Upper room, 92 
 Usury, 85 
 
 VeU, 115 
 
 Villages, 28, 29, 128-130 
 Vineyard, 43-47 
 Visitor, 95 
 
 Wailing, 126 
 Wall of city, 131 
 Washing of hands, 106 
 Watchman, 47 
 Watch-tower, 97 
 Water, 100, 101, 129 
 Weather, 22, 23 
 Weaving, 58-62 
 Wedding, 123-126 
 Weights, 86 
 Wheel of potter, 79 
 Window, 95, 96 
 Winds, 23-26 
 Wine, 46, 47, 161 
 Winepress, 45, 46 
 Winnowing, 42 
 Winter-house, 93 
 Witchcraft, 156 
 Work, 139 
 
INDEX OF TEXTS 
 
 Genesis. 
 L5 . 
 iv. 2 
 viii. 22 
 xii. 30 
 xiii. 7 
 xiii. 10 
 xviii. 10 
 xviii. 16 
 xxii. 4 
 xxiii. 
 xxiv. 22 
 XXV. 25 
 XXV. 34 
 xxvii. 27 
 xxix. 8 
 xxxi. 19 
 xxxii. 32 
 XXXV. 4 
 xxxvii. 3 
 xxxviii. 13 
 xxxix. 28 
 xli. 6 
 xli. 42 
 xllii. 11 
 
 Exodus, 
 
 ii. 17 
 ix. 32 
 xi. 5 
 xii. 1-28 
 xii. 39 
 xiii. 5-9 
 XV. 24 
 xvi. 6 
 
 160 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 126 
 29 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 141 
 
 70 
 
 110 
 
 102 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 87 
 
 69 
 
 112 
 
 36 
 
 112 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 104 
 
 xvi. 31 . 
 xvii. 3 
 xxi. 19, 20 
 xxii. 4 
 xxii. 26 , 
 xxiii. 16 . 
 xxiii. 19 . 
 xxiii. 25 . 
 xxiv. 1 
 xxvi. 1 
 xxvi. 36 . 
 xxvii. 3 . 
 xxviii. 6 . 
 xxviii. 11 . 
 xxviii. 4, 31, 32, 
 xxviii. 39 . 
 XXX. 5, 35 
 xxxii. 2 . 
 xxxii. 4 . 
 xxxii. 17, 18 
 xxxiii. 29 . 
 xxxvi. 8 . 
 xxxix. 14 . 
 
 29 
 
 38 
 
 99 
 
 160 
 
 99 
 
 153 
 
 101 
 
 161 
 
 LeviticuS: 
 
 vi. 5 
 vi. 21 
 vii. 12 
 xvi. 3-10 
 xxiii. 24 
 xxiii. 34 
 xxvi. 5 
 
 PAGE 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 32 
 
 67 
 
 110 
 
 161 
 
 101 
 
 70 
 
 161 
 
 59, 62 
 
 62 
 
 76 
 
 62 
 
 67 
 
 40 112 
 
 62 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 16 
 
 159 
 
 62 
 
 xi. 16 
 xxiii. 5 
 xxvii. 17 . 
 xxix. 1-11 
 xxix. 12 . 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 
 PA OB 
 
 161 
 101 
 37 
 162 
 163 
 
 vi. 4-9 
 viii. 8 
 xi. 10 
 xi. 13-21 
 XV. 10, 11 
 xvi. 30 
 xxii. 8 
 xxiv. 6 
 xxiv. 14 
 xxiv. 20 
 XXV. 4 
 xxviii. 22 
 xxviii, 23 
 xxix. 11 
 xxxiv. 1-3 
 
 72 
 100 
 100 
 162 
 162 
 163 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 
 153, 159 
 43 
 53 
 153 
 145 
 163 
 92 
 99 
 78 
 49,55 
 41 
 40 
 25 
 82 
 15 
 
 Joshua. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 vi. 24-26 
 
 ii. 6 . 
 
 92 
 
 ii. 15 
 
 95 
 
 m. 15 
 
 9 
 
 v. 13 
 
 149 
 
 V. 15 
 
 113 
 
 vii. 21 . 
 
 110 
 
 viii. 33 . 
 
 16 
 
 ix. 21 
 
 . 82 
 
 X. 13 
 
 . 122 
 
 XV. 19 
 
 . 20 
 
172 
 
 BIBLE MANN'ERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Judges. 
 
 iii. 20 
 iv. 19 
 iv. 21 
 V. 25 
 V. 26 
 V. 28 
 viii. 26 
 viil. 27 
 ix. 7 
 xi. 37 
 xiv. 12 
 xvi. 21 
 xvi. 27 
 XX. 16 
 
 Ruth. 
 
 i. 19 
 ii. 14 
 iii. 15 
 iv. 17 
 
 1 Samuel, 
 
 ii. 7. 
 ii. 19 
 viii. 13 
 ix. 7 
 xii. 17 
 xiii. 9 
 xiii. 19 
 XV. 27 
 xvii. 18 
 xvii. 40 
 xviii. 4 
 xix. 12 
 xxiv. 4 
 XXV. 2 
 XXV. 18 
 XXV. 29 
 xxvi. 13-17 
 xxvi. 20 
 xxvi. 21 
 XXX. 12 
 
 93 
 103 
 
 89 
 103 
 
 70 
 77 
 16 
 127 
 108 
 99 
 92 
 32 
 
 130 
 
 99 
 
 116 
 
 119 
 
 45, 
 
 145 
 
 112 
 
 73 
 
 156 
 
 9, 23 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 112 
 
 104 
 
 30 
 
 112 
 
 95 
 
 112 
 
 36, 37 
 
 51, 104 
 
 32,33 
 
 . 16 
 
 . 76 
 
 . 101 
 
 45,51 
 
 2 Samuel, 
 i. 10 
 i. 18 
 v. 11 
 xiii. 18 . 
 
 70 
 122 
 
 67 
 115 
 
 xvi. 1 
 
 . 45 
 
 Job. 
 
 
 xvii. 28 . 
 
 . 99 
 
 ii. 10 
 
 . 23 
 
 XX. 1 
 
 . 89 
 
 viii. 13 . 
 
 . 127 
 
 xxiii. 4 
 
 . 26 
 
 XV. 33 . 
 
 . 50 
 
 xxiii. 15 . 
 
 101 
 
 xxiv. 16 . 
 
 . 81 
 
 
 
 xxviii. 
 
 . 18 
 
 1 Kings. 
 
 
 XXX. 17, 18 
 
 151 
 
 iii. 11 
 
 106 
 
 xxviii. 4-7 
 
 . 65 
 
 iv. 25 . 
 
 51 
 
 xxviii. 14. 
 
 . 80 
 
 vi. 18 
 
 68 
 
 xii. 7 
 
 . 75 
 
 vi. 31 . 
 
 50 
 
 xii. 24 . 
 
 . 99 
 
 xii. 16 . 
 
 90 
 
 xiii. 14 . 
 
 117 
 
 xiii. 8 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 xvii. 10 . 
 
 101 
 
 Psalma. 
 
 
 xvii. 12 . 
 
 99 
 
 i. 3 . 
 
 54 
 
 xviii. 44 . 
 
 24 
 
 i. 4 . 
 
 42 
 
 xix. 6 . £ 
 
 9,101 
 
 ii. 9 . 
 
 81 
 
 xxi. 8 
 
 70 
 
 xiv. 1 
 
 156 
 
 xxii. 17 . 
 
 37 
 
 xviii. 16 . 
 
 26,35 
 
 
 
 xix. 1 
 
 21 
 
 2 Kings. 
 
 
 xix. 6 
 
 123 
 
 ii. 1 . 
 
 92 
 
 xix. 7, 8 . 
 
 12 
 
 ii. 14 
 
 110 
 
 xxii. 15 . 
 
 81 
 
 iv. 10 
 
 93 
 
 xxiii. 
 
 36 
 
 iv. 29 
 
 32 
 
 xxiii. 3 . 
 
 12 
 
 V. 20 
 
 136 
 
 xxiii. 4 
 
 31 
 
 ix. 30 
 
 117 
 
 xxix. 
 
 18 
 
 xxi. 13 . 
 
 65 
 
 xxxi. 12 . 
 
 81 
 
 xxiii. 12 . 
 
 92 
 
 XXXV. 7 . 
 
 76 
 
 XXV. 12 . 
 
 43 
 
 xiv. 13 . 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 Iviii. 3-5 . 
 
 76 
 
 1 Clironiclt 
 
 ,s. 
 
 Ixii. 3 
 
 26 
 
 xii. 40 . 
 
 45 
 
 Ixv. 
 
 18 
 
 xxiii. 29 . 
 
 100 
 
 Ixxii. 6 . 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Ixxiv. 1 . 
 
 37 
 
 2 Clironiclt 
 
 !S. 
 
 Ixxix. 13 . 
 
 37 
 
 ii. 10 
 
 50 
 
 Ixxx. 
 
 17,43 
 
 vi. . 
 
 16 
 
 Ixxxiv. 1-10 
 
 90 
 
 vi. 28 
 
 40 
 
 Ixxxiv. 10 
 
 95 
 
 xvi. 12 . 
 
 153 
 
 xc. 5 
 
 26 
 
 xvi. 14 
 
 73 
 
 xci. 1 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 xcii. 2 
 
 . 54 
 
 Nehemiah 
 
 
 xov. 7 
 
 37 
 
 viii. . 
 
 16 
 
 civ. . 
 
 . 18 
 
 xiii. 16 
 
 74 
 
 civ. 15, 16 
 
 . 32 
 
 
 
 civ. 19, 20 
 
 13 
 
 Esther. 
 
 
 civ. 23 . £ 
 
 >7, 130 
 
 i. 4 . 
 
 136 
 
 oviii. 9 . 
 
 . 113 
 
 ix. 19 
 
 163 
 
 cxiv. 
 
 17,18 
 
INDEX 01 TEXTS 
 
 173 
 
 cxviii. 22 
 cxix, 176 
 cxxi. 
 cxxi. 6 
 oxxiv. 7 
 oxxvi. 6, 
 cxxvii. 
 cxxviii. 3 
 oxxxvii. 6 
 cxxxix. 12 
 cxlvii. 
 oxlviii. 
 
 Proverbs 
 xi. 1 
 xiv. 31 
 XV. 17 
 xvi. 11 
 xviii. 16 
 XX. 10 
 xxi. 14 
 xxiv. 30-31 
 XXV. 17 
 XXV. 23 
 XXV. 25 
 xxvi. 8 
 xxvi. 23 
 xxvi. 27 
 xxvii. 9 
 xxvii. 10 
 xxvii. 22 
 xxviii. 27 
 XXX. 10 
 XXX. 24 (E, 
 
 i. 6 . 
 vii. 1 
 ix. 12 
 xi. 4 
 xii. 3, 4 
 xii. 5 
 xii. 13 
 
 V. 
 
 37 
 
 158 
 
 13 
 
 77 
 
 130 
 
 119 
 
 60 
 
 123 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 145 
 
 103 
 86 
 
 142 
 86 
 
 145 
 44 
 
 135 
 24 
 
 101 
 32 
 81 
 77 
 74 
 
 135 
 
 102 
 
 145 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 Ecclesiastes. 
 
 26 
 74 
 77 
 23 
 99 
 54, 127 
 . 26 
 
 Song of Solomon. 
 i. 3 . . .74 
 i. 5 . . .90 
 ii. 11-13 . . 22 
 
 ii. 13 
 iii. 6 
 iv. 1 
 V. 3. 
 vi. 11 
 vii. 7 
 
 Isaiah. 
 
 i. 3 . 
 i. 8 (R. V. 
 i. 25 
 iii. 10 
 iu. 18-20 
 iii. 22-24 
 
 V. 
 
 V. 4. 
 xvi. 10 
 xvii. 6 
 xix. 8 
 XX. 2 
 xxiv. 13 
 xxiv. 18 
 XXV. 5 
 xxviii. 2 
 xxviii. 16 
 xxviii. 17 
 xxviii. 25 
 xxix. 16 
 XXX. 14 
 XXX. 16 
 XXX. 24 
 XXX. 28 
 xxxvi. 6 
 xl. 3-5 
 xl. 11 
 xii. 7 
 xlii. 22 
 xlv. 19 
 liu. 6 
 liv. 16 
 Iv. 1. 
 Ivii. 9 
 Ivii. 10 
 Iviii. 8 
 lix. 19 
 Ix. 
 
 Ix. 1, 2 
 Ixi. 10 
 
 PAGE 
 
 44,52 
 74 
 17 
 115 
 54 
 54 
 
 130 
 
 48 
 
 . 108 
 
 70, 115 
 
 108, 112, 
 
 115, 116 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 74,75 
 
 109 
 49 
 76 
 25 
 26 
 63 
 65 
 38 
 81 
 72,81 
 
 101 
 42 
 97 
 32 
 
 148 
 30 
 68 
 76 
 81 
 37 
 68 
 73 
 73 
 
 127 
 12 
 26 
 18 
 12 
 112, 123 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ixiii. 3 . 
 
 . 46 
 
 Mv. 8 . 
 
 . 81 
 
 Jeremi 
 
 ah. 
 
 i. 4, 17 . 
 
 . 37 
 
 ii. 13, 18 . 
 
 . 101 
 
 iv. 20 
 
 . 90 
 
 iv. 30 
 
 . 117 
 
 V. 27 
 
 . 76 
 
 vi. 29 
 
 68, 69 
 
 viii. 17 
 
 . 76 
 
 viii. 20 . 
 
 9 
 
 X. 5. 
 
 . 54 
 
 xviii. 3 
 
 . 79 
 
 xviii. 4-11 
 
 . 81 
 
 xix. 11 
 
 . 81 
 
 XX. 15 . 
 
 . 118 
 
 xxii. 13 . 
 
 . 65 
 
 xxli. 18 . 
 
 . 126 
 
 xxiv. 2, 8. 
 
 . 61 
 
 XXV. 10 . 
 
 . 99 
 
 XXX. 21 
 
 . 147 
 
 xxxvi. 22 . 
 
 . 93 
 
 xxxvii. 21. 
 
 . 72 
 
 xxxvii. 27 . 
 
 . 90 
 
 xlviii. 33 . 
 
 . 46 
 
 Lamentat 
 
 ions. 
 
 iv. 2 . 
 
 . 81 
 
 V. 13 
 
 82, 99 
 
 Bzekie 
 
 1. 
 
 iv. 9. 
 
 . 38 
 
 viii. 10 . 
 
 . 68 
 
 xiii. 11 
 
 . 26 
 
 xvi. 4 
 
 . 119 
 
 xvi. 10 . 
 
 . 62 
 
 xvi. 12 . 
 
 . 69 
 
 xvii. . 
 
 . 43 
 
 xxvii. 
 
 . 17 
 
 xxxiv. 6, 8, 1 
 
 2 . 37 
 
 xxxiv. 36 . 
 
 . 26 
 
 xxxvii 
 
 . 133 
 
 xxxvii. 11 
 
 . 127 
 
 xl. 3 
 
 . 64 
 
 Daniel, 
 
 ,12 
 
 38 
 
174 
 
 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 
 
 PAGE 1 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 iii. 21 . Ill, 112 1 
 
 V. 43-48 . 
 
 136 
 
 xiv. 9 
 
 63 
 
 xii. 8 
 
 42 
 
 vi. 30 
 
 22 
 
 xiv. 10 . 
 
 106 
 
 
 
 X. 9 . 
 
 112 
 
 xiv. 12 . 
 
 136 
 
 Hosea. 
 
 
 X. 16 
 
 37 
 
 xiv. 13 . 
 
 144 
 
 iv. 3 
 
 74 
 
 X. 42 . 7i 
 
 3, 101 
 
 xiv. 19 . 
 
 130 
 
 vii. 4-6 . 
 
 72 
 
 xi. 17 
 
 122 
 
 XV. 3-7 . 
 
 37 
 
 ix. 10 
 
 51 
 
 xii. 42 . 
 
 150 
 
 XV. 6, 9 . 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 xiii. 4-7 . 39, ' 
 
 to, 97 
 
 XV. 25 
 
 130 
 
 Amos. 
 
 
 xvi. 2 
 
 26 
 
 xvi. 8 
 
 84 
 
 ii. 13 
 
 40 
 
 xvii. 27 . 
 
 75 
 
 xvi. 20 
 
 144 
 
 iii. 5 
 
 76 
 
 xix. 20 . 
 
 159 
 
 xviii. 1-7 . 
 
 142 
 
 iii. 15 
 
 93 
 
 XX. 12 . 
 
 12,78 
 
 xix. 20 . 
 
 113 
 
 iv. 2 
 
 75 
 
 xxi. 12 . 
 
 84 
 
 xix. 23 . 
 
 83 
 
 iv. 6 
 
 145 
 
 xxi. 19 . 
 
 52 
 
 XX. 46 
 
 112 
 
 iv. 9 
 
 40 
 
 xxi. 33 . 
 
 48 
 
 xxii. 31 . 
 
 97 
 
 vii. 14 
 
 54 
 
 xxi. 33-41 
 
 140 
 
 xxiii. 56 . 
 
 73 
 
 viii. 11 
 
 101 
 
 xxi. 42 . 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 ix. 9 
 
 97 
 
 xxiii. 5 
 
 153 
 
 John. 
 
 
 
 
 xxiv. 32 . 
 
 61 
 
 i. 27 
 
 113 
 
 Micah. 
 
 
 xxiv. 41 . 
 
 99 
 
 i. 48 
 
 51 
 
 iv. 4 
 
 51 
 
 XXV. 1-13 . 
 
 123 
 
 X. 1-18 . 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 XXV. 35 
 
 138 
 
 X. 10 
 
 21 
 
 Nalium. 
 
 
 XXV. 36 . 
 
 143 
 
 X. 12 
 
 34 
 
 iii. 12 . 
 
 . 51 
 
 xxvi. 26 . 
 
 99 
 
 X. 14 
 
 35 
 
 ui. 14 . 
 
 . 80 
 
 
 
 xi. 31 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 Mark. 
 
 
 xi. 44 
 
 113 
 
 Habakkui 
 
 . 
 
 ii. 4. 
 
 92 
 
 xiii. 26 . 
 
 101 
 
 i. 15 
 
 . 75 
 
 V. 26 
 
 151 
 
 xiv. 6 
 
 63 
 
 iii. . 
 
 . 18 
 
 V. 38 
 
 126 
 
 XV. 5 
 
 3, 44 
 
 
 
 vii. 6 
 
 115 
 
 XV. 15 
 
 . 136 
 
 Zephanial 
 
 1. 
 
 X. 46 
 
 144 
 
 xvi. 21 . 
 
 . 118 
 
 i. 3 . 
 
 . 74 
 
 xi. 13 . ' 
 
 52 
 
 xix. 23 . 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 xiii. 28 . 
 
 51 
 
 xix. 41 
 
 . 53 
 
 Zecliariah 
 
 . 
 
 xiv. 3 
 
 74 
 
 XX. 7 
 
 . 113 
 
 iii. 4 
 
 . 112 
 
 xiv. 51 . 3 
 
 2, 108 
 
 xxi. 16 . 
 
 . 37 
 
 xiii. 9 
 
 . 69 
 
 Luke. 
 
 
 Acts. 
 
 
 Malaclii. 
 
 
 ii. 4. 
 
 . 131 
 
 i. 13 
 
 . 92 
 
 iii. 3. 
 
 . 69 
 
 iv. 38 
 
 . 151 
 
 ii. 9-11 . 
 
 . 83 
 
 
 
 V. 6 . 
 
 . 75 
 
 ii. 21-39 . 
 
 . 164 
 
 Matthew 
 
 
 vi. 29 
 
 . 110 
 
 ii. 44-45 . 
 
 . 139 
 
 iii. 4 
 
 . 110 
 
 vi. 48, 49 . 
 
 . 26 
 
 iii. 2 
 
 . 144 
 
 iv. 19 
 
 
 . 75 
 
 ix. 5 
 
 . 113 
 
 iii. 25 
 
 . 164 
 
 V. 6 . 
 
 
 . 101 
 
 xi. 5 
 
 . 105 
 
 vi. 14 
 
 . 164 
 
 V. 14 
 
 
 . 12 
 
 xi. 7 
 
 . 97 
 
 ix. 37 
 
 . 92 
 
 V. 15 
 
 
 . 90 
 
 xii. 3 
 
 . 16 
 
 ix. 39 
 
 . 126 
 
 V. 26 
 
 
 . 143 
 
 xii. 54 . 
 
 . 24 
 
 X. 28 
 
 5,164 
 
 V. 29 
 
 
 . 76 
 
 xii. 55 
 
 . 26 
 
 xii. 13 . 
 
 . 95 
 
 V. 40 
 
 
 . 110 
 
 xiii. 6, 9 . 
 
 . 52 
 
 xiii. 47 . 
 
 . 164 
 
INDEX OF TEXTS 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 PAOE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 xiv. 27 
 
 5, 
 
 164 
 
 xi. 24 
 
 99 
 
 xiil. 2 
 
 138 
 
 xvi. 14 
 
 
 59 
 
 XV. 29 
 
 120 
 
 xiii. 20 . 
 
 37 
 
 xvi. 24 
 xvii. 27 
 
 
 143 
 164 
 
 2 Coriutliians 
 
 
 James. 
 
 
 xvii. 29 
 
 
 68 
 
 iv. 4 
 
 12 
 
 ii. 16 
 
 145 
 
 xix. 12 
 XX. 9 
 
 
 113 
 96 
 
 iv. 7 
 vi. 14 
 
 81 
 12 
 
 1 Peter. 
 
 
 XX. 35 
 
 
 146 
 
 Ephesian.s. 
 
 
 ii. 5 . 
 
 65 
 
 xxii. 21, 
 
 22 '. 
 
 164 
 
 i. 13 
 
 42 
 
 Jude. 
 
 
 xxvi. 13 
 
 xxvi. 18 
 
 
 13 
 12 
 
 iv. 30 
 V. 8 . 
 
 42 
 12 
 
 12 
 20 
 
 25 
 65 
 
 Romans. 
 
 
 Philippians. 
 
 
 Revelation 
 
 
 ix. 21 
 
 
 81 
 
 i. 9, 10 . 
 
 158 
 
 ii. 27 
 
 81 
 
 xi. 24 
 
 
 50 
 
 ii. 2 . 
 
 134 
 
 iii. 18 
 
 
 117 
 
 xi. 36 
 
 
 155 
 
 iv. 8 . . 
 
 53 
 
 iii. 20 
 
 
 137 
 
 XV. 20 
 
 
 63 
 42 
 
 1 Thessalonians. 
 
 V. 12 
 
 
 37 
 
 XV. 28 
 
 
 V. 7 . 
 
 47 
 
 vii. 13 . 
 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vii. 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 Corinthian! 
 
 
 1 Timothy. 
 
 
 vii. 17 
 
 
 36 
 
 iii. 9 
 
 . 
 
 65 
 
 V. 18 
 
 41 
 
 xxl. . 
 
 
 131 
 
 iii. 10 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 xxi. 16 
 
 
 64 
 
 V. 8 . 
 
 
 161 
 
 Hebrews. 
 
 
 xxi. 22 
 
 
 15 
 
 ix. 9. 
 
 , , 
 
 41 
 
 X. 3, 4 . 
 
 162 
 
 xxi. 25 
 
 
 133 
 
 IHE fiffl) 
 
(MISSIONS, GENERAL. 
 Christian Missions and Social Progress. 
 
 A Sociological Study of Foreign Missions. By Rev. James 
 S. Dennis, D.D. Students' Lecturer on Missions, Prince- 
 ton, 1893 and 1896. With over 100 Illustrations from 
 Photographs. 2 vols., 8vo, cloth, gilt top, each, $2.50. 
 '* A new and notable book on foreign missions. Their influence 
 is studied from the view-point of the sociologist, and results of 
 fresh interest are brought forward. The Evangelistic aim is duly 
 honored as paramourt: but special attention is devoted to the 
 social significance of mir.sion work as introducing stimulating and 
 corrective ideals, giving promise of beneficent and far-reaching 
 changes in the status of non-Christian peoples. The author has 
 taken great pains to inform himself as to the social conditions of 
 heathenism. 
 
 Foreign Missions After a Century. 
 
 By Rev. James S. Dennis, D.D. Fourth edition. 8vo, 
 cloth, $1.50. 
 
 " A broad, philosophical, and systematic view of the missionary 
 work in its relation to the living Church." — The Independent. 
 
 A Concise History of Missions. 
 
 By Rev. Edward Munsell Bliss, D.D. i6mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 Strategic Points in the World's Conquest. 
 
 The Universities and Colleges as related to the Progress 
 of Christianity. By John R. Mott. With a Map. Fourth 
 thousand. i2mo, cloth, $1.00. 
 
 A New Programme of Missions. 
 
 A Movement to make the Colleges of all Lands Centers ol 
 Evangelization. By Luther D. Wishard. Introduction by 
 Rev. R. S. Storrs, D.D. i6mo, paper, 25c.; cloth, 50c. 
 
 The Missionary Pastor. 
 
 Helps for Developing the Missionary Life of his Church, 
 By Rev. J. E. Adams. With Charts by R. J. Kellogg. 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 The Student Missionary Enterprise. 
 
 Proceedings of the Convention of the Student Volunteer 
 Movement, Detroit, 1894. 8vo, cloth, $1,50. 
 
 "Make Jesus King." 
 
 The Report of the International Students' Missionary Con- 
 ference, Liverpool, 1896. 8vo, cloth, net, $1.50. 
 
(MISSIONS. ^MERIC/i. 
 
 On the Indian Trail, 
 
 And Other Stories of Missionary Work among the Cree 
 and Saulteaux Indians. By Egerton R. Young. Illus- 
 trated by J. E. Laughlin. lamo, cloth, $i.oo. 
 Mr. Young is well known to readers of all ages as the author 
 of " By Canoe and Dog Train," "Three Boys in the Wild North 
 Land, and other very popular books describing life and adventure 
 in the great Northwest. The stories in this new book tell of some 
 very exciting incidents in his career, and describe phases of life 
 among the American Indians which are fast becoming things of 
 the past. 
 
 Forty-two Years Among the Indians and 
 Eskimos. 
 
 Pictures from the Life of the Rt. Rev. John Horden, first 
 Bishop of Moosonee. By Beatrice Batty. Illustrated. 
 i2mo, cloth, $i.oo. 
 
 Vikings of To-Day; 
 
 Or, Life and Medical Work among the Fishermen of 
 Labrador. By Wilfred T. Grenfel, M.D., of the Deep 
 Sea Mission. Illustrated from Original Photographs. 
 Second edition. i2mo, cloth, Si. 25. 
 
 "The author has been in charge of the work since its inception, 
 and writes, accordingly, with special authority and wealth of detail, 
 both as to the methods of work and as to the people— the fearless, 
 patient Vikings — to whom he has dedicated his life.*' — The Ex- 
 atniner. 
 
 Amid Greenland Snows; 
 
 Or, The Early History of Arctic Missions. By Jesse Page. 
 Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. Tenth thous- 
 and. i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 Kin-da-Shon's Wife. 
 
 An Alaskan Story. By Mrs. Eugene S. Willard. Illus- 
 trated. Third edition. 8vo, cloth, $1.50. 
 " From beginning to end the book holds the attention. Mrs. 
 
 Willard has shown herself peculiarly well qualified to write such 
 
 a book." — Public Opinion. 
 
 David Brainerd, 
 
 The Apostle to the North American Indians. By Jesse 
 Page. Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. Twelfth 
 thousand. i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 South America, the Neglected Continent. 
 
 By Lucy E. Guinness and E. C. Millard. With a Map 
 in colors and many other Illustrations Small 4to, paper, 
 50c.; cloth, 75c. 
 
DAISSIONS, ^AFRICA. 
 The Personal Life of David Livingstone. 
 
 Chiefly from his unpublished journals and correspondence 
 in the possession of his family. By W. Garden Blaikie, 
 D.D., LL.D. With Portrait and Map. New, cheap edi- 
 tion. . ^08 pages, 8vo, cloth, $1.50. 
 "There IS throughout the narrative that glow of interest which 
 
 is realized while events are comparatively recent, with that also 
 
 which is still fresh and tender." — The Standard, 
 
 David Livingstone. 
 
 His Labors and His Legacy. By A. Montefiore, F.R.G.S. 
 Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. 160 pages, 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 David Livingstone. 
 
 By Mrs. J. H. Worcester, Jr., Missionary Annals Series. 
 i2mo, paper, net, 15c.; flexible cloth, net, 30c. 
 
 Reality vs. Romance in South Central 
 Africa. 
 
 Being an Account of a Journey across the Atrican Conti- 
 nent, from Benguella on the West Coast to the mouth of 
 the Zambesi. By James Johnston, M.D. With 51 full- 
 page photogravure reproductions of photographs by the 
 author, and a map. Royal Svo, cloth, boxed, $4.00. 
 
 The Story of Uganda 
 
 And of the Victoria Nyanza Mission. By S. G. Stock. 
 Illustrated. i2mo, cloth, I1.25. 
 
 "To be commended as a good, brief, general survey of the 
 Protestant missionary work in Uganda."— y^^ Literary World. 
 
 Robert Moffat, 
 
 The Missionary Hero of Kuruman. By David J. Deane. 
 Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. 2^tk thousand. 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 Robert Moffat. 
 
 By M. L. Wilder. Missionary Annals Series. i2mo, 
 paper, net, 15c.; flexible cloth, net, 50c. 
 
 The Congo for Christ, 
 
 The Story of the Congo Mission. By Rev. John B. Myers. 
 Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. Tenth thousand. 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 On the Congo. 
 
 Edited from Notes and Conversations of Missionaries, by 
 Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness. i2mo, paper, 50c. 
 
(MISSIONS. INDIA. 
 In the Tiger Jungle. 
 
 And Other Stories of Missionary Work among the Telugus. 
 By Rev. Jacob Chamberlain, M.D., D.D., for 37 years a 
 Missionary in India. Illustrated. i2mo, cloth, $1.00. 
 
 " If this is the kind of missionary who mans the foreign stations, 
 they will never fail for lack of enterprise. . . . The book is withal 
 a vivid and serious portrayal of the mission work, and as such 
 leaves a deep impression on the reader." — Tke Independent. 
 
 The Child of the Ganges. 
 
 A Tale of the Judson Mission. By Prof. R. N. Barrett, 
 D.D. Illustrated. i2mo, cloth, $1.25. 
 
 Adoniram Judson. 
 
 By Julia H. Johnston. Missionary Annals Series, lamo, 
 paper, net, 15c.; flexible cloth, net, 30c. 
 
 Once Hindu, now Christian. 
 
 The Early Life of Baba Padmanji. An Autobiography, 
 translated. Edited by J. Murray Mitchell, M. A. r6mo, 
 cloth, 75c. 
 
 William Carey. 
 
 The Shoemaker who became "the Father and Founder of 
 Foreign Missions." By Rev. John B. Myers. Missionary 
 Biography Series. Illustrated. Twenty-second thousand. 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 William Carey. 
 
 By Mary E. Farwell. Missionary Annals Series. i2mo, 
 paper, net, 15c.; flexible cloth, net, 30c. 
 
 Alexander DufF. 
 
 By Elizabeth B. Vermilye. Missionary Annals Series. 
 i2mo, paper, net, 15c.; flexible cloth, net, 30c. 
 
 Reginald Heber, 
 
 Bishop of Calcutta, Scholar and Evangelist. By Arthur 
 Montefiore. Missionary Biography Series. Illustrated. 
 i2mo, cloth, 75c. 
 
 Heavenly Pearls Set in a Life. 
 
 A Record of Experiences and Labors in America. India, 
 and Australia. By Mrs. Lucy D. Osborn. Illustrated. 
 l2mo, cloth, $1.50,