CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY MUSIC jimi1nJi'iK,.£t.!*'"B>c hfstor 3 1924 022 393 320 « Cornell University B Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022393320 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY air CLARENCE G. gAMILTON, A.M. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MUSIC A7 WELLESLEY COLLEGE BOSTON OLIVER DITSON COMPANY NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA C. H. DITSON & CO. J. K. DITSON & CO. CHICAGO LYON & HEALY Copyright, MCMVIII, . By Ouvee Ditsos Company !d3 >7 THE UNIVEBSITT PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, V. 8. A. To MISS CAROLINE HAZARD WHO, BY HKR INTEREST AND APPRECIATION, IS A CONSTANT BODKCE OF INSPIRATION TO THE MUSIC WORK AT WELLESLEY COLLEGE PREFACE The " Outlines of Music History " is intended to meet the demand for a concise survey of the entire field of musical development, presented in the light of recent research. It is only within comparatively few years that Science has cast its searching eye upon historical statements hitherto blindly accepted; and in so doing it has found the Art of Music, especially, through its imaginative and emotional character, encrusted all along the way with a prolific growth of fables and myths. Modern music scholars have for some time been working to strip off these irrelevant accumulations and to arrange the known facts in logical sequence; and as a result the links in the chain which extends from the regions of remote antiquity to our own time are now becoming plainly visible. The present volume is designed, moreover, for use both by the general reader and for class work. It is hoped that many who wish to gain an intelligent conception of how music has developed may find it an effective means; and with this result in view the numerous illustrations have been selected with great care to illuminate the text as to the style and materials used in the different epochs and as to the personality and characteristics of the leading composers. For class work, conducted either by private teachers or in institutions, and for the use of music clubs, special features have been introduced. A system of paragraphing, by which topics are numbered and treated individually, with specific titles, is one of these ; and as a unification of these divisions a summary is appended to each chapter. The Chronological vii viii PREFACE Table at the end of the book furnishes also a means oi keep- ing before the mind the connection of events in music history not only with each other, but also with those of contempo- raneous history. It will also be noted that in the latter category prominepce has be^n, given to events in American history. The possibility of expanding the study to any desired extent is provided for in the reference lists at the dose of each chapter. A feature which is of primQ importance in any music study is that of adequate musical illustration. The lecture course at Wellesley College which I have conducted for several years, and upon which the arrangement of this book is based, is accompanied by a correlative course of illustrative recitals, each designed to cover the ground traversed in the two previous lectures. Material for such a course is hinted at in the musical illustrations accompanying the text of the book; and as a further help in compiling programs, the recent volume by Arthur Elson entitled " Music Club Programs from all Nations " is earnestly recommended. I know of no more fascinating pursuit than that of tracing the steps by which mere unrelated sounds have been moulded, through ages of subtle invention, into a medium for express- ing some of the grandest and most elusive of human thoughts. If any are induced by this book, to travel along this pleasant pathway, I shall feel rewarded for its compilation. CLARENCE G. HAMILTON. Wellesley, Mass., November, 1907. CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 CHAPTEE I Alien Musical Systems 3 Sect. 1. Systems only remotely al¥ectiug our own ... 4 2. Systems whicli have affected ours indirectly . . 12 3. Systems which have influenced ours directly . . 17 CHAPTER II Medieval Music ... 28 Sect. 1. Religious Music . . 28 2. Secular Music 40 CHAPTER III The Epoch op Vocal Coonterpoint 48 Sect. 1. The Contrapuntal Schools 48 2. Music in the Protestant Churches 58 3. Keyboard Instruments 66 CHAPTER IV The Developsient of Monophont 74 Sect. 1 . The Opera and the Oratorio 75 2. Influence of the Operatic Style 88 CHAPTER V Bach, Handel, and Gluck 98 Sect. 1. Johann Sebastian Bach 99 2. George Frederick Handel 106 3. Christopher Willibald von Gluck Ill ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER VI Page The Perfection of the Sonata Form 117 Sect. 1. Experiments in Sonata Form 118 2. Francis Joseph Haydn . . 124 3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . 131 CHAPTER VII The Transition to the Romantic Style 141 Sect. 1. Ludwig van Beethoven 141 2. Franz Schubert 150 3. CM. von Weber and Contemporaries .... 155 CHAPTER VIII The Great Nineteenth Century Romanticists. . . . 164 Sect. 1. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 164 2. Robert Schumann 170 3. Frederic Chopin 176 4. Berlioz and Liszt 180 CHAPTER IX Opera in the Nineteenth Century 190 Sect. 1. The Opera before Wagner 190 2. Richard Wagner 199 3. Other Nineteenth Century Opera Composers . 208 CHAPTER X Other Nineteenth Century Composers . . . . . . 216 Sect. 1. Music in Germany and Bohemia 216 . 2. Music in the Northern Countries 225 3. Music in France and England 230 4. Pianists and Violinists 235 CONTENTS XI CHAPTER XI Page The Mdsic of the Pbesent Day ,242 Sect. 1. Music in Germany and Neighboring Countries . 242 2. Music in the Northern Countries 250 3. Music in Italy, France, and the Netherlands . 266 4. Music in England and America 261 CoNCLtlSION 271 Chronological Table 273 Index 289 Outlines of Music History INTRODUCTION 1. The Nature of Art. Art deals with the expression of elevated thought. An art work, therefore, possesses value in proportion to the importance of the thought involved, and the degree of success with which this thought is presented. This manner of presentation, known as the Form, seeks to combine a succession of relative and cumulative details into a unified expression of the central idea. 2. Interrelation of the Arts. Of the five principal arts, Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting are classified as mate- 1 rial. Literature and Music as immaterial ; since in the first group ideas are conveyed through visible and tangible objects, while in the second they are transmitted more directly from mind to mind. While Literature and Music are thus closely allied, and are frequently found in combination, the former seeks primarily to express exact thought, while the latter can express only abstract sentiments or feelings, dependent upon strictly tonal effects. 3. Slow Development of Music. On account of this indefinite and immaterial character, music developed later than the other arts. Moreover, before any musical system could be formed it was necessary to select certain tones upon which to base it; and, as different systems were founded upon different selections, these systems contra- dicted, rather than aided each other. Again, owing to the difficulty of accurate notation, whole systems have passed away, leaving scarcely a trace behind them. 2 INTRODUCTION 4. Scope of Music History. We have now to study some alien systems of importance, and then to trace the way in which our own grew up, following, as it did, the law of the survival of the fittest. This study involves the considera^ tion of how certain tones were selected, and formed into scales ; how notation came into use ; how means for the production of music, vocal and instrumental, were elabor- ated ; how fonus satisfying the demands of art were slowly worked out; and, finally, how great movements were carried on by nations and by individuals, resulting in the develop- ment and perfection of various kinds and styles of music. Apollo with a Cithara (National Museum, Athens) CHAPTER I Alien Musical Systems 5. Extent of our Knowledge. Alien musical systems include those of primitive peoples, of ancient nations, and of modern nations, like China, where ancient traditions have not given place to European civilization. Our knowledge of all of these is, at best, scanty, since even in the case of modern nations it is difficult to obtain accurate data or to appreciate kinds of music which frequently clash with our own, and which are also inadequate in notation. In the case of abandoned systems we axe often reduced to mere theories, deduced from inscriptions or other relics, and reliable only as to general characteristics, such as the kinds of instruments employed ; while the actual effect of the music as to scale intervals and pitch is impossible of deter- mination. In a few cases, melodies have evidently been handed down by tradition from so remote a time as to furnish at least a glimpse of former ages ; but where such melodies have been deciphered by antiquarians, the differ- ence in the conclusions drawn by individuals has been too great to aUow them much credence. From the study of instruments, however, we can mark clearly the steps in advancement from the crudest beginnings up through the various grades of civilization. The increase in skill of manufacture and in scope of these instruments shows the use of a greater number of tones, a systematizing of these tones into scales, and a consequent growth in the technical abilities of the musicians. Joining this study to that of all other historical data available, we are able to tabulate a number of conclusions, of which a r^sum^ follows. 4 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 1 SYSTEMS ONLY EEMOTELY AFFECTING OUK OWN 6. Music of Primitive and Savage Peoples. When, among primitive peoples^ anything like musicar systems have ex- isted, the traces of these are, of course, well-nigh extinct. But by the study of the development of music among savages, it is possible to distinguish certain common attri- butes which primitive man must also have possessed ; while the observation of the tirst musical impulses of children is also useful in determining something about the dawn of musical intelligence. Such research teaches us that the elem'ent of rhythm must have been the first to be appre- ciated; that tones, selected gradually, were employed to form melodies; that these melodies consisted at first of a short group of notes constantly reiterated, but that design appeared when a contrasting phrase or phrases were used in alternation ; and finally that tones were arranged, accord- ing to the intervals between thera, into scales, which differed Weatly in sUch arrangement. The intervals of the fourth, fifth, and octave were the first to be discovered ; and, when other notes were added, those wei-e chosen which did not produce half-tones with the primary notes, since the former were found difficult to sing. In this way arose the penta- tonie scale, containing the same succession of notes as is produced by playing in succession the black keys on the piano. This pentatonic scale, therefore, became not only common among primitive races, but also penetrated into many of the more advanced systems. Probably there were no attempts at combining tones into chords, and there was also a lack of tonality, or the reference of all the scale tones to a central tone. The absence of these important factors, as well as the inability to modulate from one scale to another, furnished important reasons why not only primitive OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 5 music, but also the music of more advanced systems soon came to a standstill. \ , Music was at first purely vocal, and was probacy, employed as early as speech itself; but it was not long; befppe the! sounds produced by natural objects attriicted.attention,, and, attempts to make use of them resulted in the formationi of instruments. These divided themselves into three types : — the drum ov percussion type, suggested by rhythmic beatings upon resonant objects, in time with the dance movements;! the pipe or reed type, discovered when reeds or horns were blown upon ; and the lyre or string type, perhaps born from' the twang of the bowstring. Here let us note that as the last type requires the most intellectual power for its develop- ment, so the grade of civilizatipn of a nation is found to be higher in proportion as the striniged instruments take pre- cedence over those of percussion. The music forms of primitive peoples are aptly illustrated in our own country in the songs of the southern Negroes, and of the Indians ; indeed, iVmerican composers are how American Negro Song. Sometimes I feel like a moth - er - less child, Sometimes I feel like a f ^ EPi ^^m. moth - er - less child. long ways from home. A Song of the Chiqcitos (Showing the two themes, A and B). , A B ?=t= ^ ^^^i f devoting much attention to this material, as furnishing a basis for a national school (par. 257). The emotional power, of music among both Negroes and Indians is immense j and one of its important functions is thus in connection: with social institutions : — religious ceremonies, war dances, sere- 6 OUTLINES OP MUSIC HISTORY nades, and the like, in which it is participated in by many of the people together. Sometimes, when employed by chosen individuals, such as the Medicine Men among the Indians, it is used as an aid toward the manifestation of supernatural powers ; so that certain kinds of music come to be regarded with awe, as possessing divine attributes. . Ojibwat Song. With the growth of civilization among ancient nations, more definite musical systems developed, especially among the countries of the Orient. Scales became fixed, instruments were made and employed with more skill, theorizing upon the nature of music was rife, and the uses of music were defined. We now, therefore, consider the result of this evolutionary process in some of the most important nations of antiquity. 7. Music in China. Tlie most complete ancient system arose here ; but, although it existed from a very early date, soon, like other institutions, it became so conven- tionalized and minutely regulated as to preclude further advancement. Beginning with Huang Ti (B.C. 2697) Chinese music assumed its characteristic form. The Emperor Shun (B.C. 2255) composed the piece called Ta Shoo, which sixteen hundred years later so deeply impressed Confucius that for three months " he did not know the taste of meat." The great restorer of ancient virtue, Confucius was, himself, an enthusiastic musician. Already in his day (c. 550 b.c.) the true old music was less practised, and three hundred years later it was lost beyond recovery in the reign of the vandal Emperor Shi-Huang-Ti, the destroyer of books. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 7 The many existent treatises, of which the earliest dates from the eleventh century B.C., show the speculative character of the Chinese mind. From these we learn that the first scale was the pentatonic, of which the origin is ascribed to the notes given out by a pair of mythical birds, and fixed by the famous musician Lyng-lun, who tuned a separate bamboo to each note. Afterwards, however, the octave was divided into twelve semitones, similar to our own, and from these eighty-four scales were formulated. But the fact that little or no interchange was effected between them kept their use within narrow bounds. Tag-tin (The Guiding March). Played as the Emperor enters the Temple of Confucius. i ESE ^m * ffP^T^ ^ T^=F SE I I P ^^M=N:-^^ eej= fN— M The Chinese think of these scales as descending rather than ascending like ours, — a characteristic common in older systems, — and, with the customary union of art and politics, tihey give the individual tones names from state institutions. Kung — The Emperor = Tonic. Shang — The Minister = Supertonic. Chiao — The People = Mediant. Chih — Affairs of State = Dominant. Y'd — Material objects = Submediant. The most pervasive number in Chinese philosophy is five, and the tones of the pentatonic scale correspond also to the five planets, five points of the compass, five jplors, five ele- ments, and so on. The melodies have a peculiarly wandering character, since 8 OtmiNES OF MUSIC HISTORY the Chinese centre tlie interest in the color rather thail' 'the progression of individual tones ; and of these tone-colors eight varieties are distinguished, according as the material ; from which they are derived is skin, stone, metal, baked earth, silk, wood, gourd, or bamboo. The instruments fashioned from these are both fanciful in workmanship and symbohc in character, with those of percussion in the great majority;; and especially noteworthy are the King, an organ maide of Playing the King Plating the Shbng sixteen carefully selected stone plates struck by a mallet, which give out a sound described as " less tart than metal, brighter than wood"; the Bell Organs, similarly made but with bells instead of stones ; the Sheng, a precursor of our reed organ, made by inserting twenty-one bamboos, ekch having a metal reed, into a gourd, which is blown into through a mouth-piece ; and the many varieties of drums, in some of which the tone is altered by the insertion of rice. The combination of these instruments into orchestras is common. Outside of its use in religious functions Chinese music is cultivated only by the lower orders. The most characteristic melodies, therefore, are either ancient hymns or the folk-songs of the sailors and mountaineers. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Song of Chinese Rowers. Solo by the master. |id^S^E^33?t;-^ g^£ ^M^ a^^^^fe^ i5^-h-i l a. Kindred Systems. The most important of these are found in Japan, Java, Siam, and Burmah ; and in all of them the pentatonic scale is common, although it undergoes inany modifications. In Japan the instruments are of coarser make, and embrace a rude violin called the Koldu ; an oboe used as a trumpet, and made by inserting a tube in a seasheU; and a number of other stringed instruments, of Playing the Koto which the Koto is the most important. Women are admit- ted into both religious and secular orchestral performances ; and the music is poetic and popular in character, some- times founded upon a scale approaching our chromatic form. The native music, however, is in danger of extermin- ation, on account of the general adoption of the European system into the public schools. 10 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTOBY Japanese Air. Nek bee ya ka de, Nek bee ya ka de, Ka za du ta te ta ru, Ma - tsu ka za du, ma - tsu ka za du. , The Javanese have a number of instruments; and in Burmah the instruments include bell and gong organs of twenty-one tones each, and a wooden crocodile with three brass strings on top. In Siam orchestras are numerous, and the characteristic instrument is the Ranat, consisting of wooden or metal bars played with a hammer. 9. Music in India. The same tenacity of institutions exists here as is found in China ; but the more lively imagination of the Hindoos voices itself in a richly adorned poetry which I is reflected in their music by varied rhythms, embellished melodies, and complicated scales. The origin of music is ascribed to the gods ; and a well-developed musical system is apparent in the four sacred books called Vedas, which date from cir. 2000 B.C. The Brahmins produced many songs or Ragas, which are built upon strict formulae, and each of which is devoted to a special occasion, is personified as a deity, and is supposed to exercise supernatural powers. Indeed, the use of some of them was so restricted that the person who unlawfully sang them was punished by death. The musicians are chiefly comprised in two classes of Bayaderes^ the first consisting of high-caste maidens devoted to the service of the gods, and the second of itinerant musi- cians of the lower classes. Religious music, strictly regu- lated and combined with dancing, occupies an important place. There are also orchestras and music dramas. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Hindustani Melody. It ^m jH-j-|-J^-^=J=J4TjJJJJi *a= rs^ The scale, here also originally pentatonic, was added to from time to time, until it came to consist of twenty-two minute parts called srutis, which were a quarter or third- tone distant from one another ; and from these an enormous number of scales was evolved. At the present time, how- everj from twenty-two to thirty-six are in general use. Plating the Vina The Magoudi Instruments, too, are exceedingly numerous, and show a higher development than those of the Chinese, in the pre- dominance of the strings. The national instrument is the Vina, said to have been given by the consort of Brahma, and consisting of a long hollow tube with nineteen movable bridges, over which are stretched seven metal strings, and the tone of which is reinforced by two hollow gourds. Besides this the Magoudi, a long-necked, four-stringed guitar, and two rudimentary violin^, one played with a bow, are noteworthy. 12i OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 10. Music in Peru and Mexico. Although these nations were widely distant from the Oriental countries under dis- cussion, it is interesting to note that musical systems were found to exist in both localities when they were first opened to European civilization. These systems were, however, widely different in character: for while that of Peru was idyllic and pastoral, that of Mexico was blatant and bar- barous. In Peru the flute was the most popular instrument, and melodies were divided among a group of -four flutists, each of whom sounded the notes belonging to a quarter of the complete scale. The barbaric pomp delighted in by the Mexicans resulted in producing strongly rhythmic music, voiced by numerous instruments of percussion, like bells and rattles, and accompanied by dancing. Music was also the subject of religious fanaticism to such an extent that, at an annual festival, a youth was sacrificed to the god of music. Section 2 SYSTEMS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED OTJES INDIRECTLY 11. Music in Persia and Arabia. There is little actual knowledge of the ancient Persian system, but, since n^any of' its characteristics were undoubtedly transmitted to Arabian music after the Mohammedan conquest of Persia about 700 A.D., we are able to judge something of its nature from the study of the music of the Arabs. The well-known mathe- matical propensities of the latter people were applied to the structure of the scale, resulting in a very perfect division of the octave into seventeen equal parts, each consisting of one-third of a tone. Thirty-four scales were formed from the notes thus derived, of which twelve were principal ; and the minute intervals were employed in the prevalent chant-like melodies, which were dreamy ahd voluptuous in character, with the peculiarity of alternating duple and triple metre. Such an appreciation of very small musical intervals OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 18 would seem to point toward the existence of delicately adjusted instruments ; and of these the Arabs hg;d a great Ar'abian Song. number, chiefly of the string type. The Lvte, a mandolin- shaped instrument made in different sizes, with varying length of neck, and played upon by plucking its strings with an eagle's quill or steel plectrum, was especially popular, embracing thirty-two varieties, which possessed from four to fourteen strings. There were also many kinds of Dulcimers, table instruments struck with hammers ; and Lyres, upright instruments with two branching arms, the strings of which were plucked by the fingers. , Of a number of menibers of the viol family, the strings of which were -plave^ by a bow, -the Bebaof & two- ( stringed violin, was a direct ancestor of our violin. It was chiefly through these instruments that Ara- bian music filially came to have important effects upon our own ; for when the Arabs, under the influence of Mohammedanism, overran Egypt, North Africa, Turkey, and Spain, about the year 700 a. d., they carried with them their musical institutions, which later on, especially through the Crusades,yCame into contact with European civilization. Since, also, Mahomet disapproved of music in connection Playing the Rebab 14 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY "with religion, the Arabian music was largely used for social diversion, and hence affected European music principally on the secular side. 12. Music in Egypt. As is the case with other Egyptian institutions, music was very ancient in its origin, antedating Men and Women Singing to the Lyre, Double-pipe, and Harp 3000 B.C., and was intimately connected with religion and through this with astronomy. There were many stages of development, which culmi- nated in the Golden Age, 1&00-1200 B.c.,when music \\&s employed as a social diversion and as an adjunct of religion, and was placed in the hands of carefully trained professional danc- ers, players, and singers, who formed orchestras and choruses. National poetry, thus united with song, re- ferred to death, the frailty of human things, and the blessed future state. Af- Egyptian Harp OP Eleven Strings . ,, ^ ,t , ter the Orolden Age, music gradually degenerated, losing its individuality when Egypt was finally conquered by Persia in 525 B.C. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 15 ■ The data from which we have derived our only knowledge of Egyptian inusic have been gleaned from hieroglyphics, bas-reHefs, paintings, and remains of instruments ; and these show that stringed and wind instruments vastly predomi- nated. The national instrument was the Harp, which was Eablt Egyptian Horizontal Harp Playing the Shoulder Harp made in aU sizes, from the portable kinds to the magnifi- cently decorated and enormous temple harps, played upon only by men. The harps varied in number of strings up to twenty-three, and were always constructed without a sup- porting pillar in front. Other stringed instruments were lutes and lyres. Priestesses with Sistra A SiSTRTTM {Nine inches, high. Berlin Museum) The chief wind instruments were single and double pipes, and flutes; while for martial music there were trumpets,, drums, and the Sistrum, the last-named a horseshoe-shaped instrument with a handle, played upon by jangling the metal bars fastened across it. 16 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY From the structure of the instruments we. infer that the scale was diatonic ; and also, from the size of the orchestrasji in which women were allowed to take part, it is possible that some sort of harmony existed. In these orchestras, which were always represented as having a, leader, stringed instru- ments preponderated. 13. Music in Assyria. An equally ancient system existed here, the outcome of the culture of Babylon, which city, dating from 3000 B.C., was merged in the Assyrian Empire DtTLCIMEK AsOR DoOBLB-PlPiS about 1300 B.C. At Nineveh, resplendent in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., the warlike character of the people was reflected in their instruments, which, though similar to those of Egypt, were yet constructed so that they might be strapped to the body, and thus carried in processions. Procession op Assyrian Musicians (From the ruins of Ninevah) The most popular of these was the Dulcimer, shaped like a zither, played by little hammers held in the hands, and made OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 17 in both horizontal and vertical form ; while other instruments were portable harps, lutes, double pipes, trumpets, drums, tambourines, etc. Many instruments of percussion were in use, and all the music was high-pitched and shrill ; indeed, the women are represented on monuments as pinching their throats to produce the desired high tones. Section 3 SYSTEMS WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED OITES DIRECTLY 14. Music in Palestine. The Hebrews probably derived their music from Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria ; but though they adopted the instruments of those nations, and them- selves contributed little to music on its artistic side, they yet exalted it infinitely, regarding it as a direct means of Ancient Hebrew Tone. ^ f^^^^ E^i^^ ^^r-f^^ ^^^ E ^ ^^""1 ^^ =^ ^^^ ^ =^^^=^^^^ communication with God. After the founding of the mon- archy, cir. 1050 B.C., music was much used by the prophets, who regarded it as necessary to inspiration, uttering their words of wisdom to the sound of " cithars, harps, and timbrels " ; and music acquired a prominent place in the temple, where it was performed by large choirs which were accompanied by instruments of a harsh and shrill character. At first men alone were allowed in these choirs, but after- wards women also were admitted, and sometimes dancing was joined to the music. Under Solomon the height of magnificence was reached, and the enormous number of four thousand musicians was provided by the Levites to assist in the service. In the reign of the succeeding kings, how- ever, music lost much of its lofty character through the introduction of secular bands. 18 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY It is probable that the melodies were of limited compass, much embellished, and sung in unison. The most inter- esting feature of the Hebrew singing, however, came from / Ithe rendition of the parallel couplets into which most of ( the Hebrew poetry is grouped, and which form a series of balancing phrases. Thus in Psalm 24 : — a. The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof ; 6. The world, and they that dwell therein. a. For he hath founded it upon the seas, b. And established it upon the floods. a. Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord ? 6. Or who shall stand in his holy place ? etc. These responsive verses were probably sung in turn by the two sides of the choir, or by the choir answering a leader ; and this antiphonal singing afterwards took a prominent place in Christian worship. Three, FrvE, and six stringed Lyres oh Kinnors (From Hebrew copper coins, British Museum) There are many records in the Bible of the use of music. Its invention is ascribed, in Genesis, chapter 4, verse 21, to Jubal, inventor of stringed and wind instruments. Trumpets, made of silver or horn, figure prominently in religious functions, and are headed by the Shofar, a horn trumpet used to call the congregation together. Moses directed the manufacture of two immense silver trumpets to be used as signals ; and in Joshua, chapter 6, verse 20, the walls of the enemy's city fall at the sound of the trumpets blown by seven priests. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 19 Of stringed instruments the principal were the Kinnor, translated harp but probably a form of lyre, upon which The supposed Hebrew Lyre, or Kinnok Sbofars used in Jewish Synagogues David played before Saul; the Ifebel or psaltery, a square table instrument, the strings of which were plucked by the fingers ; and the Asor, an oblong psaltery. Besides these, Egyptian instruments of rhythm, and flutes were employed, although it is a notable fact that drums were wholly absent. 15. Music in Greece. Much importance was attached to music in Greece, and its nature and uses were made the object of study by the most profound philosophers ; yet for several reasons music did not develop at all proportionately to the other arts. One of these reasons was the Greek predilection for the visual arts, which voiced itself in the beauty of line and the symmetrical proportions of plastic productions. Another was the fact that, while occasional supporting chords might have been used with melodies, the Greeks never arrived at a logical system of harmonic combinations, with the result that music was severely limited in its scope. Partly on this account, also, music never attained an in- dependent existence, but was rigidly subject to poetry, as was painting to architecture. But with all its limitations, Greek music had a considerable influence on our own ; both directly, 20 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY transplanted to our system through the work of the early Christians, and indirectly, in the study of Greek ideals which has been active at various periods. Notwithstanding the many ancient writings on the sub- ject of Greek music, however, our knowledge of it is extremely vague ; since many of these accounts, written at different periods, seriously conflict, and also since many of them are rather theoretical than practical. Very few authen- tic fragments of Greek music are extant, and the inter- pretation of these, even, is the subject of much controversy. 16. Periods of Greek Music. In considering the entire history of Greek music it is convenient to divide it into three periods. The first of these, extending from 1000 B.C. to 660 B.C., is largely mythical, and is valuable only in showing the general status of the art. The power of music at this time is con- sidered immense, as is shown by the story of Orpheus, who attracted rocks and stones by his playing, and of Amphion, who built Thebes to the sound of his lyre. The lyre, in- vented by Hermes, afterwards becomes an attribute of Apollo, who flays alive Marsyas, the flute player, for daring to contest with him musical supremacy. Homer (cir. 950 B.C.) asserted that music could arouse the deepest emotions ; and heroic poetry was recited by the bards to the accompaniment of the lyre, ^he Pythian games, also, founded about 1000 B.C., introduced musical contests as an important feature. Anacreontic Song. {From a gravestone of the first centuri/ A .Z).) While thou liv'at show thyself glad, Bor - row not, nor yield to care, For all too soon Life's hours are spent. And thou must yield to re - lentless Death. The second period, extending to the Macedonian conquest, 338 B.C., was begun by the impetus given to music through OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 21 the opening of intercourse with Egypt, in G60 B.C., and was marked by the union of music and poetry with instrumental accompaniment. The first important musician of the epoch was Terpander, the Spartan, who increased the four strings of the lyre to seven, improved notation, and founded the Lesbian school, which included the musician Avion, and the poets Alcceus and Sappho. Arion, to whom is attributed the invention of the dithyramb, or Bacchanalian song, was the subject of a mythical tale in which his music caused the dolphins to save him from drowning. Pythagoras (d. about 500 B.C.), a noted theorist and philosopher, added an eighth string to the lyre, and investigated musical intervals by, the aid of a one-stringed instrument called the monochord,' as a result of which he systematized the scales, making the octave to consist of the union of a perfect fifth and a perfect, fourth. Sappho and ALCyBDS {Alma^Tadema) The most important use of music during this epoch, how- ever, was in connection with that outgrowth of the Bacchic festivals known as the Attic drama, which, with Sophocles, ^schylus, Euripides, and the comic writer Aristophanes as leaders, flourished in the fifth century B.C. during the golden 22 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY age of Attic supremacy. While all the dialogue may have been musically intoned, the chief use of music was in con- nection with the chorus, which, varying in numbers, sung while marching or dancing around the altar, to an accom- paniment of lyres and flutes, commenting, meanwhile upon the action of the play. Tisias (640-556 B.C.), a noted chorus director, Was the originator of chorus forms which after- wards came into conventional use, and which ultimately gave rise to laws still retained in connection with poetry: — the strophe, or turning towards the altar, the antistroph-e, or turning in the opposite direction, and the epode, sung after these motions. It was considered an honor to belong to this chorus, whose numbers were recruited from the best families, and whose leader was also a man of distinction. The philosophers Plato (d. 347 B.C.) and Aristotle (d. 322 B.C.) exalted the aesthetic, in opposition to the scientific view of music held by Pythagoras, proclaiming its moral influence over youth; and Aristoxenus, pupil of Aristotle, left an important musical treatise on the latter's doctrines. Late in this period Asiatic characteristics appeared in the enlargement and varied makeup of instruments, and in the rise of instrumental virtuosi. The third period, extending to the Roman conquest, 146 B.C., developed a degenerated taste for virtuosity. A number of serious writers, however, left musical treatises, among whom were Euclid, Alypius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Ptolemy, and Nichomachus. 17. Greek Modes. The original Greek scales, or modes, as they were called, were all constructed within the compass of a perfect fourth, the primary interval fixed by Pythagoras. Each mode consisted of four notes, corresponding to the original four strings of the lyre ; and the difference between these modes lay in the arrangement of their intervals, since only the highest and lowest notes were always the same distance apart, and in the pitch of this perfect fourth OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 23 within which they were comprised. Modes were thought of as extending downward ; and they were of three kinds, the diatonic, composed of tones and half-tones, the chromatic, of two half-tones plus an interval of a tone and a half, and the enharmonic, of two quarter-tones plus an interval of two whole tones. The diatonic modes were the most impoilant, while the two other kinds were frowned upon by the purists ; and each of the diatonic modes was supposed to possess distinctive attributes, such as the Dorian, manliness, and the Lydian, inspiration. The principal diatonic scales were seven in number, namely the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixo-Lydian, Hypo-Dorian, Hypo-Phrygian, and Hypo- Lydian; and there were also combinations of tetrachords into the Lesser Perfect system, extending an octave and a half, and the Greater Perfect system, extending for two octaves. , For notation the Greeks used letters, placed in different positions, to denote the pitch but not the character of sounds. 18. Greek Instruments. The Greeks were especially fond of stringed instruments, which were not fretted or played with a bow. A number of varieties were grouped under the general term of Lyre, aU developments from the original construction of a tortoise shell with two branching horns, having also a cross piece to which the strings were attached. The strings varied in number from an original three to ten or even more, in the later period. Lyres were carried strapped over the right shoulder, and were Greek Lyre, played either by the fingers or by a plectrum. ob Chelys The Cithara was an important variety of the lyre, more heavily built than the ordinary forms, however, and with wooden sides. The Trigon, or three-cornered instrument which took the place of the harp, and the Magadis, of which the strings were so divided that the upper part of them J JJ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 26 Syrinx or Pan's pipe sounded an octave lower than the lower part, were later forms. From the latter instrument came the term to "magadize," or to sing with the voices an octave apart. Wind instruments were the Aulas, or long flute, the small single and double flutes, and the Syrinx, or Pan's pipe, — the last named a mouth organ consist- ing of seven reed pipes bound together, each giving a different note of the scale. Percussion instruments were few in number, and of small size, including chiefly forms of tambourines and cymbals; and ferumpets were also employed. 19. Music in Italy. The Etruscaus were the earliest people of Italy to cultivate art, which they adopted from the Greeks of Asia Minor. Of Greek instruments, the flutes,, single and double, were especially in vogue, figuring at sacrifices, funerals, and feasts, as early as 167 B.C. The Romans, whose genius was prac- 1 tical rather than ideal, early borrowed Grecian instruments; and after the Roman conquests, and the establishment of the Empire, all kinds of alien music were introduced. Dionysian troupes of actors came from Greece, pantomimists from Egypt ; while large and blatant orchestras were organized. Trumpets, introduced by the Lydians, 'especially attracted Roman martial spirit, and were constructed in many forms. Roman emperors affected art, notably Nero (r. 64-68 a.d.), in whose reign the organ. Pebpoemers on the Tuba and buccina (From Trajan's PiUar) 26 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY invented in the third century B.C. in Greece, from the Pan's pipe, became popular. In these " hydraulic organs " wind was forced into the pipes by means of water pressure. Thus the Romans performed for music a service similar to that which they did for other arts ; namely, while contrib- uting little that was original, they yet disseminated broad- cast musical ideas hitherto peculiar to individual nations. A Roman who especially contributed to this result was the theorist Boethius, who improved tuning and notation, and laid down rules in his " Art of Music " which sought to reconcile the science of Pythagoras with the sestheticism of Plato and Aristotle. His book had wide influence, and was regarded as an authorized guide for tiomposers up to the sixteenth century. StrMMABY Of the beginnings of music we know little, save that it is probably as old as speech itself, that scales were built up slowly, and that instruments resolved themselves into three principal types. Of systems little connected with our own the most im- portant are found in China and nearby nations, and in India. The music in India is of a higher type than that in China, evidenced by the predominance of stringed instruments, and by the fact that, while the Chinese music is used merely for speculation or diversion, that of India is highly poetic. Both systems, however, are fettered by conventionality. Arabian music, which absorbed also that of Persia, indi- rectly affected our own system through Mohammedan con- quests, and then chiefly on the instrumental side. Egyptian and Assyrian music, involving many stringed instruments, of which the harp in Egypt and the dulcimer in Assjnia were highly developed, reacted on Greek and HelJrew music, and through them upon our own. In close touch with our system were Hebrew music, with its energy and spiritual significance; Greek music, which OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 27 allied rhythm and melody, fixed the tetrachordal scale system, and exalted the function of music through the investigations and writings of philosophers ; and Roman music, which chiefly made known to the world the results of individual systems. READING LIST Section 1 Parry, Evolution of the Art of Music, chaps. 1-3. RowBOTHAM, History of Music. Introduction ; bk. 1, chaps. 7-10 ; bk. 2, chap. 3. Wallaschek, Primitive Music. Naumann, History of Music, chap. 1. Baltzeli,, History of Music, lesson 1. Dickinson, Study of the History of Music, chap. 1. Boise, Music and its Masters, chaps. 1-2. Engel, National Music ; Engel, Ancient Music ; Engel, Musical Instru- ments. Section 2 Parry, Art of Music, chaps. 2, 3. Rowbotham, History, bk. 3, chap. 4 ; bk. 2, chaps. 1-2. Naumann, History, chaps. 2, 4. Baltzeix, History, lesson 2. Hermann Smith, The World's Earliest Music. Section 3 Parry, Art of Music, chap. 2. Rowbotham, History, bk. 2, chaps. 3, 7 ; bk. 3, chap. 1. Naumann, History, chaps. 3, 5, 6. Baltzell, History, lessons 2-4. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 2. Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, chap. 1. Stainer, The Music of the Bible. Boise, Music and its Masters, chap. 3. (Music of the Bible.) MuNRO, Modes of Ancient Greek Music. Chappeli., History of Music (especially for Greek music). CHAPTER II Medieval Music 20. Sources. During the Dark Ages, two sources contrib- uted toward the formation of our musical system. The first, the religious, developed in the ritual of the early church, and acquired form and substance chiefly by the labors of the monks, cut ofE from worldly matters in the seclusion of the cloisters. The second, the secular, developed from the spontaneous songs and dances of the people, disseminated by wandering minstrels. The chief distinction between these two styles lay in the variety of rhythm peculiar to each. The rhythm of church music was verbal, dependent solely upon the expression conveyed by the words themselves, which were thus made prominent over musical structure ; the rhythm of secular music was that of gesture, corresponding to the physical movements of the dance, and therefore con- sisting of a series of pulsations, regular in time, and grouped into short and balancing periods. These two sources were of necessity quite distinct during the Dark Ages, extending to the twelfth century; but later, the thought intercourse incited by the Crusades caused them to react upon each other. Section, 1 RELIGIOtrS MUSIC 21. Early Christian Music. The new ideas of Christianity, arising in the midst of the profligacy of Rome, gave impetus to a style of music removed as far as possible from that employed in the corrupt society of the times. Owing to severe persecutions, notably by Nero, about 64 a.d., and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 29 Diocletian, about 303 a.d. , the adherents of the new tenets were obliged to cover up all traces of their acts ; and there- fore few records of their music are preserved. We know that it was purely vocal ; that it was spiritual and elevated in character ; and that it was in the form of simple unison chants, to which the psalms were sung, probably antiphonaUy, as in the synagogues. As Christianity flourished especially in Asia Minor, many melodies must have had a Greek origin ; while Hebrew melodies were undoubtedly also transplanted into the church. That music was held in high esteem is witnessed by the honor paid to its patron Saint CecUia, who died about 230, and by the words of Saint Augustine, whol ascribed his conversion to Christianity to the influence off music. The spirit of Christianity, which centred the thought upon the joys of the future life, early voiced itself in hymns, of which the first known is by Clement of Alex- andria, who died about 220 a.d. Liturgical songs, like the Gloria and the Te Deum, began to be written also in the third century. 22. Establishment of B^tual. The dream of a Holy Catholic Church which had arisen in the second century was realized when Emperor Constantine (307-337) made Christianity the state religion. He and his mother erected magnificent churches, church government was centralized and solidified on the lines of the Roman constitution, and a service was elaborated, befitting the new status of Christianity. Con- gregational singing was curtailed, and finally abolished except for a few responses, by the Council of Laodicea, which about 367 decreed that music should be rendered by choirs alone. To supply these choirs, singing schools were established at Rome, whence teachers were sent to other countries, where they formed other schools. Under Charlemagne, important schools of this nature were located at Metz and Soissons. A liturgy, adequate for the demands of the sumptuous ser- vices, was worked out gradually, as to words and music. 30 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY about the time of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604). In this the Mass was made the central feature, and the focus of most elaborately prescribed music. 23. Eastern and Western Church. After the division of the Roman Empire, in 395, church history divides into that of the Eastern and Western Churches, though the final schism did not occur till the eleventh century. An important con- tribution of the Greek church was the multitude of striking 'and devout hymns, written in the course of the first thirteen centuries, but culminating about 800. Many of these, like the Glorias and the Magnificat, made their way into the services and private devotions of the Western church. Latin bymnody, equally important, flourished during the same period. Music in the Eastern church developed on similar lines with that in the Western, though it tended toward more Oriental ornamentation, and more diversity of style, owing to lack of central government. The history of our music system foUows, therefore, its progress in the Western church. 24. Plain Chant. The music adopted for the church ritual, probably founded upon the music used by the early Chris- tians, consisted of more or less elaborate melodies sung in unison, in the form of intonations, to be rendered by priest or choir, and for the performance of which rigid rules were laid down. The simplest of these were the eight chants or " tones " for the psalms, each of which contained a reciting note, on which most of the verse was delivered. Other melodies were either syllabic or florid; in either case the melody was absolutely dependent upon the words of the text. In the former case each syllable was sung to but one note ; in the latter, syllables were sometimes emphasized by various inflections of the voice, which, in certain places, as on the last syllable of Alleluia, were elaborated to the exteflt of a complete melody. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Early Hymn, Aeolian Mode, Syllabic. 31 ■m=f= ■&- -^ -&- -^-^ =^ tn ^ - r - -f^-g— ^ — 1 De - OB ere tor om - ni um Po- li - que reo - 1 4 tor yes - -«- ti — 1 - em Di - em de mi - ne Noc - tern bo - po - ria gra • ti - &. About the eighth century the custom arose of giving words to these ornamental notes, which the congregation were allowed to take up as a response. These responses were called Sequences, and, as a form of popular song, they multiplied greatly. The "Dies Irae" and the "Stabat Mater " are examples of these. Alleluia Expanded to a Sequence. Original : — Iiaudes Deo con-ci-net or-bia n - bi - que to - tua, qui gra - ti - la eat U-be-ra-tna. The entire process of intoning described above was called "Plain Chant," "Choral" or "Grego/ian Chant," from Gregory the Great, to whom its compilation was for a long time erroneously ascribed. "'^ 25. Gregorian Modes. The scales selected as basis for the Plain Chant were named "Gregorian Modes," also after Pope Gregory, and were modelled after the Greek modes, with which they were supposed, probably erroneously, to be identical. The original Authentic modes, four in number, were named respectively Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixo- Lydian. Later, to give greater compass, four Plagal modes were added, each a fourth below its corresponding Authentic, and these were named from the originals by prefixing the 32 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY word "Hypo." After 800, four other modes were adopted, but did not attain equal importance. Modes con- sisted of successions of whole and half tones, corresponding to intervals found in our major scale ; and in each mode the jinal, or starting note, and the dominant, or reciting note, re- ceived prominence. In the Authentics the finals were the lowest notes ; in the Plagals they were the fourth of each scale. The dominant was the fifth of each Authentic, and a third below that in its relative Plagal, except that B was always changed to C. In the following table the finals are in capitals, the dominants in italics, while connected letters show half tones : — Authentic Plagal I Dorian, D ef g o be d II Hypo-Dorian, a be D e/" g a III Phrygian, Ef g a be d e IV Hypo-Phrygian, be d Ef g a b V Lydian, F g a be d ef VI Hypo-Lydian, c d eF g a be VII Mixo-Lydian, G a be rf ef g VIII Hypo-Mixo-Lydian, d ef G a be d Table op Gregokian Modes. vxu OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 33' If the melody went to or above the sixth note above the final, the mode was Authentic ; otherwise it was Plagal. j Each note had especial emotional significance, though the lines thus drawn were not absolute ; thus, the Dorian was grave, the Hypo-Dorian mournful (both used in the " Dies Irae " ) ; the Phrygian was exulting, the Hypo-Phrygian har- monious (both used in the " Te Deum " ) ; the Lydian was gladdening, the Hypo-Lydian devout ; the Mixo- Lydian was angelic (in the " Gloria " ), the Hypo-Mixo-Lydian was sweet. 26. Neumes. Notation was originally by letters, as in the Greek system ; but in this, the use of the first fifteen letters of the alphabet (omitting J) was simplified by Boethius (par. 19) to a double use of A to G, in capitals for the lower octave, and small letters for the upper, while the latter were doubled (aa, bb, cc) for the still higher octave afterwards added. NEtlMES J JO !» /j • I ( / J / II J* J ill Letters fff efgfd d gg hg hi h kk lig cf Notation op XIII Century In the eighth century a system of so-called Neumes was invented, consisting of a number of graphic signs placed over words to suggest the trend of the melody. Especially im- portant were the virga ^, meaning a rising inflection of the Voice; the punctum ^, a downward; the podatus ^', down and then up ; the clivis / , up and down ; the torculus/, down, 3 34 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY up, down; the porrectus A', up, down, up; the scandicus -I , up three notes ; and the oUmacus /j5 , down three notes. From these, various combinations were formed, . denoting; more complicated, inflections. The need of more definiteness, however, led to the adoption of a red starting line, about 900, to which the initial sound letter was prefixed, to show the pitch of the note on the line. Next, a yellow line was also drawn, and afterward two black lines were added, completing the four-Hned staff, adequate for the compass of the Gregorian modes. Letters, stiU prefixed to indicate the pitch, afterwards became clef ot key signs. Neumea also took more definite shape for use on this staff, becoming generally square or lozenge in form, with stems, as follows: — virga f, punctum *, poddtua J, clivis Pi, torculus ■"■, porrectug y\7, scandicus I, cUmacus %^, and the like. 27. Guido d'Arezzo. A Benedictine monk of Arezzo named Guido (died cir. 1050) was prominent in these reforms, whence he is sometimes called the " father of music." In Hymn to St. John the Baptist. l^is treatise he describes inventions probably perfected by himself, though incited by former musicians. One such in- vention was that of solmisation, or the process of reading scales by the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, taken originally from Ijhe initial syllable,Si^of :,|he lines of an ancient hyrnn to. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 35 John the Baptist, which began on successively higher degrees of the scale. Guido divided the entire scale into seven interchangeable hexachords, or groups of six notes each, beginning a fourth apart. The lowest of these started with a foundational G, or G-amma, called Gamma ut, whence the name Gamut, afterward applied to the entire scale compass. To effect the proper sequence of intervals in these scales, which always required a semitone between the third and fourth notes, B was made a movable note, sometimes marked B rotundum (Bb, whence our flat), sometimes B quadratum (BB, whence our natural). Later the seventh note was fixed in the scale and took the syllable 8i, the first letters of thei words Saint lean, to whom the hymn was dedicated. The sys-j tem thus evolved was extremely complicated for the singers^ and for simplicity Guido used in his singing school a curious device, known as the Guidonian Hand, by which each finger^ joint represented certain syllables of the hexachords. , I 28. Organum. The first attempts at combining sound^ are involved in obscurity. A form of such union called the drone bass, in which one part sang a continuous bass not^ to another moving part, was of great antiquity ; and, owing'to the varied compass of voices, octave singing must always have existed where voices were used together. For the same Okganum Quadruplum. . , - ! reason, a habit of singing the lower voices below the upper at a distance of a fifth was practised certainly as early as the third century. This custom became recognized and formu^ lated by yarious musicians in the ninth and tenth centpriesi notably by Hucbald, a Flemish monk, and received the name of organum, or diaphony. According as two, three, four, 86 OUTLINES &P MUSIC HISTORY or, rarely, five parts were employed at distances of fifths or fourths below the original melody, it was denominated organum duplum, triplum, quadruplum, or quintuplum. 29. Discant. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the harshness and monotony of this primitive style was somewhat modified by the introduction of other intervals, called sym- _phonie8, and by the addition of some variety in respect to Example of Discant (Early twelfth century.) ^. „. ^. ^. S:- _ ff-^-^- %^ LJ_4 1 Ver-bum bo-niimet au ■> a - ve Per - so - ne - mua il - lud A re "■ "' "■ '■'■ ,j. ^. ,.. — ^ 4, 3 1 3 12 3 5, 4, S 3 rhythm. Taking a known melody, either religious or secular, as basis, or eantus firmus, the composer wrote an additional part to be sung with it, but differing in rhythm, and in- volving, besides fourths and fifths, unisons, octaves, and a few so-called dissonances. The name discant, or "singing apart," was given to this process, and the additional melody was called the discanting part. 30. Counterpoint. The more definite assertion of the im- portant principle of contrast naturally followed. It was discovered that a melody which was opposed note against Old Italian Canon. OUTLINES OF MUSfC HISTORY 37 note to the oantus offered great possibilities for the develop- ment of this principle ; and musicians eagerly attacked the new problems thus presented. Thus, after 1200, the new science of Counterpoint (^punctum contra punctuni), asitcame to be called, grew rapidly, and the succeeding three centuries witnessed an unparalleled struggle over material which, from a formless and crude mass, was finally brought into a malleable and shapely condition. Beginning by adding a single melody to the given cantus, composers experimented with the conjunction of three, four, and sometimes many more parts, treating the work as an intellectual subtlety, in which the adherence to arbitrary rule was of paramount importance. A peculiar phase was reached when two famil- iar melodies were, so to speak, rubbed together, by modify- ing rhythms, and by making changes absolutely necessary to eliminate the harshest dissonances. To secure unity, the principle of repetition was hit upon. A phrase stated in the original voice was repeated in another, and from this device the form of the Canon emerged, in which one voice imitates another, note for note, at a given distance. 31. Musica Fxota. Singers themselves contributed not a little to the resources of the new science by experimenting on their own account. Prominent vocalists delighted in varying their parts, as written, by embellishments, or by extemporizing chromatic notes to soften the harsh effect of some of the intervals. This musica J?cte, " false music," as it was called, at first frowned upon by composers, i finally made its way into authorized usage, and resulted in smoother Use in both triple and duple metre. 38 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY writing for voices, as well as in the employment of acci- dentals, thus paving the way for modulation. 32. mensural Notation. With part-writing came the necessity for expressing time values in notation, and to Franco of Cologne, a noted musician at the beginning of the twelfth century, is credited the invention of a vehicle for this purpose. It is certain that about his time a system of notes came into use modelled after the neumes, but expressing time values. These were : — ■I duplex longa, or maxima ■ brevis ^ longa perfecta * semi-brevis A difficulty which complicated mensural notation for a long time was the regulation of note values to allow their At first a maxima equalled three longae in triple time, and two longae in duple time, with propor- tional uses of the other notes ; and it was much later before the device of the dot was invented. The sign of a circle Q placed at the begin- ning of the staff indi- cated perfect or triple time, regarded as a symbol of the Holy Trinity ; while a broken circle Q indi- cated imperfect or duple time. A line of diminution drawn through the circle reduced the measure one-half its value. About the end of the fourteenth century a system of white notes came into use, simultaneously with the five- lined staff, and modelled after the black notes ; while, for Clefs XIII Cent. XV Cent. XVII Cent. XIX Cent. C clef ■ F clef G clef C C 1? Dbvei/Opmbnt op the Clefs OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 39 the shortest notes, the lozenge-shaped black notes, with additional stems, were retained, as follows : — •^ maxima semi-brevis - c] longa ^ minim Q brevis 1 semi-minim ^ fusa Red notes were also in use, although their exact character is disputed. Accidentals were soon employed, though bars and braces did not exist tiU 1600. The influence of the neumes was shown in the complicated ligatures, which were still employed for groups of notes, to represent voice- inflections. Eakly Notation Transition MOdekn Notation Nbumeb VIII Cent. XIII Cent. x Ce V at. XVII Cent. XIX Centuiy Functnm - ^ ■ ■ o o Whole note . Virga / 7 1 1 t r Half note Podatus _/ ^ a r J' Quarter note Quarter rest Clivis 7 \ r^ y > Eighth rest Torculus V J^ A m m Grouped eighth notes ForrectuB N 1^ f^ : ~ m Scandicus J W J" ■■ .- ■ ' \\.. Climacua * A ;•. % « f V — '. Eighth ' note The Development op Notation 40 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 2 SECULAR MUSIC 33. Polk Music. Songs and dances, characteristic of different nationalities, existed from a remote period. The origin of most of these is lost in obscurity. Many were very ancient ; some were derived from church music, while others were invented bj' minstrels in the Middle Ages. From their frequent combination with dancing, strong rhythms were prevalent; and from their adaptation to simple strophic forms of poetry, simple metric forms resulted. A great variety of instruments, used as accom- paniment to solo voices, gave rise to modern tonalities, and harmonies in which the pleasanter intervals of the third and sixth were freely emploj'ed. While all countries contributed their share of folk-music, that of Germany and France attained especial importance. In the former country it was characterized by conciseness of form and absence of embellishment ; while in the latter it furnished themes for the contrapuntal schools which appeared in the Netherlands. 34. The Minstrels. In the Middle Ages there were two classes of Minstrels. Those of the first, called Bards, were found chiefly in the northern countries, where they encour- aged patriotism by their recital of heroic deeds. Those of the second class comprised a vast number of itinerant musi- cians who roamed over Europe, earning a precarious liveli- hood, performing tricks in addition to their music, and exhibiting trained animals at fairs and village festivals. At first they were treated as outcasts of church and society, outside the pale of the laws ; but, after their ranks had been largely recruited as a result of the Crueades, it was found necessary to enact restraining laws concerning theqi. They also came eventually to be employed to some extent OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 41 by the church, in its Miracle plays. In France, where they were especially numerous, they were called Jongleurs. Flocking to the cities, in the thirteenth century, minstrels frequently formed guilds, similar to those of other trades, which controlled the standards and actions of their members. Such guilds arose in France, England, and Ger- many, where some of them survived until quite recent times. Names like " Town Pipers " were given them ; and the leader of a guild was called "Piper King," "Violin King," and the like. Minstrels who did not join these guilds entered military bands or private orchestras. 35. Troubadours and Trouvdres. The Age of Chivalry, which began in the twelfth century as an offshoot of the Crusades, resulted in France in the affectation of the ro- mantic manners of Provence. With the study of the Rondeau by Adam de la Hale. ^S ^ m Tant com N*a trui Que 42 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Proven9al customs and language came a taste for its poetry and music, and the consequent formation of a class of courtly jpoets and musicians, who travelled about, serenading their dames with their original compositions, assisted by" hired Jongleurs, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the south of Francei these were called Trovr badours, as also in Italy and Spain J in the north of France they were called Trouveres. Prominent among them were William, Count of Poitiers; Richard I. of England; Thibaut, King of Navarre ; and, especially, Ad'amde la Hale (d. cir. 1287). Their simple rhymed stanzas of amorous po- etry, wedded to corresponding music, were in the forms of the chanson, sere-: nade,pastorellel tenson, and the like, all writ- ten in the church modes, although in a clarified style. f^=^ tunOMTgi)tcnrnion Notation op French Trouveres Unaffected at first, these songs afterwards degenerated through extravagance of language. Soup of them, pene- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 48 trating to the lower classes, became the nucleus ! of fdlfc-/ songs ; others became the basis of church compositions. ' 36. Minnesinger. These "love singers" carried pn a movement in Germany, and especially in Suabia and Aus- , tria, parallel to that of the Troubadours, although they wrote / in a more serious style, and with a wider range of topics,/ A MiNNELiED. (Broken Faith.) Poetry by Heinrich von Morungen. Melody by Prince Witzlav. ^p With deep feeling , -==c^ /_ Fool - ish Bpi - lit, wilt thou ne - ver wea - ry Of tfaiB mad love that p ritard„^ fO hath 80 long de - lud - ed ? Sad and moum-lul 1 must part for • li - lies, red as ro ses, Stood be - fore me, ra - diant as , the sun-shine : Oh, wound-ed heart, Must thou for - e - ver Bor - row ? ' which included Chivalry, Patriotism, Piety, and Nature. Many men of rank were among them, as also some of hum- bler birth, while Jongleurs were less often employed. ; Their compositions, written in the Gregorian modes, all showed «'the simple heaijtiness of the German character.'' The 44 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY principal forms of composition were the lay, song {Lied), and the proverb. The "tone" of a song was synonymous with our word metre. In the twelfth century, KUrenherger, von Aist, and Spervogel were chief; in the thirteenth century, the "per- fection period of courtly poetry," were Wolfram von Esehenhach, Walther von der Vogelweide, Prince Witzlav, and Heinrieh von Meissen. The last named (d. 1318), called "Frauenlob," is a connecting link to the Meistersinger. 37. Meistersinger. An outcome of the work of the Minnesinger was the cultivation of highly conven- tionalized song- writing by the guilds of artisan musicians. The first of these was founded at Mayence in 1300; thence they spread to many other pities. These guilds were incorporated, and admis- sion through apprenticeship led to the grades of singer and mastersinger, for which candidates were judged at peri- odic contests held in churches, when their compositions were tested in public as to their conformity to scripture, their rhythm and rhyme, and their originality and conventionahty. These compositions, largely religious, were stilted and pro- saic, and the melodies received eccentric titles, like "The jGlutton," " Maidenly Grace." ffans Sachs of Nuremberg (1494-1576) was the most famous Meistersinger. Reinmar, the Minne- singer (From a MS., XlII Century) 38. Secular Instruments. Many Oriental instruments, im- ported by the Crusaders, were added to the list of those already existing, and were used for accompaniments to the songs and dances. A process of selection extending through several centuries resulted in the survival and perfection of OUTLINES OF MUS^TC HISTORY 45 those chosen for our modern orchestra. Stringed instru- ments were of two types, — those plucked or struck, and those bowed. Of the first class were the harps, guitars, psalteries, and lutes, of which the last named became espe- cially popular, and were made in many varieties of sizes and shapes ; also under this class were the keyed-stringed instru- ments, known as claviers (par. 65), which were later in de- velopment. Of the second class were the many forms of the viol, the predecessor of the modern violin family (par. 86), for which the Arabian Bebab and the Welsh Crwth probably served as progenitors. Many kinds of pipes were popular, including those of the reed and whistle types, while trumpets and horns served for martial purposes. Instruments of per- cussion were not numerous. 39. Tablatures. With the increased compass of instru- ments an enlargement of the scheme of notation became Italian Lute Tablature. ^^N^^^i^^i^g J J ;/////;;/ J J Translation : — necessary, and this gave rise to systems of tablatures, adapted to individual kinds of instruments. The lute tablature, for instance, represented the strings of the instrument by lines, on which letters designated the positions of the fingers for the production of the required tone. 4& OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Summary Early Christian music, systematized for use in the churcl ritual, developed into the Gregorian chant style, based upon the Gregorian modes, supposedly of Greek origin. In this process of intonation the rhythm was subsidiary to verba] expression ; at first syllabic, it afterwards became florid. , Notation by neumes was made more definite by the inven- tion of the four-lined staff, yet time values were not at first expressed. The crude harmony of the organum, very ancient in origin, became the object of attention after the , ninth century. Enlp,rged in application it was called diseant, and in the thirteenth century the name counterpoint was given, on account of the increased interest in the opposition of melodips. J . ,.; This: new §tyle was cultivated vigorously, apd to the fifteenth century its technique was worked out by many experimenters. Mensural notation became necessary, and though at first clumsy, it yet marked a decided advance. Singers aided smoothness in writing by their extemporiza- tions.' I A form basis was invented in the canon, based upon imitation. Secular music was meanwhile working along the lines of simple rhythmic forms. The folk-songs and dances, em- ployed and added to by the minstrels, were further augmented by movements aihong the upper classes, especially in France and Germany. Music guilds exerted a controlling influence over professional musicians. Instruments were in great variety, and formed the prototypes of modern developments. , : ; '. "" READING LIST '■■'■ •■ "•■''.';-'■'■ • ' Section 1 Pabrt, Art of Music, chaps. 4, 5.. u .i . EowBOTHAM, History, bk. 3, chaps. 2, 3 ; bk. 4, chaps. 1-3. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY J^l Baltzell, History, lessons 5, 6, 8. Hendkrson, How Music Developed, chaps. 1-3. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 3-6. Oxford History of Music, vols. 1 and 2. Uelmore, Plain-Song. Williams, 'I'he Story of Notation. Grove's Dictionary, articles on ModeS, Notation, Plain-Song, etc Section 2 Parry, Art of Music, chap. 4. RowBOTHAM, History, bk. 4, chap. 2. Naumann, History, chap. 8. Baltzell, History, lessons 7, 15. / Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 6. Engel, Musical Instruments ; National Music. CuoRLEY, National Music of the World. Grove's Dictionary, article on Tablature. CHAPTER m The Epoch of Vocal Counterpoint 40. Characteristics. This period lasted till about 1600. Music, employed chiefly to reflect the spiritual state of the multitude, was of the impersonal and idealistic character that distinguished other branches of Pre-Raphaelite art. The rapid growth of composition before 1400 developed resources which succeeding composers employed for genuine expression, in connection with the different aspects assumed by religion, and with secular choral work. In the Catholic Church various styles of music resulted, while in the Prot- estant movements forms of music were adapted to the special needs. Section 1 THE CONTKAPTTNTAL SCHOOLS 41. Music Schools. By a school of music is meant a distinctive style, worked out by a group of composers. Such schools are formed sometimes by favorable national conditions, sometimes by the transcendent genius of a single leader, and sometimes by a combination of both these causes. The first cause was chiefly responsible for the develop- ment of the contrapuntal schools, which were the outgrowth of activity in the art centres of civilization. Starting from Paris, they spread northward to the Netherlands, and their disciples thence migrated over Europe. Meanwhile dry and awkward musical attempts were transformed into living, colored, and expressive organisms. 42. The Paris School. In Paris the period of enthusiasm for Gothic architecture witnessed a similar zeal in the OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 49 study of Counterpoint, an art kindred in its assertion of unity from manifold details. The music school thus formed, headed by the organists of Notre Dame, accom- plished important results in the improvement of mensural notation, the development of imitation and its use in the canon, the invention of double or ^^ reversible" counterpoint, and facility in organ playing. A form of writing was also Faux-Bourdon. CantuB &e. [m '^ 9Z \ ^ De - us ni - um- Po - li - que rec - tor, ves - ti - ena employed called faux-bourdon, similar to the organum, but in which the voices moved in the pleasanter intervals of thirds and sixths. 43. Composers and their Works. In the schools established at Paris and Toumai the study of the theoretical and eccle- siastical sides of music was carried on. Composersj at first solely members of the clergy, afterwards included profes- sional musicians of culture and attainments. In the twelfth century, Leonin and Perotin were chief; in the thirteenth, Jean de Garlande, Franco of Paris, Philippe de Viiry, Jean Composition by Perotin, showing canonic imitation. 60 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY de Meurs, Guillaume de Machaut, attained renown. Masses were the chief form of religious composition. The motet, d kind of contrapuntal anthem with different words for each voice part, was written in both religious and secular forms^ The rondeau and conduit were secular forms of clear and simple structure, in which the same words were sung simul- taneously by all voices. The number of voice parts varied from two to four. 44. Netherland Musicians. The scene of musical activity gradually moved northward, finally focusing in the Neth- erlands. While the Paris school was self-centred and con- ventional, pupils from the Netherlands carried hpme its accomplishments, enlarged upon them, and, in accordance with the commercial spirit then rife, spread them abroad, becoming apostles to all civilized countries. Thus, during several centuries, Netherland musicians occupied leading posi- tions throughout Europe as performers, teachers, composers, and founders of national schools. 45. Gallo-Belgio School. The forerunner of the Nether- land school proper was one established in thfe region em- bracing the north of France and the south of Belgium, and which existed from 1360 to 1460. While its clever musicians invented no strictly new forms, they did much ' toward securing naturalness and fluency in the use of former material, amehorating the use of crude progressions, like consecutive fifths. Facility and variety were especially OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 61. gained in the use of imitation. Voices were made to enter successively, imitation was placed at varying intervals,; melodies were altered in imitation by lengthening or short- ening the component notes, reversing their order, or invert: ing the progressions. The practice arose of using the melodies of popular songs, of which the " Armed Man "' was especially frequent, as cantus for masses ; and this even extended to the point at which the original secular words were sung to the cantus, while the Latin was retained in the other parts. 46. Composers. Details are meagre in regard to these. The father of the school was Q-uillermus Dufay (about 1400- 1474), at one time singer in the Papal Chapel at Rome, DuFAY. Secular Song. ent bien toa boU P tan - tost bien toa lona ent au may bien toa A • lona ent afterwards a priest and organist at Cambrai. Others were| Binchoia and Busnois. While their most pretentious worksl were in the form of the mass, a number of the secular 52 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY part-songs which have come down to us are especially interesting on account of their clear and unaffected style. 47. Netberlana School. This school, which lasted till 1625, carried on the work of the GaUo-Belgic School, attain- ing the acme of technical facility in the use of contrapuntal devices. Many composers gained their chief renown in for- eign lands ; later ones introduced the element of real ex- pression, which eventually supplanted the philosophical and problematical characteristics. Example op Pdzzlk Canon Fuge quatuor vocum ex unica. The founder, Johannes Okeghem (1434 ?-1496 ?), who spent the most of his life in the service of the French monarchs, raised counterpoint to a pitch of virtuosity : strange and impenetrable problems were evolved in his " puzzle canons," Benediotds from Mass by Okeghem. $ ^ w j-j J u ^^u .nj j J J p '_ _ _ _ t ' 9^ ^ ' — kr ' " I J. Jl ' - ^ is ^ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 53 purposely made mystifying in their directions for per- formance, for use in the secret guilds, who alone possessed the key to their solutions. Among Okeghem's followers in the fifteenth century were Hobrecht, organist of cathedrals at Utrecht and Antwerp; Brumel, musician to the Duke of Ferrara ; Tinctor, learned theorist ; and Josquin des Prh (1450 ?-1521), the most celebrated of Okeghem's pupils. Des Prfes was the first to infuse genuine expression into his music, clarifying and giving meaning to the work of his predecessors. He lived an active life, first as singer in the Papal choir, then at Ferrara, afterward at Paris, where he was chief singer to Louis XII. His latter days were spent in his Netherland home, where he was widely popular. Among his pupils were Gombert of Bruges, whose style was especially euphonioiis, and Jannequin, writer of descriptive and humorous pieces, later of settings of the psalms. 48. Oriandus Lassus (1533-1594). Lassus, the greatest composer of this school, was born *t Mons, trained as a singer at home, lived at Naples, and after- wards became chapelmaster to Duke Albert of Bavaria. As leader of the latter's celebrated choir he became far- famed as the "Prince of Musicians," receiving numerous honors. His last years were spent at Munich. He was a prolific writer, leaving twenty-five hundred compositions, which include the notable " Seven Penitential Psalms " for from two to six voices, masses, motets, a " Stabat Mater " for two choirs, passion music, and secular madrigals, canzonets, musical jokes, etc. All these are of especial worth, owing to their complete subjection of the technical to the natural, their vivid word painting, and the simplicity of their con- trapuntal style. Lassus 54 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Fragment or Magnificat, by Lassus. in bra chi $ ■ 49. Other Netherlanders. Jacob Vaet (d. 1567) lived in \\iQ service of the Emperor at "Vienna, where he wrote tnasterly but heavy choral works, notably a motet depicting the Judgment Day. Christian Hollander was a co-worker ^ith him. Others became identified with the Italian schools. jThe last member of the Netherland School was Sweelinck (1562-1621), who was a student at Venice but afterwards passed his days at his home in the Netherlands, where, as Organist and teacher, he perpetuated the best traditions, and laid the foundations for the style of Bach. 50. The Early Venetian School. The art activity of which Venice was the centre in the sixteenth century attracted many musicians, including prominent Netherlanders; and iinder the leadership of Adrian Willaert of Bruges (cir. 1480- 1562), a school was founded which introduced the same ele- ment of color into music that characterized the parallel school of paintiiig. This element was sought by the use of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 65 varied voice combinations, notably throngh two or more choirs; and. by the employment of instruments for religious] and secular purposes, both with voices and for independent work. Thus the Venetian school is said to have, given to instrumental music an independent basis. St. Mark's church, built in Byzantine style in the eleventh century, was the focal point for teachers and students from all lands, and the scene of the activity of a long line of distinguished organists. As organist here, Wniaert materially enriched the service by employing for the first time two and sometimes three choirs, each singing in four parts, and used both antiphonally and in combination. The idea of these choirs was probably suggested to him by the fact that St. Mark's possessed two fine and fully-equipped organs. Progressions of plain chords, and modern harmonic relations characterized his music. Many of his secular compositions were written in the form of the madrigal, which he is said to have invented, and which gained immediate popularity in all countries. This was a form of motet, with chivalric words, tuneful simplicity, gay and delicate sentiment. Willaert left many pupils, of whom Cyprian de Bore (d. 1565), his successor at St. Mark's, used many chromatic intervals and modulations, still further developing his style. Others were Zarlino (d. 1590), a celebrated theorist and advocate of " equal temperament " in the scales (par. 96) ; and Andrea Gabrieli (cir. 1610-1586), another organist of St. Mark's, who infused much noble sentiment into his works, which were frequently written for three choirs. The nephew of the last named, Giovanni Gahrieli (1667- 1613?), excelled in composition and organ playing at St. Mark's, and was the last of this early school. Both the Gabrielis sought rich and varied tone coloring, expressed by adding to voices an orchestra of stringed, bass, and wood instruments. Such church compositions were called " SyniphoniaB Sacrae." 56 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Many composers wrote secular compositions, madngala, villotas, villanellas, cansonettas, and dances with vocal accom- paniment called ballets or barcarolles, all of which show skill and grace in part- writing. 51. Later Venetian School. This, stiU grouped about the organists of St. Mark's, existed in the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries. In the midst of the frivolous "and artificial tendencies of the times it adhered to the lofty ideals of its predecessor, employing a more animated counterpoint, and a more expressive style. Chief composers were Legrenzi (cir. 1625-1690); his celebrated pupil Lotti (1667 ?-1740), a musician whose works were of great sincerity and grandeur ; and pupils of the latter. 52. The Roman School. Romans also became pupils of the Netherlanders, such as Dvfay, Des Pres, Arkadelt, and Dank- erts. Claude Goudimel, a Frenchman (1505?-1572) and an expert contrapuntist, founded a school of music at Rome which had many celebrated pupils. Turning Calvinist, he was a victim of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Among his pupils was Giovanni Pierluigi (1515?-1594), called Palestrina, from his birthplace, who was destined to make Rome a musical power, and to bring vocal counterpoint to the acme of perfection. Of peasant birth, he sang in a boy choir, and entered Goudimel's school. His proficiency as organist became so great that he was chosen to succeed Arkadelt at St. Peter's in 1551. Here he wrote a number of masses for four voices which he dedicated to Pope Julius III., who in return nominated him a member of the singers of the Sistine Chapel. In this ofSce he first incurred that jealousy of the clerics which pursued him throughout his life. Palestrina OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 57 The Council of Trent, which considered abuses in the church, decreed, in 1662, that the meaningless complications PoKTioN OF Magnificat, by Falestrina. if' - r t If "r^~r^ m ^m De - po - sa - it po • ten - tea de De - po su - it po - ten tea de ^ I, de - po - sa - it po - ten tea de se - de, et ex - al and degenerate style of singing in church music should be aboUshed ; and in accordance with the principles of simplicity- proposed, Palestrina wrote his three greatest masses, of which that dedicated to Pope Marcellus was of especial beauty, and won universal admiration. These masses^ two of which were written for soprano, alto, two tenors and 58 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY two basses, combine masterly counterpoint with a melodic beauty to which the element of imitation is entirely subor- dinated. Palestrina became chapelmaster at St. Peter's in 1571, where he wrote choruses for dramatic performances in the oratory of Santa Maria at VaUicella (par. 73). With Gr. M. Nanini he also founded a school of music at Rome which perpetuated for nearly a century the "Palestrina Style." This style, was in essence purely vocal, unsen- sational, undramatic, impersonal. Compared with that of other schools its structure was simple, plain chords pre- dominating ; but its pervading etherial nature required much subtlety in tonal effects, and much delicacy of rendition. Besides masses, Palestrina wrote passion music, motets, and other religious works. His madrigals, written in youth, he afterwards disowned. Among his successors were the two Naninis, and the last of mediaeval contrapuntists, Allegri and Foggia. Section 2 MUSIC IN THE PEOTESTANT CHURCHES 53. The Renaissance. This was a general thought- awaking under the stimulus of the Crusades. Its chief effect was the assertion of the individual in social relations, and the rupture of the bonds of convention and authority which had discouraged personal investigation. Beginning about 1300, this movement developed inventions, discov- eries, and new ideals in religion and art. Music was late in feeling its effects, and did not come fully under its domina- tion till the latter part of the sixteenth century. Then, however, musical compositions became disseminated, through the invention of printing by movable types, perfected by Petrueoi of Venice about 1500, and new styles developed, the most important of which were in connection with the Protestant movements. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 59 54. The Reformation. This revolution in religion started when Martin Luther, in 1517, posted the celebrated ninety- five theses in Wittenberg, defying the Pope; and when, three years later, he publicly burned the Pope's Bull of Excommunication, the rupture with the Roman Church became complete. Since Luther's intention, however, was not so much to subvert as to reform the old church service, he merely modified the form of worship to meet the new demands upon it, retaining many of its chief features. He asserted the inalienable right of the individual to communi- cate directly with God ; hence he caused much of the liturgy to be put into the vernacular, and arranged for the con- gregation to renew the custom which had prevailed in the early church, of singing hymns in the service. The tend- ency of the Church had been against this custom for many centuries; hence it became necessaiy to provide adequate music. For this purpose Luther sought the coSperation of leading musicians, and with them adapted the tunes of old German religious and secular folk-songs, together with some Gregorian melodies, to the new Protestant hymns, of which a supply rapidly appeared. A simple and dignified strophic form was thus elaborated, to which the name of Chorale was given, and this came to assume a place in the Lutheran church similar to that of the Gregorian Chant in the Roman. Passion Chorale, from St. Matthew, " O sacred head, now wounded." (O Haupt vol! Blut und Wunden.) 55. Rendition of Music. At first these chorales were sung in unaccompanied unison by the whole congregation ; but soon extra parts were written in the old contrapuntal 60 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY style, which were rendered by the choir, while the congre- gation sang the cantus in the tenor. The added parts, however, tended toward simplicity, so that plain chords became prominent, and, for convenience in harmonizing, the principal part was transferred to the soprano. The organ/ also acquired constantly greater prominence, and, after 1600, replaced the choir in rendering the additional choral parts, while instrumental interludes were often played between the verses. The mass, adapted to the new service, was at first still sung in Latin, though a "People's Mass" was later trans- lated by Luther. Choir anthems were also in motet form, in which, as cantus, chorale melodies were introduced. The chorale was also made the theme of separate organ selections, which were used as prelude or postlude. 56. Reformation Composers. Luther was himself a musi- cian of no mean ability, although it is probable that the settings of hymns formerly accredited to him were adapta- tions rather than original compositions; yet he thoroughly recognized the power of music in religion, and encouraged composers to write for the church. The most prominent of these was JoJiann Walther (1496-1670), who wrote musical settings for many hymns, forty-three of which appeared in the " Wittenberg Song Book." Heinrich Isaac (died about 1518), probably a pupil of Des Pr^s, was considered the foremost German musician of the day, writing church music and folk-songs. His pupil Ludwig Senfel (d. cir. 1555) wrote in solid contrapuntal style, and, though a Romanist, was highly esteemed by Luther. Heinrich Finck was another noted composer of songs and chorales. 57. Calvinism. The Swiss Reformation movement, begun by Zwingli about 1518, and completed at Geneva by Ccilvin (15p9-1564), adopted a style of music similar to that of the OUTLINES OF MUSIC, HISTORY 61 Luthe'rans, but laid special stress upon the singing of / metrical psalms. The iBrst metrical psalter, by the French poet Marot, was completed about 1564 by the historian Beza. 38. Early English Music. This was placed on a dignified plane by the foundation of a chair of music at Oxford in the i' ninth century, and from that time leading musical positions were occupied by graduates of the universities. It is prob- able that a well-developed school, based on the principles of the French composers, existed in the thirteenth century, but owing to the destructions of the civil wars but few traces of this remain. Chief musicians were Walter Odington (1180-' 1250) and John Dunstable (1400 ?-1453), both noted as theo-\ rists. Dunstable attained continental renown both as theorist and as composer. 59. Protestantism in England. The break with the Roman Church occurred here in 1534, when King Henry VIII was formally declared the head of the Church. Succeeding this, the Bible was translated into English, and the liturgy was translated and adapted, appearing in an authoritative form in the Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, under Edward VI. This liturgy called for three varieties of musical setting, namely, that for the portions intoned by the priests alone or in the form of responses ; that for the chanting of the psalms ; and that for the fixed anthems, or canticles, like the Te Deum, prescribed for the various services. Outside the liturgy were occasional anthems with words from Scripture or the Prayer Book, and congregational hymns. Gregorian melodies were at first pressed into use ; later, however, distinct styles arose, based on the harmonic forms. 60. Early Church Composers. Henry VIII (d. 1547) was himself a musician and composer ; and with him the Chapel Royal, established in the fifteenth century, was conducted on a lavish scale, employing many singers, and becoming the 62 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY field of labor of many distinguished organists. The united ettorts of a number of musicians were required to furnish music for the liturgy. Stone wrote a setting for the Litany in 1544, and J. Marbecke (1523-1581) adapted the intoning Beginning of a Motet, by Thomas Tallis. ii^ -^ S* — m — ^■ ^^ t ffiE O bo - ne le ^^^^^ ^ ^ O bo - ne le ^ i=t tj-fl bo ne le d-^^^^ ^ ^11 O bo - ne le and chanting to Gregorian melodies in 1550. Christopher Tye (1515-1572) and Thomas Tallis (1529 ?-1585) both wrote dignified settings for the choral portions of the ser- vice, in contrapuntal style. Tallis, the greatest of this group; was organist at the Chapel Royal, as was his pupil, 'William Byrd (1588?-1623), another celebrated composer ; and together they received from Queen Elizabeth the ex- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 63 elusive right to print music. Br. John Bull (1563-1628), organist at the Chapel Royal, and later at the Antwerp Cathedral, was re- nowned as player and composer ; while Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625) was the last member of this old contrapuntal school, i which relied chiefly upon vocal effects. 61. Secular Music. Folk-songs and dances were numerous throughout the British: Isles, the former often taking ^^ j^^,^ ^^^^ the ballad form, which recounted some deed or episode. Queen Elizabeth set the fashion of culti- vating secular music, and herself posed as performer on the Pa VANE, by William Byrd. 64 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY virginal. Madrigals were popular, many of which were written by Thomas Morley (d.,1604), a pupil and successor of Byrd at the Chapel Royal, and the writer of a treatise Instkuments op the Seventeenth Century (JPram a pnnt of the period) used for two hundred years as text-book. John JDowland (1562-1626) was noted as madrigalist and lute-player. The six-stringed lute was especially popular in fashionable societyi and concerted music in madrigal style was written for it, to which the name " Fancies " was given. The virginal was OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 65 especially a young ladies' instrument, and a volume of manuscript compositions known as " Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book" is still preserved at Cambridge. This includes short pieces by most of the composers of the day, either in dance form or in that of vaiiations upon popular airs, all of which are in contrapuntal style, differing little from organ works. Yttulatm tfjeurtparts ^ ^ f ff fWW From "Parthenia," the first English engraved Clavier Music, 1611 62. Puritanism. The Puritans in England, true to the principles of Calvinism, abjured aU but the most austerei unison and unaccompanied metrical psalm singing. Their influence was felt during Elizabeth's reign, but did not achieve its full results tiU the time of the Commonwealth (1649-1660), when aU churches were despoUed, and the progress of the art of music was effectually stemmed. The complete metrical psalms were first published in 1562, and in 1592 a psalm-book published by Thomas Uste contained tunes called by the names of places. Such tunes were plain in rhythm and cold, in melody, which was severely diatonic, with no decoration. Not till nearly the eighteenth century did hymns take on more warmth and color, and the modern cheerfulness of tone. 66 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 3 KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 63. The Organ. The invention of the organ in Greece, in the third century B.C., and the popularity of water organs in Nero's time, have already been mentioned (par. 19). The latter attained considerable excellence in construction ; but in the centuries immediately succeeding, the organ was lost sight of, and it was only in the eighth century, when the •; Eastern Emperor sent one to Charlemagne, that it again came into prominence. In the following centuries there was a general development in organ mechanism, although the present form was not reached till about 1600. Portative Organ Portative Organ (MetTopoliian Museum) Early organs were of three kinds: — the portatives, so small as to be easily carried about or held in the lap ; the positives, larger and heavier, sometimes established in churches, and sometimes so constructed that they might be wheeled about; and the great organs, large and powerful, built generally into the churches. The first two kinds had keyboards on the principle of ours, though exceedingly lim- ited, and designed to be played by the fingers. The posi- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 67 tive organs finally became attached to the great, becoming choir organs, and probably were originally used for choir accompaniment. Eakly Positive, showing bboad keys without semitones German Positive, XVI Century 64. Improvements in Organs. The great organs were at first very clumsy and noisy. The keys, originally six inches ■wide, and played by striking with the fists, were gradually narrowed, until the hand could span a fifth, and thence until the present dimensions were reached. The compass, origi- nally of twelve diatonic tones, was lengthened and filled in by the addition of chromatic notes, at first only in the middle register. Different sets of pipes, sounding different qualities and pitches of tone, were at first played only in unison, so that in some cases as many as forty pipes spoke together for each key struck ; but the introduction of sliding stops event- ually gave more adaptability. Before 1500 several manuals were employed, and pedals were added, with couplers. Fifteenth century organs had a compass of four octaves, — one " short," or lacking some notes, — with letters on the keys. The most difficult problems were in connection with the wind supply. Many pairs of bellows, blown either by 68 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY A XV Century Positive, showing short keys {From ifw painting by H. Van Eyck, at Ghent) OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 69 hand or by foot, were required, so that in some cases as many as seventy men were needed to blow a single organ. With the invention of the tvind-chest, however, the problem was somewhat simpUfied. The use of the great organ must at first have been very limited, as its strident tone unfitted it for choir accompaniment. Its chief function must have been / to give out the Gregorian tone before its vocal rendition. 65. Claviers. A number of instruments in which strings were set in vibration by means of keys, and called by the general name of claviers, came into use, first as substitutes Italian Clavichord, 1537 (Metropolitan Museum) Ebony naturals with ivory sharps. Compass, 45 notes (E to c^), obtained from 22 pairs of unison strings. The six lower notes are unfretted, bundfrei, the remainder fretted, gebunden, — two or three tangents striking the same pair of strings. for the organ, and employing the same music. Later, how- ever, they took on individuality, and became popular as social and domestic instruments. These were of two types, , namely, the clavichord and the harpsichord. ' 70 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 66. Clavichords. In this type, derived from the dulcimer, the strings were struck directly by upright tangents affixed to the backs of the keys. The earliest form was the mono- chord, used for scientific purposes (par. 16) ; later, instead of the one string, several were employed, all tuned in unison, and several keys struck the same string, made to give differ- ent pitches by a contrivance which shortened its length. These small clavichords were in oblong form, and were gen- erally placed upon a table when in use; but in 1732 a "bundfrei" clavichord was invented, of larger size, which had a separate string for each key. In this the strings were of varying lengths, supported by a diagonal wooden biidge. The tone of the clavichord, though weak and tremulous, was susceptible of some variation, and hence was preferred by many musicians. 67. Harpsichords. In this type, derived from the psaltery, the strings were plucked by quiUs attached to the ends of the Spinet made by Domenico di Pesaro, Italy, 1561 (M etropolitan Museum) The instniment is removable from the outer case. Compass, four octaves keys. Various names were given to the first small instru- ments of this kind, such as spinet, virginal, clavecin, clavi- cembalo, and in form they were either oblong or triangular. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY n Flemish Harpsichord with quill plectra, circa 1650 {Metropolitan Museum) The upper keyboard acts on the first of the three strings and with the Lute stop. The jack of this stop, by plucking the string close to the bridge, gives a reedy, lute-Uke tone. The lower keyboard acts on the three strings without the Lute stop. 72 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY A resultant larger form, adapted especially for concert or orchestral use, was called the harpsichord, and was shaped like our grand piano, only much smaller. The tone, while more brilliant than that of the clavichord, was capable of no variation. To overcome this limitation, all kinds of de- vices were employed, especially in the eighteenth century, such as the introduction of several keyboards, reinforcing strings added by puUing out stops, various kinds of quills, pedals, and connection with an organ. 68. Clavier Makers. Many firms vied with each other in clavier construction. The Suckers family at Antwerp pro- duced elaborate instruments, frequently adorned by famous painters. Tabel in London, and Silhermann in Strasburg, were also prominent. There were many attempts to produce sustained tone in instruments like the piano violin, none of which, however, were successful. Summary The materials used in contrapuntal writing were worked out in a school which existed in France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, grouped about the organists of Notre Dame at Paris. Their teaichings spread northward, and in a school which prevailed on the borders of Belgium (1360- 1460), contrapuntal technique was much improved. A pitch of virtuosity was reached in the Netherland School (1450-1625), in which complicated musical problems were propounded, but in which the element of genuine expression appeared, voiced by Josquin des Pris and Orlandus Lassus. Netherlanders became apostles to other countries, — Eng- land, Germany, Italy. A school founded by them in Venice added the element of color and gave an impetus to instru- mental music. The perfection of vocal counterpoint was reached in the Roman school, in the sixteenth century, especially in the works of Palestrina. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY . 73 Independent thought, incited by the Renaissance, voiced itself in Germany and Switzerland in the reforms of Luther and Calvin, and in England in the establishment of a national church. Lutheranism developed the chorale, based largely on the folk-song ; Calvinism emphasized the singing of metrical psalms ; while the Church of England prepared a liturgy based on the old, but leading to new music styles. Instruments had little individuality of expression, merely reduplicating and strengthening the voice parts. Not -until 1600 did the organ attain its present form, while the fore- runners of the piano, the clavichord and the harpsichord, were too faulty in construction to assume a dominant r6le. READING LIST Section 1 Naumann, History, chaps. 9-H, 14, 16. Oxford History, vol. 2. RocKSTRO, History of Music. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 5. Baltzell, History, lessons 9-10, 12-14. Dickinson, History of Music in the Western Church, chaps. 5, 6. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 6-8. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 3-4. Section 2 OxfoiyHistory, vol. 4. (Chorale, etc.) Naumann, History, chaps. 12-13, 21, 22. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 9, 10. Dickinson, Music in Western Church, chaps. 7, 10. Baltzell, History, lesson 11. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 5. Crowest, English Music. Section 3 BaltziSll', History, lessons 16, 25. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 7. Williams, The Story of the Organ. Weitzmann, History of the Pianoforte. BiE, History of the Pianoforte. Articles in Grove's Dictionary on Organ, Harpsichord, Clavichord, etc. CHAPTER IV The Development of Monophony 69. New Ideas in Music. Polyphony, or the combination of various melodies under accepted laws of agreement and contrast, gave voice to the impersonal spirit of mediaeval- ism; but, since the very equality of the voice parts in contrapuntal writing subordinated the - individual to the general effect, it was necessary that a new element should be developed in music to express the essential spirit of the Renaissance. To this demand was due the invention and subsequent popularity of Monophony, or a single melody with the accompanying parts subordinated. As the latter came to lose individuality, interest in their melodic con- struction naturally waned, and finally came to be placed in another factor of their construction, namely, the harmonic. In Polyphony, chords were merely chance happenings, determined solely by the progression of the melody; in Monophony, however, the chords themselves took a leading place, and hence it became necessary to study them individ- ually and in their relations one with another. In this way new musical forms were exploj;ted, dependent upon har- monic design, — a factor which had its precedent in secular dance music, but which, nevertheless, had to be grasped through crude beginnings, and through many years of experiment. * The main channels for the development of the mono- phonic style were the opera and the oratorio. From these it spread over all other branches of music, producing either new forms or modifications of old ones. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 75 Section 1 THE OPERA AND THE ORATORIO 70. Mediaeval Music Dramas. The introduction of music into dramatic productions was frequent during the Middle Ages, In the Mystery and Morality plays held in the churches jongleurs came to be employed (par. 34) ; and in the secular dramas which were an offshoot of these, music was often a feature also. During the sixteenth century a distinct taste grew up for the drama with musical setting, and a number of attempts to satisfy this taste were made ; with, however, only indifferent success, owing to the fact that the vocal contrapuntal style was ill-adapted to express individual emotion. The absurdity, for instance, of a solo delivered by a character on the stage while other voice parts had to be sung behind the scenes to complete the polyphonic composition, was clearly apparent. Such a drama, written by some of the Venetian contrapuntists for the Duke of Tuscany's wedding, in 1579, furnished an incentive to cer- tain art amateurs who were present at its performance to seek another means of musical expression. 71. Beginnings of Opera. These amateurs were members j of a small band of Florentine enthusiasts who were united iuj their attempts to reproduce Greek forms of art. Their leader was at first the poet and philosopher Criovanni Bardi, and afterwards a rich nobleman named Oorai. The remainder of their number comprised both men and women, all noteworthy for attainments in the domain' of art or letters. The first result of their musical activity was a monody, or cantata,} patterned after the Greek tra,dition in that it consisted of a declamatory melody with occasional accompanying chords played on the lute. This was the work of Vineemo G-alilei, father of the famous astronomer, and its signal success re- sulted in the production of others by Oacewd (cir. 1550, cir. 76 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 1615), and in the musical setting of a drama " Dafne " by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633) to words by the poet Einuccini. Extract from Peri's Eurydick. £ TOi deh ! per pie - ta del mio mar ti $ ^ ^tt ma A- ^^ te-al mio piaa - to, Om bre d'in - fer tHrH ^^^ Performed privately in 1595 this excited such enthusiasm that Peri wrote a still more elaborate setting to Rinuccini's " Euri- dice," which, from the fact that its first performance, in 1600, was public, is considered to be the first opera. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 11 The name Dramma per viusica was given to this, since the music, without formal melody, simply intensified the rhetori- cal effect in its Stile rappresentativo. Choruses were in madrigal style, and a supporting orchestra consisted of a harpsichord, two lutes, and a bass viol, together with three flutes for which, in one place, a sinfonia of fourteen bars was written. Caccini soon after wrote a similar setting of the same subject. 72. Monteverde. The new style became immediately pop- ular with the higher classes, and, of the many composers who appeared, the greatest, and perhaps the most remarkable musician of his day, was Claudio Monteverde (1567-1643), a native of Cremona. In his youth he studied the strict style, writing madrigals, in the latest of which his new- style tendencies were recognizable. After enjoying popularity as chorus- master of St. Mark's, Venice, he was employed by the Duke of Mantua, when, in 1607, he produced his first opera of " Orfeo," which immediatel}'- realized greater possibilities, contain- ing, among other innovations, the first duet. In 1608 "Arianna" and the " Dance of the Sylphs " appeared, the former of which showed a tendency toward formal melodies ; but his greatest work was not produced till 1624. In this, "The Combat of Tancred and Clorinda," he showed an entirely new con- cept of the province of the orchestra, introducing descriptive effects which included the first appearance of the tremolo and pizzicato, in the strings. For " Orfeo " the "orchestra consisted of thirty-three instruments, of which strings played with a bow predominated. While Monteverde employed the figured hass customary for the indication of harmonies, these harmonies were used with unprecedented freedom. Com- MONTEVEKDE 78 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY binations of instruments characterized the personages of the drama, and instrumental passages, ritornellos, romanescas, maurescas and the like, were frequent. Song from Monteverde's " Arianna." ri re I E che vo - le te voi -£-••-& . . J2S: te che mi con - for te • ■•-■»-■* m -^~ =1= *^ Tn nrk at /lirv _ i*Q e3r\T* _ i'.a in IJ J i J I In CO - si dio - ra sor - te in co - si gran mar - ti - re ? La - ^eE i= ^ 2 %- ^¥ ^ ^ » ' J r^ i ^ S ^ I T ^-T~rV^ =s=s= acia te mi mo - ri - re ! la - ecia - te ml mo rl re ! 73. Beginnings of Oratorio. This developed on lines parallel ■with the 6pera ; but, associated directly with the church, it was occupied solely with scriptural subjects. The name was derived from the fact that the first productions of the kind were performed in the oratory of the church of Santa Maria, in Vallicella (par. 52), where parts of the work preceded OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 79 and followed the sermon. Here, in 1600, was produced what is known as the first oratorio, called the " Representation of Soul and Body," by Emilio del Cavalieri, acted out with elaborate scenery and costumes, and with the addition of ^ncing. For this the new operatic style was freely em- ployed, and succeeding composers wrote operas and oratorios Recitative prom Carissimi's "Jephtha. Heu, heu mi-hi fl li-ame he de - ce - pi - Bti f '%' m i -j— is- # ^^ ^s=^ me, fi-li-a u-xii-ge-- nl-ta de-ce pis ti me, et tu pa - ri-ter v-^-i. without distinction in workmanship. Oarisgimi (cir. 1604- 1674) excelled as an oratorio writer, leaving " Jephtha," "The Judgment of Solomon," " Jonah," and " Belshazzar," all distinguished for their coherency, striking rhythms, dramatic choruses, and refined recitatives, which already show some 80 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY formal outlines. A. Scarlatti, the opera composer (par. 74) wrote also ten oratorios in musicianly style, and Alessandro Stradella (d. 1681), probably a pupil of Carissimi, wrote chiefly in oratorio form, displaying much effective dramatic ability. After Stradella the oratorio lost its popularity i^ Italy, finding a more permanent home in Germany an* England. 74. Changes in Opera. Appearing first only as a diversion of the wealthy, the opera afterwards became popularized. Aria from Cksti's "La Dori." I ^-^N^;^ ^^ ^ ^m- Con a - mor acher - zi chi sa Che do lor ^ ^^ ^ t=^: ^^ ^ ^S Final Endiho, or Codetta. W^^ J J DU^^—i £ m non man - che - ra che do - lor ' non man - che - ra Si ri - tro va y p^^^ ^-M^ ^^^ ^^^=^ un tal ve - len che si co va o - gnor 1^' Ci6 che sia feF r r r 1 1 ^ ^ i r r ^ ^ D.SS In 1637 the first opera house was opened in Venice, and soon many others were erected here and in other leading Italian cities, as well as those of other countries, to which the craze for the new style rapidly extended. As a focal point for operatic development Venice became the scene of activity of composers, of whom Oavdlli and Cesti were prom- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 81 inent, and who, following the instrumental ideals of the place, tended strongly toward formal lines in their melody- writing. These lines became even more rigidly drawn in the Neapolitan school, of which Alessandro Scarlatti (1659- 1725) was founder. Of soUd musical education, he succeeded in giving that symmetry to the operatic numbers for which other composers were striving, besides investing his works with a firmly-knit structure which his knowl- edge of contrapuntal methods, hitherto sparingly employed in the opera, made possible. These characteristics appeared notably in his orchestration. His over- ture took the form of three contrasting movements : — a fast, a slow, and a fast movement ; and the previously barren recitative was made vital by a continuous orchestral accompaniment. The fixed A. Scarlatti Aria from A. Scarlatti's ' Prigionier Fohtunato." Bcher - ni - to CO - re qual nuo - to ar - do - re clieil ciel ti da Durante 82 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY melodies were cast in various types of the aria foriQ, which consisted of a succession of two contrasting sections fol- lowed by a repetition, or da capo, of the first. With these innovations the name dramma per la musica was changed to opera in musica, or, later, to simply opera. One of A. Scarlatti's pupils, Fran- cesco Durante (1684-1755), and after him ranking with Leo as one of the founders of the Neopolitan school, composed chiefly for the church; but Durante's many illustrious pupils, among them Jommelli, Vinci, Piccinni, Paisiello, and Pergolesi, took nearly complete possession of the lyric stage of Europe during the latter half of the eighteenth century. 75. Italian Opera in the Eighteenth Century. Thus the dra- matic ideals of the makers of the opera came quickly into conflict with the Italian fondness for formal design, and in the end the latter won a complete victory. Scarlatti's con- ventional forms, made still more rigid, became recognized as laws ; interest, transferred from the plot to the melody, proceeded thence to the singers themselves, and these finally became such absolute masters of the situation that, during the eighteenth century, itself an epoch of general artificiality, the opera degenerated into a mere concert for vocal display, with everything — plot, music, composer — subordinated to this end. Prima donnas dictated terms and received enormous salaries ; male soprani became popular, some of them acquir- ing wealth and political influence. Operatic plots, drawn chiefly from classic or Persian subjects, were made all on the same model, to exploit a succession of fixed types of arias, fifty to sixty in each opera. They were allotted in due proportion to the chief singers — three men and three women, with the bass voice eliminated — who considered it their OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 83 privilege to introduce all kinds of trivial embellishments to suit their vocal powers. There were no concerted numbers, except an occasional chorus at the end. The orchestration became weak and slovenly, while the overture, regarded merely as an accompaniment to conversation, was of the flimsiest structure. Great teachers of the hel eanto, as the art of singing was styled, themselves wrote most of the operas, to show off brilliant pupils. Niccold Porpora (1686-1766 ?), the writer of forty-six operas, was perhaps the most celebrated of these vocal authorities. Altogether, although musical sin- cerity reached a low ebb, enormous facility in vocal technique was attained. 76. The Opera Buffa. To relieve the monotony of the opera seria, diversions were introduced between the acts, in the form of dances or comic songs. These were called intermezzi. The dances developed into the ballet, while the songs became enlarged to a comic musical sketch, and then to a complete little opera. Its subject was drawn from real Ufe, and its music made as pithy and characteristic as pos- sible, — everything in strong contrast to the conventional atmosphere of the serious opera. Thus arose the opera buffa, destined to infuse new life into the operatic style through its use of important new elements such as the bass voice, concerted numbers, and the ensemble, which was used to produce a climax at the end of the acts. This last feature, originated by Logroscino, was farther developed by Niccola Picdnni (1728-1800). Other eighteenth century composers of 9pera buffa, most of them writers also of opera seria, were G-aluppi, Pergolesi, Paisiello, and Cimarosa. 77. The Opera in France. The French taste for external effect demanded something more stimulating than the pure melodip outlines of the Italian opera, which, in its original form, consequently never gained a firm foothold in France. A distinct style was, however, invented by Jean Baptiste de 84 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Lully (1633-1687), a native of Florence, who was brought to Paris at thirteen, and, through his musical ability, finally became leader of the orchestra at the brilliant court of Louis XIV. Lully proved expert in adapting himself to the exigencies of the occasion. He at first wrote music for the spectacular ballets which were popular at court, and iii which the king himself often danced ; and thence he conceived the idea of introducing their chief features into the opera. The Italian opera had appeared in Paris in 1645, and hence the French were prepared to receive with acclaim the work of a composer who should combine the attractive features of " the Italian style with the best-loved national characteristics. The result was a popularity which procured for Lully from the king the grant of a monopoly of French opera, and which made him the dominant figure on the French operatic stage for nearly a century. Lully 78. Lully's Operas. He succeeded in bringing back much of the true dramatic element into the opera. The overture he placed on a dignified plane, establishing the form of a slow, followed by a fast fugal movement, with sometimes a concluding slow movement. The performance then Dance from Lully's " Phaeton." =t--.;t-- .c4 rt - f^^gE^^^^il ■f^ =*^-- J- -J — J- -^- d^ .«i rf«rp=t: t=t: t=\ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 85 ^ J—r-P ^^^^^^^^, m m^ 33E IS J— J-^^- ;£?e^ =^- ^t=r ^^ opened with a spectacular prologue on a mythological sub- ject, containing choruses and dances, all tending toward a fulsome glorification of the reigning monarch. The opera which followed included dignified and dramatic recitative, without superfluous ornament ; occasional arias ; dances in concise rhythmic forms, and ensembles as climaxes. The harmonic style prevailed, except in the fugal part of the overture. The accompaniment, mainly of stiing tone, was monotonous, but there was unquestioned dramatic consist- ency in all the elements. Of LuUy's followers, Colasse, Charpentier, and Campra are prominent. i f-y-^pK. ■^79. Rameau. Jean Philippe\Rameau (1683-1764), born a.t Dijon, who won his first laureLs by his organ and piano playing and compositions and his im- portant researches into the theory of im^aic, began to write for the French stage at the age of fifty. In this direc- tion he produced works which marked great advancement in logical forms of •melpdy, in dramatic choruses, and in brilliant orchestration, by means of which he described scenes like storms, battles, and earthquakes. While he thus perpetuated LuUy's ideals, he gave them more vitality, and relieved former monotony by a more skilful employment of har- monies and rhythms. Rameau 8tJ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 80. The Opera Comique. The opera buffa was imported into France about 1750, where it achieved instant popularity. A theatre was built especially for it, in 1753, and several Frenchmen distinguished themselves in this form of compo- sition. Of these Grretry (1741-1813) was especially suc- cessful, fitting the melody admirably to the words, and producing lively and pertinent effects. Though thin in orchestration, his harmonies are well chosen. Later on, the opera comique became the medium for some of the best efforts of French composers. Its character changed in many respects, as it frequently followed a more serious vein, approaching that of the grand opera ; but it generally retained the salient features of naturalness of plot and unconventionality of action and forms. 81. The Opera in England. Here Puritanism retarded all dramatic music until it appeared in the form of incidental music to plays. After the Restoration, the consequent popularity of French music resulted in its study by English ciimposers, notably Pelham Humfrey, a pupil of Lully's, who in turn became the teacher of Eng- land's greatest dramatic composer, Henry Purcell (cir. 1658-1695). The latter- wrote anthems even while a boy singer at the Chapel Royal, and, at twenty- one, he composed the opera " Dido and;, ^neas." This, in dramatic sincerity and command of musical resources, was a remarkable work ; though its absence of spoken dialogue placed it in advance of its age, and caused PurceU to cast his future dramatic attempts into the safer form of incidental play-music. Besides many such works, he wrote anthems, instrumental compositions, and music for masques. PurceU's music shows the sturdiness and tunefulness characteristic of the English. Clear and folk-songlike Purcell OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 87 Theme from Purckll's Music to " Diocletian." Trumpet. melodies alternate with vigorous recitatives, in which every word receives individual expressibn, while strong counter- point solidifies the choruses and orchestration. Purcell stood alone as a composer of English opera, find- ing no worthy successor, and in 1707 the Italian opera, imported into England, began its unlimited sway. An adaptation of old baUads to a play, by Dr. Pepusch (b. 1667), produced in London in 1728, and called . the " Beggar's Opera," had. great popularity, and was the fir^t of a list of English ballad operas (par. 227). 88 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 82. The Opera in Germany. The singspiel, or play with occasional songs and dances, here preceded the opera, and was afterwards taken as the basis for a national school. In 1627 Heinrieh Sehutz (1585-1672),- who had studied in Italy, set to music his German translation of Rinuccini's " Dafne," of which the score has been lost, but which may be accounted the first German opera. Italian opera after- wards appeared fitfully ; finally, however, attaining immense prestige among the wealthy classes, and pushing German composers into other fields of work, notably that of religious music. The Hamburg Opera House was opened in 1678 with a singspiel by Schiitz's pupil Theile. Of this house Beinhard Keiser (1674-1739) afterwards became manager, himself writing for it a hundred and sixteen operas with German texts and in Italian style, yet showing German strength, real expression, and scenic splendor. But Italian influences increased. There was at first a mingling of German and Italian languages in the same performance, until at last the Italian supremacy was complete. Of Ger- man composers of Italian opera the chief were Hasse and Grraun, the latter a favorite of Frederick the Great. Section 2 rtJPLUENCE OF THE OPERATIC STYLE 83. English Church Music. After the Restoration, in 1660, there was a tendency toward the new harmonic forms. One result was the An^JMmiiJlJhmiiy^whiclci partly supplanted the Gregorian manner of chanting, and which consisted of a single or double tune of seven or fourteen measures, coiitain- ing recitation notes and endings. These tunes, probably of Gregorian origin, were harmonized in plain chords. While they were adapted primarily for rendering the Psalter antiphonally, similar chant forms were invented for the Canticles. Services and anthems came to be written in a OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 89 more florid style, and during the reign of Charles II the former unaccompanied style was largely supplanted by elabo- rate accompaniments by the organ or orchestra. While the influence of the opera did not seriously degrade the dignity of church compositions, its forms nevertheless had their effect, especially upon the anthems. These were written in three forms : — the full, sung throughout by the entire choir; the verse, in which selected voices rendered certain parts together ; and the solo, in which single voices were occasionally heard. The harmonic style was freely employed, although it did not by any means supplant the contrapuntal. After Purcell, whose anthems were models of excellence, a host of church composers, such as Br. Blow, Clarke, Croft, Greene, Boyce, and Attwood, wrote worthy but pedantic church music; and it was only toward the middle of the nineteenth century that a more vigorous style arose. Congregational hymns were at first severely plain, but during the eighteenth century a more florid style arose, with varied supporting harmonies. 84. Church Music in Germany. A group of eighteenth century composers resisted for some time Italian influences, writing church music of great dignity in the old chorale and motet forms. Others introduced the solo style, and ultimately it found a permanent place in church compo- sitions. The cantata, originating in Italy before 1600, be- SCENE AT THE GrAVE, FROM SCHUTZ's "RESURRECTION." The Two Angels. Weib Weib was wei n^ ^ I- f^^fr.-^f^i=r4^;^i-f^H^ I^ Weib was wei neat du ? Accompt. 90 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Evangelist. Sie spricht zu ib - nen: Tbe Two Marys. *^ &ia \\a -l\aTi mai-nan TTai* _ lutn nronr - oA . ¥inm _ man SiA lia- Dflll DlOl-DBIl lie ha-ben mei-nen Her - ren weg - ge • nom. - men Sie ha-ben mei-nen Aoeompt. Her - ren weg - ge - nom und ich weiss nicht wo sie ihn 3 4 ge -le get ha - • ben. Sft t ; Mt f i-^-^-^-f-^ bin, und ich weiss Dicht wo sie ihn hin ge - le-get ha . ben. &c. came a popular form for church music. In the eighteenth century it consisted of an instrumental introduction, several choruses, arias for solo voices, and a concluding chorale. The mediaeval custom of representing Christ's passion was perpetuated in several forms of passion music, sung on Good Fridays. In its earliest form this consisted of intonations of the story by the priests ; next, chorus singing in motet form replaced the intonation; and in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries the oratorio form was used, in which the story was told by a narrator, while solo voices and choruses rendered the words of characters and spec- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 91 tators, and congregational chorales reflected, the feelings of the auditors. This connection with the church service distinguished the passion from the oratorio proper, which became relegated to concert uses. Many composers of opera, like Schiitz and Keiser, wrote passions, and Italian sentimentality finally detracted from their original sincerity of expression. One reason for the perpetuation of the contrapuntal methods in German church music was the important place allotted to organ music in the service. Under this special incentive, German organists attained a commanding position as players and composers. 85. Organists and Organ Composers. Instrumental music, which had long been whoUy subject to vocal music, first began to free itself in distinctive organ compositions. In Thkme from a Fugue by D. Buxtehude. Venice, during WiUaei-t's time, these appeared under the names of fantasias or rieercari, and with Olaudio Merulo and the G-ahrielis there was a definite attempt to evolve instrumental forms. From a transference of the motet to the organ, with subjects used imitatively, the canzone and rieeroare resulted, and these finally developed into the fugiie. From the use of running passages' with supporting chords canie the toccata, prelude, and fantasia. The primal lack of coherency was afterwards remedied by the invention of 92 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY characteristic subjects, for whose introduction fixed laws were established. Such laws were worked out by Fresco- baldi (1583-1644), the distinguished organist of St. Peter's at Rome, whose bizarre capricci show much individu- ality, and who was the first to assert the^ final fugue form ; his successor Pasquini (1637-1710); Siveelinck of Amsterdam,* renowned as a teacher; the Germans Froherger, Kerl, Pachelbel, and Reinken ; and the Danish Buxtehude (b. 1637). The two last named lead directly to J. S. Bach, who was a close student of their works. Frescobaldi 86. The "Violin. The result of the prominence of the strings in the orchestra was an increased activity in the manufacture of this class of instruments. From the many kinds of bowed instruments in use during the Middle Ages a number of viols emerged, all characterized by flat backs and sloping shoulders ; and as an improvement in these the violin family won the first place, finally driving out the older forms, except in the case of the still-used double bass. During the seventeenth century the violin attained a degree of perfection never surpassed, at the hands of the Cremona makers. The first of these were the Amatis, viol and lute makers from cir. 1520, of whom Niccolo Amati (1596-1684) reached the highest standard, enlarging the former small model to a violin of graceful shape, with high back and front, and amber varnish. His instruments are renowned for their clear, sweet tone. Antonio Stradivari (cir. 1650-1737), a pupil of Niccolo Amati, perfected the Amati model. He improved its acous- tical properties by lowering and making uniform the arch, strengthening the sides, equalizing the tension, making the scroll more massive, inclining the sound-holes toward OUTLINES OB MUSIC HISTORY 93 each other at the top, and perfecting the bridge. His in- struments, extraordinary in number and excellence, have rich and varied varnish. The later ones were increased in length. The Cremonese family of G-uarnerius, of whom Joseph (1683 -cir. 1746) was chief, subordinated everything to strength of tone. In' Germany Jacob Stainer (1621-1683) made viohns of less graceful lines than the Cremonese, though patterned after them, and of excellent workmanship, but poor tone. The front was flattened at the top with an abrupt descent, the / holes were short and square-cut, and the varnish was lustrous. The bow was at first clumsy, and was perfected only at the close of the eighteenth century by Tourte, a Frenchman. The demand for cheaper instruments afterwards brought into the market many of inferior grade, though of similar models, so that the art of the first makers became practically extinct. 87. Forms of Violin Music. Together with the making of violins, violin playing advanced. Solo work became pop- ular, and the best musicians were excellent composers. To serious instrumental compositions the name of sonata was J given, to distinguish them from the cantata, or vocal pieces and sonatas, originally of one movement, afterwards were written in a succession of contrasting but unified move- ments. From the opera overture came the sonata da ehiesa, or church sonata, generally of four movements, all in digni- fied contrapuntal style ; from the popular suites, or collections of dances, came the sonata da camera, or chamber sonata. The two forms were soon mingled, however, by the introduc- tion of dance movements into the church sonatas. An important innovation, credited to Torelli (cir. 1657- cir. 1708), was the concerto form of the sonata, -in which solo instruments were supported by others, for reinforcement or 94 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY contrast, — a form which afterwards also developed into the string quartet. 88. Violinists. The first violinist whose works still sur- vive was Arcangelo Corelli (1653—1713). He brought former rambling attempts into concise form, using contrapuntal method.s joined to modern harmonic forms, with refined and pleasant ex- pression. The variation form was used extensively in his works. Pupils and followers of his were Vivaldi (d. 1743), Veracini (1685-1750), Somis (1676- 1763), and Tartini (1692-1770), all CoEELLi of whom, as players and composers, de- veloped new resources in their instru- ment, attained much virtuositj% and infused breadth and dramatic fire into their works. 89. Clavier Players. The popularity of the lute, which aided in developing the harmonic style, yet retarded clavier composition. In Italy, the early or- ganists were clavier players, using the same compositions for both instru- ments. In the seventeenth centuiy Frescohaldi and Pasquini first asserted a distinctive clavier style, though ham- pered by the clumsy fingering then in vogue. The usefulness of the harpsi- chord in the orchestra, however, turned attention to its capabilities. Bomenir.n Scarlatti (cir. 1683-1757), son of tlie d. Scarlatti opera composer, realized these to a remarkable extent, introducing brilliant technical work, like rapid runs, skips, double notes, and crossing of hands, which were far in advance of his age. His scherzo move- ments are especially vital in style, presaging the scherzi of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 95 Beethoven. A native of Naples, he lived at Madrid the latter part of his life, renowned as a virtuoso. Other Italians wrote chiefly sonatas. D. Scarlatti — Theme from Scherzo. ■ f- -.»■ The English school continued after Elizabeth's reign, and the first printed clavier compositions were published in the reign of James I, under the title "Parthenia." Purcell published sonatas and suites. The school had, however, little general effect. In France, a refined, elegant, and highly embellished school arose in the middle of the seventeenth century, founded by Jacques Ohampion de Cham- bonnieres (d. cir. 1670), who was noted at the court of Louis XIV for his remarkable touch. His contemporary (fAnfflehert published pieces, including variations on airs from LuUy's operas. Several Couperins, all organists, attained eminence, the chief of whom was Franfois, called " Ze Grand'' (1668-1733), court clavier and organ player. His little suites, or ordres, contain com- pact tuneful movements of solid contrapuntal character, in the form of allemandes, sarabandes, and preludes. He COUPERIN 96 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY also wrote lighter works, rhythmic dance-tunes, and descrip- tive pieces with fanciful titles, all richly embellished. Louis MarcJiand and his pupil Louis Daquin were other composers of this period. J. P. Rameau, the opera composer, cham- pioned the tempered scale (par. 96), writing pieces in Couperin's style, but of more elevated character. F. CouPERiN — Theme from " The Little Wind Mills." ^ In Germany most of the organists were also clavier composers, writing many sonatas. Summary From attempts to revive Greek simplicity, at the close of the sixteenth century, the opera and oratorio were born, with solo recitative as their most distinctive feature. But the Italian fondness for melody quickly introduced formal- ism and conventionality, and the opera in the eighteenth century degenerated into a mere vocal display. Meanwhile, from its status as a diversion of the wealthy, it had become popularized, and its influence spread over all Europe. In France something more than melody was demanded, and thus a better balance was obtained between the dramatic and musical elements. English opera, instituted by PurceU, succumbed to Italian influence, as did opera in Germany. But church music in England and Germany was slow to give up its old ideals, and never entirely abandoned them. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 97 Distinctive forms were the chant and anthem in England, and the cantata and passion music in Germany. Instrumental forms were meanwhile sought out. Organ- ists began to develop definite subjects, thus elaborating the contrapuntal forms of the fugue and toccata, involving also harmonic design. Violin makers and players brought their instrument to a foremost place, and the latter evolved the sonata and the concerto. Clavier playing, too, was devel- oped, especially in France, where the small, definite type gf composition was in fashion. READING LIST Section 1 Naumann, History, chaps. 15, 18, 19, 23. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 6. Oxford History, vols. 3 and 4. Baltzell, History, lessons 17-22. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 11, 15-18, 22. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 18, 19, 21, 24. Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. Streatfeild, The Opera. Elson, a Critical History of Opera. Section 2 Naumann, History, chap. 20. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 9, 10, 12-14, 19, 20. Dickinson, Music in Western Church, chap. 8. Oxford History, vol. 3. Spitta, Life of Bach (Passion Music). Crowest, English Music. Barrett, English Church Composers. Cdmmings, Life of Purcell. Ritter, Music in England. Hart, The Violin and its Music ; Famous Violin Makers and their Imitators. Stoeving, The Story of the Violin. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4, 5. Histories of Piano Playing by Fillmore, Weitzmann, and Bie. Bach, Handel, anb GiiUCK 90. Their Fields of Work. The dignity of the music art, which was in danger of becoming utterly degraded through the hypnotic sway of the Italian opera style, was again tri- umphantly asserted, in the first half of the eighteenth cen- tury, by the labors of three great musicians. Their work did not at first bear full fruitage, but eventually people were bored by the conventional platitudes and inconsistencies of the Italian style, and so came to appreciate the higher ideals which they furnished. Bach and Handel excelled in the lyric style, while Gluck's sphere was the opera. Of the three, Bach had the least immediate influence. His unswerving fidelity to his own lofty conceptions of art estranged him from his pleasure-loving generation; but even- tually the nobler elements in the human character asserted themselves, and as a result his compositions became recog- nized as ideals of musical expression. Handel, on the other hand, had a long education in methods of pleasing the pop- ular taste ; so that in his greatest works, produced late in life, he was able to mingle popular elements with the fine and genuine music sufficiently to make it immediately attrac- tive to his public. Gluck courageously set to work to upset all the deep-rooted conventional ideas of the opera. It was only through the fact that he addressed himself to the Paris public, which had never subscribed to the Italian style, that he was able to get an adequate hearing, and finally to accomplish at least a part of his object. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 99 Section 1 ; JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, 1685-1750 91. Life. Bach inherited the concentrated genius of a long line of ancestors, who had held most of the important musical positions in Middle Germany since about 1600. Of the peasant class, aU of them exhibited the Teutonic charac- teristics of integrity, strong family feeling, and solid art ideals. Bach was born at Eisenach, and obtained his first insight into music from his father, who taught him espe- cially to play the vioHn. Orphaned at ten, he was taken in charge by his brother Christoph, organist at Ordruff, who gave him some instruction, but did not on the whole encourage his enthu- siasm, which displayed itself in assidu- ous copying of manuscript compositions. In 1700, becoming a choir boy at the Michealis school at Luneburg, he had the opportunity of studying the organ and clavier. After a short stay at the Weimar court, where he was employed as violinist, he obtained in 1703 the post of organist at Arnstadt. It is significant that while here he was reprimanded for his inno- vations in organ playing during the service. Yet his fame as organist spread, and in 1708 he assumed an important organ position at Weimar. Here he became acknowledged as an organist of the first rank, and here his chief organ works were written, besides cantatas, and arrangements for organ and clavier of concertos by the Italian violinists. Be- coming chapelmaster to Prince Leopold of Anhali^Cothen, he had opportunities for directing and writing chamber music, besides enjoying advantages in the way of travel. The latter part of his life, from 1723, was passed at Leipsic, where he spent his time in unceasing labor as cantor of the J. S. Bach 100 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Thomas school, as organist of two churches, and in volumi- nous composing. His greatest works, the passio nSjJjigjnags in B minor, and many cantatas, were jwrUtenhere ; but ^hia positioSiTwefe'iioFIucrative, and he was frequently aiiflQyfi^ by unsympathetic officials. His e yes, too, gave out, and he was totally blind foi- several years p receding his d eath. 92. Character. Thus his life as a whole was simple and tineventful, devoted to his work and his family. He was twice married: first to a cousin, afterwards to a soprano Extract from Chromatic Fantasie. b WX~%-\L m r^^i-^^ ^m singer, who proved a great help in Jiis work. Of his family of twenty children, several of the boys inherited a part of his genius, although none attained to his eminence. His^ deep and reverent_ religious convictions were a determining element of his character^^g d the keynote to the unf ailing sin ceritv of his composition^ ^ His unflagging industry is shown in the fact that he not only fulfilled faithfully his official duties, but that he also wrote a vast number of musical works, copied many compositions by other musi- cians, engraved the copperplates for printing his own, and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 101 even manufactured instruments, inventing a new violin and piano. His best pupils were his own sons, for whose in- struction he wrote many of his clavier works. 93. Musical Ideals. Bach is musically a direct descendant of the German organists who had remained faithful to the old contrapuntal school, despite the trivial tendencies of their times. Grounded, then, upon severe organ composi- tion, and bringing to this the depth and sincerity of his religious nature, he was able, in adopting other styles of music, to make them, too, the vehicles of true expression. Thus, primarily an organist, he wi'ote from the standpoint of in strumental music, and, while resting upon the contrapuntal style and forms, he availed himself of ba irmo,M(i dtjijig" tp, produce coherency of structure. The result was that he gave instrumental music the position of an independent art, satisfying all the recognized conditions as to balance, con- trast, unity, and variety. His vocal works, no less great than his instrumental, have nevertheless the effect of being an outgrowth of the latter. While occasionally using such forms as the aria, he never caters to merely vocal effect, but insists upon forceful expression at all costs. He essayed all forms except that of the opera, giving to each a new significance; and in addition he occasionally wrote compositions, like his " Chromatic Fantasy," which led into new and daring fields, and pointed the way to styles which developed many years later. 94. Coherency. The most amazing element in his works is that of coherency. Rja s nbjentf; are alwavs shorty charac- teristic, and adapted tn th p, instrument t hat is to express fliem. Having asserted a theme, he subjects it to infinite analysis, turning it about, lengthening, shortening, or invert- ing it, but always keeping it built into the structure. And the supporting material is also derived logically from subor- dinate themes, or from the principal theme itself, so that 102 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY unity of thought is never abandoned. Especially in the fugues do these characteristics appear; here, proceeding from the simple to the complex, he interweaves the parts Theme of Fugue No. 8, vol. 1, of Well-Tempered Clavichord. Later use of the same p se of t he same : — Ij^eine ^^ Theme augmented - ^ -/— ^_Z rn-^ n t — r Theme until the mind is lost in bewilderment, after which the tangled skein naturally unwinds, and the thought ends broadly, victoriously, simply. In all this the initial and dominant mood of the composition — melancholy, gay, tran- quil — is never lost sight of, so that the whole becomes the exposition of an emotional state. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 103 9S. Organ 'Woiks. As the fu^ue is primarily an organ fonn, it was especially adapted to Bach's pfenius. His m any Themes of Two Organ Fugues. Fugue in E minor. Lento, Fugue in G minor. organ fugues have never been equalled for grandeur or dig- nity. In addition to these, he wrote many works in the forms of the toccata, prelude, canzone, and fantasia, as well as chorales, arranged both as independent compositions and to accompany the congregational song. 96. Bach and the Clavier. Bach preferred the clavichord to the other claviers of the day on account of its powers of expression ; and in two directions he opened the way to increased resources in this instrument. Thp- first was bv adopting a rycvP: ratinnal fincTP.riTigr. in whjch all the finders were used, instead of the former clumsy method^ in which the thumbs hung down in front of the keys whUe the other fingers lay flat upon them. The second was his cham aioa— — ci,^ p r.f t.v^^ tor» ^f .^feA ni-nlp. (pars. 50 aud 89). A controversy had raged for many years over the correct method of tuning the intervals within the octave, and this question Bach, sup- ported by Rameau and others, solved by dividing the octaVe 104 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY into twelve equidistant semitones,' tuning his own clavi- phords to carry out his theoiy. The matter was thus finally settled, since the tempered scale has been generally adopted from his day. 97. Clavier Works. Wishing to emphasize the inter- changeable character of the scales, Bach wrote twenty-four preludes and fugues, one in each major and minor key, and each with a distinct emotional character. Later he wrote twenty-four more of similar design, and the forty-eight Theme from the "Italian Concerto." together form the so-called "Well-tempered Clavichord," a collection the masteiy of which is considered the foundational work for pianistic ability. As studies for fugue playing, he wrote a number of two and three part inventions.^ In the dance forms are his suites, — six small, called " French," and six large, called " English." Six partitas were suites of more dignified style. His concertos for from one to four pianos, and the dramatic " Chromatic Fantasy," complete the list of his important clavier compositions. 98. Orchestral "Works. Orchestral color, produced by the characteristic use of instruments, was unknown in Bach's time; hence the continuous string tone, only occasionally OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 105 reinforced by other instruments, is apt to be monotonous. A touch of color was sometimes produced by the employ- ment of individual c^bbligato instruments as accompaniment to vocal solos. Bach's orchestra was small, rarely containing more than fourteen strings ; and his use of instruments now obsolete, like the viola cf amove, makes the performance of some works difficult. He wrote overtures and four suites, of which the most popular, in D major, is for strings, three trum- pets, three oboes, and kettle-drums. His "Concerti grossi" are much freer than those of previous writers : of these the three "Brandenburg" are most famous. Many other combina- tions of instruments are found in his works, which also in- clude solo compositions, such as violin and 'cello sonatas. 99. Vocal Works. Treating the voice in an instrumental manner, Bach uses an enlarged sphere of modulation, fjj^.^.kingf emotional expression rather than v ocal iy,atj on. His cantatas, nearly three hundred in number, include five sets which provide a cantata for each Sunday and holy-day, and secular cantatas, like the "Coffefe Cantata" and the "Bauem Cantate." These have the accompaniment of organ and orchestra. Other famous church compositions are his "Christmas Oratorio," and his celebrated mass in B minor, the length and difficulty of which unfit it for church performance. Particularly noteworthy are his settings of the passion, t — one according to St. John ; one, now lost, according to St. Mark ; and the most famous, that according to St. Matthew, which was first produced at the St. Thomas church, Leipsic, in 1729, on Good Friday, the sermon being preached be- tween the two parts. In this, two choirs, each accompanied by orchestra and organ, represfent sometimes the crowd, sometimes the apostles, and sometimes commentators upon the scene. A tenor voice sings the part of the narrator, or evangelist ; most of the airs are soliloquies by the Daughter of JSion; while the congregation sing the exquisitely bar- 106 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY monized chorales. The instrumentation has continual diver- sity of part writing, while obbligatos are skilfully used ia the solo work. Altogether, the music, while strongly dra-. matic, expresses the deepest religious feeling, without^ senti-^ mentality or catering to popularity. Section 2 GEOEGB PREDEKICK HANDEL, 1685-1759 100. Early Life. Unlike Bach, Handel had no musical ancestry. Born at Halle, his propensities early appeared in his surreptitious practice of the harpsichord. His musical studies were, however, opposed by his father, who destined him for the law ; but his father was finally forced to yield his wishes in deference to his patron, the Duke of Weissenfels, who, hearing Handel play at the age of seven, in- sisted that he should receive a musical education. After close study of theoiy,;; harpsichord, organ, violin, and oboe un- der Zachau, at Halle, he visited Berlin. Here he delighted the Elector by his extemporizing, and here he met noted musicians, like Ariosti and Buononcini; but refusing the Elector's offer to retain him at Berlin, he resumed his studies at Halle. His father's death in 1697 induced him to study law, meanwhile playing at the cathedral at a salary of fifty dollars a year ; but growing restive here, he went to Hamburg in 1703, where he quickly rose from a subordinate position as violinist at the opera house to the leading r6le of harpsi- chordist. His experiences here stimulated him to write a passion and a number of operas which proved successful. In 1706 he journeyed to Italy. Here several of his operas won him laurels, and he was welcomed by many musicians, including Domenico Scarlatti. Handei OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 107 101. Handel in England. Returning to Germany in 1710, lie became chapelmaster to the Elector of Hanover, after- wards George I of England. He soon, however, obtained leave of absence and visited England, where he eventually passed most of his life, becoming naturalized. Italian opera had been introduced into England in 1707, and the English public were thus prepared to welcome him, fresh from his Italian triumphs, with acclaim ; so that his new operas were sumptuously mounted, and enthusiastically received. He was loaded with honors, and in a short time became a musical autocrat, whose word was law with the savants, ilitterateurs, and nobility of London. His Te Deum and Jubilate for the celebration of the Peace of Utrecht brought him a pension of $1,000 from Queen Anne; and George I, crowned in 1714, who was at first displeased with him for his long absence from Hanover, was so effectually won over by his " Water Music " that he added another $1,000 to his pen- sion. Becoming chapelmaster to ■ the wealthy Duke of Chandos, at Cannons, he wrote while there his first oratorio, "Esther," harpsichord suites, anthems, and the serenade "Acis and Galatea," for orchestra. But a series of troubles now pursued him. In 1720 he was made director of the new Royal Academy, where he produced his opera " Radimisto," and a joiat work " Muzio Scevola," of which he wrote one act, while two other promi- nent musicians wrote the others. But his successes incurred for him the jealousy of these rival composers, and his iras- cible disposition involved him in numerous broils with the autocratic singers of the day. The Academy, for which he wrote fourteen operas, collapsed in 1728, and he afterward attempted other operatic ventures on his own account ; but the cabals of rivals, chief among whom was Buononcini, and the waning interest in Italian opera, resulted in two finan- cial failures, during which his naturally rugged health gave way. 108 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 102. Later Iiife. Oratorios. Convinced at last that the Italian opera had had its day, he turned his attention to the oratorio, a form in which he had already gained success, and in which his hest work was eventually accomplished. His first oratorios had been written for the concerts which took Theme from the "Messiah." UaSIjJOCXaa^ *''^A, Si.T' *-* Amen Chorus. '^oWvA' \Kru^ ,a for vfina,), display. Even in recitative Bach maintained his elaborate and difficult, interweavings, while Handel's re citative is Italian iii_i±iiL emptiness. Both were equally backward in instrumenta- tion, relying on the organ for sonority. Handel thus appeals to a much larger public than Bach, while Bach demands more mentality for his comprehension. Although so closely related in their work, the two masters never met. Section 3 CHBIStQPHER WILLIBALD VON GLUCK, 1714-1787 107. Early Life. Though somewhat later in his work than the two preceding composers, Gluck demands a place with them, since he, too, attacked the frivolous tendencies of th& 112 OUTLINES OF MJTSIC HISTORY times, and was instrumental in attracting men's minds to better things. Born in Germany, of humble parents, he received a good education, studying instruments and sing- ing. In 1736 a Viennese patron sent him to Italy, where he studied counter- point and orchestration with Sammar- tini. Here several conventional Italian operas brought him into notice. Invited to London, he produced two operas at the Haymarket; but a subsequent failure, and Handel's scornful criticisms, determined him to study further. Visit- ing Paris, he was much affected by the dramatic character of Rameau's operas. On returning to Vienna he studied aesthetics, sought the society of literary men, and "wrote symphonies of a stereotyped character, and a more preten- tious opera. His work brought the honor of the title of " chevalier " from the Pope, and he became director of the Vienna Court Opera. Gluck 108. Later Life Revolutionary Period. His mind, how- ever, had long been maturing plans for a reform in the opera which should bring back the dominance of dramatic sincer- ity. With this purpose he produced his " Orfeo " in 1762, in which he partly exploited these ideas. In "Alceste," Part of Aria from " Orpheo.' Andaniino. I mourn my loved one dead, ij: -*- iHg: When each mom is M^^^ E^ ^ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 113 red, When day is dy - ing, when day is dy - lug, f f^T^^^ given in 1767, he proclaimed his principles in a polemical preface. This was followed by "Paris and Helen" in 1770. His boldness provoked severe criticism, and he became con- vinced by a member of the French legation that his proper field for action was in Paris. Proceeding thither, accord- ingly, he launched his theories, and, backed by influential friends, among them his former pupil at Vienna, Marie An- toinette, he produced " Iphig^nie en Aulide " at the Op6ra. This was so successful that he followed it by a revised ver- sion of "Orfeo," 1774 ; and by "Armide," 1777. But a strong opposition brought the talented Italian Piccinni to Paris, and for some time society was divided into two warring factions over the merits of the two composers. In a direct contest, in which each wrote a setting of " Iphig^nie en Tauride," Gluck won an unquestioned victory. 109. Gluok's Theories. Fitted by education and experience as a writer, Gluck was the first great musician qualified to present his theories in such a way as to command the atten- tion of the thinking men of the day. In these theories, and in his defence of them, he anticipated Wagner ; and it was only his lack of musical resources which prevented his taking a similar place. He is sometimes called the father of the music drama, since he insisted on the necessity for making everything, including the overture, choruses, and dances, contribute directly to the dramatic situation. The orchestra acquired much more character, notably by his use of certain groups of instruments to enforce situations and in his repre- ,114 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY sentation of moods by different tone-colors ; indeed, this very emphasis of individual situations tended to destroy the unity of details. Recitatives become freer and more expres- sive, while arias appear only in the form of shorter songs. Sometimes the striving after intensity of expression produces an overplus of embellishments. 110. Reformed Works. These are comparatively few in number. In " Orfeo," the first of them, his treatment dif- Dance of the Furies, from " Armide." Andante. fered from the hundred other settings which preceded him ; notably in the grand scene introductory to the second act, in which the entreating Orpheus is repulsed by the furies, and the barking of the three-headed monster Cerberus is delineated in the orchestra. The rest of the work is Italian in character, though the characteristic recitative and the short- ened arias point toward his later manner. In " Alceste " he OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 115 reached the climax of his dramatic style, while " Paris and Helen" has more subjective treatment, and is not so popular in character. " Iphig^nie en Aulide " shows a union of classic conceptions with the more modern and warmer hu- manizing spirit, which is displayed in impressive climaxes. In "Iphig^nie en Tauride" Gluck rose to his greatest heights, causing the text and music to correspond inti- mately. It is also free 'from the customary commonplaces^ and has greater unity and consistency. Gluck had no immediate followers, owing to the domi- nance of the Italian opera. The French Mehul was the first to carry on his theories, and in the realm of comic opera Dittersdorf also furthered them. Summary J. S. Bach inherited the spirit of the Germa n organ gc-hnnl, which had withstood Italian tendencies. T he fuprue form appealed especiaU y tn his |jp.nnia for investing complicated details with coherency, and thus his organ, clavier, and voice fugues attained an unsurpassable degree of perfection. His power of genuine expression extended also to other types of church music, and to dance forms; while, in addition, he wrote works in a freedom of style which pointed toward much later schools. Bach reached the climax of the instru- mental polyphonic style, based on simple harmonic design. Handel gained, thro ugh long, experience as an opera nnmt poser, the techni^ i?^ flf., t,h p j^ta.p ^e. Thus, when he turned to the sevp.re form fl f , tihp- nratmio. he applied to it stage methods, with such succies_s that a formerly heavy style of music came within the grasp of the people, who were able to comprehend and enjoy it in its more sincere and elevated setting. Gluck, a man of culture and power of thought, became dis- gusted with the triviality of Italian opera, in which he had himself gained success, and set himself the task of reviving dramatic truthfulness. In this he was seconded by many of 116 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the thinking minds in France, and as a result produced the works which effectually established his theories, and paved the way for future operatic reforms. READING "'^ C^j^OowOr^- Section 1 ^ ^ Spitta, Life of Bach. H QM.mX Biographies of Bach by Williams and Poole. , f\ f\ •- \ Parrt, Art of Music, chaps. 7, 8. Ujiali). UA,\-\^iSiV..i Famous Composers and their Works. q (\^ « ,^A Naumann, History, chap. 26. <~>- 140. Character. Beethoven exhibited a strange mixture of unworldliness and sublimity of thought. When engaged in composition, he frequently spent days apparently uncon- scious of his environment, sometimes performing absurd actions in his absent-mindedness. Yet his neglect of his person and surroundings did not at all extend to his writ- ings, which were scrupulously exact in notation, and were frequently reworked many times. His nature was that of a sturdy Teuton, of unimpeachable uprightness and depth and originality of thought; slow, moreover, to mature, in marked contrast to Mozart. In social circles his eccentric manners won him the title of an " original "; independent of spirit, he treated marks of rank with disdain. An enthusi- ast over democratic principles, he at first hailed Napoleon as the champion of liberty, dedicating to him his " Eroica " symphony; but on learning of Napoleon's election as Emperor, he trampled on the title-page in rage. With his contemporaries he mingled but little ; and his impatient spirit imfitted him for teaching, so that of his pupUs Ferdinand Mies alone attained eminence. His mind lent itself most readily to composition for the orchestra, and traces of this orchestral cast of thought are found in all his dther works. Many effects afterwards em- bodied in his symphonies were discovered by experiment upon the piano, so that the piano works are in musical re- 10 146 OUTLINES OP MUSIC HISTORY source generally in advance of the symphonic. From this it also follows that the division of his works into fixed periods is somewhat arbitrary, since these necessarily overlap. 141. Virtuosity. Like Mozart, Beethoven was eminent as a pianist, and was thus able to study the effect of his piano compositions upon his hearers. But, employing a piano which furnished far more resources, he was fitted to de- velop theise to the expression of much greater individuality. Thus we find sonorous effects, full, rich chords ; a more sus- tained style in these chords, and in the melodies, made possible by the fuller tone of the piano and by pedal assistance ; and the use of a greater compass, which gives not only more bril- hancy but also more contrast by the employment of different registers. In place of Mozart's light, delicate runs, we find runs with double notes, octaves, or interwoven with chords. 142. Piano Sonatas. The thirty-eight sonatas, extending from opus 2 to opus 111, and written from 1796 to 1822, claim first attention. The earlier ones have four move- ments, but later the niunber varies. Beethoven begins ap- parently where Haydn and Mozart left off, although in his very first sonata we find enlarged forms, and a depth of ex- pression in the slow movement never before attained. The sonata form, employed in the majority of his large works, gradually becomes more elastic, sometimes being prefixed by a slow introduction, as in the " Sonate Pathdtique," opus 13. The coda is finally enlarged to a fourth part. In the two sonatas, opus 27, the freedom in the use of form is a plausi- ble reason for calling them " FantasiarSonatas," while with the " Waldstein," opus 53, and the " Appassionata," opus 57, form is quite subordinated to vigorous emotional treatment. Titles are occasionally given, as an index to the general mood. In the last five sonatas, beginning with opus 101, Beethoven adopts a number of short movements, each em- bodying some intense personal expression, and all connected OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 147 by the principle of contrast ; while in the free use of form he even returns to the fugue, which is embodied in a free polyphony, mingled with modern harmonies. Pertinency and connection of thought are most noticeable in the sonatas. The themes are short, sharply defining the key, while the more tender second theme contrasts with the vigorous first. In the connecting passages the transition is made so organic by the continued use of thematic material, that there is no percfeptible break in the thought, the ideas overlapping and coalescing perfectly with one another, with an infrequent appearance of the full cadence. Other de-; vices for unity are sequences, the piling up of climaxes, and the use of characteristic subordinate figures. Emotional ideas are emphasized by decided and original rhythms and accents, for which Beethoven employed an unheard-of number of expression marks. His slow movements, full of deep feeling, are generally in the abridged sonata form, or the rondo form. The minuet, when used, becomes later the lighter and quicker scherzo* while the last movement is frequently cast in a union of the sonata and rondo forms invented by Beethoven, and attains a climax of intensity in contrast to the somewhat trivial style of the earlier writers. Although there is seldom thematic unity between the movements, the organic unity of thought in each sonata is quite evident. 143. other Piano Compositions. Beethoven showed equal progress in his numerous variations, in which he finally comes to treat the theme with a marvellous command of resources, varying it not only melodically, but also rhythmically and harmonically. Among his solo piano works there are also a number of rondos, bagatelles, waltzes, etc. The five piano concertos embody the technical resources of the times ; these, however, are always subordinated to the musical content. In the fourth and fifth, which are the most elaborate, he abandoned his former custom of allow- 148 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ing extemporizatioa in the cadenzas, writing the entire movement in full 144. Orchestral 'Works. Beethoven wrote nine overtures and nine symphonies, adopting for these the orchestra as constituted by Haydn and Mozart. The clarinet is a fixed member, while other instruments, especially trombones, Themes from the Fifth Symphony. First Movement, Ist Theme. Allegro con brio. ^1:^=3^ ^ ^-?^-^ ^-^ ^^^^ Second Movement. Andante Con th oJo. appear occasionally. The climax in number of instru- ments occurs in the ninth symphony, where extra horns, a piccolo, double bassoon, triangle, cymbals, big drum, and voices are added. The string compass is much extended by Beethoven, and the 'cellos are separated from the basses. He has perfect command over the individuality of the OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 149 instruments, using each for its particular shade of expre^ sion. His scoring is full and normal, never blatant. The development of the wind band gives especial opportunities for contrast of tone color ; and in this direction wonderful effects are frequently obtained by the simplest means, as with the horn trio in the scherzo of the third symphony. The first and second symphonies, in C and D, follow Mozart closely; the third, " Eroica," asserts the master hand; the fourth, in B flat, is subjective in feeling; the fifth, in C minor, most popular of all, is compact and vigorous ; the sixth, in F, is called the " Pastorale," and contains descrip- tions of nature ; the seventh is in A ; the eighth, in F, is bright and joyous ; while in the great choral symphony, num- ber nine, in D minor, he oversteps all boundaries, finally call- ing the chorus to his aid. In form, the symphonies', except the ninth, show the same characteristics as the piano sonatas, except that the movements are always four in num- ber. The enlargement of the coda was an outcome of his genius for thematic development, which invested each move- ment with constantly increasing intensity. Modulations, and key transitions between the movements, are of much greater variety, and are employed to emphasize particular moods. 145. other 'Works. Beethoven's chamber works include string quartets, trios, sonatas for piano with violin or 'cello, two octets, a septet, and a celebrated violin concerto, all displaying characteristics similar to those already discussed. His principal vocal work is the opera " Fidelio," for which he wrote four overtures. Of these the third is most popular. The music of this opera, written in Italian forms, is grand and impressive, with orchestration which paints the climaxes with great intensity. It did not however affect the devel- opment of opera to any great extent, since it did not assert any especially new forms. Many settings of folk-songs, and original songs of great beauty, besides choruses and cantatas, make up the list of 150 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Beethoven's other vocal works. Especially noteworthy are his oratorio "The Mount of Olives " and the " Missa Solen- nis " in D, an imposing and difficult work, adapted to the concert hall rather than the church. Section 2 Franz Schubert, 1797-1828 146. Life. Schubert passed the most of his uneventful and commonplace life in Vienna, existing only for his music, which filled his every thought. One of nineteen children, he was born in Lichtenthal, a district of Vienna, and was educated in viohn and piano playing by his father and brothers, who were school teachers. At ten he was a choir boy in the parish church, receiving what appears to have been somewhat superficial instruction in theory from the choir master; and the next year he attended the Konvict, a school which prepared boys for the Im- perial Chapel. Here he suffered many privations, but his remarkable musical gifts, displayed in his violin playing and compositions for the school orchestra, made him popular with his fellow pupils and teachers. These early attempts at composition were pretentious, and show an irregularity of form which indicates his romantic tendencies. At sixteen he began to teach in his father's school, in order to avoid military service. His musical genius already displayed itself in a multitude of songs of every character, which he poured forth in a continuous stream all his life. Even the earliest of these showed his remarkable ability for adapting music to the sentiment of the text, a notable instance of which was the " Erlking," writ- ten in 1815. A mass, performed in 1814 in the Lichtenthal church, excited much enthusiasm, and was followed by an Schubert OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 151 opera, another mass, and other large Works. After three years he resolved to set out by himself upon a strictly musi- cal career, and accordingly took lodgings with a friend in Vienna. In such Bohemian surroundings his remaining life, was passed. His retiring and modest disposition prevented him from attracting much attention, and the sales of hi^ works brought a scant income. A few friends appreciated his abilities, notably the singer Vogl, who performed his songs and gave him practical advice ; but numerous rebuffs from the public and publishers wounded his sensitive nature. Beethoven recognized his genius only when too late to be of any assistance ; and Schubert died in poverty and neglect. 147. Character. Schubert had a kindly disposition. He was content to remain in a narrow circle, and was always cheer- ful and free from jealousy. He has been called the least schooled of the great musicians, and his melodic facility seems to have constrained him to throw aside the prescribed limits of structure, especially in his larger works. Yet this very freedom enabled him to indulge in a wealth of intimate melodic expression which has sometimes been characterized as possessing " heavenly length," and of which the occasional diffuseness was redeemed by emotional sincerity. Everything tends toward the simple utterance of feeling. Possessed by a given mood, he often repeats passages, sometimes with slight alterations ; wavering between major and minor, as if revelling in the melody he has evoked. Schubert wrote with great rapidity, sometimes completing several songs in a single day. This rapidity of thought, however, made him averse to revising his compositions, as did Beethoven. 148. The Gennaa Lied. The art-song developed late in Germany, owing to a lack of poetry in the vernacular and to the need of extraordinary musical resources to voice the language and concentrated thought of the Germans. The volkslied, developed by the Mastersingers, was hidden dur- ing the Italian dominance, showing, however, through the 162 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY songs of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Schubert now voices his personality in the lied, bringing it to a high state of perfection. The melody is appropriate, and though always predominant, yet has a fitting setting in the accompaniment. The lieder thus endowed fall into three general classes: first, the folk-manner songs, in which the same tune is repeated for each verse ; second, the durchkomponirtes song, in which the melody follows each word and sentiment ; and third, the ballad, or narrative song. 149. Songs. In his more than six hundred songs Schu- bert uses aU these forms, writing mainly in the first two styles, which are frequently blended. This latter effect is produced by setting several verses to the same tune, and then intensifying it for the remaining ones, as in " Du bist die Ruh" and the "Linden Tree"; or by changing from major to minor, or the reverse, as in " Gute Nacht " of the " Winter's Journey." Each song is made to express a dom- Hunter's Evening Song (Jagers Abendlied). Lento e piano. (Sehr langsatn, leise.) inant mood; and this is treated in a general manner, as in "Sylvia" and "Das Wandem"; more specifically, as in " Death and the Maiden " and the " Erlking " ; dramatically, as in " Prometheus " ; or descriptively, as with " Auf dem Wasser zu singen." Love, religion, nature, and ecstasy, as in " Hark, hark, the Lark ! " are his themes, and his poetry he drew from all sources ; mainly, however, from Klopstock, Schiller, Goethe, Miiller, and Matthisson. In his use of an OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 153 immeuse variety of resources, he shows how completely he was dominated by the spirit of the poem ; indeed, his music so accurately reflects this that many inferior poems have My Fback thou art (Du bist die Ruh). Larghetto. (Langsam.) My peace thou art, thou art my rest ; From thee my pain, in correspondingly inferior music. His song cycles, the " Mil- ler's Daughter" and the "Winter's Journey," embrace examples of every style, each song having its peeuUar at- mosphere. Besides solo songs, he wrote part-songs for male, female, and mixed chorus. 150. Chamber Mnsic. Schubert's most elaborate piano works are the twenty-four sonatas, which, although replete with charming ideas, have never appealed to virtuosi on ac- 154 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY count of their great length. His short pieces — impromptus, moments musicals, etc. — are dainty bits, full of contrasts of style, harmonic shadings, and gems of melody. They all require a fluent and reposeful technique. The variations in B flat are unsurpassed for reflned tonal, painting. Simple forms, like those of the aria and the old dance, prevail in these genre pieces. His waltzes and four-hand polonaises and marches have much national color. Of his music for strings, the quartets in D minor and G major and the quintet in C major are especiallj' significant ; while his violin pieces also have much refined beauty. 151. Symphonic and Choral Works. It was long before the worth of Schubert's nine symphonies was recognized 5 but of these the symphony in C major and the " Unfinished" Theme from Andante op C major Symphony. Oboe. Andante con moto. P ^ con mow , ^m >. >. ri* 4 nnmj strings. "^^ m^^E^ ^^m =B^= m ^ 4 ^ r-^ Wfrrrrrr - j j»_ g ^ m B minor are now considered worthy of a place beside Beethoven's works. The former symphony, though of great length, holds the attention through its virile rhythms and accents, its scherzo effects, and its fund of melody, exploited in a conversational style between the various instruments, rather than by polyphonic devices. The two movements of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 165 the latter are favorites through their sympathetic and emo- tional song-style. Of other orchestral works, the incidental music to his opera " Rosamunde " is deservedly popular. Schubert's essentially lyric style unfitted him for operatic composition, so that his singspiele and operas never attained success. In the field of church music his masses, notably those in A flat and E flat, are still sung, although they are not of exceptional importance. Section 3 CARL MARIA VON WEBER (1786-1826) AND CONTEMPORARIES 152. Early Life. Weber, the descendant of a line of im- pecunious barons, was the first great musician of aristocratic birth. His father, a man of loose habits and constantly in debt, was a wandering musician and actor. Carl Maria was born at Eutin, where his father had settled for a time as town musician with his second wife, a singer. Carl showed such musical gifts that, though he was a delicate child, his father became ambitious to make him a second Mozart. He placed him under Michael Haydn's instruction, also bring- ing out two of his youthful operatic at- tempts with indifferent success. Weber, however, advanced rapidly in piano playing, and showed exceptional talent for extemporizing. He finally studied with the brilliant Ahbe Vogler in Vienna, who attracted his attention to folk-music, and through whose influence he obtained a conductorship at Breslau, at the age of eighteen. Here he successfully managed the opera and gained expe- rience as orchestra conductor; but he fell into dissipated habits and his health gave way. Both of these drawbacks were aggravated when he became secretary to the king's Webek 166 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY brother Louis, at Wurtemberg. Here his difficulties cuhni- nated in his arrest and banishment, for his own and his father's debts. 153. Later Life. This event marked a turning point in Weber's character. Proceeding to Mannheim, he engaged in serious work as pianist and composer. Here he made friends with the theorist Gottfried Weber and the Jew Beer (after Two Themes pkom Sopkano Recitative and Abia prom " Dbr FKEISCHiJTZ." Adagio, j Soft - ly sigh - ing, day is dy - ing, Soar, my prayer, beav'n - ward fly-ing, Vivace. How ev' - ry pulse is fly - ing. And my heart beats loud and fast, wards Meyerbeer^, then a rival pianist. Two operas proved fairly successful,, and his fame spread. After a long German concert tour, during which his father died, he was appointed musical director at the Prague theatre, where he successfully reorganized the company, and won popular favor after Na- poleon's banishment by writing national songs. In 1816, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 15T leaving Prague, he undertook to organize a German opera at Dresden, in opposition to the Italian troupe. In the nine years spent here, during which he married an opera singer, he was much harassed by intrigues and by poor health. " Der Freischutz," produced at Berhn in 1821, provoked much harsh criticism, while " Euryanthe," performed at Vienna in 1823^ met with indifferent success. Though in wretched health, he accepted an invitation to visit England, and in 1826, in London, brought out his " Oberon," which was received with acclaim. A following concert was less successful, and as he was preparing to return home he died suddenly. His burial was conducted with great marks of honor. 154. The Romantic Opera. Weber was eminently fitted to be the founder of German opera by his temperament, which Themes from Weber's Concertstuck. Larghetto. March of the Crusaders Orchestra. . i ^ ? ^H^^u^^-^-^ 4-J I J f-^^=f^ ,E^^^^ Assai presto. III^ ^^/ TS- ■^^^.^^k.-^r^Tl:. 158 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY flew from the extreme of gaiety to the extreme of morbid- ness ; by his national spirit, voiced in his folk-style melodies and his love of mysticism ; and by his education in stage- craft and orchestral music. The romantic opera, which he thus established on lines leading directly to Wagner, was derived from the eighteenth century sifigspiel, which had already been used in Dittersdorf's operas, and was suggested ^ by Mozart in his " Magic Flute." Formed by the union of the commonplace with the supernatural, its subjects were drawn from both mediaeval and modern sources. It included four chief elements, — the imaginative, the national, the comic, and the realistic. The supernatural was embodied sometimes in a delicate fairy atmosphere, as in " Oberon," and sometimes in a suggestion of the weird and dreadful, as with the demon hunter in " Der Freischiitz." 155. Operas. " Der Freischiitz " is an epoch-marking work. It deals for the first time with German peasant life, which is surrounded by genuine folk-music. It retains the spoken dialogue of the singapiel, and completes the romantic style by its supernatural atmosphere and landscape music. Both " Euryanthe " and " Oberon " were ultimately less success- ful, owing chiefly to their weak librettos. Spoken dialogue, absent from the former, reappears again in the latter, which has charming pictures of elfland, chivalry, and the Orient. Weber's delineation of character in his music is a striking feature, for even in concerted numbers the traits of each per- son are kept distinct in the music assigned them. In the grand seena, Weber merges the recitative and aria, producing thrilling climaxes from quiet and reposeful beginnings. But his orchestration is his most remarkable achievement. The overtures, which combine airs from the operas, are com- pact in form and brilliant in effect. During the opera, great dramatic heights are reached by utilizing special tones and registers, and even the defects of the instruments. Nothing has ever been written which approaches in weirdness and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 159 intensity such a scene as that in the Wolf's Glen, in " Der Freischiitz." 156. Other Works. Weber was no less brilliant as a pianist, and his large hand caused him to elaborate au orchestral style which, proceeding mainly from the school of Mozart and Hummel, was the precursor of Liszt's technical feats. Long stretches, jumps, glissandos, and passages in thirds and sixths are common ; while the use of arpeggio figures in sequence gives sparkling cascades of sound. His works include four irregular sonatas, ten sets of variations, three concertos, four-hand pieces, and salon pieces, the last-named including the popular " Invitation to the Dance." The "Concertstiick," for piano and orchestra, in its depiction of a scene from chivalry, is a forerunner of the symphonic poem. Other works include chamber music of various kinds^ concertos for the clarinet, an instrument of which Weber was fond, masses, part-songs, cantatas, etc. 157. Louis Spohr (1784-1859). Born at Brunswick, of mu- sical parents, Spohr early showed a predilection for the violin. He gained his musical education by the practice of this instrument and by the close study of orchestral scores. In later years he travelled extensively as a violin virtuoso, accompanied by his wife, a harpist, and occupied leading positions as conductor. His most important works were written while chapelmaster to the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, which position he held continuously after 1822. Spohr's best work was in his fifteen violin concertos, still performed. Of ten operas, "Faust" and " Jessonda" are prominent, while of his oratorios, dis- tinguished by solid choruses and effective orchestration, the " Last Judgment " is best. Besides these he wrote various Spohr 160 OUTLINES- OF MUSIC HISTORY other vocal work^ much chamber music, and nine sympho- nies, which show his romantic tendencies in their titles, such as the "Consecration of Sound." Though thematic and smooth, his works are not great contrapuntally. All have purity of style and beauty of melody, which sometimes, however, become tiresome through mannerisms. His cho- ruses are rendered difficult by chromatic work. Brusque and conceited in manner, he was a poor critic ; yet he was kindly at heart, was much respected, and left many pupils. 158. Piano Flaying. The Viennese school, an outcome of the work of J. C. Bach and Mozart, claims as its founder Mozart's pupil, J. N. Hummel (1778-1837), the most brilr liant virtuoso of his day, who pushed to extravagance Mozart's love of ornament. His piano concertos and his masses are still popular. The English school, based on the heavier Broadwood action, took on a more ponderous tone. It found exponents in Beethoven and the technician Muzio Olementi (1752- 1832), who was active as virtuoso, teacher, composer, instru- ment maker, and publisher, spending much time in England. Highly respected by Beethoven, he embodied the results of his teaching in his " Gradus ad Parnassum," three volumes of studies for the piano. The two piano schools afterward overlapped. Many books were written, laying down pedantic rules for tech- nique ; and a horde of virtuosi, having Vienna as their focal point, made display their chief aim, playing frivolous opera arrangements and descriptive pieces, yet solving technical problems. Extemporizing gradually disappeared. The es- tablishment of the Paris Conservatoire, in 1795, produced many salon composers, such as Kalkbrenmr and Rerz. The Hungarian J. L. JDussek (1761-1812), one of the first to write exclusively for the piano, composed clear and melodious sonatas. The etude did much to evolve technical possibilities. Oarl OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 161 Csemi/ (1791-1857), pupil of Beethoven, wrote many Etudes while a teacher at Vienna. Of his pupils were J. B. Cramer (1771-1858), distinguished as pianist, teacher a&d ^tude writer ; Ludwig Berger, Mendelssohn's teacher ; and John Field (1782-1837), a virtuoso who finally settled in St. Petersburg, and wrote many charming and delicately em- bellished melodies in the form of the nocturne. ">^^'^-^^; L-^^f<4 ^^-VvCCtj;(. Tl.r , O X"i_ > Summary Beethoven, starting his work where Haydn and Mozart left off, imprinted more and more upon their forms the ele- ment of individual expression. In his later works, formal lines were entirely subordinated, and the heights and depths of emotion were sounded. Primarily an orchestral com- poser, he used each instrument to express its peculiar shade of meaning, and imbued his other works with this orchestral cast and style. Schubert, of gentler nature, spoke more naturally in the lyric vein, although, as in his symphonies, he sometimes wields thrilling rhythmic force. Though unequal in merit, his songs yet embrace gems whicli mark the perfection of sympathy between voice and accompaniment, and of propor- tion in structure. The romantic spirit is here reflected in the intense individuality of each song. Weber was preeminently a dramatic composer, and as such founded the German romantic opera, ideally realized in "Der Freischiitz." The brilliancy and pertinency of his melodies and orchestration are reflected in his other works, notably those for the piano. Spohr's concertos for the violin, and other large works, show a classic style with romantic tendencies. His man- nerisms detract from tlie permanent value of his works. Piano virtuosity was popular in this period ; and the Vien- nese and English schools of playing, becoming merged, pro- duced brilliant players whose chief contribution to music was the solution of difiicult technical problems. 11 162 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY READING LIST Section 1 Biographies of Beethoven by Schindler, Budall, and Nohl. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 12. Oxford History, vol. 5. Baltzell, History, lessons 32, 33. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chap. 32. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 26. Grove's Dictionary, article on Beethoven. Grove, Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies. GoEPP, Symphonies and their Meanings, 2 vols. Histories of Piano Playing by Weitzmann and Bie. Fillmore, History of Pianoforte Music. KuLLAK, Beethoven's Pianoforte Playing. Shedlock, The Pianoforte Sonata. Henderson, How Music Developed; The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. Mason, Beethoven and his Forerunners. MoscHELEs, Recent Music and Musicians ; Beethoven's Letters. Elbon, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. Section 2 Biography of Schubert by Frost, and that in Grove's Dictionary. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chap. 33. Baltzell, History, lesson 42. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 28. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers. Elson, History of German Song. Grove's Dictionary, article on the Song. Oxford History, vol. 5, chap. 12. Histories of Pianoforte Playing by Weitzmann and Bie. Fillmore, Plistory of Pianoforte Music. Wkingartner, The Symphony Since Beethoven. GoEPP, Symphonies and their Meanings, 2 vols. Upton, The Standard Symphonies. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. Section 3 Nadmann, History, vol. 2, chaps. 33, 34. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 27, 29. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 163 Oxford History, vol. 5. Uenperson, How Music Developed. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Singspiel, Weber, Spohr, etc. MosCHELES, Recent Music and Musicians. Biographies of Weber by Max von Weber, Benedict, ,Krehbiel (in Famous Composers and their Works, series 1). Baltzell, History, chaps. 41 and 43. Histories of Piano Playing by Weitzraann and Bie. Henderson, Preludes and Studies. Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. S1REATFEI1.D, The Opera. Elson, History of the Opera. Fillmore, History of Pianoforte Music. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. CHAPTER VIII The Great Nineteenth Cbntubt Romanticists 159. General Tendencies. Incited by the work of the com- posers just studied, succeeding musicians tended from the expression of individual moods toward more definiteness of meaning, and finally toward musical realism. New forms were sought out, intricate successions of dissonances were employed to give thought continuity, and the emotional re- sources of instruments were enlarged by much study. Jhe five leaders now to be discussed contributed, each in a dif- ferent way, toward these result^. They are representative of the musical tlionght during the nineteenth century ranging from that school which acknowledges the value of classic traditions to that which is absolutely defiant of conservatism. Section 1 FELIX mendelssohn-bartholdy, 1809-1847 160. Early Life. Mendelssohn belonged to a cultivated and wealthy Jewish family. His grandfather, Moses, was noted as a philosopher, while his father, Abraham, a Protes- tant Jew, was a prosperous banker. Felix was born at Hamburg, and when that city was occupied by the French he was taken to Berlin, where the Mendelssohn house be- came the centre of refined society. Receiving a thorough education in all branches, in music he was taught at first, to- gether with his sister Fanny, by their mother, and afterward by Bp.rger and Zdter, the latter of whom introduced him to Goethe, who conceived a warm attachment for him. Felix's OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 165 development as an extemporizer on the piano and as a com- poser was marvellous. Tlie Sunday morning concerts held at the Mendelssohns' home, at which the boy conducted an orchestra which often performed his original symphonies and other works, were the delight of the many prominent musicians who frequented them. At fifteen he had written four operas, and on a visit to Paris he won praise from so severe a critic as Cherubini. In 1826 his overture to " A Midsummer Night's Dream " was written, and in the same year his opera " The Marriage of Cama- cho" was given at Berlin. Becoming Mendelssohn enthusiastic over Bach, he revived appreciation of his music by giving the St. Matthew " Passion Music " in 1829, for the first time since Bach's death, with the Berlin Shu/akademie. A visit to London, where he played and directed his C minor symphony, won hosts of friends, who were charmed by his manners no less than by his music. This was followed by travels in Scotland and Wales. During subsequent visits to Italy, Paris, and again to London, he reigned everywhere as a social favorite, meanwhile laboring assiduously upon his compositions. 161. Later Life. In 1833 he was made director of the Diis- seldorf festival, and in 1835 he conducted the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic and the festival at Cologne. In the following year he produced his oratorio of " St. Paul " at Dusseldorf. After his marriage, in 1837, his life continued to be filled with constant composing, social engagements, and conducting, notably at the Birmingham festivals. An at- tempt to found a music academy at Berlin, under a com- mission from the king of Prussia, proved troublesome and fruitless ; but in 1843 he became director and teacher in the new I^eipsic Conservatory. One of his latest works was 166 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the production in 1846 of his oratorio "Elijah," at Bir- mingham. Undermined by overwork, he was unable to stand the shock of the death of his beloved sister Fanny, and he himself died in the following year. • 162. Character. Mendelssohn differs from most great com- posers in that h^ lived a successful, fgted life, free from great troubles or anxieties. His sunny disposition, and his love of nature and society, made him a universal favorite, and won many friends. Yet for this very reason, his works, while showing remarkable refinement and taste, do not rise to Beethovenish heights of passion. In an age tending strongly toward license of expression he did much toward restoring the balance by his devotion to the classics ; and with this devotion was united a poetic nature which invested the old forms with the ideas of romanticism. Like Mozart, he seems to have sprung forth a fully developed musician, writing works which he never surpassed, such as the overture to " A Midsummer Night's Dream," while a mere boy. His painstaking system of composition, which caused him to pore for hours over the polishing of a single phrase, is ex- hibited in the forty-four manuscript volumes of his works, which, begun in 1820, and written with scrupulous accuracy, are now preserved in the Imperial Library in Berlin. Men- delssohn was followed by scores of imitators, especially in England, who slavishly copied his style. 163. Compositiona. Three principal styles are distinguished. The first, the religious, is shown in broad, smooth melodies, plain in rhythms, sometimes chorale-like in character, and supported by churchly, full, and close harmonies, with fre- quent suspensions. Larger works end frequently with a grand fugue, worked up to an imposing climax, which some- times ends in a fuU chorale. The second, brilliant, style is displayed in passage work, notably in the large piano com- positions, made up of attractive technical figures woven into OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 167 tonal avalanches. The third, mystic, style appears in his elfin, staccato manner, blended in chromatic progressions, and joined in his orchestral works to romantic instrumental ef- Opening of Midsummer Night's Dream Overture, showing "fairy" theme. Allegro vivace. E efefc3:j=D ^i^ ^^m fects. His chief defects are monotony of rhythm and fre- quent mannerisms. Sometimes, too, the polished and elegant treatment is a cover for poverty of thematic material. 164. Piano Compositions. The ever-popular forty-eight "Songs Without Words" are little tone-pictures, in the simplest forms, with poetic, sometimes sentimental melo- dies, enhanced by rich harmonies. Models of deheacy are found in the "Spring Song," and the "Spinning Song"; while the " Gondellieder " evoke memories of the Italian atmosphere. The youthful " Rondo capriccioso " combines Mendelssohn's various characteristics of style. The vari- 168 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ations, caprices, Etudes, fantasias, preludes, and fugues all possess his refinement of expression, sometimes combined with his faults. Several sonatas are less successful; but the works for piano and orchestra, notably the concertos in G and D minor, and the Capriccio in B minor, are distin- guished for great brilliancy and compact form. ■'\ Theme from Third Organ Sonata, illustrating "religious" STYLE. Andante tfanguillo 165. Organ Works. Mendelssohn and Bach were the only great composers to write distinctive organ works. In his preludes and sIk organ sonatas, Mendelssohn adopts a broad and sonorous style in keeping with the instrument. The sonatas are not in the form of the piano sonata, but contain fugues, chorales, and expressive airs on classic lines, of a seriousness which occasionally inclines toward monotony. 166. Other Instrumental Works. In his orchestral works Mendelssohn appears at his best. Using substantially the same orcliestra as Beethoven, he wrote with a smoothness and polish which make his scores well worthy of the stu- dent's attention. New effects, like- the division of the violins in the "Midsummer Night's Dream" overture, add romantic color. Bpth symphonies and overtures have gen- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 169 eral titles as clews to their purposes or moods, although the classic forms are invariably retained. Of the sympl)onies, the " Reformation," which includes a treatment of Martin Luther's Chorale and the Dresden Amen, is dry and unin- teresting ; the " Italian " gives a German poet's conception of Italian environment; while the "Scotch" has real local color in its use of the Scotch scale and rhythms. The over- tures were written solely for concert performance, and show much vigor and inspiration in their nature painting, as in the " Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage," and the " Hebrides." To the charming " Midsummer Night's Dream " overture was Themes from the Scotch Symphony. First movement theme. Allegro un poco agUaio. ^t ^ ^ f — I? ^ - • — ^ * Vnb- fe :- *i(.r_^_ — iiz=|z: zBgEESZEEEgpg^ =(?-^= &c. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 209 struck a new note of dramatic power which steadily in- creased. His reputation spread to France and to England, where he was invited to conduct one of his operas. After a number of less important works, he brought out his great successes : " Rigoletto," in 1851 ; " II Trovatore " and "Traviata," both in 1853; and the "Sicilian Vespers," at Paris, in 1855. All these show a decided growth in dramatic sincerity, so that Verdi was prepared by his own experiences and by his quickness in assimilating the new ideas of Wagner to write his maturest works, — " Aida " in 1871, "Otello" in 1887, and "Falstaff" in 1893. In these the orchestra is treated in a masterly manner, the recitatives are enriched, and formal melodies are less fre- quent. The excellent librettos to " Otello " and " Falstaff " were the work of Boito (1842- ), himself the composer of " Mefistofele," produced in 1868, an opera of signal merit. Verdi wrote twenty-seven operas, besides some church music, which included his "Manzoni Requiem" (1874), a fine work in his later style, and the beautiful and melodious " Stabat Mater." 206. Charles Frangois Gounod (1818-1893). A thorough Parisian, Gounod fed his early musical enthusiasm upon the works of Weber, Rossini, and especially Mozart. In 1836 he entered the Con- servatoire, where he graduated with the Prix de Rome. Repairing to Italy, he made there an exhaustive study of the works of Palestrina and Bach. On his return he was so discouraged by the refusal of Parisian publishers to buy his songs, and by the failure of " Sapho," his first opera, that he contemplated tak- ing holy orders. But several other works, though partly unsuccessful, attracted attention ; and his " Cecilia Mass," in 1855, brought him to the forefront 14 Gounod 210 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY of popularity. This was followed by the op^ra comique "Le M^dicin malgrd lui," a gem of refined setting, in 1858 ; and in 1859 his " Faust " was performed at the The- atre lyrique. The latter, perhaps the most famous opera extant, won its way more and more into popularity. It appeared in 1869, with an additional ballet, at the Paris Portion of Love Duet in "Faust." Op^ra, where it has since been performed over one thousand times. Its attracti veness comes from the ravishingly sensuous and vocal charm of its music, which, without resorting to the device of the Wagnerian leitmotiv, yet emotionally char- acterizes each person and scene, embracing varied and inter- esting recitatives between its charming solos and ensembles. After the graceful and delicate comic opera "Philemon and Bancis," produced in 1860, Gounod wrote other grand operas, of which the most noted, " La Reine de Saba " and " Romeo and Juliet," are inferior to " Faust," by reason of their evi- dent mannerisms. While in London, where he lived during the Franco-Prussian war, he wrote the cantata " Gallia " for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall in 1871 ; and of his oratorios the " Redemption " was produced at the Birming- ham festival in 1882, and the "Mors et Vita" in 1885. Through these Gounod came to occupy a position toward modern English music analogous to that formerly held by OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 211 Handel and Mendelssohn, since he inspired a crowd of followers. His religious music, though occasionally empty and inclined toward sentimentaUsm, yet contains rare melodies and grand climaxes. His orchestration has many mannerisms, such as his use of the harp, which tend to weaken it. Many tasteful and elegant songs came also from his pen. 207. other French Composers. These accomplished work involving novelty and finesse of execution in their particular field, the op^ra comique. Under Wagner's influence the style of Meyerbeer became less conspicuous, giving way to a more genuine spirit, while the prominence of the recitative caused the name of opSra comique to give place to that of drame lyrique. The following are the leaders : Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896) entered the Conservatoire in 1828, winning the Grand Prix. After 1838 he wrote many operas, of which the principal ones are "Mignon" and " Hamlet," in style refined and melodious, though light. Seguidilla from Bizet's " Carmen." Jip Carmen. 212 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY From 1871 he was the director of the Conservatoire, suc- ceeding Auber in the post. Felicien David (1810-1876) was the first to use Oriental color, a characteristic exhibited in his symphonic poem " Le Desert " and his opera " Lalla Rookh." Greorges Bizet (1838-1875) wrote several operas, of which the last and greatest is " Carmen," produced in 1875. This contains strong Spanish color, brilliant orchestration, and sustained verve. He is the first Frenchman to show Wag- ner's influence. The greatest work of Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) is « Le Roi d'Ys," intensely tragic in atinosphere. He also wrote excellent orchestral and chamber music. Leo Delihes (1836-1891) wrote " Lakm^," an Oriental opera, in graceful and finished style. Typically French, he excels in ballet music. Alexis Emmanuel Chahrier (1841—1894) wrote brilliant orchestral and chorus works, besides two striking operas, — " Gwendoline," an opera drama, and " Le Roi malgre lui," an op^ra comique. Benjamin Crodard (1849-1895) wrote clever piano pieces and chamber music, beside a conventional but piquant opera, " La Vivandi^re." Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880) was the originator of the popular opera louffe. His keen and melodious music is dis- played in many burlesque and satirical operas. Many fol- lowers, among them Audran and Planquette, carried on his style. Summary In the first half of the nineteenth centuiy the centres of operatic activity were France, Italy, and Germany. In Paris the chief composers for the Op^ra were either Italians or Germans. Of the former, the purist Cherubini, and several of Gluck's followers, wrote in a formal and grandiose style, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 213 until Rossini appeared to revivify Italian opera by the use of a number of devices which increased its dramatic effectiveness. Rossini's popularity was eventually, howe^'er, overshad- owed by that of the German Meyerbeer, whose laboribusly written operas were a compendium of external, sensational effects, often degenerating to the level of clap-trap. In Italy, Bellini and Donizetti wrote on Rossini's lines, in lyric rather than dramatic style, however, and with much genuine, attractive melody. A number of Germans followed in the footsteps of Weber, mostly with semi-comic operas founded on the singspiel. No one attained the highest rank, however, until the advent of Richard Wagner, who, with indomitable perseverance under all sorts of difficulties, finally succeeded in overcom- ing the most virulent opposition, and establishing firmly his chief contentions. His most important theory asserted the unity of the arts, and the consequent interdependence of music and poetry. This he attempted to realize in his music dramas with mythological subjects, in which the leitmotiv heard continually in the orchestra comments upon the musi- cal declamation. His bold flights of orchestral polyphony, and his invention of new material, immensely enlarged the resources of music. Verdi, the Italian, lived a long life of continual progress from a light Italian style to a grandeur inspired by Wagner. His works are full of dramatic fire. Many Frenchmen excelled in the field of opdra comique, which finally came under the influence of Wagner's style.. Gounod, especially through the sensuous music of his "Faustj" was perhaps the most influential. • • I \ READING LIST Section 1 Raltzei,!., History, lessons 2.3, 37, 38, 39. Dickinson, The Study of Music History, chaps. 36, 37. 214 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. Streatfeild, The Opera. Elson, Critical History of Opera. Upton, The Standard Operas. Annesley, The Standard Opera Glass. Henderson, How Music Developed. Grove's Dictionary, articles on the opera. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chaps. 34, 36, 37. Hervet, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. Famous Composers and their Works, articles on Rossini, and others. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4. Section 2 The Wagner literature is very voluminous and varied. Works sug- gested are only those considered most helpful. Lavignac, The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Henderson, Richard Wagner. FiNCK, Wagner and his Works, 2 vols. Newman, A Study of Wagner. Krbhbiei,, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. 1. Henderson, The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. Weston, Legends of the Wagnerian Drama. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Nattmann, History, chap. 38. Baltzell, History, lesson 40. Grove's Dictionary, article on Wagner. Books on the history of Opera cited under section 1. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 38. Wagner, Prose Works and Letters. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. Section 3 Baltzell, History, lessons 89, 51, 52. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 40, 41. Books on the Opera cited under section 1. Articles on the composers in Grove's Dictionary. Crowest, Verdi. Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music ; Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 16 (Verdi). OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 215 Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Famous Composers and their Works, articles. HuNEKER, Overtones, chap. 7. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4. Terpsichore CHAPTER X Other Nineteenth Century Composers 208. Sources. From the study of leading nineteenth century musicians it is evident that Germany maintained her supremacy, producing composers, writers on music, con- ductors, orchestras, and. all kinds of musical institutions. Musicians of other nationalities, too, frequently studied in Germany, and became so grounded in German musical styles as to be classed ultimately with the musicians of their adopted country. ' Others, however, of these students who had become fired with the enthusiasm grown from their intercourse with Ger- man composers and institutions, on returning to their own countries, sought to develop there new styles which should express the character of "their own people. The result was a study of the scales, rhythms, harmonies, and melodies which had lain dormant among the peasant class for centuries, sometimes the undeveloped offspring of mediaeval modes, which had survived in the folk-songs and popular dances. Thus exotic forms of music sprang to the fore, presented by composers animated by patriotic zeal, and enriching material which was in danger of becoming hackneyed. Bohemia, Scandinavia, and Russia contributed the largest share of the new ideas, and a number of musicians in these lands attained a high degree of excellence, giving an impetus to music study which is still active. Section 1. MTTSIC IN GERMANY AND BOHEMIA 209. Johannes Brahms (1833-1897). Born at Hamburg the son of a double-bass player, Brahms, while a boy, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 217 attained 'a mastery over the piano and musical theory, and made his d^but as a concert pianist at the age of four- teen, playing a set of original variations upon a folk-song air. The following years, to 1853, were spent in study, after which he went on a tour with the violinist Remenyi, meeting Joachim, Liszt, and Schumann. The last-named heralded him in his paper as the coming musical prophet, and thus drew the eyes of the world upon him. After Ms first publications, which extend through opus 10, and are characterized by youthful exuberance, Brahms passed several years in a close study of the classics, only occasionally playing or conducting in public. In 1859 he performed his first piano concerto at Leipsic. The serenades for orchestra, op. 11 and 16, struck a note of strong individuahty, while the " German Requiem," pro- duced in 1868, established his fame. After 1862 he lived quietly in Vienna, spending most of his time in composition, and only rarely acting as pianist or conductor. Brahms 210. Brahma's Work. An unfortunate circumstance in con- nection with Brahms was the position in which he was placed by the advocates of " absolute " music as their champion. In reality, his opposition to the "programme" school was more fancied than real, as he shows many of the traces of the modern spirit in his free use of materials. Like Bach, he lived a simple, unostentatious life, reflecting in his com- positions a normal, genuine character. Though fond of folk-music, he could yet write works of unparalleled com- plexity ; and the profound and reflective style of his greatest compositions is an evidence of the slowness with which he matured, causing him to delay until after the age of forty before vrriting a symphony. His wonderful complexity of structural work and his lack of tonal coloring sometimes 218 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY resulted in a dry, academic flavor. Neverthel^s he re- vealed many new possibilities of classic form by employing old modes and thematic uses, and by revivifying old forms, especially that of the variation. Classed with Bach and Beethoven by von BUlow as one of the three great musical B's, he justified such an association by combining Beethoven's harmonic structure with Bach's interest in individual parts. In the use of melodies and rhythms he invented many novel and complex effects, sometimes thus again reviving old or disused methods. 211. Brahms's Chamber Compositions. These include works in nearly all forms. Of piano works we note three sonatas and a scherzo, early and virile compositions which prefigure his later characteris- tics ; short ballades, caprices, intermezzi, and rhapsodies, all of much individuality ; the brilliant waltzes, opus 39 ; studies and arrangements demanding a powerful technique; varia- tions, of tremendous difficulty ; and two concertos, in D minor' and B flat. They all abound in octaves, thirds, and sixths. The four-hand " Hungarian Dances " are popular. Other chamber music, of all kinds, includes the famous piano quintet, opus 34. The four-movement form prevails in all these long works, while the developments are lengthy and complex, and the codas elaborate. 212. Brahms's other Compositions. His orchestral works include two spirited serenades ; the brilliant variations, opus 56, which form nine tone pictures, ending with one which has the theme in the bass ; and four symphonies, of which the second is most popular, and the fourth most learned. Innovations occur in these symphonies, hke the substitution of an allegretto for the scherzo in the first and third. The orchestration, though masterly, is heavy. The "Academic Overture" is strong in thematic development. There are many chorus works of all kinds, of which the grand and imposing " German Requiem " is in cantata style. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 219 Themes pkom Brahms' First Symphony. First movement. Introduction. Tin poco sostenuto. $ Slow movement. A nd ante sost enuto. «^^^^^^ ^m f= :-sr^ 1^^ ^ ^ ^-7 i>'=f» &c. ^ Brahms' songs, about two hundred in numljer, weld closely words and accompaniment, displaying much melodic beauty and rich harmony. Love themes predominate, while many songs are in the folk-manner form. 213. Instrumental "Writers. Robert Volhmann (1815-1883) wrote in a melodious and musicianly style. Joseph Rhein- herger (1837-1902), for a long time teacher at the Royal School of Music at Munich, produced much chamber music, and eighteen organ sonatas, which are melodious but some- times dry. Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) stands midway between classicism and the new school, and shows in his nine symphonies a wealth of melody and greatness of thought which are marred by a lack of coherency. He was powerfully affected by Wagner's work. Woldemar Bargiel, a follower 220 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY of Schumann, and Salomon Jadassohn, a professor at the Leipsic Conservatory, have written in large forms worthily, but have opened no new paths. 214. Song "Writers. Carl Loewe (1796-1869) attained a high degree of perfection in his thrillingly dramatic ballads. Robert Franz (1815-1892), the greatest lyric writer since Schubert, was, like him, wholly unappreciated by his country- men. Finally becoming blind and paralyzed, he was only rescued from abject poverty by the subscriptions of his admirers, most of them in other nations. Franz based his works on the classics, of which he was a close student. This is instanced in his writing " additional accompaniments " to the works of Bach and Handel. The result was especially shown in the accompaniments to his songs, which are composed of melodically flowing parts, contrapuntallj' treated. Above these the melody, of a declama- tory character, is intended to portray intimately the subjective moods which Franz was so skilful in treating. The personal character of his works, which caused Liszt to call him a " psychic colorist," makes him most successful with themes like love and nature, cast in simple strophic forms. While, with his The Rose Complained (Es hat die Rose sich beklagt). LargJtetto. Fervent and tender, (Innig und zart.) Franz ^ ^^^ =5=s= f^ ^V^ J C^^JL ) hat die Ro - se sich be - Espressivo. Con Ped. ^ 0- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY klagt, dasB gar zu Hchuell der Duf t ver - ge - he ; den ihr der classic tastes, he makes frequent use of old church modes and the chorale style, modernisms, such as emotional modulations and broken chords assimilated by the pedal, are likewise often found. He used little verbal repetition, and strenu- ously objected to the transposition of his songs to suit yarying voice-ranges. By no means their least attractive features ar« the charming postludes appended to complete the meaning. Altogether Franz's finesse of execution resulted in an unusually large proportion of really fine songs. Franz Aht (1819-1885) wrote many songs in a light and tuneful manner. His part-songs are especially popular. Adolf Jensen (1837-1879), who led a Kfe of poverty and . ill health, wrote a hundred and sixty songs. The earlier of these were love songs, and the later, produced after he had embraced "Wagner's opinifttis, took on a more dramatic style. The smooth and vocal melodies of these songs are supported by difficult and characteristic accompaniments. Jensen's 222 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY piano works are mostly in the form of short songs without words. Eduard Lassen (1830-1904), who was born in Copen- hagen, and became Liszt's successor at Weimar, wrote many dramatic songs, besides more elaborate compositions, includ- ing operas. 215. Music in Bohemia. Bohemia, " the land of harp play- ers and street musicians," is renowned for the natural musical gifts of its inhabitants, which appear in its striking folk- music. During the eighteenth century strolHng musicians were found everywhere ; each village had its native band ; and the private establishments of the nobility, like that of the Esterhazys, were of a high order. In Prague, the musi- cal centre, composers like Gluck, Mozart, and Weber found true appreciation when other lands were oblivious of their merits. It was not till the middle of the last century, how- ever, that Bohemia produced composers of lasting fame. 216. Priedrich Smetana (1824-1884). Smetana, the first great Bohemian musician, was a fine pianist, a pupil of Liszt. After serving for some time in various musical posts, notably as opera conduc- tor at Prague, he became afflicted with a growing deafness which eventually unbalanced his mind, and caused his death in an insane asylum. He wrote a number of operas, of which his " Bartered Bride " is best known ; also considerable chamber music, as well as symphonies and symphonic poems. His style is intensely dramatic, showing the influence of the new school. Smetana 217. Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904). Dvofdk was thor- oughly a peasant by birth, his father serving as an innkeeper and butcher at Miihlhausen, Bohemia, where the composer OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 2ii3 was born. Although his father intended him to follow his own trade, the boy became a musical enthusiast, following in the wake of every strolling musician who visited the town, and thus becoming saturated with the national folk-style. Taught by a school- master to sing and play the violin, he also studied harmony and the organ, copying dance music from the score. In 1857 his father sent him to the Prague Conservatory for organ instruction. There he fell into poverty, and was obliged to do all kinds of odd jobs in orchestras ; but attracting the attention of Smetana, he was befriended by him, Dvorak and began to write serious music, studying the classics assiduously. In 1862 his first string quartet was written ; and in 1873 he was made organist at St. Adelbert's church, with a salary of sixty dollars per annum, on the strength of which he married. His hymn for chorus and orchestra, " Heirs of the White Mountains," performed at local con- certs, brought him into notice; and, applying for help to the Minister of Education, he interested the critic Hansliek in a symphony which he had published with the help of Brahms. His " Slavonic Dances " made him famous. Liszt secured a performance of his works, and he was invited to England after his " Stabat Mater " had been produced in London. There his " Spectre's Bride " was written for the Birmingham festival of 1885, and the oratorio "St. Lud- milla" for the Leeds festival in the following year. He was made Doctor of Music at Cambridge in 1891, and shortly after took the chair of Professor of Music at the Prague Conservatory, which he left to become director of a con- servatory in New York, at a salary of $15,000 a year. But his love of home made him abandon this post after a few years, and he returned to Prague, where his opera "Armida" was unsuccessfully performed shortly before his death. 224. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 218. Dvof Aka Character and 'Works. Dvorak was at heart always the simple-minded peasant, fond of home ^and do- mestic ties, and undaunted by failures. With a nature quick to recognize what was best in all forms of his art, he was especially fond of folk-music, and by the frequent use of Tunes in Negro style employed by DvofiXK. Theme from Symphony "From the New World." Allegro. Finale from String Quartet, Op. 96. V'i/va£e. :-^, folk-tunes did much toward perpetuating national styles. Yet while he welcomed with enthusiasm even the work of itinerant musicians, he was an unflagging student of the classics, notably the works of Mozart, Beethoven, and Schu- bert. The warmth of his imagination, his chromatic style, and keen sense of form, especially fitted him for orchestral writing; and in this direction his works, which belong to OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 225 the " absolute " school, are distinguished by glowing color, perfect naturalness, abrupt, daring modulations, and marvel- lous rhythmic flow of parts. The rapidity of his writing and his prodigality of resources are evidenced in his many compositions, which include for orchestra overtures, the " Slavonic Dances and Rhapsodies," symphonic poems; and five symphonies, of which the opus 95, "From the New World," provoked much discussion in America on account of its reminiscences of negro melodies. Other compositions were many pieces of chamber music, several unsuccessful operas, cantatas, an oratorio, the " Requiem Mass," a " Stabat Mater," and many solo and part songs. Section 2 MtrSIC IN THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES 219. Scandinavian Music. The rich store of northern folk- music was first revealed by such native singers as Jenny Lind and Christine Nilsson. Most of the melodies are short, and upon repetition adopt a quicker rhythm. \^ Denmark was the birthplace of Bach's great predecessor, Buxtehude. In the nineteenth century J. Hartmann, director of the Copenhagen Conservatory, won the name of " father of Danish music." The first great composer, however, was Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817-1890), who was born at Copenhagen. Brought up to his father's trade of making musical instru- ments, after a desultory musical edu- cation he joined the Royal Orchestra. A prize offered by the Musical Union of Copenhagen was won in 1841 by Gade's opus 1, an orchestral overture, " Echoes from Ossian." This, as well as his first symphony, was played at Leipsic by Mendelssohn, who afterwards became his firm friend. Gade succeeded Mendelssohn as 15 226 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY conductor of the Gewandhaus concerts. He finally filled the post of director of the Royal Conservatory at Copenhagen till his death. Gade belonged to the Romantic-Classic schqol, and though a follower of Mendelssohn, was not simply his imitator. The northern flavor of his melodies, his chaste style, and absence of bombast unite to produce quite original effects. He was a fluent writer for orchestra, leaving eight symphonies. His choruses, songs, and piano pieces are of great merit. In Sweden and Norway most of the important composers are still living. Ole Bull, the distinguished violinist, did much for Norwegian music during the last century, as did Half dan Kjerulf (1818-1868), who was born in Christiania, Studied in Leipsic, and afterwards became a teacher in his native city. His songs were introduced by Jenny Lind, Sontag, and dthers. Like his short piano pieces, they are strongly national and musically refined. 220. Music in Russia. The exotic characteristics of the border countries — the use of antiquated modes, the ming- ling of tonalities, strange and varied rhythms — are lavishly displayed in the mass of folk-music in Russia. It tends to extremes of savage gaiety and profound melancholy,- and em- braces martial and festival tunes, cradle songs, and the lyrics of the peasants which they sing while at work. Church music, too, savors of the national taste for strong color. Purely vocal in character, it is impressive in its arrangement of parts, by which upper and lower voices double each other in the octave, and by its use of an additional sub-bass Voice. Italian opera was introduced in 1737, and enjoyed uninter- rupted popularity until it was superseded, about 1800, by French opera. The national enthusiasm for music also at- tracted many foreign artists, who found their talents appre- ciated, especially at St. Petersburg. It was not, however, till the first of the nineteenth century that a definite attempt was made by native composers to employ the resources of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 227 the national music for the development of a Russian school. Since then progress has been remarkable, and has resulted in the infusion of a new and stirring element into musical composition. 221. Michael Glinka (1803-1857). Glinka may be con-^ sidered as the father of this movement. Educated at St.r Petersburg,^ he studied the piano with John Field and Charles Mayer. He afterwards became a confirmed invalid ; and though he occupied for a time an official position at St. Petersburg, he travelled largely in quest of health, re- maining for some time in Paris, where he became interested in Berlioz's work. A close student of Russian folk-song, Glinka employed his grasp of it, as well as his mastery of melodic and harmouic Song from " Life for the Tsar." ^ Adagio. Con molta anima. Glinka 228 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY combinations, in the composition of many large works. These included chamber and orchestral productions and operas, of which "Life for the Tsar" and "Ruslan and Ludmilla" .coinrincingly reflect the national life. a" ^■' ; 222. Peter iiyitch Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). The Russian whose fame has been the most far-reaching, however, was Tchaikovsky. Born in the Ural district, the son of a mining engineer, he began to play the piano at eight. When the family removed to St. Petersburg, upon ■ the father's appoint- ment as director of the Institute of Tech- nology there, Peter entered the School of Jurisprudence at ten. His musical enthusiasm stiU continued. He studied the piano, and became especially inter- ested in the work of the Italian -opera composers, notably Bellini, and also cul- tivated Mozart's works. In 1859 he assumed a government position ; but his piano study contin- ued under Zaremha, who received in 1862 a professorship at the new St. Petersburg Conservatory, which Tchaikovsky accordingly entered as student. Here he also studied com- position with Anton Rubinstein, graduating with honor in 1865. Appointed Professor of Harmony in the Moscow Conservatory in 1866, he labored unceasingly for some years. In addition to his academic duties, he produced a number of unsuccessful operas and wrote critiques for Moscow Tchaikovsky OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 229 papers. Hard work, combiaed with troubles over an un- happy marriage, caused a nervous breakdown in 1877, after which he lived in retirement, except during a few tours in which he acted as orchestral conductor, visiting the United States in 1891. Morbidly sensitive throughout his life, he became more and more subject to fits of extreme depression in later years. He died in St. Petersburg of cholera. 223. Tchaikovsky's 'Works. Tchaikovsky is best known for his orchestral works, which include six symphonies, the " Manfred " symphony in " programme " style, and a number Themes from Tchaikovsky's " Symphonie Pathetiqub," No. 6. From first movement. Andtmie. of overtures and fantasias.. Especially fine are his two piano concertos, while other instrumental compositions include all kinds of chamber music. The vocal works embrace songs 230 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY and choruses, as well as ten operas which have rarely been produced outside of Russia. Tchaikovsky's intensely emotional, sometimes morbid, na- ture appears in all his compositions; yet his thorough musi- cianship always keeps control over these tendencies, and gives a perfectly articulate structure to his works, which are unified by powerful polyphony. "While the minor mode predominates, riotous moods are frequent, and his vivid climaxes are rich in melody and orchestral color. 224. The Glinka School. Both Rubinstein and Tchaikov- sky are reproached with ultra-German tendencies by a coterie of cultured amateurs, most of whom have occupied or are occupying government positions; and, while basing their theories on dramatic sincerity in the opera, these condemn equally the emptiness of Italian opera and Wagner's trans- ference of the chief melody into the orchestra. The highly colored style in which they write savors frequently of the barbaric, and is well adapted for programme music. Of the five leaders, two completed their work in the nineteenth cen- tury. These were : Alexander Borodin (1834-1 887), a phy- sician and scientist, who wrote large and complicated works bristling with bold dissonances, and enjoyed a close friend- ship with Liszt; and Modeste Mous&orgsTcy (1839-1881), who lived a Bohemian life, interrupted by several government positions, and wrote music which, though " weird and formless," yet contains effective and original melodic work. Section 3 MtJSTC IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 225. Cesar Franck (1822-1890). The chief labors of French musicians of the nineteenth century were in the field of opera, and have thus been discussed. A composer, however, whose work was in marked contrast to that of other Parisians of his day was C6sar Franch. Franck was OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 231 not strictly a Frenchman, since he was a native of Li^ge, Belgium, but he became a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire at fifteen, and after receiving the first prize at graduation in 1838, spent the entire remainder of his life in Paris, occupied in an unflagging round of lesson-giving, composition, and organ playing at the church of St. Clo- tilde. In his simple, frugal life and his lack of public recognition he reminds us of Bach. The enthusiasm which he im- pressed upon his pupils inspired them with a filial affection which caused them to give him the name of " Pater Seraph- icus." Contrasting with the age in his unquestioning piety and idealistic trend of thought, he sacrificed everything to genuine expression. The chief of his works, of which the greatest were written late in life, is his " BeatitudeSj'^ in oratorio form. This was not performed till a year after his death. Two other oratorios, a number of songs, and an early unsuccessful opera, were his other vocal compositions. His orchestral works include symphonic variations, a great symphony in D minor, and symphonic poems, of which " Psyche " introduces vocal numbers. His chamber music embraces a violin sonata, three great chorales for the organ, and some piano music. P'ranck 226. Pranck's Compositions. These have as basis a pure polyphony, written in a grand " cathedral style," and differ from Bach's in their continual use of chromatic progressions. A mystic by nature, Franck invests his music with a rich and blended polyphonic background, from which snatches of melodies continually emerge. Definiteness and convention- alism are sedulously avoided by the use of unexpected turns of melody and harmony. Spiritual unrest is indicated by un- usual progressions, while the avoidance of formal harmonic structure gives at times an inarticulate effect. Franck's 232 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Theme from the " Beatitudes." Ntm iroppo lento. By permissioii of G. Schimier, owners of the copyright. harmonies are full, and his rhythms are lacking in spright- liness. As^ a whole his music is infc rospep.tivftT imp ersona l, and vague, yet imbued throughou t with loftiness ol spirit. 227. English Music. The tendency of composers to sink their originality in the imitation of leaders — Handel, Men- delssohn, Gounod — has already been commented upon. A general dryness of style resulted, which made the period up OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 283 to the middle of the nineteenth century comparativelj' uninter- esting. English SaWad ojBej-ag (par. 81) occasionally attracted popular favor, especially thbSe- written hj Michael William B alfe ( 1808-1870)^ an Irish opera siiiger of whose tv^enty- seven operas only the well-known tuneful " Bohemian did ll survives. A peculiarly English form of vocal music was the kind of harmonic motet called the glee ; and at convivial meet- ings every one was expected to carry his part in the ensemble of these compositions. Many church composers wrote in a solid style which smacked of pedantry, among them Sir John Goss (1800-1880) and Senry Smart (1813-1879), a melodious writer. 228. Sir •WUliam Sterndale Bennett (1816-1875). This composer, the most notable in England in the early nine- teenth century, was a choir singer as a boy, and entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1826. So promising was his genius, revealed in a piano concerto written at sixteen, that he was sent to Leipsie for study by the house of Broad wood. There he became intimate with Mendelssohn and Schumann, winning laurels both as a composer and as a pianist. On his return to England he labored long for the promotion of English music as conductor, professor at Cambridge, and director of the Royal Academy of Music, in which last posi- tion he was particularly successful. While shining as a pianist, he also wrote many choral, orchestral, and piano works which displayed a polish suggestive of Mendelssohn, as well as considerable originality. His cantata, " The Woman of Samaria," is especially melodious. 229. Other English Composers. Sir G-eorge A. Macfarren (1813-1887) was a prolific composer of, operas and oratorios, which are solid in construction but dry in style. ^ ^^^^ 1 Sir Joseph Bamhy (1838-1896) was prominent '^s^W^ '^ ganist and conductor, leaving many excellent anthems and -"^V^ other choral works, of which a fine sample is the cantata ^'Rebekah." , \\ -\ , 234 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY iAsir John Stainer (1840-1901), for many years organist at St. Paul's, London, was well known as the author of valu- able text-books and composer of impressive anthems. Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842-1900), the son of a clarinet player and teacher, began his musical career as a choir boy in the Chapel Royal at London ; entered the Royal Academy of Music on the recently founded Mendelssohn scholarship, in 1856 ; and became a student at the Leipsic Conservatory in 1858, where he remained three years, and wrote his music to Shakespeare's " Tempest." This composition estab- lished his fame in England, and he passed the remainder of his life in London, filling the position of professor at the Royal Academy, and also occupied as organist, con- ductor, and composer. Of many important compositions we notice his anthems and cantatas, especially the " Prodigal Theme from Arthur Sullivan's overture "In Memoriam." Sullivan ^ i -^rr^ST ^- 33 M ^rn^^m Ml ^m^ 1=^ &c. pp 3: 5. Son" and the "Golden Legend"; his oratorio, "The Light of the World " ; orchestral music incidental to several of Shakespeare's plays ; and his popular comic operas, which OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 235 began with "Box and Cox," and embraced his great suc- cesses written with the collaboration of W. S. Gilbert in mock heroic vein. The bright, healthful, and humorous orchestration of these operettas shows his mastery over in- strumental combinations and form, while their diversity and aptness of rhythm and melody are conspicuous. A grand opera, " Ivanhoe," shows musicianly work, but did not add materially to his fame. Section 4 PIANISTS AND VIOLINISTS 230. Anton Rubinstein (1830-1894). Rubinstein ranks with Liszt as one of the greatest piano virtuosi of the nine- teenth century. He was born in Russia, and was recognized as a prodigy while a boy at Moscow. At ten he went upon a concert tour, which was interrupted for a course of study in Germany, ren- dered somewhat difficult by his lack of pecuniary resources. In 1854 he set out upon the remarkable series of concert tours which extended over a number of years, and during which he electrified audiences everywhere by his wonderfully Rubinstein emotional style of playing. These tours were interrupted by the task which he undertook of founding the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1862, for which he obtained the money by private solicitation and concert giving. His directorship of the conservatory paved the way for brilliant musical work and a large coterie of distinguished pupils. His final pianis- tic accomplishment was the playing of seven historical pro- grammes, which required tremendous musical and technical ability'. These he successfully performed in all the chief cities of Europe. Rubinstein is considered by his countrymen more German 236 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY than Russian as a composer. In this capacity he produced many works with interesting and original ideas, but lack of concentration and polish. These include sj'mphonies, of Theme prom Robinstein's Third Piano Concerto. Andante. kMX which the " Ocean Symphony " is the chief of his orchestral works, but is seldom performed on account of its great length ; chamber music, including many characteristic piano pieces; and a number of operas and oratorios which did not attain success. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 237 231. Other Pianists. Ignaz Mosehdes (1794-1870), the friend and teacher of Mendelssohn, became very popular as a teacher at the Leipsic Conservatory, where many con- sidered him Mendelssohn's superior. Of his many composii- tions few now survive, save his collection of musical dtudes^ opus 70. Sigismund Thalberg (1812-1871) was the greatest pianist before Liszt, whom he rivalled in Paris. He exploited every known effect of virtuosity, excelling in left-hand technique, octave playing, and singing tone. Ferdinand Siller (1811-1885) was born at Frankfort of a Jewish family. A man of culture, he imbibed a classic taste as a pupil of Hummel, aijd afterward became a follower of Mendelssohn. Distinguished as a pianist, he was for many years chapelmaster at the Cologne Conservatory, and was a prolific composer in all forms, writing elegant and flowing melody. Adolph Henselt (1814-1889), another Hummel pupil, was a native of Bavaria, who spent most of his life as court pianist at St. Petersburg. In his piano compositions, which include etudes and a concerto, he expresses his poetic tem- perament by full sonorous harmonies. These are produced by long finger stretches which exhibit technical requirements that make him a connecting link with Liszt. Stephen Heller (1815-1888) was born at Pesth, but spent most of his life at Paris, where he was celebrated as a teacher, and writer of graceful, refined piano works. Joseph Joachim Baff (1822-1882), born in S\n^tzerland, was a musician of learning who began his career as a school- master. A friend of Mendelssohn, and later of Liszt, he wrote works covering a wide range, from the classic to the ultra-modern, and including many piano pieces, chamber music, and ten symphonies in sonata form but programme style. Of these " Im Walde " and " Lenore " are best known. They are of unequal merit, though effectively orchestrated. Hans von Billow (1830-1894) accomplished much in the 238 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY advancement of the educational side of music by his work as pianist, conductor, and critic, in the course of which he brought much neglected music and many unknown aspirants into notice. His tremendous technique and objective style of playing were displayed in many concert tours. A friend and pupil of Liszt, he at first espoused the cause of Wagner, but afterwards joined the Brahms party. 232. VioUnists. Many of these united virtuosity to ability as composers, thus practically demonstrating their develop- ment of the technical resources of their instrument. A con- necting link between the old and new schools was Giovanni Battista Viotti (1753-1824), who was born in Italy, but spent much time in Paris and in London, where he died. Viotti played with a singing style which he inherited from the old Italian violinists, and was the first to adopt the perfected Tourte bow. He left twenty-nine concertos, of which the twenty-second is the most popular. All of them were written in an extended sonata form. Of Viotti's many pupils the most noted were Pierre Rode (1774-1830), who wrote ten concertos and twenty- four standard Etudes ; and Pierre Baillot (1771-1842), noted as a teacher and writer of the treatise " L'Art du violon." Baillot's pupil Habeneck became a renowned teacher, count- ing among his pupils Alard, teacher of SaraSate, and Leon- ard, teacher of Marsick. The most renowned virtuoso of the century, however, was Nicolo Paganini (1782-1840), who for many years was the reigning sensation throughout the civilized world on account of his extra- ordinary feats of dexterity, his novel and original violin effects, and his singu- lar and magnetic personality. Born at Genoa, he lived through a succession of amazing triumphs, developing such char- Paganini OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 239 acteristics in violin virtuosity as Liszt was afterwards in- spired to attempt for the piano. The French school, founded by Viotti, was carried on by the Belgians De Beriot (1802-1870) and Henri Vieuxtemps (1820-1881). The former's "Airs vari&" and concertos, though melodious, have a pronounced Italian tendency toward triviality ; while the latter, though inclining toward bombast in his works, was superior as a performer and composer. De Beriot had many distinguished pupils at the Brussels Conservatory, among them Schradieck. The Norwegian Ole Bull (1810-1880) was a self-taught violinist who did much through his popularity as a player to further the cause of his country's music. In Leipsic Ferdinand David, the pupil of Spohr, founded a school based on French technique joined to careful musical judgment. His principles were perpetuated by the school founded at Vienna by Joseph Boehm (1795-1876), the teacher of Ernst (1814-1865) and of Joseph Joachim (1831-1907). The last two have written compositions of a Hungarian flavor ; and Joachim especially did much to emphasize the serious musical side of playing as opposed to mere virtuosity. Summary In Germany, Johannes Brahms, adopted as the champion of " absolute " music, wrote in a profound style which united the polyphony of Bach with the harmonic structure of Bee- thoven, and enriched classic forms with new features of rhythm, melody, and model treatment. Many other > Ger- mans, who carried out Teutonic ideals in their works, wrote in the larger forms ; while a group of song writers, including Brahms, Franz, and others, increased the power of intimate emotional expression by unifying accompaniment, melody, and words. Other nations, hitherto unknown in the higher musical forms, now began to form national schools under competent leaders, such as Smetana and Dvof4k in Bohemia, Gade 2^0 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY and Kjerulf in Scandinavia, and Glinka, Rubinstein, and Tchaikovsky in Russia. In France, composers devoted their work mainly to the ■ 6pkra, except in the case of Cdsar Franck, whose composi- tiols are characterized by a mystic chromatic style, and whose influence as a teacher was far-reaching. English church composers wrote music of solid merit, but, especially in the first half of the century, it was inclined toward pedantry. The spontaneity of Arthur Sullivan's mu- sic, particularly displayed in his comic operas, is an instance of the growth in originality among the later composers. Many pianists and violinists developed virtuosity to an amazing extent, leaving the results of their work in nu- merous compositions, of which their Etudes have chiefly survived. READING LIST Articles in " Famous Composers and their Works" cover much of the music of this period. Section 1 Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, articles on, Brahms and DvoMk. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers. 'f-DidKiNSON, Study of Music History, chaps. 39, 42. Baltzbll's History, lessons 47, 49, 55. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music ; articles on Brahms and DvoMk. HuNEKER : Mezzotints ; The Music of the Future. Arthur Elson, Modern Composers of Europe, chap. 4 (Dvorak). Streatb'eild, Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 17 (Brahms). Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 2, 10. Section 2 Baltzell, History, lesson 51. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 42. Newmarch, Borodin and Liszt. ' NewMargh,^ Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works. Biography of Tchaikovsky by his brother Modeste, translated by Newmarch. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 241 HuNEKER, Mezzotints (Tchaikovsky). Streatfeild, Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 18 (Tchaikovsky). Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 7, 9, 11. Section 3 Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 40, 43. Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, article on C^sar Franck. Hervet, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. J. F. Maitland, English Music in the Nineteenth Century. WiLLEBY, Masters of English Music. Henderson, Modem Musical Drift. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 5. Section 4 Baltzell, History, lessons 47, 48. Histories of Piano Playing and Piano Music by Bie, Weitzmann, and Fillmore. Ferris, Violinists and Pianists. Stoeving, Story of the Violin. Ehrlich, Celebrated Violinists. Hart, The Violin and its Music. CHAPTER XI The Music of the Pkbsent Day 233. Existing Conditions. We have now to consider those composers whose work is either now in progress or has ex- tended into the twentieth century. The lack of necessary .time-perspective makes a final critique of their achievements impossible, and we can therefore only sum up their surround- ings and aims, leaving to future generations the final verdict as to their position in musical annals. Never were radical tendencies so pronounced or so tolerated as at present ; con- sequently the members of the ultra-modern or impressionist wing swerve at no scruples in their defiance of convention- ality. The exotic forms of music referred to in the last chapter are multiplying, while C^sar Franck's unique doc- trines have resulted in France in a school composed of his friends and disciples. Thus Wagner's music, once regarded as the Ultima Thule of radicalism, now appears mild compared with the ventures of exuberant present-day fancy, — ven- tures, moreover, against which the conservative elements are compelled by public opinion to wage a losing fight. Section 1 MUSIC IN GERMANY AND NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES 234. Richard Strauss (1864-). Strauss, whose position at the head of the radical forces has made him the central figure for musical controversy, is a native of Munich, where his father was a horn player in the orchestra of the Bavarian court. With the precocity of genius, he played the piano OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 243 Strauss at the age of four, and after many attempts at composition began the study of theory in 1875, under the court chapel- master Meyer. The result was a number of early works writ- ten before 1884, which include, among other ambitious attempts, a symphony in F minor. All these show the influence of his classic models, — Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms. Attracting the notice of von Biilow, he played Mozart's C minor concerto under his leadership, and succeeded him for a short time as conductor at Meiningen. A journey to Italy in 1886 inspired him to write his first distinctive work, an orchestral fan- tasy entitled "Aus Italien." Then, openly an adherent of the " programme " school, he served four years as conductor of the Munich opera, and they were followed by two j'ears of similar employment at Weimar. During the latter period he produced three important symphonic poems, — "Macbeth," "Don Juan," and "Tod und Verklarung." An extended southern journey, taken for his health in 1892, resulted in the opera " Guntram," which was given without great success at Weimar ; but a consequence of its production was his marriage to the prima donna, Pauline de Ahna. During the three following years, in which he resumed his former post at Munich, he also directed the Berlin Philharmonic Society's concerts ; and in 1898 he settled in Berlin as conductor of the Royal Opera. His reputation as a composer and con- ductor has caused a great demand for his services in the various musical centres, and he has accordingly appeared in both capacities in all the chief cities of Europe, also touring the United States in 1904. 235. Strauss as Man and Artist. As a man, Strauss is of modest demeanor, and fond of domestic life. Before the orchestra, however, his personality is electrifying, especially 344 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY in the elucidation of his own works. In these compositions he shows a genius for wielding the immense material of which he avails himself that is little short of Titanic. Employing an unprecedentedly large orchestra, which is made to include any instrument that his subject seems to demand, he writes in a manner that shows his mastery of the technical resources of the instruments, using them in new combinations, pai't- divisions, and in frequent solo effects. In his search after realistic expression he does not hesitate to represent the ugly as well as the beautiful ; and in his polyphonic complexities he defies all rules by introducing harsh and cacophonous dis- sonances that paralyze criticism. The themes, too, which . range from the suave and enticing to the intentionally repel- lant, are woven into the texture with marvellous dexterity. 236. Strauss's Orchestral Works. The "programme" style asserted in the above-mentioned works becomes more definite in later compositions, although Strauss's description of these is generally confined to the acceptance, tacit or real, of the Theme from " Heldenleben." Opening theme. In siirrmg motion. programmes ascribed to them by others. The « Aus Italien " symphonic fantasy is composed of four tone pictures, emo- tionally depicting Italian scenes. In the three symphonic poems written at Munich, however, Strauss abandoned all pre- tence of symphonic form, evolving an immense emotional cli- max in " Macbeth," a picture of pessimism in "Don Juan," and describing a sick man's fevered dreams, his death, and tri- umphal apotheosis, in the powerful "Tod und Verklarung." OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 24l In his next work, « Till Eulenspiegel," Strauss takes on a humorous vein, portraying the pranks of a madcap rogue by a labyrinth of novel and startling orchestral effects. Next he dives into the depths of Nietzsche's philosophy with a sublime and weird attempt to depict life from the cradle to the grave, in his "Also sprach Zarathustra." "Don Quixote" pictures the well-known knight in a series of exceedingly free variations, each representing an adventure. Strauss even attempts autobiography in his " Heldenleben," or " Struggles of a Hero's Life," in which his own experi- ences are referred to by themes from previous works, and in his "Symphonia Domestica," a description of his family life from afternoon to the dawn of the next day, including themes suggesting the father, mother, and child. 237. Strauss 's Other Works. Of his three operas, neither "Guntram" nor " Feuersnoth," the latter called by Strauss Character themes from "Enoch Arden." Asnie Lee. Allegretto. CopjnrigM, 1898, by Rob. Forberg. 246 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY a comic opera, have attained success, though powerfully orchestrated. The third, " Salome," has again aroused the critics on account of the savage realism of the music, which aptly illustrates a barbarous and repellant plot. Strauss's many songs, some of them with orchestral accompaniment, are in contrast to much of his purely orchestral music on account of their unfailing melodic beauty. Unusual keys, harmonies, and modulations, surging arpeggios, intense color- ing, and sometimes weirdness of effect, are used to illumi- nate the text, each word of which is musically expressed. The piano music to Tennyson's " Enoch Arden " is particu- larly suggestive and beautiful; while choruses and chamber works have also come from his pen. 238. Instrumental Composers. The following are among those who have excelled in instrumental fields : Max Brueh, born at Cologne in 1838, is the composer of three symphonies, and broad, musical works for the violin, of which his three concertos and a serenade are especially Theme from Bkuch Violin Concerto in G Minor. Adagio. noteworthy. Several operas are unimportant ; but his epic cantatas " Arminius," " Odysseus," " Lied von der Glocke," and "Moses," are tuneful, dignified, and popular. Other choral works include excellent male choruses. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 247 Mahler G-ustav Mahler (I860-), a native of Bohemia, attempts to realize the aspirations of his teacher, Bruckner. He gained experience as conductor of several theatres, winning- fame at the Hamburg Opera House, and for a number of years he has conducted the Philharmonic concerts and directed the court opera at Vienna. After writing several operas and other choral works, he began the composition of symphonies. Of these he has written five, enlarging the symphonic form by employing many performers, sometimes including vocal- ists, and by lengthening the movements, which are arranged to express some ab- stract conception, such as the cure of pessimism by simple faith. Though he uses an augmented orchestra and intri- cate instrumentation, Mahler yet aims at a grand simplicity through broad and sweeping melodies, clear rhythms, and an absence of involved chromatics. Siegmund von Hausegger, a native of Austria, where he was born in 1872, has also won laurels as conductor and composer. A follower of Wagner, his symphonic poems, " Dionysiac Fantasy," " Barbarossa," and " Wieland der Schmied," are characterized by rare' beauty and mastery of orchestration. He has also written several operas. Paul Felix Weingartner, born in Dalmatia in 1863, is re- nowned as an orchestral conductor. His symphonies, sym- phonic poems, entitled " King Lear " and the " Elysian Fields," and several operas, including " Genesius " and the classical trilogy " Orestes," show his Wagnerian affinities. The Swiss Hans Huher (1852-) has written symphonies, operas, fine works for voices and orchestra, etc., in an imagi- native vein. Jean Louis Nicode (1853-), noted as a Berlin teacher and conductor, is the author of orchestral works. Of these the chief are his "Symphonic Variations," opus 27, and "Das 248 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Meer," a great suite of imposing style for male chorus, soloists, orchestra, and organ. Other important composers are Carl Reineeke (1824-), professor at the Leipsic Conservatory; Friedrich Gernsheim, born at Worms in 1839, academic in style; Hugo Kaun, born at Berlin in 1863, who lived for some time in America, vi^here he obtained inspiration for his tasteful and effective symphonic poems on subjects taken from Longfellow's "Hiawatha"; and Georg Alfred Schumann, hoin in 1866 in Saxony, whose works are heavy in instrumentation. A young Bavarian composer who is rising into prominence is Max Reger, born in 1873. His orchestral and chamber music is of the Brahms order, with intricate polyphonic work. 239. Opera Composers. A succession of music dramas has followed Wagner's epoch, which for the most part are slavish imitations of his style. A number of composers, however, are seeking new paths, and have in a few instances attained their object. Karl Goldmark (1830-), a native of Hungary, gained his education in Vienna, becoming a skilful violinist, pianist, and composer in large forms. His orchestral music includes Themes from last movement of Goldmark's " Rustic Wed- ding" Symphony. Allegro molto. r. 0, h i P i . . i . i ^ i , _,_A_ k± f=r=rr OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 249 the popular overture "Sakuntala" and the "Rustic Wed- ding " symphony, the latter a series of tone pictures. Of a number of operas, his "Queen of Sheba" is best known, being treated with novel and gorgeous orchestral effects. Goldmark's themes are vivid and sensuous, while his orches- tration is smooth and refined. Engelhert Rumperdinch, born at Bonn in 1854, a former prot^g^ of Wagner, is chiefly known for his fairy opera "Hansel und Gretel," in which he started a reaction against the long and heavy operas in favor of a lighter romantic style. In the opera mentioned he cleverly made use of modern devices to beautify melodious folk -tunes in such a way that the element of simpUcity is never lost sight of. Close adherents of Wagner are August Bungert (1846-), whose ambitious attempt to compose a Hexalogy on the Homeric poems similar to Wagner's Tetralogy has proven successful in the case of the three already given ; Ignaz Briill (1846-), writer of orchestral works and semi-comic romantic operas; Cyrill Kistler (1848-), at one time looked upon as Wagner's legitimate successor ; Hugo Wolf (1860-1902), whose hfe was a struggle with poverty, and whose pas- sionate and original songs are better known than his one opera, " Der Corre- gidor," wTitten in a sprightly comic vein ; Eugen d' Albert (1864-), the piano virtuoso, Scotch by birth but German by sympathies, renowned as Liszt's pupil and writer of chamber music in all forms, , Wot p as well as several operas, composed m a romantic though sane style; Max Schillings (1868-), who wrote the Viking opera " Ingwelde," modelled after " Tris- tan"; and Siegfried Wagner (1869-), son of the great mu- sician, whose humorous operas show talent rather than genius. 250 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 240. Music in Poland. The Capricious rhythms and ruhato style which voice tliemselves here in the leaping mazurka and the stirring polonaise have been exploited by a number of composers, beginning with Chopin. Poland is especially the land of pianists. Among them were Carl Tausig (1841- 1871), and others, who are also known as composers. The Scharwenka brothers, Philipp (1847-) and Xaver (1850-), natives of Posen, a Polish province, are noted as pianists, teachers, and composers of popular piano pieces, including Polish dances. Moritz Moszkowski, though born at Breslau, in 1854, is of Polish descent. His elegant and pianistic salon composi- tions are popular on account of their technical facility and' brilliancy. He has also written larger works, an opera, a symphonic poem, a piano concerto, etc. Ignace J. Paderewski (1859-), a pupil and since 1907 director of the Warsaw Conservatory, has won laurels both as a pianist and as a composer of refined piano pieces, most of them in Polish style. His gipsy opera " Manru " contains excellent music. Other pianists are Joseph Wieniawski (1837-), who studied at the Paris Con- servatoire and with Liszt (his brother ITenri [1835-1880] was a noted violin- ist), and Josef Hofmann (1877-). MOSZKOWSKI Paderewski Section 2 MUSIC IN THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES 241. Norway. Udvard ffa/jerup Grieg (184B-1901}. Grieg, recognized as one of the greatest of recent composers, was OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 251 born in Bergen, Norway. Through the influence of Ole Bull, who foresaw his capabilities, he was sent to the Leipsic Conservatory in 1858. There he wrote compositions which already showed his sense of restraint at tlie dicta of the conventional school, and his leaning toward the style of Chopin and Schumann. On a visit to Copenha- gen he formed a friendship with the Nor- wegian composer Nordraak (1842-), who inspired him with enthusiasm for the folk-music of his native land. Together they entered upon a crusade against the " effeminate Gade-Mendelssohnian Scan- dinavianism," espousing Wagner's ideas. From 1866 to 1874 he taught, conducted, and wrote much at Christiania, and at the end of this time received an artist's pension from the government. He performed his piano concerto at a Leipsic Gewandhaus concert in 1879, gave concerts in England in 1888, and played and conducted at Paris in 1889. But his modest and retiring nature preferred to work in seclusion, and he thenceforward lived quietly in a villa near Bergen. Grieg , 242. Grieg's Compositions. Grieg wrote in a lyric rather than a dramatic vein, and was therefore most successful in short pieces. In these he admirably caught the national folk-style in its varying, leaping rhythms, and its exotic har- monies that closely mingle major and minor tonalities ; and with his refined musical perception he presented them di- vested of the harshnesses which appear in the works of other northern writers. His earlier compositions were his best, as later ones tend to pronounce his mannerisms. While lack of concentration mars his larger works, this is partly atoned for by their quaint and attractive themes. For the piano the active and virile concerto in A minor is his most elaborate production, while a sonata in E minor is 252 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY also striking. In the collections of lyric pieces, however, Grieg's genius was at its best, displaying itself in every variety of folk-style, and intensely Norwegian in character. Other chamber music includes an interesting string quartet, Theme op Humoreske, op. 6, no. 4. Allegro aUa burla. t-r ^ i f=P three violin sonatas, and a 'cello sonata. The two "Peer Gynt" suites for orchestra have become classics, while other orchestral works include the " Holberg Suite " and the " Ele- giac Melodies" for strings. The songs and choral. works are distinguished by the same romantic individuality. 243. Other Norwegian Composers. Johann Severin Svend- sen, born at Christiania in 1840, travelled as a violin virtuoso, studied at Leipsic, and finally took the post of court con- ductor at Copenhagen. He has written chamber music, especially concertos and single pieces for the violin, and two symphonies, aU of which are strongly Norwegian in flavor. Christian Sinding (1856-) studied in German art centres ■ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 253 finally becoming an organist and teacher at Christiania. His orchestral and chamber works have fine coloring and national vigor. Among the younger Norwegians whose work is of prom- ise are Ole Olsen and Gerhard Schjelderup. The woman pianist, Agathe Backer-Grrondahl, also composed. 244. Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. In Sweden, Andreas HalUn (1846-), who studied at Leipsic, has written operas and symphonic poems on Wagnerian lines. l]mil Sjogren, born at Stockholm in 1853, where he is now an organist, is a composer of romantic piano pieces and other chamber works of much originahty. Others are William Stenhammar, con- ductor at Stockholm ; William Peter son- Berg er, a Wagner dis- ciple; Hugo Alfven,2iS,ymT^\iQn\&t; and the violinist, TorAuUn. In Denmark, August Enna (I860-) has won success with his fairy operas on themes from Hans Andersen's tales. Otto Mailing; Victor Bendix, a. prot^^ of Gade ; August Wind- ing, director of the Copenhagen Conservatory ; and Ludwig Schytte, a friend of Liszt and writer of operas and popular piano pieces, are among the younger generation. Finland has recently come into prom- inence through the work of Jean Sibelius (1865-). After a German musical edu- cation he returned to Helsingfors, where he received a government pension. He has written orchestral and choral works of serious national style. Sibelius 245. Russia: Glinka's Followers. Of the five greatest of these, three are still engaged in active work. Cesar Cut (1835-), the son of a French soldier, was born at Vilna, Russia. A graduate from the engineers school at St. Peters- burg, he is now a major-general and professor of fortifica- tions in the military schools. Meanwhile he has found 254 Cui OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY time for musical criticism and the com- position of many works, including a number of operas, whose subjects are chiefly foreign, notwithstanding his ad- vocacy of the Russian school. Mill Balakirev (1837-), the close friend of Cui, began his musical work as a pianist, but afterwards studied and taught the national music with an en- thusiasm that has won him the name of founder of the new movement. His works are mostly sym- phonic in character, and of rich coloring. The most important of the group, however, is Nioolai Andrejovitcli Rimski- Korsakov (1844-1908). Professor in the St. Petersburg Con- Balakirev Rimski-Korsakov Of his operas the servatory, he later became head of the " Free School of Mu- sic." A man of culture and travel, he has occupied important posts as an orchestral conductor. The second of his three sym- phonies, " Antar," and his Oriental sym- phonic poem " Scheherezade," are the chief of his orchestral compositions. They display riotous coloring, though their coherency and polyphonic work is weak. Czar's Bride " was the most successful. Theme from Piano Concerto in C sharp minor, by Rimski- Korsakov. Allegretto quas i polac ca. ^^^ ^ ^ n LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN Adolf Fremd (Sculp.) OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 255 246. The Younger Russians. The Imperial Russian Musi- cal Society, founded by Anton Rubinstein in 1857, and now distributed in twenty-one sections over the country, has done much toward fostering musical work. Besides this, the Im- perial theatres in St. Petersburg and Moscow afford an oppor- tunity for the production of symphonies as well as operas, while many other orchestral and musical societies are of importance. Under these favorable conditions, a younger generation of Russians are producing works which show much vitality and enthusiasm. Alexander Crlazunov, the most noted of these, born at St. Petersburg in 1865, and a pupil of Rimski-Korsakov, is professor of instrumentation at the St. Petersburg Conserva- tory, and associate conductor of the Royal Symphony con- certs. His eighty odd works are mainly for orchestra, and include seven sym- phonies, overtures, and ballets ; all of vivid imagination, with melodious and rich progressions. Anton Arenski (1861-1906) graduated from the St. Petersburg Conservatory, served as professor of counterpoint at the Moscow Conservatory, and after- wards as head of the St. Petersburg Imperial Chapel. His operas, sympho- nies, and chamber music are strong and original. Eduard Schutt, who studied in the St. Petersbui-g Con- servatory and at Leipsic, was born in 1856, and is now a popular piano player and composer at Vienna. Glazdnov 256 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Alexander Scriabine (1872-), who has toured Europe as a piano virtuoso, has written well for orchestra and for the piano. Other prominent Russians are Sergei Tanieev (1856-), Joseph Wihtol (1863-), Anatol Liadov (1855-), Nicolai Sterbatchev, Sergei Rakhmaninov (1873-), and Edward Napravnik, born in Bohemia in 1839, but long resident at St. Petersburg. Section 3 MUSIC IN ITALY, FEANCB, AND THE NETHERLANDS 247. Italy. The degeneration of Italian music was so complete that up to the latter part of the nineteenth century the trivial operatic style held sway even in the churches, and no encouragement was offered to more serious aims. Re- cently, however, a band of younger musicians, influenced by Wagner's example, have undertaken to place music on a higher plane. In church music Bon Lorenzo Perosi, born at Tortona in 1872, has written many masses and oratorios. Beginning with a Trilogy on Christ's Passion, he united the Palestrina style with modern dramatic effects. Among the symphonists, Giovanni Sgambati, born at Rome in 1843, was a child pianist- prodigy, and is now a teacher and orches- tral conductor at Rome. Under Liszt's tutelage he became a Wagner enthusiast, and his compositions for orchestra and for piano join romantic melodies with skilful counterpoint. Giuseppe Martucci, Edgardo Del Paz, Ferruccio Busoni, the celebrated pianist, and Eugenia di Pirani, have also produced excellent instrumen- tal music. Marco Enrico Bossi (1861-), the leading Italian organist, has written much for that instrument, as well as operas, masses, and oratorios. Sgambati OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 257 In opera, Wagner's influence resulted in a realistic or "Verismo" school, which unites plots dealing with tragedies in low life to music often correspondingly coarse and brutal. Pietro Mascagni was born in 1863, the son of a Leghorn baker. Studying at the Milan Conservatory, he sprang into fame with a one-act opera, " Cavalleria Rusticana," of this stamp, which won the prize offered in 1890 by the music publisher Somogno. His later operas have been failures. Ruggiero Leoncavallo, born in 1858 at Naples, who had writ- ten a pretentious Trilogy on the subject of the Medici, also produced a two-act opera, " I Paghacci," in 1892, which won a success well de- served by its delicate though less popular treatment. G-iacomo Puccini (1858-), professor of composition at the Milan Conservatory, is best known by his op- eras "La Bohfeme," "Tosca," and "Ma- dame Butterfly," which have placed him at the head of the present Italian com- posers. Buongiorno and Ermanno Wolf- Ferrari are writers of a lighter and more romantic style of operas, modelled after Humperdinck's " Hansel und Gretel." Their works seem to mark a reaction against savage realism. 248. France: Saint-Saens. The high status assigned to music in France, and the excellent training given at the Conservatoire, have produced many musicians who are active in discovering new effects. Of late, instrumental composi- tion has attracted more attention, and orchestral and chamber works are becoming numerous and interesting. Charles Camille Saint-Saens has long been a unique figure on account of his musical eclecticism, which has won him triumphs in all styles, from the severely classic to the modern " programme " style. Born at Paris in 1835, he began the study of the piano at three, and at ten gave a soiree under 17 Puccini 258 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the direction of his teacher, Stamaty, in which his playing of the classics invited a comparison with Mozart. After a course at the Conservatoire, he remained in Paris as pianist, organist, and com- poser, delighting in occasional trips to foreign lands. Of great musical learning, he is famed also as a wit and litterateur. His music, though covering so wide a range, is always logical and fine in work- manship, with strong, clear rhythms and modulations. His symphonic works, which are of especial excellence, include Saint-Sabns gye symphonies, some of which intro- duce the piano and organ; four clever symphonic poems, " La Jeunesse d'Hercule," " Le Rouet d'Omphale," " Phae- ton," and the " Danse Macabre " ; and two orchestral suites. Air from " Samson and Delilah.' f =1= ^Ee eE mm s'ouvre a com - me s'ou [^^^m 't^ frrr ^ mm OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 259 Of five piano concertos, the G minor is a concert favorite. Other chamber works include three violin concertos and a violin sonata. Saint-Saens has also written choral works and songs. Of several operas, the "Samson and Delilah" is most famous, containing brilliant and full orchestration and a limited use of characteristic themes. Massenet 249. Other Elder Frenchmen. Jules Massenet (1842-), who graduated from the Conservatoire with the Prix de Rome, and afterwards became a professor there, is a foremost and prolific opera composer. His works, of which " Le Roi de La- hore," "Manon," " Le Cid," and "Wer- ther," are prominent, are classed as lyric dramas, although performed at the Op^ra Comique, and have the innovation of spoken dialogue with orchestral accom- paniment. A successor of Gounod, Massenet's music is always feminine, charming, sensuous, and thoroughly French, despite an occasional hint of Wagner. His orchestral suites and songs possess similar characteristics. Louis Etienne Ernest Reyer, born at Marseilles in 1823, is famous chiefly for his pretentious grand operas " Sigurd " and " Salammbd," written on Wagnerian lines. Theodore Du- bois (1837-) was a Prix de Rome graduate of the Conserva- toire, of which he was director for several years. He has written pleasing orchestral and organ music, and operas. Charles Marie Widor and Alexander Guilmant are famous as organists and composers of organ music. 250. The Younger Frenchmen. A number of C^sar Franek's pupils show much enthusiasm in propagating his principles. Chief among these is Vincent d'Indy, born at Paris in 1851. He has written chiefly orchestral and chamber music, at- tempting bold effects of harmony and rhythm, but not 260 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY wholly discarding classic forms. He is also founder, with (juilmant and Charles Bordes, of the Schola Cantorum^ now containing several hundred pupils. D'Indy is also the author of musical treatises. Another brilliant Franck pupil was Ernest Chausson (1855-1899), whose ca- reer was cut short by a bicycle accident. His symphonic works and his opera " Le Roi Arthus " are of exceptional charm, thoroughly modern, yet not pushing liberty into license. Gabriel Faure (1845-), the present director of the Conservatoire, writes mostly instrumental music, introducing many novel effects into recognized forms. In piano work he has been called the successor of Chopin. d'Indy Faurb Debussy A band of the more radical Frenchmen are attempting impressionistic effects at the expense of all tradition. Their leader is Claude Achille Debussy (1862-j, whose weird and mystic compositions intermingle keys and harmonies in kaleidoscopic combination. He is a fitting illustrator of Maeterlinck in his opera "Pell^as et M^lisande," founded on one of the latter's plays. Alfred Bruneau (1857-), a champion of the realistic school of opera, bases his librettos upon the plots of Zola's novels. Gustave Charpentier OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 261 (I860-) has written orchestral music of the " programme " style and the opera " Louise," all with vivid tone-paintLog. Paul Dukas, with his piquant orchestration ; Gabriel Pierrd, author of operas, choral works, etc. ; and Cecile Ohami- nade, well known for her delicate songs and piano pieces, are among the host of enthusiastic young writers. 251. The Netherlands. In Belgium also there is a recent movement toward the formation of a national school, at the head of which was Peter Benoit (1834-1901), who composed in all the large forms, and excelled in his dramatic oratorios. Paul Grilson (1865-), an honor graduate of the Brussels Conservatory, is a prolific composer. His three-movement symphonic work " La Mer " and dramatic cantata " Fran- cesca da Rimini" are especially noteworthy. Gruillaume Lekeu (1870-1894), a pupil of C^sar Franck, has written in an original but gloomy style. Edgar Tinel (1854-), pro- fessor at the Brussels Conservatory, and writer of serious orchestral woiks, and Jan Blockx (1851-), popular as an opera composer, are other Belgians. Amsterdam is the musical centre of Holland, and the fes- tivals held here give an opportunity for the production of the works of native composers, prominent among whom are Julius Roentgen, Bernard Zweers, and AlpJionse Biepenbrock. ' Section 4 MUSiC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 252. The Renaissance in England. In the latter half of the nineteenth century five English composers led a movement which has resulted in the infusion of more originality and modern spirit into the English style. The most prominent of these is Charles Villiers Stanford, born at Dublin in 1852, of musical parents. After studying the violin and piano, he became a pupil at Cambridge and later at Leipsic. Since then, while organist at Cambridge University, he has written 262 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY many large works -which display a clearness of melody and a richness of orchestration that are free from pedantry. His vocal music is especially important, and includes the arrange- ment of many Irish songs. Sir Alexander 0. Mackenzie, born at Edinburgh in 1847, studied in Germany and at the Royal Academy, finally be- coming connected as teacher with the University of Edin- burgh. His many compositions in all forms, fine but severe in style, embrace two operas and oratorios, of which the " Rose of Sharon " is the most popular. Sir Charles Hubert H. Parry (1848-), who became director of the Royal College of Music in 1894, is distinguished as a writer, teacher, and composer. Academic but broad in style, he has written four symphonies, oratorios, incidental music to dramas, etc. Frederic M. Cowen (1852-) writes in a poetic style with fanciful devices, and is the composer of many popular songs, besides fairy cantatas and other works in the large forms. The fifth of this group was Arthur Croring Thomas (1850- 1892), whose French education appeared in his roinantic songs. Sir J. Frederick Bridge, organist of Westminster Abbey, Walter Cecil Macfarren, Sir Walter Parratt, and Charles Herford Lloyd, are allied in purpose with the preceding. 253. Sir Edward ■William Elgar (1857-). Elgar has of late years sprung into a foremost place among living com- posers, winning unstinted encomiums from many critics. Born at Broadheath, near Worcester, England, the son of an organist, he soon showed musical ability, playing in a Worcester opera house orchestra. Afterwards desultory musical instruction was supplemented by assiduous self- Parry OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 263 teaching in the technique of orchestral composition. His cantata " The Black Knight," produced at a Worcester fes- tival, attracted attention, and was fol- lowed by similar works, " The Light of Life " and " King Olaf," of great melodic beauty. In 1899 his admirably contrast- ing orchestral "Variations" appeared at a Richter concert in London ; and in the following year his oratorio " The Dream of Gerontius," a setting of Cardinal Newman's poem, was given at Birming- ham, and brought him fame. In this he attempts to apply Wagner's theories to the oratorio, with strikingly original orchestral effects and brilliant dramatic climaxes. Given in many countries, it has been hailed as one of the greatest sacred works of the Chorus from the " Dream of Gerontius." Maestoso J = 84 Elgar Praise to the Ho - li - est in the height, and in the depth be praiBe. In all His words most won - - • der - f ul ; A.^1 X^-i--C^i-i-^ sure, most sure in all Copyright, 1900, by Novello and Company, Limited. Used by permission. 264 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY past century. " The Apostles," the first number of a contem- plated Trilog3% has excited less unanimous praise, since its psy- chological and mystical treatment of themes makes many parts difficult of comprehension, despite its great excellen- cies. Several overtures, smaller orchestral pieces, sacred compositions, and songs, display the originality of his work. 254. The Younger English Composers. Samuel Coleridge- Taylor (1875-) is a graduate of the Eoyal College of Music, where he won a scholarship. He is now professor of violin playing at Croydon Conservatory. His anthems and his orchestral and chamber music show a wealth of passion and barbaric color, which is also evident in his development of negro melodies, and his vocal and instrumental music to scenes from Long- fellow's " Hiawatha."' Udivard G-erman (1862-) is known for his comic operas, orchestral and chamber works, and songs, all distinguished for their clear, diatonic, and melodious style. Granville Bantock (1868-) is the leader of a set of com- posers who are seeking original effects. His one-act operas and songs show rich coloring, while his orchestral works include the first of an ambitious set of twenty-four symphonic poems illustrat- ing Southey's " Curse of Kehama." Arthur Somervell, the Scotch Hamish MacCunn, William Wallace, Clarence Lucas, and Cyril Scott, are also becoming prominent. Of women composers!, Liza Leh7nann is known for her song cycle '■ In a Persian Garden " ; while Frances Allitsen and Maude Valerie White have written charming songs. CoLEErDGB -Taylor Bantock OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 265 255. The TTnited States. The pioneer character of our country prevented the early advancement of music, as of other arts. It is only within a few decades that American musicians have acquired recognizable merit. The earliest music was the psalm-singing of the Puritans, of whom Wil- liam Billings, a Boston tanner who died in 1800, wrote pop- ular hymn tunes. The next development was the formation of church choirs, and from these choral societies sprang, of which the Boston Handel and Haydn, founded in 1815, was the leader. Lowell Mason (1792-1872) travelled about, especially in New England, creating enthusiasm by calling together musical conventions. Early in the nineteenth cen- tury the Philharmonic Society of Orchestral Players, largely composed of amateurs, was founded in Boston ; while the Philadelphia Musical Fund Society, for promotion of musical knowledge, appeared in 1820, and the Neio York Philhar- monic Society, the first professional orchestra in America, in 1842. In connection with orchestral work the long and effective labors of Theodore Thomas (1835-1905), a native of Germany, should be mentioned. He did much toward cultivating the public taste in his position as a con- ductor in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. In Boston the Philharmonic, Germania, and Harvard Musical Associa- tion Orchestras gave place, in 1881, to the brilliant Boston Symphony Orchestra; while other excellent orchestras are maintained in Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Baltimore. There is as yet no national opera ; but the numerous choral societies scattered throughout the country are exploiting the larger musical works in their concerts and festivals. 256. The Older ComposerB. A brilliant pianist of the nine- teenth century was Zouis Moreau Gottschalk. He was born, in New Orleans in 1829, and died in Rio de Janeiro in 1869. After gaining his education in Paris, he won a succession of triumphs not only by his magnetic concert playing but also 266 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY by his refined and original transcriptions of Creole melodies, adorned with emotional pianistic effects which sometimes savor of sentimentality. The dean of American music, however, was John K. Paint (1839-1906), who was born at Portland, Maine, and studied in Berlin. Having settled in Boston, he became a teacher at Harvard Uni- versity in 1862, and was made professor of music there in 1876, a post which he held till the year before his death. Professor Paine's compositions are dis- tinguished for musicianship and original invention, and include two symphonies, symphonic poems, large choral works, chamber music, and an opera, "Azara." William Mason, born at Boston in 1829, was a pupil of Liszt, and has long been active as a teacher of the piano and composer of refined piano music. Dudley Buck, born in 1839 at Hartford, Connecticut, was a student at Leipsic and Paris, and has since served as or- ganist in New York City. His many vocal works, including anthems, oratorios, and songs, and his organ compositions, all show musical mastery in the use of attractive melodies and striking instrumental effects. William W. Gilchrist, born at Jersey City in 1846, and a resident of Philadelphia, has written effectively for chorus and orchestra. Frederick Grant Gleason (1848-1903), a native of Middletown, Connecticut, won laurels while located in Chicago by his symphonic works. Paine 257. The Younger Composers. Two Boston composers are well known for their sane and forceful works. George W. Chadwick, born at Lowell in 1854, after extensive study in Leipsic and Dresden, settled in Boston. There since 1880 he has been occupied as teacher and organist, and is now director of the New England Conservatory. His composi- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 267 tions, written in a clear and rhythmic style with strong themes, include three symphonies, several overtures, choral FOOTE Chadwick and chamber works, songs, and piano pieces. Arthur Foote, born at Salem in 1853, is a Harvard graduate, occupied in Boston chiefly with piano teaching and composition. His orchestral, choral, and chamber works are of refined and somewhat academic style. The American composer who has won the greatest repu- tation for originality, however, is Edward A. MacDoweU. Born in New York in 1861, he studied at the Paris Conservatoire, and after- wards with Raff in Germany, where he began his professional career. Coming to Boston in 1888, he spent several years there occupied as teacher, concert pian- ist, and composer. After this he filled the position of professor of music at Columbia University from 1896 to 1904. A brain trouble put an end to his work, and he died in January, 1908. An adherent of the ultra-modern school, he excelled in the painting of tonal pictures upon poetic subjects. In the illustration of Indian scenes and melodies he has attempted to give a national flavor to his music, which includes several orchestral suites and symphonic poems, two concertos and MacDowell 268 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Indian tiiemr used by MacDowell in Op. 51, No. 5. Moarnfully. ^ ^ \^^=^Pe^*^^^ -■9- From " Woodland Sketches." Copyright, 1896, by P. L. Jung. four romantic sonatas for piano, besides smaller piano pieces, and exquisite songs. Mhelbert Nevin (1862-1901), a native of Pennsylvania, died in the height of his popularity as a writer of graceful songs and piano pieces, which show the marks of real genius. Horatio Parker (1863-), at present professor of music at Yale University, has written many religious compositions, including canta- tas and anthems, as well as music in other forms. Arthur B. Whiting, born at Cambridge in 1861, and now located in New York, has won renown as a writer of works for orchestra and for organ. Henry Holden Huss (1862-) is another New York musician who is known for graceful orchestral and piano music. Victor Herbert (1859-), a native of Dublin, Ireland, has won laurels in the United States as conductor, and as composer of orchestral and choral works -which include a number of tuneful comic operas. Parker OUTLINES OP MUSIC HISTORY 269 Western musicians include Edgar Stillmafi-Kelley (1857-), a native of Wisconsin, who has written orchestraland cham- ber works and comic operas ; and Frank van der Stuoken (1858-), conductor of the Cincinnati orchestra, and a writer of orchestral works in the advanced modern style. Of younger men who are attracting attention especially for their orchestral works, we mention Howard Brockway (1870-), a native of New York ; Henry K. Hadley, bom in 1871 at SomervUle, Massachusetts; and Frederick S. Con- verse, born at Newton in 1871, recently assistant professor of music in Harvard. Charles M. Xoe^er (1861-), formerly a violinist in the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and Gustav Strube (1867-), a present violinist in the same organization, are writing on ultra-modern lines. Among a number of women composers, Mrs. H. H. A. Beach of Boston is well known for her songs, piano pieces, and larger compositions. Summary The old struggle between the conservative and radical elements is still going on, though popular verdict is at present on the side of the latter, which has pushed its boun- daries to extremes in the search for the bizarre and the unmee. In Germany, Richard Strauss is the central figure. H^lias carried " programme " music even into the domain of phi- losophy, but his ideas are elaborated with amazing command of the immense orchestral resources of which he avails him- self. The most original opera composers here seem to be tempering Wagner's heaviness by writing shorter and more delicately romantic works. Poland's output of pianists is headed by the popular Pad- erewski; while in Russia the new school revels in barbaric pomp and color, exciting world-wide interest, by new ele- ments of effect. Scandinavia is producing many young composers who voice the northern, stern, sometimes harsh, nature, and are thus bringing to light striking materials 270 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Italy is of late years asserting a more genuine character in music, voiced by her opera composers of the " Verismo " school, and by writers of high ideals in other fields ; and Netherland composers are patriotically laboring for a dis- tinctive school. In France, the eclectic and brilliant Saint-Saens stands alone. Followers of C^sar Franck are attempting to carry forward mediaeval ideas, and the younger impressionists and realists are running riot. England has emerged from the domination of her favorites, and composers are writing with more freedom and originality. Edward Elgar, especially, seems a new music prophet. In America a national school has not yet arisen, but the enthusiasm for music and the spread of musical culture augur well for the future, and are already bringing forward musi- cians of excellent attainments. READING LIST Various Articles in Famous Composers and their Works. Section 1 Dickinson, Study of SJusic History, chaps. 39, 42. Baltzell, History, lessons 36, 48, 50, 51, 55. Arthur Elson, Modern Composers of Europe, chaps. 1-4. Maitland, Masters of German Music. Strauss is discussed in Ernest Newman's Musical Studies ; also in the following books : Huneker, Overtones ; Henderson, Modern Musi- cal Drift ; Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethovea. Streatfeild, Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 19. Baltzell, History, lessons 55, 56. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 42. FiNOK, Songs and Song Writers, chap. 6. Mason, From Grieg to Brahms. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 2, 9, 10, 11. Section 2 Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 42. Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, article " Grieg." OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 271 FiMCK, Songs and Song Writers, chap. 6. Elson, Modern Composers, chaps. 10-12. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 7-9. Baltzell, History, lessons 55, 56. Section 3 Baltzell, History, lessons 52-54. Elson, Modern Composers, chaps. 6-8. DicKiNsosr, Study of Music History, chaps. 40, 41. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers, chap. 7. Hervbt, Masters of French Music. Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4, 6. Section 4 " Baltzell, History, lessons 48, 54, 57-59. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 43. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers, chap. 8. Maitland, English Music in the Nineteenth Century. Arthur Elson, Modem Composers, chap. 9. Henderson, Modern Musical Drift (Elgar). L. C. Elson, History of American Music. Upton, Theodore Thomas. Hughes, Contemporary American Composers. Mathews, A Hundred Tears of Music iu America. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 5, 12. Conclusion Starting with the mere seeds of musical intelligence, and .passing through the developing periods of attempts at ex- pression, of serious schooling, of youthful optimism, we have now reached the flowering phase of freedom of expression. In the differentiation of styles, formalism has struggled with romanticism, each, however, producing a salutary effect upon the other by preventing too great pedantry or too great license. Schools have in turn reached their climax and been superseded by others ; but in each such case new mate- rial has been added as a permanent possession. Thus at the present day musical resources seem unlimited, — so vast, 272 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY indeed, that no one save a colossal genius can hope to avail himself of them all. The cases of Chopin and Franz, how- ever, prove that a composer may attain the highest rank in a single branch of music ; and thus specialization in this, as in other forms of art, is both honorable and inevitable. It is also a significant fact that the most eminent musicians "have avowedly traced the foundation of their success to their intimate study of the classics, especially of Bach and Beetho- ven. The normal, sane music of these universal masters forms the only safe point of departure for a true artist ; and the failure to secure this preliminary acquaintance with the universal sources, and the consequent rudderless attempt to begin with the unfixed principles of the modern radicals, inevitably result in shipwreck. Finally, it is evident that, as its resources have increased, music has become more and more important as a social fac- tor. It affords an outlet to ideas and thoughts engendered by the mighty world-movements, and reacts, in its pure and elevated forms, upon the minds of men, to aid in overcom- ing the pressing dangers of a gross materialism. Especially in this country is the need of such a counterbalance felt; and in the public recognition, appreciation, and support of the exponents of music, as of other branches of art, wiU be found one of the most potent factors toward the preser- vation and cultivation of that spirituality which is absolutely necessary for any true advance in civilization. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EVENTS IN MOD- ERN MUSICAL HISTORY, WITH CONTEM- PORANEOUS HISTORICAL EVENTS Abbreviations: — b = bom; d — died; r = began to reign; p = made president ; E = England; F= France; T = Italy; G = Germany; R= Russia ; S = Spain; A = America ; U. S. = United States. A star (*) indicates that the date is approximate. The title of a composition is given under the date of its first production. A.D. 1-1500 Early persecutions of the Christians ceased when Con- stantine made Christianity the state religion, in 324. The Roman Empire divided into the Eastern and Western Em- pires, of which the former lasted into the fifteenth century, and the latter, overrun by northern tribes, fell in 476. The Dark Ages extended from the fifth to the eleventh century, during which time learning was coxifined to the Church, whose popes attained immense power. The rise of the Feudal System resulted in unceasing war and turmoil. The Saracens, under the influence of Mohammedanism, pushed their way into Spain in the seventh century, but were driven from France in the eighth. The Norsemen, invading France and England in the tenth century, obtained concessions in both countries. In the eleventh century struggles occurred between the popes and the powerful German emperors. The growing strength of monarchies and the formation of cities began to undermine feudalism, and the Crusades, begun in 1095, ushered in the epoch of chivalry. In the twelfth century the German Empire broke up into separate states. Italian republics were formed, 18 274 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY chivalry became strong, and a revival of learning com- menced, under the leadership of the Scholastic Philosophers, which was attended by the formation of universities. The Romanesque was superseded by the Gothic architecture. Increase of independence of spirit was shown in the thir- teenth century by such events as the signing of Magna Charta in England and the scientific researches of Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus. The fourteenth century wit- nessed a war between England and France. There were numerous inventions, like those of the compass and of gun- powder. Wycliffe translated the New Testament, and Eng- lish literature began. The fifteenth century found the Renaissance in full vigor. Printing was invented, algebra introduced, and voyages of discovery opened new worlds. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks ended the Eastern Roman Empire. Musical Events. Contemporary Events. A. D. 524. *Boethius d. 930. *Hucbald d. 1050; *Guido d'Arezzo d. 1215. Magna Charta signed, E. ' 1250; Walter Odington d. 1264. Parliament established, E. 1287. *Adam de la Hale d. 1321. Dante d. 1346. Hundred Years' War begins. 1360. Rise of Gallo-Belgie school. 1375. ^ Boccaccio d. 1400. *Dufay, *Binchois, *Dunstable b. Huss executed. Chaucer d, 1423. Earliest dated print. 1434. *Okeghem b. 1446. *Tinctor b. 1450. *Des Prfes b. Rise of Nether- land school. 1453. Dunstable d. Hundred Years' War ends. Fall of Constantinople. 1455. Wars of Roses begin, E Fra Angelico d. 1460. Binchois d. 1473. *Dufay d. First book printed in E. 1475. Michelangelo b. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 276 A, D. Musical Events. Contemporary Events. 1480. *Willaert b. 1481. Busnois d. 1482. DeUa Robbia d. 1483. Martin Luther b. Raphael b. 1492. Columbus discovers A. 1494. Hans Sachs b. 1496. J. Walther b. . *Okeghem d. 1497. 1498. 1499. S. Cabot discovers North A. Da Gama rounds Cape of Good Hope. Amerigo Vespucci visits A. 1500-1600 Spain was for a time the most powerful nation, attaining prominence under Charles I, afterwards Charles V, Emperor of Germany, who engaged in fierce wars against Francis I of France. The Reformation, under Luther and Calvin, was followed by the Protestant movement in England, under Henry VIII. The Dutch Republic arose. In France, con- flicts took place between Catholics and Huguenots, especially after the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. The Renaissance painters — Michelangelo, Raphael, Ti- tian, etc. — -reached their greatest excellence. In England Elizabeth's reign induced much prosperity and glory. In America the period is merely one of discovery. Musical Events. CONTBMPOHAKT EvENTS. A. D. 1501. *Eetracci invents music print- ing with movable tjrpes. 1505. *Goudimel b. 1509. Henry Vm r., E. Calvin b. 1510. *A. Gabrieli b. Botticelli d. 1511. Tinetor d. 1512. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida 1514. Arkadelt b. 1515. *Palestrina and Tye b. Francis I r., F. 1516. De Rore b. 1517. Luther publishes 96 Theses. 1518. *H. Isaac d. 1519. Zarlino b. 276 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Musical Events. Contemporary Events. A. D. 1520. Raphael d. Charles V, Emperor of Germany r. 1521. Des Pr6s d Cortfcz conquers Mexico. 1522. Magellan circumnavigates the globe. 1523. Marbecke b. 1528. Diirer d. 1529. ♦TaUis b. 1532. Lassus b. Pizarro conquers Peru. 1533. Merulo and *V. GaUlei b. Ariosto d. 1534. Correggio d. Heniy VIII made head of Church, E. Cartier explores St. Lawrence. 1536. Erasmus d. 1538. *Byrd b. 1540. G. M. Nanini b. 1541. De Soto discovers the Missis- sippi. 1543. Holbein and Copernicus d. 1545. Council of Trent. 1546. Luther d. 1550. *Caccim b. 1553. Rabelais d. 1555. *L. Senfel d. Diet of Augsburg sanctions re- ligious toleration. 1557. G. Gabrieli and *Thos. Morley b. 1558. EUzabeth r., E. 1561. Perib. Francis Bacon b. 1562. 1563. Willaert d. Sweelinck and Dow- land b. J. Bull b. 1564. Haasler b. Michelangelo and Calvin d. Shakespeare and Galileo b. 1565. De Rore d. Palestrina's " Missa St. Augustine, Florida, founded. Papae Marcelli." 1567. Vaet d. Monteverde b. 1570. Arkadelt and Walther d. 1571. Kepler b. 39 Articles adopted, E. Knox d. Massacre of St. Bar- 1572. Goudimel and Tye d. tholomew. 1576. Hans Sachs d. Titian d. 1577. Rubens b. 1581. ♦Marbecke d. 1583. 0. Gibbons and Frescobaldi b. 1584. AUegri b. Sir W. Raleigh names Virginia. 1586. Schutz, Tallis and De Rore d. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 211 Contemporary Events. Musical Events. A. D. 1586. A. Gabrieli d. 1587. 1588. 1590. ZarUno d. 1592. 1594. Palestrina and Lassus d. 1595. l'596. N. Amati b. 1598. 1599. CavaUeri d. Mary Queen of Scots beheaded. Paul Veronese d. Defeat of 'Armada, E. Montaigne d. Tintoretto d. Tasso d. Descartes b. Edict of Nantes. Spencer d. Vandyck b. 1600-1700 In England the misrule of the Stuarts caused continual civil wars, interrupted by the period of the Commonwealth, and only terminating with the accession of William and Mary. The destructive Thirty Years' War on the Conti- nent was a struggle between the two religious factions, resulting in a victory for religious independence and the shattering of the German Empire. France became mighty under Richelieu, and the brilliant reign of Louis XIV began. The method of inductive reasoning asserted hj Bacon and Descartes led to important discoveries in science by Galileo, Newton, etc. The Literature of Wit flourished in England, and the classic period of French literature was at its height. The Flemish and Spanish schools of painting were especially prominent. In America colonization went on rapidly, interrupted by wars with the Indians. Musical Events. A. D. 1600. Peri's "Euridice." Cavalieri's "L'anima e Corpo." *Gali- lel d. Cavalli b. 1601. 1604. Merulo and Morley d. *Caria- simi b. CONTEMPOIIAKT EvENTS. Tycbo Brahe d. 278 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Musical Events. A. D. 1605. *Froberger b. 1606. 1607. Monteverde's "Orfeo." 1608. Monteverde's "Arianna.'' 1609. 1612. Hassler d. 1613. *G. Gabrieli d. 1615. *Caccini d. 1616. 1618. 1620. Oesti b. 1621. 1623. 1624. 1625. 1626. 1627. 1628. 1630. 1631. 1633. 1636. 1637. 1638. 1640. 1641. 1642. 1643. 1644. 1648. 1649. 1650. 1653. 1654. 1657. 1658. 1659. Sweelinck d. Byrd d. Reinken b. G. M. Nanini d. Monteverde'i "Tancred and Clorinda." O. Gibbons d. *Legrenzi b. J. Dowland d. SchUtz's "Dafne." J. Bull d. LuUy b. *Peri d. Pasquini and Buxtehude b. Monteverde d. Frescobaldi d. *A. Stradivari b. Corelli and Paehelbel b. *Torelli b. ♦Purcell b. A. Scarlatti b. CONTEMPORABT EVENTS. Gunpowder Plot, E. " Don Quixote." Rembrandt and Comeille b. Jamestown, Va., founded. Milton b. Hudson River and Lake Cham- plain discovered. Shakespeare and Cervantes d. Thirty Years' War begins. Murillo b. Raleigh executed. Landing of Pilgrim Fathers. Slavery introduced into Virginia. RicheUeu chief minister, F. Charles I r., E. F. Bacon d. Bunyan b. Kepler d. founded. F6nelon and Diyden b, Boston, Mass. Roger Williams founded Provi- dence, R. I. Ben Jonson d. Harvard College founded. Long Parliament, E. Rubens d. Vandyck d. Galileo, Guido Reni, and Riche- lieu d. Newton b. Civil War in E. End of Thirty Years' War. Charles I beheaded; Common- wealth, E. Descartes d. Balzac d. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 279 A. D. 1660. Musical Events. Contemporary Events. Restoration, E. Velasquez d. i 1661. Age of Louis XIV begins, F. 1662. AUegri d. 1665. Great Plague in London. 1667. Froberger d. *Lotti, *Kuhnau, and Pepusch b. Swift b. 1668. F. Couperin b. 1669. Cesti d. Marohand b. Rembrandt d. 1670. ♦Champion d. 1672. Schiitz d. Addison b. 1673. Moli&re d. 1674. Carissimi d. Keiser b. Milton and Herrick d. 1675. . *Vivaldi b. King Philip's War begins, A. 1676. Somis b. Cavalli d. 1677. M. Locke d. Purcell's " and ^neas." Dido Spinoza d. 1679. Habeas Corpus Act, E. Hobbes d. 1681. A. Stradella d. 1682. Murillo and Claude Lorraine d. 1683. J. Stainer d. Rameau *D. Scarlatti b. and Wm. Penn founds Philadelphia. 1684. N. Amati d. Durante b. Corneille d. 1685. Bach, Handel, and *Veracini b. James II r., E. 1686. Porpora b. 1687. LuUy d. 1688. Bunyan d. Pope b. 1689. Peter the Great r., R. Wm. and Mary r., E. 1690. Legrenzi d. 1692. Tartini b. Salem Witchcraft. Wm. and Mary College founded in Va. 1694. Daquin b. Voltaire b. 1695. Purcell d. 1699. Hasse b. Racine d. 1700-18 00 Chiefly noticeable is the growth of democratic ideas, pro- mulgated especially by French writers like Voltaire, Rous- seau, aud Montesquieu, and culminating in the American and French revolutions. Scientific discoveries, like that of the steam engine and electricity, gave additional impetus to civilization. 280 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Prussia took a leading position under Frederick the Great, during whose reign the disastrous Seven Years' War oc- curred. Russia also, under Peter the Great, started on its career as a world power. England prospered under Queen Anne and the three Georges, producing statesmen, scientists, litterateurs, and artists. The end of the century saw the United States established as a republic, and in France. Napoleon rising into prominence. Musical Events. Contemporary Events. A. D. 1700. Dryden d. Yale College founded. 1701. Graun b. 1702. Anne r., E. 1704. John Locke d. 1705. 1706. Pachelbel d. Benj. Franklin b. 1707. Buxtehude d. Alberti b. Ital- ian Opera in England. Union of England and Scotland. 1708. *Torelli d. 1709. Cristofori's first pianos. 1710. Pasqliini d. Pergolesi, Wm. F. Bach, Paradies, and Dr. Ame b. 1711. Boileau d. 1712. J. J. Rousseau b. 1713. Corelli d. 1714. Gluok and K. P. E. Bach b. George 1 r., E. 1715. Wagenseil b. 1716. Leibnitz d. 1719. Addison d. 1721. Watteau d. 1722. Reinken and J. Kuhnau d. 1723. Sir J. Reynolds b. 1724. Kant b. 1725. A. Scarlatti d. Bach's Well- tempered Clayichord, Vol. I. 1726. Albrechtsberger b. 1727. Newton d. Gainsborough b. George III r., E. 1728. Hiller and Piccinni b. "Beg- gar's Opera." Goldsmith b. 1729. Steele d. 1731. Cristofori d. Defoe d. 1732. Marchand d. Haydn b. Geo. Washington b. 1733. F. Couperin d. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 281 Mdsical, Events. Contemporary Events. A. D. 1734. GoEsec b. 1735. J. C. Bach b. 1737. A. Stradivari d. 1738. Pergolesi d. Benj. West b. 1739. Keiserd. Handel's "Saul" and "Israel in Egypt." 1740. Lotti and *Alberti d. Frederick the Great r., Prussia. 1741. Grftry b. 1742. Handel's "Messiah" and "Samson." 1743. Vivaldi d. 1744. Pope d. 1745. *J. Guarneri d. Dean Swift d. 1749. Gimarosa b. Goethe b. 1750. J. S. Bach and Veracini d. Salieri b. 1752. Clementi b. Pepusch d. 1753. Viotti b. 1754. Fielding d. 1755. Durante d. Montesquieu d. 1756. Mozart b. Seven Years' War begins. 1757. D. Scarlatti d. 1759. Ha,ndel and Graun d. Schiller b. Wolfe's victoiy and death at Quebec. 1760. Cherubini b. George III r., E. 1761. Stamitz d. Dussek b. 1762. Gluck's "Orfeo." 1763. Soinis d. M6hul b. End of Seven Years' War. 1764. Rameau d. Hogarth d. 1765. Himmel and Thos. Attwood b. Stamp Act passed, E. 1766. *Porpora d. 1767. Gluck's "Alceste." 1769. Gluck's "Paris and Helen." Napoleon Bonaparte b. 1770. Tartini d. Beethoven b. Hegel and Wordsworth b. 1771. Baillot and Cramer b. Sir W. Scott b. 1772. Daquin d. Swedenborg d. Coleridge b. 1773. "Boston Tea Party." 1774. Rode and Spontini b. Goldsmith d. 1775. Boieldieu b. Revolutionary War began, A. Turner b. 1776. Gluck-Piccinni controversy. Declaration of Independence, A. Hume d. 1777. Wagenseil d. Gluck's "Ar- mide." 1778. Dr. Ame and J. J. Rousseau d. Voltaire and L. Sterne d. Hummel b. 1779. Gluck's "Iphigfoie en Tau- ride." 282 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Musical Events. Contemporary J^vents. A. D. 1781. Lessing d. 1782. J. C. Bach d. Auber, Paganini, and J. Field b. Daniel Webster b. 1783. Hasse d. End of Revolutionary War, A. 1784. Wm. F. Bach d. Spontini and Spohr b. Samuel Johnson d. 1786. Weber b. Mozart's "Marriage of Figaro." Frederick the Great d. 1787. Gluok d. Mozart's "Don Gio- vanni." 1788. K. P. E. Bach d. Constitution of U. S. adopted. Gainsborough d. Byron b. 1789. Washington p., U. S. French Revolution begins. 1790. B. Franklin and Adam Smith d. 1791. Mozart d. Harold, Czerny, and Meyerbeer b. 1792. Paradies d. Rossini and L. Mason b. Sir J. Reynolds d. 1793. Louis XVI executed, F. 1794. Moscheles b. Gibbon d. 1795. Purcell d. Boehm and Marsch- ner b. Paris Conservatoire founded. darlyle b. 1796. Loewe b. Bums d. 1797. Donizetti, Schubert, and Mer- cadante b. E. Burke d. 1798. Haydn's "Creation." Bonaparte's first campaign in I. 1799. Hal6vy b. Dittersdorf d. George Washington d. 1800-1900 In the first part of the century the Napoleonic wars kept all Europe in a ferment. After Napoleon's downfall France passed through several revolutions, until a republic was established in 1870. Italy finally threw off the Austrian yoke, becoming an independent kingdom ; Germany became united by the formation of the German Confederation ; and England, during the long reign of Queen Victoria, enjoyed almost uninterrupted prosperity. The most important event in the United States was the great Civil War, which resulted in freeing the slaves and reuniting the country. The Romantic movement, beginning early in the century, affected all branches of art, overthrowing conventional ideals OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 283 and proceeding to great lengths in the direction of Impres- sionism. The most evident strides, however, were in the domain of Science, resulting in inventions which have im- mensely facilitated intercourse between peoples, thrown open new regions and customs, and added to the luxuries of life. A. D. 1800. 1801, 1802. 1803. 1804. 1805. 1806. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1811. 1812. 1813. 1814. 1815. 1816. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. Musical Events. Piccinnid. Gossb. Cherubini's "Deux journ^es." Cimarosa d. Lortzing b. Hay- dn's "Seasons." Bellini and De B6riot b. Glinka and Berlioz b. Beethoven's "Eroica Sym." Beethoven's "Fidelio." Balfe b. Haydn and Albrechtsberger d. Mendelssohn h. Chopin, Schumann, Ole Bull, F. David, Nicolai b. lAszt, F. Hiller, A. Thomas b. Dussek d. Thalberg and Flo- tow b. Grfitry d. Wagner, Verdi, H. Smart, and Macfarren b. Rossini's "Tancredi." Henselt and Ernst b. Franz, Alard, Heller, and Volk- mann b. Boston "Handel and Haydn." Bennett b. Rossini's "Barber of Seville." M6hul d. Gade b. Gounod and Kjerulf b. Offenbach and Abt b. Vieuxtemps b. Weber's "Der Freischiitz." Raff and Franck b. Reyer and Lalo b. Weber's "Euryanthe." CONTEMPORAKT EVENTS. Cowper d. V. Hugo b. Emerson b. Louisiana Purchase. Kant and Alex. Hamilton d. Bonaparte Emperor, F. Schiller d. Hawthorne b. Wm. Pitt d. End of German Empire. Fulton applied steam to navi- gation. Tennyson, O. W. Holmes, and A. Lincoln b. Thackeray b. Dickens and Browning b. between U. S. and E. War Abdication of Bonaparte. Lo- comotive invented. Millet b. Fulton d. Bismarck b. R. B. Sheridan d. Ruskin b. Benj. West d. George IV r., E. Spain cedes Florida to U. S. Bonaparte and Keats d. Shelley and Herschel d. 284 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Musical Events. A. D. 1824. Viotti d. Bruckner, Reinecke, Smetana, and Cornelius b. Beethoven's Ninth Sym- phony. 1825. Salieri d. J. Strauss b. 1826. Weber d. Mendelssohn's overture to "A Midsummer- night's Dream." 1827. Beethoven d. 1828. Schubert d. Bargiel b. Au- ber's "Masaniello." 1829. Gottschalk and Wm. Mason b. Gossec d. Rossini's "Wm. Tell." Berlioz's "Sym- phonie Pantastiqne." 1830. Rode d. Goldmark, von Bulow, Lassen, and Rubinstein b. 1831. Joachim and Jadassohn b. BelUni's "Norma." Meyer-' beer's "Robert." 1832. Clementi d. 1833. Harold d. Brahms b. Doni- zetti's "Lucrezia Borgia." 1834. Boieldieu d. Benolt and Boro- din b. Berlioz's "Harold in Italy." 1835. Bellini d. Saint-Saens, Cui, Theo. Thomas, and H. Wieniawski b. 1836. D6Iibes b. Meyerbeer's "Les Huguenots." Mendelssohn's "St. Paul." 1837. Hummel and Field d. Rhein- berger, Jensen, J. Wieniaw- ski, Guilmant, Dubois, and Balakirev b. 1838. Bruch, Bamby, and Bizet b. 1839. Bergerd; J. K. Paine, D. Buck, Gemsheim, Moussorgsky, and Napravnik b. 1840. Paganini d. Svendsen, Tchai- kovsky, and John Stainer b. 1841. Dvorak, Chabrier, Nessler, and Tausig b. 1842. Cherubini and Baillot d. Mas- senet, Audran, Bolto, Sulli- van, Nordraak b. Wag- ner's "Rienzi." CONTEMPORABT EVENTS. Byron d. J. P. Bichter d. July Revolution, IV r., E. Hegel d. William Goethe and Walter Scott d. Coleridge d. Victoria r., E. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 285 Musical Events. A. D. 1843. Grieg and Sgambati. b. Wag- ner's "Flying Dutchman." 1844. Rimski-Korsakov b. Verdi's "Emani." 1845. Faur6 and Widor b. Wagner's "Tannhauser." 1846. Bungert, BruU, Hall6n, Gil- christ b. Mendelssohn's "Elijah." 1847. Mendelssohn d. P. Schar- wenka, Mackenzie, Backer- Grondahl b. 1848. Donizetti d. Kistler, Parry, Gleason b. 1849. Chopin, Nicolai, and Kreutzer d. B. Godard b. Meyer- beer's "LeProphSte." 1850. Schytte, A. G. Thomas, X. Scharwenka b. Schumann's "Genoveva." 1851. ° LortzingandSpontinid. Blockx, Olsen, V. Bendix, d'Indy b. Verdi's "Rigoletto." 1862. Stanford, Cowen, and Huber b. 1853. Nicod6, Sjogren, and Foote b. Verdi's "Trovatore." 1854. Moszkowski, Humperdinck, Chadwick, and Tinel b. 1855. Chausson and Liadov b. Gou- nod's "St. Cecilia Mass." 1856. Schumann d. Binding, Schiitt, and-Tanieev b. 1857. Glinka and Czemy d. Elgar, Bruneau, Kienzl, and Still- man-Kelley b. 1858. Cramer d. Leoncavallo, Puc- cini, van der Stucken b. 1859. Spohr d. Paderewski, V^ Her- bert b. Gounod's "Faust." 1860. Mahler, Wolf, G. Charpentier, and Enna b. 1861. Marschner d. Arenski, Bossi, LoefHer, MacDowell, A. B. Whiting b. Wagner's "Lo- hengrin." 1862. Hal6vyd. Debussy, E.German, H. H. Huss, E. Nevin b. Contemporary Events. Thorwaldsen d. War between U. S. and Mexico. Louis Philippe deposed; 2d Republic, F. Poed. Wordsworth, J. C. Calhoun d. Turner and J. F. Cooper d. Daniel Webster and Henry Clay d. Napoleon III Emperor, F. Crimean War. Heine d. "Dred Scott" case, U.S. De Musset d. Macaulay and W. Irving d. Italian War. Civil War begins, U. S. King- dom of Italy. 286 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Musical Events. A. D. 1863. Weingartner, Mascagni, Kaun, Wihtol, and H. Parker b. 1864. Meyerbeer d. R. Strauss and d' Albert b. 1865. Ernst d. Sibelius,Glaziunov,Gil- son b. Wagner's "Tristan." 1866. G. A. Schumann b. Thomas's "Mignon." 1867. Strube and Mrs. Beach b. 1868. Rossini and KjerulT d. Ban- tock, MacCunn, and Schil- lings b. Wagner's "Meis- tersinger." Brahms's "Ger- man Requiem." 1869. Berlioz, Loewe, Gottschalk d. S. Wagner b. 1870. BaUe, Moscheles, and De B^riot d. Lekeu and Brockway b. 1871. Auber, Tausig and Thalberg d. Converse and Hadley b. Verdi's "Aida." 1872. L. Mason d. Hausegger, Pe- rosi, and Scriabine b. 1873. F. David d. Rakhmaninov, Reger b. 1874. Cornelius d. Suk b. 1875. Bennett and Bizet d. Cole- ridge - Taylor b. Bizet's "Carmen." 1876. Boehm, F. David, and Nor- draak d. Brahms' First Symphony. Wagner's "Ring" at Bayreuth. 1877. Saint-Saens's "Samson and De- lilah." Jos. Hofmann b. 1878. 1879. Jensen and H. Smart d. 1880. Ole Bull, Offenbach, Goss, H. Wieniawski d. 1881. VieuxtempsandMousBorgskyd. Boston Symphony Orchestra founded. 1882. Raff d. Wagner's "Parsifal." Gounod's "Redemption." 1883. Wagner, Flotow, and Volk- mann d. Dvorak's "Stabat Mater." CONTBMPORAKY EVENTS. Thapkeray d. Lincoln's Procla- mation of Emancipation. Hawthorne and Charles Lamb d. End of Civil War; Lincoln assassinated, U. S. Atlantic cable laid. Dickens and G. Sand d. Ger- man Confederation formed. Franco-Prussian War. J. S. Mill, Bulwer, Landseer, and Agassiz d. Charles Sumner d. Millet d. Courbet b. W. C. Bryant d. George Eliot d. Garfield, p. of U.S., assassinated. Emerson, Longfellow, Rossetti, and Trollope d. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 287 Musical Events. A. D. 1884. Smetana d. 1885. Hiller and Abt d. Dvorak's "Spectre's Bride." 1886. Liszt d. 1887. Macfarren and Borodin d. Verdi's "Otello." 1888. Heller and Alard d. 1889. Henselt d. Strauss's"Todund Verklarung." 1890. Gade, Nessler, and Franck d. Mascagni's "Rustic Chiv- alry." 1891. Ddlibesd. 1892. Franz d. 1893. Gounod and Tchaikovsky d. Verdi's "Falstaff." Dvorak's "New World Symphony." Humperdinck's ♦ "Hansel undGretel." 1894. Lekeu, Rubinstein, Chabrier, and von Bfllow d. 1896. B. Godard d. Strauss's "Till Eulenspiegel." 1896. Barnby, Bruckner, Clara Schu- mann, and A. Thomas d. Puccini's "La Boh6me." Strauss's "Also Sprach Zara- thustra." 1897. Brahms and Bargiel d. 1898. 1899. Chausson and J. Strauss d. 1900. Sullivan d. Elgar's "Dream of Gerontius." 1901. Verdi, Benott, Rheinberger, Jn. Stainer, and E. Nevin d. 1902. H. Wolf, A. G. Thomas, and Jadassohn d. 1903. Elgar's "Apostles." 1904. DvoMk and Lassen d. Strauss's "Symphonia Domestica." 1905. Theo. Thomas d. 1906. Arenski and J. K. Paine d. 1907. Grieg, and Joachim, d. CONTEMPORAJIT EvENTS. Carlyle d. V. Hugo and U. S. Grant d. Matthew Arnold d. Robert Browning d. Cardinal Newman d. Meissonier and J. R. Lowell d. De Maupassant and J. Tyndall d. O. W. Holmes and R. L. Steven- son d. Huxley and Dumas fils d. Lord Leighton, Millais, and Mrs. H. B. Stowe d. Daudet d. Gladstone and Bume-Jones d. War between U. S. and S. Rosa Bonheur d. Ruskin d. Queen Victoria d., E. McKin- ley, p. U. S., assassinated. Zola d. Whistler d. Russo-Japanese War. Bougereau d. Ibsen d. INDEX [Names of muBicians are in capitals ; other subjects are in snukU letters.] "Absolute music, 180, 217, 225 ABT, 221 Accompaniments, 111, 175, 219-221 ADAJtf D£ LA HALE, 42 Air, 122, 129 ^AIST, VON, 44 ALARD, 238 ALBERT, D', 249 ALBERT!, 122 ALBRECHTSBERGEB, 142 ALFVfiN, 253 Alien musical systems, 3-27 ALLEGRI, 58 AMATIS, 92 American music, 5, 6, 265-270 ANGLEBERT, D', 95 Anglican chant, 88 AnUiems, 60, 61, 88, 89 Antiphonal singing, 18, 29 Arabian music, 12-14, 26 ARENOKI, 255 Aria, 82, 114, 117, 158 ARIOSTI, 106 AHKADELT, 56 Art, 1, 58 Assyrian music, 16-17 ATTWOOD, 89 AUBER, 194 AUDRAN, 212 AULIN, 253 BACH, J. C, 123, 124, 160 BACH, J. S., 92, 98-106, 111, 115, 165, 220, 272-^ k— -^ BACH, K. P. E., 121, 124 BACH. W. F., 123 BACKER-GRONDAHL, 253 BAILLOT, 238 BALAKIREV, 254 BALFE, 233 Ballad, 63, 152, 220; Opera, 87, 233 Ballet, 83, 84 BANTOCK, 264 BARGIEL, 219 BARNEY, 2.33 Bayreuth festivals, 202 BEACH, Mra., 269 BEETHOVEN, 141-150, 161; 192, 272 BELLINI, 196, 208, 213 BENDA, 123 BENDIX, v., 253 BENNETT, 233 BENOIT, 261 BERGER, 161, 164 BERIOT, DE, 239 BERLIOZ, 180-183, 187 BILLINGS, W., 265 BINCHOIS, 51 BIZET, 211, 212 BLOCKX, 261 BLOW, Dr., 89 BOEHM. J., 239 BOETHIUS, 26, S3 Bohemian music, 222-225 BOIELDIEU, 193 BOITO, 209 BORODIN, 230 BOSSI, 256 BOYCB, 89 BRAHMS, 216-219, 239 BRIDGE, J. F., 262 BROADWOOD, 119, 160 . BBOCKWAY, 269 BRUCH, 246 BRUCKNER, 219, 247 BRDLL, 249 BRQMEL, 53 BRUNEAtF,260 BUCK, 266 BULL, Dr. J., 63 BULL, O., 226, 239, 251 BULOW, von, 202, 237, 243 BUNGERT, 249 BUONGIORNO, 257 BUONONCINI, 106, 107 Burmese music, 10 BUSNOIS, 51 BUSONI, 2sa BUXTEHUDE, 92, 225 BYRD, 62 CACCINI, 75, 77 Cadenza, 134, 148, 179, 195 CAMPRA, 85 Canon, 37, 46, 52, 53 Cantata, 75, 89, SO, 93, 105, 186 Cantus, 36, 37, 51, 60 CARISSIMI, 79 CAVALIERI, 79 CAVALLI, 80 CESTI, 80 CHABRIER, 212 CHAD WICK, 266 CHAMINADE, 26l CHAMPION, 95 CHARPENTIER, G., 260 CHARPENTIER, M., 85 CHAUSSON, 260 CHERUBINl, 1110-192, 212 Chinese music, 6-9, 26 CHOPIN, 176-179, 187, 250, 272 Chorale, 59, 60, 73, 91, 103,'J66 CIMAROSA, 83 CLARKE, 89 Clavichord, 69, 70, 73, 103 Claviers and clavier players, 45, 69-73, 94-97. 103, 104 CLEMENTI, 160 COLASSE, 85 COLERIDGE-TAYLOR, 264 Concerto, 93, 118, 134, 135, 147, 238, 239 Conservatories, 191, 194, 235, 250 CONVERSE, 269 CORELLL 94 CORNELIUS, 184 Counterpoint, Origin, 86, 37, 46; Vocal, 48-73 ^ . , . COUPERlN, fl5, 96 COWEN, 262 CRAMER, 161 CRISTOPORI, 118, 119 CROFT, 89 GUI, 253 CZERNY, 161, 183 Dance forms, 40, 63-65, 74, 93, 121, 129 DANKERTS, 56 DAQUIN, r« DAVID, ifiUCIEN, 212 DAVID, FERDINAND, 239 DEBUSSY, 260 DELIBES, 212 DEL PAZ. 256 DES PRES.-53,.58, 72 Diaphony, 35 ' DIEFENHOOK, 261 Disrant, 36, 46 DITTERSDORP, 115 . DONIZETTI, 196, 213 19 290 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY DORN.'l^l ' ■ ■ DOWLAND, 64 , . Drone bass, 35 DUBOIS, 259 DUFAY, 51, S6 DUKAS, 261 Dulcimer, 13, 16, 26 DUNSTABLE, 61 , DURANTE, 82, 122 DUS^K, 160 ■ DVORAK, 222-225 Egyptian music, ,14-17, 26 ELGAR, 262-264 ■ English music, 61-65, 86-89, 95, 232-235, 261-264 ENNA, 253 ERABD, or ERHARD, 119 ERNST, 239 ESCHENBACH,.VOJiI, 44 ESTE, 65 3 . , , FAURB, 260 Faux-bourdon, 49 FIELD, 161, 227^ ' - Figured bass, 77, 111, 120 FmCK,60 FLOTOW, VON, 199 FOGGIA, 58 Folk music, 40-16, 63, 226, 251 FOOTE.267 FRANCK, 230-232, 240, 242, 259 FRANCO OF COLOGNE, 38 FRANCO OF PARIS, 49 FRANZ, 220, 221, 272 FREDERIC!, 119 FREDERICK THE GREAT, 123 French music, ntodera, 230-232, 257-261 FRESCOBALDX, 92, 94 FROBERGER, 92 Fugue, 91, 102-104, 115, 117, 147, 166 GABRIELIS, 55, 91 GADE, 225, 226 • ■ GALILEI. 75 GALUPPI. 83 GARLANDE, DE, 49 GERMAN, 264 GERNSHEIM, 248 GIBBONS, 63 GILCHRIST. 266 GILSON, 261 GLAZUNOV, 255 GLEASON, 266 Glee, 233 GLINKA, 227, 228 GLUCK, VON, 98, 111-116, 192 GODARD, 212 GOLDMARK, 248 GOMBERT, 63 GOSS,233 GOSSEC, 121 GOTTSCHALK, 265 GOUDIMEL, 56 GOUNO©, 209, 213 GRAUN, 88 Greek music, 20-26 GREENE, 89 Gregorian music, 30-33, 46, 59, 61, 88 GRETRY, 86 GRIEG, 250-252 GUABNARIUS, 93 GUIDO P'AREZZO; 34, 35 Guilds, nksic, 41, 44, 46, 53 GUILMANT, 259, 260 GYROWETZ, 176 HABENECK,238 HADLEY, 269 HAL^fVY; 194 HALLBN, 253, HANDEL, 98; 106-111, 115, 220 HANSLICK, 223 Harp, 13, 17, 19, 26, 45 Harpsichord, 69^73, 94, 120 HASSE, 88 HARTMANN, 225 HAUSEGGER, VON. 247 HAYDN, F. J., 124^131, 138 HAYDN, M., 155 Hebrew music, 17-19, 26 HELLER, 237 HENSELT, 2S7 HERBERT, 268 HfiROLD, 194 . HERZ, 16tf HILLER, 237 Hindoo music, 10, 11, 26 HOBRECHT, 53 HOFMANN, 250 HOLLANDER, 54 HUBER, 247 HUCBALD, 35 HUMFREY, 86 HUMMEL, 133, 160 HUMPEBDINCK, 249 HUSS, 268 Hymns, 29-31, 34, 59-61, 65, 89 Indian music, 5, 6, 267 INDY, D', 259 Instruments, 5, 8-13, 15-19, 23-26, 44, 45, 64, 66-73, '117 ISAAC, 60 Italian music. Early, 25, 27; Modem, 266, 257 JADASSOHN, 220 JANNEQUIN, 6S Japanese music, 9, 10 Javanese music, 9, 10 JENSEN, 221 J0ACH1M;239 JOMMELLI, 82 Jongleurs, 41-43 KALKBRENNER, 160 KAUN, 248 KEISER, 88, 91 KELLEY,i E. STILLMAN-, 269 KERL, 92 KISTLER, 249 KJERULF, 226 KNORR, 171 KREUTZER, 199 KUHNAU, 123 KVRENBERGEII,, 44 LALO, 212J LASSEN, 322 LASSUS, 53, 54, 72 LAVIGNA; 208 LEGRENZI, 56 LEHMANN, 264 Leitmotiv, 204r-207, 213 LEKBU, 261 . LEO, 82 LEONARD, 238 LEONCAVALLO, 257 . Lfe)NIN, 49 LIADOV, 256 Lied, 151, 152 Ligatures, 39 LIND, 225, 226 LISZT, 183-187, 201, 222, ^30, 237 LLOYD, 262 LOEFFLER, 269 INDEX 291 LOEWE, 220 LOGROSCINO, 83 LORTZING, 199 LOTTI, 55 . 1 , LUCAS, 264 LULLY, 83-86 ' , Lute, 13, 15, 17, 4S, 64, 75 LUTHEK,53i60 ' , Lyre, 13, 15, 19-24 MACCUNN, 264 MACDOWELL, 267, 268 MACFARREN, G. A., 233 MACFARREN, W. C, 262 MACHAUT, DE, 50 MACKENZIE, 262 Madrigal, 55 MAHLER, 247 MALLING, 253 MARBECKE, 62 MARCHAND, 96 MARIOS, 119 MARPURG, 123 MARSCHNER, 198 MARSICK, 238 MARTUCCI, 256 MASCAGNI, 257 MASON, L., 265 MASON, W., 266 Mass, 30, 50. 51. 57, 60, 186, 195 MASSENET, 259 MAYER, C. H.', 227 Medisevai music, 28-47^ Dramas, 75 MEHUL, 115, 192 MEISSEN, VON, 44 Meisteisinger, 44, 151, 205 MBNDELSSblJN, 164^170, 187, 225, 237 MERUL0,91 ,' METASTASIO; 125 MEURS, DE, 50 MEYER, P., 243 MEYERBEER, 153, 196-198. 200, 213 Mexican music, 12 MILLCCKER, 199 Minnesinger, 43, 44 Minstrels, 28, 40, 41, 46 Minuet, 121, 130 Modes, Greek, 19, 20; Gregonan, 31-33 Monochord, 21 Monophony, 74 MONTEVERDE, 77. 78 MORLBY, 64 MOSCHELES,237 MOSZKOWSKI, 250 Motet, 50, 91, 233 MOUSSORGSKY, ,230 MOZART, 131-139, 160 MtJLLER, 123 Musica ficta, 37 NANINIS, 58 ... NAPRAVNIK, 256 NEEFE, 142 Negro music, 5 NESSLER, 199 ^ , ^^ ,„ ^^ , Netherland music, Earlyi 48, 60-54, 72; Modern, 261 ' Neumes, 33, 34, 46 , NEVIN. 268 NICODB. 247 NICOLAI, 199 ' NILSSON, 225 NORDRAAK, 261 Notation, 33-36, 38, 39, 46 ODINGTON,61 OFFENBACH, 212 OKEGHEM, 62 OLSEN, 253 Opera, 74r-88, 96, 98, 107, 109, 112-116, 133, 137, 138, 1,49, 157-15J; 19tli cen. 15)0-215, 226, 228, 230, 234, 245, 248- 250, 254, 255, S57, 25J Op^ra comique, 80, 192, 193, 211, .259 Oratorio, 74-88, 91, 96, 108-110. 115., 131, 169, 170; 19th cen. 186, 2dl, 263 Orchestra and orchestration, 77, 78, 81„ 83, 85, 87, 104, 110; 18th cen. 120, 121, 131, 135, 138, 145. 148, 149, 158; 19th cen., 167, 168, 182, 183, lul, 206, 244, 2o5 Organs and organists, 25, 26, 60, 66-69,: 91, 92, 97, 101, 104, lo8, 219, 259 Organum, 35, 36, 46 Overture, 81, 83-85, 93, 120, 149, 158. 169, 175, 207 , PACHELBEL, 92, PADEREWSKI, 250 PAGANINI, 184, 238 PAINE, 266 PAISIELLO, 82, 83 PALESTRINA, 56-58, 72, 256 PARADIES, 122 PARKER, 268 PARRATT, 262 PARRY, 262 PASQOINI. 92, 94 Passion music, 90, 91, 105 PEPUSCH, 87 PERGOLESI, 82, 83 PERI, 76 PEROSI, 256 PBROTIN, 49 Persian music, 12-14, 26 Peruvian music, 12 PETERSON-BiERGER, 253 PETRUCCI, 58 Pianos and pianists, 117-120, 133-135, 138, 145-148, 169-161, 166, 168, 171-174, 184, 185, 235-238. 250-252, 26S PICCINNI, 82, 83, 113 PIERNfi, 261 PIRANI, 256 ' Plain chant, 30-33 PLANQUETTE, 212 PLEYEL, 119. 177 Polish music, 250 Polyphony, 74 PORPORA, 83, 126 Primitive music, 4r-6 *'Progi»mme" music, 180, 181, 185-187, 217, 229, 230, 243-245 Protestant church music, 58-65 Psaltery, 19, 45, 70 PUCCINI. 257 PURCELL, 86, 87, 89, 95, 96 RAFF, 237 RAKHMANINOV. 256 RAMEAU, 85, 96, 103 Recitative, 75, 77, 79, 85, 87, 96, 111, 114, 158. 192. 205 REGER. 248 REINECKE. 248 REINKEN, 92 REMENYI. 217 REUTER, 125 REYER, 259 RHEINBERGER, 219 RICHARD I, Of England, 42 RIBS, 145 RIMSKI-KORSAKOV, 254 RODE, 238 ROENTGEN, 261 ^ Rondo, 41, 50, 122, 129, 147 292 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY KORE, DE, 65 ROSSINI, 194-196, 212 RUBINSTEIN, A., 228, 230, 235, 236, 255 Russian music, 226-230, 235, 253-256 SACHS, 44 „ SAINT-SAfiNS, 257-259 SALIERI, 183, 192 SAMMARTINI, 112 SARASATE, 238 SARTI, 190 Savage music, 4-6 Scales, Alien, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 21, 23; Medieval, 31-33, 35; Tempered, 55, 96, 103 Scandinavian music, 225, 226, 250-253 SCARLATTI, A., 80, 82, 122 SCARLATTI, D., 94 SCHARWENKAS, 250 Scherzo. 94, 147 SCHILLINGS, 249 SCHJELDERUP, 253 Schools of music, 48-58, 61, 72 SCHRADIECK, 239 SCHROETER, 119 SCHUBERT, 150-155, 161, 192 SCHUMANN, G., 248 SCHUMANN, R., 170-176, 187, 217; CLARA, 171 SCHUNKE, 171 SCHCTT, 255 SCHOTZ, 88, 91 SCHYTTE, 253 SCOTT, 264 SCRIABINE, 256 SENFEL, 60 Sequence, 31 SGAMBATI, 256 Siamese music, 9 SIBELIUS, 253 SILBERMANN, 119 SINDING, 252, 253 Singing schools and teachers, 29, 56, 83 Singspiel, 88, 138, 158, 198, 199 SJOGREN, 253 SMART, 233 SMETANA, 222, 223 Solmisation, 34 SOMERVELL, 264 SOMIS, 94 Sonata, 93,95, 96,117-139,146-148, 153,168 Sone, 150-153, 171, 175, 176, 219-222, 246 SONTAG, 226 SPATH, 119 SPOHR, 159-161, 239 SPONTINI, 193 STAINER, JACOB, 93 STAINER, JOHN, 234 STAMATY, 258 STAMITZ, 120 STANFORD, 261 STEIN '119 ST.ENHAMMAR, 253 STERBATCHEV, 256 STC5LZEL, 123 STONE, 62 STRADELLA, 80 STRADIVARI, 92 STRAUSS, J., 199 STRAUSS, R., 242-246, 269 String quartet, 94, 118, 121, 129, 135, 149 STRUKE, 269 STUCKEN, VAN DER, 269 Suite, 93, 95, 172 SULLIVAN, 199, 234, 235, 240 B 5-40 SUPPfi, VON, 199 SVENDSEN, 252 SWEELINCK, 64, 92 Symphony, early, 36, 65; 17th cen. 77; 18th cen. 118, 120, 129, 135-138; 19th cen. 148, 149, 154, 160, 169, 172, 174, 175, 183, 186, 187, 218, 219, 225, 229, 236, 237, 243-245, 248-250, 254, 258 Tablatures, 45 TALLIS, 62 TANIEEV, 256 TARTINI, 94' TAUSIG, 250 . . TCHAIKOVSKY, 228-230 Tempo rubato, 178 THALBERG, 184 THEILE,88, THIBAUT, 42 THOMAS, AMBROISE, 211 THOMAS, ARTHUR G., 262 THOMAS, TH., 266 TINCTOR, 63 TINEL, 261 TORELLI, 93 TOURTE, 93, 238 Troubadours, 41-43 Trouveres, 41-43 TYE, 62 . , VAET, 54 Variation form, 94, 122, 129, 147, 218, 263 VERACINI, 94 • VERDI, 208, 209,' 213 VIEUXTEMPS, 239 VINCI, 82 Viols, 46,92 Violins and violinists, 9, 13, 45, 92-94, 97, 117, 159, 226, 238-240, 246, 252 VIOTTI, 238, 239 Virginal, 64, 70 VITRY, DE, 49 VIVALDI, 94 VOGL, 151 VOGLER, 155, 197 VOLKMANN, 219 WAGENSEIL, 120, 123 WAGNER, R., 199-207, 211, 213, 242, 248 WAGNER, S., 249 WALLACE, 264 WALTHER, J., 60 WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE, 44 WEBER, C. M. VON, 155-159, 161, 198 WEBER, G., 156 WEINGARTNER, 247 WEINLIG, 200 WERNER, 126 WHITE, MAUD V., 264 WHITING, A. B., 268 WIDOR, 259 WIECK, F., 171 WIENIAWSKIS, 250 WIHTOL, 256 WILLAERT, 54-, 55, 91 WILLIAM, COUNT OF POITIERS, 42 WITZLAV, PRINCE, 44 WOLF, E. W., 123 WOLF, H., 249 WOLF-FERRARI, 257 Z.iCHAU, 106 ZAREMBA, 228 ZARLINO, 55 ZELTER, 164 ZWEERS, 261