Hilii!! 11 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1891 A-ius-n 3iii^i%7^ Ue7-'84 i/nic uiJE 5 AB «-»g 13 53 H -y. Cornell University Library HD6801 .B87 Tabulation of the factory aws of Europe I 3 1924 032 459 558 olin fc^U^t^S" A TABULATION OF THE FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN SO FAK AS THEY RELATE TO THE HOURS OF LABOUR, AND TO SPECIAL LEGISLATION FOR WOMEN, YOUNG PERSONS, AND CHILDREN BY EMMA BROOKE LONDON GBANT EIOHAEDS 9 HBNKIETTA STKEET, COVENT GAKDEN 1898 a f\-\%0 5''i-5 PREFACE. The author is indebted to the Statistical Committee of the Women's Industrial Council (12 Buckingham Street, Strand, London) for the use of its collection of Govern- ment Publications and other volumes, which formed the chief part of the material from which she was able to frame the scheme of this Tabulation. She has to thank both English and foreign experts for most courteous and valuable assistance in the difficult task of proof correction, and for other kindnesses unsparingly rendered. For the benefit of any one intending systematic study, she may state that a considerable and daily increasing collection of laws, regulations, reports and systematic works on Factory Eegulation in all the principal countries can now be consulted at the British Library of Political Science (established in connection with the London School of Economics and Political Science), 10 Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London, and she takes this opportunity of thank- ing Professor Hewins (Director of the School), for his kindly interest in her work. Wkstminstbe, 1898. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032459558 INTEODUCTION. This little book aspires to nothing higher than to be a compilation of facts, laborious in the making, but easy and convenient in form to the reader. The tabulation is intended for two purposes and is offered to three classes of persons. In the first place the Author has some hopes that it may be of use to the Expert, who, while possessing a scientific knowledge of the ■subject, can hardly be expected to carry in his mind the details of the factory legislation of each Eurdpeaji country, and to whom it may therefore be useful as a convenient book of reference. In the second place it is offered to the Stttdent of economics and political and social science in the hope that it may prove a serviceable adjunct to more advanced works. In the third place it is offered to the so- called Practicctl men and women of affairs as a guide to facts. And it is to the two last of hoped-for readers that the following suggestions are addressed. The tabulation — necessarily limited to a particular porti9n of the Acts — must not be accepted as giving a bird's-eye view of the condition of the working-classes in the respective countries. All that can be done in such a table is to take a date — as the present — and to state what are the laws in operation upon some defined points. In this way an accurate result is obtained, but one of so limited a nature that any attempt to strain it beyond what it is intended to convey wiU be found misleading. Discrimination between the laws and the administration of the laws must be borne in mind to begin with, effectiveness in the former depending on excellence of method in the latter ; but the administration differs in different countries and should be examined along with the regulations themselves. Again it should be remembered that the laws, while defining the industries to which they shall and sometimes shall not apply, and the extent to which they shall be applied, give no account of the industrial condition of the country;* we do not learn from them * Nor are the laws always explicit as to the meaning of their own terms. The definition of the leading word " Factory " is, for example, sometimes 6 INTRODUCTION. whether the industries regulated are the most important and wide- spread. A law may, therefore, read well on paper while failing to touch an extended portion of industrial oppression in the country. The eight different sets of legislation in Russia between 1882 and 1894 give us a case in point, for they leave the worst misery of the country outside the law, and therefore unalleviated. Nor is this all. The last legislation (1897) has, while good of its kind, sharpened this contrast, and thrown it into prominence. [Of. Table and Notes,] But this may of course be only a step towards the next improvement. The history of the factory legislation in Kussia has peculiar interest. Prior to the law of 1882 [cf. Table] was a very early factory legislation which must be viewed in the light of the special conditions of that country. The law of 1719 [cf. Table] did not deal with free labour, but was State regulation of factory serfdom, the serfs being annexed to privileged manufacturing monopolies or mines under the croAvn. In 1861, this State law was extended to private mines, while the Commission which opened the genuine factory legislation of 1882 began in 1859. The earlier serf factory legislation is in itself very interesting; in 1764, for example, the working-day for adults was limited to twelve hours ; there was also regulation of children's labour ; while in 1803 a curious law was passed limiting the age of labour to the years between ten and fifty. It has been observed above that the study of Factory Acts will be fruitless if taken apart from their context — the context being the condition of the country to which they apply. Something of the same kind happens with the Act itself when the medium of its appli- cation is left vague. For example, in any country a Factory Act, when only general, is apt, however elaborate, to prove a dead letter. To become really effective it must be translated into terms of parti- cular industries. The history of the English Factory Acts is the story of a legisla- tion moving from industry to industry and applying itself to the special conditions of each one in turn. But the case of Belgium is the most striking example we have of the fruitfulness of this method in the application of an inadequate general law. And in this con- nection we may state that Belgium, after totally neglecting the sub- ject down to 1892, is now one of the foremost countries in framing i^apid and effective industrial legislation. The Eoyal decrees altering omitted, and generally left vague. The student is warned that the meaning of this term in different countries is a point in comparative legislation on which careful examination is necessary. (Of. note, p. 11.) INTRODUCTION. 7 and applying the general law (as to hours) to particular industries have been continuous from 1892 to the present day, with a conse- quence that the hours of labour in the greatest number of industries come out for protected persons usually as ten or ten and a half, instead of twelve given by the general law [cf. Tables, also Notes for a list of the industries.] In only five of these groups of industries do the hours pass ten and a half, in one only do they reach twelve, while in others they are stiU further reduced for the youngest children — for example, in paper, tobacco and cigar factories the maximum is six, while in zinc-rolling it is five until fourteen years of age. There are other reasons why inferences, whether good or bad, made too hastily from the tabulation will mislead : (A.) The sphere of influence of a law is not limited to that precisely defined by the law, for it may operate in a way not directly contemplated by the legislator. A famiUar instance is when a law, intended for the protection of one set of persons, percolates beyond that stratum and affects a set of non-protected persons. An example is found in the cotton-factory legislation of England, where the length of the working-day for all workers has adapted itself to that prescribed for women and young persons.* (B.) A law may overstep its own designed effect in another way. This might happen when, falling amongst a community with a varying standard of morality, it does not hit a mark above the average standard ; in this case the new regulation wiU arrest deterio- ration by putting a stop to the bad tendencies of the worst employers, and will level up the average all round by introducing a point beyond which it shall not be allowed to fall ; the result will be, in other words, better than the law itself. An example, common to many European countries, is where the Sunday rest is more strictly observed by custom than the regulations permit. A rarer example is where the working day, in all industries taken together, is found to average below the law. This is the case in France. There are many other points of interest which will reveal them- selves to any student examining the laws ; but it may not be amiss to observe at the outset that the tabulation must not be taken as exhibiting the relative amount of protection accorded to the adults of either sex. Men in aU coimtries are protected in other ways than those tabulated here, and are subjected to elaborate rules, either designed for their own advantage or for the welfare of the com- munity affected by their labour. And in regard to all protection it * This might probably not happen, however, in a country where other concomitant causes are not favourable. 8 INTRODUCTION. is too apt to be forgotten in the popular idea that the aim of protec- tion is twofold: (1) the protection of the worker himself; (2) the protection of the community against him. The laws do not usually discriminate between the two forms, but the Belgian law is explicit on the point (cf. Notes), and few could glance at the ten trades scheduled apart in the French Code as forbidden to those under eighteen without making the discrimination for themselves. At any rate such a dis- crimination should be made and will not be found unfruitful in idea. One other point remains which may weU be brought into promi- nence in this Introduction as offering scope for fresh reflection upon a controversial matter. In legislation concerning the hours of labour (as in everything else) a picturesque preconception of the thing in itself and of how it came about, is apt to take possession of the mind. For example, the popular assumption is that the protective arm of the law throws itself invariably in compassion over the child first, extends itself next to the weakness of the young person and the woman, and only finally finds (or will find) an object in the man. Without venturing to offer any general contradiction to this idea, it may be remarked that a closer examination of the facts does not present this sequence as being by any means invariable in old countries, even where modern legislation is concerned. Apart from modern factory Acts, control of, or legislation on, the hours of labour does not appear to have taken the child as the initiatory point, but seems to have originated from all sorts of motives which it is not within the scope of this book to examine. Modern factory Acts themselves, however, do not invariably foUow the sequence indicated. There are four nations which have included regulation of the hours of the working day for adult male labour in the general law — viz., Bussia, France, Switzerland, and Austria. Of these four nations one only — Austria — has proceeded on the plan referred to. Austria, whose legislation for children is exceptionally advanced, included male labour in the regulation of hours only in 1885. Switzerland netted all classes of labour together in its Federal Law, the intervals of rest, the Sunday and holiday repose, and even the hours of the working day being regulated generally for all workers of whatever sex and age. France began with a very early factory regulation, imposing Sunday and holiday rest on all [1814 — since abrogated], and proceeded in its next to regulate the general work- ing day for all in the historic law of 1848. As to this early Sunday law in France it was only a confirmation INTEODUCTION. 9 of what was already customary in all European countries. The protection of Sundays and f^te days was something which the Church controlled and enforced for centuries, and it remained as a deeply rooted custom when the power of the Church diminished. Legislation, therefore, concerning the first day of the week was only an attempt to restore effectually a privilege formerly enjoyed by all. Russia stands out as the strongest example of the subversion of the ideal sequence. Legislation began there with the adult male, and, curiously enough, so it has ended. The new law of 1897 legis- lates for male adult labour exclusively, leaving therefore the girl over fifteen and the adult woman the only persons not coming under the protection of the law as to the length of the working-day. (Of. Tabulation.)* On the other hand Holland has regulated the hours of children, young persons and women in the same way that Switzerland has, but has left out the regulation of men's hours. Germany has only regulated the Sunday rest for men and the hours in some unhealthy trades. Belgium, elaborately regulating only the hours of children and young persons, shows signs of advancing towards women, because the protection in the case of girls is in some points carried to twenty- one years, while that of boys leaves off at sixteen. Hungary, Den- mark, Sweden, Norway, leave adult labour of both sexes either unregulated as to hours or subject (in respect to the seventh day) to the same regulation ; but the latter three countries have some restrictions for women in respect of dangerous trades. The motives for this last are left to the examination of the student. Spain and Portugal have no regulations for the hours of adult labour, though Portugal introduces one or two slight injunctions in favour of women's peculiar needs. , Italy, again, has only one small regulation of the hours of adult labour — and this refers to men. The above points are indicated to the student as matters upon which examination and reflection might produce interesting results. One more hint may be added. To come to our own country : no doubt the sequence followed in our own factory laws, in a continuous legislation carried on during the whole century, has created the popular idea that that sequence is the "natural " nde. But to look at the laws, not only in their context of present conditions, but also with some reference to earlier history, may result in dispersing the notion even in relation to the United Kingdom. Is our factory * It will be observed that the " exemption '' of some places from the law leave many men and male young persons unprotected also. lo INTRODUCTION. legislation, for example, altogether a novelty and an encroachment ? or is it an attempt at gradual restoration ? Possibly the latter. At any rate the regulation of the working day, as regards duration, was the common and century-long condition in England up to the beginning of this era. By the Statute of Apprentices (Eliz. 1562), the day's labour was fixed for apprentices and journeymen at twelve hours in summer and in winter from break of day tUl nightfall. With the motive of this regulation we are not now concerned ; what we have to remark is that this law obtained as a deeply rooted custom, even where its State authority was, perhaps, not con- sciously recognised. The introduction of machinery brought about a new state of things in which there was not only a wholesale breaking of the law, but a rapid dissolution of the custom, until the working-day was found to have been prolonged from the old maximum twelve hours for men, to thirteen and fourteen, sixteen or seventeen, for women and children, even in mines. The first attempts of English working-men to resist this frightful encroachment was through efforts to re-instate the authority of the old and no longer suitable law. The Factory Acts, therefore, may be regarded in the light of an orderly endeavour after the restoration of normal, wholesome conditions of labour, by means of gradual legislation applied where the need is most obvious ; further they may be viewed as exhibiting a changed application of legal regulation to meet altered and more exhausting conditions of industry ; and last as being an unfinished process in all countries. Also that the special form the sequence takes in any country is merely a symptom of where, in that particular country, the " direction of least resistance " or the most crying need lies, for the gradual application of this uncompleted legislation. If such an interpretation be accepted, it is possible it might be effective in dispersing that uneasy suspicion of sex bias in factory legislation, of unjust encroachment upon women's " liberty " and rights, which form the ground for resistance to such legislation (on, the part of some), as soon as the adult female worker is touched. It will be observed that the laws of the Colonies and the United States of America have not been introduced into this tabulation. The book is too cumbrous as it is, and an enlargement would destroy its purpose. Moreover, with the new countries we arrive at a different set of reflections. Should the present volume receive the appreciation of the public, it will be the author's care and pleasure to prepare a supplementary table of the laws not included in this. FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. FKANCE. BELGIUM. HOLLAND. Dates of 1841. 1889. 1815. Earuest (1848, 12 tours' day (Sunday Kest.) Factory regulation.) 1874. Legislation. Dates of 1892. 1889. 1889. Laws in (Modifications from 1893 (With additions, 1892- (With additions, 1891- Force. to 1898.) 1898.) 1898.) To WHAT *Faotories,works, coal, and All steam-mills, factories, All factories and work- Places the metallllerouS mines. and works, industrial shops, defined as pla«es. Laws Apply. quarries, sheds, work- establishments private open or shut, where shops, and all industrial or public, educational articles are preparedfor establishmeuts con- (technical) or charitable; sale or use; and all nected with them, all mines (coal and me- industries, great or whether public or pri- talliferous), quarries. small. vate, lay or religious; yards, ports, stations. Exceptions : (1) Agri- state or charity work- transport industries (sea culture, horticulture. shops included. or land) ; all brickfields forestry, cattle raising. The Law does not apply and tile works not using and the peat industry ; to agricultural work power ; all unhealthy (2) occupations in or for and transport indus- trades, and all trades the trade of an employer tries, nor to shops or using power (steam or with whom the worker \ bureaux. Domestic mechanical). lives, which are done workshops are also ex- Domestic workshops are outside the workshop, cluded, but come under excepted unless using in so far as they belong the inspector's authority power or dealing with to work usually done if they deal with un- unhealthy trades. in the household or healthy trades or il stables ; (3) kitchens power is used. and pharmacies. Also barge and fishing industries, [ save as touching, the age of admission of children ; State, military, profession al, and educational estab- ments and prisons. Age of 13. 12. 12. Admission of (Or 12, U furnished with Children. medical and educational certificates. )t Duration op Working Day. Children. 10 hours. J 12 hour8.§ 11 hours.|| (For those under 16. Orer- (For those under 14.) (For those under 14.) time usually forbid- den.) Young 11 hours. J 12 hours.§ 11 hours.ll Persons. (And not more than 60 per (For boys under 16 and (For those under 16.) week for those under 18. girls under 21.) Overtime usually for- [Subsequent trade by trade bidden to both sexes legislation has in effect under 18.) reduced the hours for all under 16 to an aver- age of 10j.lt Women. 11 hours. J 11 hours.ll « The term " Factoiy " is translated throughout as a smipie reproduction oi tne worn usea in the law The meaning differs from country to country, but is not always defined in the law ; for Bxamole it is not defined in the German Industrial Code. ojkiui|i. , ^^^ J. Cut by a rest or rests amountii^ to 1 hour at least. S Cut by rests of a total of 1 J hours. In many industries the midday interval must be 1 hour at least However short the working-day, a rest of J hour after every 4 hours. j'j Cut by a rest of at least 1 hour between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. FACTOEY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. FKANCE. BELGIUM. HOLLAND. Concessions as to duba- tion of work. ' Toung Persons. Women. Overtime is allowed in groups of seasonal trades* temporarily for one month by authority of the Inspector, hut the total worked must not exceed 12 hours in 24. Overtime as above for young persons. Evening work for women and girls over 18 is allowed in the same groups of trades from 9 to 11 p.m., but more than 12 hours must not be worked and the con- cession is tor 2 mouths a year. The authori- sation is permanent. Not regulated. y [See above, duration of working day.] Overtime, either of 2 hours before S a.m. or of 2 hours after 7 p.m., is permitted to youn^ persons of 14-16 in a givea factory or work- shop, by authority of the Commissiouer of the Pro^- vince: buttheworkin^day may not exceed 13 hours, and the permit extends to 6 consecutive days, or to 14 alternate. Same concession under same conditions for women and those under 14, but work not to begin before 6 a.m. nor go on after 10 p.m.f BE8TBICTI0NS ON Night- work. Toung PersoTis. Women. [Hours constituting night are 9 p.m. to 5 a.m.] Forbidden. [Hours constitutingnight- work are 9 p.m. to S a.m.] Forbidden to all under 16 and to girls under 21. Forbidden. [Hours constituting night- work are 7 p.m. to 6 a.m.] Forbidden to all under 16. Forbidden. Concessions on NiGHT-WOBK. Young Per- sons and Women and Children. A portion of night-work is allowed to all between 4 a.m. and 10 p.m., if in 2 shifts of 9 hours cut by a rest of 1 hour at least. Tempobaky; Night- work allowed to all for 1 month by authority of Inspector in case of ac- cident or stoppage ; if for longer by authority of Minister. It is allowed to all tem- porarily in the seasonal industries already spe Toung Persons: Night- work may be authorised permanently with or without conditions in industries of continuous work, to boys over 14 and to girls over 16. It may also be permitted exceptionally in any in- dustries to boys over 14 and girls over 16. Boys over 12 may be employed underground after 4 a.m. Women: not regulated, [see above.] YoDNG Febsons : fNight- work may be permitted permanently in certain industries to boys of 14- 16, but the hours must not pass 11 of effective work. ExceptionaUy it may be permitted In other in- dustries in a given fac- tory or workshop. ciiied for 30 days ; in a few others for 60 days, but hours must he only 10 in 24 ; in urgent repairs of ships and machines for those over 16 for 120 days. Permanent : Women over 21 in the industries of book-stitching, newspaper folding, and lamp-lighting in mines, but only for 7 hours in 24. In 5 trades of continuous furnaces it is allowed to boys only ; and in 2 such trades to women over 21 and boys for 10 hours in 24 cut by a rest of 2. compdlsoby Holiday AND Sunday Kebt. Young Per- sons and Women. Compulsory for all. But concessions are al- lowed temporarily by authority of the Inspec- tor in those industries already specified. [See notes as before.] Compulsory for all pro- tected persons. In trades which cannot be interrupted, work is permitted 1 Sunday in 2 to boys and girls over 14. Iii cases of neces- sity authorisation to work may be granted for several consecutive weeks in all industries. Compulsory for all pro- tected persons. By the same governmental order which permits overwork (see above) it is pcimitted to male young persons of 14-16 to work on Sundnys up to 6 p.m. only.f Cf. Notes. t See Notes for a list of these trades. FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 13 FKANCE. BELGIUM. HOLLAND. Kestrictions Boys under 16 can only Women : May not work Women: May not work AS TO Mines work 8 liours in 21 for 4 weeks after child- for i weeks after child- AND DANGEB- underground. birth. birth in factories or ous Trades Boys 16 to 18 can only Underground work is for- workshops. AND Excessive work 10 hours under- bidden to women under » A Koyal Decree of 1897 Labour fob ground in 24, and tlie 21 not so employed forbad to all pro- CHUiDREN, working week is 61 before 1892. A decree tected persons under- ToDNG Per- hours. of 18931imitedthehours ground work ; the sons AND *Certain dangerous trades of exempted women cleaning, greasing, etc.. Women. are forbidden or regu- and girls to 11. of machinery in motion. lated to the three classes Young Persons and or even at rest when of protected persons in Children : Girls un- connected with the the following way : — der 21 may not work driving power; labour (1) to children under 13, underground. After on machinery with (2) to girls under 16, consultation with the dangerous parts, such (3; to all under 16, Councils a Koyal Decree as rapidly moving, (4) to all under 18, may forbid employment cutting, or hammering (6) to women. in any given trade of parts; labour at tanks. Women : Underground boys under 16 and girls hot or cold, unless work in mines or work under 21, or may re- covered or enclosed ; in in quarries is forbidden strict the work to cer- ovens or close places in to women and girls. tain hours a day. which the temperature Unhealthy trades forbid- is above 89-6 Fahr, ; in den: — badly lit work-places or 19 to boys under 16 and in those exposed to the girls under 21, 45 to aU sun ; where explosive children under 16, 36 gases are worked unless partially to all chil- precautions are taken ; dren imder 16, 28 to all in 8 sets of trades deal- children under 14. ing with poisonous com- Additions to these trades pounds, in 17 whereof are being constantly the dust is noxious, un- made by Eoyal Decree.* less adequate precau- tions are taken. Young Persons: (1) trades of carrying, etc., where excessive exer- tion is required ; (2) in trades involving dan- gerous experiments; (3) as independent engineer or stoker, or in pre- paring dangerous ex- plosives. Kegulations 1 2 hours. oJF THE Hours Concessions are allowed OP Men's in case of accident or Labour. stoppage, in industries Working-Day. of continuous work, or those that touch on National Defence. Sunday Kest. A law of 1815 rendered Sunday rest compul- sory ; though the penal- ties of this law are not now enforced, the practice of Sunday rest is habitual. » C/. Notes. 14 FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. GERMANY. AUSTRIA. HUNGAKT. Dates of Earliest Factoky Legislation. 1839 (Prussia). 1869 (North Genaany), which 1870 extended to the Empire. 1787 (Forbad children nn- der9toworkinfactorles). 1842 (Factory age raised to 12). 1840. Dates op Laws in Force. 1891. (With additions up to 1897.) 1859. Modified by Laws 1883 (March) and 188S (March), the latter limited the male adult working day. Latest changes in 1897. 1884 Is the main law called the Industrial Law. Ad- ditions in 1891 and 1893 ; with minor changes up to 1896. To WHAT Places the Laws Apply. Factories, mills, and workshops using power : underground quarries, mines, saltpits; smelt- ing houses, timber and other building yards and docljyards ; brick and tile kilns, mines and quarries, which are worked abore ground and are not merely temporary. Domestic workshops are formally omitted. By an Imperial Decree of 1897 regulation is ex- tended to ready-made clothing workshops — save where only mem- bers of the family are employed, or where the manufacture is only oc- casional. By Art. 154 the provisions may be extended by Im- perial Decree with con- sent of the local autho- rity to other industries. Factories of the large and workshops of the smaU industries. A Factory is a place where ai'ticles are made or worked upon in a closed work- shop employing more than 20 workmen ; divi- sion of labour, use of machinery, an employer himself not working manually, may also bring the place under the Factory Law. Agricultural, fishing, transport (rail, steam and canal) industries are omitted, also earth- works and mines : * Domestic workshops, peni- tentiariesand charitable establishments are also exempt. In principle to all indus- tries and professions. No definition distinguishes factories and work- shops; a factory is a place where a branch of work is done, or power or machinery is used. Express exclusions are agricultural, fishing, transport (rail, steam, canal) industries and mines ; also State mono- polies, domestic work- shops, educational and reformatory institutes and prisons. Age of Admission of CmLDKEN. 13. (And not then unless pri- mary education is com- plete.) 14. (In factories.) 12. (In other regular occupa- tions.) From 12-14 must attend school for 12 hours a week in daytime, and may only be employed in easy work not inju- rious to health. 12. But may be admitted with educational certifi- cate at 10 years old by permission of the in- dustrial authority. Duration op Working Day. Children. 6 hours. + (For those under 14.) 8 hours.J (For those under 14, in workshops of th* small industry.) 10 hours § in small indus- tries, 8 in large lor those under 14. School hours are included. * Cf. Notes. t For children, out by a rest of at least J hour. X Cut by rests of 1 hour and ^ hour in all industries for all workers without distinction of age or sex. § Cut by three rests, ^ hour before noon, 1 hour at noon, } hour afternoon. PACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 15 Duration of wohking Day (coTrf.)- Persons. Women. CONCEBBIONS AS TO Dura- tion OF Work, YouTig Persons. Women. GERMANY. 10 hours.* (For those under 16.) Young Persons to be al- lowed time to attend continuation scliools un- til 18. AUSTRIA. 11 hours.f (Forthose under 16in lac- tones; and only In light non-injurious work.) Hours in workshops not limited alter 14 years. UntU 18 years must have time for night or secon- dary schools and also Sunday schools. HUNGAEY. 12 hoursj in small indus- tries, 10 in large lor those under 16. School hours are included, and the young appren- tice must attend the schools. No limitation. Rests in working day as below. J 11 hours.* 11 hours.f (For women over 16.) (In Factories.) On Saturdays and Eves before Holidays, 10 hours, and must leave work at 5.30 p.m. In certain cases of urgency or public interest women not having a household may work till 8.30 on Saturdays and Eves before Holidays. Overtime is allowed for a period of 4 weeks in oases of breakdown ; if lor longer only by authority ol the Chan- cellor ol the Empire. The Federal Council is empowered to permit overtime in necessary cases,! t>it the total work mnst not exceed 60 hours per week, and 70 in brickworks. For children the total work mnst not exceed 36 hours per week. All overtime must be specially paid lor. § Overtime is allowed in certain trades for 1 hour daily, the list to be re- vised every 3 years. Concessions are allowed by authority in urgent cases lor 3 weeks at a time or for 3 days in a month. [Accessory work|| is not included in the general regulation of hours, but yovm^ persoTis ■must not do this work.'} be In cases of breakdown, as young persons above. Overtime to 10 p.m. al- lowed for a fortnight at a time in cases of press of work, but the hours are not to exceed 13, and Saturdays are ex- cepted; this overtime only permitted for 40 days a year. IT The Federal Council is empowered to permit overtime more permanently in necessary ca8es,§ but the total work per week may not exceed 65 hours or in brickfields 70. Overtime is allowed for women over 16 in ready-made clothing establishments for 60 days in the year, but daily hours must not exceed 13 nor be prolonged after 10 p.m. Overtime must be entered on a special list lor inspection. All overtime must specially paid lor. Overtime is allowed in certain trades § for 1 hour daily. Concessions are allowed in urgent cases for 3 weeks or for 3 days in a month. * For yonng persons, cut by 3 rests of f hour, 1 hour, and J hour ; for women, cut by a rest of 1 hour at mid-day or 1^ hours if they have a household to attend to. t Cut by rests of 1 hour and J hour in all industries for aU workers without distinction of age or sex. J Cut by three rests, J hour before noon, 1 hour at noon, J hour afternoon. § C/. Notes. II Accessory work means cleaning, heating, etc. IT Or the working of overtime may be spread over a longer period provided that the mmual nnmber of hours be not exceeded. i6 FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. GEEMANY. AUSTEIA. HUNGAEY. Wehtkictions [Hours constitutingf nig'lit- [Hours constituting night- [Hours constituting night- ON NiGBIta work are 8.80 p.m. to work are 9 p.m. to work are 9 p.m. to WORK. 6.30 a.in.] 5 a.m.] 6 a.m.] Young Forbidden. Forbidden under 16 in all Forbidden under 16. Persons. industries. Women. Forbidden. Forbidden over 16 in factories only. Concessions Night-work is allowed for Night-work is allowed in Night-work may be al- OK NlGHT- a period of 4 weeks in certain codified indus- lowed to persons of 14 WOKK. cases of breakdown; if tries to those under ie,« to 16 ye»rs by the in- for longer, only by but hours not to exceed dustrial authority, if Yoking authority of the Chan- 11 in 24. Ministers health permits, but only Persons. cellor of the Empire. have power to grant for haU the number of other exemptions. hours flxedfor thework- ing-day. Women. In cases of breakdown as Night-work is allowed in for young persons. certain codified* indus- Night-work may be per- tries, but hours must mitted for 40 days per not exceed 11 in 24. annum in seasonal trades ; but night-work must not exceed 10 hours in 24, and rests amounting to 1 hour must be given in every shift. The shifts of night and day work must alternate each week. Persons intending to em- ploy women and young persons after 8.30 p.m. must notify the police authorities beforehand in writing. Compulsory Sunday and fete-day rest Compulsory to all in all Compulsory to all in all Sdnday and is compulsory for all industries. [Cy. Men, industries. All Indus- Holiday young workers, nor may Sunday rest.] tries, large or small. Eest. they be employed during must be suspended for hours fixed for religions at least 24 hours weekly. teaching. [For women but many exceptions cf. Men and Notes.] are allowed by decree. Eestrictions The Federal Council may In places with furnaces, AS to Mines forbid or regulate* em- or with machinery AND Danger- ployment for all pro- moved by power, and ous Tkadeb. tected persons in any in 62 codified unhealthy dangerous trade. trades, a certificate of authorisation is required before the industry is opened, t Children. Boys under 14 must not Children under 14 may Children may not be em- be employed under- only work at easy trades ployed at unhealthy or ground. and those not dangerous excessive work. Children and young per- to health. sons employed in cer- tain works and factories are protected by special regulation. IQf. Notes.] (y. Notes. f Ministers have power to extead the list. FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 17 Eebtrictions AS TO Mines, Etc. Ccont,') young Persons, Women. GERMANY. Tlie 10-liour limit Is sub- ject to further restric- tions In dangerous trades, the police having power to lessen the hours. Women must not work for 4 or 6 weeks after childbirth. Under- ground work is for- bidden to women and girls, also smelting works and forges and furnace work in glass manufacture. There are also restrictions in certain codified trades. ICf. Notes.] AUSTRIA. Young persons under 16 in factories must only work at easy trades and those not dangerous to health. HUNGAEY. Young persons under 16 must not be employed at unhealthy trades. The Law of 1884 di- rected a list to be drawn up by Government, but this has not been done. Women must not work for 4 weeks after child- birth. Women must not work for 6 weeks after child- birth, or 4 if certified as able. Ministers are empowered to forbid or regulate dangerous trades to women; a few danger- ous trades have been forbidden. Under- gTound work was forbidden to women in 1884 — efEectual only since 1889. Begtilations op THE Hotms OF Mew's Labour. wohking-day. In unhealthy trades the hours worked are to be limited. In lead- works the hours of em- ployment are to be within 12. icy. also Notes.] 11 hours in 24* in the large industries with concessions of 1 hour in certain codified trades ; the list must be revised every 3 years. In no case must the working- day be extended more than 3 hours. Shift- working is allowed for 12 hours. In case of necessity overtime for 3 weeks by authority or 3 days a month by notice given is allowed. Overtime must be specially paid for. Sdnday AMD Holiday Kebt. A Sunday rest of 24 hours, or 2 consecutive holi- days + of 36 hours, is compulsory in most in- dustries, but concessions are allowed in about 78 codified trades.} But any one employed on Sunday for .3 hours must be free from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. every second Sunday, or rest for 36 hours every third Sunday. Or if not pre- vented from attending Divine Service, a rest of 24 hours on a week- day in lieu of Sunday is permitted. For Christ- mas, Easter, and Whit- sun the legal rest is 48 hours. Compulsory for 24 hours, and rest to begin not later than 6 a.m. Concessions are allowed in certain exceptional cases by decree of Minister of Commerce. When employment ex- ceeds 3 hours a rest of 24 hours to be assured on the Sunday follow- ing or on a week day, or rests of 6 hours each on 2 week days. In the case of indus- tries supplying public wants, permission may be given by the district authorities subject to consent of trade-guilds. [Gf. Notes.] No limit on the working- day, but rests of a total of 2 hours compulsory. By the Law of July 1891 and by Goveramental decrees of 1892 and 1898, the Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 a.m., and mtist continue until 6 a.m. on Monday. • Bests as for women, young persons and children. + The rest must begin at midnight and last until 6 p.m. the second day. J qf. Notes. FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. DENMARK. SWEDEN. NORWAY. Dates of 1873. 1881. 1892. Earliebt Factory XEGISI.ATION. Dates of 1873. 1881. 1892. Laws now in (With additions to (With changes to 1890.) Force. 1891.) To what Factories and workstiops. Factories, manufactories, AU industrial places occu- Places the or places using factory and other industries pying a number (great Laws Apply. processes, and whicli without further defini- or small) of workmen employ young persons tion — save that in ac- at the same time and In under 18, whether the cordance with degrees a regular manner; all work he direct or acces- of importance and na- mines, foundries, metal sory. ture of work, some in- works, and metal work- DomeBtic workshops are dustries are to be con- shops in general. The not mentioned, hut the sidered factories. [. permitted to boys of 12 to 16 years in certain industries with regalatic ns. Women. Forbidden. Concessions Night-work is permitted Night-work is permitted AS to to boys of 1 2 to 16 years, to boya of 14 to 18 Night-work. in industries employing years in industries furnaces; in cases of where uninteiTupted Toung stoppage or accident it work is necessary, but Persons. is permitted tempor- the duration of work is arily, but work in either to be below the normal ca«e must not exceed 11 hours, and the work 10 hours in 24, cut by 2 must be in alternation rests of 1 hour, and if of day and night. Ii employed by night and can only be accorded day, 6 of the 10 hours for two weeks by the only to be in the night. local authority, if for If employed entirely by longer, by the Cantonal night, work is to be Government, but must limited to 8 hoars cut remain temporary. by a rest of 1 hour. No minor can be employed for more than 3 consecu- tive nights, or for 12 consecutive nights a fortnight in 2 shifts of 3 hours if he also has day-work, and in 2 shuts of 3j hours If he has no day-work. Women. No concessions as to girls and women. • Cut by a rest for all workers of at least 1 hour at noon. Women with households may have _.^ ...1 J. ,-o i„aa tha-jx one hour and a half. 26 FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. PORTUGAL. SWITZEELAND. (Federal.) ST. GALL. (Cantonal.) compdisort Sdndat and Holiday Kest. Minors must not work on Sun- days, not even in cleaning- the workshops. An excep- tion is made in works with fiimaces that may not be ex- tinguished; hut then there mnst be 6 hours' rest between each spell o( work. Compulsory on Sundays. No concession allowed to girls and women. Boy8froml4-18 may' be employed in cases of absolute necessity, and in are not extinguished, but only under terms similar to those for concessions to young persons in night-work. Kestrictiohs ON Mines and Dangerous Grades. Children 1 and Young Persons. Women. Underground work is forbidden to girls under 21. Boys are not admitted to underground work till 14, by day, and 16 by night. From 14 to 16 must only work 6 hours in 24, cut by a rest of 1. Under- ground work may be com- bined with other trades, but total must not exceed 10 in 24 (cut by rests, as in day- work), each hour of mine work to count as 2. Certain codlfled* dangerous and unhealthy trades are for- bidden to all minors. The Government may rule that other trades be included. Forbidden to work 4 weeks alter childbirth. Every es- tablishment employing more than SO women must have a crfeche attached and the women be able to visit their infants in the creche. Dangerous, unhealthy, or too fatiguing work may be abso- lutely forbidden to those under 18. Match-maHng is absolutely forbidden to all under 16. Forbidden to work for 4 weeks after childbirth. Child-bear- ing women maybe forbidden certain industries. Women may not clean machinery in motion. Young girls un- der 18 may not servecustomers in hotels and cafes. Kegulations OP THE Hours OF Men's Labour Working-day. 11 hours, cut by a rest of at least 1 hour about noon. Concessions are allowed to men over 18 in a few accessory trades.* Exceptional concessions are allowed for accidental causes, but only for 2 weeks without special authority. Night-work is forbidden, save for accidental causes, and if the repairs take more than 1 night, permission from the local authority is necessary, and if for more than 2 weeks the Cantonal Government alone can give authority. In a few necessary and codified industries* it is allowed pei-manently, but the hours may not exceed 11 in 24. In dangerous trades the hours may be reduced. Cf. Notes. FACTORY LAWS OF ETJEOPEAN COUNTRIES. 27 POKTUGAL. SWITZEELAOT). ST. GALL. (Federal.) (.Cantonal.') Sunday and Compulsory, with concessions IfasJwpZdf.Ex- HOUDAT lor accidental causes. In tensionolActs] Best. certain codified industries remains open work is permitted perman- on Sundays, an ently to men over 18, l)ut equal holiday hours may not exceed 3 in time must be some cases, and in all cases given in the the workman must have 1 week. Sunday Sunday tree in 2. A man work in hotels cannot he compelled to work amd cafds must on Sundays and Holidays he made good if he objects. by a half-hoU- Saturdays and Eves of Holi- day intlieweek. days the limit is 10 hours. GREAT BKITAIN AND IRELAND. Date op Eabliebt Factoey liEGIBIiATION. 1803: 1833, Althorpe Act. Date op Present Law. 1878 to 1895. To WHAT PI.ACES THE LAW Afplies. Textile and non-textile factories ; workshops without power where "articles are made, altered, repaired, oniamented, finished, or adapted lor sale by means of manual labour exercised for gain." * N.B. — 1. Domestic workshops are subject to regulations with regard to the horn's of children and young persons only. 2. In workshops not employing children and young persons, the hours of women are regulated. 3. The only workshops which are not liable to factory inspection, save excep- tionally for sanitary matters, are those which employ neither women, young persons, nor children. But where dangerous trades are worked these same workshops are brought under the Act. Bakehouses where only men are employed come under the Act. Age op Admission of Children. 11, if an educational certificate is obtained. In factories a medical certificate is necessary under 16.* Children of 11 to 13 years must' attend school either twice on alternate days or once every day when working in the morning or afternoon brigades. Children of 13 who have either passed Standard V., or, after the age of 5, have made 250 attendances a year for 5 years, at not more than 2 schools, are classed with young persons, i.e,, with those of 14 years old. But in Scotland and Ireland, whether certificated or not, all under 14 must attend school — not so in England. Duration of WORKING-DAy. In textiles, non-textiles, and workshops the ordinary working period is defined as between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., or 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., or 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. Ex- ceptionally the Secretary of State may alter the hours to between 9 a.m. and "• 9 p.m.* df. Notes. 28 FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Duration of workjng-day (,cont. ) Children. Young Persons. Women. Children ol 11 to 14 work ou alternate days, or on the half-time system. iCf. Notes.] Hours of alternate days in textiles, non-textiles, and work- shops, ai'O 10 with 2 hours rest. The half-time system In textiles is 6j hours mornings, or 5 hours afternoons, cut hy a rest of J an hour. Non-textiles and workshops are allowed ej hours mornings, or Sj afternoons. In domestic workshops the half-time system only is allowed; hours 6j mornings or 6^ afternoons. Young persons of 14 to 18 work 10 hours* In textiles, and 66 J hours a week. In non-textiles they work lOj a day and 60 a week. In domestic workshops they work fl-om 6 a.m. to 9 p.m. with 4J hours for rest and meals. Women work 10 hours* in textiles and 56|- a week. In non-textiles they work 10 J and 60 a week. In workshops not employing young persons or children, they work a specified period of 12 hours between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m., with a specified period of IJ hours for meals and rest. In domestic work- shops no restrictions on the hours of women. Concessions AS to Duration op Work. T&unff Persons. Women. Overtime is never allowed in textiles. The only concession to children is the occasional J hour to complete a process in non-textile factories or workshops,- but the hours a week are not to exceed tlie legal limit. Only 3 concessions are made to young persons under 1 8 : (ffi) Water-mills : one hour overtime on days other than Saturday in cases of drought or floods might be granted by permission of the Secretary of State ; but the concession has not been used. (6) Turkey red dyeing : overtime permitted so far as is necessary, (c) J hour overtime is permitted in bleaching, dyeing, print-works. Iron mills and loimdries to complete a process, hut the total hours worked in the week must not exceed the legal limit. Overtime is never allowed in textiles. In certain specified non-textile factories, workshops, and warehouses of seasonal industries, 14 hours are allowed, cut hy rests of 2 hours, and not for more than 3 days a week, and 30 days a year. To finish a process in certain speci- fied non-textile factories and workshops J hoiu- overtime allowed, but the legal time per week may not be exceeded. In specified non-textiles, where goods ai'e perishable, 14 hours cut by rests of 2 hours, of which J hour must be after 5 p.m., are allowed, but only for 6 days a week or 60 days a year. In water-mills and in Turkey red dyeing, regulations are as for young persons. Restrictions ON Night- work. Women. Hours constituting the night are 9 p.m. to 6 a.m. Night work forbidden to all under 18. Night work iEorbidden. But in workshops not employing children and yonng persons, women may work until 10 p.m. [qf. Women, Duration of Work.] Concessions AS to Night-work. Persons. [There are no concessions for women and girls.] Male youngpersons over 16 may work in lace factories between 4 a.m. and 10 p.m. with 9 hours' rest between ; in bakehooses between 6 a.m. and 9 p.m. with 7 hours rest.t The State Secretary has power to order that male young persons over 16 in bakehouses shall be counted as adults, i.e., over 18. Male young persons over 16 may be employed for not more than 2 nights a week in newspaper printing works for not more than 12 hours consecutively. * Textiles, cut by 2 hours' rest of which 1 hour must be before 3 p.m. and period of work not to be more than 4 j without a J hour's rest for meals. Non-textiles cut by Ij hours' rest of which 1 hour must be before 3 p.m. and period of work must not be more than 6 hours without j houi-'s rest for meals; workshops the same In domestic workshops 4J hours for rest and meals for young persons. t Provided that they be not employed both before and after the ordinary period on the same day, the ordinary period being as defined above. ICf. Working Day.] FACTORY LAWS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 29 GEEAT BEITAIN AND lEKI.AND. Concessions AS TO Night-work. (.cent.) Young Fersom. Male yonng persons over 14 may in certain schedided industries ,» work at night for 12 conseoutiye honrs, cut by rests as in the day and preceded and followed by a rest of 12 hours; they are only to work thus for 6 nights (or in blast furnaces and paper works for 7 nights) in any 2 weeks, t In glass factories male young persons over 14 may work at night, but work to be for 60 hours a week only, each turn (if of 5 hours work), to be out by Jan hour's rest ; and each turn to be followed by a rest as long as the turn of work.t COMPOIBOKY HOMDAY AND Sunday Best. Women and Towng Persons. Sunday rest compulsory. A short day must be given to all protected hands on one week-day in every week. In textiles this must be Saturday ; but incertain non-textiles and workshops, another week-day may be substituted for Saturday. Saturday hours. Textiles — women and young persons : 6 a.m. to 12.30 p.m., or 6 a.m. to 1 p.m., with 1 hour rest, for manufacturing purposes ; 6 a.m. to 1 p.m. for other purposes, or with 1 hour for meals, to 1.30 p.m.§ Non-textiles — women : 6 a.m. to 2 p.m. or 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. or 8 a.m. to i p.m. with \ hour for meals. Or for young persons and women, 6 a.m. to 4 p.m. with 2 hours ofE for rest, and then only for those young persons and women who have not worked more than 8 hours the rest of the week. Workshops not employing children and young persons : Women may work 8 hours on short days with J hour for rest. Domestic workshops : Young persons may work from 6 a.m. to 4 p.m. with 2j hours rest. No restrictions for women. There are six compulsory holidays for protected persons in the year : unless notice be given they shall be Christmas Day, Good Friday and 4 Bank Holidays, but by due notice given, other holidays and half-holiday^ may be substituted. Eestkictions AS TO Dangerous Trades. [Mines in English Law do not come undei- the Laws called Factory Acts.] All protected persons are forbidden to clean machinery in motion. The restrictions on unhealthy or dangerous trades in so far as hours are con- cerned, assign a further limit of time, or they are totally prohibited.* The rules concern : 1. Children. 2. Children and girls under 18. 3. Girls under 16. 4. Children and young persons of both sexes. Women are forbidden to work for 4 weeks after childbirth. Regulations OF THE Hours of Men's Labour. Working-day. By the Act of 1896, hours in dangerous trades may be limited for men, but the rules must lie before Parliament for 40 days before they are enforced. Sunday Rest. • Cf. Notes. t Or they may be so employed in 3 shifts of 8 hours each with a rest of 2 unemployed shifts between each 2 employed shifts. J Turns of work in glass-works, 14 hours each in 4 turns per week, or 12 in 6 turns, or 10 in 6 turns, or any less number of hours not making more than 9 turns per week. § Also for manufacturing purposes 7 a.m. to 1.80 p.m. and for other purposes to 2 p.m. is allowed with at least \ hour for meals. NOTES. FRANCE. I. Children may not be employed in theatres and cafe-concerts as actors, &c., till thirteen ; in acrobatic and itinerant entertain- ments not till sixteen. (Law of 1874.) II. Groups of industries in which evening work (peillees) to 11 p.m., at certain given times of the year for two months, is per- manently authorised for women and girls over eighteen : (a) the industries of furnishing, jewellery, printing, paper and cardboard- making, bookbinding, toy business. (6) Clothing and fashion industries, (c) Paper-hangings. In the above trades, overtime for all is temporarily allowed by authority for thirty days in the year.* In the above industries night-work can also be temJ)orarily allowed to all for thirty days. Night- work and overtime are allowed for sixty or ninety days in factories of perishable materials, such as perfumes, confectionery, fruit, fish and vegetable preserving, also in cooperage for barrels for storing fish. In all these trades Sunday work is also temporarily allowed. The trades of continuous fires where night-work is allowed are, beetroot distilleries and paper works (women and boys); in making articles of enamelled iron, &c., in oil extraction, sugar refineries, metalliferous works and glass works (boys). * By decrees of Jaly 1897 and Febraary 1898, a few more industries were added to the list of those benefitting by concessions on overtime, night and Sunday work. July 1897 adds six ; of these three deal with clothing, the others are perfumery, glue and gelatine manufacture. February 1898 added (for women) Indian corn drying and the sorting of bottles in glass-works. Also were added certain processes in thread and yarn spinning, silk winding and other preparations of wool, cotton and silk for weaving new stuffs. NOTES. 31 III. Industries which are forbidden in whole or in part to pro- tected persons. A. Women and young persons under eighteen : (a) Absolutely forbidden : Cleaning and repairing machinery in motion, employment in workshops where the machinery is unguarded, employment in poisonous industries (the number of these forbidden industries is sixty) ; employment in places where writings, drawings, &c., the sale of which is forbidden under the penal laws, are made, or which, whether legally for- bidden or not, are offensive to good manners. The poisonous industries forbidden are as foUows : The manufacture of arsenical, hydrofluoric, nitric, oxalic, piric, salicylic, uric acids ; refining metals, anilines, arseniate of potash, benzine ; manufacture of white lead and Prussian blue, treating refuse with lead, treatment of offal from slaughter- houses, manufacture of chlorine of lime and alkaline chlorides, of chloride of sulphur, chromate of potassium, cyanide of potas- sium, and red cyanide of potassium or red prussiate of potash, dry polishing of crystal, glass, lace washing with white lead, unravelling and cutting up of rags, scraping enamel in making " muslin " glass, manufacture of manures of animal matter, skinning and cutting up animals, silvering glasses with mercury, roasting sulphurous ores, manufacture of oils and other fatty products extracted from the refuse of animal matter ; manufacture of litharge, of massicot, of colouring matters by means of aniline and nitro-benzine, sharpening and polishing metal, quarrying and shaping millstones, manufacture of nitrate of methyl, nitro-benzine, aniline, and other products of benzine, manufacture of phosphorus, treating skins and furs of rabbits and hares with nitrate of mercury ; manufacture of sulphate of mercury, of arsenical sulphuret, and of sulphur of sodium, dry polishing of glass. (b) Employment in that part of the work in certain industries where poisonous vapours are given off or where the acids come under touch, is forbidden. The number of trades thus in part forbidden to women and persons under eighteen is thirty-five. The reasons given are : a few for fear of accidents, but chiefiy the fear of poisonous or noxious eflSuvia. The list is as foUows : Production of sulphuric, muriatic acids, refining of gold and 32 NOTES. silver by acids, bleaching of flax, straw, and paper j certain parts of catgut and caoutchouc work, treatment of rags by acids, bleaching of cotton waste, cleaning of leathers by acids, gilding and silvering, extraction of soap from fatty fluids, metal enamelling and enamel making, treatment of woollens and cloth by damp, scouring and galvanisation of iron ; flax spinning, calcining of ores and tissues, leather dressing, pro- duction of nitrates, refrigeration by acid, production of salts of soda by sulphate of soda, manufacture of sinapisms, pro- duction of sulphate of peroxide of iron and sulphate of soda, production of superphosphate of lime and potash, dye-works, treatment of olive-cakes by sulphide of carbon, sheet iron and glazed metal work, glass and crystal work, bladder dressing. B. Young persons under eighteen : additional trades forbidden in whole or in part, (a) Absolutely forbidden : Turning an apparatus by means of a pedal, or turning a horizontal wheel. Ten trades are also prohibited to those under eighteen. Pirst, those demanding caution and attention beyond ordinary ; all these deal with explosives — e.g., dynamite, cartridges, percussion caps, fireworks, &c. ; the number thus forbidden is eight. Extraction of the silky parts from the cocoon — noxious effluvia, Employment in dogs' hospitals — fear of bites. (6) Employment in certain dangerous parts of certain indus- tries. In addition to the trades already given {wnder Women, <&c.) young persons are debarred from dangerous work in forty- seven other trades. The reasons adduced are : harmful dusts, vapours or effluvia, and danger of burning ; danger of fire and accidents. 0. Children under sixteen : additional trades forbidden in whole or in part. (a) Absolutely forbidden : pedal action for crafts called manual, work with circular or band saws, with mechanical shears or other mechanical cutters, work in connection with steam jets, &c. ; wire-drawing, rod and metal rolling workshops, scaflTolding in or outside houses; slaughter-houses, dep6ts for matches, workshops and shops for the distUling and storing of explosive oils, workshops where varnish is prepared by spirits of wine ; in glass bottle and window glass blowing. NOTES. 33 (6) Employment in certain dangerous parts of certain indus- tries : Preserve tins, the soldering part ; chromolithography, machine bronzing ; production of collodion, tin bronzing by hand, shops where lighting fluids are stored, parts of tobacco workshops, workshops where taffetas and linen is glazed. D. Girls under sixteen may not work the sewing-machine by pedals. E. Children under thirteen may not be employed in glass-works either in gathering or blowing. There are in addition elaborate measurements of the weights which may be carried or drawn — (1) by boys below fourteen and boys from fourteen to eighteen ; (2) by girls below sixteen and girls from sixteen to eighteen. BELGIUM. {See Addenda.) I. In this country as in France {see Introduction) the motives for forbidding or regulating certain trades to protected persons are of two kinds : (a) protection of the workers (noxious effluvia and dangerous dusts, danger of poison and of wounds) ; (6) of the community, danger of fire and of accidents. [It is evident that all regulations for women are actuated by a combination of these two motives.] Belgium, however, expressly discriminates the two sets of motives in the following Article [Art. II., Jan. 29, 1863], which contains rules for the guidance of persons addressing demands to the administration for permission to establish a dangerous trade : " They must make known, moreover, the measures proposed for preventing and lessen- ing the inconveniences to which the establishment may give rise, as much for the workpeople attached to the exploitation as for the neighbours and for the public." Again, in Article VI. of the same date : " Authorisations are subordinated to reserves and conditions judged necessary in the interest of the jntblio safety, health, and convenience, as well as in the interest of ihe workpecq)le attached to the establishment." II, Belgium is one of those countries most active in adding to and improving the law by means of trade by trade legislation. The c 34 NOTES. effect of this in reducing the average of the hours of labour has been noticed in the Introduction (see p. 6-7).* The Groups of trades which have thus had the hours reduced by Royal decree are the textile industries — spinning and weaving flax, cotton, hemp and jute ; woollen industry, newspaper printing ; art industries — some forty- Jive ; paper-making, tobacco and cigars, manufacture of sugar ; furniture-making and incidental industries — a large nmnber ; pot- teries, fireproof articles, plate-glass industry, lucifer matches; building, zinc rolling, crystal and glass vessel works ; industries connected with wearing apparel — two groups; heavy engineering, light engineering — -fow sub-groups ; biickworks,t window-glass making ; mines and quarries, blast furnaces, steel works, puddling and rolling mills. [For details see Mr. Gould's abstract of Belgium Acts in the Factory Inspector's Report for 1896. See also the same for a list of dangerous trades forbidden wholly or in part.] III. The law for children in itinerant theatrical or acrobatic shows is much the same as in France, but the age of admission in Belgium is raised to eighteen, unless the parents are the employers, then the age of admission is fourteen. HOLLAND. (8ee Addenda.) I. Trades in which concessions are allowed in night-work. Sunday work, or overtime : J Baking, newspaper printing, condensed milk, yeast-packing, glass works, workshops for sewing, knitting, embroidery, fashions, and so on ; net making, lithography, brickworks, fruit and food preserving, fish drying and salting, estabhshments using wind or water power, iron-foundries, fish-net making, trades in which cleaning machinery is required, dried fruit industry, dab fisheries, and bleaching works, * The average is taken all round, and in some important industries hours remain high. In textiles, for example, they reach llj and llj ; but in these same industries they are further reduced to 6 for children of 12 to 13. t In brickworks the hours remain 12 ; but they are greatly reduced for girls under 16, and for all under 14. J Night-work is not allowed to women and girls. NOTES. 35 II. Dangerous trades : A Royal decree of Jan. 1897 gives elaborate rules. The injunc- tions about dangerous machinery occupy nine heads of Article I,, with various subdivisions. The first five heads prohibit the work of pro- tected persons in certain machine work altogether ; the next four order the fencing of dangerous machinery where protected persons are employed ; and power looms, where the shuttles make more than eighty throws per minute, are regarded as dangerous. _ Great power is given to the inspector, who is allowed (Article I., B. 1) to indi- cate any machine work as " dangerous.'' Then come two interesting clauses prohibiting work of the protected in badly lighted work- shops, or in workshops ill defended from the sun ; a list of trades trying to the eyesight is given, in which work is prohibited to all the protected, if the work-places are so constructed as to render artificial light necessary from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., unless such light be of a given strength. These trades are embroidery, working of precious stones, gold and silver work, engraving or wood-block cutting, instrument making, type-setting, knitting by machiaery, sewing and stitching, clock making or repairing, or other trades requiring good Ught. After this follow the injunctions as to the trades using explosive gases. In Article II. we have the lists of poisonous trades, or those creatiug noxious dusts and exhalations, which are prohibited unless proper preventives and precautions are adopted. In certain unhealthy trades a minimum amount of air space is specified, and in certain other such trades provision of suitable lavatories is required. In another specified class of industries (including type f oundiag and cigar making) women and young persons may not take their meals in the work-place. ToUowing the articles giving the latter injunctions is one for- bidding underground work to aU' the protected. Then comes one special to young persons under sixteen, of which the prohibition con- cerning independent engineering work would seem to be as much in the interest of the public as the young worker. III. A Royal decree of March 1897 permits Sunday work to women over sixteen in butter and cheese factories for a few specified hours, provided that no other labour, save that referred to in this decree, be performed on that day. 36 NOTES. GERMANY. I. Overtime : " Necessary cases," i.e., trades obliging continuous work, or carried on by means of fires that must not be extinguished, or where the work is limited to certain determined periods. In the above cases it is also permitted, on application to and by authority of the higher court of administration, to alter the times of rests, but only on condition that young workers shall not be employed for longer than six hours without intervals of rest amounting to at least one hour. II. Codified industries in which Sunday and holiday work is allowed to adults. There are seventy-eight groups of such industries which are classified as follows : {a) Mines, salt and metalliferous works, seven groups. (6) Stone and earth works, four groups. (c) Work in metal, machines and mechanical appliances, three groups. {d) Chemical industries, thirty-nine groups. (e) Secondary products of domestic economy, raw material for lighting, fatty bodies, essences and varnishes, nine groups. (/) Paper and leathers, three groups. (y) Common foods, six groups. (fi) Industries of periodical production, seven groups. To this list must be added by the proclamation of April 22, 1896, establishments for cleaning and dyeing articles of wearing apparel by chemical process. By authority of the local police, work may be carried on until noon on six Sundays or holidays in the year, but not on Easter and Whit Sundays, Christmas, New Year, or Ascen- sion Days. By the decree of May 1897 on ready-made clothing trades young persons under sixteen being expressly forbidden to work on Sundays, the inference allows men and women to do so ; the exception would probably fall xmder industries of periodical production. In com- mercial enterprises the assistants must only be employed for five hours on Sundays and holidays, and not at all on Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sundays. The Sunday law is long and complicated, occu- pying nine divisions of Art. 105. NOTES. 37 III. Decrees concerning the work of women, young persons and children, in dangerous and unhealthy trades.* During the years 1892, 1893, and 1894, no less than thirteen decrees on dangerous trades were sent out. The following industries were affected : 1892 : Glass works, chicory works, oil works (2), zinc and lead mines and coke works of the district of Oppela, sugar works and refineries, forges and rolling mills, flax scutching or hackling, and similar preparatory work in textiles. 1893 : Brick-works, lucifer match works (all classes of workers), colourings with a base of lead or acetate of lead (all workers), cigar- making (all workers). 1894 : Concerning work and rest in spinning mills. In 1897 special rules for the manufacture of the bichromates of potash and soda were issued by the Federal Council ; these rules prohibit the employment of women and of young persons under the age of sixteen under conditions in which they might come in contact with the chromates, or of persons not medically certificated as being free from sores or scratches.f IV. Hotirs for adult male workers : Though the only restriction in the Imperial law is that relating to dangerous and unhealthy trades — notably lead-works — several of the German States have adopted the ten hours day in Govemmenf works. AUSTRIA. I. Where overtime is permitted by regulation, it is laid down that it shall be paid for, and this for all ages and both sexes.J Industries in which the working day may be prolonged for aU * Dangerous trades are scheduled under separate heads, of which the first set are regulated chiedy in the interest of the public. t In 1898 special rules, to come into operation July 1st, were drawn up by the Federal Council for establishments manufacturing electric accumulators of lead compounds. The employment of women, young persons and children, in processes involving contact with lead or lead compounds, is forbidden. The hours for those preparing the composition for filling the accumulator plates must not be more than 8 per day, cut by a rest of IJ hour. J The Austrian Government has just issued an order to State Railways that overtime in engine sheds shall be paid at the rate of 25 per cent, above regular wages. The normal hours are 10 per day- — 7 a.m. to noon and i p.m. 38 NOTES. classes of workers for one hour : Silk-spinning and weaving, spin- ning of cotton, wool, flax and hemp, weaving of cotton by power, rope-making, dye-works, bleach-works, printing of stuffs, flour- mills. The day may also be carried to twelve hours in glass-works for founders and blowers. [This list is subject to revision every three years.] II. Trades in which night work is allowed for protected persons: Boys of fourteen to sixteen years may do some night work during June and July in silk-spinning mills, when for climaterie reasons the work begins before 5 a.m., and finishes after 8 p.m. It is also authorised for the above minors from 8 p.m. to midnight in hotels, markets, food industries, small trades and industries. Boys of fourteen to sixteen years are also authorised exceptionaU't/ in forges, glass and paper works, in sugar-works and food preserving to do night work. Women may exceptionally work at night in sugar and paper works, food-preserving and feather-cleaning industries, In the case of the more permanent exceptions — exceptions that is, which arise from constantly recurring wants, the Minister gives the authority only. In the case of passing needs, such as stoppage, accident or an unforeseen and sudden demand of certain goods, the local industrial authority may allow concessions. Night work for men is never forbidden. III. Sunday rest. All manual work must cease on Sunday, save that which concerns the cleaning and putting in order of machinery. There are other concessions which are codified under four heads : («) Because of the impossihility of interrupting work — e.^,, garden- ing work, the oversight of furnaces, steam boilers and machines, in metalliferous works, glass, silk dyeing, paper works, grinding or crushing mills, sugar works and refineries, breweries, distilleries, vinegar works, chemical works and electric-lighting. It is permitted in tanneries for two hours in the morning ; it is permitted in hop- drying during September and December. (6) Because of the needs of consumption : In all shops and in aH to 6 p.m. Work on Sundays or holidays is counted overtime. Men may not be on duty for 24 hours consecutively ; every 12 of work must be followed by 12 of rest. A 12-hour shift must have i hour interval at noon and i at mid- night. NOTES. 39 •workshops annexed where the product sold is made. By the law on Sunday work, which came into operation on May 1, 1895, all Sunday trading was, however, limited to six hours without exception, in so far as the employes go. (c) Beca/use of the necessities of communication — i.e., aU transport industries. And finally : {d) Urgency — defined above as " passing needs." Holiday regulations are as Sunday. The law of 1895 permits Sunday manufacturing in Galicia and Bukowina, when not carried on in public, and provided employers and workpeople observe a twenty-four hours' rest on some other day of the week according to their faith. IV. Alteration of the daily hours of rest may be made in a variety of industries according to convenience but without lessening the total amount. V. Mines : The conditions of work in mines are regulated by the mining laws of 1884 and of 1896 ; in 1896 were two laws : the first regulated the payment of wages, the pay to be monthly, and Ministers may fix shorter terms ; " and the second was a Mines Arbitration Act. These laws do not come within the present observations. But it ma;y be stated that they include regulation of hours.* HUNGAEY. I. Hours for children and young persons : The industrial authority can fix shorter hours of labour in certain industries. II. Women : No regulation is special to women, save that dealing with four weeks' absence from work after chUd-birth. DENMARK. There are no special regulations for women, saving a prohibition concerning the cleaning of machinery in motion. * Elaborate new rules for ozokerit mines in Galicia as to the conditions under which the mining operations must be carried on, have just been issued by the Mining Authorities. 40 NOTES. SWEDEN. I. Women : There are no special regulations for women, save that prohibiting underground work. II. Protection against danger : A law of May 1889, appljdng practically to all the great industries, save building and mines, has elaborate rules for the health and security of the workers. The following list is given : sawmills and timber yards, underground work other than mines, works and furnaces, forges and metalliferous works, shipbuilding yards, crushing mills, print-works, distilleries, factories and other enterprises whose work approximates them to factories. III. A decree of June 1883 authorised concessions as to mines for boys of from fourteen to eighteen years. This included important concessions as to night work. [See Table.] NOEWAY. I. Women : The work of women is not regulated by law save in the four points mentioned under " Dangerous Trades " in the Table. II. Dangerous work forbidden to women and young persons : (a) Women and young persons: cleaning, oiling, or tending driving shafts, or machines in movement, fastening rollers and cables on moving puUeys, &c. • (6) Young persons: attending to steam-boilers and machines that demand special precautions. EUSSIA. The history of Eussian factory legislation is peculiar to the country and very interesting ; some hints as regards this have been given in the Introduction. Further points that have to be noticed are (1) the low maximum age of protection ; and (2) the effect of the new law of 1897. NOTES. 41 I. The age of juvenile protection (save in one instance) leaves off at fifteen years. The exceptional instance is that from fifteen to seventeen young persons may not be employed at night in textile factories such as those of cotton, cloth, wool, linen, flax and hemp &c. [cf. Table on Eestrictions.] After fifteen years, therefore, with this exception, children of both sexes are counted as adults, as regards duration of labour, save that where dangerous trades are concerned it lies within the power of Ministers to count them stiU children — i.e., to raise the age of admission to these trades. II. The new law of 1897 has placed under protection male adult labour, and only applies to such labour. Consequently male persons over fifteen are now protected as to duration of work and Sunday and holiday rest, while women from fifteen onwards are left at present unprotected (save as regards night work in textiles, where the law for women is the same as for young persons of fifteen to seventeen years). III. List of industries in which employment of children under fifteen is forbidden : Spinning and scutching of flax and hemp, and carding of all sorts of textiles, tow-making from rags, places which work up the wool of lambs and make felt, the cutting and drying of wools for weaving ; where the silk of cocoons, hair, wool, feathers of animals are prepared, in the preparation of cloth for tarpauling, in bleach- ing and dyeing flax and hemp and kindred trades, in bleaching cotton thread and cloth and kindred trades, in the fulling and teasling, &c., of cloth, in the printing and dyeing of calicoes and kindred work, in the sorting of rags for paper, cutting, rubbing, bleaching, &c,, in the making of leathers and parchments, in varnishing leather, in the making of varnish and oily materials, in works where bones are calcined or ground, in petroleum refining or other such material, in glassworks in preparing the materials, in blowing, graving, polishing, baking and decoration ; in the making of pottery, in lime and cement making, and industries that treat stones as raw material, in lead foundries and those for the fusing of brass, in caoutchouc working, in white-lead making, in mUls for working up metals, as in the fusion, mechanical cutting, roUing, piercing and polishing ; in distilleries for brandy and other alcohols. 42 NOTES. in works for chemical products — acids, salts, vitriol blue, colours and so on; in certain parts of refineries for beetroots, in phosphor match -works — children are not allowed even in the buildings; in gold and silver refining by acids, in brass works, in wood works where circular or ribbon saws are used, in slaughter-houses, in bakeries and pastry-making save for packing and carrying the bread, in the preparation of sheepskins, in printing works and book- stitching when it is night. FINLAND. The industry of riuland is regulated by two laws special to the Xiountry ; one of April 1889 touches the protection of children and young persons. The age of admission is twelve; from twelve to fifteen the working day is eight hours, rests included ; night work is forbidden up to eighteen years, and the hours constituting night work are from 9 p.m. to 5 a.m. Employers must see that children have received the minimum amount of primary education. ITALY. I. Rules for the employment of children : Every employer who wishes to take on a child under fifteen must make a declaration to the local authority, who must give notice to the Minister of Commerce. All children so hired must be furnished with a " livret." All medical certificates, without which no child can be employed, must be furnished by doctors chosen from a list prepared by the sanitary council of the district. The list is subject to revision every year. The certificate must assure not only that the child is in good health, but that his development will not suffer in consequence of the work. II. Dangerous trades : There are two tables A. and B. A. entirely prohibits employ- ment under fifteen ; B. permits certain trades to children from nine NOTES. 43 to fifteen years, witli reserves, and for a time not exceeding eight hours of effective work. III. There are no regulations for women over fifteen whatever. SPAIN. The law in Spain concerns only children and young persons, and these in four points merely : the age of admission, the length of the working day, night work, and primary education. There ai-e no regulations concerning daily rests, Sundays and holidays, or dan- gerous trades, even for children. The work of women over seventeen is subject to no regulations whatever, although a very great number are employed in various industries, such as mines, tobacco, lace. PORTUGAL. The dangerous trades forbidden to minors resemble those coming under the head B. of Note III. in Prance. SWITZERLAND. {See Addenda.) I. The Federal law of 1877 is obligatory on all the cantons, but there is nothing in the law to prevent the governments of the cantons issuing supplementary laws. As this opportunity has been used the cantonal regulations have carried the rules a step or two further. The Federal law therefore represents the minimum of legislation in Switzerland, while St. Gall has been selected for tabu- lation as exhibiting the maximum. It is a peculiarity of the Federal law that it purports to apply to all workers, without distinction of age or sex, in those industries that fall within it. Unless, therefore, women and children are specially mentioned the clauses of the law apply to all workers alike. Though domestic workshops and small industries, which are 44 NOTES. very numerous in Switzerland, are exempt from the law, it can bring the latter within its power by means of the Doubt Clause [see Table]. Mines are also exempt from i-egulation, but this industry is of small import in Switzerland, II. Accessory trades, in which overtime, before or after the working-day, is allowed to men and unmarried women over eighteen: Decree of 1891. — Heating of steam boilers and workshops, cleaning of chimneys, boilers, furnaces, power machine, Edinburgh /'^'