ff.- CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM The Estate of H.F.EolDerts L/aZc JL/uC t.-> ';'■'■•' fm^ 1 ^ !; J A ^•l-U QC^^pma^ 1 i 1 1 i olin.anx Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031680634 THE ORGANIC METHpD dF STUDYING LANGUAGES I.— FRENCH Shortly will he Published: ON W^t ®x^mu Bt%jEr, BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE ORGANIC METHOD STUDYING LANGUAGES I.— FRENCH CONTAINING A COMPLETE ACCIDENCE AND ELEMENTARY SYNTAX COMBINED EY G. EUGfiNE-FASNACHT SENIOR MASTER OF MODERN LANGUAGES, HARPUR TRUST MODERN SCHOOL, BEDFORD AUTHOR OF THE STUDENt'S COMPARATIVE FRENCH GRAMMAR, OF THE PROGRESSIVE FRENCH AND GERMAN COURSE, ETC. EDITOR OF MACMILLAn's SERIES OF FOREIGN CLASSIC*: MACMILLAN AND CO. Al;Y Tie right of adapting this Method to the Study of other Languages is Reserved dJJ/'^ i ^ So ) LONDON : R. Clay, Sons, and TayloRj BREAD STREET HILU PREFACE. This method is based on the axiom that the theoretical study of a science can only be carried on satisfactorily if the student possesses a sufficient amount of knowledge gained by experience ; and conversely, that knowledge gained by experience, in order to be complete and thorough, must be supplemented by a systematic analysis of the laws which underlie that science. ' Taking this general principle for my starting-point, and applying it to the study of languages in particular, I have attempted to initiate the beginner into the study of languages (in the first instance the French language), by a method in which practice and theory are so intimately blended, as continually to react upon and supplement each other. With this view I begin with whole sentences, instead of isolated wordf,° and taking the Verb for the warp of the texture, I gradually interweave the woof in the shape of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and other parts of speech, until finally the complete fabric emerges from the loom. Reserving any further ornamental embroidery for a more advanced stage, I have confined my task to the framing of a plain, homespun, wear-and-tear-proof fabric, of which not a single thread need subsequently be undone. In a certain degree, I am fully aware, the working of this plan has been more or less successfully attempted before ; with this fundamental difference, however, between the traditional type of Grammars and the Organic Method, that in the former the Syntax is either entirely severed from, or at best placed ' " What the pupil should be taught is to methodise his knmvledge, to bok at every separate part of it in its relations to the other parts and the whole, combining the partial glimpses which" he has obtained into a general map, if I mav so soeak." — John StuaiJt Mill. 2 "As we do not think in words but in sentences, and as language is the expression and embodiment of thought, it is clear that the imit of language must be the sentence and not the word. The words which compose a sentence are related to one_ another in the same way .as the several elements of an idea or of an action as reproduced in thought, and can only Le decomposed and separated by conscious analysis." — Waitz, Anthropology. vi TREFACE. in mere mechanical juxtaposition to the Accidence, whereas in the latter. Syntax and Accidence are mixed up in, as it were, chemical combination. With this view I have framed and arranged the sentences intended to illustrate the laws of the language in such definite order as to display the grammatical forms embodied in them in bold relief. Standing out, as they do, in clearly dis- tinctive type, like mountains on the map of a country of which they form the backbone, they necessarily force themselves more vividly upon the pupil's attention than is the case with the traditional paradigms. This arrangement, appealing thus by the logic of visible facts to the eye, cannot fail to assist the mind in giving form and substance to the otherwise abstract idea. To which must be added the fact that this conspicuousness of the inflectional elements in the sentence, bringing them into their natural relationship « ith the context without which they cannot convey an idea, offers this decided advantage over the usual bare schemes of declension or conjugation, that it prevents any possible misconception of the symbol (for words and their inflections, as long as isolated, are but symbols) ; it thus saves the pupil the mortification of having subsequently to unlearn what has involved such a heavy expenditure of time, trouble, and patience to learn by sheer efforts of memory, unassisted by the reasoning faculties.' But as the Organic Method, appealing as it does to the intelligent seeing of facts, requires to be seen in order to be understood, I will illustrate it by a few instances taken at random, and contrasting these at the same time with the now generally prevailing mode of treatment of the same subjects, I may safely leave it to the unbiassed judgment of those of my profession to decide between the respective merits or demerits of the two methods. First of all, I must show how the Definite Article, as this determinative Adjective is commonly called, has fared in French Grammars framed upon the type of the old time-honoured Greek Grammars. In accordance with these the Article has, of course, the first place assigned to it, just as if this part of speech, and not the Verb, were the word par excellence, without which no sentence can be formed ; and something like the following, with but few variations of arrangement, is the scheme generally adopted to show its modifications, or "declension," as the classical phrase goes: — _' " Even in the best schools it appears as if it were difficult to ^ound boys well in grammar without an inordinate waste of time, or without dwarfing the pupil's faculties by an excessive prolongation of a mechanical and monotonous word-drilt.' ' Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London School. " Regarding language as an apparatus of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say that, as in a mechanical apparatus, the more simple, and the better arranged its parts, the greater will be the effect produced."— Herbert Spencer. PREFACE. Masc. Singular, Fern. (before a Noun beginning with a con ;onant or h aspirate (sic !) Norn, le la Geu. du (for de le) de la Eat. au (for a le) a la Ace. le la (before a Noun beginning with a vowel or h mute) Norn. 1' Gen. de 1' Dat. al' Ace. 1' Plural for all. Nom. les Gen. des Dat. aux Ace. les Then follow (about 150 or 200 pages further on, which in ordinary school routine cannot be reached until some two or three years after) the rules for the application of the above forms ; to wit — that the Definite Article is used before Nouns taken in a general sense, also before abstract Nouns, before names of countries, etc. Now, I would ask, what insight into the origin, nature, and functions of the Article can a pupil gain from a method in which this determinative adjunct, which has no meaning of its own, is thus arbitrarily severed from the word to which it cleaves, which it determines, and without which it has no possible raison d'etre? ' And why, I ask again, should not the Noun itself, thus deter- mined by the Definite Article, be brought into significant relation with the other constituent elements of the sentence, so as clearly to show how this adjunct acts as a limiting prefix intended to mark off the exact boundaries assigned to the species denoted by the Noun ? ' I need hardly say that in this book, consistently with the principles that underlie the whole method, not only is the Definite Article never separated ' "The first condition of language is that it should be significant, and words are only significant when they stand in relation to one another. The 'logos,' the true word, said Aristotle, was the cause of knowledge ; the individual words of which it was composed were but symiols and tokens of the impressions of sense." — A. H. Savce, ^ "All language must be significant ; but until the whole sentence is uttered, until the whole thought that lies behind is expressed, this cannot be the case." — A. H. Savce. viii PREFACE. from its natural and necessary association with the Noun, but also that the Noun, thus limited, is in its turn not allowed to stand isolated : — Masculine. Singular. Su'ject. Le maitre parle. The master is speaking, etc. Dir. Object. J'entends le maitre distinctement. Possessive. Le livre du maitre est interessant. Indir. Obj. L'eleve repond au mattre. Plural. Subject, lies mattres parlent. Dir. Object. J'entends les maitres distinctement. Possessive. Les livres des mattres sont interessants. Indir, Obj. Les eleves repondent aux maitres. And so on. For a full treatment of the whole subject, see §§ 30 — 35. So much for the grammatical modifications of the Article. But as this scheme, complete though it be in respect of its forms, is not sufficient to enable the pupil. to know not only haw to use but also when to use this Adjunct, and as by thLs method nothing is to be committed to memory which shall not at the same time be practically applied, thus calling the pupil's reasoning powers also into active play, I proceed at once to give further examples, but this time in the shape of sentences in which the Definite Article is used in French, though kc/ used'\^ English; as, lie sel est le symbole de la sagesse. Salt is the symbol of wisdom. Le fer, I'or et la platine sont des Iron, gold, and platinum, are metals. metaux. Ii'homme est mortel. Les hommes Man is mortal. Men are mortal. sont mortels. La vie est courte. life is short. L'oisivete est la mere du vice. Idleness is tin mother of vice. Now it is obvious that without the context it would be impossible for the pupil to see the distinction between Nouns taken, for instance, in a general or abstract sense, and those taken in an individual sense ; but by means of multi- plied and carefully selected instances in which the Noun is made more fully significant by the context, he is at once supplied with the necessary clue for realising by his own mental efforts how far the two languages agree or differ in the application of the determinative Adjective. The same remarks hold good with regard to the mode of treatment of the other partd of speech, but particularly so in the caie of the use of Moods and PREFACE. ix. Tenses; for if it is true that the relations of manner and time in which an action occurs cannot be ascertained otherwise than by reference to the whule sentence, then certainly nothing is to be got out of paradigms framed on the plan adopted in our Grammars : — que je parle, that I may speak. que tu paries, that thou mayest speak, etc. qu'il parle, que nous parlions, que vous parliez, qu'ils parlent. Nowhere perhaps has the isolating process of compiling grammatical schemes given rise to more confusing misconceptions in the pupil's mind, and con- tributed more to his utter helplessness in shaping the materials placed at his disposal. How to distinguish between the Imperfect and the Preterite, between the Pluperfect and Past Anterior, when to use the Conditional and when the Subjunctive, etc. , are to him so many Chinese puzzles for the solution of which he has to wait until, years after, he reaches the more advanced classes in which Syntax is treated systematically. And what is worse still, he will then actually have to unlearn the few hazy notions he may have got into his head concerning the use of Moods and Tenses — no easy matter, considering the tenacity of first impressions. I speak from long experience when I say that in nine cases out of ten the pupil will emerge from this treadmill way of working with altogether erroneous conceptions ; he will take it for granted that the Sub- junctive is used after que, which, of course, is utterly misleading ; or that, in translating from English into French, he cannot go far wrong in rendering may and might by the Subjunctive, hencs—you may come — ' que vous veniez' ! and so on. As for should and would, the student provided with his skeleton-key to Moods and Tenses, knows better than to suspect for one moment that these auxiliaries may have any possible connexion with the Subjunctive ; for has he not been duly drilled in rehearsing — Conditional : je parlerais, I should i^e.'ik'! Ergo, for instance — It is not right that you should suffer — II n'est pas juste que vous souffririezl And just as he has amused himself by singing in his nursery days — a stands for ass, b stands for boat, and so on, so now he is taught to say — may stands for Suijwtctive, and should iox Conditionally ^ " It is not uncommon for boys, after committing the Verbs to memory, to allow the Subjunctive Mood to rust for some weeks or months before they make any use of it, and con- sequently to find that, when they need to use it, they no longer remember it ; the consequence is that during all this while, they remain under the impression that ' amemus ' means lue may love, and ' amaremus ' we might /(Pz/^— statements which are very partial, and almost erroneous, expressions of the real truth. It seems better to introduce the Subjunctive earlier in simple and intelligible rules and examples, so as to impress the pupil from the first with the principle of the Sequence of Tenses." — Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London ScJwol' 'x PREFACE. Such misconceptions are hardly possible with the Organic Method. Here the grammatical forms are from the outset brought into duly dependent relation to the principal concept ; and it is by ax;cumulated, and at the same time systematically arranged, sentences rather than by the few broad rules appended, that the important fact is brought home to the pupil that this Mood is the necessary sequence of the leading thought contained in the principal clause ; he is thus led to see, both physically and mentally, that the Subjunctive grows immediately out of the conception to which it is subjoined : — PRINCIPAL CLAUSE. DEPENDENT CLAUSE. Mon pfere desire que je par-le fran9ais My father desires Le maitre souhaite que tu par-les correctement that I speak Les eleves exigent qu'il par-le distinctement French, etc. Ma mere trouvebon que nous parl-ions anglais On approuve que vous parl-iez politique Leur precepteur consent qu'ils parl-ent avec lui. For a full treatment of the Subjunctive Mood, see §§ 87 — 96. And so throughout the book. Studiously avoiding to force the facts of the language upon the student's memory in the shape of a series of cut and -dried rules, meagrely illustrated by a few stray sentences, I have preferred to thrust into the foreground a well-disciplined host of eScamples ; by their very arrange- ment these may be trusted to direct the student's train of thought into the right channel for forming a clear conception of the abstract laws underlying the language. Need I add that rules thus evolved by his own exertions from his stock of practical knowledge, will serve the pupil in better stead than the arbitrary dictum of grammarians ! These instances will, I trust, suffice to show how the Organic Method bridges over the gap between the two diametrically opposed methods now in use — the purely analytical, and the so-called natural method. It takes an altogether different starting-point from the one adopted in the analytical method, which begins with the grammatical inflections of isolated words, and winds up with rules for putting these words together, thus teaching Grammar before, i.e. virtually without, the language itself : putting theory before practice, abstrac- tions before concrete facts, and fractions before units — a course which seems as .irrational as it would be to begin teaching a child arithmetic with algebraical symbols. On the other hand, it differs no less strikingly from the would-be natural method, which, although based on a sound principle, is open to the serious objection that it supplies a plan admirably fitted for the inmates of the nursery, PREFACE. xi who have not passed beyond the hnitative stage of intellectual developmentj to the wants of pupils whose reasoning powers are fully awakened. Such a routine, stopping short as it does of systematizing the practically acquired stock of knowledge, fails to accustom the student to those habits of mental discipline and concentrated attention which it is one of the principal aims of all education to foster. I need hardly add that the beginner who starts with significant sentences will be much better prepared to enter upon a comparatively early course of intelligent reading than he who has been merely drilled through a series of unconnected words. And if, on the other hand, the pupil is not in the very first lesson, as in the so-called natural method, treated to an amusing story, he will be more than compensated by a far greater advantage : when he does begin to read stories — which he can safely do at a comparatively early stage — he will be enabled to make out the meaning without the artificial and decep- tive help of interlinear translations or other devices for learning without understanding. As regards the routine to be followed in using the Organic Method, I deem it no mean point in its favour, that so far from requiring any minute directions for handling it, its very simplicity leaves the experienced teacher full scope for exercising his own judgment in adapting it to the special wants of his pupils ; whilst the less experienced teacher and the student will find in the arrange- ment of the copious and carefully graduated material a safer guide to the mastery of all the details than any theoretical precepts could supply them. Adaptations of the Organic Method to the Study of other Languages are in Preparation. CONTENTS. THE VERB. SECT The Three Reculax Conjugations. 1 Infinitive Present and Participle Present . . 2 Jjidieative Mood : — ... Present .... Aflirmative Form .... First Conju;^ation 3 Second Conju^iation . ... 4 Fourth Conjugation . . . 5-6 Auxiliary Verbs avoir and etre Simple Interrogative Form . . . . 7 (a) the Subject a Personal Pronoun 5 ifi) the Subject a Noun ..." Relative Interrogative Form 9 {a) the Subject a Personal Pronoun . 10 (b) the Subject a Noun .... . . II-I2 Negative Form ij Negative-Interrogative Form . . . . 14 The Verb with a Personal Pronoun for its Object 15-16 I. Affirmative (a) Direct Object, (b) Indirect Object . 7 II. Interrogative and Negative 8 17-18 {a) Simple Interrogation, {b) Relative Interrogative 8 19 III. Interrogative-Negative ... . .... 2 20 IV. Imperative : Affirmative and Negative . . 9 THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 21 I.— The Noun Qualified by the Determinative Adjective (Def. Art.) : le, la, les 10 («) a; the Subject of a Verb . . . . ... 10 22 (b) as the Object of a Verb .... ... . 11 23 (r) as, iae. Predicate-Compl. oi 7i.Nex\i . ... . . u xiv CONTENTS. SECT. ?\G^ 24 (li) with the Preposition de I ' (l) as Adjunct to another Noun (Genitive) .... 11 25 (2) as Complement to a Verb (Genitive or Ablative) . 12 26 as after the Adjectives 12 27 (^) with the Preposition a. 12 (I) as I rj direct Object of a Transitive Verb . ... 12 28 (2) as Adverbial Complement of an Intransitive Verb. 13 29 (/) with other Prepositions 13 30 Recapitulation : Complete scheme of the inflections of le, la, les ... 14 Use of Determinative Adjective (Def. Art.) in French as compared with English 14 31 (ff) before a Noun taken in a limited (particular) sense. 14 32 (i) before a Noun taken in an unlimited (general) sense. 15 33 (c) before names of countries 15 34 ((/) before a Noun in Apposition 15 35 (e\ before a Noun used in Adjectival, Adverbial or Verbal phrases 15 Formation of the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives , . 16 36 (a) General Rule : by adding s 16 37 (i] Special Rules : by (i) leaving the noun unchanged. 16 (2) adding x ; 16 (3) changing -al or -all into aus. 1 7 II. — The Noun qualified by the Indefinite Article: un, nne 17 38 (a) The Indefinite Article used in French as in English . . 17 39 [d) The Indefinite Article used in English but not in French. 18 III. — The Noun qualified by the Partitive Article: dn, de la, de 1', des 19 40 Nouns denoting the whole of a thing compared with Nouns denoting part of a thing 19 41 IV. — The Noun qualified by an Adverb or Noun of Quantity : assez, beaucoup, etc 20 42 de used instead of dn, de la, de 1', des 20 V. — The Noun qualified by a Possessive Adjective: mon, ma, lues, etc 21 43-44 (fl) as the Subject, (b) as the Object, (c) with Prepositions . . 21 VI. — The Noun qualified by a Demonstrat. Adjective : ce, cet, cette, ces 22 45-46 (a) ce, cet, cette, ces J (i) ce...cl, ce...la, etc. ... 22 CONTENTS. XV sect. vage 47 Recapitulation of the different ways in which a Noun may be qualified 23 VII. — The Noun limited by an Adjective of Quality . . 23 4S (^) Feminine found by adding e, agreement of Adjectives in Gender and Number 23' 49 (p) Adjectives unchanged in the Feminine, (r) -a changed into -se 23 50-51 (rf) -f changed into -ve, («) -c clianged into -que .... 24 52 (/) -on, -ien, -el, -eil, -as into -onne, -lenne, elle, -eille, -asse 24 53 (g) -er, -et into -ere, -ete 24 54 Adjectives with two forms for the Masculine 24 55 Adjectives forming their Feminine irregularly 25 56 Adjectives ending in -eur 26 VIII. — The Noun qualified by Adjectives in the Com- parative and Superlative 26 57-59 Comparison of (a) superiority, (^) equality, and (,;) inferiority. 26 60 Adjectives irregularly compared 27 61 Observations: (i) plus...ne, (2) ne...plus, (3) davantage, (4) plus. ..plus, (5) le molndre, (6) le plus...de . . 27 IX. — The Noun qualified by an Adjective of Quantity (Numeral) 27 62-63 (a) Cardinal Numbers, (.5) Ordinal Numbers .... 28 64-65 (c) French Cardinal N. for English Ordinal N., ((/) Dimensions 29 THE VERB (conUnued). 66-70 Imperfect Indicative 3° Imperfect used to denote (a) simultaneous action, (b) action in progress, {c) habitual or repeated action. (d) Imperfect in dependent clauses 30 71-76 Preterite Indicative (Past Definite) 32 Preterite used to denote actions absolutely past .... 32 77-81 Future Present (Obs. Future Present for English Present) . . 34 82-86 Conditional Mood :— 36 (a) to denote an action depending on a condition, {b) as a Future Imperfect 36 Subjunctive Mood ...... 38 tM contents. SECT. PACE 87-91 Present : used in Dependent clauses if the Verb in Principal Clause 3^ (i) denotes a wish, command, etc., (2) is imper.ional, (3) denotes affection, or (4) doubt. (5) The Subjunctive after Subordinate Conjunctions . . 38 92-96 Preterite (Imperfect) : Sequence of Tenses 4'^ Conjunctioas which require the Verb in the Subjunc- tive .... 4' 97-101 Imperative Mood . 42 102 Infinitive Mood : — .... . 43 103-5 !•■ — Pui^s Infinitive (a) as Subject, {b) as Predicate, (c) Direct Object 43 106-8 II. — Infinitive with de, (a) as Attributive Adjunct, ifi) as Adverbial Adjunct, (c) as Object 44 109-10 III. — Infinitive with a {a) as Attributive Adjunct, (h) as Adverbial Adjunct .44 1 1 1 IV. — Infinitive with other Prepositions -45 112 Infinitive used instead of Indicative or Subjuncuve 45 1134 /'u?-/«iZ/*/i?-/y regular in their* inflections, they have been classed among the Irregular Verbs, see §§ 222-230. J J INDICATIVE PRESENT. First Conjugation. Singular. parl-e fran^ais. I speak (I am speaking) French. parl-es anglais. Thou speakest (thou art speaking English: parl-e alletnand. Be speaks (he is speaking German. parl-e grec. Otie speaks (one is speaking) Greek, I Elle parl-e italien. She speaks (she is speaking) Italian. [ Jean parl-e espagnol. John speaks (John is speaking) SpanisA. Plural. 1st Nous parl-ons peu. ' We speak (we are speaking) little. 2nd Vous parl-ez haut. You speak (you are speaking) aloud. (lis parl-ent bien. They(m.&s,c.)speak(arespeaking)wdl yd J EUes parl-ent beaucoup. They(iem.)speak(arespeaking)much. [ Les gens parl-ent trop. People speak (are speaking) too much. Organic Method. — French. B ^ Y 2 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Second Conjugation. Singular, Je fin-is mon travail. I finish (I am finishing) my worh. Tu fin-is ton devoir. Thou finiskest (thtiuart finishing) thy lesson. I II (on) fin-it son theme. ffe (one) finishes (he is finishing) hisexercise. ! Elle fin-it son ouvrage. She finishes (she is finishing) her needlework, ( Arthur fin-it son dessin. Arthur finishes (is finishing) his drawing. Plural. Nous fin-iss-ons notre travail. We finish (we arefinishing) our work. Vous fin-iss-ez votre devoir. You finish (are finishing) your lesson, lis fin-iss-ent leur theme. They (m.) finish (are finishing) their exercise. Elles fin-iss-ent leur ouvrage. They (f.) finish (are finishing) their needlework. Les gens fin-iss-ent leur besigne. People finish (people are finishing) their jjb. Fourth Conjugation Singular, Je vend-s ma maison. Tu vend-s ta propriete, [ II vend sa terre. ) On vend son bien. / sell (I am selling) my house. Thou sellest (thou art selling) thy property. He sells (he is selling) his estate. One sells (one is selling) one *j estate. Elle vend sa marchandi e. She sells (she is selling) her merchandise, Sje boucher vend sa viande. The hu'cher sells (is selling his meat. Plural. Nous vend-ons notre campagne. We sell (we are selling) our country seat, Vous vend-ez votre denree. K/a sell (you are selling) your ware. lis vend-ent leur brasserie. Thy (m.) sell (they are selling) their brni'ery. EUes vend-ent leur mair.on. They (f.) sell (they are selling) their house. Lei fermiers vend-ent leur paille. The fanners sell (are selling) their straw. PRESENT TENSE : INDICATIVE, The Auxiliary Verd ' avoir,' to havt. Singular. y ai le canif [niasc.) I have the fenknife. Tu as I'encrier {masc. ) Thou hast the inkstand. 11 (on) Elle L'eleve a la plume {/em.) a I'ecritoire {fain.) a I'histoire (feat.) He (one) has the pen. She has the iiiriting-stand. The pupil has the history. Plural. Nous avons les canifs. We have the penknives. Vous avez les encriers. You have the inkstands. lis ont les plumes. EUes ont les ecrltoires. Les eleves ont les histoires. They (masc.) have the pens. They (fem. ) have the writing-stands. The pupils have the histories. The Auxiliary Verb 'ctre,' to le. Je Tu snis malade. es heureux. ' II (on) est actif. Elle est active. ' L'eleve est intelligent. Nous sommes malades. Vous etes heureux, ( lis sont actifs. \ EUes sont actives. ( Les eleves sont intelligents. Singular. I a m ill. Thou art happy. He [one) is active. She is active. The pupil is intelligent. Plural. We are ill. You are happy. They are active. They (fem.) are active. The pupils are intelligent. B 2 4 THE ORGANIC METHOD. INTERROGATIVE FORM. A. Simple Interrogation, viz., without Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb : — 7 (a) The Subject a Personal Pronoun : — Singular. Parl€-je' bien? Do I speak {am I sptahing) will t Parles-tu f rangais ? Dost thou speak (art thou speaking) French ? j Parle-t-il [on] ainsi ? Does he speak (is he speaking) thus ? \ Parle-t-elle trop ? Does she speak (is she speaking) too much ? Plural. Parlons-nous bien ? Do we speak (are we speaking) well ? etc Parlex-vous fran9ais ? Do you speak French ? {Parlent-ils ainsi ? Do they speak ih us? Porlent-elles trop ? Do they talk too much ? or — Singular. Est-ce que je parle bien? Do I speak (am I spenking) well? Est-ce que tu paries fran5ais ? Dost thou speak (art thou speaking) French I f Est-ce qu'il parle ainsi ? Does he speak (is he speaking) thus ? \ Est-ce qn'elle parle trop ? Does she speak (is she speaking) too much ? Plural. Est-ce que nous parlons bien ? Do we speak (are we speaking) well ? etc Est-ce que vous parlez franjais ? Do you speak French ? ( Est-ce qu'ils parlent ainsi ? Do they speak thus ? \ Est-ce qu'eUes parlent trop ? Do they talk too much ? g {b) The Subject a Noun : — L'orateur parle-t-il bien ? > r>^i ^ j. i. ji i or. Est-ce que l'orateur parle bien ? J" ^"^ '^ "''^'^ 't"^ '^'^ ■' La bonne parle-t-euefran^ais? \ Does the servant speak French? or, Est-ce que la bonne parle fran^ais ? J ^ Les orateurs parlent-ils bien ? 1 t^ jz ^^ j. u iit —, . 1 . iii,-->r Do the orators speak well ? or, Est-ce que les orateurs parlent men ? J '^ Les bonnes parlent-elles francais ? Inwi jj^ilz? i» _ . , , 1 » V ■ ■> r Do the servants steak French ? or, Est-ce que les bonnes parlent fran9ais ? J ^ " To avoid the unpleasant sound of two niute syllables following each other, the final e mute of the verb is pronounced sharp, and this is indicated in print by an acute accent. ' PR6SENT TENSE : NEGATIVE. 5 In lilce manner with verbs of any other conjugation ; as, Flnis-tu {or, Est-ce «ne tu finis) ton ouvrage? Art thou finishing thy work t Vendez-vous (or, Est-cequev. vendez) votre maison ? Do you sell your house? A-t-il (or, Est-ce qu'il a) sa recompense ? Has he his reward? £ont-ils (or, Est-ce qu'ils sont) a la maison ? Are they at home? B. Relative Interrogation, viz., beginning with an In- terrogative WORD : — ° (a) The Subject a Personal Pronoun : — Ou demeurez-vous ? or, Ou est-ce que v. dexieurez ? Where do you live ? Que desirent-ils ? or, Qu'est-ce qu'ils desirent? What do they want ? Quel etat preferez-vous? 1 m^i ^ ^ r ■ j , j- o or. Quel etat est-ce que vous prtf&ez?| What profession do you prefer? oik trouve-t-on les coranx ? 1 -„, , , or, Ou est-ce qu'on trouve les coraux ? / ^'''" "''' ^'"-«^-'/''««^ ■' 1° (b) The Subject a Noun :— (i) With a Simple Predicate, i.e. an Intransitive or Re- flexive Verb, witfwut complement: — Ou demeure votre frere ? 1 or, Ou est-ce que votre frere demeure ? J Where does your brother live ? Que desire votre ami ? \ rjr, . j ^ ■ , or, Qu'est-ceque votre ami desire?/ What does your friend -want ? (2) With a Complex Predicate, i.e. a Transitive Verb with a Noun- Object: — Ou les p^cheurs tronvent-ils les coraux ? "I Where do the fither- or, Ou est-ce que les pecheurs trouvent les coraux?/ men find corals? ^^ NEGATIVE FORM. Je ne parle pas de vous. J do not speak (I am not speaking) of you. 'I'u ne paries pas correctement. Thou dost not speak correctly. II (elle) ne parle pas mal. He (she) does not speak amiss, Louis ne parle pas de toi. Louis is not speaking of thee. Nous ne parlous pas italien. • We do not speak Italian. Vous ne parlez pas sensement. You do not speak sensibly. lis (elles) ne parlent pas trop. They do not speak too much. Les ecoliers ne parlent pas assez haut. '2 Itcse pupils do not speak loud enough. In like manner with — The Second Conjugation : — Je ne finis pas mon travail. I do not finish (I am not finishing my work. Nous ne finissons pas nos themes. We do not finish our exercises, etc. 6 THE ORGANIC METHOD. The Fourth Conjugation : — Je ne vends pas ma makon, I do not sell my house. Nous ne vendons pas nos march^ndises. We do not sell our wares, etc. The Auxiliary Verbs : — Je n'ai pas mon couteau sur moi. Ihave not my knifeimth({it.upon)me,. Nous n'avons pas nos livres ici. We have not our books here, etc. Je ne suis pas indispose. I am not unwdl. Nous ne sommes pas tranquilles. We are not quiet, etc. 12 In French a verb is made negative in meaning by placing the particle ne before that verb ; in most cases this nCj which is the real negation, must be supplemented by some Adverb or Noun to indicate the maimer or degree in wliich the action expressed by tliat verb is negatived : (see § 316) as, Cet ecolier-ci ne travaille pas. Tliis pupil is not working. (which is the plainest and most general form of negation) ; Cet ecolier-la ne travaille point. That pupil does not work {at all). Votre ecolier ne travaille plus. Your pupil works no more {no longer), i.e. does notivork noiu. Le votre ne travaille pas nonplus. Yours does not work either. Vous ne travaillez guere. You hardly ever work, Ce faineant ne travaille jamais. This idler never works. EUe ne travaille que rarement. She works only {but) rarely. *( I ask for nothing. \ I do not ask for anything. I I ask for nobody [no one). \ I do not ask for a?iybody {any one). Obs. — Kien and personne, being used substantively, may stand as the Subject of the Verb ; a^, Rien ne decourage I'homroe perseverant. Not fing daunts a persever'ng man. Personne ne travaille ici. Nobody {no one) is working hire. ^ , J . \ I ask for nothing. Je ne demande «en. | ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^«^ T J „ J \ I ask for nobody {no one). Je ne demande personne. )/■ "' " 13 INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORM. or, EsNc^quile ne parle /^^^ ^ P'^°P°= ' ^"^ ^ ""' ^peaking to the purpose ? or, Eslcrque'hine paries jpasdelui? Artthou not speaking of him? Ne parle-t-il plus de cela? Is he no longer speaking of that ? Ne parle-t-el!e jamais de nous ? Doei she never speak of you ? Ne parlons-nous pas bien? Don't we speak 7uell? Ne parlez-vous point anglais ? Do n't you speak English ? Ne parlent-ils plus de vous ? Do they not speak of you any more? The interrogative form is made negative by placing ne before the Verb, and pas or point, plus, jamais, etc., after the Verb ; comp. § 8 : as, L'orateur ne parle-t-il pas bien ? In. t ji t ^ z. 770 T' 1 i> t 1 v ;i yDoes not the orator steak well? or, Est-ce que l'orateur ne parle pas bien ? J J^ "^' PourqULi les ecoliers ne repondent-ils pas ? Why do the pupils not reply ? PRESENT: INTERROGATIVE AND AFFIRMATIVE. 7 14 THE VERB WITH A PERSONAL PRONOUIT FOR ITS OBJECT. I. Affirmative : — • Cherchez-vous mon ami ?— Are you looking for myfHend ?~ Oui, je le cherche partout. Yes, lam looking for him everywhere. Est-ce que je connais cettc dame ? — JDo I know that lady ? Oui, tu la connais bien. Yes, you know her veil. Est-ce qu'il desire ce couteau ? — Does he want this knife ?~ Oui, il le ■ desire beaucoup. Yes, he wants it much. Est-ce qu'il mange sa pomme ? — Is he eating his apple? — . Oui, il la' mange. Yes, he is eating it. 15 In like manner the objective form of all Personal Pronouns is placed before the Verb (see § 257) : as, {a) Direct Object: — • 1. Mon ami me bUme. My friend is blaming m e. 2. Ton maitre te loue. Thy master is praising thee. ( Sa= sceur le laquine. His sister is teasino- him. 3. j Son= frere la conduit. Ber brother is leading her. (L'ecolier le (la) cherche. The pupil is looking for it. ^ 1. Notre ami nous accompagne. Our friend accompanies us. 2. Votre ennemi vous menace. Your enemy threatens you. 3. Leur maitre les protege. Their master protects them. Obs. — Before Verbs begiinning with a vowel or silent h, me = m', te = f , le, la = 1' J as— on m'attend, on t'attend, on I'attend. 16 {b) Indirect Object:- 1. Mon maitre me parle. My master is speaking to me. 2. Ton ami te repond. Thy friend replies to thee. ( Son frfere lui repond. His brother replies to him. ( Sa sceur lui repond. Her sister replies to her. 1. Notre boucher nous vend de la viande. Our butcher sells meat to us. 2. Votre maitre vous donne une le9on. Your master gives a lesson to you. 3. Lenrpere leur envoie de I'argent. Their father sends mony to them. * It, used as Object, answers to the French le or la according as the ante- cedent is masculine o'c feminine. = A Possessive Adjective in French takes the Gender and Number of the Nouns which it qualifies. 8 THE ORGANIC METHOD. II. Interrogative and Negative: — 17 (a) Simple Interrogation , i.e., without Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb : — Interrogative. Meblame-t-il?— "1 or, Est-ce qu'il me blame ? — / Does he blame me? Te cherche-t-elle ? — Is she looking Jor thee ?— I lie {la)loue-t-on? — Does one blame him (her) ? — /Son ami le loue-t-il? — I Est-ce que son ami le loue ? — ( Does his friend praise him ? — Nous flattez-vous ? — Do you flatter us? — Voas protege-t-il ?— Does he prot,.ct you ? — lies honorez-vous ? — Do you honour them ? — Negative. II ne te blame pas. He does not blame thee. Elle ne me cherche plus. She is not looking for me now. On ne le (la) loue jamais. One never blames him (her). Son ami ne le loue pas. His friend does not praise him. Nous ne vous flattens pas. We do not flatter you. II ne nous protege pas. He does not protect us. Nous ne les bonorons pas. We do not honour them. 18 (^) Relative Interrogation; i.e., with an Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb : — .-I Where do you look for him ? ' Oil ' le chercbez- vous ? ' Oil ' est-ce que vous le cherchez ? ' Depuis quand ' son ami le cherche-t-U ? Sinee when has his friend been looking for him t Pourquoi les blamez-vous ? Why do you blame them? 19 III. Interrogative-Negative, combined : — (a) Ne me blame-t-il pas ? Est-ce qu'il ne me bldme pas ? Ne te dierche-t-il plus ? 1 Est-ce qu'il ne te cherche plus? \ Ton maltre ne te blame-t-il jamais ? Est-ce que ton maitre ne te blame jamais ? (h) Pourquoi ne me recompense-t-il pas ? j Pourquoi est-ce qu'il ne me recompen epas? j Does he not blame me? Is he no longer looking for thee? etc. Does thy master never blame thee ? etc. Why does he not reward me? etc. PRESENT : IMPERATIVE. 20 Affirmative. Soulagez-mol ! Relieve me. Donne-moi cela. Give that to 711 e. IV. Imperative; — (o) Pronoun-Object in the First Person. Direct and Indirect Object. Negative. Ne me suis pas ! Don't follow me I Soul^ez-uous ! Relieve us! Donnez-nous cela ! Give us that! Dirige-le \ Direct him ! Ne me donne pas cela ! Don't \give VI e that Neuoussuivezpas ! Don't follow us! Ne nous donaez pas cela. Don't give us that! (b) Pronoun-Object in the Third Person, Direct Object. Ne le dirige pas. ) _ ... , , . ° '^ ' Donot airect him Dirige-la! Direct her ! Surveillez-les bien ! Watch them well ! Apporte-lui cela. Bring that to him [to her). Pretez-leur ces ciseaux. Lend these scissors to them. Ne la dirige pas. Ne les surveillez pas. Don't watch them. (her). Indirect Object. Ne lui apporte pas cela. Do not bring that to him {to h er), Ne leur pretez pas ces ciseaux. Do not lend these scissors to them. For the 2nd persoD, see Reflexive Verbs, § 199. THE ORGANIC METHOD. THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 21 I. The Noun qualified by the Determinative Adjective (Definite Article) : — {a) as the Subject of a Verb; i.e., answering the question whol oxwhatli as. Singular. lie maitre commande. The master commands. Ii'ecolier obeit. The pupil obeys. Ii'homiue travaille. The man works. Masculine, Feminine, lia maitresse commande. The mistress commands. Ii'eau coule. The water flows. Ii'horloge avance. The clock gains. Plural. lies maitres commandent. The mailers command. Les €coliers obei-sent. The pupils obey. lies hommes travaillent. The men work.. lies maitresses commandent. The mistressis command. lies eaux coulent. The wafers run. lies horloges avancent. The clocks gain. From the above scheme we see that the form of the Definite Article is— lie before a masculine noun singular ) beginning with a consonant (except La before ^feminine noun sirgular \ silent h). Ii' before masc. sxiAfem. nouns singular, beginnmg with a vowel or silent h. lies before all masc. and fern, nouns plural. Obs. I. — If the Noun is preceded by a qualifying Adjective, then le, la, or 1' is used according as the Adjective itself begins with a consonant or a vowel. — Ii'homme est mortel. Man is mortal. lie bel homme. 7%- handsome man. lie Eoldat est blesse. The soldier is wounded. Ii'ancien soldat. The retired soldier. Obs. 2. — To ascertain whether the initial A of a French word is silent or aspirate there is no other test but its derivation: if derived from Latin or Greek the h will be silent ; if derived from another language (especially Teutonic) it will generally be aspirate : — ■ Ii'homme, I'habit, I'habitude, I'heure, I'horloge, I'histoire, I'herbe, etc lie 'hameau, le 'haren?, le "heron, le 'houx, la 'hache, la 'harpe, la 'hate, ( To this important rule there are but very few exceptions — le 'heros, le huit ocfohre. etc THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. ii 22 ■ (i^) as the Object of a Verb ; i.e., answering the question whomi ox what 1 as, Singular. Plural, Je respecte le maitre (les maitres). / respect the master {the masters). Vous instruisez l'6colier (les gcoUers). Yozi instruct the pupil {the pupils). lis recompeiisent I'homme (les homines). They reward the man {the men). Nous respectons la maitresse (les maitresses). We respect the mistress {the mistresses). lis versent I'eau (les eaux). They pour the water {the waters). On raccommode I'horloge (leshorloges). One is mending the clock {the clocks). 23 if) as the Predicate Complement of a Verb; i.e., answering the question who 'i or what 7 after a Verb; as, Masculine. Feminine. Je suis le maitre (la maitresse). I am the master {the mistress). Tu es I'ecolier (I'ficoliere). Thou art the pupil. C'est I'homme (la femme). It is the man {the woman). Nous sommes les maitres (les maitresses). fVe are the masters {the mistresses), eic. All FEench Nouns, even those which denote things -without any natural sex, are either masculine or feminine in Graininatical Gender. A few general rules for ascertaining whether a Noun is masculine or feminine will be found in the Appendix. The beginner will do well to learn all new Nouns as they occur with the Determinative Adjective, or with the Indefinite Article, if they begin with a vowel or silent /t. 24 (d) with the Preposition ' de,' of, from : — (i) as the Attributive Adjunct of another Noun (correspond- ing to the English Possessive and to the Latin Genitive case) : as, Masculine. , ,. ... I du mattre. Tjrr ^ j ^r i i \ of the master. Nous etudions les livres | ^^^ ^^^res. ^' '""^y *'^ '"'"''' \ of the masters, I de I'ecolier. One corrects the { of the pupil. On corrige les themes j ^^^ ecoliers. exercises \ofth e pupils. ^ 1 J •» i de I'homme. One approves of the { of the man. On approuve la conduite J ^^^ j^^^^^^_ ^-^ J^^^^^ j ^-^ ^^^ ^^^_ Feminine. ( de la maitresse. Admire the I of the mistress. Admirez le devouement | ^^^ mattresses. devotion \ of the mistreises. j de I'eau. I like the ( of the water. J aiire la fralcheur | ^^g ^^^^_ freshness \ of the waters. „ . He cadran de I'horloge. j^ .■{ the dial of the clock. J aper90is j j^^ ^adrans des horloges. ^ t^''"'-'"' \ the dials of the clocks. il'i de standing before le coalesces with it into du ; de before les into des ; So/ the, from the* But de before la or V never coalesces ; hence— de la, de 1') In English the possessive relation of one Noun to another may be expressed in two ways '.-^ the mcistey^s book^ or, the book of the master; in French only the latter construction is used in prose. 12 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 25 (2) as the Predicative Complement of a Verb or Adjective (corresponding to the English Prepositions of, from, with, by, and others, and to the Latin Genitive or the Ablative with or without de,£K, a): as, Singular. Plural. ■^ I Je parle du roi (des rois). I speak of the king {of the kings). J j II prend soin de I'enfant (des enfants). He takes care ofth e child [children). • ^ I Je me sers de I'habit (des habits), J make iise of the coat {coats). ■ I Je decide de la question (des questions). I decide the question {questions'). J < II vient de I'ecurie (des ecuries). He comes from the stable (stables). ^ (jedoute de I'histoire (des histoires). / doubt of the story (stories). 26 In like manner after Adjectives : as, Cette action est digne \ ^" ""^^''.^ ^''" "''""' " ^"^^V '/J^' r'Vf'^'T " < des mmistres. (of the .ministers). Le maltre est content j ^* I'f ^f^- ^-^ «»<«'«■ " "^^'^7'\*t I'^L.^^-! { des econers. (with the pupils). Te snis fache 5 ^® ^* mesaventure. / aw sorry for the mishap J \ des mesaventures. (for the mishaps). Many Verbs and Adjectives which in English take wzth^ by, at, require in French the Preposition de (see §§ 324-344). 27 {e) with the Preposition ' a': — (1) as the Indirect Object of a Transitive Verb (corresponding generally to the English Prepositions to, at, in, for, and others, and to the Latin Dative) : as, Noas rendons les fivres \ ^"^ '"^''Tf- ^' '''^"Z ^\' \ {" \\' "^*"'- \ aux maitres. books (to the masters, n„ • „ (a I'ecolier. He devotes his I to the pupil. voue ses soins \ .,. „,-ijji'S ^v ( aiiK ecoUers. attention [ to the pupils. Nous rendons justice jt^'^^r^es. ^'"^ J-^'tl 'the Z:] lis donnent des baisers j |^^ ^- They gi.e kisses \ ^ \\'^ Zlti Le maltre rend les exer- I a I'eleve. The master returns {to the pupil. cices ( anx eleves. ike exercises \ to the pupils. _„ J _ . I a I'horloger. She gives her \ to the watchmaker. EUedonnesamontre | ^^^ horlogers- watch\ to the watchmakers. I ?,'=?"l'"S^=.f''"= le coalesces with it into au; | ^^ ^ . ^ ^ a before les into aux ; ( -^ > > » But ^ before la or 1' never coalesces ; hence ^ la^ a !'■ THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 13 28 (2) as the Adverbial Complement of an Intransitive Verb, an Adjective, or of another Noun : as, Masculine, Le fils ressemble au pfere. The son bears likeness to the father, Les fils ressemblent aux peres. The sons bear likeness to the fathers. Cda est conforme a I'usage. That is conformable to {the) custom. Cela est contraire aux usages. That is contrary to (the) customs. J^eminine, La fiUe ressemble a la mere. The daughter resembles {fo) the mother. Les filles ressemblent aux meres. The daughters resemble {to) the mothers, Le cheval est a I'ecurie. The horse is in the stable. Les vaches sont aux ecuries. The cows are in the stables. Obs. — No other Prepositions but de and a coalesce with the Definite Article. 29 (/) with other Prepositions than de and a: used as an Adverbial Adjunct of Verbs, Adjectives, or Nouns : as, Masculine. _, , ,. J ^ \ cbez le maitre. The pupils reside with the Ces ecohers demeurent | ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^_ ^J^^^^^ ^^■^f^ ^,^ ^^^^^^^y _, ^ ^ ( pour I'ecolier. These parcels are for the pupil Ces paquets sont | pour les ecoliers. (for the pupils), Les montres ont ete j par 1' horloger. The watches have been mended by raccommodees ( par les horlogers. the watchmaker (matchmakers). Feminine. ,,, . ( avant la maitresse. The pupU arrived before the L eleve arnva j avaut les maitresses. mistress [before the mistresses). ( dans I'ecurie. The hay is in the stable Le fom est j Aasis les ecuries. (in the stables.) i selon I'habitude. That is not according to his Cela n'est pas | ^gj^^ igg habitudes, habit (according to his habits'). 14 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 30 {g) If we now sum up the above-mentioned forms and functions of a Noun qualified by the Determinative Adjective (Definite Article) we obtain the following scheme : — Singular, Masculine; beginning with a Consonant: — Subject. Le maltre parle. The master is speaking, etc. Dir. Obj. J'ecoute le maitre. J am listening [fo) the master. Possessive, Le livre du" maitre est amusant. The master's book is amusing. Indir. Obj. 11 repond au maitre. He replies to the master. Feminine: beginning with a Consonant: — Subj. La mattresse commande. The mistress commands, Dir. Obj. Je comprends la maitresse. / understand the mistress. Possessive, Le travail de la maitresse est fini. The mistresses ivork is finished. Indir. Obj. Ella repond a la maitresse. She replies to the mistress. Masculine and Feminine : beginning with a Vowel or silent h : — Subj. Ii'eleve ecoute. The pupil is listening. Dtr. Obj. On instruit I'eleve. One instructs the pupil. Possessive. Le cahier de I'eleve est neuf. The pupits copybook is new. Indir. Obj. Cela appartient a I'eleve. That belongs to the pupil. Plural. Masculine and Feminine: beginning either with a Consonant or Vowel: — Subj. lies maitres (les eleves) ecoutent. The masters (pupils) listen. Dir. Obj. Je comprends les maitres (les eleves). I understand the master ( pupils'). Possessive. Le travail des maitres (des elJves) est excellent. The work of the masters ( pupils) is excellent. Indir. Obj. II repond aux maitres (aux eleves). He replies to the masters (pupils). 31 Use of the Determinative Adjective (Definite Article) in French as compared with English : — (a) lie grand homme est admire. The great man is admired, L'or que j'avais perdu a ete The gold I had lost has been found retrouve. again. La vertu de Caton, The virtue of Cato (but — Cato's virtue). When a Noun is taken in a limited, particular, or indioidttal sense, the Definite Article is used both in English and French, THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 15 32 {i) Ii'homme est mortel. Man is mortal. lies hommes sont mortels. Men are mortal. Ii'habitudeest uiiesec5ndenature. Nabit is second nature. Iia Foi, I'Esperance et laCharite. Faith, Hope and Charity, When a Noun is taken in an ttnlimited {^general) sense, ue. when it implies the whole of the class (genus) of the persons or things which it denotes, then the Definite Article is also used iit J'rench, but not in English. 33 (it) I. La France et I'Angleterre sont JPrance and England are great powers. de grandes puissances. lie Portugal possedait autrefois le Portugal once possessed Brazil. Bresil. 2. lie roi Ar'hur de la table ronde. JCitig Arthur of the Round Table. Iia reine Victoria est nee en 1819. Queen Victoria was born in 1819. lie petit Charles est tres gentil. Little Charles is a very nice boy. When a Noun is (i) the name of a continent, country, province, etc., or (2) the name of a titte^ dignity, profession, etc., followed by a proper noun, then the Definite Article is used in French, but not in English. „- (d) Mexico, capitale du Mexique, est Mexico, the, capital of the republic of "* une ville tres ancienne. Mexico, is a very, ancient ciy. Charles douze mourut ^ Fried- Charles the Twelfth died at Fried- richshall. richshall. When a Noun is used in apposition to another N'oun, the Article may be omitted in French, though generally used in English. With cardinal nitmliers qualifying the names of sovereigns, or referring to sections, chapters, etc., of books, documents, etc., the Deiinite Article in never used in French. OK (f) I. Les vins de Prance (= fran9ais) sont bons. French wines are good. C'est un vrai acte de vertu (= vertueux). That is a truly virtuous action. J'ai une montre d'or \ remontoir. I have a gold (= golden) keyless watch. 2. II parle a coeur ouvert (= franchement). He speaks candidly. II repondit avec dtiret^ ( = durement). He answered harshly. 3. Prendre garde ( = se garder) de tomber. ' To take care not to fall. J'ai peur (= crains) de I'offenser. / am afraid of offending him. Cela me fait plaisir (= rejouit). That gives me pleasure. When a Noun is used as an adjunct so as to form with the preceding Preposition or Verb (i) an adjectival, (2) an adverbial, (3) a verbal, phrase, then it is generally used without Article. In like manner after the Preposition en: en France, en hiver, en prison, §§ 347-348. N.13. — A few more examples, strongly contrasted, will bring home the distinction more vividly than any rules would do : — i6 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Nouns used Substan- ) j vt, S Nouns used Adjectively TiVELY 1 ^o^P^ed with I o^ Adverbially :- Tel est le plaisir du roi. La cliasse est un plaisir de roi. Stuh is the king's pleasure. Hunting is a kingly sport. Voili la tour de I'eglise. Haul comme una tour d'eglise. There is the tower of the church. High as a church tower. Voici les jeux de I'enfant. C'est un vrai jeu d'enfant. Here are the games of the child. It is (a) real child's play, C'est un ami de I'enfance. Charles est men ami d'enfance. He is a friend of young people. Charles is my friend from childhood. Le livre de I'enfant est joli. Je ne lis plus de livres d'enfant. Tkebook of the child is pretty, 1 no longer read children's books. II est dans le secret. Je le dis en secret. He is in the secret. I say it in secrecy. J'admire le palais de la reine. Cette fiUe a un port de reine. / admire the palace of the queen. This girl has a queenly bearing. Formation of the Plural of Nouns (Substantives and Adjectives) : — 38 (a) General Rule: — Add -s to all Nouns and Adjectives, except those specified under {B) : as, Singular. Plural. Le chien fidele est utile. Les chiens fideles sont utiles. The faithful dog is useful. Thefaithful dogs are useful. 37 (^) Special Rules : — (i) Nouns and Adjectives ending in -s, -x, -z, do not change: as, Cet Anglais est heareax. Ces Anglais sont henrenx. La noix est un fruit dglicienx. Les noix sont des fruits delicienx. (2) Nouns and Adjectives ending in -au, -eu, take x ; as, Ce grand chateau est beau. Ces grands chateaux snnt beaux. This great castle is fine, Th-^se great castles are fine. Le nouveau jeu est amuant. Les nouveaux jeux sont amusants. The new game is amusing. The new games are amusing. [Exception : blen, blue takes S ; Les cieux sont bleuS.] Obs. — Seven Nouns in -ou also take x :^ Les bijoux, ^tfwf/i; les choux, ca^^i^^j ; lesjoux. ^^yj; Les cailloux,-^fd^&j ; les genoux, ^«4fi;j ; lespoux, ^^; les hiboux. f - .\ OF Adverbs or of Nouns WITHOUT Adverb or Noun with OF MEASURE: — J'ai du pain. / Imve bread. II a de I' or. He has gold. EUe a de la viande. She has meed. lis ont des amis. They have friends. J'ai assez de pain. ■ / have enough bread. II a beaucoup d'or. He has much gold, Elle a une Ijvre de viande. She has a pound of meat. lis n'ont point d'amis. They have no friends. 43 THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 21 V. The Noun qualified by a Possessive Adjective : (a) Used as the Subject of a sentence : — Singular. Masc. Fern. Moa frere et ma ' soeur sont ^ la maison. My brother and viy sister are at home. Ton fils et ta' fiUe sont \ I'ecole. Thy son and thy daughter are at school. His {her) cousins (ni. and f.) are travelling. Our master and our mistress are working. Your uncle and your aunt are at church. Their nephew and their niece are sti Son cousin et sa' cousine voyagent. Notre mattre et notre mattresse travaillent. Votre oncle et votre tante sont a I'eglise. Iieur neveu et leur niece etudient. Tlural. Mes freres et mes soeurs jouent, Tes fils et tes fiUes etudient. Ses cousins et ses cousines sont ici. Nos maitres et uos maitresses travaillent. Vos oncles et vos tantes ne sont pas ici. Iieixrs neveux et leurs nieces descendent. My brothers and sisters are playing. Thy sons and daughters are studying. His cousins (m. and f.) are here. Our masters and mistresses are Your uncles and aunts are not here. Their nephews and nie:es are coming doivn. I Men amie est plus discrete que ton amie. M y friend is more discreet than your frieiid. Son habit n'est pas neuf. His {her) coat is not new. Before ei feminine Noun or Adjective beginning with a vowel or silent k, ma^ ta^ sa are, for the sake of avoiding a hiatus, i.e., the unpleasant sound of two vowels in close succes- sion, changed into mon, ton^ son. Compare the English : — a. tree, an ass, an heir : though, of course, an in English is the original and a the clipped form. Ohservation. II a perdu 50n crayon (w.) et sa plume (./.) He has lost his pencil and his pen. EUe a trouv^ son crayon (?«.) et sa plume C/) S/ie has found her pencil and her J>ch, In French the Possessive Adjective takes the gender of the Noun qualified by it, whilst in English it takes the gender of the Noun denoting the Jiossessor. {b) used as the Object of a Verb ; see §§ 3 and 4. 22 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 44 (f) With Prepositions: used as attributive adjunct of a Noun, Adjective, or Verb : as, Les etudes de mon frere et dc ' ma soeur. The studies of my brother and sister. Les lettres de mes freres et de mes soeurs, etc. The letters of my brothers and sisters. Nous parlons de notre voyage. We are speaking of ()ur journey. II repond a mon pere et a ' ma mere. He replies to my fcUher and mother. Je parle a ma maltresse, etc. I am speaking to my mistress. Elle demeure cbez son oncle. She lives with her uncle. II demeure chez sa tante, etc. He lives with his aunt. ' Observe the repetition of de and ^ 45 VI. The Noun qualified by the Demonstrative Adjective. Masculine. (a) Ce village et ce 'hameau sont en Suisse. This village and this hamlet are in Switzerland. Get ete et cet hiver sont longs. This summer and this winter are long. Feminine. Cette flute et cette 'haipe sont i moi. Th is flute and th is harp are mine. Cette aventure et cette histoire sont amusantes. T^jj adventure and this story are amusing. Plural Masc. and Fetn. Ces villages et ces hameaux sont en Suisse. These villages and hamlets are in Switzerland. Ces aventures et ces histoires sont amusantes. These adventures and stories are amusing. The form of the Demonstrative Adjective is — ■ Ce before masculine Nouns singular, beginning with a consonant. Get before masculine Nouns singular, beginning with a z'oiveloT silent k. Cette before all feminine Nouns singular. Ces before all masculine ^:nA feminine Nouns plural. Obs.^Ce marchand ; this merchant ; cet honnete marchand ; this honMst merchant. Get homme; this man; ce brave homme; this worthy man. Compare §21 (Jbs. i. Masculine. 46 {h) Ce cheval-ci est plus beau que ce cheval-la. This horse is finer than that horse. Cet arbre-ci n'est pas si haut que cet arbre-la. This tree is not so high as that tree. Fe7ninine. Cette pomme-ci est plus miire que cette pomme-la. This apple is riper than that apple. Ces raisins-ci sont moins doux que ces raisins-la. These grapes are not so sweet as those grapes. To indicate the distincticn between this and that, i.e., to distinguish what is nearer from what is further, the Adverbial Particles ci and la are appended to the Noun limited by ce as above. THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 23 47 To sum up the above, compare the different ways in which the same Noun may be limited by different Adjuncts :— Masculine. Singular. Plural. lie pain, ike iread; X'hoTmeai, the honour. lies honnems, ihe honours. Du pain, some {any) de I'honneur, some (any) Des honneurs, some (any) bread; honour. honours. Un pain, a loaf; unhonneur, an honour. Des honneurs, honours. Mon pain, m-y bread ; xnon honneur, viy honour. Mes honneurs, m-y honours. Ce -pain, i his loaf ; cefhonne-ax, this honour. Ces honneurs, these hon- ours. Feminine. Singular. Plural. Iiasowpe, the soup ; I'etm, the water. lies eaux, the waters, De la soupe, some de I'eau, some (any) Des eaux, some (any) (any) soup; water. waters, Une soupe, a soup ; line eau, a water. Des eaux, waters. Ma soupe, m-y soup ; mon eau, my water. Mes eaux, m-y waters. Cettesoupe, ^^zVjffa^ycette eau, this water. Ces ea-nx, these waters.- 48 VII. The Noun limited by an Adjective of Quality : — (a) M. Le fruit vert n'est pas mur. Green fruit is not ripe (see 32). F. La pomme verte n'est pas mure. The green apple is not ripe (nee -^i). M. Les fruits verts ne sont pas murs. Green fruits are not ripe. F. Les pommes vertes ne sont pas mures. The green apples are not ripe. An Adjective or Fast Participle used atirihuiively or ^edicatively must take the sign of the feminine, if IheNoun whicll it limits is feminine ; and the sign of the j^tnrat, if that Noun is plural. 49 (b & c) M. Un ami fidele est precieux. A faithful friend is precious. F. Une amie fidele est pr^cieuse. A faithful friend ({.) is precious. M. Les amis fideles sont prgcienx. The faithful friends are precious. F. Les amies fideles sont pr6cieuses. 7"he faithful friends (f.) are precious. 24 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 50 («0 M. L'ecoUer attentif est recompense. The attentive pupil is rewarded. F. L'ecoli^re attentive est recompensee. The attentive pupil is rewarded. M. Les ecoliers attentifs sont recompenses. The attentive pupils are rewarded. F. I^s eeolieres attentives sont recompensees. 7^ attentive pupils are rewarded. 51 W M. L'hopital est un edifice public. The hospital is a public building. F. C'est une charge publique. It is a public office. M. Les hopitaux sont des edifices publics. Hospitals are public buildings. F. Ce sont des charges publiques. Tliey are public offices. 52 (/) M. L'ancien chateau est haut. The old castle is high. F. L'ancienne eglise est jiaute. The old churchis high, M. Les anciens chateaux som hauls. The old castles arehigh, F. Les anciennes eglises sont hautes. The old churches are high. 53 (s) M. Mon Cher ami est discret. My dear friend is discreet. F. Ma chere amie est discrete. My dear friend (f.) is discreet. M. Mes chers amis sont discrets. My dear friends are discreet. F. Mes cheres amies sont discretes. My dear friends (f.) are discreet. The sign of the feminiite for an Adjective of Quantity is — (a) General Rule : — an e mute added to its masculine form. \ Special Rules : — (d) Adjectives ending in -e mute in the masculine, remain unchanged in the feminine. (c) Adjectives ending in -x in the masculine, change this s into s and add e mute. ifl) Adjectives end.ng in -f In the masculine, change this f into T and add e mute. («) Adjectives ending in -c in the mascuHne, change this C into qu and add e mute. (y) Adjectives ending in -on^ -ien^ -el, -eil, -as, double their Jinal cotisonani and add e mute. Cf) Adjectives ending in -er or -et, change this e into 6 and. add e mute. Obs. — The same Rules hold good for all Nouns which have not a distinct term for mascu- ■ line and feminine, (as, jnasc. homme, /e?n. femme ; see Appendix.) ; — Masc. Fern. Masc Fem, {a) Le cousin, t/u cousin ; la cousine. (rf) Le chien, the dog; la chienne (^ L'esclave, the slave ; Tesclave. (^) Le captif, the captive ; la captive. (c) L'epoux, the spouse ; I'^pouse. (y) Le berger, the shepherd; la bergere. 5^ (li) Five Adjectives have two different forms for the mascuHne : ^ ( Le beau fruit que voili 1 What fine fruit that is! ■ ( Le bel arbre que voici ! What a beautiful tree this is ! F. La belle voix que vous avez ! Wliat a fine voice you have! ^ THK NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. j^ ( Le nouveau livre a paru. The new book has appeared. \ Le nouvel an est arrive. F. La uouvelle aniiee est amvee. I The new year has come. 25 M. Le Tieux mendiant a un chien. Le vieil ami est fidele. La vieille amie est silre. The old beggar has a dog. The old friend is faithful. The old friend (f.) is reliable. ■J,, / Le fou rire m'a pris. ■ \ Un fol espoir vous trompe, F. Votre folle depense vous ruine. An irresistible fit of laughter seized me, A foolish hope deludes you. Your extravagant expenses ruin you. ^ f Ce lit n'est guere mon. ■ \ II parle avec un mol abandon. F. II s'adonne k une molle oisivete. This bed is hardly soft. He speaks with an indolent listlessness. He indulges in a sluggish idleness. 55 Adjectives forming their feminine irregularly ; — Masculine. Le Sucre est blanc. Sugar is white. Ton aveu est franc. Thy confession is frank, Le bois est sec. The wood is dry, J'aime le beurre frais. I like fresh butter. Sou mot favorl. His favourite -word, Naturel b€iiin. Benign disposition. Esprit malin. Evil spirit. Un gentil enfant. A nice child, Mur €pais trois de pieds. A wall three feet thick. II est gros et gras. He is stout and fat, L'ordre est expres. The order is explicit, Le tiers etat. The third estate ( Commons), II a ete abacus. He has been ac- quitted, Elle a le teint net. She has a clear cojnplexion, Unpays sujet aux inondations. A country subject to inundations. Le miel est doux. Honey is sweet, Un faux temoin. A false witness. Feminine, La neige est blancbe. Snow is white, Sa conduite est francbe. His con- duct is straightforward. La figue est seche. The fig is dry, Voici de I'eau fraiche. Here is fresh water, Sa promenade favorite. His favour- ite walk, Humeur benigne. Sxueet temper, Fievre maligne. Malignant fever, Une gentille petite fille. A nice little girl, Planche ^paisse de deux pouces. A board two inches thick, Elle est grosse et grasse. She is stout and fat. Defense expresse ! The prohibition is explicit. La tierce partie. The third part, EUe a ete absoute. She has been acquitted. Son ecriture est nette. His writing is neat, Une couleur sujette a changer. A colour liable to fade. La poire est douce. The pear is sweet, Une fausse nouvelle. False news. 26 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 56 Adjectives and Nouns ending in -eur: — 1. Le rang inf^rieur. The inferior La region inferieiire. The inferior rank. region. 2. Un homme trompeur. A deceit- Une femme trompeuse. A deceitful ful man. woman. 3. Un genie cr€atei)r^ A creative Puissance Qreatrice. A creative genius, ^ower. 4. Un Dieu vengeur. An avenging Divimtivengeressse^ Avenging Gad- God, head. There SLV^JoJir different classes of Adjectives and Nouns in -eilF; — (i) those implying an idea of comparison, take e mute in the feminine : as, Sup^rieur-e \ ant^rieur-e j post€rieur-e ; ext£rieur-e 5 interieur-e J meiUeur-C, better^ mineur-e. (2) those derived from a Present Participh by turning -ant. into -Cur, change -X into se j as, Pres. Part. Adjective ov Nojen. ilatt-ant ; flatt-eur, fiatt-euse j flattering. parl-ant ; parl-eur, parl-euse \ talker, talkative, etc. pech-ant ; p6ch-eur, pSch-euSe 5 Jisk£rjnan. (3) those ending in ^teur not derived frotn a Present Paj^iciple (mostly from. Latin names in -tor^ f. -tris) change -teur into'-trice : as, Direc-teur, director, direc-trice J lec-teiar, reader,^ lec-trice> (4) in a few poetical and legal terms -enr is change^ into -eresse : as. Chasseur^ hunter, chasseresse. Bailleur^ lessor, haiUeresse. Enchanteur, enchanter, enchanteresse. Udfendeur, defendant, d^fenderesse. P&heur, sinner, p&heresse. DemandeiW, plaintiff, demanderesse. VCngeur, avenger, vengeresse, Vehdeurj vendor, venderesse. 57 VIII. The Noun qualified by an Adjective in the Comparative and Superlative Degree : — Positive, (a) L'air est Ifiger. Air is. light. Comparative. L'air est plus l€ger que I'eau. Air is lighter than water. Superlative, m.s. Le gaz est le plus Ifiger des corps. Gas is ihelig^test body, f.s. C'est la plus Ifigere des substances. It is the lightest substance, m.pl. Les gaz sont les plus l€gers des corps. Gases are the lightest bodies, f.pl. CesontlessubstanceslespluslSgeres. ) „, .. r- r. ., , ., fp'.. Ce sont les plus Iggeres substances. 1 ^^ ^''^ ^^' H^""* substance:. 58 [!>) Ce vin est aussi bou que celui-la. This wine is as good as that. Cecl est tout aussi utile que cela. This is quite as tiseful as that. Cela n'a pas raoias de trente pieds. That is not less than thirty feet. 59 {c) Elleest moins jolle que fasosur. \ She is less pretty than {not so EUe n'est pas si jolie que sa soeur. i pretty aj) }ur sister. Comparisons may be divided into those of (a) superiority, {6) equality, and (c) inferiority. THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 27 60 The following Adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly ; the irregularities spring from the corresponding Latin forms : — Positive. Ce vin est Ijon j This ivme is good ; Cette eau est bonne j This water is good ; Ce vin est mauvais ; This wine is bad ; Ce service est petit j This service is slight ; La distance est petite The distance is short ; Ce cheval est petit j This horse is small ; Comparative. celui-ci est meilleur; this is better ; celle-ci est meilleure j this is better ; : celui-ci est {"j"' ( plus mai^vais \ this is worse ; il est moindre que I'autre ; it is less than the other ; J elle est moindre que I'autre ; it is shorter than the other ; il est plus petit j it is smaller ; Superlative. e'est le meilleur. it is the best. c'est la meilleure. it is the best. c'est \ '* '"'■*• \ le plus manvais it is the worst. c'est le moindre de tous. it is the slightest of all. c'est la moindre. it is the smallest. c'est le plus petit. it is the smallest. 61 Observations : — 1. Cela est plus facile que vous ne That is easier than you fancy ; i.e. pensez. Ym do not fancy it so easy as il really is. N.B. Notice the use of ne with the Verb after a Comparative. 2. Je n'y pense plus. / no longer think about it. Je n'en ai plus. I have none {not any) left, II ne pleut plus. It does not rain now. See also Adverbs of Quantity, § 41. 3. La vertu est plus estimable que la Virttie is m-ore estimable than know- science. ledge. La science est estimable ; la vertu Knowledge is estimable, but virtue is I'est davantage. more so. Je n'en sais pas davantage. I do not know more about it. Whilst plus must be used when there is a second term of comparison, davantage can only be used when there is no second term of comparison. 4. Plus on estelev^ endignite, plus The more exalted one is in rank, on doit etre modeste. the more modest one ought to be. Plus vous lui en dijrez, moins il The more you talk to him, the less en fera. i^^ will do it. KCoins on a de soucis, plus on The fewer cares one has, the est heureus. happier one is. 5. C'est le plus beau spectacle que It is the finest sight I ever saw. j'aie jamais vu. N.B. Notice the use of the Subjunctive in the Dependent Clause after a Superlative in the principal sentence. 28 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 6. C'est une chose que le moiudre It is a thing that the commonest ouvrier peut faire. workman can do. Sentez-vous la quelque douleur ? — Do you feel any pain ? — No, not the Non, pas la moindre. slightest, 7. C'est le plus riche \ banquier Ue la villa. or, C est le banqmer le 1 plus riche ; N.B. Notice the use of de after tlie Superlative. He is the richest banker town. in the 62 IX. The Noun qualified by an Adjective of Quantity (Numeral). (a) Cardinal Numbers. N.B. — This will serve at the same time as a repetition of the Plural of Nouns. 1 unjour, one day. une journee, one day. 2 deux ans, two years. 3 trois mois, three vionths. 4 quatre {ews., four fires. 5 cinq clous, Jive nails. 6 six chevaux, six horses. 7 sept travaux, seven labours. 8 buit cerfs-voiants, eight kites. 9 neuf timbres-poste, nine postage- stamps. 10 dix avant-coureurs, ten fore- runners. 11 onze annees. (II leonzeavril,^/«7ll/'/5,see§64.) 12 douze apotres. 13 treize fois. 14 quatorze lieues. 15 qtiinze jours. 16 seize onces. 17 dix-sept jeux. 18 dix-huit canaux. 19 dix-neuf chefs-lieux. 20 vingt choux-fleurs. 21 vingt et un. 22 vingt-deux, etc. 30 trente. 40 quarante. 50 cinquante. 60 soixante. 69 soixante-neuf. 70 soixante-dix (soixante et dix). 71 soixante et onze. 72 soixante -dotize, etc. 80 quatre-vingts. 81 quatre-vingt-un, (l) etc. 90 quatre-vingt-dix. 91 quatre-vingt-onze, etc. 100 cent. 101 cent un. 150 cent cinquante. 200 deux cents. 220 deux cent vingt (l). 1,000 miUe (mil in daises A.D.). 10,000 dix mille. 103,000 cent mille (2). 1,000,000 un miUion. 10,000,000 dix miUions. 1881 miUe huit cent quatre-vingt-un. Observations : — (1) Quatre-vingts and cents (plural of cent) take no s if followed by another numeral, or if used as an ordinal number : page deux cent quatre- vir-gt. (2) MiUe, thousand, never takes s, but mUle, }nile, does : dix miUes, ten miles. 63 THE NOUN AND ITS ADJUNCTS. 29 {b) Ordinal Numbers. First \ ^^ premier homme. The first man. La premiere annee. The \styear ( Lespremiersliommes.7y/^yf/-j/»(f«.Les premieres annees. ,, years. 2nd Zrd tfth (sth •Jtk Wi RrN'CIPAL SENTENCE. DEPENDENT CLAUSE. Le medecin doute quej' ai-e assez de force. The physician doubts if I have strength enough. EUe ne croit pas que tu ai-es la fievre. She does not believe you have the fever. Crois-tudonc qu'il ai-t de I'argent ? Do you bdieve he has -money ? Je nie que nous ay-ons des dettes, / deny that we have debts: Suppose-t-il que vous ay-ez des ressources ? Does he suppose that you have resources ? Est-il vrai qu'ils ai-ent des ennemis? Is it true that they have enemies ? A-th Rule of the Subjunctive. — When the Verb in the Principal Clause expresses a doilht^ denial, ignorance (which may be expressed by a Verb of thinking, perceiving, saying, etc., used interrogatively, negatively, qc conditionally'), the Verb in the Dependent Clause must be in the Subjunctive. 91 The Auxiliary Verb fitre (formed irregularly, i.e., not from the Pres. Part. 6tant). Je suis content quoique je so-is pauvre. / am content , I avi (lit, I be) poor. Tu es malheureux bieu que tu so-is riche. Thou art unhappy although thou art rich. On est heureux pourvu qu'on so-it content. One is happy provided one is content. IL,sera ici avant que nous soy-ons de retour. J-Te will be here before we are back. Nous travaillons de sorte que v. soy-ez satisfaits. We work so that you may be satisfied. Je leur dis cela afin qu'ils sol-ent persuades. I tell them that in order that they may be persuaded. &t/i Rule of the Stihjnnctive, — When an Adverbial Clause is linked to the Principal Clause by a Sitbordinate Cojijtinction expressing a concession or condition, a j)7trpose or thne (expected or contingent), the Verb in the Dependent Clause must be in the Subjunctive. (See § 96). 40 THE ORGANIC METHOD. The Preterite (Imperfect) Subjunctive : formed from the Preterite Indicative (§§ 71-75) by changiiig the -s of the 2nd pers. sing, into (i) -sse, -ssions. (2) -esses, -ssiez. (3) -"tj -Bsent. 92 First Conjugation. PRINCIPAL SENTENCE, DEPENDENT CLAUSE. Ildesirait que je parl-asse fran^ais. lie desired that I should speak French. EUe souhaitait que tu parl-asses haut. She wished that you should speak toud. On exigeait qu'il parl-at distinctement. One insisted that he should speak distinctly. Elle tiouvabon que nous parl-assions anglais. She approved of our speaking English . II approuvait que vous parl-assiez ainsi. He approved of your speaking thus. Jeconsentis qu'ils part-assent avec lui. I consented to their speak- ing with him. When the Verb of the Principal Sentence is in the Preterite, Imperfject or Conditional Present or Past, the Verb in the Dependent Clause is generally put in the Iniper/ect or Pretente. 93 Second Conjugation. II fallut queje fin-isse mon travail. It was necessary that I should finish my work. II importait que tu fin-isses ta tache. It was important that thou shouldst finish thy task. II fut impossible qu'il fln-lt son ouvrage. It was impossible for him to finish his work. II etait temps que nous fin-lssions enfin. // was time that we should finish at last. II valait mieux que vous fin-isslez ce dessin. It was better for you to finish this drawing. II convenait qu'ils fm-issent las exercices. It was convenient that they should finish the exercises. n/t Fourth Conjugation. II fut bien aise queje repond-isse i ta lettre. He was glad that I replied to his letter. Elle regrettait que tu r€pond-isses si mal. She was sorry that you answered so badly. J'etais surpris qu'il repond-it si bien. I was surprised that he answered so well. II fut enchante que nous rfipond-issions si tot. Hewas delighted that we replied so early. On troava mauvais que vous r€pond-issieai si tard. One took it amiss that you replied so late. II etait f ache qu'ils r^pond-isseut si peu. He was sorry that they answered so little. THE PRETERITE (IMPERFECT) SUBJUNCTIVE. 41 95 Auxiliary Verb Avoir, to have, PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. DEPENDENT CLAUSE. II doutait quej' eu-sse assez de force. He doubted if I had strength enough, EUe ne crut pas que tu eu-sses la fievre. Shedid not believe that thou hadst the fever ^ Croyais-tii done qu'il eu-t de I'argent? Did you believe then that he had any money ? Je niai que nous eu-ssions des dettes. / denied that we had debts, Supposait-il que vous eu-ssiez des ressources ? Did he suppose that you had any resources ? ]^tait-il vrai qu'ils eu-ssent des ennemis? Was it true that they had enemies ? 96 Auxiliary Verb fitre, to be. Je fus content quoiqueje fu-sse paiivre. T was content i I was poor, Tu etais malheureux bien que tu fu-sses riche. Thou wast unhappy though thou wast rich. On etait heureux pourvu qu'on fu-t content. One was happy provided one was content. U etait ici avant que nous fu-ssions de retour. He was here before we were back. Nous travaillions de fa9on que v. fu-ssiez satisfaits. We were working so that you might be satisfied. Je leur disais cela afin qu'ils fu-ssent persuades. / kept telling them that in order that they might be persuaded. The following are the ConjunctioRS after which the Verb is used in the Subjunctive. {a) Expressing a concession, condition, purpose or ?i?jw/jf;— quoique, bien que, malgr^ que, although; quelque (si) . . . que, however; quoi . . . que, whatever; quel . . . que, "whatever; soit que, he it that; -pourvu. qne., Provided ; suppos€ que, sjipposi^ig that; pourpeu que, if . . . ever so little; en cas que, in case that; afin que, pour que, in order that ; de maniere que, de fafon (sorte) que, so that; sa.ns que, without ; de peur (crainte) que . . . ne, lest. {B) Expressing time, ex fiecied or contingent : — avant <\u^, before; k raoins que . . . ne, u?iIl'ss ; en attendant que, until; jusqu'i ce que, until(\i the time is not accomplished). 42 THE ORGANIC METHOD. The Imperative : formed from the Present Indicative by omitting the Personal Pronoun. ''' First Conjugation. Sing. 2nd pers. Parle' franchement. Speak (thou) openly. Plur. 1st peis. Parlous fran9ais. Let us speak French. Plur. 2nd pers. Parlez a coeur ouvert. Speak {ye) candidly. ' The s of the 2nd pers. sing, of the Indicative is dropped in the Imperative. 98 Second Conjugation. Sing. 2nd pers. Finis ton repas. Finish thy meal. Plur. 1st pers. Finissons une fois pour toutes. Let us finish once for all Plur. 2nd pers. Finissez vos travaux. Complete your labours. 99 Fourth Conjugation. Sing. 2nd pers. H^ponds sans hesiter. Reply without hesitating. Plur. 1st pers. R^pondons a sa lettre. Let us reply to his letter. Plur. and pers. R^pondez done enfin ! Reply then at last! ^*'" Auxiliary Verbs. Avoir, to have (formed from the Present Subjunctive). Sing. 2nd pers Aies done un peu de patience. Just have a little patience, Plur. 1st pers. Ayous des egards pour notre prochain. Let us have rcga7'd for our neighbour. Plur. 2nd pers. Ayez la bonte de m'aider. Have the kindness to help me, ^"^ Auxiliary Verb. Etre, to be (formed from the Present Subjunctive). Sing. 2nd pers. Sois moins reserve. Be less reserved. Plur. 1st pers. Soyons sur nos gardes. Let us be on our guard. Plur. 2nd pers. Soyez plus modestes. Be {ye) vtore modest. THE INFINITIVE. 43 The Infinitive. 102 The Infinitive form of a Verb is a Verbal Noun, and as such must be used when the Verb stands as : (a) the Subject, (b) the Predicative Compkrnent, or (<:) the Objeci of a sente/ice, or \d) the Attribute Adjunct of a Noun or Adjective." It may be used : — (I.) without Preposition ; (II.) with de ; (III.) with a, and (IV.) with other Prepositions. I. THE PURE INFINITIVE, i.e., without Preposition : — 103 {a) as the Subject of a sentence, answering to the English I/ifinitive or Verbal Noun in -ing ; as, Parler dinsi n'est pas raisonnable. To speak (speaking) thus is not reason- V able. Veg6ter c'est mourir. To vegetate is to die. 104 (1^) as the Predicative Complement of a Verb of being, seeming, going, and the like ; as, Conjug. 1. C'est parler f ranchement. Tltat is speaking candidly. 2. II va finir tout de suite. He is going to jinish ivnnediately. 4. Nous allons repondr e categoriquement. We are going to reply eate- goricatiy. ., ( EUe paralt avoir du courage. Slie seems to have cotirage. Auxil. -y ^)gjf etre bien entete. That is to be very obstinate. 106 if) 3-S the Direct Object of Transitive Verbs which denote thinking, declaring, wishing, perceiving (including nearly all Verbs ending in -oir), especially also after faire and laisser (see § 235). II croit ' parler i une personne de qualite. He fancies he is speaking to a person of rank. Nous desirons finir cela aujourd'hui. We wish to finish that to-day. II salt repondre a propos. He knows ho-cv to reply to the purpose. Elle avoue avoir du regret d' avoir agi ainsi. She confesses she is sorry for having acted thus. Us declarent etre a meme de le faire. They dxlare they are able to do it. 44 THE ORGAKIC METHOD. II. The infinitive with de :— 106 (a) as the Attributive Adjunct to a JVoun ; as, L'art de parler etait Cultive a Athenes. T/ie art of speaking was culHvated at Athens, Sondesir de finlr estnaturel. His desire to have done is •natural. L'occasion de repondre se presentera bientot. The opportunity of rtpiyiff^ •will soon present itself. 107 (5) as an Adverbial Adjunct to an Adjective ; as, Vous 6tes libre de parler. You are at liberty to talk. 11 est content de finir aujourd'hui. He is happy to finish to-day. EUe est charmee de repondre. She is delighted to reply. 108 (f) as the Object (Direct or Indirect) of another Verb; as, EUe se depeclia de parler au concierge. She hastened to speak to the doorkeeper. Nous n. proposons de finir ce soir. We intend finishing this evening. lis promettent de repondre par retour du courrier. They promise to reply by return of post. All Nouns and Adjectives, and most Verbs, complemented by a Verb must be linked to it by some Preposition; generally (l) by de, not unfrequently, however, (2) by a, also by (3) par, pour, sans apres, and a few Conjunctive Prepositions ; as, avant de, de maniere a, etc., see § 112. For a list of Verbs requiring their Infinitive Complement eitlier without Preposition, or with de or ^, see Appendix. III. THE INFINITIVE WITH a : — 109 {a) as an Attributive Adjunct to a NoUn or Adjective to express its fitness ; as, Votre chambre a concber donne sm" le jardin. Your bedroom looks upon the garden, C'est un ouvrage a finir. It is a work to be finished, C'est un homme prompt a parler. He is ever ready to speak. 110 (b) as the Complement of another Ve?-b'; as, II a reussi a le tromper. He has succeeded in deceiving him. lis visent a me supplanter. They aim at supplanting me, II gagne a etre connu. He improves on acquaintance. THE INFINITIVE. IV. THE INFINITIVE WITH OTHER PREPOSITIONS :- 45 111 II finit par avoner sa faute. Je le fais pour vous plaire. 11 travaille sans dgsemparer. On mange pour vivre, mais on ne vit pas pour manger. Apres avoir remis la lettre, nous partimes. Songez y bien avant de vous de- cider. Faites-le de maniere k le satis- fair e. Je ne le ferai pas de peur (crainte) de Tofienser. He ended by confessing his fault. 1 do it to phase you. He "Works without ceasing. One eats in order to live, tut one does not live to eat. After having delivered the letter, ive left. Consider it ■well before making up your mind. Do it so as to satisfy him. I shall not do it for fear of offend- ing him. 112 When the Subject of a Dependent clause is identical with that of the Principal Sentence, then the following Prepositions or Prepositional Conjunctions followed by the Infinitive must be used instead of the corresponding conjunctions followed by the Subjunctive or Indicative : — Je I'apprends pour le savoir; instead of— I learn it in order to know it. Tu le recites sans le comprendre; ,, You recite it without understanding it. II I'a fait afin de nous oMiger; ,, He has done it in order to oblige us. On n'agit pas ainsi k m o i n s d'etre fou ; „ One does not act thus unless one is afoot. Ne le dites pas de peur de I'ofEenser j ,, Do not. say it for fear of offending him. Attendez un peu avant de lui rgpondre j ,, Wait a little before replying to him. Elles partirent apres avoir attendu ; „ They started after having waited. Travaillez de fafon a ' le satisfaire j ,, Work so as to satisfy him. pour que je le saclie. sans que tu le comprennes. afin qn'il nous oblige, a mo ins qu'on ne soit fou. de peur que vous ne I'of- fensiez. avant que vous lui repon- diez. apres qu 'elles eurent attendu. de fa9on que de maniere que I vous le ■ satisfas- siez. " Or, de maniere i... 46 THE ORGANIC METHOD. ^3 Present Participle. (a) used Adjectively, and talcing like an Adjective the Gender and Number of the Noun it qualifies : — I^Tiomme est la seule creature parlante. Man is the only speaking creature^ Voila una nouvelle bien r^jouissante. That is gladdening news. Cast une affaire dgpendante d'une autre. It is an affair depending on another. 114 (^) used Verbally, and then remaining unchanged: — Cast una personne parlant tres bien. This is a person speaking well. tJna parsonne sa r^jouissant du bonheur d'autrui. A person rejoicing at other people' s good fortune. Las personnes na dependant qua d'allas-m^mes sont libres. Persons depending only on their own means are free. 115 The Verbal form in -ant may be : — (a) A Verbal Adjective, used to denote a permanent state or quality, and agreeing like an Adjective with the Noun it qualifies ; or, (J)) A Present Participle proper, denoting a Transitory Adioji, and remaining unchanged : this is especially the case — (i) if it has an Object; as, lis partirant laissant leur para seul. They started, leaving their father alone. (2) if it is qualified by a following Adverb; as, Una machine fonctionnant parfaitement. A machine working well. (3) if it Stands instead of an Adverbial or Adjectival Clause ; as, Vivant (= comme ils vivant) sobramant ils depensent pan. Living tem- perately (as they do) they spend but little. (4) if it depends on en : — Cast en travaillant qu'ils s'enrichissent. It is ly working that they get rich. COMPOUND TENSES. 47 116 Compound Tenses are formed by means of an Auxiliary Verb and the Past Participle of the Verb to be conjugated : — First Conjugation : — Second Conjugation : — Fourth Conjugation : — Infinitive. parl-er, to speak ; fin-ir, to finish; vend-re, to sell ; Auxiliary Verbs :— / avoir, to have; \ette, to be ; Past Participle, parl-^, spoken. &a.-i, finished. vend-u, sold, eu, had. €ii, been. 117 The Present Perfect (Past Indefinite) : formed by the Present of Auxiliary + Verb Past Participle (§§ 5 and 6) : — (a) J' ai parl€. / have spoken, etc. (b) Je snis montg. I have (am) gone up, etc. (a) With avoir are conjugated all Transitive and most In- transitive Verbs ; as, 118 First Conjugation. P ai parl€ ce matin au facteur. / have spoken this morning to the postman. Tu as parle etourdiment. Thou hast spoken thoughtlessly, II (elle) a parle tres eloquemment. He (she) has spoken very eloquently. avons parl€ il y a un moment. IVe have spoken a minute ago. avez parl6 comme-il-faut. You have spoken properly. ont parlS au directeur. They have spoken to the director. Second Conjugation. al fini mon ouvrage ce soir. I have finished my work this evening, etc. avonS fini notre theme. We have finished our exercise, etc. Fourth Conjugation. ai "vendTi ma maison b, mon voisin. / have sold my house to my neighbour, etc. avons vendu la campagne tres cher. We have sold the country seat very dear, etc. Nous Vous lis 119 120 J' Nous J' Nous 121 122 / Nous I 'r Nous Auxiliary Verb avoir, ai eu une visite ce matin de bonne lieure. / have had a call early avons eu de bonnes nouvelles de Paris. this morning, etc. We have had good news from Paris, etc. Auxiliary Verb etre. ai 6t6 ^ I'ecole toute la matinee. / have been at school all tht morning, etc. avons &c6 bien en retard. We have been very late, etc. 48 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 123 The PRESENT PERFECT is used not only as in English to denote an action accomplished in a period not yet elapsed at the time of speaking: — ce matin, this morning; aujourd'hui, to-day; but also generally in familiar conversation and corre spondence for all past events : compare — French Present Perfect. English Past or Preterite, Je I'ai rencontr^ Vautre jour. I met him the other day. J'ai coum si vite que je sais tomli£. / ran so quickly, that I fell doiim. Ohs. — With il y a...qiie, voila...quc, depois qtte, since, ago, notice the use of the French Present for the English Present Perfect : — . II y a huit jours qu'il est ici. He has now been here for a week. 11 y a longtemps que je d€sire le voir. / have long been desirous to see him. 124 Agreement of Past Participle conjugated with avoir : — Voici le livre, I'avez-vous apport€? Here is the book, have you brought it? Voici les livres, les avez-vous apport€s? Here are the books, have you brought them? Voici la lettre, I'avez-vous apport€e ? Here is the letter, have you brought it ? Voici les lettres, les avez-vous apport^es ? Here are the letters, have you brought them? Le devoir que j'ai fini est facile. The lesson that I have finished is easy. Les devoirs que j'ai finis sont faciles. The lessons that I have finished are easy. La lettre que j'ai finie est pour men frere. Theletter that I have finished. is for my brother. Les lettres que j'ai fiuies sont pour ma sceur. The letters that I have finished, are for my sister. 125 The Past Participle construed with avoir must take the number and gender of its Direct Object, if that Direct Object precedes the Past Part, in the sentence ; but the Past. Part, does not agree with Xh's. following Object ; compare — Avez-vous vendu votre maison ? — Oui, je I'ai vendue. Have you sold your house? — Yes, I have sold it. Ont-ils accompli leurs devoirs? — Non, ils ne les ont pas accomplis. Have they ftUfilled their duties f — Ho, they have not fulfilled them. COMPOUND TENSES. 4y 126 {b) With gtre are conjugated all Reflexive Verbs (see §§ 199- 205), and Neuter Verbs denoting motion or transition from one state into another : — First Conjugation. Je stiis ^'rT\-v&^^3.-c\&'pc&xa.KX\.isxn. I have arrivedbythefinttrain. Ju es arriv6' beaucouptroptard. Thou hast arrivedmuchtoo late. II est arrive avec son fr^re. He has arrived "with his brother. EUe est arriv^e ce matin. She has arrived this morning. Nous somiues arrives = par la poste. We have arrived by the mail coach. Vous etes arrives ^ trop tot. You have arrived too early. lis sent arrives a cinq heures. They (have) arrived at five o'clock. Elles sout arriv^es a la hate. They have arrived in haste. 1. or arriv6e, if jeor tu represent a Feminine. 2. or arrlT^es, if nous or vous represent a Feminine. A Past Participle construed withi etre (except in the case of Reflexive Verbs) takfes the gender and number of the Subject like an Adjective, (see § 48.) J27 Second Conjugation. Je suis parti pour Londves. I have left for London. EUe est partie toute seule. She has left quite alone, etc. ]^2g Fourth Conjugation. Je- snis descendu de bonne heure. I have come down early. Nous sommes descendus du premier etage. We have com-e down from the first floor, etc. 129 The following regular Verbs are generally conjugated with ©tre : arriver, to arrive ; monter, to go up ; retoumer, to return ; entrer^ to enter ; rester, to stay ; tomber, to fall ; desceudre, to come (go) down, io descend. For irregular V^Th^, see §§ 212, 221, 238, 241, etc. 130 Interrogative and Negative. (a) Ai-je parl€ k propos ? or 1 ^on, tu n'as pas parl€ k propos. Est-ce que j'ai parte a propos ?— \ ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^„ ^^ the purpose. Have I spoken to the purpose i — ) As-tu fini ta besogne ? or ) Je n e 1' ai p a s encore finle. Est-ce que tu as fiaitabesogne?— > j ^^j,^ not yet finUhed it. Have you finished your work ! — ) A-t-il rgpondu a ta question? or ) II n'y a pas r^pondu. Est-ce qu'il a repondu a ta question ?— \ jj^ ^^^ „^^ r«)/z^a' to it. Has he replied to your question ? — ) ,ni „ 1 ^1 1 JO ^ Vous n' etes pas retoumfi 131 (b) Suis-je retoume trop tard ? or J ^^^^^ ^.^ ^ Est-ce que je suis retourng trop tard ?- \ y^^ ^^^^ ;^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ Have I returned too late ! — \ i„ouih Interrogative-Negative. N'ai-je pas meritg une recompense ? Have I not deserved a reward? Ne suls-je pas descendu a temps? Have I not come down in time? Organic Method. — French. e so THE ORGANIC METHOD. 133 The Past Perfect (Pluperfect) is represented by two tenses : the Plusqueparfait : formed by the Imparfait of Auxiliary Verb + Participle Perfect ; the Pass§ Ant6rieur : formed by the Pr§t6rite of Auxiliary Verb + Participle Perfect, (a) With the Auxihary Verb avoir : — 134 FijtsT Conjugation. I. Plusqueparfait. Quandj' avals parl€ je m'asseyais. Whenever I had spoken I used to resume my seat. Quand tu avals par le tu t'asseyais. Whenever you had spoken you used to sit dotvn. Qnand il avait parl€ il s'asseyait. Every time he had spoken he used to sit down. Quand nous avlons parl€ nous nous asseyions. When we had spoken ive used to sit down. Quand vous avlez parte vous vous asseyiez. When you had spoken you used to sit down. Quand lis avaient parlg ils s'asseyaient. When they had spoken they used to sit down. joc Passe Anterieur. Quandj' eus parte je m'assis. When I had spoken I sat down. Des que tu eus parlg tu t'assis. When you had spoken you sat down. Aussit8t qu'il eut parlg il s'assit. As soon as he had spoken he sat down. Apres que nous eumes parlg nous nous asstmes. After we had spoken we sat down. Lorsque vous eutes parl€ vous vous assltes. When you had spoken you sat down. Des qu'ils eurent parlg ils s'assirent. As soon as they had spoken they sat dawn. Rule. — Both the Plusqueparfait and Passe Antdrieur express an action past at a time itself past, but with this distinction : — ■ The Plusqueparfait denotes an action usually done or already in progress \ at some The Fasse Anterieur denotes an action just accomplished J past period ; in other words, the Plusqueparfait corresponds to the Imparfait, the Pass6 Antirieur corresponds to the Pr£t6rite. 136 Second Conjugation. Plusqueparfait. Si j'avaisfinlje serais bienaise, etc. if I had finished I should be very glad. Passe AntSrieur. Des que j'eus finl je partis, etc. As soon as I had done I started. low Fourth Conjugation. Plusqueparfait. Si j'avais vendu ma maison, je m'en repentirais, etc. If I had sold mv house, I should be sorry. Passe Anterieur. Aussit8t que j'eus vendu ma maison, je m'en repentis, etc. As soon as I had sold my house, I repented of it. ■tetc, AUXILIABY VeRBS. Si j'avais eu de I'argent je serais parti. Iflh ad had money I should have started. Si j'avais €t6 a la maison je vous aurais dcrit. If I had been at home I should have written to you. THE PAST PERFECT. 51 b) With the Auxiliary Verb Stre : — log I. Plusqueparfait. J' itais deja arrive avaat lui. I had already arrived before him. Tu 6tals deji arrive de bonne heure. You had already arrived early. W £tait deji arrlv6 de grand matin. He had already arrived very early. EUe ^talt deja arriv6e apr^s nous. She had already arrived after us. Nous €tions dejk arrives avant vous. We had already arrived before yau. Vous fitiez deja arrives alors. You had already arrived then, lis etaient deja arrives depuis peu. They had already arrived a short time ago. Elles €taient dej« arrivfies pour diner. They had already arrived for dinner. j^Q 2. Anterieur. Desqueje fus descendu il me salua. As soon as I had come down he greeted me, Aussitot que tu fus descendu je partis. As soon as you had come down I left. Apres qu'il fut descendu elle apporta le dejeuner. After he had come dawn she brought the breakfast. Quand elle fut descendue elle commenga a pleurer. When she had come down she began to cry. Lorsque nous fumes descendus nous dejeundmes. When we had come down we breakfasted. Des que vous f utes descendus il monta. As soon as you had come down lie went upstairs. Apres qu'ils furent descendus on les interrogea. After they had come down they were questioned. . X>hs qu' elles furent descendues on se mit a table. As soon as they had C07ne doivn they sat down to table. In accordance with the Rule laid down in § 135, the Antirieur\s generally used instead of the Pt2tsgneparfait after the following Conjunctions of time -. — quand, lorsgue, when ; apres que. after ; & peine . . . que. hardly . . . when ; des qiie, aussitdt que, as soon as, ne pas plus tdt que, no sooner . . . than. J4.J Interrogative and Negative. Avais-je mfiritg cette ingratitude? — Vousnel'aviez pas merit^e. Etais-je descendu trop tard? — Vousn'€tiez pas descendu assez t&t. E 2 52 THP ORGANIC METHOD. 142 The Future Perfect : formed by means of the Future Pres. of Auxiliary + Participle Perf. («) J'aiirai parl€. I shall have spoken, {fi) Je serai entrg. I shall have {pe) entered, (a) With the Auxiliary Verb avoir : — 2^43 First Conjugation. J' anrai diii6 avant cinq heures. / shall have dined before Jive o^ clock. Tu auras din€ a midi. You will have dined at noon. II aura din6 avant nous. He will have dined before us. Nous aurons dinS dans un moment. We shall have dined in a moment, Vous anrez din€ dans une heure. You will have dined in an hour, lis auront diii€ avec nous. They will have dined with us. 144 Second Conjugation. J' aurai finl mon ouvrage avant vous. I shall have done before you. Tu auras flni dans cinq minutes. You will have done in five minutes, etc. 145 Fourth Conjugation. ]' anrai attendn una heure. / shall have waited an hour, Tu auras attendn bien longtemps. You will have waited a very long time, etc. 146 Auxiliary Verb avoir, to have, y aurai eu un regal, l shall have had a treat. Tu auras en bien de la peine. You will have had much trouble, etc. 147 Auxiliary Verb etre, to be. y anrai 6t€ en France. / shall have been in France, Tn auras iMt i la campagne. You will have been in the country, etc. THE FUTURE PERFECT. S3 {b) With the Auxiliary Verb etre : — 148 ^^° First Conjugation. Je serai retoum£ avant peu. I shall have returned before long. Til seras retoumg i I'instant. Yott will have returned instantly, 11 sera retoum6 a midi. He will have returned at noon, Elle sera retoum^e ce soir. She will have returned this evejiivg. Nous serous retoumes avant vous. We shall have returned before you. Vous serez retoiim€s apres nous. You will have returned after us. lis seront retoumes a Noel. Thy will have returtied at Christmas. EUes seroat retoumSes a Paques. Tltey will have returned at Easter. 149 Second Conjugation. Je serai parti pour tout de bon. / shall have started for good, Elle sera partie sans retour. She will have gone without returning. 150 Fourth Conjugation. Je serai descendu avant lui. I shall have gone down before him. Nous serous descendus bientot. We shall have come down soon. 151 Interrogative and Negative. Aurai-je travaille pour rien? Shall I have worked for nothing? Vous n'aurez pas travaille en vain. You will not have worked in vain. Serai-je descendu as; ez tot ? Shall I have come down early enough ! Vous ne serez pas descendu trop tot. You will not have come down too soon. 54 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 152 The Conditional Perfect : formed by means of the Conditional Present of Auxiliary Verb + Past Participle : — (a) J'a.urais parl€. I should have spoken. (S) Je serais descendu. I should have {be") come down. (a) With the Auxiliary "Verb avoir : — 153 First Conjugation. J' aurais parl€ si j'avais ose. I should have spoken if I had dared. Tu aurais parl€ si tu avais ose. You would have spoken if you had dared. II aurait parl6 s'il avail ose. He would have spoken if he had dared. Nous aurions parl€ si nous avions ose. We should have spoken if we had dared. Vous auriez parl€ si vous aviez ose. You would have spoken if you had dared. lis auraient parl€ s'ils avaient ose. They would have spoken if they had dared. The rules given for the use of the Conditional Present (§§ 82-83) hold good with the Conditional Perfect. ,e« Second Conjugation. J' aurais finl si j'avais ete diligent. I should have finished if I had been diligent. Nous aurions fini si nous avions ete appliques. We should have finished if we had been diligent. ..KK Third Conjugation. ]' aurais r6pondu plus tot si j'avais eu le temps. T should have replied sooner if I had had the time. Nous aurions r^pondu a la question si nous avions etudie. We should have answered the question if we had studied. ,-„ Auxiliary Verb avoir. 156 J' aurais eu du plaisir a vous voir. / should have had pleasure in seeing you. Nous aurions eu du regret a agir ainsi. We should have been sorry to act thus. , ._ Auxiliary Verb etre. 157 J' aurais it€ charme de vous rencontrer. l should have been delighted to meet you. Nous aurions 6t€ heureux de lui rendre ce service. We should have been happy to render him this service. THE CONDITIONAL PERFECT. 55 158 ip) With the Auxiliary Verb gtre : — First Conjugation. Je serais arriT^ ce matin si j'etais parti hier. / should have arrived this morning if I had left yesterday. Tu serais arriv6 ci temps si tu etais parti de bonne heure. You would have arrived in time if you had started early. II serait arrive assez tot s'il etait parti cc matin. He would have arrived early enough if he had started this morning, EUe serait arriv€e avant nous si elle etait partie plus tot. She would have- arrived before us if she had left sooner. Nous serious arrives a midi si nous etions partis k onze heures. We should have arrived at noon if we had started at eleven. Vous seriez arrives trop tard si vous etiez partis par ce train. You would have arrived too late if you had started by this train. lis seraient arrives a point nomme s'ils etaient partis assez tot. They wou^d have arrived in time if they had started early enough. EUes seraient arrivees ce soir si elles etaient parties ce matin. They would have arrived this evening if they had left this mortiing, 159 Second Conjugation. Je serais sorti ce matin si j'avais re9u sa lettre. / should have gone out this morning if I had received his letter. Elle serait sortie avec plaisir si le temps avait ete beau. She would have gone out with pleasure if the weather had been fine, lOQ Fourth Conjugation. Je serais descendu de bonne heure s'il avait plu, I should have come down early if it had rained. Nous serious descendus plus tot si le repas avait ete servi. We should have come down sooner if the meal had been served. ■,r.-\ Interrogative and Negative. Aurais-je parl€ en vain ? — Should I have spoken in vain ? Non, vous n'auriez pas parl6 en vain. J\lOf you would not have spoken in vain. S er ais-j e arrive trop tard ? — SJiould I have arrived too late ? Vous ne seriez pas arrives trop tard. You would not have arrived too late. Ig2 Interrogative-Negative. N'aurais-je pas m€rit€ una recompense si j'avais aclieve mon ouvrage. Should I not have deserved a reward if I had finished my work ? Ne serais-je pas sort! si vous m'aviez accompagne? Shouldn't I have gone out if you had accompanied me? 56 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 163 The Present-Perfect Subjunctive ; formed by means of ikvt Present Subjunctive ol Auxiliary Verb + Past Participle : — (a) J'aie parlg. I may have spoken. (*) Jc sois parti. / may have {be) started. (a) AVith the Auxiliary Verb avoir : — Ig^ First Conjugation. PRINCIPAL SENTENCK, DEPENDKN'T CLAUSE. II est bien aise que j' aie parle. He is glad that I have spoken. Je suis etonne que tu aies parl^. I am astonished that you have spoken. Nous regrettons qu'il ait parl€. We are sorry that he has spoken. II ne croit pas que nous ayons parl€. He does not believe that we have spoken. Est-il done vrai que vous ayez parle? Is ittrue then that yoti have spoken? II se peut qu'ils aient parl£. It may be that they liave spoken. The rules given jn g§ 87-9: apply also to the Compound Tenses of the Sittij'unctrve. 165 Second Conjugation. Ne venez pas avant que j' aie fiui. Don' t come be/ore I have finished. j'attendrai jusqu' a ce que tu aies fini. / shall wait until you have finished. 186 Fourth Conjugation. C'est la seule lettre a laquelle j' aie repondu. It is the only letter to which I have replied. Voili la premiere question a laquelle tu ales repondu. That is the first gztestion to which you have replied, igi» Auxiliary Verb avoir. II regrettc que j' aie eu tant de peine. He is sorry I should have had so much trouble. Je ne doute pas que tu aies eu beaucoup de difEcultes. I do not doubt that you have had many difficulties. •.go Auxiliary Verb etre. Quel dommage que j' aie ete empeche de venir! What a pity 1 should have been prevented from coming. II est extraordinaire que tu aies €te si pen clairvoyant. It is extraordinary that you have been so shortsightcj . THE PRESENT-PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE. 57 {b) With the Auxiliary Verb gtre :— " First Con'jugation. principal sentekce. dependent clause. II ne croit pas que je sois arrive. He- does not believe that 1 have arrived, EUe est fachee que tu sois arrivg. She is sorry that you have arrived. Je suis surpris qu'il soit arrive. I am surprised that he has arrived. J'ignore absolument qu'elle soit arrivee. I do not know at all that she has arrived. lis doutent que nous soyons arrives. They doubt if we have arrived. Nous sommes bieii aises que v. soyez arrives. We are glad you have arrived. N'etes-vous pas contents qu'ils soient arrives? Are you not pleased that they have arrived ? Je me rejouis qu'elles soient arriv6es. I am glad that they have arrived. 170 Second Conjugation. Venez me voir avant que je sois parti. Come to see ijie before 1 have gone. II est reste quoiqu' elle soit partie. He has remained although she has left. y,. Fourth Con-jugation. Altendez done jusqu'a ce que je sois descendu. Just wait tmiil I have come down. Elle est partie avant que nous soyons descendus She has left before we came down stairs. 172 Negative. C'est la premiere fois que je n'aie pas acheve ma besogne. It is the first time I have not finished my woj-k. C'est la seule fois que je ne sois pas rentre a temps. It is the first time I have not returned in time. Gill Rule of the Subjunctive. When the principal sentence contains an Adjective in the superlative de^ee cr conveying the idea of exclusiveness, as— le seul, I'unique, etc. , the Verb in the dependent clause is generally used m the Sulijunciive. 58 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 173 The Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Subjunctive : formed by means of Imperfect of Auxiliary Verb -|- Past Participle : — (a) J'eusse parl^. I should have spoken. (i) Je fusse arrivfi. I should have (be) arrived. (a) With the Auxiliary Verb avoir : — -„- First Conjugation. Quoique j' ensse parle haut il n'entendit pas. Although I had spoken loud he did not hear. Bien que tu eusses parl€ frangais il repondit en anglaLs. Though you had spoken French he replied in English. Avant qu'il eut parl€ longtenips il fut interrompu. Before he had spoken long he was interrupted. Malgre que nous eussions parlg pour lui, il fut puni. Although we had spoken in his behalf he was punished. Sans que vous eussiez parUvousfutes acquittes. Without having spoken you were acquitted. Encore qu'ils eussent parl€ bas je les entendis. Though they had spoken low 1 heard them. For a list of Conjunctions which require the following Verb in the Subjunctive see §§ 91 and ij^. Yl^ Second Conjugation. Ilnecroyait pas que j'eusse r^nssi. He did not believe I had succeeded. Je doiitais fort que tu eusses r^ussi. I doubted much if you had succeeded. iwg Fourth Conjugatiox. II aurait mieux valu quej' eusse attendu. It would have bun better for me to wait. N'aurait-il pas mieux valu que tu eusses attendu? Would it not have been better for you to wait? Ym The Auxiliary Verbs avoir and etre. II aurait fallu quej' eusse eu plus d' argent. It would have been necessary that I had more jnoney. II aurait mieux valu que j' eusse et6 absent. It zmuld have been better if I had been abs^ «.'. THE PAST-PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE. 59 {b) With the Auxiliary Verb §tre : — 178 First Conjugation. PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. DEPE.WDENT CLAUSE. II doutait que je fusse arrive. He doubted if I had arrived . J'ignorais que tu fusses arriv€. I did not know that you had arrived. On ne savait pas qu'il fut arrive. It was not known that he had arrived. On niait qu'elle fut arrlvee. They denied that she had arrived. II ne se doutait pas que nous fussions arrives. He was not aware that we had arrived. Je ne savais pas que vous fussiez arrives. I did not knmu that you had arrived. Iln'etait pas probable qu'ils fussent arrives. It was not likely that they had arrived. II se rejouissait qu'elles fussent arriv^es. He was glad they had arrived. 179 Second Conjugation. On ne croyait pas queje fusse parti. They did not believe I had left. II ne se doutait pas qu'elle fut partie. He did not suspect that she had left. - Fourth Conjugation. l9U II etait enchante queje fusse desceudu. He was delighted I had gone down. On etait etonne que nous fussions descendus. They were astonished that we had come down. .. Q.| Negative. N'auriez-vous pas ete surpris si jen'eusse pas travaille? Would you not have been surprised if I had not worked? N'aurait-il pas mieux valu que je ne fusse pas rentre? Would it not have been better for me not to have returned home? 6o THE ORGANIC METHOD. 182 The Infinitive Perfect : formed by means of the Infinitive Present of Auxiliary Verb + Past Participle : — (a) Avoir parl£. To have spoken. {b) iitre arrive. To have (ie) arrived. 183 (a) With the Auxiliary Verb avoir :— II a ete puni pour avoir parl€ indiscretement. He has been punished for having spoken indiscreetly. II sera paye apris avoir £ui son ouvrage. He will be paid after having finished his work. Je suis fache d' avoir repondu si tard. lam sorry I have replied so late. II croyait avoir eu des preuves. He thought he had had proofs. Nous regrettames d' avoir 6t^ si mal informes. We were sorry we were so misinformed. N.B. —For the use of the Infinitive after Prepositions see §§ 106-111. 184 {b) With the Auxiliary Verb 6tre : — Nous fumes fatigues avant d'etre arrives. IVe were tired before we had arrived. Elle est tombee malade apres etre partie. She was taken ill after having left. Elles regrettent d' etre descendues. They are sorry they have come damn. N.B. — For the use of avant de, with the Infinitive, instead of avant que with the SubjunctlTe see § 112. jQK Negative. / V T • r-^ t. A f de n'avolr pas parlfi. , , ,• , j ^ 1 (fl) Je sms fache j ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ p^^jg_ lam so,-ry I did not sp,ak. f de n' etre arrive pas plus tot. I am sorry I did not (4) Je regrette ■|^ ^Ig ,je pas etre arrivg plus t6t. arrive sooner. THE PARTICIPLE PERFECT. 6i The Participle Perfect : formed by means of the Participle Prese7it of Auxiliary Verb + Past Participle : — 186 [a) With the Auxiliary Verb avoir : — Ayant parU ainsi, je partis. Having spoken thus, I lefl. Ayant fini, je me reposai. Having finished, I rested. Ayant r^pondu deja, je n'ai plus rien a dire. Having already replied, I have 7iothing more to add, Ayant eu de mauvaises nouvelles, il etait triste. Having had bad neios, he was sad. ■ Ayant et6 longtemps a Paris, elle parle bien le fran9ais. Having been in Paris for a long time, she speaks French well. 187 (b) With the Auxiliary Verb Stre :— I.e train gtant arrive trop tard, il y eut un accident. The train having arrived too late, there was an accident. Le voyageur €tant parti avant nous, arriva le premier. The traveller having started before us, arrived first. Lui, 6tant descendu, se reposa. He, having come down, rested {himself). Thus also with reflexive Verbs : — M' €tant retard^ en route, j'arrivai trop tard. Having been belated on the way I arrived too late. S' £tant ennuy€ a mort, il partit. Have been wearied to death, he left. Nous etant repentis de notre feute, on nous pardonna. Having repenttd of our fault, we were forgiven. 188 ' Negative. (a) L'orateur n'ayant jamais parle mieux, fut applaudi. The orator having never spoken better, was applauded. {b") Le train n'€tant pas arrive, nous rentrames. The train not having come, we returned home. N.B. For special rules on the agreement of the Participle Perfect see Appendix, § 148. 52 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 189 SYNOPTIC TABLE OF AUXILIARY VERBS. Simple Tenses. Infinitive, avoir, to have. §tre, to be. Participle, eu, had. 6t6, been. Indicative. Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive. 190 Present. I have, etc. I have, etc. §§ 87- 91. T am, etc. / be, etc. j'ai j'ai-e je suis je soi-s tu as tu ai-es tu es tu soi-s ila il ai-e il est il soi-.t n. av-ons 11. ay-ons n. somiues 11. soy-ons V. av-ez V. ay-ez V. etes V. soy-ez ils ont ils ai-ent lis sont ils soi-ent IMPER fect. I used to have. etc. See §§ 66-70 T used to be, etc. j' av-ais j' et-ais tu av-ais tu et-ais il av-ait il et-ait 11. av-ions n. et-ions V. av-iez V. et-iez ils av-aieut ils et-aieut Prete RITE. T had, etc. S =e §§71-75- / was, etc. j' eu-s j' eu-sse je fu-s je fu-sse tu eu-s tu eu-sses tu fu-s tu fu-sses il eu-t il eu-t il fu-t il fa-t n. ei^-mes 11. eu-ssions 11. fu-mes n fu-ssions V. eii-tes V. eu-ssiez V. ffl-tes V. fu-ssiez ils eu-rent ■ ils eu-ssent ils fu-rent ils fu-ssent Future. Conditional. FUTURE. Conditional. I shall have, etc. I should havei^z 86). / shall be, etc. / should be, etc j' aur-ai j' aur-ais je ser-ai je ser-ais tu aur-as tu aur-ais tu ser-as tu ser-ais il aur-a il aur-ait il ser-a il ser-alt n. aur-ons n. aur-ions n. ser-ons n. ser-ions V. anr-ez V. aur-iez V. ser-ez V. ser-iez ils aur-ont ils aur-aient ils ser-ont ils ser-aient Imperative. ai-es, have {thou) ay-ons, let us have ay-ez, have ye soi-s, be (thou) soy-ons, let us be soy-ez, be (ye) SYNOPTIC TABLE OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 63 Compound Tenses. Infinitive Perfect. avoir eu, (to) nave had. \ avoir ete, (to) have been. Participle Perfect. ayant eu, having had. \ ayant ete, having been. Present Perfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. | Indicative. Snbjunctive I have had, etc. See §§ 164-172. I have been, etc. j'ai eu, etc. j'aie eu, etc. n. avons eu, etc. n. ayons eu, etc. J ai ete, etc. j'aie ete, etc. n. avons ete, etc. n. ayons ete, etc. 1ST Past Perfect (Pluperfect). I had had, etc. See §§ 173-177. I had been, etc. j'avais eu, etc. j'avais ete, etc. ti. avious eu, etc, n. avions ete, etc. 2ND Past Perfect (Past Anterior). I had had, etc. See §§ 178-1S1. I had been, etc. j'eus eu, etc. j'eusse eu, etc. [1. enmes eu, etc, n. eussions eu, etc. j'ens ete, etc. j'eusse ete, etc. n. eumes ete, etc. n. eussions ete, etc. Future and Conditional Perfect. / shall have had. I should have had. j'aurai eu, etc. j'aurais eu, etc. 11. aureus eu, etc. u. aurlonseu, etc. I shall have been. I should have been. j'aurai ete, etc. j'aurais ete, etc. n. aurons ete. n.aurionsete, etc 64 191 SYNOPTIC TABLE OF THE In order to conjugate a verb in full it is necessary to Icnow the {a) From the INFINITIVE (donn-er, fin-ir, romp-re) are formed : — (i) The Future Present by addinj I. 2. 3. .'^i'!^. -al -as -a; JVar, -ons -ez -ont ; as 1st Conj. donner-ai, -as, -a ; donner-ons, -ez, -out. 2nd Conj. finir-ai, -as, -a ; finir-ons, -ez, -out. 4//i C<)«/'. roaipr(e)-ai,' -as, -a; rompr-ons, -ez, -ont. (2) The Conditional Present : by adding : — -ais, -ais^ -Ions, -iez, -ait; -aient : as 1st Conj. donner-ais, -ais, -ait ; . donner-ions, -iez, -aient. 2nd Conj. finir-ais, finir-ions, -ais, -ait : -iez, -aient. 4/A Conj. rompr-ais,' -ais, -ais ; rompr-ions, -iez, -aient. • In the 4M Conj. the final e of the Infinitive form is dropped. {b) From the PRESENT PARTICIPLE (donn-ant, finiss-ant, romp-ant) are formed : — (I) The Present Indicat. Flur. by changing -ant into I. 2. 3. -ons, -ez, -ent : as is! Conj. donn-ons, -ez, -ent. 2iid Conj. finiss-ons, -ez, -ent. 4^/i Conj. romp-ons, -ez, -ent. (2) The Imperfect Indicat. by changing -ant into -ais, -ais, -ait ; -ions, -iez, -aient : as Ij^ Conj. donn-ais, -ais, -ait ; donn-ions, -iez, -aient. 2WCi»k;'. finiss-ais, -ais, -ait; finiss-ions, -iez, -aient. ^th Conj. romp-ais, -ais, -ait ; romp-ions, -iez, -aient. (3) The Present Subjunctive : by changing -ant into -e, -es, -ions, -iez. -ent. I. donn-e, -es, -e; -ions, -iez, -ent II. finiss-e, -es, -e; -ions, -iez, -ent IV. vend-e, -es, -e; -ions, -iez, -ent FORMATION OF TENSES. Principal Parts from which all other Moods and Tenses are derived : 65 (*■ 5: O -«a Q o * t — 1 03 1 'A iH O U •1 eS 3 <; C4 J t) J2 O 1 ■ -=4 H <1 t^ > S id 9 ? ^ .S 1-4 ■% H o o 4) K ■■:* •a HH C! W « o >r M D 01 1— » t< iz; o E=4 ^ o p. o n H ^ OT g E ^ CJ "^ A S i* <5 « fl S i ft o. £j S .1" S; B^ ° -s s g s a a s en H S o^ h, ht ^ ix, a. p .^ asaass g O p o o p o o ^' to g N ^ o 0) 0) Q) .s V n OB » « B u ra ? n n n a B n t) wl M 1 . CJ h PI a c: c oo 00 la «: *c iC «: IC S GCO (4 ^ _ > ■" 4a p ^ g H < "^ m n a u -S n oT 4^ a n a Q z 1— 1 R ^ •^ •*4 ^ •N :3 • «3 > w U > w t/J H o , '£, o a •§ n 42 ff o o « wt V tJ =y) ^ CO s; i-< )-i 'U J- Tl ^ d d d c^ d d 00 P* eu PM C Cu O* ^ COT ^ > ^ H ^ « -•T <: Q «" ^ fl (T s o 0) « O ? 3 ^ " "Ti 1^ "T. "b 2; (3 d rf ri i5 d ^-^ S &4 P< O4 cu & P< TABLE OF THE THREE REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 67 g 8 fl < • . . « .'S .-a-sS g K.B.2sgs.a 1; i. g. li. i. a. o- Q Sj Ph S. &, & o, a, 000 o OOqOOO "2-bS«2 p^-.„S"S «.2"».>flNa B-e-g- rs s .2 .S '3 -s .2 .2 s J .-s .h .i S * =? ?• sea o inn^flHU ^^>„S"S «.-'"».>flNa 0.0,0. ~ +» a " Haaaaas aaeaas i^aaaeae SSSSggS 222222 £|222S2S a s ■*; ? •s 2 .« ■ • . 2 • a V '^■^ .H .rt oJ -i^ iH .rt P U ^, >-. ^ L- L- •-! > -i,i -SC H ci c s c c 3 ^ '^''a'S'B'S'a'a y ^■ii.'i h .^- \s g ti a H > .rt 'rf .,H O 0} '^ »< -3 Ul -sij S -, W .^4* , ■'■■ ^i4<4:3.«.Hd Pi s (una .^..Tia.aHa cA 0, M:;^ n in n iii to Di ^"^ in' m'-n' ■^ ^ .M iH ip^ 'rt .H "4 fcs^ .H -H -H ^« liFi m " ^ :_, ^ j-i ^ J-i j3 g yr; yn yi; y:i qH y^ y= y:; y=: u= tn; y:! ^ "-^ y=; yi: yn y:; y= ic! «=v < tfi . lA tn in ^ 'S '2 '2 o ' i_i )-■ s-< }-j ii i^ rj \j^ i_i i_i M ^ M f_i p., fin P- Ph fi^ P, Pu pH d^ P, P^ O- ' -Ss 1 .2 1 s g 8 1 ^'s s\"l| s I i'? ? 2 ? ! ? 1^^ i p. O. Ph P. 5. P- P,P,&,P:3 S.2,5:3d>:3 y 2 68 THE ORGANIC METHOD. e< .5 ■^* s S. £Sg »^§,o5„-Eo •I. tn ^: ^ & ,: .v: S a u « s «i W4 >«. u ^ n z -*; tn > H !> Tf SO H O COT v,> § Is Xi d d > 5 so •^ "b H ^ a -S z S =P' S^S'» ^•'sm-B S'^ijS ■S •2 t^ -S. - p< 0) .S P n u Z ^ (S .S « tn o ^ ^ h 3 3 u ^ a 3 "5: "S ■^ " r O jIh^^Iw*^ .s^>d *SS« "^SeS ri r^s r_,3 r^fl r^c REGULAR VERBS. 69 195 (a) appel-er, to call. J appell-e tu appell-es il appell-e n. appel-ons V. appel-ez ils appell-ent Peculiarities of Regular Verbs First Conjugation. jet-er, I (c) men-er. to throw. I to lead. Present, Indicative, je jett-e je men-e tu jett-es tu men-es il jett-e il men-e n. jet-ons n. men-ons V. jet-ez V. men-ez ils jett-ent ils meii-ent {d) esp£r-er, to hope. ] esper-e tu esper-es il esper-e 11. esper-ons V. esper-ez ils esper-ent (Thus also the Pres. Subj. and the Imperative.) Future and Conditional, j' appell-erai, etc. I je jett-erai, etc. I je men-erai, etc. I j' esperer-ai, etc. j' appeU-erais, etc. | je jett-erais, etc. | je men-erais, etc. | j' esperer-ais, etc. Verbs with an e mute in the last syllable but one are affected in their stem, whenever the following syllable becomes mute ; either — ■ (« and b') The final stem-consonant is doubled, if it is 1 or t ; except— Celer, to hide; geler, io freeze; peler, to peal', acheter, to buy, etc., which, instead of doubling the consonant, change e into h (see r) ; as — Je c&le, j'achfete, etc. Or (c) The e imtte is changed into fe, if the final stem-consonant is not 1 or t, ((^ Verbs with an 6 in the last syllable but one change this 6 into 6 whenever the following syllable becomes mute, except in the Future and Conditional. (e) essay-er, to try. y essai-e tu essai-es il essai-e n. essay-ons V. essay- ez ils essai-ent (/) pri-er, I (g-) chang-er, to pray, \ to change. Present Indicative, je pri-e je chang-e tu pri-es tu chang-es il pri-e il chang-e n. pri-ons u. chang-eons V. pri-ez v. chang-ez ils pri-ent ils chang-ent (Thus also the' Imperative.) Itnperfect Indicative. {h) plac-er, to place. je plac-e tu plac-es il plac-e n. plaij-ons V. plac-ez ils plac-ent Fut. and Gondii. j' essaier-ai, etc. j essaier-ais, etc. je chang-eais, etc. n. chang-ions V. chang-iez ils chang-eaient je pla^-ais, etc; n. plac-ious V. plac-iez ils plaQ-aient je pri-ais, etc. n. pri-ions V. pri-iez ils pri-aient (Thus also the Preterite Indie, and Subj.) ie) Verbs in -ayer, -eyer^ -uyer, change the y into i whenever the inflection becomes mute. Those in -ayer and -eyer, however, may retain y throughout. {/) Verbs in -ier are regular, and only mentioned here to show the working of the Imperfect Plural. (^) Verbs in -ger insert an e between the stem and the inflection when the latter begins with a or O. (>5) Verbs in -cer change the c into 5 whenever the inflection begins with a or o« •JO THE ORGANIC METHOD. 196 Second Conjugation. flenrir (to b'.ooni) in the sense of to flourish, J Pres. Part.: — florissant. to prosper, has: — \ Impertect : — je florissais, etc. 1i€iur, to bless, to consecrate, has two forms / beni, -e, blessed. for the Past Part. : — \ benit, -e, consecrated. bair, to hate, has, in the Singular of Pres. Indic. and Imperat., i instead of i : — Je hais, tu hais, il hait ; but Plural — nous haissous, etc. 197 The Passive Voice : formed by means of— the Auxiliary Verb Stre + Past Participle : — JviBlCATlVE : Present. (See §6.) First Conjugation. Je suis honors (lionoree) de mes concitoyens. I am honoured by myfdlffw citizens. Tu es honors (honorSe) de tes amis (amies). You are honoured by your friends. II (on) est honors de ses disciples. He (one) is honoured by his disciples . Elle(on) est honorSe de ses eleves. She is honoured by her pupils. Nous sommes honorSs (honorees) de nos enfants. We are honoured by our children. Vous eteshonores (honorSes) de vos parents. You are honoured by your parents. lis sonthonorSa l ^ j.^^^^ ^^^^^^ He {one) washes 1 h imself Le garfon se lave f ' The boy wasAes f cold ■ 72 THE ORGANIC METHOD. REFLEXIVE VERBS. Reflexive Verbs are so called because the action denoted by them reflects upon, i.e. affects, the agent ; they are much more frequently used in French than in English. The peculiarity of their conjugation is that, though the Verb is active in meaning, all its Compound Tenses are formed by means of the Auxihary Verb §tre. 199 A. — Simple Tenses : — Infinitive. U faut se laver. One must wash one's self. Present Participle. En se lavant on se refraichit la pean. By washing onis self one refreshes one's skin. Indicative : Present. Je me lave tons les matins. I wash myself every morning. Tu te laves avec de I'eau chaude. TIwu washesi thyself with hot water. elf with •water. !afiiie s:l:::}-^p">-- 'Thrgrriialhe?^'--'^^'^-"^'^'-'- Nous nous lavons de bonne heure. We wash ourselves early. Vous vous lavez avant nous. You wash yourselves before its. Us (elles) se lavent tous les soirs. They wash themselves every evening. Obs. — me, te, se before a vowel or silent Ii become m', t', s'; — Je m'amuse, tu t'amuses. il S'anmse. Imperfect. Chaque matin je me lavais a la fontaine. Every morning I used to wash myself at the fountain. Preterite. A sept heures je me lavai et m'habillai. At seven cf clock I washed and dressed myself. Future. Je me laverai quand j'aurai de I'eau. I shall wash myself when I have water. Conditional : Present. Je me laverais si j'avais du savon. I should wash myself if I had some soap. Subjunctive : Present. II faut que je me lave tout de suite. / must wash myself immediately. Preterite or Imperfect. II aurait fallu que je me lavasse les mains. // would have been necessary that I should wash my hands. Imperative. - Lave-toi done ! Do wash thyself I Lavons-nous avant de nous hahiller. Let us wash ourselves before dressing. Lavez-voos tous les matins. Wash yourselves every morning. REFLEXIVE VERBS. 73 200 £■ — Compound Tenses : all formed with etre, and never with avoir : — • Indicative: Present Per/eci {Vasi Indefinite). Je me suis lev6' ce matin. I have got up this morning. Tu t'es lev6^ de bonne heure. Thou hast got up eariy. 11 (on) s'est leve 1 » He (one) has risen \ , r Ella S'est lev6e | ^™°' "°"'- She has risen. ] '"f"" "'■ Nous nous sommes lev€s^ tard. We have risen laie. Vous vous etes lev6s ^ bien tard. You have risen very late. lis se sont levSs 1. ij-r-rt ■ ^ t ^ Elles, se sont levies | '™P '^'^'^- ^''"-^ ^''"^ '■'^'" '"" '^''''■- 1. Or levde, if the Subject denotes a female. 2. Or levt£eSj if the Subject denotes females. Past Perfect (Pluperfect). Je m'etais deja levS quand il sonna six lieures. T had already risen when it strtick six 0^ clock. Past Anterior. Des que je me fus leve je m'habillai. As soon as I had risen I dressed tnyself. Future Perfect. Quand je me serai levS je descendrai. When I shall have risen I shall come down. Conditional : Perfect. Je me serais levS plus tot. I should have risen earlier. Subjunctive : Perfect. II ne croit pas que je me sois deja leve. He does not believe that I have got up already. Plupeifect. II ue croyait pas que je me fusse deja leve. He did not believe that I had already risen. Infinitive : Perfect. Je craignais m'etre leve trop tard. I was afraid I had risen too late. Participle: Perfect. M'gtant leve je m'habillai. Having got up I dressed myself. 2Q1 Interrogative. Indicative : Present. Me rejouis-je^ de votre succes? — or, Est-ce que je me rejouis de votre succes? etc. Do I rejoice at your success ?- - Cela va sans dire. Of course I do. Te rejouis-tu de mon succes ? Do you rejoice at my success ? Se rejouit-il (elle) de ton arrivee? Does he (she) rejoice at your arrival? Nous rejouissons-nous de vous voir ? Do we rejoice to see you ? Vous rejoui.- sez-vous de leur bonne fortune. Do you rejoice at their good luck? Se rejouissent-ils de mon avancement ? Do they rejoice at my promotion ? In like manner the other Simple Tenses. • On account of the unpleasant sound of two successive syllables beginning with j, the second form is preferred. 74 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Present Perfect. Me suis-je rejoui de vous visiter ? — or, Est-ce que je me suis rejoui de, etc. ffave I rejoiced to go and see you ? — Je crois que oui ! / should think so ! T'es-tu rejoui de cette bonne aubaine ? Hast thou rejoiced at this windfall? S'est-il rejoui avec ses amis ? ) Has he (she) rejoiced with his (her) , S'est-elle rejouie avec ses amies ? ( friends? Nous sommes-nous rejouis de vous rencontrer? Were we glad to meet you ? Vous ^tes-vous rejouis autant que moi ? Did you rejoice as much as I did ? Se sont-il3 rejouis _ \^^^ ^ -^^^j^^ ^^ ^^ I^^ ^ Have they rejoiced at the , Se sont-elles rejouies J '^ success of this plan I la like manner the other Compound Tenses. 202 Negative. Indicative : Present. Je ue me defends pas en vain. I do not defend myself in vain, Tu ne te defends point. Thou dost not defend thyself at all. II (elle) ne se defend jamais. He [she) never defends him (her) self. Nous ne nous defendons plus. We do no longer defend ourselves, Vous ne vous defendez guere. You hardly defend yourselves. lis ne se defendent pas raal. They do not defend themselves badly. Imperative. Ne te defends pas inutilement. Do not defend thyself uselessly, Ne nous defendons pas lachement. Let us not defend ourselves like cowards. Ne vous defendez pas de 1' avoir fait. Do not deny having done it. Indicative : Present Perfect, Je ne me suis pas entendu avec lui. / have not agreed with him, Tu ne t'es pas entendu avec moi. Thou hast not agreed with me, II (elle) ne s'est pas entendu(e) avec nous. He (she) has not agreed with us. Nous ne nous sommes pas entendus. We have not come to terms, Vous ne vous etes pas entendus. You have not understood each other. lis (elles) ne se sont pas entendu(e)s. They have not acted in concert. In like manner the other Compound Tenses. N.B. Notice the different meanings of s'entendre. Infinitive : Perfect, Je regrette de ne pas m'etre mieux d6fendu. / am sorry I did not defend myself better, etc. Nous regrettons de ne pas nous dtre mieux d€fendus. We are sorry we did not dffend ourselves better, etc. Participle : Perfect. Ne m'^tant pas mieux d€fendu, je fus vaincu. Not having defended my- self betttr, 1 was conquend. Ne nous £tant pas mieux d£f endus nous fumes def aits. Not having defende i ourselves better, we were drfeatid: REFLEXIVE VERBS. 75 203 Interkogative -Negative. Simple Tenses. Est-ce que je ne me contente pas cle peu ? Dor^ i I content myself "with little ? Ne te contentes-tu pas de cela ? etc. Are you not contented with that / Compound Tenses. Ne me suis-je pas contente de votre promesse ? Have I not contented myself Ttilh yotir promise ? Ne t'etais-tu pas contente de ta fortune ? Hadst thou not contented thyself with thy fortune ? Ne s'en sera-t-il pas contente ? IVill he not have contented himself with it ? Ne nous serions-nous pas contentes de cette raison ? Should we not have been satisfied with this reason ? etc, Obs. I. — In all the above instances the Reflexive Pronoun is the Direct Object. There are many Reflexive Verbs, however, which take an Indirect Reflexive Object-Pronoun : — Je m'arroge ce droit. I arrogate to myself this right. Nous nous arrog^eons ces titres. We assume these titles^ etc. Je me suis procure un billet. I have secured a ticket for 7nyself. Tu t'es procure un passeport. You have procured a passport. EUe s'est procure ( ™^ P^^'^^" ^' ^'^'^ '""' S"' « situation. Obs. 2. — Je me lave les mains. I -wash tny hands. Tu te laves le visage. You wash yojt rjace^ etc. 204 Reciprocal Verbs are the same in form and conjugation as Reflexive Verbs : — Nous nous ilattons. IVe flatter each other {one another). Vous vous flattez. You flatter each other {one another). lis se flattent. They flatter each other {one another). To avoid any possible ambiguity I'un 1' autre or les uns les autresj i7»e another, may be added ; a.':, Kous nous trahissons I'un I'autre (les ur.s les autres). Notice also — S'entr'aider, to help one another. S' eutre dechirer, to tear each other to pieces, etc. 205 Many Verbs are reflexive in French which are not used reflexively in English, others again are rendered in English by the Passive Voice : — Nous nous arretames dans cette ville. We stopped in this town. "Je ne me rendrai pas," s'ecria-t-il. " I shall not surrender," exclaimed he. EUe s'ennuie dans ce village. Time hangs heavy upon her in this village, lis se lassent de lui aider. They are getting tired of helping him. EUes se repentent de I'avoir fait. They repent having done it. Comment vous portez-vous ? How do you do ? le me porte tres bien. I am very well. ]3ien des choses se sont passees depuis lors. Many things have occurred since then. 76 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Je me couchai a onze heures ; / went to bed at eleven o'clcck ; je me reveillai a onze heures et demie, / aivjke at half-past eleven, mais je me rendormis bient&t, but I soon fell asleep again, et ne me levai pas avaut liuit heures. and did not rise before eight d clock. Aliens nous promener ! Let us go for a walk ! Je m'en doutais bien ! I suspected as much ! Vous vous trompez, je vous assure. You are mistaken, I assure you. Cette etoffe se vend fort clier. This stuff sells at a high price. Cela s'entend. That is understood (a matter of course). Cette expression ne s'emploie qu'au style poetique. This expression is only used in poetical style. Others will be mentioned in the chapter of Irregular Verbs. IMPERSONAL VERBS. (a) Denoting the state of the atmosphere : — 208 Pendant un orage il plent, il grele. During a thunderstorm it rains, it il tonne, il €claire. hails, it thunders, it lightens. En hiver il gele, il neige. In winter it freezes, it snows. Au printemps il dS^ele. In spring it thaws. Quel temps fait-il ? What sort of weather is it ? Tantot il fait beau temps, tantot mauvais temps. Sometimes it is fin e, at other times it is bad weather. Au mois d'aout il fait chaud. In August it is hot. Au printemps il fait douz. In spring it is mild. En automne il fait frais. In autumn it is cool. En hiver il fait froid. In winter it is cold. II fait jour a six heures du inatin. It is daylight at six in the morning. II fait nuit (sombre) apres le coucher du soleil. // is dark after sunset. En novembre il fait du brouillard. In Hovemher it is foggy. En mars il fait de la ponssiere. InMarch it is dusty. II fait Clair de lune. The moon shines. Ohs. — For the Conjugation of faire, see § 234 and 254. (i5) Only occasionally impersonal : — 207 II s'agit de faire son devoir. The question is to do on^s duty. De quoi s'agissait-il ? — What was it necessary to do ? — II s'agissait de payer. It was necessary to pay. De qui s'agissait-il ? — Who 7vas concerned? — 11 s'agissait de nous. We were concerned. II s'agira de votre honneur. Your honour will be at stake. II importe que vous finissiez cette regie. It is important that you should finish this sum. II arrive souvent qu'on est trompe. It often happens that one is deceived. II semble que cela soit facile. It seems to be easy. For il y va de, il faut, il convient, il vaut mieuTS, il parait, see Irregular Verbs. N.B. Notice the different ways of rendering s'agir de iu English. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 77 208 W II y a quelqu'un a la porte. There is some one at the door. II y avait toujours beaucoup de monde i la foire. There were always many people at the fair. 11 y cut un accident facheux. There was a sad accident. II y aura beaucoup de fruit cette annee. There will be much fruit this year. II y aurait moins de raisfere, s'il y avait pins de temperance. There would be less misery if there were more temperance. Croyez-vous qu'il y ait du danger ? Do you think there is any danger. 3'ignorais qu'il y eut du danger. I was not aware there was any danger. II y a eu plusieurs trerablements de terre en Suisse. There have been several earthquakes in Switzerland. jnq Interrogative. Y a-t-il loin d'ici a Geneve ? Is it far from here to Geneva ? Combien y a-t-il de Paris a Londres ? — How far is it from Paris to London ? — II y a environ 450 kilometres. About 280 miles. Y avait-il souvent des concerts ? Were there often concerts ? Y a-t-il eu un orage ce matin ? Has there been a storm this morning ? Y a-t-il longtemps que vous etes ici? — Have yoti been here a longtime? — Mais oui, 11 y a une heare et demie (see 123, Obs.). Why yes, an hour and a half. COmbieu y a-t-il que votre sosur est mariee ? — How long has your sister been married ? — II n'y a que quinze jours. Only a fortnight. 210 Negative. 11 u'y a pas de commerce dans ce pays. There is no commerce in this country. II u'y avait jamais tant de monde. There were never so many people. II u'y a, guere eu de visiteurs aujourd'hui. There have hardly been any visitors to-day. J'ai peur qu'il n'y ait point de benefices dans cette affaire. / am afraid there is no profit in this affair. 211 Interrogative-Negative. N'y a-t-il pefsonne i la maison ? Is there nobody at home ? N'y avait-il rieu k faire ? Was there no'.hing to be dune ? N'y aurait il pas eu de I'avantage a accepter fes offres ? Would there have been no advantage in accepting his offers ? 78 THE ORGANIC METHOD. ojo IRREGULAR VERBS. Before going through the Irregular Verbs strictly classified according to their inflections, it will be convenient to deal first with those which, on account of their frequent use in forming Idiomatic tenses and constructions, may be termed Auxiliary Verbs ; these are : — Aller, to go ; venir, to come. Devoir, to owe ; falloir, must ; pouvoir, can; savoir, to know. Faire, to make, to do ; croire, to believe. 213 Aller, to go ; etre all€, to have gone. Al\a,ii.t, going ; a,ll€, gone ; etaat alLe, having gone, A. — Simple Tenses — Indicative: Present. Je vais a I'eglise. I am going to church. Ta vas a la promenade. Thozt art going for a walk. U va a I'ecole. He is going to school. Nous aliens aux eaux. We are going to a watering place. Vous allez a la campagne. You are going to the country. lis vont tout droit. They are going straight on. Imperfect : J'allais tous les jours au marche. / used to go rjery day to the market. Preterite: J'allai hier au bal. r went yesterday to the ball. Future Pres. ; J'irai demain a Paris. / shall go to Paris to-morrow. CONDIT. Pres. : J'irais volontiers avec vous. l would willingly go with you. Subjunctive : Present. { que j' aillc au spectacle. ( me to go to the theitre. Ella desire < que tu allies au rrarche. She wants •! thee to go to the market. ( qu'il aille a la foire. ( him to go to the fair. ( „■ ^ 1 {we go to the ,, » 1 nous alliens a la campaene. ,, r .i . ) " , II se pent que < ,,. .,, '^ == It may be that < country. ( ■ ( you go to town. II importe qu'ils aillent i la Bourse. // is important that they go to the Exchange. SUBJ. IMPF. ; II desirait que j'y^U^sse. He wanted me to go there. Imperative : Va done ! Go then I AUon?, enfants de la patrie. Let us go, children of the native land. Allez le voir ! Co and see him 1 IRREGULAR VERBS. 79 214 ~B. — Compound Tenses : — ■ Indic. Pres. Perf. : Je suis all6 aujourd'hui a la banque. I went to the bank to-day. Past Perf. ; Nous Bommes all€s au spectacle. We went to see the play. y 6tais all6 me baigner. I had gone to bathe. Past Ant. ; Des que je fus alle i la chasse, il commenja i pleuvoir. As soon as I had gone hunting, it began raining. Fut. Perf. . Quand je serai all6 vous aurez mon livre. When I have gone you shall have Tny book. CONDIT. Perf. : Je serais alle a sa rencontre. I should have gone to meet him. SuBj. Perf.: II est charme que j'y sois all€. He is glad I have gone there. SuBj. Past Perf. : II etait fache que j'y fusse alle. He was sorry I had gone there. Infinit. Perf. : II doit etre all6 tout seul. He must have gone quite alone. Part. Perf. : Mon ami etant all6 se promener, My friend having gone je trouvai la porte fermee. for a walk, 1 found the door shut, 215 C— ^Idiomatic Tenses formed with aller : — 1. Je vais me promener. I am going for a walk. Tu vas te baigner. Thou art going to bathe. II va recommencer de plus belle. He is going to start afresh. Nous allons partir pour Brighton. We are going to leave for Brighton, Vous allez lui parler. You are going to talk to him. lis Tont me cherclier cela. They are going to fetch that for me, 2. J' allais partir, quand il arriva. / was going to start, when he arrived. Tu allais te coucher, quand il est venu. Thou wast going to bed, when he came. II allait se lever lorsque j'entrai. He was going to rise when I entered. Nous alliens vous voir- We were going to call on you. Vous alliez faire une sottise. You were going to do something stupid. lis allaient se mettre en route. They were going to start. 216 S'en aller, to go away ; s'en etre alle, to have gone away. S'en allant, going away ; s'en €tant alle, having gone away, A. — Simple Tenses : — Indicative : Present, Je m'en vais aujourd'hui. / am going away to-day, Tu t'en vas trop tard. Thoti art going away too late. 11 s'en va immediatement. He is going away immediately. Nous nous en allons pour tout de bon. We are going away for good. Vous vous en allez trop tot. Yoti are going away too early. lis s'en vont ensemble. They are going away together. So THE ORGANIC METHOD. Imperfect T Je m'en allais, quand il m'accosta. / was going away, when he came up to me. Preterite: Je m'en allai \ deux henres. / went away at two o'clock. FuT. Pres. ; Je m'en irai dans un moment. / shall go away in a moment. COND. Pres. : Je m'en Irais s'il faisait beau. I should go away if it were fine. SUBJ. Pres. i Ilfautqueje m'en aille ce soir. / must go away this evening. SUBJ. Impf. : II fallut que je m'en allasse. I had to go away. Imperative. Va-t'en porter ma lettre. Go and take my letter. Allons-nouS'en d'ici. Let us go aw ay fro/n here. Allez-vons-en, vauriens que vous etes ! Off with you, you good-for- nothing fellows ! 217 ^. — Compound Tenses: — Indicative: Present Perfect. Je m'en suis all€ k son insu. / have gone away 7vithout his knoTth ledge. Tu t'en es aU6 sans rien dire. Thou hast gone away without saying a word. II s'en est-allg furtivement. J/e has gone away stealthily. Elle s'en est aU€e toute seule. She has gone away quite alone. Nousnous en sommes all£s a la derobee. We have gone away by stealth. Vous vous en €tes all^s malgre vous. You have gone away in spite, of yourself. lis s'en sent all€s \ ^ ■ ,,,, , Elles s'en sont aUges \ P°"'' toujours. They have gone away for ever. Past Perf. . Je m'en €tais all6 avant lui. I had gone away before him. Past Ant. . Des que je m'en fus alle, il arriva. As soon as I had gone away, he arrived. FuT. Perf. : Quand je m'en serai aU6, il sera tranquille. Whrn I (shall) have gone away, he will be at ease. COND. Perf. : Je m'en serais allg, si j'avais eu le temps. / should have gone away, if I had had time. SuBj. Perf. : II est surpris que je m'en sois allfi si t8t. He is surprised 1 have gone away so early. SuBj. Plupf. ; II etait surpris que je m'en fusse allg si tard. He was sur- prised I should have gone away so late. IRREGULAR VERES. 8i 218 INTERKOGATIVE. Indicative : Present. M'en vais-je' trop lot? A7n I going away too early ? T'eu vas-tu sans mot dire ? Art thoti going away without saying a Word? S'en va-t-il seul ? Does he go away alone ? S'en va-t-elle tout de bon ? Does she go away for good ? Nous en allons-nous ensemble ? Are we going away together? Vous en allez-vous avec nous? Are you going away with us ? S'en Tont-ils faire un voyage ? Are they going to take a journey ? ' Or — Est-ce que je m'en vais? etc. Present Perfect (JPast Indefinite). M'en suis- je all€ trop tard ? Have I gone away too late ? T'en es- tu allfiaveclui? Hast thou gone away with him ? S'en est- il all£ ) la semaine r,j i. i i. \ , . , o S'enest- elle all^e ( derniere? ^"i f^e (she) go away last zoeek ? Nous en sommes-nous all^s trop tot? Have we gone away too early ? Vous en etes- vous all^s avec eux ? Have you gone away with them ? S'en sont- eUes !jl€es | ^" ^""^^^ " ^''"^ ""^y '''"^'^ """"^ •' Past Per/. M'en 6tais-je all6 ? Had I gone away ? etc., and so with the other Compound Tenses. 219 Negative. Inf. Pres. II dit qu'il ne veut pas s'en aller. He says he won't go away. Inf. Per/. 11 regrette de ne pas s'en Stre all6. He is sorry he has not gone away. Indicative : Present. Je ne m'en vais pas aujourd'hui. J do not go away to-day. ^ Tu ne t'en vas pas de bon gre. You do not go away of your own accord. 11 ne s'en va pas volontiers. He does not go away willingly. Nous ne nous en aliens pas. We do not go away. Vous ne vous en allez pas assez vite. You are not going away quickly enough. lis ne s'en vont pas avec vous. They do not go away with you. Imjf. Je ne m'en allais jamais de bon gre. I never used to go away of my own accord. Imperative. Ne t'en vas pas si tot. Do not go away so soon. Ne nous en allons pas ce soir. Let ns not go away this evening. Ne vous en allez pas sans nous. Don' t go away without us. Present Perfect [Past Indefinite). Je ne m'en suis pas all6 chez moi. I have not gone away home. Tu ne t'en es pas all6 chez toi. Thou hast not gone away home. 11 ne S'en est pasealle Chez lui. ) jje {she) has not gone home. Elle ne s'en est pas allee chez elle. I ' * Nous ne nous en sommes pas aU6(e)s chez vous. We have not gone home, Vous ne vous en etes pas all£(e)s chez vous. You have not gone home. lis ne S'en sont pas alUs chez eux ) y,^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ EUes ne s'en sont pas allees chez elles. \ ■' « /'(ZJ^ /i?;7C Je ne m'en 6tais pas encore all£. 1 had not gone away yet. Organic Method. — French. G 82 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 220 Interrogative-Negative. Indicative: Present. Ne m'en Tais-je pas assez t6t ? Am I not going away early enough ? Ne t'en Tas-tu pas aujourd'hui? Art thou not going away to-day -i Ne s'en va-t-il pascesoir? /s he not going away to-night ! Present: Perfect. Ne m'en sois-je pas aU€ ponctuellement ? Ha7)e I not gone away punctu- ally ? and so all other Tenses. 221 Venir, to come, see § 243. II faut Tenir, it is necessary to come. II doit etre venu, he must have tome. Tout en Tenant il me raconta I'histoire. Whilst coming along he told me the story, £tant Tenn trop tard il manqua le train. Having come too late he missed tiu train.- Idiomatic construction of venir : — • (o) Je Tiens de me baigner. I have just taken a lathe. Tu Tiens de te lever. Thou hast just got up, 11 vient de se raser. He hasjttst shaved himself. Nous Tenons de nous promener. We have just been for a walk. Vous Tcnez de vous amuser. You have just amused yourselves. lis Tiennent de s' entendre. They have just come to an understanding, (^) Je Tenais de me baigner. I had just been hathing. Tu Tenais de t'habiller. Thou hadstjust been dressing. (c) Je Tiens lui parler. J come to speak to him. (d) Je Tenais a parler de lui. / chanced to speak of him. 222 Devoir, to owe, to be onis duty, to intend (^morally), to have to, to i>e appointed {bound) to, see § 247. Indicative: Present. Je dois rester jusqu'a demain. I am to stay till to-morrow. Tu dois sortir ce soir. T/tou art to go out this evening. II doit passer Vhiver a Pau. ffe is to spend the winter at Pau. Nous devons y rester toute la joumee. We are to stay there all day. Vous deTez revenir sur vos pas. You are to retrace your steps. lis doiTent se trouver au rendezvous. They are to keep their appointment. Imperfect. Je deT-ais rester jusqu'au lendemain. I was to have stayed until the next day. Preterite. H dut rester jusqu'a minuit. He had to stay till midnight. IRREGULAR VERBS. 83 Present Perfect. J'ai du y aller. I have been obliged to go there. Tu as d4 t'ennuyer i mort. You must have been bored to death. Conditional: Present. Je devrais rester jusqu'a demain. / ought to stay until to-morrow, Tu devrais sortir ce soir.. Thou oughtst to go out this evening. Conditional: Perfect. J'aurais du rester plus longtemps. / ought to (should) have re?nained longer. Je crois devoir vous dire la •verite. / think it right to tell you the truth. Racine doit beaucoup a Euripide. Pacine is much indebted to Euripides. Cela a dti vous chagriner. That 7nust have grieved you. Un fils dolt respect a sou pere. A son owes respect to his father. 223 Falloir, to be necessary, to want^ must, see § 246. Idiomatic constructions :■ — ■ (a) With a iViJw/i-Complement : Indicative: Present. II xae faut du vin. / want {some) wine. II te favLt de I'argent. Thoit wantest (some) money. II lui faut de la viande. He wants (some) meat. II faut une plume a cet ^colier.-^ This pupil wants a pen. II lui faut de I'eau. She wants (some) water. II nous faut des raisins. We want (some) grapes. II vous faut des epiceries. You want (some) groceries. II lour faut des epices. They want (some) spices. I Or — il faut a cet 6colier une plume. and so with other Tenses : — • II me fallait (fallut) bien de I'argent. I wanted 7nuch money, II me faudra beaucoup de patience. J shall want m.uch patience. 11 me faudrait trois exemplaires. / should want three copies. II m'aurait fallu plus de ressourcest I should have wanted more resources. Croyez-vous qu'il me faille un passeport ? Do you think I want a passport ? II ne croyait pas qu'il me fallut uri guide. He did not -think 1 wanted a guide. Interrogative and Negative. Me faut-il tant de bagage ? — Do I want so much luggage ? n ne vous faut guere qu'une valise. You want hardly anyiidng but a port- manteau. Combien lui faut-il d'argenf ? How much money dees he want ? Combien vous faut-il de tapis ? How many carpets do you. want ? G 2 84 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 284 (i) With a Feri-ComTplement in the Infinitive : — Indicative: Pramt. II me faut commencer a midi.' / must begin at twelve o'clock. II te faut revenir tout de suite. Thou must return immediately, 1 1 lui faut rester ju^qii'au soir. He must stay until evening, II lui faut tricoter une paire de has. She must knit a pair of stockings. II Tous faut renoncer a ce projet. You must renounce this project. II leur faut corriger leurs themes. They must correct their exercises. 1 Or elIso without me^ te^ etc., when it is plain from the context luho must, or when used in a general sense : — II faut payer. One must pay. 11 faudra voir cela. 7hat remains yet to be seen. II faut etre patient dans I'adversite. One nntst be patient in adversity. Obs, — If the logical Subject is a Noun, the Subjunctive with que must be used instead of the Infinitive, see if). 225 (c) With que and a Verb-Complement in the Subjunctive: — II faut que je revienne demain. / must come back to-morrow. II faudra que je revlenne. / shall have to come back. II faut (faudra) que tu allies aux bains de mer. Thou must go to the seaside. II faut (faudra) qu'il s'en aille. He must {will have to) go away. 11 faut (faudra) qu'elle se bate de partir. She must (will have to) hasten to start. 11 a fallu (faudra) que nous restions-. We have been {shall be) obliged to stay. II fallut que je revlnsse sur mes pas. I had to retrace my steps. II aurait fallu que tu y allasses. It would have been necessary for thee to be there. 226 Vouloir, will, to -wish, to want, to he inclined {willing to, see § 246. (a) I. Que voule«-vous? What do you want ? Que me votUez-vous ? What can I do for you ? Je veux aller avec vous. / want to go with you. J e voudrals aller avec vous. / should like to go with you. Tu Toulals 1 t'en aller tout You wanted ) to go away Tu aurais voulu J seul. You would have liked \ alone. II voulut absolument retoumer chez lui. He insisted on returning home, Veuillez m'eclairer jusqu'au has de I'escalier. Please {would you be so good as) to light me down stairs. 2. Je vondrais Men vous parler. I should like to speak to you. J'aurais voulu m'embarquer. I should have liked to embark. 3, Quel cheval voulez-vous done? What horse do you want then f je veux mon argent. I want my money, 227 {!}) With the Verb-Complement in the Subjunctive, if the two Verbs have not the same Subject :— Je veux qu'il revienne. / want him to return. II aurait voulu que tu y allasses. He would have liked you to go there. IRREGULAR VERBS. 85 Je ne veux pas que vous lui parliez. I do not want you to speah to him. Que voulez-vous que j'y fasse? What xmuldyou have me do? Obs. I. To wish in the sense of wishing good day, happy new year, etc., is rendered by souhaiter :— Je vous souhaite le bon jour. I wish you a good morning. Obs. 2. Veux-tu bie» te taire ! Do be quiet t Que veut dire ce mot? What does this word mean ? 228 Pouvoir, can, may, to he able, see § 247. Je ne puis pas vous le dire. I cannot tell you, J'aurais pu le faire sans vous. I could (might) have done it without you^ Vous pouvez venir quaud vous voudrez. You may come when you like. PoTirrlez-vous me dire a qui je dois m'adresser ? Could you tell me to whom I must apply ? 229 Idioms: — Je n'en puis plus. T am knocked up. (I am exhausted.) Je n'en peux mais. It is not my fault. Se peut-il que vous soyez si fache ? Can it be that you are so angry ? Puisse-t-il reussir ! Jilay he succeed! Vouloir c'est pouvoir. Where there is will there is a way. Savoir c'est pouvoir. Knowledge is power. 230 Savoir, to know, to know of, to be aware, see § 247. Indicative and Subjunctive. Je sals ce que je veux ; I know what I want ; tu sais ce que tu veux, etc. you know what you watit, etc. Je ne savais pas ce que je voulais. / did not know what I wanted. Je sais le faire. / knew how to {can) do it. [e sais un excellent maltre de musique. I know of an excellent music master. Je sais cette melodic. I know (I can sing, play, etc) this melody. Je vous sais lion grg d'etre venu. / thank you for having come. Je lui sais mauvais gr6 de cela. I am vexed zuilh him for that. Je saiirai bien de quoi il s'agit. I shall know what it is about. II faut que je saclie la verite. I must know the truth, Je veux que vous sachiez i quoi vous en tenir. I want you to know how< matters stand. II a su le persuader. He has managed to persuade him, 231 Croire, to believe, to think, see § 250. 1. Je crois le connaJtre. I think I know him. J'ai cru devoir vous dire. / thought it my dtity to tell you, II a cru bien faire. He thought he was acting properly . 2. Je le crois homme d'honneur. / believe him to be an honest man. ' Je lui crois de grands moyens. I give him credit for great abilities. 3. Croyez-vous ce medecin ? Do you believe this doctor? Croyez-vous aux medecins? Do you believe in uoctorsl 4. Croyez-vous qu'il vienne ? Do you think he will cornel Je crois que non. / think not. Et moi, je crois que si. And I think he will. 85 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 232 Faire, to do, to make, to get, to cause, to order, see § 254. (a) Different equivalents of faire in English : — Je fais mon devoir. / am doing my duty. Tu ne fais pas attention. You do not pay attention. L'abeille fait du miel. The bee makes honey. Nous faisons une promenade. We are taking a walk. Vous faites les malades^ You pretend (feign) to be ill. lis font une partie de whist. They are having a game at whist. Cela fait plaisir \ voir. It is a pleasure to see that. II s'est fait soldat. He has become a soldier. 233 {]}) Verbal phrases composed of faire + a Noun : — Cela fait piti€ (de la peine) a voir. // excites pity to see that. Cela fait mal. That hurts. Vous me faites tort. You do me wrong. Les soldats firent feu. The soldiers fired. ' Je fais cas de cet homme. I value that man. II me fit signe de rester. He beckoned to me to stay. Vous me faites peur. You frighten me. Oil a-t-il fait ses etudes ? Where has he studied? EUes sont allees faire des emplettes^ They have gone shopping. 234 {c) Faire, used to form Impersonal Verbal Phrases denoting the state of the atmosphere. II fait beau temps (mauvais temps). It is fine weather (bad weather), II faisait chaud pendant la moisson. It was hot during the harvest. II fit froid pendant la campagne de 1812. It was cold during the campaign of 1812. II fera humide au mois de Novembre. // will be damp in November. II f erait plus frais s'il ne faisait pas du soleil. It would be cooler if the sun did not shine. Croyez-vous qu'il fasse crotte ? Do you think il is dirty ? Je ne savais pas qu'il fit si sombre. I did not know it was so dark. II a fait bien lourd avant I'orage. It was very sultry before the storm. 11 avait fait de la poussiere. It had been dusty. Des qu'il eut fait des eclairs il tonna. As soon as it had lightened it thundered. Quand il anra fait de I'orage il fera plus frais. When -we have had a storm it will be cooler. II n'aurait pas fait si nuit s'il avait fait clair de lune. It would not have been so dark if it had been moonlight. Quoiqu'il ait fait du soleil, il fait encore de la boue. Although the sun has been shining it is still dirty. Bien qu'il eut fait du vent, les routes n'etaient pas propres. Although it hai been windy the streets were not clean. IRREGULAR VERBS. 87 235 {d) Faire with an Tnfinitive-Com.'pXtra.tnX. : the Infinitive after faire is always used in the Active Voice : — - 1. Je le fais travailler, / make him (cause him to) work. On le fit sortir. They made him go out. 2. A Calais il vous faudra faire visiter vos bagages. At Calais you will have to get your luggage visited, Faites done racommoder vos souliers ! Do get your shoes mended 1 Je me suis fait faire cet habillement I have got this suit made ^.Londres. in London. Ou avez-vous fait reller vos livres? Where did you get your books bound ? lis ont fait repasser leur linge. They have had their linen ironed. Savez-vous vous faire comprendre a Paris? Can you make yourself understood in Paris? Par qui faites-vous faire le jardin? By whom do you get the garden done up ? '236 Idiomatic uses of Avoir : — J'ai bean lui parler, il est sourd de cette oreille. It is in vain for me to sp, to him-, he won't listen to that, J'eus de ses nouvelles. I heard from him. Votre ami a mauvaise mine, qu'a-t-il? Your friend looks ill, what is the matter with him ? II a mal a la tete et mal anx dents. He has a head-ache and the tooth-ache, Vous avez I'air soucieux, avez-vous eu You look anxious, de mauvaises nouTelles de chez vcus ? have you had bad news from home I Quel age avez-vous done ? — How old are you then ? Je n'ai que treize ans. — I am only thirteen. THE ORGANIC METHOD. "I V • i -3 ■S ■a • V > f O «1 o j4 w 2 H H W PS > a 2 b o fll a M ,rt H m .1 6 g t*^ H ►» *> 2 ?, o c u « a J3 £ % j:3 u u C3 ^ H •rH u ■^" N ^ s sis d)t2 - I PS S3 o ^ O t-i H a ° 1 U lu t-, s.'g' I1> ■5 S 0) cfl o « a " !2 S s; a. .!3-S P. 1| oi s M .2 -a s c o ^3 C P4 ■K > p< s S to s OJ >.a. - c S^ > o o ^ S"S ■ •S »<§ fc is. ^ ■a 5: ■a.s is a 3 s ,■ i; ■g-a >: E c 3 > > o. 3 a u , I n u ■•A ^ |i El o o o fi A fi U 3_ 4» -«» s 2 § S i |.g Sm^ •r -H h OSS S N C y-ons y-ez ui-ent acquer- acquer- acquie fi? acquer acquer- acquie assaill- assaill- assaill- cueill-o cueill-e cueill-e --^ 1/5 ^>^ n^-rS C P- — •s f ?f en ■a f ? f - 10 ., fl) U 0) - n ^ « M"*r » » lU •g '5 '3 ^ uie uie uie aill all! aill 333 iil c c & a a tf in a a u o u O V o nun a H fi ce d d -• b •, n S 5 e o .a ^ g. S 1 S & u u O O "•8, T-^ ** -a 3 -s ^ « . op Oi eo ~fc"i 25 .is ■si K-i; S3 fl^'7 P h n IS O [ll o 1-1 •it go THE ORGANIC METHOD. 03 3 H <; Ph P4 J. p >o ■ C4 u ji ^ ■s i V "^ 1 ■s •si i? 1 §* IP It ^5 •s£.2 s ■U " > ■ I 3 1 88 5 o u (^ u u « ^, O 1— > ri d w • i— . V « n «> n 1 4} ■ u -'W •.« n i;-- a ■ ■^ n 4* H 2 .3 lis 1! ;3 1 1 ^ .v •^ «r - K C-^ « « o> 0) s ? QUO P4 i^^ g^ ^« ns 0) V 01 3 3 s g> » » •s •? -p 33 S W4 *» a as ■^ 4^ *» w y m P S,. e is? V i s 1 SsS 5 <^ O u O 1) r 3 3 S .5 1 :3 fi t>* JO «>:3 1 III ■V ■* ■» Hi 28 f aae V 3 , , _iu 3_j .U 3 1 ^o a , u 3^ '~' "^ "^ • •—)■«-) -fH 1 4* 1 1 s 1 t 1 d \ 1 'S! t U 0) > > S 1 o o o u a a ^ .H •p4 . ce -3 « Ml ■& « fc IS g s o IS fa *• 1 .-1 IS e O u 9 3 fe "1 ■a CI Q H 1 = (U Q .2 II «S ^■ ■^J p^ s U f; I-* O 3 &i .^ - « S H 1^ >-< n vi2 -^ 5 ^ :s ^,.-^ a ^ ^ cd .s s ■T r5 ^ U3 3 dj a 3 *? pi s ^" o tH •^ ^ c3 t? t/i IS u I* ^ ^ •c ■d t3 "B S § ^H a ^ XI 1 §• I _n o a i o 5i O Si- « •s - i> d k.' * H t f ? fl a 1 3 " 1 o «> V s U aj .S ■ .s n 10 3 8 •g ill in ill 1 '^ > 1 l" > 1 1 ■e i §" "2 o 1 1 *rl. < r«; .3 I § to 3 w" H P« M H W Yy « o FM 5 3 ' -- ►5 H 2 Pi o < o Ph a to M 91 •^ ^ Is- O H 55 u > ^ S 1 3 M s H rt Oh a « » S P !3 -t s. V 0) o l> ► ► o, .2. in c S 3 I 3 'rt S >- > Ph !> .*" S ■tj •g__. t/} fl •P S N a> » d §5 o o a B N " •2 .« d •si '3 > > > > > > ^ in* „" o u a> ~»i » A< .1 A J U V u s a j-j ,i ::< j^ S '^ SS:i S V <« le d > > > > ► ► 4> 1? S^>^ O 0) (U a' 11 rt "rt "rt *rt !> > >■ > > > o -^ . , tn '-a c a > C >:3 a ■\ •* o ? ¥ ■»" M K^r Ph h h i iii « « 0) d d li ► > >• ► ► >• o 3 __ .S,5r3 .^ t a |o ll rt J- Q^ rt pj 3 S 3 "3 3 i-^ •-i o o cd ti > > > > ^ ■».*■ 4 a 1 .1 •3fc n 1 •S g IS r B > 92 «» 6OT s f; •j; ■s- a .a i C4 ■S.A ^'3 ■*» *s ■ 33 D ■S 5 A. 9^ r;^ "^ '"* THK ORGrt.i-^±V^ IV1Cm1.X1.KJU, n (> » S 2 o o u c« d ■; u » o pH IH IH •-I 1^ ■-« ir4 iH trf Si! .2 S ^^■S 4A 4» 4> o 1) 3 o o o ^ j3 ja i III 1 1 1 'OJ ~aj *(U g ill -O ■CO ■d r75 :;-:— 1 I'll 'Q 'o 'o •g-s-g 1 •if 1 « Sii^ T3 tJ HD voi .PH -.-i .,-t •^ ,_ n a >> a o .i A ^ d M ■ .s rt ' CI. R =» ■isl ^ s P5-5i « ^ -E> ce <4 ..a --^i S le 5| m •d in .b 'o ■§1 1- w j3 [IH 1 !. > Pnn aj rt o ...J.. in g "Si*- ^ » ■3 ? in ? v ^ PI h •d n Pi V "-» """ 1 a o 1 fl ? -ions -iez v-ent 1 a? ions iez ent 1 i > AASi « n n o u V u O s i^^ •g-3-g ■CT3 fl « 10 10 A P< p. w 0) u o •* - aT , ■^ tfl •« > > > H H o ■s-s >^^ i i .d sss u u 0) » » It It IS d d :s h h h « -0 ■« n n n » p., A i i J s; s S^ ST > i .5 C N S o 4j y > >■> sad U (U o SJ >^ h TJ-d -a U 10 p. p. ft P4 C ^:;3 c p-'s a >:=! C !>n3 H ^ •» -* •H .H .^ o o O fff ? .A, A M M*r « 01 -<^ u h h ■d -d ■« u « n Pi P« Pi 0) =1 — , D 3„, OJ S^ ""' — .-- « •s > a a O u 1 ? ■d £ s 1 " 'i tS ^ s ^ s >H u T3 -d n — a Cl, ft 93 A: I i t 2 3 g ??.!=!- ao^ u^j P.O. vT a H ^ W !h H as & vT l«l & >. P., ft, -g p^ fi. ? SI !l a u t "^ tc •■■ i! K « ." i^ eoir, 'assie assiec 1 3 5 av a a .b S " S H !S IB e^ P-. (A 2 o 2 E a 3 u u a> B? K^ > « V V C N « O (U ■ til a a S. ■ ■14' J. I ■ 4> V V as a O « c s g ° > > > 4) .A .r- .p- iS O O O P, > >■ > o 3 — 1' C M - .2.2 S o m >. X >. P-, V U OJ H S en u] w d cl (4 s M H M ■s m -s ~ FL, o « a> o" *-\ CO 01 IB ID «L 10 IB ID % 1 d A li rt ^ » 4^ tfl ^ a H fl ti H >.^^ 9 S _^ p^ SSSi 9 o '3 O O.J!. , n n a i 1 ? H n n i3 S J- g ' 1 1 -i, c8 ea n a rf ggg W c >u c ^ s>;a 1 «r»r - • ■a-av rr r* +J* en v. 4-1 assie assie assie r — 1 '1 sursoi sursoi sursoi 1 ll' « =3^ , S , m s_ ^ ..-.-M .r^ ■■ 1 *^ "^ "* 3 Ms & S a. s. > ■» ,„ » » " IS ^ o .b ^ a o I u K *= • 5 ^ ^ ie-5 n ! 1 Msi I 9 ■'^ V p 94 THE ORGANIC METHOD. n 1 w" H « W H SS S a PL( (< •*. •s ;3 ^ 1 z 1;^ o : Vg ^ .£ ii ^ph- B. SLo; a " a c ^Ot- — , — ' » ^ " a rt a, - •5.6 S- § a A Ssi s % >> « « « g d'S'S i, n 1 u a a 1 ■H O O ( o u u p> c ^"ra c poo h h h U U U s « s fl fl fl d fl fl g H fl o „ „ a a a a gs AAA :4 S ;s P. P. P. !3 ■3. s ■=■ o ■<« ■ So ^ t u a'^ ?5 95 ; S s" > 1 n ' -s r BB 4* -a „~«j. S ^f 1 ? -S-s&t « 7? ,6 ,£ § h h h K U U U ►^ > d e ■^•S,cS s; B l-S ,s ;: ^ 0) ^ * ^■3 .!- 4^" 2 « •3 e ■a 1 s 8 § 1i a a M fl O flj « fl N S S o p .0 .0 n •S s^ 9 y g 000 'o'a o C S 9 S s 5! a 4j a 4> a t> a f f > ^> £■ 0) u absol absol absol r!< i I III fl s g 000 aaa H a tai-s, tai-s, tai-t, boi-s, boi-s, boi-t, croi-s, croi-s, croi-t. conclu conclu conclu u 3^ u 3_ " 5 — "5r3 QB n <• ^ ^ ^ 000 a a a a a 4< g S 51 J) a a ^4) vv vol h h S !_ (D 3_ K t/} M sag s 3 3 i o o o ■H ^ o .Q Is ■o !>. o a^ III 2 ^ ^ ■g ly, g^ 96 S 6 •- s THE ORGANIC METHOD. •s ;r^ > > > .a I .3 as § 2 B ij ■S c ■**•§ ■ I c s ■S.S-o SCO •^ ^ -a •§ J. 3 ij 3 S ■ -a •6,13 N S O tt -lu g ' ■•■ 3 5i u ^ a oT ■• " Si ? 3 s g-g-fe-o-S ■3 •a a o n 4> a H n o » y in a Si u> u v > f- g22 > > (» CI u u H d n a 41 i a a •3 •§ -3 h h u W O o 01 a _j & U U n « M aba fl H fl _ 9 ? ¥ J. DB 4* fl H a O 0) tt a ■ n add u M M .:. -i- i o o o •n "^ "^ n HI « a it a •3 "* •" o o o •i-» ti-j ir-i •n H '^ ill gg§ « o u a pa u « -S -e J. S a a o o o o ■a .3 c •o .s « o £« .|1 I* §-§" 3-a eo «s ei H 4 ■ H H H W PLh 3 5 S a » '^ i: -S -3 -«s .b -a ■a cl S rS ■?: =g S ^ S *o !« !3 ■I ^.1 r^ 4j S? i> -^ 2; 5 jl; • £3 -^ CJ ^ u •a a, j; 8.S e ft, ,« ^ js ■S -2 out) S '^ ^ « ««■?<' .■§ « in !«'<;«) § rt ,(0 eS ',hj ^ ^ - in u ■" i; E3 cS uj O CJ a o u 0) tn ** a H fl o ? u «i HI n 3 fa *» ri a f] o o u o u c > :;3 ^ ^ "Y s 3 ^ il M a C c H a ■ a f !l ;3 Sou d N a otto; > k tf a m a • O U V » -u n .H '^ .A •d "tf -o -(y -oj -tu di-s, di-s, di-t. fai-s, fai-F, fai-t, ■- =i — . V s^ u d — ?. (3 :=i 3 s Uj t/3 Ul ?S fl -S -S fa s 5g fa s* 98 THE OR u (U 1 p s s a R I h 5 i oj- «r O n ? » s ku CB eg Y h h h .^ 4^ V 4^ ^- g N C ■^ s g N C O flj 4) s > > "1 S m ' ■ P P S 'H ID n a •»3 " S ^ N i:: n ;:! S N ? o S fc JJ H » l&g. s s •-> c ^ ? ■qj "oJ &. t^ Li rn 1) n . . . in rend-s, rend-s, rend. Ph renn-e renn-e renn-e linc-s, ainc-s, line, 'a b =i.ac A A p. > > > (U s ^ U =3 ^ i « - g c/i (fl C > > ■M •4 B 1 L4 ^ a & «s «s 0« ■ TION. 9y Ti ►n; o & ^■^ » tn > ri S I" S ^ u OJ > -—, o 1) « u 2 N C Q u ni r^,^ rTl bO c !>':;3 C & o n 0! : 1st Person. Subject. Nous louons leur conduite. We praise their conduct. DiR. Obj. Lemaitre nous loue souvent. The master often praises us. Indir. Obj. L'orateur nous parle. The orator ts speaking to us. 2nd Person. Subject. DiR. Obj. Vous apprenez la lefon. You learn the lesson. Vos cousins tous suivront. Your cousins will follow you. Indir. Obj. Le professeur vous repliquera. The professor Subject. yd Person : Masculine and Feminine. lis (elles) estiment leur maitre. will reply to you. They esteem their master. DiR. Obj. Leur mattre les estime. Their m.aster esteems them. Indir. Obj. Leur parents leur ecriront bientot. Their parents will soon write to them. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. loi 258 Different uses of y, there, thither, to it, at it; en, hence, of it, from it, some, any ; and le, he, it (predicative), so: — (1) Est-ilk Paris?— Qui, il y est. Is he in Paris?— Yes, he is there. AUez-vous au bain? — Are you going to the bath ? — Non, nous n'y allons pas. No, we are not going there. Vas-y aujourd'hui; Go there to-day , n'y va pas demain. don't go there to-morrou: (2) Avez-vous repondu \ sa lettre? — Have you replied to his letter'i — J'y ai repondu il y a liuit jours. I replied to it a week ago. Y comprenez-vous quelque chose? — Do you understand anything about it .?— Non, je n'y comprends rien. No, I understand nothing about it. Renoncez-y ! N'y renoncez pas! Renounce {to) it! Don't renounce (to) it. (3) II vous trompera ; attehdez-vous-y ! He will deceive you ; expect it ! Y avez-vous reflechi? — ^J^y ai refiechi. Have you considered it? — I have considered it. Reflechissez-y bien. Consider it well {reflect upon it). N'y pensez pas. Do not think of it. Y is used with reference to Antecedents denoting things : — ■ (1) Instead of la referring to 2.place mentioned before. (2) Instead of i, lui, a elle ; a eux, a elles. (3) Instead of a ceci, a cela, with reference to a preceding clause or phrase. 259 (l) Viens-tu de Londres? — Are you coming; from London ? — Qui, j'en viens, mais j'y retoumerai Yes, T am coming from there, dans quinze jours. but I shall return there in a fortnight. (2) Est-il content de son sort ? — Is he satisfied with his fate ? — II en est content. He is satisfied with it. Qu'en dite.--vous? — What do you say about it? — Je n'en sais rien. I don' t know anything about it. (3) II fut trompe sans qu'il s'en aper9ilt. He was deceived without being aware of it. Vous vous en repentirez. You will repent of it. (4) A-t-il de I'argent ? — Has he any money ? — Oui, il en a. Yes, he has {some). Avez-vous des plumes ? — Have yott any pins ? — J'en ai de tres bonnes. Yes, I have some very good ones. En voici une meilleure. Here is a better one. Je vous en donnerai une autre. I will give you atiother. Combien d'eglises y a-t-il dans cette ville ? — How many churches are there II y en a sept. in this town ? — There are seven. Prenez-en un pen. N'en prenez pas. Take some. Don't take any. (5) II a renonce k ses passions. — - He has renounced his passions. — Je I'en estime davantage. I esteem him the more for it. I02 THE ORGANIC METHOD. En is used with reference to antecedents denoting a thing: — (i) Instead of de Ijl, frotii there, heiice, to denote the starting-point. (i) Instead of de lui, d'elle, of it; d'eux, d'elles, of titem, etc., with Verbs and Adjectives requiring de before their complement. (3) Instead of de ceci, de cela, of this, of that, referring to a phrase or sentence men-ioned before. (4) Instead cf du, de la, des, some, any, of t!iem, referring to a Noun-Antecedent used in 3. partitive sense. (5} Instead of pour cela, pour cette YBXS(yn.jfor that, on that account. 260 Use and agreement of the Neutral le : — (1) Etes-vous le professeur de musique ? — Are you the music-master? — Oui, monsieur, je le suis. Yes, sir, I am he. Etes-vous la directrice du college ? — Are you the principal of the college ? — Oui, madame, je la suis. Yes, madam, I am she. Etes-vous les delegues de la commune ? — Are you the delegates of the commune? — Nous les sommes. We are. (2) Es-tu malade, mon ami.-' — Are you ill, my friend? — Je le suis. I am-. Etes-vous malades, mes amis? — Are you ill, my friends? — Nous le sommes. We are. Etes-vous directrice, madame? — Are you a principal, madam? — Je le suis. I avi. Votro frfere est revenu hier au soir. — Your brother returned last night. — Je le sais, I know it. LCj the predicative form of the ^rd Person of the Personal Pronoun, (i) takes the Gender and Number of its Antecedent if this Antecedent is a Noitn used definitely ; but (2) remains unchanged if its Antecedent is an Adjective, a Noun used Adjectively or a vukole sentence. 261 Relative position of Object-Pronouns : — (l) Auguste vous a-t-il prete son dictionnaire? — Has Augustus lent you his dictionary ? — ■ II me le pretera demain. He will lend it to me to-morrow. Vous a-t-il montre sa grammaire? — Has he shown you his grammar ? — II nons la montrera ce soir. He will show it to us this eveni7ig. Charles vous a-t-il rendu vos photographies? — ■ Has Charles returned you your photographs ? — II me (nous) les a rendus hier. He \lias) returned them tome (to us) yesterday. Quand te rencontrera-t-il i la gare? — When will he meet -you at the station ? — II m'y rencontrera a midi. He will meet me there at noon. L'epicier vous a-t-il envoye du the? — Has the grocer sent you any tea ?— II m'en a envoye une livre. He has sent me a pound of it. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 103 268 (2) Frederic donnera-t-il son cerf-volant a Jean? — Will Fred ^ve his kite to John ? — U le lui a deja donne. He has already given it to him. Et lui donnera-t-il aussi sa plume? — And ■will he also give him his pen ?— II la lui donnera sans doute. He will ^ve it h im without doubt. Le concierge a-t-il montre les chambres a Jacques -■" — Has the door- keeper shown the rooms to yames ? — II les lui a montrees. He has shown them to him-. Renoncera-t-il k ce plaisir (cette faveur) ? — Will he renounce this pleasure {this favour) ? — II se le (la) refusera. He will deny it to himself. From the above examples we see that a Verb may have two Pronoun-Objects : — one direct and the other indirectt in which case^ (i) The Pronouns of ih^Jlrst or second stand before those of fke third person. (2) If both are of the third person, the Direct Object-Pronoun stands he/ore the Indirect. '- - - Sej himself, . herself itself, theynsehjes, however, always stands first, whether used as Direct or Indirect Object. The above Rules give the following combinations : — 263 (i) II uie le (me la, me les) donnera. He will give it {her, them) to me. II nous le (nous la, nous les) montrera. He will show it {her, them) to us. II te le (te la, te les) pretera. He will lend it {her, thetn) to thee. 11 vous le (vous la, vous les) enverra. He will send it {her, them) to you. II m'y (nous y) a precede. He has preceded me {us) there. II t'y (vous y) a suivi. He has followed thee (you) there. II m'en (nous en) felicite. He congratulates me {us) about it. II t'en (vous en) fera voir. He will show thee {you) some. Elle se le (se la, se les) reserve. She reserves it {them) to herself. Ella s'y soumettra. She will submit {herself ) to it. Elle s'en est procure. She has procured some {for herself). 264 (^) J^ ^^ ^'^ (^® leur) ai dit. I have told it to him {to them). Je la lui (la leur) ai promise. I have promised it to him {to them). Je les lui (les leur) ai envoyes. I have sent them to him {to them). Je I'y (les y) inviterai. J shall invite him, {them) to it. Je I'en (les en) informal. I informed him {them) of it. Je lui en (leur en) ai parle. I have spoken to him {to them) about it. Nous y en porterons. We shall carry some there. 265 Objective-Pronouns with a Verb in the Imperative: — ■ Affirmative {Exception). Negative (Rule). Donnez-le-moi. Give it to me. Nemeledonnezpas. Donoi,etc. Conduisez-nouB-y. Lead us there. Ne nous y conduisez pas. Resigiiez-vous y. Resign yourself to it. Ne vous y resignez pas. With a Verb in the Imperative Affirmative the Objeet-Pronouiis stand after the Verb, as in English, and in the 'same relative position as in English. I04 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 266 Objective-Pronouns with a Verb used— Interrogatively or Negatively. Me le rendrez-vous bierrtSt? — Shall you soon return it to me? — Je ne vous le rendrai que demain. I shall not return it -to you until U-morrow Nous y autorisez-vous ? — Do you authorize us to it? — Nous ne vous y autorisons pas. We do not authorize you to it. Vous en servez-vous encore ? — ■ Do you still make use of it ? — Nous ne nous en servons plus. We no longer make use of it. S'y accoutumera-t-il ? — Will he accustom himself to it ? — II ne s'y accoutumera jamais. He will not accustom himself to it. Iiul en avez-vous parle ? — Have you spoken to him about it? — Je ne lui en ai pas encore parle. I have not yet spoken to him about it. Ne vous le fera-t-il pas savoir ? — Will he not let yo-u know it? — II ne nous le fera savoir que dans huit jours. He will not let us know it until to-day week. 267 Disjunctive Personal Pronouns. (l) Qui a fait cela? — Mai. Who has done that ? — /. Qui devra payer? — Toi. Who will have to pay ? — Thou. Qui est-ce qui viendra ? — Lui. Who will come ? — He. Qui I'accompagnera ? — Elle. Who will accompany him- ?—She. Qui veut du vin ?— Nous. Who wants wine ? — We. Qui traduira cette page ? — Vous. Who will translate this page ? — You. Qui nous conduira ?— Eux. Who will lead us ? — They (m.). Qui vous a dit cela ? — EUes. Who has told you that ? — They (f.). 268 (2) II est plus avance que moi. He is more advanced than T. EUe n'est pas si active que toi. She is not so active as thou, etc. 269 ^^ Moi, qui suis innocent ! /, who am innocent I Iiui, qui a tant travaille ! He, who has worked so hard ! 870 (4) Mon frere, ma sceur, et tnoij My brother, sister, and myself, (nous) sommes alles le trouver. went to see him, Ni lui, ni moi, ne pouvons le faire. Neither he nor I can do it. 271 (S) Ce n'est pas moi qui I'ai fait. It is not I that have done it. Sera-ce lui ou un autre ? Will it be h'e or another ? 272 (^) Celui qui n'est pas pour moi est centre moi. He who is not for me is against me. Je suis Chez moi aujourd'hui. I am- at home to-day. Tu seras chez toi demain. Thou wilt be at home to-morrow. 11 Ferait chez lui s'il pleuvait. He would be at home if it rained. tile a ete chez elle toute la matiuee. She has been at home the whole morning. II n'y a pas de petit chez soi {Proverb'). Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home. Restons chez nous cette aprfes midi. Let us stay at home this afternoon. Serez-vous chez vous ce soir? Shall you be at home this evening? POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 105 Qu'Us restent chez eux, j'y consens. Let them stay at home, I consent to it. Ces dames sont chez elles du matin au soir. These ladies are at home from morning to night. Le moulin est a moi, The mill is mine, as much so, at least, as tout aussi bien, du moins, que la Prusse est au roi. Prussia is the king's. 273 (7) Pense a moi ! — Think of me! — Je pense toujours a toi. I always think of thee. Elle accourut a lui. She hastened towards him. Nous songeons a eux jour et nuit. We think of them day and night. Disjnjtctive Personal ^^ortouns are so called because they are used independently of (disjoined from) the Verb ; they stand — (i) Quite alone, in answer to a question ; ^2) as the second member of a comparison ; (3) as the Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun ; (4) as part of a Composite Subject ; (5) as the Predicative Complement of the Impersonal phrasesC'est, ce Sontj (6) after all Pre- positions; (7) with the Preposition a, as the Adverbial Complement of a Verb of ^notion, and a few others : as, accoutuxner d., to accustom to ; en appeler a, to appeal to ; conrir (accoiu-ir) a, to hasten to; penser i, songer a, to think of; renoncer Elj to renounce ; venir a^ to come to. Obs. — ^Aucun n'est proph&te Chez SOi. No otte is a prophet in his own country. Chacuu travaille pour SOi. Every one -works /or kirns el/. Soi is the disjunctive form of the Reflexive Pronoun se, and is used with reference to an Indefinite Subject. 274 II. — Possessive Pronouns. (For Possessive Adjectives see §§ 43-44.) Ton cheval est plus beau que le mien. Your horse is finer than mine. Tes chevaux sont plus beaux que les miens. Your horses are finer than ■}nine. Ta maison est aussi belle que la mienne. Your house is as fine as mine. Tes maisons sont aussi belles que les miennes. Your houses are as fine as mine. I'Voila mon verre; ouestletien? There is my glass ; where is thine? Voila mes verre s, oii sont les tiens? There are my glasses ; where are / thine? I Voili ma carte et la tienne. There is my card and yours. [Voilk mes cartes et les tiennes. There are my cards and yours. I Est-ce son ouvrage ? — C'est le sien. Is it his (her) work ? — It is his {hers). Sont-ce ses ouvrages? — Ce sont les siens. Are they his {her) works? — They are his [hers). Est-ce sa montre? — C'est la sienne. Is this his {her) watch? — It is his {hers). Sont-ce ses montres ? — Ce sont les siennes. Are these his {her) watches ? — They are his {hers). Votre succes est plus grand que le notre. ) Your success is {successes I Vos succes sont plus grands que les notres. j are) greater than ours. I Votre f aute est pire que la notre. \YLur mistake is {mistakes are] Vos fautes sont pires que les notres. / worse than ours. 105 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Void notre prix; cu est le votre ? H, re is oar prize ; ) lVhereis(are) Void nos prix; oil sent les votres ? Here are our prizes ; \ yours? Void notr« gravure; oil ett la votre? Here is our engraving; where is yours? Void nos gravures ; oil sont les votres ? Here are our engravings; ■where are yours? Sst-ce leur bateau ? — C'est le leur. Is it their boat? — /;" is theirs. Sont-ce la leurs bateaux?— Are these their boats ?~ Ce sont les leurs. They are. Sera-ce leur tache? — Will that be their task ? — Ce sera la leur. It 'will be theirs. S'eront-ce leurs caches? — IVUl these be their tasks ? — Ce seront les leurs. They will. 275 The English Possessive Pronoun or Adjective and the different ways of rendering it in French : — • ^^ (a) Vos amis sont aussi mes amis. Your friends are also my friends. (iS) Cet argent n'est pas a moi. This money is not mine. (i) Cela me fend le coeur. It breaks my heart. EUe s'est coupee au doigt She has cut her finger. II s'eft fait cnuper les cheveux. He has had his hair cut. Vous me marchez sur le pied. You tread upon my toes (foot). (d) J'ai mal a la tete. My head aches. II a les mains pleines. He has his hands full. Donnez-moi la main. Give tne your hand. (e) Quelle belle ville ; j'en admire la What a fine city ; I admire its vieille calhedrale. ancient cathedral. J'aime ces cotes, les falaises en sont pittoresques. I like these coasts, their cliffs are picturesque. if) Le desir que nous avous de vous plaire. Our wish to please you. Obs. — II n'est pas de mes amis. He is not a friend of mine. The English Possessive Adjective or Pronoun is rendered — («) By the French Possessive in cases not mentioned below. (3) By the Personal Pronoun with a if used as a Predicative Complement of the Verb Stre. (.c') By Conjunctive Personal or Rejiexive Pronoun + Definite Article^ with reference to Nouns denoting /flr^j of the body or mental qualities. (tf) By the Definite Article alone, if no ambiguity can arise. (f ) By en + Definite A rticle, if the Antecedent of the Possessive Pronoun is a thing. (/^ By an Adjective Clause, if the N~.ua limited by the Possessive Pronoun has a Complement. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 107 III. — Demonstkative Pronouns and Adjectives. 276 ^a) Ce, t/n's, these ; that^ those; it, they. (i) Qui est-ceS'— C'est lui. Who is it 9— It is he. Ce sont mes seules recreations. These are my only recreations. Ce sont la des questions impossibles. These are (jzcestions i7npossible to solve. Sont-ce la vos belles promesses ? Are these your fair promises ? (2) Qui est cet homme ? — ■ Who is this man ? — ■ C'est mon jardinier. He is my garde^ier. Qui sont ces messieurs ? — Who ai'e these gentlemen ? — Ce sont des Anglais. l^hey are Englishmen, C'est a vous a parler. It is for you to speak. C'est votre affaire. It is your business, (3) C'est semoquer du monde que de parler ainsi. It is joking to speak thus. C'est un beau jardin que le votre, A fine garden yours is. Le vrai moyen d*etre trompes c'est The best way to be deceived is to fancy de nous croire plus fins que les autres. ourselves more ctinning than others. CCj the Neutral (indeclinable) Pronoun is used as the Subject of the Verb etre^ (i) Demonstratively, answering to this^ thai ; these, those; also as a Personal Pro7ioun answering to he, she, it ; they. (2 ) Impersonally : instead of il, when the Complement of the Verb is a Noun, Pronoun or Infinitive. (3) Redtc7idantly : either as a grammatical Subject of etre^ when for the sake of stress the Predicative Complement is placed before the real Subject ; in the example above, for instance, the real Subject is parler^ i.e. To s;peak {speaking) thus is a derision; Or to recapitulate a preceding Substantive Clause used as Stihject or as a Predicate Complement. 277 (i) When to use ce and when il : — C'est un Allemand. Heis a German. II est AUemand. He is German. Ce sont des Alleniands. They arc lis sont AUemand s. They are Gcr- Genna ns. mans. C'est ce medecin. // is this phy- 11 est medecin. Heis a physician. sician. C'est ma mere. // is my mother. EUe est mere. She is a mother. C'est un homme qui est capable de tout. He is a man who is capable of any- thing II est homm e a faire cela. He is capable of doing that. If the Complement of etre is a Noun, use ce, unless that Noun is used Adjectively, in which case il is employed. (2) Vous avez tort, c'est evident. II est evident que vous avcz tort. If the Complement cf etre is an Adjective, then use ce, if the Adjective refers to a , preceding s.'iax^msxit: ilj if the Adjective refers to a /ollowing sta.temGnt. ; io8 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 278 {b) Ceci and cela, this and that. (1) Ceci est bon, et cela est mauvais. This is good, and that is bad. Ceci est soie, cela est laine. This is silk, that is wool. (2) Dites ceci de ma part a votre ami : Tell your friend this from me: "qu'il se tienne tranquille." " Let him be quiet." Que votre ami se tienne tranquille; Your friend had better dites-lui cela de ma part, be quiet ; tell him that from me. Ceci and cela are used -• (i) To denote things simply pointed to, hit not mentioneiH-xlcaist celtd denotes something mentioned before). /XT. e . jj ^ i -,• ^. feed, if tte statement follows ; (2) To refer to a statement, quotation, etc. , \^^^^ -^ jt precedes. 279 (c) Cepoisson-la est plus frais que celui-ci (m. s.). 1 That fish (water) is Cette eau-la est plus fraiche que celle-ci (f. s.). / fresher than this. Ces arbres-lk sont plus hauts que ceiut-ci (m. pi.). ( Jhese'rees (mowz- Ces montagnes sont plus hautes que ceUes-cl (f. pi.). ) tains) a7e iiiglier ° '^ ^ V r / J ^J^^^ these. Ce poisson-ci est moins frais que celui-la. This fish is not so fresh as that. Hnmere et Virgile sont de grands poetes : Hom^er and Virgil are great poets : celui-ci etait Romain, celui-la Grec. the latter was a Roman, the former a Greek. 280 (i) Le port du Havre est plus grand The fort of Havre is larger than que celui de Dieppe. that of Dieppe. Votre traduction est plus facile Your translation it easier que celle que je viens de finir. than the one I have just finished. Celui qtii est content est heureux. He who is content is happy. Celle qui aura fini \a premiere She who has done first sera recompensee. will get a reward. The diflFerence in the use of celui, with or without ci or la, is this — Celui-ci, points to a „Mr^r object ■ thU \ ^ f,,io„^ -V , '„ , Jiaiparle. -7,, ) to whom , , La lemme a qui (a laquelle) ) ■' *^ The woman \ 1 have spoken. Attrib. L'homme ) 4^ i(^„„t)-gj,„l^i3_ The man ) of whom I ,, La femme \. ' j c j/^^ woman \ was speaking. L'homme ) ^^^^ j^ ^^j^ ^^^^^ The man ) with whom I ,, La femme \ ' The woman ) came. Possess. L'homme "1. .,, ,. . ,, The man 1 whose ch'd T J- „ fdont r enfant est malade. rri. ^ X ■ -ii La femme J The woman. \ is ill. So in the Plural: — SuBj. Les hommes (femmes) qui vous demandent. The men [women) who inquire after you. etc. 282 ip) Relative Pronouns referring to Things : — Singular. SuBj. Uniardin ) . a, , A mrden) which (that) is ex- Unemaison i"l'»'™"'«<=l^«'--- ^1««.^- i pensive. DiR. Obj. Lejardin | ■> • -u tv ^ The mrden ) which I have Lamaisoni •»"« ^ ^^ ^'=^^'^(^'- TA. W ( bought. Ind. Obj. Un jardin (m.) auquel 1 j'attache un A garden's , . , „ Une maison (f.) a laquelle ] grand prix. A house ] X attach great value. Attrib. Le jardin (m.) dont (duquel) je jjarlais. The garden\of which ,, La mai on (f.) dont ) . , • The house J I was (de laquelle) P " " speaking. ,, Lejardin par lequelj'ai passe. The garden through i»hich I passid. Possess. Le jardin dont les arbres sent si beaux. The garden the trees of which are so fine. ,, La maison dont la fa9ade est pittoresqne. The house the front of which is picturesque. Plural. SuBj. Lesjardins U„i,^, tig„„g„t_ The gardens) which {that) , , Les maisons J The houses ) belong to vie. DiR. Obj. Des iardins 1 • j' • j Gardens\ which I want to -^ T-i • r qiie ie desire vendre. u \ it „ Des maisons J ■■ Houses ) sell. Ind. Obj. Des jardins (m.) auxquels \- .. Gardens} to which I ,, Des maisons (f.) auxquelles /^* ier\s. ff^^^^^ J attach great value. Attrib. Les jardins (m.) dont (desquels) \. .. The gardens \ ,, Les maisons (f.) dont (desquelles) J ■' ^ ' The houses \ of which- I was speaking. Possess. Des jardins dont \ I'entretien est Gardens \ the maintenance of ,, Des maisons dont / tres couteux. Houses ] which is expensive. no THE ORGANIC METHOD. From the above examples it will be seen that Relative Pronouns referring to Persons differ from those referring to things when they are governed by a Preposition, in which case qui is not used of things : — L'homme Sur qui (sur lequel) je comptais. The man on wkom I relied. Le secours sur lequel je comptais. The Itelp on -which I relied. ogo (c) Lequel, laquelle ; lesquels, lesquelles ; who, which, that. 1. Le mari de la voisine, lequel est malade. The ndghiout' s husband who is ill. La femme du voisin, laquelle est malade. The neighbour' s wife who is ill. Les devoirs des ecoliers, lesquels sont faciles. The fupiVs exercises •which are easy. Les taches des eleves, lesquelles sont aisees. Tlie pupils' lessons which are easy. 2. Le travail auquel je me voiie. ( The labour {labours') to which Les travaux auxquels j.e me consacre. f J devote myself . L'oeuvre a laquelle je contribue. 1 The work {works) to which I Les oeuvres auxquelles je contribue. j contribute. Le lit sur lequel il se coucha. The bed on which he lay do7vn. Les succes sur lesquels il comptait. Thesuccesses on which hereckoned. La ville pour laquelle il est parti. The town for which he left. Les contrees par lesquelles ils cnt passe. The districts through which they passed. 3. Le plan de la reussite duquel tout depend. The plan on the success of which all depends. Les plans pour la reussite desquels je fais des voeux. The plans for the success of which I make vows. L'entreprise sur le succes de laquelle je compte. The tijidertaking on the success of which I rely, Les-entreprises au succes desquellesj'ai contribue. The undertakings to the success of which I have contributed. Iiequel, lesquels, laquelle, lesquelles, must be used instead of qiU, que — (i) To avoid any doubt that might arise as to the Antecedent to which the relative refers ; thus in — ' Solomon fils de David qui fut roi d'lsrael* qui may refer to Solomon or David whilst lequel would only refer to the former, (2) After any Preposition, when the Relative refers to a thitigt^i the Antecedent denotes a person either may be used) see {^). Duquel, desquels, de laquelle, desquelles must be used — (3) Instead of dont when the Noun on wiuch the Relative depends is preceded hy a Preposition. Obs. i. Prenez lequel vous voudrez. Take •jvkich you like. N.B. — ^With a and de the Definite Article contained in lequel coalesces just as it does when standing alone. Ohs. 2. L'homme dont je parle. TJit man I ain speaking of. L'homme que je vois. The man I see. In English a Relative Pronoun used as Direct or Indirect Object may be omitted, but not in French ; nor may the Preposition governing a Relative Pronoun stand at the end of the sentence as is the case Li English. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1 1 1 284 Le temps ou nous vivons. The times in which we live. Au moment ou je vous parle. At the moment at which I am speaking to you. Les endroits par ou nous passons. The places through whichwe arepassinj. Le but ou il tend. The aim to which he tends. Le mauvais pas d'ofi il s'est tire. The scrape out of which he has got. Oil, where, is often used as a Relative Pronoun instead of dans lequel, auquely vers lequelj and after other Prepositions. 285 L'ecolier dont je suis content. The pupil with whom. I am satisfied. C'estun accident dont je suis fache. It isanaccident for -which I am sorry. La famille dont il sort. The family from which he descends. Le succes dont ils se rejouissent. The success at which they rejoice. La maniere dont il s'y prend. The inanner in which he sets about it. As dont is virtually de qui, it follows that it is used with any Noun. Adjective or Verl? the complement of which is preceded by de. The same rule holds good witn respect to en (§ 259) : compare — Es-tu content de cet el&ve ? — C'est un £l&ve dont je suis c o n t e n t. — J'en r.ufs content, Est-il fachd de cet accident ? — C'est un accident dont il est fach^ — II en est fache. Se rdjouit-il de ton succes ? — Cest un succes dont il se r^jouit. — II s'eu rfijouit. SuBj. L'ami dont le conseil est precieux. The friend whose advice is precious. DiR. Obj. L'ami dont je suis le conseil. The friend whose advice J follow, Indir. Obj. L'ami au conseil duquel The friend to whose advice je me soumets. I submit. MtZT whose the Direct Object is placed before the Verb in English, whilst in French it keeps its usual place after the Verb and retains the Definite Article. 286 {.^ Relative Pronouns used (i) absolutely, or (2) with sentences for Antecedents : — (i) SuBj. Voila ce qui m'inquiete. That is what maltes me uneasy. DiR. Obj. Voila ce que je ne comprends pas. That is what I do not understand. Predicate. Je sais ce que vous etes. I know what you are. Ind. Obj. C'est ce a quoi vous devez vous appliquer. That is what you must devote yourself to. Attrib. C'est ce dont je me plains. That is what I complain of. (2) SuBj. lis sont revenus, ce qui n'est pas etonnant. They have comeback, which is not astonishing. DiR. Obj. La banque a failli, ce que j'avais prevu. The bank has failed, (a fact) which I had anticipaleJ. Attrib. II a fait fruit sec, ce dont je ne m'etonne pas. He has been plucked, at which (lit. of which) I am not surprised. Ind. Obj. La guerre est declaree, ce a quoi je m'attendais. War has been declared, just aj (lit. /o which) I expected, ,, Vous croyez le connaitre, en quoi vous vous trompez. You thinkyou Itnow him, in which you are mistaken. „ Nous fumes plusieurs lieues, We walked several leagues, apres quoi nous nous reposames. after which we rested. When a Relative Pronoun refers to (i) TOila, VOiCi, to Indefinite Pronouns, or (2) to whole sentences, then the above absolute forms must be used. 112 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 287 v.— Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives. {a) Used Substantively : — 1. SUBJ. Qui ' a fait cela ? Who has done thai ? DlR. Obj. Qui inviterez-vous ? Whom shaU you invite? ^^ _ I A qui ecrivez-vous ? To whom are you writing 1 IND. UBj. j ^ ^^. g^j ^g domaine? Whose is this estate ? I De qui parle-t-il ? Of whom does he speak? ATTRIB. j jj^ ^^. g^jj^ fj.j.jg J Whose brother is he ? » Or, emphatically— Qui est-ce qui a fait cela ? 2. SuBj. Iiequel (laqjuelle) " de vous m'accompagnera ? Which of you wJl accompany me ? DiR. Obj. Iiequel (laquelle) choisirez-vous ? Which shall you choose? Ind. Obj. Auquel (a laquelle) de ces eleves To which of these pupils parlez-vous ? are you speaking ? Attrib. Duquel (de laquelle) de ces esdaves Of which of these slaves parlez-vous? are you speaking ? ' Or, Plural — lesquels, lesquelles, auzquels, etc. To single out one or more (jbjects from a number, lequel, laquelle, etc., must be used. 3. SuEj. Qu'est-ce qui VOUS afflige ? What grieves you? T)tR Out / Que ferai-je? What am I to do? \ Qu'est-ce que vous voulez? Wh at do you want 7 Ind. Obj. a quoi cela sert-il ? What is that good for? Attrib. De quoi vous melez-vous? What do you trouble yourself about ? Que ? refers to things, and is used as Subject of Impersonal Verbs only ; afier Prepositions it is changed into quoi. 288 (^) Used Adiectively :— Subject. Quel capitaine commandait ce jour-la? What (which) captain was in command on that day ? „ Quels arbres croissent dans ce pays ? What trees grow in this country ? Quelle affaire vous occupetant? What concern engrosses you so much ? ,, Queues incjuietudes vous rongent ? What cares pr.y upon you? D Okt / Q™s1 cheval voulez-vous? Which horse do you want ? ^' \ Quel age avez-vous? What is your age? Ind. Obj. a quel homme cela appartient-il ? To what man does that belong? Attrib. De quel homme s'agit-il? What ?nan is it about? INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 113 289 VI. — Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. (i) On dit qu'elle est morte. One says (they say ; it is said, I am told) she is dead. On me I'a dit ce matin. They told me so {I heard so) this morning. Est-il vrai qu' on me demande ? Is it true thai I am wanted ? A-t-on Sonne ? — Has there been a ring ? — Non, on frappe. No, there is a knock. Si I'on nous entendait ! Suppose anybody should hear us t 290 (2) SuBST. Cbacun (f. cbacnne) a ses defauts. Every one (everybody) has his faults. ( Chaque homme a ses defauts. Every man has his faults. Adj. X A chaque jour suffit sa peine. Sufficient unto the day is the evil ( thereof. Ces ananas coutent deux francs chacun. These pine-apples cost two francs each. Ces oranges reviennent i deux sous cbacnne. These oranges come to a penny each. lis ont paye chacun leur ecot. They have each paid their share. Donnez-leur a chacun leur part. Give them each their share. Us apporterent des offrandes au temple, They brought offerings chacun selon ses moyens. to the temple, each according to his means. On se retira chacun chez soi. They all retired home. Mettez ces livres chacun a sa place. Put these books (each) in their proper places. 291 (3) Subs. Tout ce que vous voudrez. Anything you like. Je vous obeirai en tout. I shall obey you in everything. Tous tant que nous sommes. As many as we are. Adj. Tout homme est mortel. Every m.an is mortal. Tous les jours cela recommence. Every day it begins again. Toute la famille est aux eaux. The whole family are at a watering-place, Toutes les nations d e la terre. A II the nations in the world. Tous les deux (tous deux) viendront. Both will come. _le vous aime de tout mon cceur. I love you with all my heart. Tous les deux jours le bateau Every other day the boat part pour Anvers. leaves for Antwerp. Adv. Nous sommes tout yeux, tout oreilles. We are all eyes, all ears. Elle est toute emerveillee (toute contente). She is quite amazed (satisfied). 292 (4) Personne n'est-il venu ? Has nobody (no one) come? Non, personne n'est venu. No, nobody has come, Ne le dites a personne. Don't tell it to anybody. Je doute que personne le sache. I doubt if anybody knows it. Y a-t-il personne d'assez hardi ? Is there anybody bold enough ? Pas un ne le croit. Nobody believes it. Organic Method.— French. , 114 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 293 (S) SuBj. Rlen n'est plus necessaire. Nothing is more necessary. Obj. II ne fait rien du tout. He does nothing at all. Cela ne fait rien. That does not signify {matter). Y a-t-il rien de si beau? Is there anything so fine? N'y a-t-il rien de nouveau ? Is there nothing new? Qui vous reproche rien ? Who reproaches you with anything? Vit-on jamais rien de pareil ? Has one ever seen a nyth ing like it ? 294 (6) Adj. Adressez-vous a quelque autre personne. Apply to some other person. II vous en cofltera quelques ecus. It will cost you a few crowns. II y a quelque temps. Sovie time ago. Dans quelques aunees. In a few years. Adv. II peut avoir quelque quarante ans. He may be about {some) forty years old. 295 (7) S'il vous manque quelque cbose. If you want anything, je vous le dcnnerai. I will give it to you. Quelque cbose m'a ete dit. I have been told something. II lui est arrive quelque chose de facheux. Something a-u-k- ward has happened to him. A quelque chose malheur est bon. (lit. For something ill luck is good. ) It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good. 296 (8) Adj. Quelque sujet de vous plaindre Whatever subject for complaining que vous ayez. you may have. Quelques difficultes que vous Whatever difficulties you may eprouviez. experience. 297 (9) Adv. Quelque puissant qu'il soit. However powerful he may be. Quelque puissants qu'ils soient. However .powerful they may be. Quelque beUe qu'elle puisse etre. Beautiful though she be. Quelque bien qu'il se conduise. However well he may behave. 298(10) Adj. Quel que soit votre engagement. Whatever your engagement may be. Quelle que soit' leur intention. Whatever their intention may be. Quels que soient vos desseins. Whatever your designs may be. Queues que soient leurs vues. Whatever their views may be. 299 (II) SUBST. II y a quelqu'un k la porte. There is somebody at the door. Quelqu'un (personne) m'a-t-il demande? Has any one in- quired after me ? Voulez-vous des citrons (des oranges) ? — Do you want lemons {oranges) ? Qui, donnez-m'en quelques-ons (quelques-tines). Yes, give me a few. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. US 300 (12) Adj. Une ligne quelconque etant donnee. Given a certain line. Deux points quelconques etant donnes. Any two points being given. II a'y a raison quelconque qui puisse I'y obliger. There is no reason whatsoever that can compel hirn to it. (13) SUBST. Qulconque n'observa pas cette loi, sera puni. Whosoever shall not observe that law -will be punished. Je le protegerai contie quiconque I'attaquera. / shall protect him against whosoever shall attack him. (14) SuBST. Qui que ce soit qui ait fait cela, Whoever he be who has done c'est un habile homme. that, he is a clever man. Je n'y ai trouve qui que ce soit. I did not find anybody. (15) SuBST. Quoi (= quelque chose) que vous fassiez. Whatever you do. 301 (16) Adj. II faut appeler un autre medecin. You must send for some other doctor.^ Revenez une autre fois. Come back again another time. Souvent il est gai, d'autres fois il est triste. Often he is gay, at other times he is sad. Autres temps, autres mceurs. Manners change -with the times. J'ai encore deux autres enfants. I have yet two other children. Pron. Je garde ce cheval et je vous cfede I'autre. I keep this horse and let you have the other. L'un vaut I'autre. There is not much to choose between the two. II paya deux de ses creanciers, He paid two of his creditors, mais il ne donna rien aux autres. but gave nothing to the others. Votre habit est use, Your coat is worn out, il faut en acheter ua autre^ you must buy another. Autre (or autre chose) est promettre, It is one thing to autre (or autre chose) est donner. promise, and another to perform. Tout autre que lui ne s'en serait Any other tiian would not pas si bien tire. have covie off so well. Quel autre s'en serait avise ? Who else would have thought of it? 303 (17) Adj. Ii'une et I'autre saison est favorable. Both seasons are , favourable. Pron. L'un et i'autre sont venus. Both have come. Je veux l'un et I'autre. \lwant them both. Je veux les uns et les autres. j 303 ('^) TRON. Ni l'un ni I'autre ne viendra (viendront). Neither will come. lis ne sont morts ni l'un nl I'autre. Neither is dead. I 2 ii6 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 304(19) Ii'un on 1» autre sera elu. One of the two will lie elected. II est chez I'un ou chez I'autre. I/e is staying with one or the other, 305(20) Ces deux auteurs se louent I'un I'autre. These two authors praise each other. Ces commeres medisent I'une de I'autre. These gossips speak ill of one another. Ces epoux paraissent faits I'un pour I'autre. This couple seems to be made for one another. Aimez-vous les uns les autres. Love one another. lis sont dupes les uns des autres. They are the dupes of one another. lis se succedaient les uns aux autres. They succeed each other. Ces objets cofltent taut I'un dans I'autre. These things cost so much on an average. 306 (21) Nous autres Francais ne sommes pas We Frenchmen are not si patients que vous autres Anglais. so patient as you Englishmen. Cette ville est un autre Paris. This town is a second Paris. II faut, comme dit I'autre, souffrir One must, as the saying ce qu'on ne peut eviter. goes, put up with what cannot be avoided. 307(22) Adj. TJn tel homme ; de tels hommes. Such a man; such men. XJae telle occasion; Such an opportunity; de telles occasions, such opportunities. Tel fut le resultat. Such was the result. Tel mattrCj tel valet. Like master, like man. SUBST. Tel menace qui tremble. Many a man threatens who is afraid. Monsieur un tel ; Madame une telle. Mr. {Mrs.) so and so. 308 (23) Adj. Le meme sujet ; les memes sujets. The same subject [subjects). Moi-meme, toi-meme, Myself, thyself. lui-meme, elle-meme, etc. himself, herself, etc. Cet homme est la valeur meme. This man is valour itself. Adv. Je vous dirai meme. Nay, I must even tell you. Ses eleves, ses enfants meme. His pupils, his very children, I'ont abandonne. have forsaken him. Quand meme il serait venu. Even though he }iad come. Les plus sages meme peuvent se tromper. Even the wisest are liable to be mistaken. Faites de meme. Do likewise. 309 (24) Adj. Maint homme (mainte femme). Many a man {woman). Maintes fois je le lui ai dit. Ma ny times did I tell him so. ADVERBS. 117- ADVERBS. I. Adverbs classified according to their meaning. 310 (a) Adverbs of Time : — Est-il dfija arrive ? — ffas he already arrived? — Non, il n'est pas encore arrive, mais il No, he has not, but he will arrive arrivera demain ou apres-demain. to-morrow or the day after to- 7fiorrow. Ou etiez-vous done hier (au) soir ? — Where were you then last night? A la maison. At home. Et avant-hier? — And the day before yesterday ? — Au theatre. In the theatre. C'est anjourd'liul la foire. To-day is the fair. Autrefois il y faisait bien beau, JFormerly it was very pleasant there, mais maintenant je ne m'y plais^ilus. btit now I don't like the place. 311 {b) Adverbs of Plaie .— Par ou passerez-vous. Which way shall ymt go, par ici ou par la? this way or that way? D'ou venez-vous eomme 5a? — Where are you coming from ? — Je viens de chez moi. l come from home. Je le croyais dedans, il est debors. I thought he was in, he is out. II a mis son domestique dehors. He has turned his servant out of doors. On m'a mis dedans. They have let me in {deceived me). Votre maison me plait mieux Your house pleases me better en dedans qu'en en deliors. inside than outside. Voyez sur la table, cherchez dessus et dessous. Look on the table, search on it and below it. Fassez par-dessons. Pass underneath. Les enfants de I'Sge de deux ans et au-dessous. Children of two years and under. II y a quelque piege la-dessons. There is some snare underneath. Y est-a ? — Is he there ? — II n'est ni dessus ni dessous. It is neither on it nor below it. II avait un habit court et un mauteau par-dessus. He had a short coat and a cloak over it. Au-dessus, etaient ecrits cesmots. Above, the following words were written. Pourquoi toujours revenir la-dessus7 Why always return to that subject? Comme nous I'avons dit ci-dessus. As we have mentioned above. Est-il derriere ou devant? — Is he before or behind? — II est bien loin. He is a long way off. For Adverbs of Quantity, see § 41. ii8 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 312 {c) Adverbs of Manner or Quality : — Comment vous portez-vous? — How do you do ? — Je me porte tres bien, comme vous voyez. I am very well, as you. see. J'en suis fort aise. I am very glad of U. II est venu tout expres, plutot Hehas eome on purposCy rather que de vous laidier dans 1' incertitude. than leave you in uncertainty. II aurait du venir plus tot. He ought to have come sooner. II est tarit soit peu egoiste. He is rather selfish. II a obtenu le premier prix ! — He has won the first prize F — Ah, Traiment? Has he! 313 {d) Adverbs oi Manner derived regularly from Adjeciives : — (i) Cette plante est tr^s rare. This plant is very rare. On trouve cette plante tres rarement. Otie very rarely finds this plant. Sa conduite a ete sage. His conduct has been good. II s'est conduit sagement. He has behaved well. (2) II a le parler franc. His words are candid (He is plain spoken). II parle ft-anchement. He speaks candidly. C'est un hazard heureux (une chance heureuse). It is a fortunate. chance. Heureusement il rencontra son ami. Fortunately he met his friend. (3) I,e renard est prudent. The fox is cautious. II s'y prend prudemment. He sets about it cautiously. Adverbs are formed by — (i) adding -ment to Adjectives ending in a veywet. (2) adding -ment to ^^ feminine form o f Adjectives ending in a consonant. (3) changing into -mment the ending -nt of Adjectives in -ant, or -ent (this is to assimilate -nt to xa). For the historical origin of this formation of Adverbs by means of -ment, see Appendix. 314 Anomalies. 1. Aveugl6ment, blindly', commodfiment, com/sriahly; conform6ment, conformably ; ^norm6ment, enormously ; immens6ment, immensely; opiniatr6ment, obstin- ately ; uniformement, uniformly. The above Adverbs change the e m-ute of the Adjective (aveugle, commode, etc.) into 6. 2. Commun6ment, commonly ; confus6ment, confusedly ; expressdment, expressly ; impor- tun6ment. importunately; obscur6ment, obscurely; pr€cis6ment, precisely ; profond6ment. profoundly; profus^ment, profusely. The above change the feminine ending e of the Adjective (commune, confuse, etc.) into 6. 3. AssidAment, assiduously ; crument, crudely ; dtiment, duly; gaiment, ^az/j'. The above take a circumflex on the final vowel of the Adjective. A, Lentement, slowly ; pr^sentement, /^^-JSM^/y ; vdhementement, vehemently. The above in -ent do not change -nt into m. O^s.— Adj. gentil, Adv. = gentiment j bref and brief. Adv. bri&vement. AUVJiKBa. "9 S § a ■*-< tn I. s f "a «o s^ .ti.-s -yi W) to «a ^-.z/.to. L'art d'accomoder les restes. The art of cooking remains. 325 2. In Apposition : — ■ La ville de Paris est bien administree. The city of Paris is well administered. Un coquin de domestique. A rascal of a servant. Le titre de roi est souvent un vain son. The title of a king is often an emptv sound. C'etait au mois de Juillet. It was in the month of fuly. 326 3. In Possessive (Genitive) Relation, answering the question whose ? of whom ? if what ? : — L'ardoise de I'ecolier a coute un franc. The pupil's slate has cost a franc. La porte du jardin est ouverte. The garden door is open. L'amour d'une mere est inalterable {Subjective). A mother's love is unalterable. L'amour du gain est une passion (Objective). The love of gain is a passion. La crainte de votre ami est mal fondee {Subj.). The fear of your friend is ill-founded. La crainte de la mort est pire que la mort (Obj.). The fear of death is worse than death. 327 (p) De depending on a Verb or Adjective : — I. Indicating origin, extractioti, starting-point, and the like; as, D'ou venez-vous ? — Where do you come from? — Je viens de chez moi. I am cotning from home. Le francais derive du latin. French is derived from Latin. Eliacin sortit du sang des rois. Eliacin sprang from royal blood. Ces vers sont d'Homere. These verses are from Homer. Mazarin etait originaire d'ltalie. Maaarin was a native of Italy, 124 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 328 2. Indicating separation, privation, want: and the like, etc. : as, Leurs corps furent prives de sepulture. Their bodies were left unburied. II ne sait pas distinguer un choux d'un navet. He cannot distinguish a cabbage from u turnip. Je ne saurais me passer de vin. I cannot do without wine. 329 3. Indicating the cause oi feelings or emotions, as — -pleasure, joy, sorrow , fear, anger, and the like : as, Jc suis fache de votre contretemps. I am sorry for your disappointment. I e me rejouis devotre succes. / rejoice a t your success, II s'e tonne de leur opiniatrete. He is astonished at their obstinacy. Ayez pitie de ce pauvre enfant. Have pity on this poor ehild, Vous vous affligez d'une chose You grieve at a thing dent vous devriez vous rej ouir. at which you ought to rejoice. II est honteux de sa basse origine. He is ashamed of Ms low extraction. Repentez-vous de votre faute. Jiepent of your fault. EUe rougit de honte. She blashed for shame, 330 4. Indicating recognition, praise, accusation : as, On I'honora du titre de saint, lyiey honoured him with the title of saint. II fut accuse da crime de lese-majeste. He was charged with the crime of high treason. Son maitre le lone de sa perseverance. His master praises him for his perseverance. Je vous remercie de votre bonte. I thank you fo r your kindness. 331 5- Indicating the manner in which, the instrament with which, something is done : as, Ulysse s'arma d'un pieu. Ulysses armed himself with a stake. lElle j o u e du violon. She plays the violin. 332 6. Indicating providing, filling, covering, adorning, and the like : as, lis remplirent la carafe d'eau fraiclie. They filed t/te decanter with fresh water, Les Alpes sont convenes de neige The Alps are covered with snvw meme en ete, _ , even in summer. Ces sauvages se nourissent de poisson. These savages feed {liv^ on fish. Les arcs de triomphe etment ornes de drapeaux. The triumphal arches were adorned with banners. 333 7. Indicating perception, recollection, discussion (including a great many reflexive Verbs) ; as, Vous apercevez-vous de votre erreur? — Are you aware of your mistake? — Je m'en aper9ois tres bien. I am fully aware of it. Te souviens-tu encore de notre tour en Suisse? Do you still remember our trip in Switzerland? EUe ne se doute de rien. She suspects nothing. PREPOSITIONS. 125 334 8. Indicating in rested of what something is done ; as, lis se sont trompes de chemin. They have mistaken their way. EUe trembla de tout son corps. She trei^ibled all over her body. Avez-vous change d'avis? Have you changed your mind ? II y va de ma vie. My life is at stake. Ohs. — II est aimtf de tout le monde. He is beloved by everybody. It fut tudpar la populace. He was killed by the mob. After a Verb in the Passive Voice de is generally used wlien the Verb denotes a mental- action, par when it denotes a physical ■^c'aa'a. 335 (c) De used in Adverbial Phrases of manner, time, quite independently of the preceding Verb or Adjective : — Je I'aime de tout men cceur. / love him with all my heart. II y va de bonne foi. He acts in good faith. J 'entrerai de gre ou de force. / shall enter by fair means or foul. De cette maniere vous ne risquez. rien. In this manner you risk nothing. II arriva de grand matin. He arrived early in the morning. Nous partimes de nuit. We started by night. II ne m'a pas quitte de tout le jour. He never left 7ne all day long. 336 A, to, at, in, for {also— from, by, on) : — ■ (a) A depending on a Nbuji ; in attributive relation, I. To denote thtf>urJ>ose, fitness, or destination ; as, Qui a invente la poudre a canon ? Who (has) invented gunpowder ? Oil est la boite aux lettres ? Where is the letter-box ? Y a-t-il ici pres une boite a lettres ? Is there a letter-box near here ? Voici le moulin a cafe. Here is the coffee-mill. Vous faut-il du papier a lettres ? Do you want letter-paper ? J'ai fait emplette d'une douzaine de tasses a the. / have purchased a dozen teacups. Un pot a lait. A milk-pot. Le pot au lait. The pot in which the milk is kept. La route de Geneve a Lausanne. The road from Geneva to Lausanne. Son devouement au roi fut exemplaire. His devotion to the king was exemplary, "Voici la salle a manger, Here is the dining-room, et voila les chambres a coucher. and there are the bed-rooms. Un coute a dormir debout. A tale that would send you to sleep, C'est un ouvrage a recommence r. It is a work to be begun again. Une maison avendreoualouer. A house to sell or to let. 126 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 337 2. To denote the characteristic feature^ manner, instrument ; as, J'admire cet enfant aux cheveux blonds. I admire this fair-haired child, L'histoire de I'homme au masque de fer est mysterieuse. The story of the man with the iron mask is mysterious, Les mouUns a vent sont tres nombreux en Hollande. Windmills are very common in Holland. Au bal d'hier j'avais un costume a la grecque. In yesterday's ball I was dressed in the Greek fashion, C'est un homme a pretentions. He is a pretentious man, J'aime le chocolat a la vanille. I like chocolate flavoured with vanille. Nous jouons aux echecs (but — da piano, § 331). We are playing at chess. 338 3. To denote /(7«««i3« emphatically ; as, II a una maison a lui. He has a house of his own. Les poetes du 16' siecle ont un style a eux. The poets of the l6th century have a style of their own. 339 (p) A depending on a Verb or Adjective : — I. To denote the Indirect Object after Verbs of giving, adding, teaching, telling, showing, and the like ; answering the questions — to whom ? for whom ? as, Elle a devoue sa vie a ses enfants. SAe^as devoted her life to her children, J ai adresse ma petition auministre. I have addressed my petUion to the -,, , ,. minister, 11 donne son bien aux pauvres. She gives her own to the poor, Elle enseigne les langues a ses eleves. She teaches languages to her pupils, 340 2. To denote the Complement after Intransitive Verbs and Adjectives denoting fitness, likeness, etc. : as, Avez- vous repondu asa lettre ? 'Have you replied to his letter ? Les enfants reconnaissants obeissent a leurs parents. Grateful children _„ , , , „ , obey their parents, Lile ressemble a sa grand mere. She resembles her grandmother. Trop fumer nuit a la sante. Smoking too much is injurious to health. La reine Christine renonja an trone. Queen C. renounced the throne. Louis quatorze succeda a Louis treize. Louis XIV. succeeded Louis XIII. Ne vous fie z pas a cet homme. Don' t trust this man. L'avocat conseilla a son client de ceder. The lawyer advised his client to yield. Cette couleur plai t aux yeux. This colour is pleasing to the eyes. Songez a vos affaires. Mind your business. La copie est conforme a 1' original. The ropy is conformable to the original, Ce vieux Juif est apre augain. This old ycw is greedy for gain. TREPOSITIONS. 127 341 3. To denote the Indirect Object after Verbs of taking, asking, removing, borrowing, wanting, and the like; answering the questions from whom 2 from what ? as, On a enleve le pfere a ses enfants. These children have been deprived of ihtir father. H demanda de 1' argent a mon p^re. He aiked his father for money. Le marchand de Venise emprunta The merchant of Venice borrowed de I'argent au Juif Shylock. money of the few Shylock. II fant beaucoup d'argent a ce prodigue. This spendthrift wants lots of money, 343 4. To denote the Possessor after the Verbs Stre, appartenir ; as, Le moulin est a moi, tout aussi bien, The mill is mine, as much soi du moins, que la Prusse est au roi. at least, as Prussia is the kings. 343 (c) A used to form Adverbial phrases independently of the preceding Verb or Adjective : — I. Answering the questions .^(^ze' ? wherewith 2 as, II lui paria a la d€rob€e. He spoke to him, (to her) secretly. On voit bien que cela a ete fait a la hate. // is easy to see that this has be(n "■ done in haste. C'est bien a regret que nous renon9ons It is much to our regret a cette place. that we renounce this situation, Avez- vous fait cela a desseim ? — Have you done that on purpose ? — Au contraire, monsieur. On the contrary, sir. Le canon etait charge a mitraille. The cannon was loaded with grapeshot. Cela est dessine a la plume. That is a pen-and-ink sketch. Elle travaille a 1' aiguille. She is doing needlework. Irez-vous a pled ou a cheval ? Shall you walk or ride ? Cela se vend a la livre. That is sold by the pound. 344 2. Answering questions when ? on what occasion ? as, Au commeiiceiuent je n'y voyais goutte. At first r could not see at all. A la fin je m'impatientai. At last I lost patience. Je partirai a I'instant. / shall start instantly. Nous nous levons a ciuq heures du matin. We rise at five o'clock in the morning. A ces mots elle se mit a pleurer. At these words she began to cry. A son arriv^e il fut bien accueilli. On his arrival he was well receive i. 128 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 346 3. Answering the questions where 1 where to? whither? how far? before nanaes oi places (but not countries, for which see en and dans § 346) ; as, II est a la maison; elle est a I'^glise. He is at home; she is ai church. C'est a dlx lieues d'ici. It is ten leagues off. Mon onde est a la campagne. My uncle is in the country. II fut trouve au bord du chemin. He was found by the roadside. 11 est assis a cote de vous. He is seated beside you. 346 Dans and en ; in, inside, at. Dans in a determinate sense i;jimth a determinate adj.) : — 347 En in a general sense {floith- out a determinate adj.) : — (fl) With regard to place, answering to the question where ? as, 11 demeure en France. II demeure dans la France meridio- nale. He lives in Southern France. Nous avons beaucoup vu dans notre voyage. We have seen much in our journey. C'est dans la guerre de Crimee qu'il fut bless^. It is in the Crimean war that he was wounded. Dans la ville de Paris. Inside the city of Paris. Thiers fut enferme dans la prison de St. Mazas. Thiers was shut up in the prison of St. Mazas. Dans cette bataille il y eut un grand carnage. In this battle there was a great slaughter. 11 est dans votre secret. He is in your secret. Dans sa fureur il ne menagea rien. In his fury he spared nobody. He lives in France. lis sont en voyage. They are on a journey. Ces tribus sont toujours en guerre. These tribes are always at war. Je crois que nous dinerons en ville. I think we shall dine out. Blanqui passa presque toute sa vie en prison. Blanqui passed tiearly all his life in prison. Les troupes etaient rangees en bataille. The troops were drawn up in battle array. Dites-lelui en secret. Tell it him in secret. Le taureau harcele entra en fureur. The goaded bull became furious. 348 (*) With regard to time, answering to the question when ? how long? as. Cela arriva dans la meme annee. That happened in the same year. J e finirai ce travail dans quinze jours. / shall finish my work within a fort- night. Dans huit jours. In a week. Victor Hugo est ne en 1802. Victor Hugo was born in 1802. Je iinirai ce travail en quinze jours. It will take me a fortnight to complete this work. D'aujourd'hui en huit jours. To-day week. fKiiFUbillUJNS. fzg Ois. Ois. XSn must be used in preference to dans after diviser;> chang^eT i— , II faut diviser celaen trois parties. Vim micst divide that into three parts. La femme de Lot fut cllangde en sel. Lot^s iiii/e -was changed into salt. II m'a parld en maitre. He spoke to tne as one having authority. Ilia traita en esclave. He treated her as a slave. Je Tous conseille en ami. / advise you as a friend* 349 Dans, in, inside, within: — Le pare du Regent est dans Londres (dans la villa de L.). Regent s Park is inside London. Dans chaque maison il y a une cuisine. In every house there is a kitchen. II y a deux cents lits dans cet hopital. There are 200 beds in this hospital. 351 Avant, before, with regard to time or order : — Je me leve avant six heures, J rise before six o^clock. Je le desire avant tout. I desire it before everything. 353 ApreSj after (time or order) :- II arrrva apres nous. He arrived after us. 355 Entre, between, among:- Soit dit entre nous. Be it said between ourselves. Ces animaux s'entre'-dechitent. These animals devour each other. 357 Snr, on, upon, aver {from, towards) : — Le cbateau est bSti sur le rocher. The castle is built n the rock, Frankfort est situe sur le Main. .Frankfort is situated on the Main, L'armee est sur pied. The army is n foot. L'aigle planait sur la valle?. The eagle was hovering over the valley. Organic Method. — French. 350 A, at, in, present at : — Mon ami est-il a Londres? — II n'est plus a la ville, il est a la compagne. Is my friend in L, ? — He is no longer in town ; he is in the country, Est-il a la maison? — Non, il n'y est pas. Is he at home ? — No, he is not. Le poete Gilbert mourut a Thopital. The poet Gilbert died in a hospital. 352 Devant, before, with i*gard to place : — ■ ■ *. La fontaine est devant I'hotel de ville. The fountain is in front of the town-hall. Allez droit devant vous. Go straight before you. 354 Derriere, behind (place) : — L'ecurie est derriere la niaisbn. The stable is behind' the house. 356 Parmi, among, in the midst J'ai trouve ce billet parmi lines papiers. I found this note among' my papers. L'ivraie est melee parmi le bon grain. The tares are mixed with the whtat. 358 Au-dessus de, above, beyond, ttpwards of: — C'est aii-dessus de lios forces. It is above our strength. Les eleves de douze ans et au-dessus. ^Thepupils of 12. years cmd upwards. 359 Par-dessus, ow^?-.' — ' Mettez cela par-dessua. Put that over it. ' ' ■ 13° THE ORGANIC METHOD, Cet appartement donne stir le jardin. Thissuiteof rooms looksuponthegarden. La terre se tourne sur elle-meme. The earth revolves on its axis. Ne jugez pas sur les apparences. Dotit judge from appearances. 361 Sous, under {in, before) : — II s'assit sons un arbre. He sat down under a tree. -Les taupes vivent sons la terre. Moles live under the earth. Cela se passa sous le regne de Henri IV. That happened in the reign of Henry IV. C'est defendu sous peine de la vie. It is forbidden on pain of death (lit. of life). Cela s'est passe sous nos yeux. That happeiKd before our eyes. 364 Vers, towards, about : — Toumez-vous vers moi. Turn towards me. EUe leva les mains vers le ciel. She raised her hands towards heaven. II mounit vers la fin du siecle dernier. Hf died towards the end of last century. Les hirondelles arrivent vers le prin- tenjps. The swallows arrive towards spring. 367 Pres, procbe (de), near, close: — Sa maison est pres du clxemin de fer. His house is near the railway. Ambassadeur de France pres le saint siige. Ambassador of France to the Holy See. II demeure h. Passy, pres Paris. He lives in Passy, near Paris. II est bien pres de midi. It is very near twelve o^ clock. 360 De-dessus, from the top of.-'-— Enlevez la poussiere de-dessus ces livres. Remove the dust from these books. 363 Au-dessous (de), dessous, below, beneath, under : — J'ai cherche inutilement dessus et dessous le lit. I looked in vain on tlie bed and under it. Sa taille est au-dessous de la taille ordinaire. He is undersized. Cet emploi est au-dessous de lui. This office is beneath him. Obs. — On a tir^ cela de dessous la table. They dragged tkat /rom beneath the table. 363 Par-dessous, under, under- neath : — II avait un <:ilice par-dessous ses vetements. He had a hair-shirt under his gar- ments. 365 Envers, towards (as regards feeling) : — II est charitable envers les pauvres. He is charitable to the poor, 366 Contre, against, contrary to: — Marchons contre I'ennemi. Let us 7?iarch against the enemy. Cela est contre son habituHe. That is contrary to his habit. 368 Aupris de, near, with, to : — La riviere passe aupres de cette ville. The river flows near that town. L'ambassadeur de sa Majeste aupres du roi de Prusse. Ambassador of his Majesty to t!ie King of Prussia. II a libre acces aupres du prince. He has free access to the prince. Votre mal n'est rien aupres du sien. Your complaint is notfiing to his. PREPOSITIONS. 131 U est alle loger proclie lo (proche du) palais. He has taken up his abode near the palace. II m'a noirci anpres du ministre. He has traduced me in the opinion of the minister. 369 Depais, since, from (time and place) : — II n'a pas mange depuis hier. He has not eaten anything since yesterday. La France s'etend de I'est a I'ouest, depuis les Vosges jusqu'a rOcean. France extends in the direction of east to west, fro m- the Vosges as far as the Ocean. 370 Des, from = t!> start from : — Des aujourd'hui le train de Paris arrivera k huit heures. From to-day the Paris train will arrive at ei;^ht o^clock. J e vis bien des lors oil il voulait en veiiir. / saw •well from that time what he was driving at. 371 Par, by, through, out of: — Je passerai par Calais. I shall pass through Calais. Par ou s'cn est-il alle ? — Par ici. Which way has he gone? — This way. Par bonlieur le train s'arreta a temps. Fortunately the train stopped in time. Od allez-voiis par cette pluie-la ? Where are you going in this rain ? It a fait cela par crainte. He did that through fear. Le coiirrier arrive deux fois par se- maine. The mail arrives twice a week. 372 A travers, au travers de, across, athwart, through: — ■ lis allerent a travers (les) cliamps. They went through the fields. II se fit jour au travers des ennemis. He cut his way through the enemies. On voit le jour au travers des vitres. One can see the daylight through the window-panes, Je vols clair au travers de toutes ses finesses. / can see through alt his cunning schemes. 373 Volci, here is, here are : — Voici le percepteur (les percepteurs). Here 'is the tax collector [here are the tax collectors'). Nous voici quatre. Now there are four of us.. Je vous apporte I'ordre que voici. I bring you this order here. 3/le voici J que voulez-vous? Here. I am ; what do you want ? Nous voici a la fin de I'hiver. JVow we are at the end of winter, Voici venir le printemps. Now the spring is coming. Voici de quoi se composait son bagage. Th is is what his luggage consisted of. 374 Voila, there is, there are : — Voila I'homme que vous demandez. Th ere is the man you want. Ah, vous voila dej.a de retour ! Oh, here you are again! lies beaux sentiments que voila ! Fine sentivients these are! Vous voulez de I'argent ; en voila. You want money ; here is sovie. Le voila qui arrive. There he comes. Voila qu'on Sonne ! There! some one is ringing, Du pain et du lait, voillt. son de- jeuner de tous les jours. Bread and milk, that is his break- fast every day. 132 -XHE ORGANIC METHOD. CONJUNCTIONS. 375 I. — Co-ordinative, i.e. Conjunctions which link words or Co- ofdinate (^Independent) Clauses : — Et le riche et le pauvre, et le faible et le fort, Both the rich andfoor, both the weak and strong, Vont tous egalement des douleurs a la mort. Hasten alike from sufft.rings to death. II ne faut 6tre ni prodigue ni avare. One must be neither prodigal nor avaricious. Personne ne peut-U nous voir ni nous entendre ? Can anybody either see or hear us ? Ni lui ni son frere ne sont coupables. Neither he nor his brother is guilty. 11 passa cinq jours entiers sans manger ni boire. He spent five whole days ■without either eating or drinking. lis ne savaient lequel ils devaient Theydidnctknowwhich-mosttoadmire: admirer davantage: ou un roi de whether {either) a king of Sweden Suede qui a r3.ge de vingt-deux who at the age of twenty-two gave ans, donnait la couronne de Pologne, away the crown of Poland, or the ou le prince qui la refusait. prince who refused it, Ainsi que le soleil dissipe les nuages, Just as the sun dispels the clouds, ainsi la verite detruit le mensonge. thus truth defeats falsehood. Nou-seulemeut il n'est pas savant. Not only is he not learned, mais il eat tres ignorant. but he is very ignorant. Tant en paix qu'en guerre. Both in peace and war. On disait qu'il ne viendrait pas, It was said he was not coming, cependant le voici. yet here he is. II est encore tres jeu'ne, et n^anmoins He is still very young, and yet il est fort sage. he is very well behaved. Tantot il vent une chose. Sometimes he wants one thing, tantot il en veut une autre. another time he wants something else. Plus la haine est injuste, plus elle est cruelle. The more unjust hate is, the more cruel it is. 376 II- — -Subordinaiive, i.e. Conjunctions which link Subordinate {Dependent) Clauses with the Principal Sentence : — (a) With the following Verb in the Indicative or Conditional ; as, I . Je ne sais pas si elle viendra. I do not know whether she will come. Je ne savais pas si elle viendrait. / did not know whether she would come. Si elle arrive pendant mon absence. If she arrives during my absence, dites-lui d'attendre. tell her to wait. II y a deux ans que .(= depuis que) / have not been to France je ne suis venu en France. for two years. Quand je le voudrais, je ne le pourrais pas, 1 Though (even if) I or, Je le voudrais que je ne le pourrais pas, / would I could not do it. Quand il viendra, remettez lui ce billet. • When he comes, deliver him this note. J'en jugerai lorsque je serai mieux infonne. I shall decide on it when I am better ii formed. II avait le secret de plaire He had the secret of pleasing, lors meme qu'il contredisait. even when he contradicted. CONJUNCTIONS. 133 877 2. A peine fdmes-nous arrives, Hardly had we arrived que I'orage eclata. when the storm burst out. II est prodigue, aussi est-il He is prodigal, consequently he is crible de dettes. over head and ears in debt. Peut-etre ne viendra-t-il jDas. Perhaps he won' t come. S'il ii'a pas reussi, toujours Though he has not succeeded, at any rate a-t-il fait son devoir. he has done his duty. S'il n'est pas riche, du moins Though he be not rich, at least esf-t-ii k son aise. he is in easy circumstances. After the above Adverbial Conjunctions, as also after encore, even then ; aussi bieUj a plus forte raison^ with stilt more reason ; tout au plus, at most ; the Verb is placed be/ore the Subject 378 3. Les hommes se jugent ma], Men ^misjudge each other, parce qu'ils te meconnaissent. because they do not know each other. Puisque vous le voulez, faites-le done ! Since you wish it, do it th,n. Je ferai comme vous dites. I shall do as you say, II faut battre le fer pendant One must strike the iron while (tandis) qu'il est chaud. it is hot. J'en userai avec lui, selon qu'il I shall treat hitn according as en usera avec moi. he treats me. II s'amuse, tandis que nous travaillons. He amuses himself whilst we on the contrary are working, II vous ressemble, si ce n'est He bears a strong likeness to you, only qu'il est plus petit. he is shorter. Je ne saurais vous accorder cette permission, I cannot grant you this permission, attendu que mes ordres s'y opposent. inasmuch as it is contrary to my instructions, Ne vous genez pas, restez ici Make yourself at home, and stay here tant que vous voudrez, as long as you like, 379 ip) With the following Verb in the Subjunctive, see § 91 ; as, Je vous le dis afin que vous le sachiez, I tell you iji order that you may know it. Approchez que (= afin que) je vous parle. Come nearer in order that I may ipeak to you. On le fera quoique vous en disiez. It shall be dotie whatever you may say, Je vous le dis quoique vous le sachiez deja. / tell it to you though you know it already, Quoi que ce soit qu'elle dise. Whatever she may say, elle ne me persuadera pas. she will not persuade me, Eneas qu'elle soit malade, In case she should be ill, remettez la lettre au domestique. deliver the letter to the servant. Encore qu'il soit jeune, il ne laisse Young though he be^ he is nevertheless pas d'etre fort sage. ^ very well behaved. J'y consens, pourvu que vous fassiez I consent to it, provided you take les premieres demarches. the first steps, Romulus disparut sans qu'on sflt Romulus disappeared without it jamais de quelle maniere il avait peri, everbeing known how he had perished, Bien qu'il soit pauvre, il est content. Although he is poor he is content. 134 THE ORGANIC METHOD. Que sert d'amasser a moins qn' What is the good of hoarding unless onnejouisse? - om enjoys on^s fortune ? Pour peu que vous m'aimiez, Tf you Ivue me ever sp little, ne me parlez plus de cette affaire, don't talk to me any more about this business, Ouque voUs soyez, j'irai vous rejoindre. Wherever you be, I shall join you. Voltaire mourut avant que la Voltaire died before the revolution franfaise eclatat. French Revolution broke out. Cachez-vous, de crainte qu'il ne vous trouve. Hide yourself,' lest he should find you. Malgre qu'il en ait, nous savons son secret. In spite of him we know his secret, Cachez-lui votre dessein, de peur Conceal your design from him, (de crainte) qu'il ne le traverse. lest he should thwart it. Amusez-vous a lire en attendant qu'il vienne. Amuse yourself with reading until he comes. 380 {c) With the Verb in the Indicative to denote an accomplished fact, or in the Subjunctive to denote a contingency ; as, Que cela soit, je n'en disconviens pas. That this is so I do not dispute. S'il est malade et qu'il soit empeche de venir... If he is ill and prevented from coming... II a travaille de fa9on que son He worked so that his muster maitre est satisfait de lui. is satisfied with him. Qu'il travaille de fafon que son maitre soit satisfait de lui. Let hitn work so that his master may be satisfied with him,. Vous ecrivez de maniere qu'on You write so that one ne peut dechiffrer votre ecriture. cannot decipher your writing. llcrivez done de maniere qu'on puisse le lii-e. Do write so that one / may read it. 381 {j^ With the Verb in the Infinitive ; as, II le f ais afin de vous obliger. / do it to oblige you. II est assez riche pour se passer cette fantaisie. He is rich enough to gratify this fancy. Reflechissez toujours avant d'agir. Always reflect before cuting. « A moins d'etre fou il n'est pas It is not possible to argue possible de raisonner ainsi. thus, unless one be a fool. Agissez, au lieu de vous amuser a des riens. Act instead of trifling away your time. Apres avoir depose la couronne. After having resigned the crown, Charles quint se retira dans uu convent. Charles V. withdrew to a convent. ].a garnison se rendit sans coup ferir. The garrison surrendered without striking a blow^ Taisez vous de crainte ds I'offenser. Do be silent, lest you should offerul him. Iioin de me remercier il m'a dit des injures. So far from thanking me he insulted me. Faute d'avoir ete prevenua temps, Forwant of having been informed in time, je ne pourrai m'y rendre. I shall not be able to go there. Je mourrai plutot que de le souffrir. I will rather die than submit to it. Je le feral de maniere a le satisf aire. I shall do it so as to satisfy him. tUJNJUJNUTiUJNb. 135 382 Que does duty either as a Conjunction, an Adverb, or aS a Relative Pronoun in so many different ways that it calls for separate treatment : — I. II dit que c'est vrai. He says {that) it is true. Je suis certain qu'il viendra. I am sure [that) he will come. Le fripon qu'il etait, m'emporta mille francs. The rascal that he was, he ran away with a thousand francs of mine. , L'homme que j'ai vu. The man (that) I have seen. Que used as a Conjunction to link a Dependent Substantive Clause, or as a Relat. Pron. to link a Dependent Adjective Clause, to its Principal Clause may not be omitted in French. 383 2. 11 est plus riche que vous. He is richer than you. II est aussi riche que vous. He is as rich as you. Un homme tel que lui (see § 307). Such a man as he. 384 3- II "6 fait que boire et manger. He does nothing but eat and drink. Je ne veux que le voir. I only want to see it. II ne fait qu'aller et venir. He does nothing but run hither and thither. II ue fait que de sortir. He has but just gone out, Qu'il vienne ou non, cela m'est egal. Whether he comes or not, it is all one to me, 3054. Que (= combien) de fois je suis venu ici! How many times I have come here! Que (= combien) de services il m'a rendus ! What services he has rendered me ! Que n'attendez- vous ? ( = ponrquoi n'attendez-vous pas ?) Why don't you wait ? Que ( = pourquoi) tardez-vous ? Why do you delay ? Que (= a quoi) sert dese flatter? What is the good of flattering one's self I Le jour que (= ou) cela est arrive. The day on which that happened. A peine eus-je pris la parole, qu' Hardly had 1 begun to speak, (= lorsqu') il m'interrompit. when he interrupted me. Je n'eus pas plus tot dit cela que I had no sooner said that than (= avant que) jem'en repentis. I repented. Voila bien longtemps que (= depuis que) It is now long since je ne lui ai parte. I spoke to him. L'hiver qu' (= pendant lequel) il fit si froid. That winter when it was so cold. 386 5. Comme il etait tard et qu' (= comme) As it was late and as they were on craignait la chute du jour, on partit. afraid of nightfall, they started. S'il vient et qVil veuille rester, If he comes and {if ) he should dites-lui que je n'y suis pas. want to stay, tell him- 1 am not in. In like manner que is also used instead of other Conjunctions (see 3) to avoid their repetition in two or more consecutive clauses. 136 THE ORGANIC METHOD. 387 6. il ne fait point de voyage qu' ( = sans qu') He never takes a journey bui il ne lui arrive quelque accident. sovie accident happens to him. Retirez-vous qu' (= de crainte qu') Withdraw, lest il ne vous maltraite. he should ill-treat you . II ne pent rien resulter de vos projets Nothing can come out of your que (= excepts) des malheurs. projects but misfortunes. Que is used, for the sake of brevity, instead of other Conjunctions ; as, quand^ si, and all those compounded with que, as, lorsque, depuis que, etc. 388 7- Cest une belle chose que de garder le It is a fine thing to keep a secret (= Garder le secret est une belle chose). secret. Ce sont des qualites necessaires pour Gentleness and firmness are indispens- regher que la douceur et la fermete able qualities for reigning. (= La douceur et la fermete sont des qualites necessaires). Que is used redunii^znily (generally as a correlative to C'est, ce sont, see § 276) before the logical subject when the latter is placed at the end of the sentence, for the sake of giving more prominence to the Predicate. In this respect que may be said to stand for a colon : C'est un% belle chose : garder le secret. APPENDIX. 389 GENDER OF NOUNS. The Gender of a Noun may be ascertained either (a) by its meaning, (6) by its derivation, or (<:) by its termination. (a) Gender determined by the Meaning. Feminine: — (4) The names of Females, Virtues and Vices, Flonrers and Fruits, Holy days ; (5) Countries, Towns, a^d Rivers ending in e mute : — la femme, woman ; la charite, charity ; I'avarice, avarice ; la luxure, lust ; la tulipe, tulip ; la poire, pear; la St. Jean, St. jfohn's {Midsummer) Day. la France, Constantinople, la Seine. Masculine : — (1) The names of Males, Mont&s, Seasons, Days, ^Vinds, Trees, Metals, and Moun- tains ; (2) Countries, Towns, and Rivers not ending in e mute ; (3) Other Parts of Speech used substantively : — ■ un homme, fnan J le mai, May ; le prin temps, spring ; le lundl, Monday ; I'aquilon, north- wind ; le poirier, pear tree; le f er, iron ; le Vesuve, Vesu- vius. le Danemark, Paris, le P8 ; le boire et le manger, eating and drinking. Principal Exceptions : — to (4) le courage, I'egoisme, le vice, to (5) le Bengale, le Hanovre, le Mexique, le Peloponnese ; le* Caire, le* Havre ; le Danube, I'Ebre, I'Euphrate, le Gauge, le Rhone, le Tage, le Tibre. * A few names of towns, quite ex- ceptionally, take the Definite Article. 390 (b) Gender ascertained by Derivation. Principal Exceptions: — to (l) la caution, security ; la connais- sance, acquaintance ; la dupe, dupe ; la flute, flute-player ; la pratique, customer ; la recrue, recruit ; la sentinelle, sentinel; la victime, victim ; une aube- pine, hawthorn; Vehenejeiony ; I'epine, spine ; la vigne, vine ; la yeuse, holm-oak ; la bise. north-wind ; la brise, breeze ; la mousson, monsoon. Feminine : — Nouns derived from Latin Feminine Nouns : — la justice, la voix, la main, la face. Masculine : — Nouns derived from Latin Masculine* and Ncutert Nouns : — le poete, le livre, I'exemple, le corps, le'lac, etc. (N.B. Nearly 92 per cent, of French Nouns have the same Gender as in Latin — reckoning French Masc. as the substitute for Latin Neuter. See Dawson and Fry's French Genders.) APPENDIX. 391 Principal Exceptions: — * Among Nouns in -eur derived from Latin Masculine Nouns ending in -or, only I'hoiinenr, le labeur, les pleurs remain Masculine in French, all the others have become Feminine, as, — la faveur, la chaleur, la fleur, etc. t A certain number of Nouns in -e (about 120), although derived from Latin Neuter Nouns, are Feminine in French. This anomaly has been attributed to their frequent occurrence in the plural, the endings — a, ia — of which caused them erroneously to be assimilated to the Feminine Noims of the First Latin Declension : — la grenouUle {r3.nunciilum) /rog^. la feuille (pi. folia) leaf. la graine (granum) leeif. i'horloge (horologium) c/oci. I'huile (oleum) oil. I'idole (idolum) idol. la joie (pi. gaudia) joy. la jument (jumentum) marf. la levre (labrum) lip. la merveille (pi. mirabilia) marvel. I'orge (hordeum) barley. la pointe (punctum) point. la promesse (promi;-sum) promis::. la reponse (responsum) answer. la vitre (vitrum) pane. la peche (persicum) peach, etc. I'amande (amygdaltmi) almond. I'arme (pi. arma) arms. I'armoire (armarium) wardrobe la bible (pi. biblia) Bible. la cervelle (cerebellum) brains. la cymbale (cymbalum) cymbal. la date (datum) date. la dette (debitum) debt. , I'enseigne (pi. insignia) ensign. I'encre (encaustum) ink. les entrailles (pi. interanea entrails. I'ecritoire (scriptorium) inkstand. 1' epitaphe (epitaphium) epitaph. I'epithete (epithetum) epithet. I'etable (>.tabulnm) stables. I'etude (studium) study. »92 (c) Gender determined bv the Termination. Masculine : — Nouns ending in — (6) a sounded vowel or diphthong — a, €, i, o, n, on, etc. (7) b, c, d, g, h, 1, p, q, z (without exception) ; f, m, n, rj s, t (with exceptions). (8) -aire (L. arius, arium) ; -ment (L. mentum) ; -age (L. ati- cum) ; -gge (L. egium) ; -isme, -asme, -iste (L. ismus, asmus) ; -cle (L. cuius, culum), -ome, -eme. L'opera, opera; le cri, cry ; le the, tea; le numero, number; I'ecu, shield {dollar) ; le bateau, boat ; I'essai, trial ; le jeu, game ; etc. Le sue, sap ; le fard, paint ; le joug, yoke ; le sol, soil ; le cap, cape ; le nez, nose. Le suif, tallow ; I'essaim, warmth ; I'examen, examination ; le jour, day ; le tas, heap ; le toit, roof, Le dictionnairc, dictionary; le ser- ment, oath , le voyage, journey ; le cortege, procession ; le Fchisme, schism ; I'article, article ; etc. Feminine : — Nouns ending in — (9) e mute preceded by vowel or diphthong ; -lie, -gne, -sse, -ine j -ance, -ence, -ace, -ade j -ude, -une, -ure ; -iere, -oire. (10) -ion, -son, -^on, -x. (11) -eur, -te, ti6 (if abstract). La rosee, dew; la raie, streak; la pluie, rain, etc.; la bataille, battle ; la campagne, coun- try ; la crosse, £«>«»-,■ la cuisine, kitchen ; la Constance, constancy ; la science, science ; la place, picu:e ; la salade, salad; I'etude, study; la luue, vioon ; la culture, culture; la caf etiere, coffee-house ; la memoire, mtmory. La nation, nation ; la maison, house ; la lefon, lesson ; la voix, voice. La peur, fear ; la piete, piety ; la pitie, ■ Jnty. e to. to neglect to. to offer to. to omit to. to order to. to forget to. to forgive for. to permit to. to persuade to. to prescribe to. to urge to. to request to, to promise to, to propose to. to recommend, to refuse to, to regret to. to rejoice in. to thank for. to reproach for, to resolve to. to laugh at. to run the risk of. to blush to, to summon to. to suspect of. to entreat to. to attempt to. L 2 I4S APPENDIX. 404 AGREEMENT OF THE PARTICIPLE PERFECT WITH ITS OBJECT. Special Rules.— («) The Past Participle of Transitive Verbs conjugated with avoir, and of Reflexive Verbs, agrees in Gender and Number with its preceding Direct Object. ^ Obj. ■ P.P. — Agreement: (I) Voici le livre, I'avez-vous lu ? Voici la lettre, I'avez-vous lue ? Voici les livres, les as-tu lus ? Voici les lettres, les as-tu lues ? EUes se sont lavees (repenties). Voici le livre que j'ai lu. Voici la lettre que j'ai lue. Voici les livres que j'ai lus. Voici les lettres que j'ai lues. (3) Quelles lettres a-t-il regues ? Combien de lettres a-t-il refues? Que de lettres il a re9ues ! P.P. — > Ohj.- No Agreement : Non, je n'ai pas lu le livre. Je n'ai pas encore lu la lettre, Je crbis avoir lu les livres. Oui, ce matin j'ai lu les lettres. Vous avez fait des fautes dent vps ennemis ont profite. (See § 97, b.) Pourrais-je jamais oublier temoignees ? II a re^u les lettres de son ami. II a re9u trois lettres. 11 a re9u beaucoup de lettres. la confiance et I'amitie que vcus m'avez 405 {b") The Past Participle agrees with its Direct Object only; it «£»■»- agrees with an Indirect (Remoter) Object : — Direct Object — Agreement : EUes nous (vous, les) ont sulvis. EUes se sont devouees. EUes se sont xaontrges genereu-es. J'abandonne toutes les esperances que j'avais coufues. Indirect Object — No Agreement : EUes nous (vou?, leur) ont repcudn. EUes se sont procure un billet. EUes se sont arrog€ ce droit. II a eleve plus de monuments que d'autres n'en ont detruit. Anomalous Cases. — The above Rules admit of no exception ; the seeming anomalies only arise from peculiarly constructed sentences in which the real Object is not easily discernible : — ' An Object may precede the Verb in the following cases only : — (i) as a Conjunctive Personal or a Reflexive Pronoun : xne, te, le, la j UOUS, vous, les, (2) as a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun : quCj lequel, laquelle, etc. (3) as a Noun qualified by— quel, cosabien de, que de. AGREEMENT O? PARTICIPLE PERFECT. 406 ■ i'^) A Past Varticiple folliKvecl by an Infinitive — 149 (l) agrees if the preceding Object is really the Object of the Past Parti- ciple, and not of the Infinitive ; as, Je les ai vus frapper. / saw them striking. Les acteurs que j'ai entendus chan- ter. The actors I heard sing. Je les (i.e. les enfants) ai laiss^s manger. / have allowed them to eat. Les hommes n'ont jamais plus admire les sino;es que quand ils les ont vus imiter les actions humaines. (2) does not agree wilh. the preceding Object if this latter is the Object of the Infinitive, or of the Infinitive and Past Participle combined ; as, Je les ai vti frapper. /saw them struck^ i.e. I saw {some one) strike them. Les airs que j'ai entendu chanter. The tunes I have heard sung. Les acteurs que j'ai eAtendu siffler. Je les (i.e. pommes) ai laiss6 manger. / have allowed them to be eaten. J'approuve les changements que vous avez jug6 a. propos de falre. (' Changements' is the Object of faire, and not of juge.) Compare also — Les lettres que j'ai cosnmenc^es. Les questions que j'ai r^solues. Les lettres que j'ai commence a lire. Les questions que j'ai resolu de lui adresser. 407 ^^^ "^^ ■^^^' I'^'"'i'^'pls °f falre, followed by an Infinitive, never agrees, because it forms with this Infinitive one Verbal Phrase on which alone the Object depends :- Je les ai fait desceudre. Les livres que j'ai fait reller. Louis XIV. a protege les arts que Francois le^ avait fait naitre. / have made (caused) what? — Their coming down. I have made (o7'dered) what? — The binding of books. Louis the Fourteenth patronized the arts which Francis the First had introduced. 408 (^) A Past Participle followed by a Substantive Clause remains unchanged, because this Clause is its real Object ; as, La lettre que j'ai presume que vous recevriez est enfin arrivee. I have surmised what? — That you would receive a letter. It follows that a Past Participle, preceded and followed by que, never agrees. Obs. 1 to (_d) and {e). An Injiniiive or a Sicbsta-ntive Clause (understood) may be the implied object of a Verb (especially dii, vu, VOUiU, pu, su), in which case no agreement of the Past Participle can take place : — Nous ne vous avons pas rendu tous les bons offices que nous aurions VOUlu ^ mais seulement I ceux que nous avons pu,^ Reudre understood. 156 APPENBIX, Obs. a. Thus also a Past Parliciple preceded fcy the Neutral Relative Pronoun IC referring to a Verb, Adjective, or to a n;^>& Clause, remains unchanged ; as. 409 (/) The Past Participle of Impersonal Verbs remains nnchanged, because they are really Intransitvve, and their Noun-Complement is logically their Subject and not their Object ; as, La grande secberesse qu'il a fait.^ The great drought that has praailed. Que de travaux il a f alia pour endi- What work it Ims required to embank guer ce fleuve ! this river I 410 '^^ '^^ ^^' Participle of a Verb, the completion of which answers the questions how long? how much? etc., and which is virtually an Adverbial phrase, remains unchanged ; as, Les trois annees que j'ai v^cu i The three years I have spent in Paris. Paris. Les efforts que ce travail lui a coute. The efforts that this work has cost. Obs. The agreement with a Noun qualified by le pen de depends on the meaning :— lie peu d' affection que vous m'avez The want of affection timt yon have shown t6moign6. Le peu d'affectlon que vous m'avei WJuit little affection you Itave shown me. t^moignie. * Faire is here used idiomatically, as an equivalent of etre. 411 FORMATION OF ADVERBS. " We are told by French Grammarians that in order to form adverbs we have to add the termination -ment. Thus from bon we form bonnement j from Trai, true, vraiment. This termination does not exist in Latin. But' we meet in Latin with expressions such as bona mente, in good faith. We read in Ovid ' Insistam forti mente,' / shaJl insist with a strong inind or will, I shall insist strongly ; in French 'J'insisterai fortement.' Therefore, what has happened in the growth of Latin, or in the change of Latin into French, is simply this : in phrases such as forti mente, the last word was no longer felt as a distinct word, and it lift at the same time its distinct pronunciation. Mente, the ablative of mens, was changed into ment, and was preserved as a merely formal element, as the termination of adverbs, even "in cases where a recollection of the original meaning of mente (with a mind) would have rendered its employment perfectly impossible. If we say in French that a hammer falls lourdement, we little suspect that we ascribe to a piece of iron a heavy mind. . . ." Max MijLLER, Sc'.ence of Language, i, 2nd section. INDEX. N.B. — The Numbers refer to Scctmis. a, contr. with le, les, 27 — 30 ; v ith Infin. 109 — 10 ; uaes of, 336 — 45, 35° a; an, 38—39 ; = par, 371 able, to be, 228 — 29 ; 247 about, adv. 294; prep. 364 above, 358 absolu, absondre, 251 according as, 378 Accusative, 14 — 15; 22; 257 — 66; 281—2 ; 286—8 acquerir, 239 across, 372 Adjectives, Determinat. 21 ; Possess. 43 — 44 ; Demonstr. 45 — 46 ; of quality, 48 ; fem. of, 48 — 56 ; com- parison, 57 — 61 ; used adv. 319 Adjectival relation expr. by de, 324 ; by a, 336—8 Adjectival phrases, 35 Adverbs of quant. 41 — 42 ; classif. 310—14 ; expr. by a, 343—5 Adverbial phrases, 35 Affirmation, Adv. of, 316 afin de, with Infin. 381 afin que, with Subj. 91 ; 96 ; 379 after, conj. = apres with Infin. Ill— 2; 140; prep. 353 against = centre, envers, 366 a ie, how expressed, 236 s'agir de, to be at stake, 207 ainsi, 375 all, 38 ; 291 aller, 212 — S ; s'en aller, 216—22 ; y aUer, 324 already, 310 although, 91 ; 96 ; 379 among, 355—6 Anterior Past, 133 — 141 another, 301 any, partitive, 40 — 2 ; 300 anybody, 292 — 3 ; 300 ; any one, 299 any more, 12 — 13 anything, 291—93; 295 a peine, 140 apercevoir, 247 appartenir a, 342 . appeler, 195 Apposition, 39 ; with de, 324 apres, prep., 353; conj. with Inf., Ill — 2 ; 381 apres que, conj. with Anterior, 140 aptness, expr. by a, 336 Article, Def , 21 — 35 ; Indef., 38 — 39; Partit., 40—42 asseoir, 248 assez de, 41 — 42 as = comme, 368 ; = que, 383 ; 386 a=i a, 348 ; as soon as, 140 assaillir, 240 at = de, 329 ; = a, 337 ; 344—5 ; 347 ; 350 athwart, 372 attendant que, en, 379 au, aux, 27 — 8 ; 30; 321 aussi...que, 3S3 aussitot que, with Past Ant., 140 au-dessous de, 362 au>dessus, 311 ; aU'dessus dc, 358 anpres de, 368 auBsi, adv., 58 ; conj., 377 autant de, 41 — 42 autre, 301 — 6 INDEX. autrefois, 310 Auxiliary Verbs, 5 — 6 ; used to form comp. tenses, 116 — 188; synopt. table, 189 — 90 • avant, 351 avant de, conj. with Inf., Ill — 2; 381 avant que, conj. with Subj., 91 ; 379 avoir, f roid, f aim, etc. , 69 ; comp. lenses formed with, 118; conjug., 189 ; see also Aux. Verbs ; y avoir, 123; idioms, 236 aware of, to be, 230 ; 247 bad, badly, compared ; 315 bas, used adverbially, 319 battre, 255 to be, expr. by avoir, 69 ; expr. by faire, 234 be it that, 96 beaucoup de, 41 — 42 beaucoup, compared, 378 before, adv., 311; prep., 351 — 2; 361; conj., 91; 96; 112; 379, 381 because, 378 behind, adv., 311 ; prep., 354 believe, to, 231 ; 250 below, adv., 311 beneath, prep., 362 — 3 b€nir, 196 beside, prep., 345 best, better, 315 between, prep., 355 beyond, prep., 358 bien que, with Subj., gi ; 379 boire, 250 bon, compared, 315 ; used adverbi- ally, 319 borrowing, verbs of, talie a, 341 both, 38 ; 291 ; 302 ; 375 bouillir, 238 braire, 254 broad, how, 65 bruire, 256 but, adv., 317 ; but just, 384 : but = que ue ; 388 by = par with Inf.; iii — 12 ; =; de, 33S; =a, 34S; =P". 371; by the pound, 343 can, 228 — 9 ; 247 care, to take, 3 18 cas que, en, with Subj., 96 case, in, 96 ; 379 cause to be done, to, 232 ce, ces, cet, cette, dem. adj., 45 — 47; 275 — 7; dem. pron., 277 ce...ci...la, 45 — 46 ce qui, 286 ceci, cela, 278 celui-ci, -la, 278 chacun, chaquCj 290 ceindre, 252 cent, 62 cependant, 375 cesser, 318 (2) chance to, to, 221 (d) change one's mind, to, 324 characteristic featm-e = a, 337 Cher, used adverbially, 319 cbez, 372 ci-dessus, 311 Clair, used adverbially, 319 clore, 256 cold, to be, 69 coxubien, 41 — 42 cone, to, 221 conune and comment, comp., 312 Comparison of Adj., 57, 61 ; of Adj. and Adv., 315 Complement with de, 327 — 34 ; with a, 339 Compound Tenses, with avoir, llS ; with etre, 126, 129 ; see also Table of Contents concevoir, 247 conclure, 250 Conditional Pres., 82—86; Perf., 152 — 162 conduire, 253 Conjugation, see Table of Contents Conjunctions, 375 — 88 ; requiring the Subj., 96; requiring the Past Ante- rior, 140 connaitre, 249 conqu€rir, 239 consequently, 377 construire, 253 centre, 366 contraindre, 252 contrary to, 366 coudre, 251 INDEX. 153 coarir, 244 couvrir, 241 craindre, 252 crainte de, de, with Inf., 381 ; crainte que, de, with Subj,, 96 ; 379 CToire, 231 ; 250 croitre, 249 cneilliry 240 CTiirej 253 dans, 346 — 8 dark, in the, 321 Dative case = a, 339 — 42 davantage, 61 ; 315 Dates, how expr., 361 de, coalescing with le, les, 23—6 ; 30; 35 ; after Superl., 61 (7) ; after Numerals, 65 ; with Inf. 106 — 8 ; 324—35 dedans, 253 dgduire, 253 deep, how, 65 dehors, 311 dgja, 310 demain, 3 TO Demonstrative Adj., 45 — 47; Pron., 276—80 depuis, 369 ; depuis que, 123 derriere^ adv., 311 ; prep., 354 des, contr. of de + les, 23—6 ; 30 des, prep., 370; des que, conj., 140 Destination, expr. by a, 336 dessous, 311 ; 362 dessus, 311 ; de dessns, 360 d^truire, 253 devant, adv., 31 ; prep., 352 devoir, 222 Dimensions, how expressed, 65 dire, 254 Distance, how expressed, 321 do, to, 232— S ; 254 dont, 281 — 6 doors, out of, 311 dormir, 238 Doubt, V. of, with de, 317 ; with Subj., 90 dn, contr. of de + le, 23 — 26 ; 30 •duire, v. in, 253 each, 290 ; each other, 38 ; 305 ; 355 €clioir, 246 fclore, 256 Scrire, 253 either, 303 ; 318 ; 375 elle, disj. pron., 269—73 Emotions, V. of, with de, 329 en, pron., 259 ; 263 — 6 ; en and le = son, 275 ; en, prep., 347—8 encore que, conj., 379 enfreindre, 252 enough, 41 — 42 entre, 355 enrers, 365 et...et, 375 espSrer, igj essayer, essuyer, 19S etre, 190; in comp. tenses, 118; 129; etre a, 342 eux, disj. pr., 267—73 even, 309 ; even when, 376 evening, in the, 321 ever so little, 379 every one, 290 ; every other, 291 everything, 291 expres, 312 Extraction, expr. by de, 324 — 7 far from, so, 38 1 fa^on que, de, 96 ; 380 faillir, 245 faire, 232 — 4; 254; with Inf., 235 fait, il, 206 ; 234 falloir, with Subj., 93 ; 223 ; 246 fashion, in the, = a la,' 337 faut, il, 223 — 5 ; 246 faute.de, 381 faux, used adverbially, 319 fear of, for, iii — 12 fearing, V. of, with ne and Subj., 317 ; with de and Inf., 329 ferme, used adverbially, 319 feeling, V. of, with de, 329 feindre, 252 Feminine of Adj., 48 — 55 f^rir, 24s few, 294 ; 299 fitness, expr. by a, 336 fleurir, 196 following day, on the, 321 for, prep., = de, 329—30 J = ». 34° IS4 INDEX, formerly, 310 fort, adv., 312 frire, 256 from = de, 327—35 ; 357 ; 360 ; 369 —70 front of, in, 352 fuir, 238 Future, Pres., 77 — 81 ; Perf., 142— 151 get done, to, 536 Genitive, expr. by de, 324 — 6 g€sir, 24s Giving, V. of, with a, 339 go away, to, 216 — 20 good, compared, 315 gaere...ne, 12 — 13 li, when silent and when aspirate, 21, Obs. hair, 196 hardly, 140 ; 377 ; hardly ever, 12 haut, used adverbially, 319 have, to, Syn. table, 189 ; to have to, S22 ; to have just, 221 (o) he = il, 257 ; lui, 267 hear from, to, 23^ her, 14 — 17; 20; 257 — 66; hers, 43 —44 here, 373 hier au soir, 3 10 high, how, 65 him, 14 — 17 ; 20 ; 257 — 65 his, 274 — 5 how, 385 ; how much, how long, how far? 321 — 2 home, 311 ; 372 however, adv., 257 J conj. with Subj., 92 hungry, to be, 69 I = je, 257 ; = moi, 267 if, 380, 385 ; if ever so little, 96 il, 257 ; comp. with cc, 277.; il y a, 208 — II Imperative, 20 ; 96 — loi Imperfect, Indie, 66 — 70; Subj., 92 — 96 Impersonal Verbs, 206 — 11 in, prep., = de, 326—33 ; 33S ; = a, 34S ; = dans or en, 346—50 ; = sous, 361 ; used adverbially, 311 inasmuch as, 378 indebted, to be, 322 Indefinite Pronouns, 289 — 309 Indefinite Past, 71 — 76 Indirect Obj. with a, 339 ; 41 Infinitive, Pres., I, 102; Perf., 182 — 5 ; pure, 103 —5 ; with de, lOo — 8 ; with a, 109 — 10 ; with other prep., III. After aller, 215; venir, 221 ; devoir, 222 ; falloir, 224 ; vouloir, 226 ; pouvoir, 22b ; savoir, 230; croire, 231 ; faire, 23s , inside, adv., 311 ; prep., 346 instead of, 381 instruire, 253 Instrument, expr. by de, 331 ; by a, 337 Interrogative, constr., 7 — 10; 17 — * 18 ; Interrogative- Negat. constr., 13. 19 Interrogative Pron., 287 — 8 into, 348, Obs. introduire, 253 Irregular Verbs, 212 — $6 it, pers. pr., subject, 257 — 9 ; obj., 14 — 17; 257v-66; impers., 206 — 1 1 ; demonstr., 276 itself, 309 inversion of Verb and Subj., 377 jamais, 12 — 13 jeter, 195 Joindre, 252 Joy, V. expressing, with de, 329 jour, joum^e, 321 just as... thus, 374 juste, used adverbially, 319 know, to, 230 ; 347 la, def. art. and pron., see le la-dessous, la-dessus, 311 last night, 310 le, la, les, def. art., 21 — 35; indef. art. in English, 39 (3) IN DEX. I5S le, la, les, pers. pron., 14 — 15 ; 17—18 ; 20 ; 257—66 least, 315 ; at least, 377 lendemain, le, 321 lequel, laquelle, etc., relat. pron., 282 — 5 ; interrog. pron., 287 less, 41 ; 315 lest,' 96 ; 317 ; 379 ; 381 ; 388 leur, poss. adj., 3 ; 43 ; le leur, poss. pron., 274 leur, pers. pron., 16; 257 — 66 little, adv., 41 ; 315 lieu de, au, 381 like. ..like..., 307 likewise, 309 lire, 250 loin de, 3S1 long, how, 65 ; as long as, 378 look, to, 236 lors m^ine, 376 lorsque, with Past Ant., 140 ; 376 lui, conj. pers. pron., 16-5 20; 257 ; 262 ; 264 ; 266 lui, disj. pers. pron., 267 — 273 luire, 253 maintenant, 310 make, to, 232 — 5 ; 254 uaal, compared, 315 malgr€ Que, 96 ; malgrg qu'U bn ait, 379 maniere a, de, with Inf., 11 1 — 2 maniere que, de, with Indi^. or Subj., 380 manner, expr. by de, 331, 335 ; by a, 337 many, 41 mauvais, compared, 315 may, 228 — 9 ; 247 me, 14 — '16 ; 257 — 66 meilleur, 60; comp. 315 meme, 308 mener, 19J mentir, 238 mettre, 255 midst of, in the, 356 mien, le, 274 — S mieux, 315 mine, 62 mind, to, 317; 340 mine, 274 — 5 my, 3 : 43—44 moi, conj. pers. pron., 20; 265; disj., 267—73 moindre, 61 ; 315 moins, 58-59; 61; 315; — de, 41—42 ; au — , 377 mains de, a, 381 ; — que ne, 96 ; 379 months, 'names of, 64 more, 12 ; 41 ; — , most, 315; the —...the— ,375 moudre, 25 1 mourir, 244 mouvoir, 247 much, 41 — ^42 ; comp. 315 must, 223 — 5 ; 246 naitre, 249 ne, 317 — 8 ; ne...pas, point, etc., II— 13; ne...que, 12; 384 n€, 249 nganmolns, 375 near, 368 necessary, to be, 246 Negation, Adv. of, 316 — 18 Negative Conjugal , 11 — 14 ; 130 — 132 neither, 303 ; 318 never, 12 — 13 nevertheless, 379 nl I'un ni I'autre, 303 ni...ni, 375 no, 38; 41 — 42; — longer, 12 — 13; — sooner, 140 nobody, 12 ; 292 — 3 non, 316 ; — seulement, 373 nor, 318 not, 11—13 ; 38 ; 316—8 ; —anything, 12; — either, 318; — now, 12 — 13 ; 318 ; — only, 375 ; — yet, 310 nothmg, 12 ; 293 ; 318 ; — but, 3S4 ; 388 notre, 3:43-44 notre, le, 274 Nouns, see Table of Contents; compd. "• 336 nous, conj. pers. pron., 15 — 16 ; 257 — 66 ; disj. pron., 267 — 73 now is (are), 373 nuire, 253 Numbers, Numerals, 62- 65 'S6 INDEX. Object, -Pronoun, 14 — 20, 339 — 41 ; -Noun, 22 ; 27 obliged, to be, 222 of, 24—26; 30—31; 35; 257—9; 324—35 off, 3" ; 345 offrir, 241 oindre, 252 on, indef. pr., 2S9 on, prep. = de, 329 ; 332 ; = a, 343—4; = en, 347 ; = sur, 357 ; 385 one, 62; -thing... another, 301; -an- other, 38 ; 305 only, 378 ; 384 order to, in, ill — 112 ; -that, gr — 96; 379 order to be done, to, 232 Origin, expr. by de, 324 — 7 other, 301 ; 305 oil, adv., 311 ; used relatively, 284 ; ou...que, 379 ou, conj., 375 ought to, 222 oni, 316 ouir, 2^ our, posr. adj., 3 ; 43—44 ours, poss. pr., 274 — S out, outside, adv., 311 out of, prep., 371 ouvrir, 241 over, 311 ; 357—9 owe, to, 222 own, of my, 338—9 paitre, 249 par, = a, 39 ; with Inf., Ill ; 371 par dessous, 366 ; par dessus, 359 ; par ou, 371 paraitre, 249 parce que, 378 parmi, 359 Participle, Pres., I ; 113 — 15 ; Perf., 124—5; 133—41; 186—8 partir, 238 pas, ne, 11 — 13; 316^18 ; pas de, 41 — 42; pas encore, 310 pas si (aussi), 59 ; pas plutot que, 140 ; pas un, 292 Passive Voice, 197 — 8 Past Anterior, 135 — 8; 140; Past Indef. 71 — 76; 117 — 23 peine, a, 377 peindre, 252 pendant, 378 Perception, V. of, with de, 333 percevoir, 247 perhaps, 377 Personal Pron., con]., 14 — 20; 257 — 66 ; disj., 267—73 personue...ne, 12 ; 292 peu, de, 41-42 ; comp., 315 peur de, de, with Inf., m — 12 peur que ne, de, with Subj., 379 peut-etre, 377 pire, pis, 60 ; 315 placer, 195 plaindre, 252 plaire, 250 play, to, 331 ; at, 337 pleasure, V. expr., with de, 329 pleut, see Impers. V. pleuvoir, 247 Pluperfect Indie, 133 — 41; Subj., 173—81 Plural of Nouns, 36 — 37 ; of Nouns and Adj., 48 — 59 ; 62 plus...ne, 12 ; -de, 41 — ^42 ; S7^^I ; 315. plus tfit, plut6t, 312 ; plus ... plus, 375 ; plus ... que, 383 plutot, 312, -que de, 381 poindre, 252 point, ne, 12 — 13; 316— 18 ; -de, 41—42 Possession, expr. by de, 326 ; by a, 338 Possessive, Adj., 3 ; 43 — ^44 ; expr. by Per. Pron., 338 ; 342 ; Pron., 274— 5 pour. III — 12; 381 pour peu que, 379 pouvoir, 228— 9 ; 247 pourvoir, 247 pourvu que, 91 ; 379 Praise, V. of, with de, 330 prendre, 255 Present, Indie, 2 — 20 ; Condit., 82 — 86 ; Subj. 87 — 91 ; Perf. 123—32 ; Part., see Part... pres de, 367 Preterite, 71 — 75, 123 Prevention, V. expr., with ne, 317 prgvoir, 247 INDEX. 157 Privation, V. of, with de, 328 proche, 367 produire, 253 Pronouns, see Table of Contents provided that, 91 ; 96 ; 379 Providing, V. of, with de, 33* puisque, 378 purpose, on, 312 Purpose, expr. by a, 336 Quality, expr. by de, 324 quand, with Past Ant., 140 ; 376 quantity, adv. of, 41 — 42 ; expr. by de, 324 qnatre'-vingts, 62 que, relat. pr., 281 — 6; interr. pr., 287 que, conj., 376 — 88 qu'est-ce qui ? 287 quel, interr. pr., 39, 288 quel... que, 96 quelconque, 300 quelque, 294 ; -chose, 295 ; quel- qu'un, 299 quelque... que, 296 — 7 qufirir, 239 qui, relat. pr., 281 — 6; interr. pr., 287—8 quiconque, 300 ; qui que ce soit, 300 quite, 291 quoi, relat. pr., 286 ; interr. pr., 287 quoi que ce soit, 379 quoi que, 300 quoique, 91, 379 rate, at any, 377 rather, 312; -than, 381 Recollecting, V. of, with de, 333 recevolr, 247 Reciprocal Verbs, 204 Recognition, V. of, with de, 330 redire, 254 Reflexive Verbs, 199 — 205 Relative Pron., 281 — 6 Remembering, V. of, 333 repartir, 238 repentir, se, 238 resoudre, 251 resolu, S I Respect of, in, expr. by de, 334 ressortir, 238 rire, 254 rien...ne, 12 ; 293 right, to be, 69 saillir, 240 same, 308 sans, with Inf., 112 ; 381 ; sans que, with Subj., 96 ; 379 ; sans ■ni, 37S savoir, 230 ; 247 se, refl. pr., 262 — 6 s^duire, 253 selon, 378 sentir, 238 seoir, 248 Separation, expr. by de, 328 Sequence of Tenses, 92 servir, 238 several times, 329 should, expr. by Condit., 82 — 86 ; expr. by Subj., 87 — 93 ; expr. by devoir, 222 Showing, V. of, with a, 339 si = wliether, conj. with Condit., 84 ; 376 si, adv., = so ; =• yes, 316 si ce n'est, 379 sien, le, 274 signify, 293 since, prep., 369; conj., 378; 305 sis, sise, 348 sleejDy, to be, 69 so, adv. of affirm., 316 ; so as to, III — :2; 381; so that, 91 ; 96 ; 380 ; so and so, 307 ; so far from, 381 soi, 273 soit que, 96 some, 38 ; used partitively, 40 — 42 ; some other, 296 somebody, 299 ; something, 295 sometimes... another time, 375 sooner, 312; no, — than, 385 sorte que, de, with Subj., 91 ; 96 sortir, 238 souffrir, 241 sourdre, 256 sous, 361 souBcrire, 253 iS8 INDEX. sovereigns, names of, 64 spite of, in, 379 stake, to be at, 324 starting point, expr. by de, 65, strong, liow, 65 Subjunctive Mood, 61; 87 — 96; 163 — 181 ; 224 — 5 ; 227. See also Table of Contents, such, 307 Buffire^ 254 suivre, 255 Superlative, 57^61 ; 315 supposing that, 96 '^> 357 surseoir, 248 Synoptical Tables of Conjug., 189 — 256 taire, 250 Taking, V. of, with a, 341 tell, how, 65 tandis que, 378 tant de, 41 — 42 ; tant que, 375 ; •378 tant soit pen, 312 tant6t...tant6t, 375 te, 15 — 16 ; 257 — 66 Teaching, V. of, with a, 339 teindre, 252 Telling, V. of, with a, 339 tel, 307; tel...que, 383 tenir, 243 Tenses, Formation of, 191 than, 383—4 that, relat. pr., 281 — 6 ; dem. pr. 278 — So ; conj. 382 the, 21 — 24 thee, IS — 17 ; 19 ; 257 — 66 theirs, 43—44 ; 274—5 them, 15 — 20; 257 — 66 there, — voila, 373 — 4 they, = Us, elles, 257 ; = enx, elles, 267 ; 276 ; 289 thine, 274 think, to, 231 ; 250 thirsty, to be, 69 this, these, 276 ; 278 — 80; 373 those, 276 ; 278—80 thou, = tu, 257 ; = toi, 267 though, 91; 96; 296; 379; even though, 376 through, 371 — 2 %, 43-44 tieu, le, Z74 time, expr. by de, 335 toi, disj. pr., 267 — 73 to, 376 — 8 ; = in order to, 381 ; = envers, 305 to-day, 310 to-morrow, 310 toujours, 377 tout, 291 towards, 364-5 ; 375 tradnire, 253 traire, 254 a tracers, au travers de, 372 tressaillir, 240 trop de, 41 — 42 tu. Past Part of taire, 250 uu, une, 38—39 I'un et I'autre, 302 I'un ou I'autre, 304 I'un I'autre, 305 under, adv., 311 ; prep., 36 1— 3 underneath, 311 unless, 96; 112; 379; 381 until, 96 ; 379 upon, 375 upwards, 358 us, IS — 20 ; 257 — 66 vaincre, 255 valoir, 246 Tenir, 221 ; Z43 vers, 264 very, 309 ; 312 vetir, 242 vivre, 251 voici, 373 voila, 374 ; voila que, 123 voir, 247 votre, le, 274 vouloir, 226 — 7 ; 246 vous, conj. pr., 15 — 16; 257 — 66; disj. pr., 267—73 want, to, 223 — 7 ; 246 — 7 want, expr. by de, 32S ; for want of, 381 INDEX. 159 wanting, V. of, 341 warm, to be, 69 way, this, 371 ; which, 311 ; 371 we, fonj., 257; d'sj., 267; emphat., 306 weather, 206 week, 221 what, relat. pr. , 286 ; interr. pr., 39 ; 287—8 ; 38s what manner, in, 323 whatever, 296—8; 300; 379; what- soever, 300 when, 140; 376; 385 wherever, 379 wherewith, 343 whether, 84 ; 384 which, relat. pr., 281—86; interr. 287 — 8 ; which way, 311 while, whilst, 378 who, whom, whose, relat. pr.,281 — 6; interr. 287 who else, 303 whoever, whosoever, 300 whole, 291 why, 385 ' will, to be wilhng, 226 — 7 ; 24b wish, to, 226 — 7 ; 246 with; 323 ; = Chez, 44 ; = de, 330 —2 ; 335 ; = »» 337. 343 within, 348 without, 96; III— 12; 379; 381; to do without, 328 worse, 315 y, 258; 263-6 year, in the, 32 1 yet> 375 yon, conj. pr., 15 — 20 ; 257 ; 263 — 6 ; disj. pr., 267 — -72 yours, 43—44 ; 274— S LONDON : R. 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