BY LH'BAILEY MMiWHMIMMMMi JL_ V / I mmimmmmmmitiimtitmmmmiimimimttm Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924089416238 Cfie aural Science Series Edited bv L. H. Bailey FORAGE CROPS Clje Hural Science ^ericsf The Soil. The Spraying of Tlants. MiLh. AND Its Products. The Fertility of the Land. The Principles op Fruit-growing. Bush-Fruits. Fertilizers. The Principles op Agriculture. Rural Wealth and Welfake. The Farmstead. The Principles op Vegetable-Gardening. Farm Poultry. The Feeding of Animals. The Farmer's Business Handbook. Irrigation and Drainage. The Care op Animals. The Horse. How to Choose a Farm. Forage Crops. FORAGE CROPS FOR SOILING, SILAGE, HAY AND PASTURE BY EDWAED B. VOOEHEES. D.Sc. DIBECTOB OF THE NBW JERSEY EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AND PROFESSOR OF AGRICUI/TURE IN RUTGERS COLIiEGE TBIBD EDITION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1913 All rights reserved SB coptkight, 1907 By the MACMILLAN COMPANT Set Tip and electrotyped Published September, 1907 Reprinted January, 1911; April, 1913 JiApunt pUaaant ftreaa ,1, Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pa. PEEFACE This work is intended to give brief and practical farming suggestions that will be helpful in the growing and using of forage crops. Special atten- tion has been given to soiling crops and to rota- tions, in order to suggest a continuous supply of forage throughout the growing season, a subject of increasing importance to dairy farmers in the vicinity of large cities. These suggestions for both crops and rotations have been found to be satisfactory in practice, but the work must be carefully planned if it is to prove successful. The systems of forage- crop rotations here outlined are intensive, and to secure the full benefits from their adoption the cropping must be accompanied by liberal use of manures and fertil- izers and by extra good tillage. The suggested improvements in the systems of rotation for general farm practice, where grain crops are the chief object, have also been found to be practicable for many conditions, although they (v) . VI PREFACE are yet largely experimental, and in use mainly on small farms; their adoption, however, would result both in increasing the yield and quality of forage from a given area, and, if judiciously carried out, result in a better preparation of the land for grain crops. No attempt has been made to discuss all crops that may be used for forage, although those which have been found of service under special condi- tions have been included, as, for example, the millets, kafirs and a few of the less well-known grasses. The data in reference to these, however, have been drawn largely from the experience of others. Special attention has been given to the legumes, as their use is of the utmost value in any system of forage cropping, and many of those recently introduced possess such habits as to per- mit their use without interfering with regular grain- crop rotations. E. B. VOORHEES. New Brunswick, N. J. May, 1907. CONTENTS CHAPTEE I PAGE General View of Forage Crops 1-12 The measures of value in forage crops 2 Importance of succulent foods for dairy cows 6 Eegional questions 9 Pastures and meadows 11 CHAPTEE II Forage Crops for Hay and for Improving the Land . . 13-26 Hay standards 15 Improvement of rotations 17 Land and seeding 23 Harvesting and curing 25 CHAPTEE III Forage Crops for Soiling 27-45 Balanced rations 28 Soiling versus pasturing 30 Cost of nutrients in soiling crops 32 Experiments to determine the cost of nutrients .... 33 Eotation systems 34 The rotations must be carefully planned 38 Plant-food must be provided 40 Preparation of land 41 Cover-crops 42 Forage-crop rations . . 43 Summer silage 44 (vii) ■Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER IV PAGE Straw Cereals and Green-Forage Grasses 46-72 Eye as a forage crop 46 Wheat as » forage crop 56 Oats as a forage crop 60 Barley 64 Orchard - grass 65 Italian rye-grass 70 CHAPTER V Millets and Teosinte 73-94 Barnyard, millet 74 Foxtail millets 80 Pearl or o it-tail millet 85 Broom-corn or proso millet 90 Teosinte 94 CHAPTER VI The Kafir and Durra Corns 95-121 Kafir corn for dry regions 102 CHAPTER VII The Sweet Sorghums 122-131 CHAPTER VIII Maize or Indian Corn 132-152 Corn for green forage or soiling 133 Sweet corn for green forage 143 Corn-stalks or stover 149 CONTENTS iX CHAPTEE IX PAQE Corn for Silage' 153-166 CHAPTEE X Leguminous Forage Crops' 167-173 CHAPTEE XI Combination Crops with Legumes 175-208 Oats-and-peas for forage 175 Oats-and-vetoh 187 Barley- and-peas 189 Warm-season combinations 190 Mixed grasses and clovers 194 CHAPTEE XII Alfalfa 209-230 CHAPTEE XIII The Clovers 231-252 The red clovers *.' 231 Alsike clover 240 Crimson clover 242 White clover 251 CHAPTEE XIV Other Leguminous Forage Crops 253-274 Cowpea 253 Soybeans 264 Velvet bean 266 Vetches 269 Broad or horse beau , 272 Japan clover ' . . . . 273 GOlfTENTS CHAPTER XV PAGE Eoot-Ckops 275-291 Mangels 279 Sugar-beet 286 Carrot 287 Turnip and rutabaga 288 Potato 290 Sweet potato 291 CHAPTER XVI The Cabbage Tribe 292-310 Rape 292 Cabbage 301 Kohlrabi 308 CHAPTER XVII Permanent Meadows and Pastures 311-327 Meadows 312 Permanent pastures .... 322 CHAPTER XVIII Bermuda Grass and Russian Brome Grass 328-343 Bermuda grass 328 Russian Brome grass 343 CHAPTER XIX Composition, Fertilizer and Coefficient Tables . . . 344-374 I. Average composition of feeding stuffs 347 II. Fertilizer ingredients of fodders and feeds .... 358 III. Coefaeients of digestibility of feed stuffs .... 366 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. PAaE 1. Field of forage corn. Minnesota. (C. P. Bull) Frontispiece 2. Harvesting a grain crop in the rotation (Henry Troth) 19 3. Bye, at best stage of maturity for soiling 47 4. Head of Barnyard millet (M. A. Carleton) 75 5. Barnyard millet {JPanicum Crus-galU) 77 6. Barnyard millet, ready for soiling forty-five days from seeding. Yield, fourteen tons per acre 78 7. Common millet. About natural size (M. A. Carleton) 80 8. German millet. Nearly natural size (M. A. Carleton) 81 9. Hungarian millet. About natural size (M. A. Carleton) 82 10. Golden Wonder millet. About three-fourths natural size (M. A. Carleton) : 83 11. German and Pearl millets, seeded on same day. German millet to the left, Pearl millet to the right 87 12. Pearl millet (Pennisetum spicatum) 89 13. Broom-corn millet (Panicum miliaceum) (M. A. Carleton) 91 14. Seeds or grains of Broom-corn millet 92 15. Teosinte. Note the branching or bushy habit of the plant 93 16. Black-hulled White kafir corn 96 17. Typical head of Black-hulled White kaflr corn (A. M. Ten Eyok) 98 18. Typical head of Red l-..April2 June 26-July 4 12.4 Oats-and-peas, 2 acres.. -I „ >..Aprilll July 4-9 8.2 Alfalfa, second cutting July 9-11 2.1 Oats-and-peas, 5 acres .. | ■'^j/ | .. Aprill9 July 11-22 16.4 Southern white corn, 2 acres J^....May2 July 22-Aug. 3 . . . . 17.7 Barnyard millet, 2 acres.. Wa June 19 Aug. 3-19 23.2 Soybeans, 1 acre 2 June 1 ..*.... Aug. 19-25 8.8 Cowpeas, 1 acre 2 June 10 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 . . . 10.5 ^°2 acres^."^;"^.".^.' ."""'j { 1 } " ■'^"''' " ^^P*' ^"^^ ^*-* Pearl millet, 2 acres ^ July 1] Sept. 16-Oot. 1 . . . . 20.2 Cowpeas, 1 acre 13^. ...July 24 Oct. 1-5 8.0 Mixed grasses, 5 acres (partly dried) Oct. 5-27 20.0 Barley, 2 acres 3K . . . . Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nov. 1 . . . . 5.2 Total 278.3 The above crops supplied sufficient green for- age for an equivalent of fifty full-grown animals from May 1 to November 1, fine feeds being used in addition as the animals seemed to require them. It will be observed that the average quantity of food consumed daily by each animal was 60.4 36 FORAGE CEOPS pounds. The number of acres was twenty-four, ten of which were used exchisively for forage crops, while the other fourteen were used only part of the season. The records for several years at this Station show that three and one-fourth cows may be kept on an acre for six months of the growing season. Other combinations of crops, which may be applicable in other localities, are indicated in the following table : Annual Yield op Eotating Soiling Crops Pee Acre , Approximate • No. of Crops in Time o£ Time of Yield per acre one-year rotation seeding cutting acre— tons {Rye and crimson clover September May 1-10 8.05 Oats-and-peas May 10 July 1-10 7.60 Soybeans July 10 Sept. 1-10 9.00 Total 24.65 r Wheat fodder September May 10-20 7.00 2-^ Cowpeas May 20 July 10-20 8.20 [Japanese millet July 20 Sept. 10-20 7.00 Total 22.20 r Oats-and-peas April 1 June 10-20 7.34 3 < Japanese millet June 20 Aug. 1-10 8.73 [Barley-and-peas Aug. 10 Oct. 10-20 6.03 Total 22.10 r Oats-and-peas April 10 June 1-10 6.80 4-^ Cowpeas.". June 10 Aug. 10-20 8.20 i Barley-and-peas Aug. 20 Oct. 20-30 6.30 Total 21.30 fRye September May 1-7 9 60 5-c Cowpeas June 10 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 10.50 [Barley Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nov. 1 2.60 Total 22.70 SOILING ROTATIONS 37 Annual Yield of Rotating Soiling Crops per Acbe— Continued ■ Approximate — • • No. of Crops in Time of Time of Yield per acre oue-year rotation seeding cutting acre — tons (■Rye October May 7-19... 9.60 «■{ Soybeans June 10 Aug. 19-25 8.80 iBarley Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nbv. 1. ... 2.60 Total 21.00 7 /Crimson clover July May 20-June 1 8.00 '\Corn June 1 July 20-Aug. 1.... 9.56 Total 17.56 n /Mixed grasses Septeriiber June 20-30 7.00 "tCorn June 20 Aug. 20-Sept. 1... 12.24 Total 19.24 e-and-vetch Sept. 10 Mav 10-19 8.60 Corn May 27 July 20-29 11.80 ^tCoi Total 20.40 r Eve August May 1-10 8.50 L Pearl millet May 18 Aug. 8-15 15.10 Total 23.1)0 ,,/Oats-and-peas April 10 June 2C-July 4.... 10.20 ' ' t Cowpeas Aug. 1 Sept. 16-22 8.00 Total 18.20 12 ' Oats-and-peas April 21 June 29-July 6.... 10.20 Flint corn July 10 Sept. 22-30 11.00 Total 21.20 ,„/Oats-and peas April 2 June 10-23 6.20 "VCowpeas-and-kafir corn July 10 Sept. 1-16...: 12.20 Total 18.40 Alfalfa— First year, two cuttings 8.00 Alfalfa— Second year, four cuttings , 20.21 Alfalfa— Third year, five cuttings 26.60 Alfalfa— Fourth year, four cuttings 21.70 In these schemes, when one crop is removed another is put in immediately. As the time of "{ 38 FOBAQH CBOPS seeding, as well as time of harvesting, varies greatly, the dates are of course only approximate. In order that the land may be covered in winter, rye or wheat is seeded when the last crop is removed. To accomplish this in the case of Nos. 4, 5 and 6, rye is seeded with the barley or barley- and-peas, and it will usually grow sufficiently, after the forage is removed, to make a good cover for the winter. It will be observed that in the rotations in the latter table, alfalfa is not included, although a small area was used in the rotation indicated in the previous table. "Where it is possible to grow alfalfa, it would be quite unnecessary to use so large a mimber of crops. In fact, rye, crimson clover, alfalfa and corn would serve to provide practically a continuous supply of food, as the alfalfa will be ready for harvesting usually the fourth week in May, and the cutting can be so arranged afterward as practically to provide a continuous supply of forage until the middle of September. Alfalfa is one of the cheapest and most satisfactory crops that can be grown for soiling. THE ROTATIONS MUST BE CAREFULLY PLANNED It will be observed from a study of the tables of rotations that, in order to provide for a con- tinuous supply of forage crops, careful plans must POINTS IN ROTATIONS 39 be made beforehand, or a period will occur when there is a lack of sufficient food. In the central states, the period likely to be most difficult to fill is the latter part of July and early August, espe- cially should the season be so dry as to prevent max- imum growth. To avoid interruptions, it is neces- sary, therefore, to plant a larger area and plan for a greater quantity of food than would be requisite if normal conditions prevailed. It is also necessary, if the land is to be fully occupied and maximum yields secured, that care be taken to follow the schedule of seeding and harvesting very closely. A difference of two or three days in the time of seeding, especially in spring, will very often make a difference of ten days in the time of harvesting. This is particularly true in the case of oats and peas. The period required for growing the, crop to the proper stage, as well as the period during which crops may be useful for forage, will also vary to some extent; but if harvesting is begun early enough, as pointed out in the discussion of indi- vidual crops, the period of usefulness will range from six days to two weeks. For example, rye seeded at different times will in some seasons pro- vide excellent forage for fully two weeks, while in certain other seasons, especially if the early season is dry and hot, profitable feeding cannot be con- tinued for more than a week or ten days. The 40 FORAGE CROPS period of successful feeding will also depend on. the kind of crop. Corn may be fed for a much longer period than any other of the regular forage crops, while millet is not useful ordinarily for more than six days. All of these factors must be taken into consideration in making plans for a season, in order that the forage will be in the best condition for soiling, and that the land may be fully utilized for crops. Many farmers using green forage crops for the first time make the mistake of waiting until the plant is too far matured before beginning its use. The result is that the food is not palatable, diges- tibility is reduced, and the milk flow is decreased, due not to the system of soiling, but to a lack of observation of the essential rules. PLANT -FOOD MUST BE PROVIDED Another point of considerable importance, and which is often overlooked, is the fact that in such intensive practice there is a greater demand for available food than when a period of rest occurs between the different crops. Therefore, it is essen- tial not only that very careful cultivation shall be practiced, but that the land shall be well supplied with plant-food. In any system of rotation, it is desirable, also, that one crop each year shall be a leguminous crop, and also that the land shall MAINTAINING FERTILITY 41 receive a dressing of manure once a year. In addir tion to this, the summer crops especially should be well supplied with phosphoric acid and potash. At the New Jersey Station, nine acres were devoted to the growing of soiling crops, during a period of nine, years, crops succeeding each other immediately, and the soil, instead of becoming less fertile, increased in productiveness, notwith'- standing the continuous drain on the land and actual removal of large quantities of fertility constituents. This was undoubtedly due to extra cultivation, to manure applied once each year, to commercial fertilizers applied with the other crops, and to the further fact that the land was covered with some crop in winter. This practice of cover- cropping not only provided abundance of food, but prevented losses of constituents, as the land was not left bare in fall and winter. PREPARATION OF LAND In the growing of soiling crops under intensive systems,, it is better, as a rule, to plow but once a year, preferably in spring. In the preparation of land for the other crops, it is advisable to use a cutaway harrow, thoroughly pulverizing the soil at a depth of three to four inches. The advantages of this method are that the cultivation conserves moisture should the weather be dry; while the 42 FOB AGE CROPS plowing causes too great loss of it, since it breaks the capUlary connection with the lower layers at a too great depth from the surface. A dried-out plowed surface, not having proper connection with the lower layers, does not contain sufficient mois- ture to cause the rapid germination of seed and to provide what is necessary for immediate and con- tinuous growth. COVER -CROPS To keep the land constantly occupied with growing plants is particularly important, both in the hot summer months and in fall and spring. The covering of the land in summer prevents the temperature from rising so high as to destroy the organisms in the soil, while the covering in fall and spring prevents the mechanical losses that occur from wind and rain, and by the carrying away of food in the soil -water. Owing to the fact that certain crops, as, for example, barley or late- seeded oats, are harvested too late to permit of seeding other cover-crops, it, has been found prac- ticable to seed either rye or wheat with the barley or oats; and the rye, if the nurse crop is removed by the latter part of October, will usually make growth enough in the central states to prevent the losses referred to, and to be used in spring for green manure or for forage, as may be most convenient. ECONOMY IN FMEDINe 43 POBAGE-CKOP EATIONS In the use of soiling crops, it is quite possible to have the green forage serve as the entire ration; although it is better, on the whole, that the soil- ing crop provide only the larger part of it, for the reason that in many cases the green crop contains such a small proportion of dry matter as to make it necessary for the animals to consume a too large bulk, even though it might be no greater than in pasturing in those periods when pasture grasses are growing rapidly and- are very watery. Experiments show that it is possible to use green forage exclusively, and, while the yield of product is less, the cpst per unit is also less than when fine feeds are used in connection with it. It is largely a question as to whether the dairyman desires to keep his animals up to the full standard of production, by supplying in reasonable bi;ilk sufficient amounts of digestible food in best forms, or whether he desires to secure his product at the lowest cost even though the total production is reduced. If it is cheaper for him to supply the animals entirely by means of forage crops, this is the practice for him to follow, — that is, cheaper in the sense that if the milk yield is less, the relative cost is also so much less as to enable him to secure a larger profit. These are matters that individual farmers must determine for themselves. 44 F0BA6E CROPS SUMMER SILAGE In considering the question of feeding of cattle throughout the year with succulent food, the sum- mer silo must be included. There is no doubt but that in many instances, and for many conditions, the summer silo would meet all the requirements of the dairy farmer for this particular form of food. The advantages of the silo are, chiefly, a saving of labor in the season when it is specially needed for other work, and providing a uniform food supply without regard to the character of the season. Whether the use of the summer silo will result in materially reducing the cost of the ration, is a question that will have to be determined by the actual conditions on a particular farm. To judge from the reports on cost of silage, there would undoubtedly be a saving in actual cost of food, providing the silos were so constructed as to result in a minimum loss of dry matter. It must be remembered, however, that in the construction of a silo for summer use the surface areas of the silo should be less per animal than for winter silage, owing to the more rapid fermentation of the silage in hot weather. At least double the depth, or about four inches, should be removed daily, instead of two inches, as in the case of winter silage. THE SUMMEB SILO 45 The use of a summer silo does not prevent the profitable production of other crops than corn. Frequently such crops as rye and crimson clover, when they are grown as catch-crops, have been successfully ensilaged in the spring for summer use. With the use of the summer silo it would be quite possible to carry as many animals as by the soiling system, providing the rotations were so arranged as to permit of more than one crop per year on the same area (as, for example, rye, wheat and crimson clover) , and if a large area of alfalfa were grown for hay to furnish protein for both winter and summer rations. The economics of the summer silo have not yet been fully worked out, but the question is one that has much promise as a means of reducing the cost of food, and of increasing the number of animals that may be kept on a given area. CHAPTER IV STRAW CEREALS AND GBEEN-FORAGE GRASSES All cereal or grain crops produce herbage that is acceptable and nutritious to animals. It is often allowable to gi'ow such crops solely for the herbage, or forage, rather than for the grain. Such crops usually adapt themselves well to farming plans; or, rather, farming plans are likely to have been so formed as to adapt themselves to these common crops. In their ordinary relations, these crops are well known, and only a brief discussion is neces- sary to explain their forage crop cultivation. Many of the regular hay crops can also be uti- lized to advantage for soiling and for other green foraging. The utilization of such crops for special purposes, when conditions are right, increases the productiveness of animals and also allows, in some cases, of a better system oi handling t^ie land. Two of the commonest of such grass crops are dis- cussed in this chapter. EYE AS A FORAGE CROP (Fig. 3) Although not generally regarded favorably, rye is a valuable soiling crop, primarily because in (46) RYE 47 many states it is available for feeding earlier, in the spring than any other crop suitable for the purpose. In the central states and the middle west, it is ready for use about the first of May, or at a time when pastures are too young to use and when some green crop is especially desirable. A Fig. 3. Bye, at best ^tage of maturity for soiling. 48 FOBA6E CROPS suitable variety of rye is one that makes a large growth of leaf, although any variety may be improved in this respect by proper seed selecting and manuring. The common winter rye is gener- ally used, although Excelsior, Thousandfold and Giant are all desirable, since, in order to obtain a large yield of grain, there is a heavy leaf development. In the southern states, and as far north as southern New Jersey, spring rye is frequently used as a forage crop, as well as for grain. This plant has not succeeded well as far north as central New Jersey, although fair crops have been obtained when the plant has been used as a grain crop. It does not possess any peculiar advantages, and is not recommended in preference to other spring- seeded crops, on which greater dependence can usually be placed. When conditions are not favorable for soiling (to which it is best adapted) , rye makes an excel- lent pasture; and while but one-third to one-half as much food is obtained as from soiling, it can be used through a longer period, provided it is not pastured too closely in its early growth. Pasturing is a favorite method of utilizing rye in many dau-y districts, and the crop serves a most excellent pur- pose as a source of food as well as to protect the regular pastures from injury from too early use. If weather conditions are favorable later, a light early pasturing will -not seriously interfere with the maturing of the grain. Another advantage of rye, which should not be lost sight of, is its usefulness as a cover-crop, not only in absorbing and holding plant-food, but in preventing the waste of soil by washing or blowing. Eye can be seeded later in the fall than almost any other crop, and starts earlier in spring than most others. It will usually pay well to seed rye on raw ground as a cover -crop alone. Rye can also be utilized for silage. It is not so well adapted for silage as corn, yet if allowed to head out fully before cutting and to wilt slightly before packing in the silo, it may be preserved without serious loss. Its food value in silage will also compare favorably with that in the green materia] . Made in the proper way, rye hay is also a good means of utilizing the crop. It should be cut when at its best stage for forage, that is, before fully headed out; and cured in the usual way. Soils, manures, and fertilizers for rye When grown for forage purposes, the prepara- tion of soil and the seeding are of great impor- tance, as these points have a direct bearing both on the earliness and the yield, notwithstanding that D 50 FORAGE CROPS rye is a crop that makes a good growth in relatively- poor soils. The land should be prepared in the same way as when the crop is grown for grain. Particular care should be exercised to make the surface soil very fine, in order that the feeding rootlets may readily occupy the entire area. Manures should be used liberally for rye. If available, from six to eight loads of good barn- yard manure should be broadcasted after plowing, and thoroughly harrowed into the soil. If com- mercial fertilizer is used, a mixture rich in phos- phoric acid is especially recommended. A formula carrying Nitrogen . . 3 per cent Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent Potash 4 per cent is one in which the constituents are well propor- tioned; and its liberal use will very materially influence the character of the growth, not only in the fall, but in the following spring. The fact that fall -grown crops will store food in the tissue ready for elaboration in the spring makes it desirable that such crops as are intended for early forage shall make a vigorous growth in fall, in order that this appropriation of food may be accomplished to the best advantage, and that the spring growth may be early and rapid. Fertilizer should be applied at the rate of 200 to 400 pounds per acre, depending on the character of the soil. It may BTE 51 fee .broadcasted before seeding or drilled with the • .In order to secure . the . best yield, the, early growth, should be stimulated, particularly with nitrogenous, food; therefore an application of 100 to 150) pounds of nitrate, of soda per acre, broad- casted,' usually about the first of April, is to be recommended. Experiments at the New Jersey Station show that an application of 150 pounds of' nitrate of soda per acre has caused an average increase in yield of 37; 6 per cent, besides giving the further advantage of lengthening the time dur- ing which .the. crop may be fed. This increase in yield is a .very important consideration,' because one of the strongest arguments in favor of soiling, as distinguished' fi:om pasturing, is that smaller areas are required to supply the needs of the ani- mals,; . .and .theire is thus great reason f or^ proper manuring, or ."fertilizing, since the larger yields result in decreasing, the area required for produc- ing the food. for a definite nurhber of animals. If possible, this application of nitrate should be ni;ade just preceding, or after a rain, in order that the.,« +„., ■*" average One ton aereyield contains tvimibes Per cent. Lbs. Lbs. Water 73.2 ... ... Dry matter 26.8 536 6,432 Ether extract 1.3 26 312 Crude fiber 6.8 136 1,632 Protein 3.1 62 744 Ash 2.5 50 600 Nitrogen-free extract 13.3 266 3,192 The large quantity of dry matter, over three tons per acre (assuming an average yield of twelve tons), that may be obtained from a careful growing and handling, and its capability of being cut several times, make it a most desirable crop when the conditions favorable for its best develop- ment are present. In order that these large yields may be secured, however, it should not be allowed to ripen, but cut when in the blossom stage. After each cutting it should be top-dressed with fertili- zers rich in nitrates, particularly on light soils. CHAPTER V MILLETS AND TEOSINTE Among the summer -growing forage plants, the millets have long been prominent. There are sev- eral distinct kinds of millets, belonging to different genera of the grass family. The Barnyard millet is Panicum Crus-galli, an improved form of the common weedy barnyard grass. The Hungarian and German millets belong to the group of foxtail grasses of the genus Setaria or Chsetochloa, a type of weedy late summer grass known as pigeon- grass and foxtail grass. The Pearl millet is a Pennisetum (P. spicatum). Another group of millets is of the genus Panicum (forms of P. mil- iaceum). The Broom-corn millet (not the same as the broom -corn grown for brooms) is of this species. The term Japanese millet is often used, but it has little significance for there are Japanese forms of several kinds of millets; it is oftenest used for the Barnyard group. It will be seen, therefore, that the term millet includes a number of plants very unlike botanically; but they are all similar in being grassy summer-growing plants suitable for haymaking as well as for green forage. (73) 74 FORAGE CROPS The millets belong to a group of crops that grow quickly, and are what may be termed "hot weather plants." They do not thrive in cool weathpr. They are useful as hay catch -crops, or as regular forage crops for substituting pastures, or for soiling. All the kinds of millet that have been tested possess valuable characteristics, although the recently introduced Japanese or Barnyard varieties are proving more useful for green -forage purposes than the older and better known kinds, largely because of more rapid growth and larger yields. All the millets are native to the Old World, but the cultivated forms are cosmopolitan. In some countries, some of the millets are grown for the grain for human food. BARNTAED MILLET (Figs. 4, 5, 6) Of the oriental forms, the Barnyard millet has given the best satisfaction in the East as green forage. It grows very rapidly, and frequently reaches a height of four to six feet. When cut at the right time, it is a most excellent soiling crop, as it is succulent and palatable. Maximum crops can be secured only when there is present an abundance of all of the fertility elements in available forms. A crop of ten tons per acre of this forage removes large quantities of plant -food elements, practically all of which are absorbed from the immediate sm*- BABNYABD MILLET 75 Pig. 4. Head of Barnyard millet face and within a very short time. Experience in the growth of this crop has shown that the artificial fertilizers are quite as useful as yard manure. When manure can be obtained cheaply, ten to twelve tons per acre should be applied as soon as the land is plowed and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. In the absence of yard manure, a heavy dressing should be applied of a mixture of ni- trate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, furnishing at least twenty -five pounds of nitro- gen, twenty of available phosphor- ic acid and fifty of actual potash per acre. An increase in yield Of 75 per cent has followed the ap- plication of 160 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda, making a very profitable gain from this practice. The nitrate not only supplies the needed nitrogen, but encourages a larger development and greater activity on the part of the plant, thus enabling it to secure a larger proportion of nitrogen from soil sources, which would be impossi- 76 FOBAGJil CBOPS ble to a plant of less vigorous growth. Since the "crop is grown only during the hot summer season, when droughts are frequent, this practice of applying available nitrogenous food is very important. Preparation of soil, and seeding- • The preparation of land should be very thorough, the entire surface deeply cultivated, and the soil particles made as fine as possible in order to insure a ready absorption and retention of moisture, making conditions favorable for quick germination and rapid continuous growth. The crop may be seeded from the middle of May to the first of July, either broadcast or in drills. When labor is expensive, and the soil is reasonably free from weeds, the broadcast seeding is recommended. The quantity of seed to use ranges from thirty to forty pounds per acre, broadcasted, and from ten to fifteen pounds drilled. Harvesting and yields of Barnyard millet In favorable seasons, the crop will reach the cutting stage in fifty days, but if the season is dry and cold proper maturity will not be reached in two months or longer. Pig. 5. Barnyard millet (Fanicum Vrus-galli) ^ASNrABD MILLET 79 When used for soiling purposes, harvesting should begin when the plant is just beginning to show heads. At this stage, the plant is very suc- culent and is eagerly eaten by all farm stock. Inasmuch as it grows so rapidly, and because it develops and hardens so quickly in dry weather, it cannot be used for a long period for soiling pur- poses, from six to eight days being the range under ordinary seasonal conditions. Because proper at- tention is not given to this point, many farmers regard this kind of millet unfavorably. When cut at this stage of growth, Barnyard millet contains a relatively small percentage of crude fiber, although it is much richer in the non- nitrogenous substances than are oats, wheat or rye. It con- tains, on the average, about 15 per cent of dry matter. The large yields of green forage,— eight to twelve tons, or an average on good soils of about eight tons, — make the total amount of food very satisfactory; and animals will_ consume a relatively larger proportion of it than of certain other kinds. As high as seventy- five pounds per day have been fed with satisfaction. For hay. Barnyard millet should be cut just as it is heading out. Although somewhat diflScult to cure, it makes a forage which is very palatable and -useful for winter feeding. Yields of hay have often reached as high as three to four tons per acre; but it is not recommended for hay-making. 80 FOEAOE CROPS when other and better hay plants can be successfully grown. Farmers are too likely to defer cutting until the stalks begin to harden, when the hay made is unpalatable, even though well cured. Composition and Yield of Nutrients of Barnyard Millet Per cent Water 84.76 Dry matter . . . 15.24 Ether extract ... .45 Fiber 4.50 Protein 1.50 Ash 1.C3 Nitrogen-free extract 7.16 One ton oinitains Lbs. 304. S 9,0 90.0 30.0 32.6 143.2 An average acre-yield furnishes Lbs. 2438.4 72.0 720.0 240.0 260.8 1145.6 Fig. Common millet. About natural size. FOXTAIL MILLETS (Figs. 7-10) The foxtail millets are of several varieties. The common millet (Fig. 7), much grown in this country, is an old standby for summer forage and catch-crop hay, being much prized for its quick growth and its relatively fine soft hay. This com- mon small millet is regarded as somewhat representing the original form of the foxtail millets (Ch(eto- FOXTAIL MILLETS chloa Italica ; or Setaria Italica of some botanies). By some authorities it is re- garded as a developed form of the common weedy green foxtail grass {Chcetochloa viridis), itself an introduc- tion from the Old World. The German millet is a larger and bushy - headed dark-colored form (Fig. 8). The Hungarian millet or Hungarian grass ( Chcetochloa Italica, var. Germanica Fig. 9) , is much like the common millet, but is somewhat taller, more branching, the head usually not nodding and compact. Golden Wonder millet (C. Italica, Fig. 10) is a very robust form, reaching six feet, and with compound, drooping, tawny or purplish heads sometimes a foot long. The four foxtail millets above mentioned are the ones that are best known. Ex- cept in time of maturity and yield, they do not differ greatly in agri- cultural value. Pig. 8. German millet. Nearly natural size. 82 FOBAGM CROPS ■ Hungarian millet grows very quickly and is very useful for supple- menting a shortage in the regular hay crop, or ^^J^*"^- -■' for supplying the dairy herd with green forage, although not so desirable as lesarr the Barnyard millet. The Ger- "^ ^jta tv^ man and Golden millets usually make a larger yield than the Hun- garian, require a little longer time for growth, and should not be seeded later than the first of July. In all these varieties, the quantity of seed to sow is about one bushel per acre. The practices recommended for Barnyard millet in preparation of soil, use of fertilizers and manures, and time of harvesting, should be adopted. All varieties of millet are surface feeders; large crops will absorb all . of the available plant-food, leaving the land in poor condition for crops following the same season. The time of cutting is espe- cially important, as too ^'i complete maturity re- , ^J^^ ^'s- '• . f^kf Hungarian millet, suits m poor and Un- j^ About natural size. palatable hay. ■FOXTAIL MILLE'IS 83 Composition and Yield of Nutrients of Hungarian Millet Forage and Hay Per cent Water 71.10 Dry matter . . . 28.90 Ether extract . . .70 Fiber 9.20 Protein . . . . . 3.10 Ash 1:70 Nitrogen-free ex- tract .... 14.20 HAY Water 7.70 Dry matter . . . 92.30 Ether extract . . 2 10 Fiber 27.70 Protein 7.50 Ash 6.00 Nitrogen -free ex- tract .... 49.00 One ton contains 578.0 14.0 184.0 62.0 34.0 An average acre-yield fui-nishes Lbs. 3468.0 84.0 1104.0 372.0 204.0 1704.0 846.0 42.0 554.0 150.0 120.0 980.0 Properly made millet hay of the above varieties is nutritive and palatable, the average com- position showing it to be richer in protein than timothy. The uses of the foxtail millets in New York are de- scribed as follows by Eoberts and Clinton (Cornell Bul- letin 135): Pig. 10. Golden Wonder millet. About three - fourths natural size. 84 FORAGE CROPS "They are not recommended as being valuable as a part of the regular rotation, but as catch-crops or special crops they have their place. They are very depleting to the soil and many have had un- satisfactory experience in feeding them to stock. . . . One value of millet lies in the fact that it can be sown late ; in fact, it must not be sown until all danger from frost is over. It develops rapidly, and during midsummer is ready to begin cutting for forage about thirty days from time of seeding. The Hungarian is quicker maturing than the others and for late sowing is preferable to either the com- mon or the German millet. In such a year as 1894 or 1895, when many farmers found their hay crop a disappointment and were at a loss to know how to supplement it, Hungarian or other millets would possibly have served the purpose well. "The soil should be rich and given thorough preparation. Clay" soils which are inclined to' be lumpy require extra precaution in fitting. The amount of seed required varies from one-half bushel to three pecks per acre, which should be harrowed in lightly and rolled. On freshly cleared or bottom-land soils it makes a rank growth and is available for forage at a time when it is usually found necessary to supplement the pastures. Though it is a gross feeder, yet this fact may be of actual benefit to the kinds of soil just mentioned. "When stock is turned in upon a field of 'green- FOXTAILS, PEARL MILLET 85 millet for the first time, or a heavy feed is given, there is danger that serious results may follow. Animals not accustomed to green forage should not at first be allowed a full feed of any green crop, especially millet, but should be given only a part ration of the green material. If allowed to gorge themselves, serious results may follow. If it is desired that the animals be turned upon the crop to pasture, this should be done only after their appetite has been partly appeased by other food. "Millet hay is not in popular favor, owing to the fatal results which, in some cases, have fol- lowed its use. Just why these unsatisfactory results sometimes follow does not seem to be clear. In feeding it to horses, caution should be observed and the millet hay used in conjunction with some other coarse fodder. Much of the value of millet hay seems to depend upon the time of cutting, which should be done soon after blossoming." PEARL OR CAT-TAIL MILLET (Fig. 11, 12) This millet is highly recommended over a wide range of country. It is a summer plant, a rank grower, attains a great height when mature, — seven to nine feet, — and produces an enormous quantity of forage. The Penicillaria and Maud's Wonder millets are of this same species {Pennise- tum spicatum). 86 FOB AGE CROPS Manures and fertilizers for Pearl millet In order that a large yield of succulent forage may be secured, Pearl millet should be grown only on naturally rich lands, or on those heavily manured or fertilized. The soil should be thoroughly and deeply prepared, for, although it is a surface feeder, the roots more completely occupy the soil than is the case with the Barnyard or other kinds of mil- let. The manures should be broadcasted, previous to seeding, at the rate of ten to twelve tons per acre. Fertilizing should follow the recommenda- tions made for Barnyard millet. Amount of seed and method of seeding The quantity of seed required is relatively small, as the plants possess the branching habit. If planted in rows to allow of tillage, three feet apart, one pound of seed will be sufficient for an acre. This will provide a seed every three or four inches in the row. If broadcasted, three or four pounds per acre will be sufficient. Pearl millet germinates quickly, and grows very rapidly. It withstands drought well. It should be tilled, the surface being kept constantly stirred, if best results are to be had, particularly in dry seasons. Pearl millet is frequently grown with vining varieties of cowpeas, the stalks making a good support for the peas. 88 FORAGE CROPS Yield and value of crop The largest yield of palatable and digestible food will be secured if Pearl millet is cut just as it begins to head. This stage wiU be reached in about three months from time of seeding; that is, if planted early in June, it will be ready for the beginning of harvest the latter part of August or first of September. It should not be allowed to head out fully before cutting, because the plants rapidly increase in crude fiber as the heads begin to form, and soon become hard and unpalatable. The yields vary widely, ranging from eight to over twenty tons per acre, the latter figure being reached when all soil and seasonal conditions are favor- able, and when the crop is allowed to mature. For the eastern and central states Pearl millet does not possess advantages over the Barnyard millet, except possibly in its yield, although the larger yield requires a longer period of growth. For a catch- crop it is not so desirable as the Barnyard millet. If cut just before heading, it is said that it will make a very rapid second growth, which may be harvested in a month to six weeks. The experience gained in the eastern and middle states does not confirm the advantages of this practice, for, while the plant makes a considerable second growth, it is not large enough ordinarily to pay for the use of the land. Farther south this PEARL MILLET 89 practice may be found to be more successful. If cut after making a growth of three or four feet, it might make a profitable second crop, the total crop being much larger than the larger first reg- ular crop and the smaller second one. Much has yet to be learned |:;^ concerning the best method of handling this plant. When in the best condition for feeding, Pearl millet contains a rela- tively low content of dry matter. Analyses of crops grown at the New Jersey Station showed an average of but 17 per cent of dry matter, with a much higher content of crude fiber than in Barnyard millet. It may be fed in the same way as Barn- yard millet, however, both as regards the method and the amount. While Pearl millet has been recommended for hay and for silage, it does not possess any superior qualities for these uses, corn being a much supe- rior plant, both from the standpoint of palatability and yield of diges- Fig. 12. tible material per acre. In the more Pearl millet {Pen- gQuthem statcs, and in the semi- fiisetuyn spicatum) 90 FORAGE CROPS arid . parts of certain of the western states, the plant is very highly recommended, because of its adaptability to the longer season and hotter weather. Composition and Yield op Nutrients in Pearl Millet When Suitable fob Soiling S.^t.4^^ acre-yield contains furnishes Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Water 83.04 ... ... Dry matter ......... 16.96 339.2 2713.6 Ether extract 37 7.4 59.2 Fiber 5.45 109.0 872.0 Protein ....*....... 1.13 22.6 180.8 Ash 1.73 34.6 276.8 Nitrogen-free extract .... 8.28 165.6 1324.8 BROOM-CORN OR PROSO MILLET (Figs. 13, 14) The Broom-corn or Panicle millets {Panicum miliaceum) is not widely known as a farm crop in this country, as it is not so useful as the foxtail millets. It produces heavily of seed as well as of forage, it matures in a short season, and it seems to be able to withstand dry weather; for these reasons it is somewhat grown in the northern parts of the semi -arid regions, where its grain may be substituted for corn. There are several varieties, distinguished more or less by the color of seeds. This plant seems to be the millet of history, and it is more popular in Europe than here BEOOM-CORN MILLET 91 Broom- corn millet was included in an experi- ment at the New Jersey Station that was designed to test the value as forage of a number of plants not commonly used in the East, and to com- pare their yield, com- position and usefulness with those generally grown . Broom -corn millet produced a large stalk, with but little foliage, and when fed at the time that it seemed most use- ful for this pur- pose (just when headed out) , it was found to be unpalatable, more than one- half being un- eaten. In com- position, it was superior (in yield of dry matter) to all of the other kinds grown at that time, ^l(/ '"■s- 13. Broom-com IT 1 • .• ■»! millet (Panicum mcludmg several varieties ||| „„7tace«m), of maize, kafir corn, millet, 92 FORAGE CROPS Fig. 14, Seeds or grains of Broom-corn millet. sorghum and teosinte. The yield was sixteen and two -thirds tons of green forage per acre, which contained 7,637 pounds of dry matter, or practically twice as much dry matter as was con- tained in the yield of either red or white kafir corn. Its composition was such as to furnish nearly 700 pounds of protein per acre, or more than any other of the plants generally grown, and again more than twice as much as the kafir corn. From the standpoint of yield of dry matter and of total nutrients, the Broom-corn millet compared very favorably with the varieties of maize usually grown for forage, yet because of lack of palata- bility it could not be used for the purpose. It possesses promising characteristics, in particular its power of gathering plant- food; and further experiments may show it to be a valuable plant for silage in regions where corn does not develop. 94 FORAGE CBOP8 TEOSINTE (Fig. 15) This plant is similar in general habit to millet, but difEers in its tendency to stool. It belongs to a wholly different species (Euchleena, or Beana, luxu- rians) from the other crops discussed in this chap- ter, but it is so much like millet in its cultural requirements and in its uses that it may be dis- cussed with them. By some it is suggested as the original of Indian corn. A single plant of teosinte will branch and make a very large number of dif- ferent plants. So far as plant-food is concerned, teosinte makes the same requirements as the other very rapid- growing summer plants. Teosinte should be planted in rows about three feet apart, and tilled. Three pounds of seed per acre is suffi- cient. It is adapted only to the far South. Yields as high as twenty -four tons per acre have been secured, although, because of the low content of dry matter, the yield of actual nutriment is very much less than from ten tons of corn. Per cent One ton contains Lb8. Water 90.13 Dry matter , . . 9.87 197.4 Ether extract 34 6 8 Fiber . . 2.69 53.8 Protein . .' . . . 1.42 28.4 Ash . . . 1.36 27.2 Nitrogen-free extract . . . . . . 4.06 81 .2 CHAPTER VI THE KAFIB CORNS AND DOUBAS The genus Sorghum, one of the grass family, contains three rather distinct classes of plants : (1) The sweet or saccharine forms, the plants usually known as "sorghum" among farmers; (2) the non- saccharine fodder sorghums; (3) broom- corn (wholly distinct from the broom- corn millet described in the last chapter). All these va,rious sorghums are considered to be forms of one vari- able species. Sorghum vulgare or And/ropogon Sor- ghum, native to the Old World. The non-saccharine fodder sorghums include all the dburas (spelled also dhoura and durra) , Egypt- tian corn, milo maize, kafir corn. There is no one name that is now used to designate this group, but kafir corn is now best known and is thought -by some to be destined to become the popular class name, although doura is the oldest and most attractive name. The kafir corns bear a contracted dense panicle or head, in distinction from the long, wisp-like heads of the broom-corn; some of the sw«et sorghums bear drooping heads, but they are chiefly distinguished by their sweet juice. Of the kafir corns there are two groups, — kafir corn proper, with erect, rather long heads (95) Pig. 16. Blaok-hulled White Isafir Corn. KAFIR CORN 97 and not flattened seeds; and douras proper, with hanging or recurved short and compact heads and flattened seeds. Jerusalem corn and Yellow milo maize are douras. White milo maize belongs to the kaflr group. Some of the forms are distin- guished in Figs. 16 to 21 (all figures in this chap- ter except Nos. 19, 22 and 23 are from Kansas Experiment Station photographs). The grain in the heads Of the kaflr corns is useful, as well as the fodder, but it is not the purpose of this book to discuss the grain production. Forms of doura and kaflr corn have been known in this country for tnany years, but it is only recently that they have come to have real agricultural importance, due largely to their adaptation to the hot and dry regions of the western country. Kaflr corn is a valuable plant for dry hot countries, and also for the East, since it is a rapid grower, 'producing a large number of wide, luxu- riant leaves that are extremely palatable. It serves an excellent purpose for seeding with such legumi- nous crops as cowpeas, serving as a support for the pea, a:iding thereby to produce a much larger yield of food of higher quality than if either were seeded alone. Plants of the same nature are , Jerusalem corn, Eural Branching doura. Yellow Branching doura or milo maize, and Evergreen broom-corn. The seed of all these plants is similar to that of sorghum and may be similarly treated. It may be FORAGE CBOPS Fig. 17. Typical head of Black- Hulled White kaflr Com. sown broadcast at the rate of four to five pounds per acre, or planted in rows and cultivated as for Indian corn ; the latter is the better method when large yields are desired. Kafir corn is similar to sweet sorghum in habit of growth. It grows from five to seven feet high, with a stalk much like corn. The leaves are heavy and somewhat stiff er than those of corn. They run from one to two and one -half feet long. The grain appears on a head that reaches a length of twelve to sixteen inches; but these heads are compact, and do not spread out, as in the sweet sorghums; on the mature head there is no stem in sight, except at the base, the grain only being visible. The different kinds of KAFIB CORN 99 this class of plants should be seeded the latter part of May or first of June. They will make a crop ready for harvesting in two to two and one- half months. For green forage they should be cut as they are just coming in head, in order to secure the best yield of succulent and nutri- tious food. -They harden rapidly after seed be- gins to form. In the western states, these plants are largely grown for the grain, the ground meal making an excellent substitute for corn meal. While the dried fodder or hay makes a good for- age, it possesses no advantages in humid climates .over crops that are better known and more .easily handled, as, for example, corn. In regions of little rainfall, these crops are of unusual value. Composition of Kapik Corn and Allied Plants When Suitable for Soiling Kind Water i Bed kafir corn 81.64 White kafir corn . . . 83.44 Bural Branching doura . 85.89 Evergreen broom-corn . 77.08 Yellow-branching doura, or milo maize .... 83.19 Early Leaming corn . .76.43 The above analyses are of plants grown at the New Jersey Experiment Station. For comparison. Early Leaming corn was planted at the same time, and under the same conditions of soil and manage- Fat i 0.63 Fiber * 4.81 Protein i 1.81 Nitrogen- Ash free extract i. i 1.32 9.79 0.65 4.57 1.88 1.44 8.02 0.38 4.71 1.74 1.26 6.02 0.49 8.58 2.02 1.69 10.14 0.57 5.51 1.70 1.49 7.54 0.64 4.93 1.89 0.96 15.15 100 FORAGE CBOPS ment. The crops were cut when in best stage for soiling, and, with the exception of the Evergreen broom-corn, were palatable and readily eaten by regularly soiled dairy cows. It will be observed at once that, with the exception of the Evergreen broom -corn, all the crops showed a much lower content of dry matter than field corn. . Nutrients Per Acre in Average Crops Kind Yield per acre Tons Dry matter Lbs. Pro- tein Lbs. Tat Lbs. Fiber ' Lbs. Nitrogen- free extract Lbs. Total nutri- ents Lbs. Bed kafir corn . . . 8.34 3,062 302 105 802 1,633 2,842 White kafir corn . . 8.68 2,875 326 113 793 1,392 2,625 Rural Bnanching doura 15 .53 4,383 540 118 1,463 1,870 3,991 Evergreen broom-corn 16.66 7,637 673 163 2,859 3,379 7,074 Yellow-branching doura,or milo maize 19.55 6,573 665 223 2,154 2,948 5,991 Early Learning corn . 15.26 7,194 577 195 1,505 4,624 6,900 In this table is shown the yield per acre as well as the actual nutrients produced. It will be ob- served that the Yellow Branching doura gave the largest yield of total fodder, and the Red kafir the lowest; the Evergreen broom- corn showed the largest yield of dry matter, and the White kafir the lowest ; the Early Learning corn showed the next largest yield of dry matter, and a much lower con- tent of crude fiber than the Evergreen broom-corn. The yield of dry matter, excluding fiber, was 5,690 pounds for the Leaming corn, and 4,779 for the Evergreen broom -corn, a gain for the Leaming of KAFIR GOEN 101 911 pounds, or 19 per cent. On the dry matter basis, therefore, the only variety that at all com- pared with maize was the Ever- green broom -corn, which is very inferior in palatability and diges- tibility. The kafir corns are not comparable with corn on the basis of yield of nutrients, and are not to be recommended except as sub- stitutes for corn in climates too' dry for the latter. One point should not be lost sight of with all these quick-grow- ing summer crops, — they are relatively exhaustive of the avail- able plant-food in the surface soil. For example, a crop of eight tons of Barnyard millet, which fairly represents this group of forage crops, will remove from an acre in fifty to seventy-five days in round numbers 50 pounds of nitrogen, 26 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 104 pounds of potash. ■The same yield of maize will re- move from an acre in eighty to one hundred days only Fig. 18. Typical head of Bed kaflr corn FOSAOE CROPS 45 pounds of nitrogen, -20 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 50 pounds of potash. This is 10 per cent more nitrogen, 30 per cent more phosphoric acid and over 100 per cent more potash removed by the special crops than by the corn. The land, therefore, is more rapidly and completely de- pleted of its available plant-food by these summer-grown plants; and this accounts for the fact that they cannot be successfully grown on poor soils, and that subsequent crops, that have apparently less ability to ap- propriate plant-food, cannot be successfully grown without liberal manuring or fertilizing. These characteristics should be always taken into con- sideration when substituting this class of crops for corn in forage crop rotations. Pig. 19. Yellow milo maize, one of the doura group. KAPIR CORN FOR IJRY REGIONS It has been said that the non- saccharine sorghums are KAFIR OOBN IN KANSAS 103 especially adaptable to semi- arid and hot regions. It may be well, therefore, to present a brief account of these plants to show their value for the interior western country. The results of experiments at the Kansas Ex- periment Station are probably applicable for those regions in which the crop is a prominent one, and a brief resume and adaptation of the report of Professor J. Gr. Haney,^ of that Station, comprises the remainder of this account of kafir corn. Varieties for dry regions There are many varieties of the non- saccharine sorghums, but only three that have come under the name' of kafir corn. The name kafir comes fropi the name of a tribe of natives of South Africa, whose country is known by the same name of kafir. Kafir corn is sometimes known as Afri- can millet. The three varieties which have received most attention are, in the order they were intro- duced: (1) The White, (2) the Eed, and (3) the Black- hulled White. The last may be easily dis- tinguished from the first by noticing that the chaff or hull which partly envelops the grain is black, while in the first the chaff or hull is nearly the color of the grain; hence, the first is called White and the last Black-hulled White. In the Eed, the iPorage and Fodders, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Report for 1900. 104 FOBA GE . CROPS color develops as the seed matures, and at maturity is very nearly a brick-red. The kafirs should not be confounded with their sisters — Jerusalem corn, milo maize or rice -corn. All the varieties of the non- saccharine sorghums that will mature in Kansas have been tested side by side. For the extreme northwestern counties of Kansas, observation shows that kafir corn is not so well adapted as Jerusalem corn or rice -corn. The altitude being high, the short seasons and cool nights seem to affect the kafir corns so that they often will not mature seed. Although they always make fodder, and sometimes a good crop of seed, they are not so reliable as the others. The White kafir corn with some is the favorite for fod- der, and all varieties have their admirers, but at the Kansas Station all have been abandoned for the Black- hulled White. It has proved the heaviest yielder in both grain and fodder, and if there is any difference between it and the Red for resisting dry weather, it is in favor of the Black-hulled White. There is a greater difference between the Red and the White in these respects than between the Red and the Black -hulled White. For the first seven years the Red was grown. The Black-hulled White was then tested, and from 1896 to 1898 the two varieties were grown side by side, the Red giving an average yearly yield of thirty-seven bushels per acre, and the Black-hulled Fig. 20. Typical bead of Dwarf milo maize, a form or strain of the Yellow milo maize. 106 FOBAGJE CHOPS White forty -three bushels per acre. The yield of grain per acre by years is as follows: Red Black-hulled White bushels bushels 1896 41 48 1897 . 41 48 1898 28 33 Totals 110 129 37 43 In western Kansas, many farmers raise the Red, thinking it a little hardier and earlier. In central Kansas some feeders raise both the Red and the Black-hulled White, and feed alternately, the stock seeming to relish the change. Records show the Red to be from a week to ten days earlier than the Black-hulled White, but this difference is of little importance in central Kansas. Kafir corn planted the middle of May is ripe the middle of September. Soils and conditions of growth, Kafir corn will grow very nearly within the same climatic limits as Indian corn, and under ordinary conditions will produce a crop when corn does. However, it seems to require a slightly warmer climate for its best development. When its growth is being held back by unfavorable con- ditions, frost comes before it is ripe. It responds as readily to good soil and favorable conditions as KAFIB GOBN IN DBT BUGIONS 107 any other crop; yet, on poor land, and under conditions that would not produce a crop of corn at all, kafir corn does surprisingly well. It is a very strong feeder, having an extended root system which reaches deep and wide for necessary moisture. Dry -weather-resisting qualities Kafir com is the greatest dry- weather- resisting crop that can be grown in Kansas. It grows and develops in proportion to the moisture which it can collect by its extended root system, and, when unable .to continue growing, it stops and lies dor- mant, so, to speak, until the moisture' does come, and then continues its growth. If the rains are sufficient, and the frost does not come too soon, it will make a good crop, although it has stood com- paratively dried up for six weeks. Corn to some extent will renew its growth after a moderately dry period, but not in comparison with kafir corn. Preparation of land in dry regions Listing is not generally satisfactory. Being slow to start, the plant needs to be up where it gets all the warmth possible, which is not the case in a lister furrow. And, after listing, if a dashing rain comes and runs the soil down in the furrows before the plants are well started, there will not be a good 108 FOBAGB CHOPS stand. It does not have sufficient force to push through soil that has washed down and settled over it, Surface -planted land may be affected by dashing rains, but it is not likely to be. The washing and settling of the soil by rain, of course, depends a great deal on the character of the soil, Pig. 21. Forms of kaflr com, and a sweet sorghum. — (1) Brown doura; (2) Black-hulled White kaflr corn; (3) Red kaflr corn; (4) Kavanaugh sorghum; (5) Yellow milo maize; (6) Large African millet, or White milo maize. KAFIB CORN IN DRY REGIONS 109 as some soils wash and pack more readily than others. Listing, however, in the western and drier sections is the favorite method of planting, as it takes less work, encourages the roots to go deeper into the soil, thus better resisting drought. The rows should be about three feet apart, and the seed dropped four to eight inches apart in the row for the western part of the state. For surface planting, fall plowing is very gen- erally favored. The disadvantages of fall plowing are: The blowing of the loose soil, and the weeds, which thrive best on fall plowing. Otherwise, a good disking or fall plowing furnishes the ideal seed-bed. Spring plowing should not be done until time to plant. The plowing should not be deeper than is necessary to turn the ground well and cover trash. A very essential feature in the preparation of the seed-bed is to compact the soil as soon as plowed, so as to hold the moisture near the surface. The plowed soil should not be left as smooth on the surface as when a roller is used, nor as fine as an ordinary harrow would leave it. The day the land is plowed, it should be disked, harrowed, then rolled, and harrowed again, to make the surface fine and compact. The press drill, with all the drills left on, is the best implement for planting, if done the same day that the land is plowed. 110 FORAGE CROPS Distance apart and seed required For hay or fodder, it should be planted close, and the greatest yield may be secured by broad- easting or putting in with a wheat drill, set to sow one and one -half bushels of seed per acre. For producing grain it should be planted in rows with a view to cultivating. For the western and drier country, rows should be three to three and one -half feet apart, and the seed from four to eight inches apart in the rows, while for the eastern areas of greater rainfall, better results are obtained by put- ting the rows two and one -half to three feet apart, and the seed from two to four inches apart in the row. For western planting gix to seven pounds per acre will be all the seed required, while for eastern planting ten to twelve pounds per acre will give the best results for grain. Any drill or drill planters may be used if adapted to such small seeds, and to drop them the proper distance apart. Perhaps the most prac- tical is the ordinary grain drill, tacking a piece of pasteboard over all the holes except those which will plant the rows at the proper distance. Time to plant Kafir corn, having a rather low vitality, and growing slowly after starting, should not be ■a in KAFIR CORN IN DBT RHOIOIfS 113 planted until after the ground is well warmed, and there is no danger of frost. It comes properly just after corn planting, there being no hurry until the last week in May, but it should be in early enough to have plenty of tinie to ripen before frost, taking into eon^i'defation the fact that the plant makes but little growth in very dry periods. Seeding in dry regions As in all crops, it is essential that good! seed be planted as a first requisite to a high yield and a good stand. Kafir corn heats very often, when stored in quantity in bins, or when sacked arid in a dry place, especially if the sack is closely woven and. there is some dust in the seed. It is always risky to trust seed that has been stored in any quantity in a close bin, as its germinating power- may be impaired/-! Hence, seed that is not fresh, or new, should not be trusted. It may even sprout in a germinating pai^, and yet have a low vitality that would give a poor stand. , The best' heads from the best plant in the field, under ordinary conditions, should furnish the seed for the next year. If the seed is left to cure on the stalk in the shock, the selection may be made at any time before thrashing ; if left on the head and stored away in thin ^I tiers in a dry place, until needed- for planting, good seed is insured. 114 FORAGE CROPS Cultivation of hafir corn The cultivation should be the same as for corn, frequent and shallow, rather than deep and infre- quent. Harrowing early is almost indispensable in order to keep down weeds. After the plants are three inches high, they will stand almost any amount of harrowing and this may be continued until eight inches high. fig. 24 Roots of kaflr corn, sixty days after planting. &AFIB COBlSr IN DBT REGIONS 115 Harvesting time for grain Kafir corn remains green until frost, and the seed does not shatter; so, if grain is the only con- sideration, there is no great hurry to harvest; it can stand until after frost and the stalk is dry. But, generally, the fodder is a consideration, as well as the grain, and then the problem is to cut when the best results from both may be obtained. Fig. 25. fioots of sorghum, sixty days after planting. 116 FOBAGS 0B0P8 The longer the fodder stands, the harder and less palatable it becomes, while if cut too early the best yield of grain is not secured. After the grain is hardened so that it is difficult to mash between the thumb and finger, and there is apparently little moisture in the seed, there will be very little shrinkage in the grain. This would perhaps be called "just past the hard -dough stage." If cut earlier, the fodder will be better feed, but there will be a considerable shrinkage in the grain. Methods of harvesting One thing that has kept this crop from being more generally raised is the problem of harvesting. There are a number of methods, and they all have their merits. If the fodder is desired for feed, it is perhaps best to cut stalk and all, and leave it in the shock until dry. The best machine for accom- plishing this is the corn-binder, which leaves it in bundles of convenient size for handling, and the fodder is held together. In the western and drier regions, if not planted too thick, it does not grow so high that -it cannot, be cut with an ordi- nary grain harvester, and this method is quite extensively used. The ordinary corn sled may also be used for cutting, arid- if the seed is to be fed with the fodder, this is perhaps the most in- expensive. KAWIB, COBN IN DBY REGIONS 117 In threshing, the whole stalk can be run through a common grain- separator, but this is hard on the machine, and as a general thing a thrasher will not do such work a second season. The fodder is cut and broken up, and, while some hold that this is an advantage, it soon loses, its flavor, and, if not thoroughly dry, will heat and spoil after stacking. Stock will eat the -thraished, , broken -up fodder while it is fresh better than when whole, but in a short time it gets stale. • When the kafir is bound, the grain may be removed by thrusting the heads. into the, cylinder of a thrashing-machine for an instant, and throw- ing the fodder off on a wagon. When it; is desired to take the fodder at once from the field, this would perhaps prove the most economical method. When planted thick or sown broadcast for hay or fodder alone, it should be cut when most of the seeds or heads are in the milk or early-dough stage. At this time more nourishment will* be in the stalks and leaves; besides, 'not being ,s6vhard as when fully matured, it is more easily- digested, stock eat it more readily, and there is less -waste. A great many make the mistake of cutting too early, often with the view of getting a second-crop; ., The nourishment in any feed is conditioned on, the process of pnaturing; the compounds' mu^t be elaborated and fixed in the tissue before they are food. Cutting any feed before the blooming period 118 FOBAGM CMOP^ may give a great bulk of material, but it is watery; it dries out, the fodder shrinks, and an animal cannot eat enough of it to satisfy the appe- tite. One crop is all that ought to be expected from one seeding, and more profit is made by a single crop than two, if labor is counted as worth anything. The feed secured by two cuttings may go a little farther than the feed secured by the Fig. 26. Matured fcaflr corn root^. KAFIB COBN IN DRY REGIONS lis single cutting, but it will not go nearly twice as far. ^ Cutting and curing for hay As before stated, kafir corn should be cut when the seed is in the milk or early- dough stage. The cutting may be done with a grain- binder, and shocked to cure as small grain. This leaves it in a very fine condition to handle when feeding, but is Fig. 27. Matured sorghum roots. 120 FORAGJS CHOPS rather hard on a machine and somewhat expensive. The ordinary method is to cut with a mower, and the crop should be left to cure well before raking. Ordinarily, in the middle and western part of Kansas, after being cut and raked, it is put into large shocks or small ricks containing from a ton to three tons each. This is done with a hay-gath- erer, "buck-rake" or "go-devil," and saves a great deal of handling. It keeps in excellent condition when treated this way, and can be hauled when needed. Under ordinary conditions kafir corn will be ready to harvest for hay in about 105 days after planting, and this should be before frost, as freez- ing while green is detrimental; besides, the hay will not cure as well in cool weather, and it is essential that it be as perfectly cured as possible. Yield of grain in kafir corn The yield of grain will range from twenty to ninety' bushels per acre, with an average of about forty-five bushels in eastern Kansas; in the western and drier parts of Kansas it is smaller, though there the difference in yield ".between kafir corn and Indian corn is proportionately greater than in the eastern parts. At the Kansas Sta- tion the average yield of kafir corn for eleven years was forty-six bushels per acre, while for Indian corn it was thirty -four and five-tenths KAFIJS CORN IN DRY REGIONS 121 bushels. The yield of hay will also vary widely from one -half to three tons per acre, according to climate, soil and season. Storing the grain Great care must be taken in storing the seed in close bins, in quantity, especially if not well cleaned. It settles together so closely that air seems to be excluded and heating results. In the spring during damp spells, it is often necessary to shovel the seed from one bin to another, or from one side of the bin to the other, to keep it from spoiling. Slightly -heating does not injure it for feeding purposes, but destroys its germinating power. There is often damage to the heads when stored in corn -cribs, but it is not so probable as in the thrashed grain. CHAPTER VII THE SWEET SORGHUMS Th>e sweet or saccharine sorghums are used both for the making of syrup and for forage. They are more corn- like in appeai'ance than the kafirs because the panicle is more like a corn tassel in form. This panicle or head is usually loose and open, although it may be more or less dense when its grain is ripe. The grain is borne in the panicle or tassel, not in ears. The general directions for the growing of the kafir corns (Chapter VI) apply very well to the sorghums. The varieties of sorghum well adapted for soiling are Early Amber and Early Orange. The Early Orange produces a larger and heavier growth, and is a little later than the Early Amber, and is thus more suitable for sections in which the seasons are long. The soils best adapted for sor- ghums are deep, moist loams, or those most favor- able for maize, although the crop may be grown successfully on light lands if they are well ferti- lized. Sorghum seems to be capable of withstanding drier conditions than corn, and thus its use is increasing where droughty conditions are liable to occur. (122) 8WJSET SOliGBUM 123 Preparation of soil and seeding The preparation of soil for sorghum should be similar to that recommended for corn, — a deep, well -cultivated seed-bed, but for sorghum the crop should preferably be immediately preceded by a cultivated crop, in order to free the land of weeds. The plants germinate readily, but make a very thin and slow early growth, thus rendering it difficult t© keep clear of weeds. When the crop is intended primarily for forage, it may be seeded either thickly in rows, or broad- casted. If seeded in rows, from ten to twelve pounds of seed per acre are sufficient. If broad- casted, twenty to twenty - five pounds will be required. The crop should not be planted until the soil is thoroughly warmed, and the weather likely to be hot, as the plant does not thrive in cold, moist weather. Broadcast seeding is not recommended except on clean lands, as the weeds are likely to start vigorous growth and seriously reduce the yield of the sorghum. To grow maximum crops the land should be well manured or fertilized; inasmuch as it is a cultivated plant, which roots more deeply than the millets, the nitrogen requirements are not so ex- acting. However, the soil should be abundantly supplied with available phosphoric acid and pot- ash. A good dressing of manure of six to eight SWEET SORGEOM 125 tons, well cultivated into the soil, should be fol- lowed by an application of 200 to 300 pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer containing Nitrogen 3 per cent Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent Potash 6 per cent Yield and value Sorghum is frequently allowed to grow to a height of five to six feet, and then cut and permitted to make a second crop. By this method, the largest yields of succulent forage are obtained, ranging from eight to thirty tons per acre, although the latter figures are exceptional. An average of ten tons may be regarded as good, and this should be secured under medium conditions of soil and in usual seasons. Sorghum is a sugar -producing plant. It is very palatable, and is readily eaten by all farm stock. In their immature state, however, the plants do not contain a high content of dry matter, being similar in this respect to millet, although they are more palatable when mature. The quantity fed may range from fifty to seventy- five pounds per day, in two feeds. The sugar forms very rapidly after the heads begin to appear, and this formation of sugar, while accompanied by a considerable increase in crude fiber as the plants 126 FOB AGE CROPS approach maturity, makes the forage sweet and encourages the animals to consume the coarser materials . more readily than is the case with the millets or kafir corn, or even maize (except the sweet varieties). Sorghum is not well suited for hay, although it can be used for the purpose if cut early. It can be used for silage with advantage. It can also be harvested and allowed to dry, and the seed threshed; the dry stalks are then practically as useful as corn-stalks, and the seed can be ground into a feed which is similar to corn-meal in its compositibn and feeding value. Composition and Yield of Nutrients of Sorghum Forage Early Orange Early Amber One ton ■*?»rBf.\*ij sugar-cane sugar-cane contains fnrnishes Per cent Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Water 83.19 " 85.19 Dry matter 16.81 14.81 336.2 3362.0 Ether extract 0.57 0.51 11.4 114.0 Fiber 5.51 3.96 110.2 1102.0 Protein 1.70 1.36 34.0 340.0 Ash 1.49 1.20 29.8 298.0 Nitrogen-free extract . . • 7.54 7.78 150.8 1508.0 . SORGHUM IN DRY REGIONS Sweet sorghum is well adapted to the special climatic conditions of the semi -arid regions, although it is generally used in the eastern and southern states for green forage". The remainder SORGHUM IJH DRY REGIONS 127 of this chapter is drawn largely from Kansas State Board of Agriculture Report for 1900. Pigs. 28 and 29 are Kansan. Varieties for Kansas Of the large number of varieties, those found to be most desirable in the West are : Folger , Fig. 29. Field of Orange sorghum in Kansas. early; Coleman, medium; Collier, late. The Early Amber and Early Orange are very valuable for the East. The main points to consider in choosing varieties are (1) time of maturity, (2) proportion of foliage to stem, (3) sweetness. SWEET SOBOBUM 129 Preparation of land There is a prevailing opinion with farmers that sorghum does not require the care in the prepara- tion of soil and its cultivation that is demanded for corn. This may be true in part, but the plant responds readily and profitably to good treatment, and it usually pays well thoroughly to prepare the soil before planting. This good preparation not only destroys weed seeds, but increases the water- storage capacity of the soil, insures quick germi- nation and rapid early growth. Seeding in Kansas Sorghum may be seeded any time that is suit- able for seeding corn; if planted from the first to the twentieth of May, it will ordinarily catch enough of the spring rains to secure a fine growth before the hot and usually dry weather of the western states begins. When grown for the mature plant, it should be planted in rows, about three feet apart, and the seed distributed evenly in the row, at the rate of one peek to one -half bushel per acre. After plant- ing, the land should be harrowed to keep the sur- face loose, and as soon as the plant is well started, the ground should be frequently cultivated until the plant is thoroughly established. While the 130 FORAGE cnops young plant is slower than corn to start, and thus difficult to keep clean, especially in moist warm weather, it grows quite as rapidly, if not more so, when well established, and later cultivation is not so important. Sorghum is usually grown for the making of hay, and therefore a much thicker stand is wanted and broadcast seeding is practiced. The best method of seeding is to use a press drill, sowing from one and one-half to two bushels per acre, sufficient to have the stand thick, like wheat or rye, if the best hay is to be obtained. Harvesting and curing sorghum The crop may be cut for forage when two or three feet high, in which case it is possible to get a second crop quite as large as the first. For hay, however, it is better to let the plant i-each a more mature stage, so the seeds begin to harden and the plants to turn yellow. At this stage, it will make more and better feed than if cut earlier or later. If the stalks are not more than six feet tall, the method commonly used for hay is to cut with a mower, allow it to wilt, and then, with self- dumping rakes, carry enough together to make small stacks of 800 to 1,200 pounds. By this method, experienced gi'owers find that the least labor is involved, and that the product keeps green SWSET SOBGHUM 131 and sweet. The time of cutting should be the same if planted thinner, except that it should be cut and put in shocks, as in the curing of corn -fodder. For many sections, sorghum is one of the most useful crops of the farm ; it is easily grown, resists drought, and makes a large quantity of forage that is relished by all farm animals. In the South it is grown largely for making syrup. It was formerly used somewhat for this purpose, even as far north as Michigan, before the days of cheap sugar. As a special crop, sorghum cannot be recom- mended too highly. When properly grown it produces from four to six tons of dry feed per acre. CHAPTER VIII MAIZE OB INDIAN CORN There is no one crop that is equal to corn for forage purposes. If it could be so grown as to supply green forage from May 1 to November 1, there would be no good reason for the introduction in soiling systems of any other plant of the same group. The reasons for this broad statement are, (1) that corn is adapted to a wide range of soils, and thus can be successfully grown for forage practically everywhere in the United States; (2) it makes the largest yield of digestible dry matter •per acre, other things being equal, of any crop that is now grown; (3) in its immature state it is very palatable and is eaten practically clean by all classes of farm stock up to the time that the grain begins to harden; (4) it is one of the least expensive crops to grow, largely because of the cheapness of seed; (5) it can be completely utilized, either as a grain crop or winter forage crop, if not needed as green forage to supple- ment pastures, or if the yields are larger than needed for soiling; (6) it is the only wholly satisfactory silage crop; (7) it is a tilled crop, and its use may improve the land. (132) MAIZE FOU SOILING 133 CORN FOR GREEN FORAGE OR SOILING The choice of variety and method of growing should be modified to meet the special require- ments of soiling. It should be remembered that the purpose in the growing of soiling crops is not nutriment alone, but rather a combination of suc- culence, palatability and nutrients. Those varieties that make most rapid growth and develop early are, all things considered, more desirable than those that give a larger proportion of stalk and ear to leaf, because the shorter period of growth enables the gathering of two crops of green forage in one season as far north as New Jersey. The Rural Thoroughbred White Flint represents a type that gives excellent satisfaction in the Middle States, as it possesses in marked degree the char- acteristics already recommen'ded. The branching habit is also well developed ; from three to four stalks will sucker from the main stem, thus gradu- ally thickening and maintaining the succulent char- acter of the forage for a longer period than those not possessing this habit. In New Jersey and points south, this variety, if planted by May 1, will be ready for harvesting by the middle of July; and if another crop is planted at this time, it will reach a good stage of development previous to kill- ing frosts that occur as early as the first week in October. Notwithstanding the possibility of seeur- 134 FOBAGE CBOPS ing two crops, the yields of each are often as large as can be obtained from the larger- growing varie- ties. There are many other good varieties that possess in varying degrees the characteristics mentioned' for this one. As a rule, the flint varieties are superior to the dent in the northern parts of the country. The smaller, quicker- growing varieties of the dent sorts are also satisfactory, although requiring much thicker seeding and a longer period of growth. Preparation of land The yield of \the crop depends to a very consid- erable extent on conditions that are favorable for complete germination and very early growth. The importance of this point cannot be emphasized too strongly. Naturally, the preparation of the land and its treatment will depend somewhat on its condition and character. In the first place, if either clover or grass sod is used, it is generally good practice not to plow too deep, which is likely to turn up parts of the soil not thoi'oughly mixed with vegetable matter, and not in good physical condition. This admixture of subsoil has an unfavorable effect on quick and satisfactory germination. Therefore, relatively shallow plow- ing, — five to six inches, — is preferable. Plowing should be performed as early as it is 136 FORAGE CROPS possible to get on the land, that the soil may be suitably compacted before the drying winds of spring absorb the moisture. Following the plow- ing, the tillage should be deep and thorough, both to warm the soil and to make the surface as fine as possible. When soils are loose and porous, the necessity for deep and repeated tillings are not so great as when they are heavy and compact. If the soil is not plowed until immediately preceding planting, it is likely to be cold, preventing quick germination; and should dry weather follow, the surface rapidly dries out and the plants will not absorb sufficient moisture from the lower layers to cause rapid and continuous growth. When the crop is planted on land that has not had a cover- crop, the recommendations may be modified to some extent; a little deeper plowing may be made, and less tilling is required to get it into first-class condition. Manures and fertilisers When the aim is to secure as large a yield of succulent food as possible, and of superior quality, it is absolutely necessary that the plants have an abundant supply of plant-food throughout the entire season. Therefore, even on good soils, the fertilization should be liberal. Manure may be placed on the surface in the fall, in which case it serves as a mulch during winter, absorbing mois- \ MAIZE FOB SOILING 137 turey preventing washing and ensuring a complete distribution in the surface layers of the soluble plant -food; or it may be applied after plowing in spring, providing it is fine and thoroughly incorporated in the surface soil. These methods will ensure the largest return of the constituents in the crop, and they are particularly desirable when manures are used that contain but little litter. When manure is used, ten tons per acre applied broadcast will afford abundance of organic ma- terial, containing sufficient nitrogen in available forms to supply the early needs of the plant. It must be remembered, however, that no amount of manure or fertilizer can be substituted for early and thorough tillage, as tillage saves moisture. This is a matter of the highest impor- tance, for without moisture the plant-food cannot be dissolved and circulated through the soil. There- fore, whatever the method of manuring, the soil after seeding should be tilled, preferably shallow and as frequently as possible, until the plants are too large to permit further work. The fact that the plant does not make its most rapid growth in any case until warm weather begins, makes the necessity for early and large applications of quickly available nitrogen not so great as in the case of such crops as rye or wheat, or even oats, that make their most rapid growth much earlier in the season. With corn, the conditions are gener- 138 FORAGE GROPS ally favorable soou after planting for the change of organic nitrogen into available forms. • The corn • plant, however, requires a liberal supply of the mineral constituents; and while the application of manure will carry relatively large quantities of these, it is obvious that they cannot be so completely distributed as in more soluble forms, nor, unless the manure is placed in the row, can they be concentrated in such a way as to permit the plant to supply its needs easily and rapidly. Therefore, in addition to manures, a fer- tilizer rich in minerals is generally desirable. A fertilizer carrying 1 per cent of nitrogen, 12 of phosphoric acid and 10 of potash (made by mixing 250 lbs. ground bone, 500 lbs. acid phosphate, 250 lbs. muriate of potash), applied at the rate of 400 pounds per acre, will meet the requirements for minerals even under unfavorable conditions. This fertilizing, while seemingly heavy, is not more than should be applied, because the object is to stimulate as far as possible a continuous and rapid growth. The above remarks are made, of course, with eastern conditions in mind. In large parts of the West, these heavy applications will not commend themselves to farmers in general ; but even there' the question of fertilizing is coming to be an irnportant one, although the main demand may be for but one of the constituents. In the long MAIZJS FOB SOILING l39 run, the question of applying plant -food is not regional. Seeding and tillage Methods of seeding vary widely, although it is recognized in all cases that the thickness of seed- ing should be proportioned to the possible available plant- food in the soil. On soils that are naturally rich and supplemented with the fertility constit- uents in available forms, thicker seeding may be made than when conditions are not so good in respect to food. A good method of seeding corn is to plant in drills, from two and one -half to three feet apart, and the plants from eight to ten inches apart in the drill. The quantity of seed necessary to plant thus thickly, will range from twelve to fourteen quarts per acre, depending on the size of the grain. In branching varieties, the plants will be as thick as ib is desirable to have them with the lighter seeding. Seedings thicker than this, either in rows or broadcast, as is frequently practiced, are likely to cause the crop to suffer from lack of moisture, if short droughts occur, even under very favorable conditions for obtaining plant- food. The size of the stalks under this thick seeding will be such as to cause the forage to remain succulent a,nd palatable until the grain begins to harden. As already indicated, when large yields are to 140 FOUAQE CBOPS be secured, great care should be observed in the conserving of the moisture, and therefore the cultivation should begin about as soon as the corn is planted. Shortly after planting, the surface should be stirred frequently, preferably with a light harrow or weeder, until the corn is well started, when shallow tilling should begin and be continued as frequently as possible during the early period of growth. This frequent tilling will prevent the undue escape of moisture into the atmosphere, as well as assist in the decomposition and nitrifica- tion of the organic matter in the soil and manure. After the first crop is removed, a second one may be immediately planted, preferably without plowing but with a deep cultivation with a cutaway har- row. The corn stubs will interfere to some extent, but not seriously. The reasons for cultivating, rather than plowing, when the first crop is removed (say the middle or latter part of July) , are, first, that quite as good tilth can be secured, and second, if the land is plowed at this season, it is frequently impossible to get the surface layers so thoroughly compacted and connected with the lower one as to permit free upward movement of water from the lower parts of the soil. It is essential, particularly in this second crop, that the germination should be quick and as complete as possible, and the early growth very rapid. The manures and ferti- lizers should be applied in the same way as for the MAIZE FOB SOILING 141 first crop, and the seeding and tilling should also be the same. Time of harvesting, and yields The time of harvesting maize for soiling pur- poses may begin as soon as the plant has fully tasseled, or even before, depending on the need for succulent forage. The largest amount of actual food or digestible nutrients will be secured if the harvesting is delayed until the ears have formed, and then continued until the glazing stage is reached. Therefore, the yields will vary widely, inasmuch as the proportion of dry matter in the early-cut forage is relatively very much less, and the water very much more than when the crop is nearly mature. Records obtained at some of -the stations show that under normal conditions of sea- son more digestible matter, and that which is quite as palatable, may be secured from twelve tons of corn cut at the glazing stage, than would be secured in fifteen tons or more harvested before or about the time the plant is coming in tassel. So the yields may vary by the common, though not proper, standards of reckoning; and the fact that a crop will yield fifteen or even twenty tons of forage, as is frequently stated, is no indication that such crop is superior in content and value of total nutrients to one that yields twelve tons. It is not desirable to prolong the feeding of the 142 FOBAGE CROPS green, forage until the ears have matured, as the tendency of the animals will be to eat the ears in preference to the other parts of the forage, and the master cows will appropriate an undue pro- portion and possibly be injured by an excessive supply, particularly if the foi-age is distributed in the field. For soiling, the forage should preferably be used before the grsiin has hardened. Composition and value of crop Corn in its best stage for green forage contains, on the average, and for all varieties, 20 per cent of dry matter. This dry matter is much richer in carbohydrates than wheat or rye forage. There- fore, so far as total nutriment is concerned, it is much superior to these crops, as well as to the millets, sorghums or kafir corn. That is to say, a larger proportion of feed in a succulent and digestible form is contained in a smaller amount of forage. Usually from forty-five to fifty pounds per- day will supply the needs for roughage, as compared with fifty to seventy -five pounds of millet or either saccharine or non- saccharine sor- ghums. Corn can be utilized through a longer period than any other crop. Therefore, the plantings should be made at different times; and as any one seeding can be used for a period of fifteen to SWEET OOBN 143 twenty -five days, the plantings should be made two or three weeks apart. Of course, a similar succession may be obtained by the use of the early- maturing and the late-maturing varieties, but the later varieties do not make so good green forage as the early ones. Composition OP THOROnGHBHED WHITE FLINT Corn CGreen) Per cent One ton contains Lbs. Average acre yield furnishes Lbs. Fodder corn, all varieties Per cent One ton contains Lbs. Average acre yield furnishes. Lbs. Water . . . 80.27 . . . . . . 79.30 ■ • • . . . Dry matter . 19.73 394.6 3946.0 20.70 414.0 414.0 Ether extract 0.62 12.4 124.0 0.50 10.0 100.0 Fiber . . . 3.78 75.6 756.0 5.00 100.0 1000.0 Protein . . 1.65 33.0 330.0 1.80 36.0 360.0 Ash ... . 0.86 ■ 17.2 172.0. 1.20 24.0 240.0 Nitrogen-free extract . . 12.82 256.4 2564.0 12.20 244.0 2440.0 The yield of the Thoroughbred White Flint has ranged, at the New Jersey Station, from ten to fif- teen tons per acre, with an average of about ten tons, containing 20 per cent of dry matter. Two crops of ten tons each would yield about four tons of dry matter per acre of a highly digestible and very satisfactory forage. SWEET COEN FOR GREEN FORAGE Owing to the very palatable nature of sweet corn, it is frequently recommended for green for- age. If suitable varieties are chosen and planted 144 F0BA6B CHOPS at the proper time, it is a very useful crop, al- though the experience of careful experimenters shows that, on the whole, the yield of feed is relatively very much less than from the regular field varieties, the range being from four to ten tons per acre, with an average of about six tons. A variety of sweet corn that gives a satisfactory yield is rather slower in development than other corn, owing largely to the fact that the seed does not germinate quickly nor the young plants grow vigorously until the season is well advanced. Of the suitable varieties, Stowell Evergreen is one of the most generally satisfactory, since it is a large, rank grower, with abundant foliage. It should not be planted until the season is well advanced, say the latter part of May, for the Cen- tral States, and the land should be thoroughly well prepared, as pointed out for other kinds of maize. When used primarily for forage, sweet corn may be fertilized or manured, as indicated for the Thoroughbred White Flint, and cultivation should be practically the same. A great advantage that many dairymen find in the growing of sweet corn is that they may sell a large proportion of the ears, when the prices are satisfactory, and still have a very good for- age left, as the stalk remains palatable for a con- siderable time after the ears have been removed. There is no question as to the superiority of the swuar COBN fob soiling 145 sweet varieties for forage, as the animals certainly are able to utilize the nutrients to the fullest ex- tent; and because of their extreme palatability, they exert a very favorable effect on the system, encouraging, apparently, a larger and better use of the accompanying feeds, as an increased flow of milk usually follows when sweet corn forage is sub- stituted for field varieties. Because of the greater palatability of the sweet varieties, however, ani- mals are likely to overeat. From fifty to sixty pounds per head per day should be the limit of use ; it is important that the distribution m the feeding lot should be so made as to prevent any one animal from securing a larger quantity than this. The composition of sweet corn does not differ materially from that of the field varieties, although it is more palatable and undoubtedly more com- pletely digested. Following are analyses: Composition op Sweet Cobn Average Stowell's Average One ton acre yield Evergreen analyses eontalns furnishes Per cent Per cent Lbs. Lbs, Water 77.90 79.10 ... ... Dry matter 22.10 20.90 418.0 2508.0 Ether extract 0.60 0.50 10.0 60.0 Fiber 4.50 4.40 88.0 528.0 Protein 1.80 1.90 38.0 228.0 Ash 1.20 1.30 26.0 156.0 Nitrogen -free extract . 14.00 12.80 256.0 1536.0 Comparison of the average yield of nutrients in regular field varieties and in sweet varieties, shows 146 FOBAGE CROPS the great superiority of the former, an average yield per acre of field varieties furnishing: 100 pounds of fat 360 pounds of protein 2,440 pounds of nitrogen-free extract as against: 60 pounds of fat 228 pounds protein 1,536 pounds of nitrogen-free extract for the sweet varieties, or a gain of nearly 60 per cent in all the different nutrients. The cost of the sweet corn forage is greater, owing to the much higher price of seed. DRIED COEN FODDER An advantage that corn possesses, and which makes it superior to practically every other plant, is the fact that, if the crop is not required in its green stage, it may be dried and used for fodder. While it contains a high content of dry matter, it cures readily, and for certain classes of feeding furnishes roughage that is unexcelled. Seeding and harvesting The varieties u^sed for fodder may be practically the same as those recommended for green forage, although the seeding may be slightly thicker, as DBIMD CORN FODDER 147 the advantage of earing is not so important. In fact, a better quality of fodder will be secured when a minimum number of matured ears are formed. The time of cutting will depend somewhat on the character of growth, but the largest amount of dry matter wilL be obtained when the maize plant is practically mature, and if the seeding has been thick enough the curing at this stage can be accomplished readily. When there is danger of shortage of other winter roughage, corn is often planted late to supplement the regular supplies, in which case the crop is not always sufficiently mature before it is time to harvest. This will result in giving a crop that is very rich in diges- tible dry matter, but that is difficult to cure. However, if it is placed in small shocks, it will soon dry out; it should be removed from small shocks to large stacks or to the barn before the heavy storms of winter begin. Composition and value of dry corn fodder The composition of well -cured corn fodder is such as to make it a most excellent and nutritious food, and it is readily eaten by all farm stock, especially if cut fine. The amount of dry matter in field- cured fodder is about 75 per cent, and it is nearly as rich in protein as timothy hay, and con- 148 FOBAGH CHOPS tains very much less crude fiber. A good crop of corn should yield about three tons per acre. A mistaken idea is that the thicker the corn is seeded, the larger will be the yield of food per acre, and in many instances the corn is sown broadcast or planted exceedingly thick in the row with this notion in mind. While the forage will be a little more digestible and a little richer in pro- tein under this treatment, the yield of total nutrients per acre is usually very much less than if planted in the ordinary way and tilled, since the thick- seeded crop will be likely to suffer from lack of moisture, and it is much more exhaustive per unit of dry matter on the fertilizer constituents of the land. It is not a desirable practice to broad- cast corn unless for hog pasture, or as catch -crop, and even then the advantages are not always apparent. Sweet corn dry fodder As already pointed out, sweet corn is an excel- lent source of nutrients, because it does not grow quite so coarse as the ordinary field varieties, and because it is very palatable and contains a highly digestible form of carbohydrates. As in the case of other fodders, if grown primarily for dried fodder, the seeding should be relatively thick, so as not to permit too heavy earing, although the presence of ears is not so undesirable as in field STOVER 149 corn. Sweet corn fodder is more likely to mold than field corn, and greater care should be exer- (jised in harvesting; it should be thoroughly cured in the field, and then stored in a dry place. If entirely freed from outside moisture, and thoroughly air -dried, it may be packed tightly in the barn without danger of injury. The neces- sity for cutting it fine, when fed, is not so great as for other corn, since animals will eat it readily without cutting, due to the softer stalk and its palatability. CORN-STALKS OB STOVER Stover is the stalks remaining after a corn crop has been harvested of its ears, the crop having been grown for the grain. There is great waste of stover throughout a large area of the country; it is certain that this waste would be saved if its food -values were better understood. The coarse stover has a high feeding- value, which will justify much greater care in its handling and storage. The feeding- value of a ton of stalks is more than half the value of a ton of timothy hay that is har- vested in its best condition. Methods ot curing and handling corn-stalks Methods of handling stover differ widely in different sections of the country. In the eastern 150 FOBAQM GBOPS and. northeastern states, the corn is usually cut and shocked, and when the ears are dry enough to crib, the corn is husked and the stalks are re- shocked in the field until cured, and then either carted to large stacks or stored in the barn,. This is an economical method of curing and saving the crop. In the South and parts of the West the practice is merely to "top" the stalk, and the leaves and stalk below the ear, with the husks, re- main standing in the field. This practice results in a large waste of valuable material. In many of the western states, only the ears are removed from the standing corn and the stalks are not harvested ; the only value gained from the stover is that which may be secured by the animals following the busk- ers, and even then probably not one-third of the food is utilized. Another source of loss of fodder, even though the corn is husked and the stalks shocked, occurs when the shocks are left in the field until they are needed for food. By this method great losses occur, due to the mechanical removal of the leaves by weather, to changes in chemical composition, and to the removal of a large proportion of the best of the material by wind- and rain-storms; besides, the rain and snow soak the outer parts of the shocks, and these parts become frozen, not only rendering them unpalatable but making it im- possible to remove the entire product to the barn. 152 FORAGE CROPS Methods of using; yield The best method of using stover is to cut it fine, or to shred it and feed the animals liberally, allow- ing the unpalatable parts to be used as bedding. In this way the best of the feed is utilized and the manures are saved and improved. The yield of stover will naturally vary accord- ing to the variety and the character of the crop. The ratio between ears and stover is not uniform, but with a yield of 100 bushels of ears there is usually about two tons of stover, which contains about 60 per cent of dry matter or feed per acre, equivalent in value practically to a ton of timothy hay. CHAPTER IX CORN FOB SILAGE The prime means of utilizing the green corn crop is in the form of silage, particularly in dairy districts. By this use the largest amount of diges- tible feed may be obtained per acre, and in a suc- culent and highly palatable form. Since the use of the silo became an important question there has been very great improvement in the growing of corn for sUage and in its storage. In the early his- tory of the silo it was recommended that corn of the larger varieties be planted very thickly, and be stored before it had nearly reached a stage of maturity. The consequence was, that, while large crop yields were secured, the high content of water and the consequently low content of dry matter were detrimental both in increasing the cost of handling and the difficulties of its preservation; the feed value was not increased, and wastes from decay in the silo were very serious. Investigations on the growing of corn and ensiling it have shown that the general principles involved in the growing of forage, as already pointed out, are quite as applicable in the growing of corn for silage as for soiling or for fodder. (153) 154 FOBAGE CROPS Varieties of corn for silage For the eastern, central west and southern states, the larger-growing varieties, as the South- ern White, Horse Tooth, Mastodon, or those gen- erally recommended by seedsmen, are preferable, giving a larger yield of actual dry matter per acre than the smaller - growing varieties, if only they mature sufficiently in average seasons before frost. Farther north, the flints, as Thoroughbred White, or the ordinary yellow varieties, and a number of the quick - growing dent varieties, are recom- mended, because the crop can be more completely matured before danger of frost. Preparation of land, and seeding As in the case of other forage crops, the prepa- ration of soil is very important. Early plowing, and a deep and thorough preparation of land are important in securing a quick and complete germi- nation and rapid early growth. Manuring should be liberal and supplemented by fertilizers. While all this is expensive when large areas are grown, nevertheless it is a paying procedure because of the very much larger quantity of feed material that may be grown per acre. It costs no more, for example, to buy land, to furnish seed, to plow, and to make the ordinary cultivations for a crop MANlTBDS POti SILa&JS CORK 155 of twelve tons than for a crop of eight tons; proper manuring will frequently make this differ- ence in yield,' other things being equal. It is rec- ommended that manure be applied either in the fall or winter on sod, at the rate of eight to ten tons per acre, or in spring after the land is plowed and previous to planting/ There is no crop that will utilize to such good advantage the coarse ma- nures as corn; it is a great forager, and at the season of its greatest demands, when it makes its most rapid growth, the coarser organic manures are more readily changed and converted into active substances than would be the case with such crops as wheat or grass, that mature early and require a large proportion of their food before changes in the organic compounds can take place in the soil. It is essential, also, in order that the nitrogenous material of the manure may be completely utilized, that abundance of minerals shall be at the disposal of the plant. Therefore, a liberal fertilization with available forms of phosphoric acid and potash, is also recommended. Usually, an application of 300 pounds of acid phosphate, or its equivalent of phosphoric acid from ground bone, when there is an abundance of organic matter, and 100 pounds of muriate of potash, broadcasted, will very materially increase the yield. An old practice, which has many points in its 156 FORAGE CROPS favor, is the dropping of fine manure in the hill at time of planting. The advantage of this method is, that the organic substances will ferment quickly and warm the soil, and thus encourage a quick germination ; and a more rapid early growth is to be obtained, as the plant makes a quick start, gets away from insects and makes possible an earlier cultivation of the land. Tillage The methods of cultivation have been greatly improved in recent years, owing to a more carefijj. study of the nature and the composition of the plant. While the old notion that cultivation pre- vious to planting is the best, is true to some extent, tillage has for one of its primary purposes the destruction of weeds in addition to the conser- vation of moisture, and this is accomplished by frequent and deep tilling subsequent to planting as well as previous to it. Immediately after the crop is planted, the surface should be stirred to destroy the young weeds in the rows, and to pre- vent the rapid escape of moisture. This can be accomplished by harrow or weeder. As soon as the corn is three or four inches high, the ordinary cultivator should be run through the row, the first one or two cultivatings being three or four inches deep, then gradually shallower, as the plant grows. SEEDING OF SILAGE CORN 157 to avoid cutting the roots, which soon ramify in every direction and fill the whole surface soil. These feeding roots should not be disturbed. Seeding The quantity of seed to sow will depend to some extent on the variety and the character of soil. On good lands, the large -growing varieties will probably give the largest yield if planted in rows from two and one -half to three feet apart, and the plants six to eight inches apart in the row. This will require about fourteen to twenty quarts of seed per acre, depending on the size of the grain. Seedings as thick as this will permit of a very considerable setting of ears, although not so large a proportion as to make the silage too rich in digestible carbohydrates. Time of cutting, and yield The best time of cutting is when the ears are beginning to harden, and while the lower leaves are still green. Of course, the season will influence this point to a considerable extent. In dry seasons, the lower leaves will become dry before the ears have reached the proper stage of development, although there will be appropriation of food by the plant so long as any green leaves remain; 158 FOBAGE CROPS therefore, the stage of maturity of the ear is the best guide as to time of cutting. When cut at this stage, a good yield will reach twelve tons per acre. This does not seem large, yet the crop will carry about 25 to 28 per cent dry matter, or an equivalent of over 6,000 pounds of actual dry substance per acre, which is greater than can be produced by any other cereal crop. When much lai'ger yields of dry matter than this are reported, the probabilities are that it is pro- duced on a smaller area specially treated, or in an exceptional season, or under unusual conditions of soil and climate. The reported average yields of twenty, twenty-five and thirty tons per aci'e, which are often noted, are evidently based on forage containing very much less dry matter. When it is remembered that it is a question not of tonnage of silage corn, but of dry substance that is involved, the grower should not base his expectations of feed production on statements of extraordinary yields, as he will surely be disappointed. If a crop has become too- dry to go into the silo in the best condition, the wetting of it may help somewhat to preserve the silage, but it must be kept in mind that water cannot take the place of the natural juices and the activity of living cells. If leaves and stalks have become dry, the cells have become filled with air and the adding of water can only partly displace it. The chief help UNSILING CORN 159 of water is in softening the tissues, and in aiding it to pack more closely. This method is often used, however, and, if the conditions in other respects are favorable, good silage results. Frosts often come earlier than usual, and the corn is frozen before it can be ensiled. When this happens, it is best to cut the corn as soon as pos- sible thereafter, and before the leaves are entirely dry, cutting in rather large heaps, so that it will not dry out too rapidly in the field. By care in these respects, frozen corn can be fully utilized for silage. Storage in the silo In the ensiling of corn, great progress has been made, chiefly in the form and construction of the silo. It has been demonstrated that the one crucial point in the saving of corn in a silo, is that the product shall be put in a building or receptacle that is practically air-tight. A round structure is more easily made tight and it presents the least friction against proper settling and packing. It may be made of staves, or frame, or brick, or stone, or of any material that will accomplish the purpose, namely, the prevention of the access of air. Square silos cannot be so tightly constructed, and the penetration of air when the silo is open is greater. It is impossible to pack closely in the corners. 160 FORAGE CROPS While the various styles of silos here mentioned may all be good, there are several objections to stave silos that are intended to be permanent buildings out-of-doors. The staves are liable to shrink and the hoops to loosen when the silo is empty. In many instances, they are blown down in high winds, and even if not blown down they are racked and get out of plumb. It is also diffi- cult securely to anchor a permanent roof, and to connect permanently the staves with the founda- tion. It does not pay, in the long run, to make cheap staves silos. An all -wood frame round silo is a type that has given excellent satisfaction, especially when care has been given to securing a good lining, which can be accomplished only when it has a sufficient diameter to permit of " springing" the lining boards in place, rather than to have the lining perpendicular. There should be at least three layers of the wooden lining, with paper between, the first nailed on the studs, then a lining of tough building-paper; the second layer nailed so as to break joints, and another lining of paper; and the third nailed, bi^eaking joints again. To prevent the decay of the inside lining, it should preferably be treated with a mixture of gasolene and coal tar, rather than paint. This preserves the wood, to some extent prevents the entrance of moisture, and is not brushed off by the pressure of the silage as paint is likely to be. I'lLLING THE SILO 161 As to cutting and filling, there has also been considerable gain in our knowledge and practice. It is now thought that the finer the corn is cut or shredded, the better, primarily because there is more even distribution of the parts of the ears and stalks, and because the finer the material is cut the more readily and evenly will the settling take place, thus again preventing the ready access of air. It has been demonstrated, also, that the neces- sity of very rapid filling of the silo, and the sub- sequent pressure, are not such important consid- erations as was formerly supposed. Corn may be ensiled at the convenience of the farmer, providing the fermentation does not proceed so far as to cause rotting between times of filling. The development of heat in the silo cannot be avoided, and does not necessarily occasion great loss of substance, although fermentation always results in more or less breaking down of substance, and in some loss; in the case of corn, tUis loss is chiefly in the carbohydrates. When the work can proceed steadily, from eight to fifteen tons per day may be put in small and medium-sized silos, but, as already indicated, the silage should not stand more than two days between successive fillings. The importance of thoroughly compacting silage at the time of filling the silo is not usually sufficiently well understood. The thorough tramping not only enables a much 162 FORAGE CBOTS larger quantity of silage to be put in, but it expels at once a very large volume of air, which, if allowed to remain, prolongs the changes. It should be tramped well around the sides because the lateral pressure of the silage tends to develop fric- tion against the walls, which prevents its settling. In building a silo, it should be as deep as it is practicable to make it. The advantages of a deep silo are that the largest quantity of feed per cubic *Table Giving the Approximate Capacity op Ctltrdrioal Silos for Well-Matured Corn Silage, in Tons 1 Inside diameter in feet Q 16 16 17 18 19 20' 21 22 23, 24 25 26 20.. 58.84 66.95 . 75..58 84.74 94.41 104.6 115.3 126.6 138.3 150.6 163.4 176.8 21.. 62.90 71.56 80.79 90.57 100.9 111.8 123.3 135.3 147.9 161.0 174.7 189.0 22.. 67.35 76.52 86.38 96.84 107.9 119.6 131.8 144.7 158.1 172.2 186.8 202.1 23.. 71.73 81.61 92.14 103.3 115.1 127.5 140.6 154.3 168.7 183.6 199.3 215.5 24.. 76.12 86.61 97.78 109.6 122.1 135.3 149.2 163.7 179.0 194.9 211.5 228.7 25.. 80.62 89.64 103.6 116.1 129.3 143.3 158.0 173.4 189.5 206.4 223.9 242.2 26.. 85.45 97.23 109.8 123.0 137.1 151.9 167.5 183.8 200.9 218.8 237.4 256.7 27.. 90.17 102.6 115.8 129.8 144.7 100.3 176 7 194.0 212,0 230.8 250.5 270.9 28.. 94.99 108.1 122.0 136.8 154.4 168.9 186.2 204.3 223.3 243.2 263.9 285.4 29.. 99.92 113.7 128.3 143.9 160.3 177.6 195.8 214.9 234.9 255.8 277.6 300.2 30.. 105.0 119.4 134.8 151.1 168.4 186.6 205.7 225.8 246.8 268.7 291.6 315.3 31.. 109.8 124.9 141.1 158.2 176.2 195.2 115.3 236.3 258.2 281.8 305.1 330.0 32.. 115.1 135.9 147.8 165.7 184.6 204.6 225.5 247.5 270.5 294.6 319.6 345.7 In this table the horizontal lines give the number of tons of silage held by a silo haTlng the depth given at the head of the column. * Bulletin No. 83, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. CUTTING SILAGE CORN 163 foot can be stored ; . the silage pack$ tighter and loss is prevented at the surface when feeding; and when closely tramped against the wall, air is excluded and the silage keeps better than when it is shallow. The quantity of silage that may be stored in a silo increases in a higher ratio than the depth increases; a silo thirty- six feet deep will store nearly five times as much as one twelve feet deep. Cutting corn for the silo may be done either by hand or by the "self-binder." When the crop is large enough, the latter is preferable, because a team may do the cutting late in the afternoon or early morning, and thus reduce the number of men needed. Besides, the binding of the corn' makes it much easier to handle, both in loading and in feeding. There are a liiimber of excellent silage cutters. The mistake commonly made by farmers is in getting those that are too small ; it is better to have a cutter a little larger than is needed. Few should have cutting blades less than fourteen inches long. It is also very important that the power to drive the cutter should be considerably in excess of its guaranteed capacity ; especially is this the case when blowers are used, instead of carriers, as it is important to have not only a high speed but a steady power. After the silo is filled, the top should be covered with earth or other material, which will 164 FOKAGB CROPS pack tightly, so as to prevent the ingress of air. Many farmers recommend the thorough wetting of the surface, a light covering of soil, and the seeding of oats, as the cheapest and surest way to make the silo tight. While there is consider- able loss under the very best methods of handling and packing the corn in the silo, chiefly falling on the carbohydrate group, these losses have been shown to be no greater than those which take place in the common handling of the corn after it has been cut and husked. The changes in the silo, other than direct losses of carbohydrates, are due chiefly to modifications in the nitrogenous nutri- ents, the albuminoids being changed into other forms, even though the feed value is not seriously reduced. In the construction of the winter silo, the size should he so adjusted to the number of cattle as to allow a removal of about two inches of the surface per day. In the summer silo there should be a re- moval of three to four inches, otherwise the heat- ing or fermentation which begins as soon as the surface layer is removed, will result in consider- able changes, and consequent reduction in the food value of the silage. What is termed "sweet silage" is possibly a misnomer, although there is great difference in the composition of silage made and used under the conditions here outlined. The development of acid is very rapid, if the air is FJSEDlNe OF 8ILAG£i 165 allowed to come in contact with the silage for reasonably short periods. The amount of silage to feed The quantity of silage to feed should be regu- lated to some extent by the kind of silage and the size of the animals. It should never serve as the exclusive food, but mainly to supply carbohydrate roughage. From thirty to thirty- five pounds per day, containing say 28 to 30 per cent of dry matter, are sufficient for an animal of 1,000 pounds live weight. The feeding of silage should be accompanied, of course, by the use of the proper fine or concentrated feeds, and preferably with a little dry material, as cut corn-stalks or hay. When fed in this way, the results are alto- gether good. There have been no genuine investigations showing that silage causes any injury, when properly fed, or is in any way deleterious to the health of the animals, or unfavorably affects milk, butter or cheese. On the contrary, the health of animals in winter is usually better under the use of the succulent food, and the returns per unit of dry matter , for silage used in the dairy, compared with the dry fodder corn, are about .12 per cent greater. These results have been secured in actual experiments to determine the relative 166 voitAQM CHOPS value of the two kinds of foriage. There is no question, therefore, of the value of this method of preserving corn for food. Whenever farmers have a sufficient number of dairy, beef or young cattle to warrant the building of a silo, there will be no question as to the advantage of the system. The gains in the making of silage over the using of the grain and stover, are, (1) the preven- tion of mechanical losses in the harvesting of the corn; (2) the advantage of the removal of the entire crop at one time, so as to permit of a more rapid growth and development of cover- crops, which are so important in the conservation of fertility; (3) reduction in actual cost of labor per unit of feed obtained, which will result when- ever farmers are equipped for the rapid handling of large quantities of material in a short time. The silo is as much a part of the equipment of dairy farms in the North and East, as the corn- crib is of the farms of the West. Composition of Corn Fodder and Silage Dried One ton One ton One ton fodder contains Stover contains Silase contains Per cent Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Water . . . . 42.20 . . . 40.50 ■ . . . 79.10 • . ■ Dry matter . 57.80 1,156 59.50 1,190 20.90 418 Ether extract. 1.60 32 1.10 22 0.80 16 Fiber . . . . 14.30 286 19.70 394 6.00 120 Protein . . . 4 50 90 3.80 76 1.70 34 Ash 2.70 50 3.40 68 1.40 28 Nitrogen-free extract . . 34.70 694 31.50 630 11.00 220 CHAPTER X LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS EvEBY farmer is now familiar with the group of leguminous crops. This group deserves even more attention than it is now receiving, because of the relations of the plants to nitrogen. The plants belonging to the legume, family include the various clovers, peas and beans. All these plants have a source of supply of plant- food that is not acces- sible to most other plants, particularly not to the Cereal plants. It is well known that after a crop of clover the land, as a rule, produces a better growth of corn, or other cereals, than when such a crop follows a grain or a grass crop. It was thought for a long time that this improvement in land was due to the greater proportion of root substance in the surface soil, because the plants root deep and gather food from the lower layers, storing it in the thickened roots. The soil improvement was not attributed to their power of gathering nitrogen from the air until careful experiments showed that the soU nitrogen was not consumed but rather in- creased by their growth. The fact that clover gives better returns as a stock feed than an equiva- lent weight of timothy was also known for a long (167) 168 FORAGE CROPS time, and investigation of the composition of the two showed that this difference was due to a larger proportion of nitrogenous substance in the clover than in the timothy. It is now known that the individual members of this group of plants possess the peculiar property of being able to secure the important element ni- trogen, in part, at least, from the air. Therefore, they may not need nitrogenous fertilizers after they are well established, and they may add to the nitrogen content of the soil when they are returned to the earth. The advantage of leguminous crops to the feeder lies in the fact that the plants themselves contain a larger proportion of nitroge- nous matter than those of the grass family, and thereby may be used to supplement other foods and to reduce bills for purchased and concentrated feeds. One can more profitably utilize the carbo- hydrates usually contained in excess in other plants; and he is relieved of some of the necessity of purchasing nitrogenous fertilizers to increase the growth of the cereal crops. Soil inoculation While leguminous crops possess this superior advantage in the ability to appropriate nitrogen, it must be remembered that this power is not constant for all soils and under all conditions ; but in order INOCUSATION FOB LEGUMDS 169 that this peculiar function may be exercised, it is necessary that there shall be present in the soil certain organisms which attach themselves to the roots of the plants. The presence of these organ- isms is indicated by the formation of tubercles or nodules on the roots, which range in size on differ- ent kinds of plants from that of a pin-head to that pf a pea. When these nodules are not present, it is usually an indication that the proper organisms are absent and that the legumes, in common with other plants, must derivfe their nitrogen from the soil; and thus, from the standpoint of accu- mulation of nitrogen, they are probably no more useful than the cereal or other crops. Investigations of the life-history of these minute organisms show that there are certain conditions unfavorable for their growth and development, which explains why they are absent in many soils For example, it has been shown that they are likely not to jae present in soils that are poorly drained, and when air cannot penetrate and circulate freely. It has also been found that an acid condition of soil is not favorable to their growth. They are also liable, even if originally present, to be destroyed at certain periods if soils are allowed to remain uncultivated for some time. In other words, in undrained, acid, and light sandy soils deficient in organic matter, the organisms are not so likely to be present as in those that are well supplied with 170 FORAGM CROPS organic matter, are neutral in their reaction, and are well-drained; and these are the conditions j also, that are favorable for crops, providing suffi- cient food is present. Methods of inoculation In view of these facts, it becomes necessary, in order to secure the full benefit from the growth of leguminous crops, to see that the proper organisms are present. This may be readily accomplished by inoculation, or introducing the specific organism. Soils deficient in these organisms may be supplied by using earth from the fields in which they are known to be present. Experiments show that only a small quantity is necessary, if evenly distributed, to accomplish the purpose. From one to three hundred pounds of mixed soil, taken from dif- ferent parts of the field, will be sufficient for one acre, if sown broadcast and harrowed in. The soil should be taken from a field in which the same kind of crop has been successfully grown. The organisms will multiply when legumes are grown, will distribute rapidly, and be prepared immedi- ately to begin their helpful work. Once the organ- isms are present, there is little danger of their destruction under good farm practice. If the crops that are grown on this area are fed to farm stock, and the manure is used elsewhere on the farm, INOCULATION 171 the chances are that the organisms will soon be generally distributed. It is especially desirable that land be inoculated for alfalfa, if it has not grown alfalfa previously. Clover lands are not often inoculated. It often happens that in the growing of such plants as cowpeas and soybeans, the first crop will not show the tubercles, but the second one will be well supplied with them, indicating that the organ- isms may be introduced by means of the seed or the dust that goes with it. Some seedsmen now make it a practice in harvesting soybeans and cow- peas to pull them instead of cutting them, thus mingling more or less of the soil with the seed in the threshing. The organisms of different leguminous ci'ops have recently been investigated by the United States Department of Agriculture, ^ and methods devised for providing suitable nutrients for them. As a result, cultures have been prepared and distributed, together with the food necessary for their early growth. The commercial cultures have not yet been successful in practice, however; but eventually good results may be obtained. The grower should remember that inoculation of the soil is only one factor in the growth of these plants. Good crops cannot be grown on poor, wet, or acid soils, or under unfavorable culture condi- 1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 71, January, 1905. 172 FORAGE CBOPS tions by inoculation alone; the other conditions of growth must also be made favorable. The amount of nitrogen gathered It does not follow that even when these organ- isms are present and all other conditions are fav- orable, all of the nitrogen in the legume crop has been gathered from the air. It has been shown that the plants preferably take soil -nitrogen rather than air-nitrogen. On good soils containing much available nitrogen, or directly well supplied with this element, the proportionate amount of nitrogen appropriated from the air will be much less than when the crop is grown on soils poor in nitrogen, even if inoculation has been made. The amount of nitrogen gathered by a crop, therefore, cannot be exactly determined, although, as just indicated, it is thought that the usefulness of the legumes as a means of acquiring atmospheric nitrogen and adding to the stores in the soil, is greater when they are grown on soils rather poor in this element. It has also been clearly demonstrated that the proportion of nitrogen gathered from the air, par- ticularly on poor soils, even when the proper or- ganisms are present, depends on the supply of the other necessary plant- food ingredients. Soils poor in nitrogen and uncongenial in physical character NITBOGENGATHERING 173 will not produce a large crop of any leguminous plant unless well supplied"^^ with phosphoric acid and potash. Therefore, in attempts to increase the protein supply of the farm by means of leguminous plants, it is quite as necessary to fertilize with the minerals as it would be to grow any other crop, This is entirely reasonable, as the mineral constit-t uents cannot be secured from any other source than the soil and these are quite as essential to leguminous crops as to any others, or as the nitro- gen itself. Kinds of legwminous crops The family LeguminosaB, or pulse family, is very large and it is represented in the flora of all parts of the globe. Some of the legumes are trees, as locusts, red -bud, yellow -wood; others are bushes, as furze, broom, lead -plant; some are tall woody climbers, as wistaria; others are agri- cultural herbs, some of which are grown for for- age, as alfalfa, clovers, cowpea, soybean, velvet- bean, vetches, pea, and these are to be considered further in the three chapters that follow. Fig. 33. Oats-and-peas. CHAPTER XI COMBINATION CROPS WITS LEGUMES Vakious crops may be grown in combination, in which leguminous plant? occupy an important place. The combination crops, with legumes afford a very perfect balancing of nutrients, they often, increase the acre yield, and sometimes they afford the best means of utilizing land. These combina- tions are of three groups: (1) Hardy annual legumes (peas and vetches) grown with cool-sea- son cereals; (2) tender annual legumes (cow-peas, soybeans, velvet beans) grown with /warm -season cereals; (3) mixtures of clovers and grasses. When carefully managed, these combinations give the desirable results of each of the ingredients and afford another resource to the stock feeder. OATS -AND -PEAS FOR POEAGE The oats -and -pea crop is grown primarily for use as green forage, or for soiling, and it is one of the most serviceable in any forage crop rotation, supplying food when other crops are not usually available, and also making an excellent substitute for hay when it is not needed for green forage (175) 176 FOBAGM CHOPS purposes. The object of making a mixture of oats and Canada field peas is to improve the quality of the crops, as well as to increase the yield, making both the total quantity and the character of the nutrients superior to those that would be secured by using either of the crops alone. The variety of oats to be used should be a strong and vigorous grower, well adapted to the locality and to climatic conditions. Any variety that has proved itself superior as a grain -producer may be safely used for green forage. It is an advantage to select the best seed when planting for forage crops, — quite as important in the growing of forage as in the grow- ing of grain or seed. There is wide difference in the varieties of the Canada pea. For average purposes, probably the Golden Vine is as satisfactory as any, because it is more generally grown and the seed is cheap, and because a smaller quantity is required per acre. It is a medium -early variety. Early varieties that are very satisfactory are Canadian Beauty and Black- Eyed Marrowfat. Late varieties are Green -Scotch, Greenfield and Prussian Blue. These later varieties naturally produce a larger crop, as the period of growth is somewhat longer. Where hot weather comes on early, medium or medium - early vai'ieties are superior. It is safer to plant a distinct variety than to depend on mixtures of various kinds, which are likely to mature unevenly. OATS-AND-PMAS 177 Preparation of soil, and manuring Oats -and- peas are usually grown on land on ■which a cultivated crop has immediately preceded, although good crops may be obtained on sod land if it has been plowed' in the fall or very early spring and deeply cultivated. The land should be well and deeply prepared, in order to furnish a deep seed-bed for the peas. The areas best suited to the crop are cool, moist lands. When the weather is cool and moist, the season is much more favorable than when hot and dry. This crop responds very favorably to applica- tions of yard manures. In fact, there is no other manure that will so well or so completely meet the requirements; the organic matter contained in it aids materially in the development of the soil bac- teria, and the soluble nitrogenous and mineral salts feed the plants abundantly in the early stages of growth. The manures should be broadcasted at the rate of eight to ten tons per acre after plowing, and thoroughly harrowed into the soil. When a smaller quantity of manure must be used, it may be fortified by an application of a good fertilizer mixture whose constituents have been derived from good sources and containing Nitrogen \ 4 per cent Phosphoric aeid (available) 6 per cent Potash 6 per cent L OATS-AND-PEAS 179 This may be applied either broadcast, or drilled with the seed at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per acre. Owing to the fact that the crop makes an early growth, the particular need is for an abun- dance of available nitrogen. Quantity of seed, and methods of seeding The quantity of seed used on good soils is gen- erally about one and one -half bushels of oats and one and one -half bushels of peas each per acre, although as thick seeding as two bushels of each has been even more successful on well -enriched soils. Many variations may be made in the pro- portipns, however, to suit the various conditions of cost of seed, kind of soil and time of seeding. Sometimes increasing the peas to two bushels or two and one-half bushels, and decreasing the oats to one bushel, is practiced. The crop should be seeded as early in spring as it is possible thoroughly to prepare the soil. The earlier the crop is planted, the greater will be the likelihood of a perfect crop, as both oats and peas suffer in the hot dry days of summer. It is a com- mon practice to sow the peas from five to eight days earlier than the oats. Many growers recom- mend that the peas be plowed-in from four to six inches, in order that they may root deeply, and thus be better able to resist heat and drought. 180 FORAGE CBOPS Many other successful growers prefer to use the ordinary grain -drill for the peas and plant them as deeply as possible, following with the oats a few days later, and before the peas have sprouted. The experience at the New Jersey Experiment Station, where this crop has been an important one for eight years and where different methods have been used in seeding, has shown that it is not a profitable practice there to expend the extra labor required in plowing- in the peas or in seeding the two plants at an interval of a few days. Quite as even distribution and as large yields have been secured when the oats-and-peas have been mixed" in the grain-drill, and all seeded together. It is important in any case that the seed be distributed evenly. Time of cutting oats-and-peas When seeded as early as it is possible to pre- pare the land, the first cutting for green forage will be ready in about two and one -half months. Because of its good proportion of nutrients, it may be used as the exclusive source of food for dairy cows, although this is not a desirable practice when it is the purpose to keep the animals up to full standard of production, as it would require about 100 pounds of the forage per day.^ The best time for cutting is when the oat-grain 1 New Jersey Experiment Station Bulletin, Xo, 130 OATS-AND-PEAS 183 is in milk and the peas are forming pods ; at this period, the largest amount of digestible matter may be secured. Because of the rather slow maturity of the crop, particularly if the weather is favorable, a single seeding of oats-and-peas may furnish supply for eight to ten days, providing cutting begins a little earlier than this, or when the oats are just headed out. When it is desirable to continue the feeding longer, a second seeding is usually made about ten days after the first. In ordinary seasons this wUl be ready eight to ten days after the first planting. A third seeding made eight or ten days later than the second is likely to be ready for use relatively earlier, however, owing to the more rapid development of the crop as the hot and dry weather advances. In recent years a plant-louse has made its appearance in the eastern and southern coast states, and has been a very serious pest, attacking the peas and practically ruining the crop. Where this pest is present, the later seedings should not be made, as it attacks the plants at the end of June or the first of July, when early seedings have reached the cutting stage, and before later seed- ings have reached full development. When an abundance of fertilizer has been used, the plants are better able to resist or outrun the attacks of the insect. 184 FORAGE CBOPS Yield, uses, and quality of crop The yield varies widely, ranging from six to twelve tons per acre. The early cuttings are not rich in dry matter, although the average is higher than for some other forage crops. The oats-and- peas crop gives a relatively higher percentage of protein than is obtained in wheat, rye or grasses, and it serves a very good purpose as a balanced ration. This crop also makes most excellent hay, pala- table for all kinds of farm stock, and much richer in the digestible nutrients than timothy, though not so rich in pi'otein as clover. It should be cut for hay when at its best for forage, namely, when the oats are in the milk stage, and when the peas are forming pods. A larger yield of dry matter may be secured by allowing the two crops to ripen, harvesting and threshing the mixed grain crop, grinding the grain,_ and using it for feed and using the straw as rough- age. The expense of this practice is much greater than that of hay-making, and the yield of diges- tible matter has been found to be no greater. An experiment at the New Jersey Station^ to test this point showed that while the cured grain crop gave a larger yield of total nutrients than the crop cured as hay, the expense of the former method was lAnnual Report for 1901, p. 278 186 FOB ABU CROPS much greater. The hay cost $8.24 per ton, and the oat-and-pea feed, $22.60, and the oat-and-pea straw, $6 per ton. The use of five pounds of the straw and seven pounds of the oat-and-pea feed resulted in 2.6 per cent larger yield of milk than fourteen pounds of the hay, although the feed cost of milk per hundred was 61.6 cents, when the oat- and-pea ration was fed, and 49.9 cents when the oat-and-pea hay ration was fed. The experi- ment showed clearly that both rations are palatable and digestible, and can be successfully used as partial substitutes for purchased feeds, although indicating the greater economy as a source of nutrients of the oat-and-pea hay. Allowing the crop tp ripen, therefore, is not a profitable prac- tice, excepting when labor is abundant and cheap, or when it is more desirable to produce fine feeds than to purchase them. Composition of Oat-and-Pba Crops Oat-and pea-green forage Oats and peas, matured . Oat-and-pea hay . . Oat-and-pea straw . . . Oats and peas, ground . These analyses are the average of those made at the New Jersey Station, where the pea is used in larger proportion than is here given, or at the Water % Fat % Fiber % Protein % Ash % Nitro- gen-free extract % 79.44 0.70 6.19 2.04 1.59 10.03 17.68 2.57 23.76 9.44 5.83 40.72 31.27 1.96 22.80 7.00 5.80 30.50 9.21 2.33 32.83 4.11 6.89 44.63 9.92 3.81 10.91 16.73 4.72 53.91 OATS WITS PEAS OB VHTOB 187 rate of two bushels of peas to one or one and one- half bushels of oats. This proportion is frequently desirable, depending on the relative price of seed and adaptability of soil. The forage and hay will be much richer in protein than is . given in these analyses. When this crop is seeded primarily to supple- ment natural pastures, it is often used as pasture rather than as a soiling crop. This is a very waste- ful practice, as under the best conditions of pas- turage not more than one-third to one-half of the actual food will be used by the animals. Observations of the effect of feeding of oat- and pea forage to dairy cows show that it exerts a very favorable influence on the physical quality of milk. "When farmers are raising their own milk and selling it to special customers, there are very great advantages in using this crop, either as green forage or as hay. OATS-AND-VETCH ' The methods or practice used in the growing of oats -and -peas apply in the case of oats-and- spring- vetch (Vicia sativa). This crop is not so palatable as oats -and -peas and has not 'been so generally used. The chief difference in manage- ment is in the quantity of seed used per acre. Thus far, the seeding of one and one-half bushels of OATS-AND-VMTGH 189 oats and three- fdurths" of a bushel of vetch has been very satisfactory. The vetch makes much more leaf, and is not so firm a grower as the pea, but under favorable conditions it will make a large yield. It is not open to the disadvantage of being attacked by the pea-louse, and thus will serve in combination with oats when later seedings of oats- and-peas are found to be undesirable. The method of harvesting and feeding are the same as for the oats-and-peas. This crop also makes an excellent hay, the vetch contributing the protein in larger proportion and making a food rich in nitrogenous nutrients. When the vetch is allowed to mature, it shells rapidly, and unless care is used may prove a nuisance by volunteering as a weed. BABLET - AND - PEAS For late feeding, a combination of barley and Canada field peas is desirable, as the pea makes a luxuriant growth in late fall and is not injured except by heavy freezing; and the pea-louse, which is so destructive to the spring- seeded Canada pea, usually does not attack the fall -sown crop. The quantity of seed should be about one and one-half bushels of barley and one and one-half bushels of the pea, seeded in the same way as oats-and-peas, preferably from the first to the middle of August. 190 FOBAGM CROPS The composition of this product does not differ materially from that of oats -and -peas, although, owing to the fact that it does not mature, it is naturally a little richer in protein than the oats-and-peas. It can be fed in the same way, except that a smaller quantity should be used, — from foi'ty to . fifty pounds per day. Where this crop can be successfully grown it is very useful, as it lengthens the soiling period by at least two weeks. WARM -SEASON COMBINATIONS In addition to such combinations of soiling crops as oats-and-peas, oats-and-vetch, rye-and- peas, there are others which at times at least are advantageous, although experiments have not yet been suflBcient to determine whether under all cir- cumstances it is advisable to use them. The leading crops that may be used for these combinations are: corn, sorghum, kafir corn and millet, seeded with cowpeas or soybeans. The advantages of the Qom- bining of these crops are (1) the production of a more nearly balanced ration; (2) the larger yield that may be secured per acre, when all conditions are favorable ; (3)' the greater certainty of a paying crop when conditions are unfavorable for one or the other alone. For summer soiling, the advantages of growing kafir corn with cowpeas or soybeans, or of barn- WAJSM- SEASON- COMBINATIONS 193 yard millet with cowpeas, are usually abundantly apparent. With the latter combination, unless the season is very warm, the millet will mature earlier than the cowpeas, yet there is the advantage that the corn or millet supports the cowpea, making the cowpea easier to harvest, prolonging the period of profitable use, and providing a much better ration. Very excellent yields have been secured with these combinations. Kafir corn or millet may be utilized for a longer period than if either the kafir corn or millet were used alone, which is at times a matter of very considerable importance. In the case of maize -and -cowpeas or soybeans, the advantages of the combination are usually not so apparent, although in certain regions the com- binations have been found to be very desirable, and have been recommended particularly for silage, since the combined crop provides a practically balanced ration for winter feeding. The trouble is that if a sufficient quantity of nutrients is to be provided in a succulent ration made up of maize and cowpea silage, a too large quantity must be used in order that the animals may secure a suffi- cient amount of dry matter. A safer, although a slightly more expensive method, is to plant the maize -and -cowpeas separately, and make the cow- peas into hay^ Silage and cowpea hay are not open to this objection, as the succulent ration need not exceed thirty to thirty -five pounds per day. M 194 FORAGE CHOPS Sorghum -and- CO wpeas, or sorghum-and-soy- beans, make an excellent summer forage, providing the sorghum is seeded rather thickly and harvested before it has nearly reached maturity. The quantity of seed recommended for all these combination crops is one -half that used when each of the crops is grown singly. klXED GRASSES AND CLOVEBS On most farms in the dairy sections of the country, timothy, red -top and clovers (both red and alsike) , and timothy and clovers are two mix- tures generally used for pasture and hay-making. When the purpose of growing forage crops is pri- marily to supplement natural pastures, this crop of mixed grasses and clovers serves a most excel- lent purpose in supplying the need in emergencies. In many localities, the grasses are seeded in the fall with field crops, as with wheat or rye,- and ■ the clovers are seeded in early spring, either with- out covering or with light harrowing. When immediate and large returns are impor- tant, seedings may be made without cover- crop in the late summer or early fall. The best time of seeding has been found to be from the middle of August to the first of October, depending on the locality. At the New Jersey Experiment Station, many tests have been made as to methods and MIXED MIS ADO WS 195 times of seeding, and it has been found that for that locality (which would probably be true for a large part of the East) this method of seeding in late summer without nurse -crop is a very desirable one, as the seedings may be made after other crops are removed, as, for example, after potatoes, oats, or even after the same grass mixture when the land has been plowed immediately after the hay has been removed, and cultivated frequently before seeding. It is not necessary that the land shall have been planted with wheat or rye, as is the general custom; the seedings are more liable to take when this old practice is not followed. The preparation of soil, and seeding iFrequent and thorough cultivation of land dur- ing the entire preceding summer, accompanied by heavy fertilization, is strongly recommended, al- though this is not found to be feasible by all growers; the principle is correct, however, and whenever the areas are not too large and when the farmer has abundant capital for the purchase of fertilizers, it may be profitably followed. In general, however, the conditions do not warrant such an expensive mode of preparation and seed- ing, and a system has been developed at the New Jersey Station which is entirely practicable under what may be regarded as more extensive cohdi- Pig. 41. Corn-and-cowpeas for silage, the cowpeas planted five days after the corn. MIXED MEADOWS 197 tions, not requiring so large an outlay of labor and money. By this method the land from which crops are removed early enough, is plowed in July and thoroughly and frequently tilled until about the middle of August; this frequent tillage destroys many weed seeds, ensures a thorough division of the soil particles, and conduces to the unlocking of plant-food and encouraging the growth and de- velopment of soil bacteria. When the main pur- pose in the use of either of these mixtures of grasses and clovers is to secure hay, and to have the land remain in permanent meadow, the use of yard manures immediately before seeding is not generally desirable, owing to the danger of adding weed seed, although the thickness of the seeding of grasses and the treatment of the fields in respect to top - dressing will overcome this danger to some extent. When it is found desirable to re- seed, it is not necessary that the sod be planted with other crops, but It may be at once re-seeded with the grasses, provided it is plowed immediately after the first cutting has been removed, and thoroughly tilled in the months of July and early August. This prac- tice will permit a continuous growth of a crop that is suitable for green forage, although grown pri- marily for pasture and for hay. The quantity of seed required will depend, to some extent on the character of the land and its 198 FORAGE GBOPS preparation. When the land is naturally good and well prepared, the quantity of seed may be rela^ tively large; but if it is poor and in bad con- dition, a large quantity of seed will not encour- age a proportionately heavy growth, as a great number of young plants will perish because of the lack of a proper medium for their growth and nourishment. The following seed mixture has been used with very great success,, and as a general grass and clover mixture for dairy farms can be strongly recommended, because it is one for which the seed can be readily obtained, is not expensive, and possesses a sufficient number of distinct plants to permit of complete occupation of the land: Timothy 8 pounds Ked clover 4 pounds Alsike 2 pounds Cleaned red-top 2 pounds This mixture should be sown at the rate of twenty to thirty pounds per acre, — not less than twenty pounds on medium soil, and as much as twenty- four to thirty pounds or even more on very good soil. If seeded in the middle states any time from the middle of August to not later than Sep- tember 20, this mixture of grasses and clovers will make sufficient growth in fall to cover the ground completely, and prevent the starting of weeds, and under good climatic conditions will successfully survive the winter. MIXED MEADOWS 201 Manures and fertilisers It has been sliown by experiments that a liberal supply of plant- food from artificial sources is quite as serviceable in supplying the plants with their needs as a supply from natural manures, provided there is sufficient organic matter in the soil. If the cost of actual plant -food is taken into consideration, the increase in crop may be secured at a lower cost with the artificial than with the natural manures. A primary consideration is that the land shall be in good tilth, and the preparation and cultivation made as previously recommended; and there should be an occasional application of lime, — at least once in five years, — at the rate of twenty-five bushels per acre. This general prac- tice will greatly improve the soil in physical char- acter, and prevent to a large extent the compacting which would be likely to follow a continuous use of chemical fertilizers, without the direct addition of vegetable matter. Under these conditions the following recommendations as to fertilizers are made. In summer, while the land is being pre- pared, a few days previous to seeding, apply broadcast a fertilizer rich in minerals, as Ground bone 150 pounds Aeid phosphate 600 pounds Muriate of potash 250 pounds This mixture should be applied broadcast at the rate of 300 to 500 pounds per acire ; and at time of 202 FORAGE CHOPS seeding a further application should be made of 300 pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer, containing ' Nitrogen 3 per cent Phosphoric acid (available) 6 per cent Potash . .' 5 per cent This will ensure an abundance of the mineral elements, and sufficient nitrogen to supply the immediate needs of the plant and to encourage a vigorous growth in the fall. If the land is in good condition, and the plants winter well, a top-dress- ing on the first cutting is not usually required, although, in order to ensure a good second crop or aftermath, it is desirable that the top-dressing be made after the first crop is removed, preferably of the formula mentioned for seeding down, at the rate of 300 to 400 pounds per acre. The second season, the crop is likely to be made up largely of timothy and red- top, the clovers having disap- peared, and a top-dressing should then be made early in the spring, as soon as the grass has well started, of a fertilizer rich in available nitrogen, in order that the plant may have a nitrogenous food that it can appropriate rapidly when it needs. Therefore, a mixture of Nitrate of soda 500 pounds Ground bone 200 pounds Acid phosphate 2p0 pounds Muriate of potash 100 pounds MIXED MEADOWS 203 may be applied broadcast at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per acre. This will stimulate and strengthen any weak plants, and provide all plants with the nitrates, so essential at this season of the year. To ensure a large second crop of forage, imme- diately after the first crop is removed a further application of the top -dresser formula should be made, and at the same rate. It must be remem- bered that if a rapid and large growth of succulent food is to be secured, the plants must be abun- dantly supplied with all the essential constituent elements; and since the crop is one that does not have to be reseeded annually, a very considerable increase in the cost of the fertilizer may be allowed in lieu of the preparation and re- seeding that would be necessary if not abundantly fed and if weeds and foreign growths had encroached. While the amount of fertilizer recommended may seem large to the farmer accustomed to extensive practice, trials at a number of Experi- - ment Stations, notably, Rhode Island (Bulletin No. 99, "A Six-Year Rotation of Crops"), and the experience of growers, notably George E. Clark, Higganum, Conn., show that if large yields of hay or forage (from four to six tons of the former per acre per year) are to be secured, this liberal use of fertilizers is desirable, for the profits are greater. The Rhode Island Experiment Station 204 FORAGE CROPS finds to be profitable an annual application of 1,050 pounds per acre of a mixture of Nitrate of soda 350 pounds Muriate of potash 200 pounds Aoid phosphate 500 pounds Clark recommends, for seeding down, an annual application of 400 to 800 pounds per acre of a mixture of Ground bone 1,000 pounds Muriate of potash 800 pounds Nitrate of soda 200 pounds and two top- dressings of 200 to 300 pounds each of an equal mixture of ground bone, muriate of potash and nitrate of soda. These larger applica- ' tions, however, assume a much more thorough: preparation of land previous to seeding than is outlined here. Values of mixed forage crops A crop of mixed grasses and clovers is useful for green forage from about June 20 to July 10, according to the locality and season. It is one of the most palatable and useful of our forage crops, making a well-balanced ration in itself, and producing a relatively large yield of dry matter. MIXED MEADOWS 207 Composition and Yield of Nutrients op Mixed Grasses AND Clover Forage contains Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Water 75.00 ... ... Dry matter 25.00 500.0 4,000.0 Ether extract 0.75 15.0 120.0 Crude fiber 7.95. 159.0 1,272.0 , Protein 2.89 57.8 462.4 Ash 1.57 31.4 251.2 Nitrogen-free extract .... 11.85 237.0 1,896.0 A good first crop of mixed grasses and clovers will yield, on the average, about eight tons per acre of a product relatively rich in protein, and of a highly digestible character. The second crop will range from four to six tons, depending on the season. If the clovers are abundant, the second crop will be richer in protein than the first cutting. The yield of digestible nutrients from an acre of this crop will compare fav- orably with that of any other crop of this class, and it will be well adapted to the purpose. Owing to the high content of dry matter in the various grasses, the usual quantity used,— fifty pounds per day, — will supply a larger portion of nutrients than is furnished by the same quantity of rye or wheat, and thus reduce the amouiits of fine feeds required, a very important matter in most cases. For hay suitable for the dairy, these mixtures 208 FORAGE CROPS are very superior. Yields have been secured, under good conditions, ranging from three to four tons per acre from the first cutting, and frequently one ton and a half in the second cutting, making it also a very profitable crop from the standpoint of supply of nutrients. It is not recommended that fields that are intended to serve as hay should be pastured, although the pasture is of excellent quality. If made into hay for use on the farm, the crop should be cut before it matures, if the largest quantity of highly palatable and digestible dry matter is to be obtained. "When the plants are in blossom, or immediately after, — if there is a large proportion of the grasses, — may be regarded as the best time to cut under average conditions. The plants harden rapidly after this period, increasing proportionately the indigestible woody fiber and decreasing the digestible protein. Timothy grown for market purposes may be cut at a later period, for market conditions demand well - matured, though not over-ripe hay, and increased yields are secured if cut at this later period. CHAPTER XII ALFALFA The leguminous forage plants may be classed into three groups: perennials, biennials, annuals. Of the perennials, the plant most useful for for- age, and the one that occupies the relative posi- tion among the legumes that corn does among the cereals, is alfalfa, although it differs from corn in having a more restricted habitat or adaptability, not so readily conforming to a wide range of soils, climate or conditions of growth. It should be said, however, that alfalfa has not yet received the careful attention that its merits warrant, and the chances are that a wider study of the plant will show that it is adapted to conditions which are not now thought to be satisfactory. The chief diffi- culty in the growing of the plant thus far, particu- larly in the eastern and middle western states, is in securing and maintaining a good "stand." > Alfalfa is not a new plant. It has been culti- vated in Europe for nearly two thousand years, and is well known in both North and South America. It was introduced into California from Chili nearly fifty years ago, and its use has gradu- ally spread eastward. Long before this, however. 210 POBA&H OBOPS it had been introduced into New York from Europe. It is now regarded as one of the most important forage-crop plants in those states where irrigation is practiced. About fifteen years ago, it was found that it could be successfully established in those states where there is shortage of rainfall, but where irrigation is not practiced, as, for ex- ample, in Kansas, in which state the area in alfalfa has rapidly increased and where it is now regarded as one of the most important forage crops. It has also been the subject of experiment in many of the eastern and middle states, notably New York, New Jersey and Maryland, and the results secured in recent years show that with proper care in the preparation of the land for seeding, and in subsequent management, it may be profitably grown. In many parts of the eastern states it is now an established forage crop. Once well established the plant will last a num- ber of years, from four to ten or more, depending on the character of the land, the treatment in ref- erence to manuring, methods of cutting, and free-t dom from weeds and grass. The annual upright, branching stems do not sprout when cut, but die back to the crown, when new shoots start and grow rapidly. The roots extend much deeper than those of most plants, sometimes reaching a depth of twelve feet or more, under favorable conditions. For this reason alfalfa should not be grown per- LAND FOB ALFALFA 211 manently in orchards, as its deep roots are liable to injure those of the trees. It is often able to adapt itself, however, to soils in which the roots cannot extend very deep. Land, and its preparation Alfalfa grows well on varying kinds, of land, providing the subsoil is open and porous. The most favorable land is a rich, somewhat sandy loam, warm and friable, with a deep and loose or gravelly subsoil, well supplied with lime. A dense clay or hardpan subsoil is most unfavorable. Al- though rich land is preferable, alfalfa does well on poor, well-drained gravelly soils if well provided with the mineral elements, as phosphoric acid, potash and lime. While the plant requires much water, it will not flourish where the water-level is too near the surface, say nearer than eighteen inches, or when the ground is saturated, or where, when flooded, the water stands more than two or three days. Acid lands are uncongenial. The field intended for alfalfa should be treated the season preceding so as most effectually to subdue all weeds and cause the sprouting and destruction of any weed seed in the ground. Farm- yard manure should preferably not be used for at least one year before seeding, as it favors the growth of weeds. •212 FOBAGE CHOPS Owing to the practically permanent character of alfalfa, it will well repay the expense of carefiil and thorough preparation of the land. This is very important in order to secure a good "stand." If the subsoil is hard and compact, the subsoil plow should be used. If a piece of sod land is to be converted into an alfalfa field, it should be plowed and planted with some cultivated crop the first year or two, in order to put the soil into good physical condition as well as to destroy all tufts of grasses which may spread, as grass is the worst enemy of alfalfa. It is desirable to have the soil somewhat compact for the seed, and therefore, it is better not to sow alfalfa on new-plowed ground. Plowing should be completed as long before sow- ing as possible, and the land should be rolled to compact it, and afterward lightly harrowed to leave the surface finely pulverized, and to prevent loss of moisture. Manures and fertilisers Alfalfa is a heavy feeder, and will not thrive on lands deficient in plant-food. It is especially de- sirable that the soil contain abundance of lime, both in order to supply the needs of the plant and to correct any possible acidity, for, as already stated, acid soils are unfavorable for the growth and development of the organisms that are neces- 214 FORAGE CROPS sary to enable the plant to gather the atmospheric soil nitrogen. The fertilizers should contain chiefly potash and phosphoric acid, and, although alfalfa is capable of obtaining atmospheric nitrogen, it responds quickly to applications of nitrogenous manures, particularly in its early growth. The lime and fertilizers should be spread broadcast and har- rowed in previous to seeding. The lime should be applied, when possible, to the preceding crop, in order to ensure its thorough distribution and in- coi"poration with the soil. The following applica- tions per acre are recommended in the East, even on good lands: First year, before seeding, thirty-five bushels of stone lime and a mixture containing 3 per cent ni- trogen, 10 per cent available phosphoric acid and 5 per cent potash, at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. When there is a known deficiency in mineral elements, as in sandy soils, these fertilizers may be reinforced with ground phosphate rock or bone, or kainit, and plowed in. In the fall or early winter a top-dressing with fine manure is good, if' free from weed or grass seed. The latter point is important, as weeds will crowd out the alfalfa. The fertilizers should be applied just previous to seeding, and well worked into the surface. The manure should be applied late in the fall after cutting- has ceased; it should be fine, and evenly FERTILIZING ALFALFA FIELDS 215 spread; it will prove serviceable both in protecting the plants and in furnishing plant-food that may- be well distributed in the soil by fall and winter rains. Second and succeeding years, a top-dressing is recommended of eight to ten tons of manure, and an application of fertilizers supplying about twenty pounds of available phosphoric acid and twenty- five pounds of potash, which may preferably be obtained from 150 pounds of acid phosphate and fifty pounds of muriate of potash per acre. The fertilizers may be broadcasted, preferably after the first cutting in spring, or previous to the last cut- ting in fall, and the manure applied as recom- mended for the first year. In regions where alfalfa is new, the land should be inoculated. There is but one practical way to do this, — by the use of soil from an established alfalfa field, or from a patch of sweet clover (melilotus). The same bacteria inhabit each of these plants. It does not matter how much soil is used, so long as it is fine and is scattered over the field and harrowed in before sunlight destroys the germs. As little as 200 pounds will inoculate an acre, and a ton of earth has been used with good results. Even and thorough distribution of the inoculated soil is readily accomplished by sowing it on the land just after plowing, the tillage required in seeding ensuring the complete distribution. 216 FOBAGE CBOPS Seed and seeding Pure seed is essential, — only that which is bright, plump and clean. Dodder is a parasitic plant, that twines about the alfalfa and thrives on its juices. Dodder seed may come with alfalfa seed. The alfalfa seed ought always to be re- cleaned to free it from this parasite. There is no remedy for 'dodder when once established in a field except to plow up the infested patch. Alfalfa seed resembles that of red clover, but is larger and, when fresh, has a greenish yellow color. It is sometimes recommended to sow clover with alfalfa; this is a doubtful practice as, when the clover disappears, it will leave an uneven and too thin stand of alfalfa, although it is good practice to seed a little alfalfa with clover and timothy, on land intended for alfalfa later. Experience has demonstrated that, in order to secure a good stand, it is best to sow thirty to thirty-five pounds of seed per acre. The seed should be sown broadcast, and covered by a very light harrow or weeder, and lightly rolled. If seeded in spring, the last of April or the first of May is preferable- in the northern states, and with- out any protecting or nurse-crop. In the North, notably in Wisconsin, alfalfa is seeded in spring, using a nurse -crop of oats or barley. The best nurse -crop is beardless spring SOWING ALFALFA 217 barley. This is not the heaviest- yielding barley, but it is the best nurse-crop yet found for alfalfa, because it usually does not lodge, does not stool very much, nor shade the land too much, and it comes off early in the season. The purpose of using a nurse -crop is to discourage the growth of fox -tail and other annual grasses until the alfalfa can get a start. It is very unsafe to sow alfalfa alone early in spring, because of the dan- ger of its being choked with grasses. One can get a much more satisfactory stand with the barley than when sown alone. A bushel to the acre will be enough barley, although more may be used. It is best to sow with a drill, sowing the alfalfa seed at the rate of about fifteen to twenty pounds per acre in front of the drill. The land should have been first deeply plowed, and early enough in the season, if possible, to let it settle together, then worked to a good seed-bed just before sowing. The time of sowing should be as early as the danger of hard freezing is past, say the middle of April for the 40th par- allel, earlier to the south, and later to the north. Oats as a nurse- crop are not nearly so safe as barley, yet they may be used. No more than a bushel of seed should be sown to the acre. The oats must be cut for hay just when coming in bloom. If cutting is postponed until grain is formed, half or more of the alfalfa will be killed. 218 FORAGE CROPS If the oats lodge, cut them for hay the next day. Oat hay is a good thing to have, if it is properly cured. When barley seed is not available, oats may be used with good results, if care is taken to mow on time. After the nurse -crop is cut away, let the alfalfa alone. It will start into growth promptly, and if the soil is fertile and well inoculated, the crop will make rapid growth for a time, usually for about fifty days. As long as it continues to grow thriftily, do not cut. If a rust appears, it should be clipped close, which will check or destroy the disease. Unless seeded, early alfalfa ordinarily will not " make sufficient growth before midsummer to with- stand the weeds and drought. Where the winters are not too severe, the trouble with weeds may be avoided by seeding the last of August or after danger of crab-grass is passed; when seeded at this season the weeds are not likely to take posses- sion during the fall and sufficient growth will be made to enable the plants to withstand the winter. The crop from late summer seeding should not be cut the first fall, even though a considerable stand is secured, but left as a protection in winter. There will be no danger of smothering, as the plants will usually stand erect rather than go down. Care should be taken that the seed is not put in too deep — this is very important and is often SOWING ALFALFA 219 the cause of failure. The depth may vary some- what with the kind of soil, but in general, if planted more than three inches deep, there is danger ^that the germinating plant will not be able to reach the surface. One-half to two inches are about the extremes. Another point of importance, as already stated, is that the soil should be packed around the seed. Many failures to secure a stand of alfalfa are trace- able to sowing the seed broadcast on new -plowed ground, and then to harrow, mixing the seed loosely with the surface soil, but no^, compacting it thereafter by means of a roller, tinder favor- able conditions of soil and moisture the plant might survive, but it is safer to compact the soil' and then go over it with a light harrow or weeder, loosening the immediate surface. Subsequent treatment The growth of weeds in spring seedings should be checked early by mowing, and as soon as the weeds are large enough to be clipped. By slightly raising the cutter-bar, the mowing machine can be used. If the crop of clippings is not too heavy, it may be left on the field and will serve as a mulch for the dry weather. This destruction of weeds in the early growth is very important, and frequent cutting is -helpful, also, in establishing the young plants. CUTTING THE ALFALFA 221 Before clipping, however, examine the little alfalfa plants to see whether buds have started near the ground. If these buds are just burst- ing into leaf, clip the alfalfa at once. Do not clip it before the buds start. Do not cut the alfalfa for hay or any other purpose before these buds have formed close to the earth. To cut it before the buds appear may very seriously set it back, and may possibly kill young alfalfa. To leave alfalfa uncut will also very seriously weaken it, and may result in its death. However, the first season it should be permitted to grow as long as it is vigorous. There should always be left a growth of at least a foot to protect the crowns in winter. Alfalfa should be cut when about one-quarter of the plants are in blossom, whether the growth is short or tall, unless a seed-crop is desired. If left until fully blossomed, the quality of the prod- uct is reduced; besides, the plants are injured and subsequent crops are smaller. On rich lands, two crops are sometimes secured the, first summer from spring seeding, but on poor lands or in a dry season, no crop can be expected until the second year. Yield of alfalfa The yield on established fields will vary accord- ing to the character of the land, thickness of 222 FOB AGE CBOPS stand and method of treatment. It ranges from ten to twenty-six tons per acre green forage for all cuttings, or an equivalent in dry hay of two to six or more tons. The larger yield is readily obtained on good lands. Alfalfa is a gross feeder, particularly on the mineral elements, and a large producer, and is sometimes considered as an exhausting crop. This is a mistaken idea; it should rather be looked on as a crop fulfilling the proper aim of rational agri- culture, which is most perfectly to transform into products the raw materials at disposal in atmos- phere and soil. The chemical composition of alfalfa The following table shows the composition of five different cuttings from established fields at the New Jersey Experiment Station farm, as well as the composition of the hay when ready to put in the barn to be fed. These analyses, which are representative, show the variations in the compo- sition of the different cuttings in the green state, all samples' representing the crop cut when first blos- soms appeared or just before blossoming, as well as the changes that were caused by handling, curing and storing. The composition of the different cuts will vary with the time of cutting and character of season. The crude fiber increases with maturity: COMPOStttON Of ALfALFA 223 Composition op the Crops op the Dippeeent Cuttings OP Alfalfa -Pounds per hundred of— First cut . Second cut Third cut Fourth cut Fifth cut > Hay, when stored . Hay, after storage, 83.00 .76.63 74.10 69.71 81.77 18.66 9.56 0.67 1.02 1.07 1.10 1.13 3.19 3.36 a■^fSi-«f^■ i ilililiii Ti if iiiiiMMlMl jiyii * fW»„f(^l 'i'i^^^ /^'^^ ^:.^-''^'^' ■."- «*^»"*^> .■^^■■^-**' y, v*,.V ,j«, ^i^' :^^^^>«i^--, \ ' ^;-''.. t ^^.'•■i^- ■;'-■■ ■. ;:' ■:':^:''f'' H r' :.y" ■£'■"'■-'■ ST'-MjHEfllBBKS^&BwvS iK^-rw^l f^^^ti: ^^li Bm^^Skm^H! /^pjP^ ■"•▼--'■' r 'Ci-. '^^V V ^m pB ?^ a. ^:| Fig. 53. Crop of oowpeas for soiling. TBE COWPWA 261 and potash. On lands that are capable of produc- ing fair crops, the fertilizers may be limited to an application of these minerals, and a mixture of Acid phosphate 300 pounds Muriate of potash 100 pounds applied at the rate of 200 pounds per acre is recommended. This should be broadcasted, and well cultivated into the soil previous to planting. Harvesting xbwpeas For soiling purposes the crop may be harvested in its immature state, although a larger amount of dry matter will be secured if it is not cut until the pods are turning yellow. It is often necessary to have the crop ready in two to two and one -half months; when the early varieties are sown, and the season is favorable, profitable crops may be harvested as early as this after seeding. If the cowpea is not harvested promptly it does not suffer serious loss, as is the case with many other crops. The leaves remain green and the stems succulent until growth ceases." When the entire season can be used for the crop, the trailing varieties will give the larger yield, although they are more difiBcult to harvest, owing to the intertwining of the vines. If cut in a very immature stage, the forage shows a higher content of water, and the dry matter is 262 FOBAGE CROPS relatively richer in nitrogenous substance than when more nearly mature. Cowpea hay is more difficult to cure than clover, owing to the very succulent stems and large leaves. Therefore, it must be handled carefully, in order to prevent losses in the field, or molding in the mow. In the southern states, the practice of "ricking" is quite general. That is, the crop is mown, allowed to wilt in the swath, then raked into windrows and allowed to dry until it can be readily handled, then carted and placed in rather large stacks on ricks that are placed a foot or so from the ground, enabling the plants to cure thoroughly. There is no special need for this extra labor in the northern states, providing it is cut as early as September, as it will cure readily in the windrow if the weather is good. Yield and composition of cowpeas The yield of forage under the various condi- tions of soil, season and time of harvesting, will naturally vary widely, ranging from four to twelve tons per acre, with a probable average of eight tons on good soils. The yield of dry matter and actual nutrients increase as the plant approaches maturity. On the average, the green forage will contain about 16 per cent of dry matter. Following is an average analysis: TBE OOWPEA 263 Oi.e ton ■*■" a™™Be \ Forage contains '^^.^^^ Hay Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Water 83.60 10.70 Dry matter 16.40 328 2,624 89.30 Ether extract 0.40 8 64 2.20 Crude fiber 4.80 96 768 20.10 Crude protein 2.40 48 384 16.60 Ash 1.70 34 272 7.50 Nitrogen-free extract . . . 7.10 142 1,136 42.90 Cowpea pasture and hay When the crop is not needed for soiling, it may be used for pasture or hay. It makes excel- lent pasture, and, if the animals are not allowed to feed it too closely in the beginning, it will furnish good grazing for six to eight weeks, as the tendency of the plant is to throw out new runners when the main stems are removed. Pas- turing is wasteful, however, as the animals tramp much of the herbage into the earth, besides kill- ing some of the plants. It is better practice to make the crop into hay, as it makes a very pala- table and highly digestible product, and one which, because of its high content of protein, can be used to substitute for concentrated feeds. The cowpea is one of the most useful forms of winter forage, as it can be fed in considerable quantity, and because it possesses characteristics, which make it a good substitute for purchased protein feeds. Experiments at the New Jersey, 264 ' FORAGE CROPS Tennessee and Alabama Stations show that cow- pea hay can be very profitably substituted in part for concentrated feeds for dairy animals, although it was shown to be advisable to use a little feed in the ration. SOYBEANS The soybean is from Japan, where it is one of the staple crops. It is now generally grown in the southern coast and middle states. Soybeans are also grown successfully in Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, being better adapted to the climatic conditions of those states than cowpeas. The soy- bean has a strong central root, stiff stems, broad leaves, and somewhat resembles the ordinary bean, although it is larger and bushier in form. The plants may be dwarf and early maturing, or late and tall, but in no case do they have the vining and trailing characteristics of cowpeas. They are strictly upright plants. There are a number of varieties. The Green seems to be the variety most gener-illy used. Seeding, growth and use The plant resembles the cowpea in many of its characteristics; namely, that it should, not be seeded until the soil is warm, and when grown TSE SOYBEAN 265 for forage it should preferably be planted in rows in order that it may be tilled, although it may be seeded broadcast. The quantity of seed per acre varies from one to one and one -quarter bushels broadcast, depending on how well the seeds are- covered. When seeded in rows, the quantity may be reduced to one-half bushel or three pecks per acre. The land should be put in good condition, and fertilized as advised for cowpeas, that the germination may be prompt. For forage purposes it does not possess charac- teristics very different from those mentioned for cowpeas. Experience thus far shows that the soy- bean is slightly more difficult to handle, and that the yields are not so heavy, but the plant contains more nitrogen in the dry matter than the cowpea. It has been grown for forage when there has been a scarcity of cowpea seed, and many prefer it to the cowpea because it is easier to harvest. Its period of growth is about the same as for cowpeas, reaching its best condition in two and one -half to three months. The stems are stiff and hard, and the entire plant is not so palatable as the cow- pea, although, owing to the abundance of large leaves, the feeding value is quite as high as that of the cowpea; in fact, at the stage of growth best for forage, it is richer in dry matter and protein than the cowpea. Yields of forage on good soils average lower than the cowpea, — about 266 WOBAGE CHOPS seven tons per acre. The average composition is as follows: Anaveraee °™toi^^ acre-yield contains famishes Per cent ' Lbs. Lbs. "Water 75.10 ... ... Dry matter 24.90 _ 498 3,486 Ether extract 1.00 ' 20 140 Crude fiber 6.70 134 938 Crude protein 4.00 80 560 Ash 2.60 52 364 Nitrogen-free extract . . 10.60 212 1,484 The soybean is not so well adapted to pasture as the cowpea, but it is quite as good for hay and less difficult to cure. The crop is well worthy of wider use. VELVET BEAN The velvet bean has attracted much attention lately in the southern states. In Florida it has. been one of the most useful of the forage plants. It grows well on light, sandy land, and the yield is ordinarily larger than that of the cowpea. Under favorable conditions the vines reach a length of twenty to thirty feet. The season of growth is much longer, and for that reason the seed cannot be matured except in the most south- ern states. Experiments in the middle and east- ern states show that it is not well adapted to those sections, arid does not make as satisfactory crop for any purpose as the cowpea. It is used as a green-manure and cover-crop in the South. VJSTOH FOB FORAGE 269 VETCHES There are two species of vetch that have re- cently come into considerable use. In the use of vetches for any of the purposes mentioned, care should be used to prevent the plant from ripening and re -seeding the land. In some states, notably Michigan, vetch has become a nuisance as a weed, and is said to have made profitable wheat- growing impossible in certain sections. Since it is not pos- sible to separate the vetch readily from wheat, the latter is ruined for milling purposes. When grown only for green forage purposes, the danger is not formidable. Spring vetch The spring vetch or tare (Vicia sativa) may be substituted for Canada field peas, in a, mix- ture with oats; and in the northern states, where the pea-louse has been very destructive, it serves an excellent purpose. It is sown in spring or earlj'- summer, and does not survive the winter. The preparation of soil should be practi- cally the same as that recommended for oats and peas. Fertilizers should also be of the same char- acter. Experiments indicate that one bushel of seed, with one to one and one-half bushels of oats per acre makes a good mixture, although the smal- ler quantity of oats will be better on good land, as 270 FORAGE CROPS too large seeding of oats- prevents a large growth of the vetch. The plant is trailing in habit. If conditions are favorable, it .will make a very much thicker growth than the Canada field pea, and pro- vide excellent forage, being very palatable and highly digestible when in the best stage for feed- ing. It requires a longer period for maturing, and this extends the time during which the forage may be used, — a very important. advantage, par- ticularly in dry seasons. The composition of the oat- and- vetch forage does not differ greatly from that of the oats-and- peas. The crop may also be made into hay of an excellent quality, and it is readily cured. Hairy or winter vetch The sand, winter or hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa) is another species that thrives on poor soils, and is useful as an early spring forage, withstanding the winter and growing in spring. Owing to its trailing habit, it should not be seeded alone (except as a green- manure or cover -crop), but with rye or wheat, preferably wheat for the cen- tral states, in August or September. It is desir- able to have the soil well prepared in order to encourage an early and rapid fall growth, as well as to ensure a large crop in spring. It should be seeded at the rate of about one -half to one bushel HAIBT VJSTOB 271 per acre, with the wheat or rye, the former being sown at the rate of one bushel per acre and the latter at the rate of three -fourths of a bushe^l per acre. It will be one of the first crops ready for use in spring, as it matures with the cereal. The chief advantage of the use of hairy vetch with rye or wheat • lies in the fact that a larger crop of forage may be secured than when the cereal is grown alone. The chief disadvantage of this crop is the expensiveness of the seed, but this difficulty will doubtless be overcome as soon as the value of the crop is known and larger areas are grown. Owing to its very early growth it may be pastured to advantage when not convenient to use as a soiling crop, usually coming earlier than ordinary pastures are ready. Of course the quan- tity of forage will be less when used as pasture than when cut and carried to the barn. It is not so desirable for hay as the spring vetch, because good hay weather does not usually prevail. Composition op Haiey Vetch ri +„„ An average 2, t„^„= aere-yield . contains £„ni'sh63 Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Water 88.10 ... ... Dry matter 11.90 238 1,190 Ether.extraet 0.50 10 50 Crude fiber 2.60 52 260 Protein ......... 3.50 70 350 Ash 1.50 30 150 Nitrogen- free extract . . 3.80 76 380 272 FORAGE CROPS BKOAD OB HORSE BEAN This plant {Vicia Faba, or Faba vulgaris), probably native to northern Africa and south- west Asia, is often mentioned in American writ- ings, but it has never made much headway here. It is a stiff, erect-growing plant, wholly unlike the common bean in appearance. It grows two to four feet high. It produces large pods and big usually flat or flattish seeds. It is more like the pea than the bean in its relation to climate, as it withstands some frost. It has been cultivated from prehistoric times and its nativity is in doubt. It is much grown in Europe, primarily for forage purposes, although the seed may be used, both full grown and immature, for human food. It demands a cool climate and a long growing season and does not do well under the hot, diy summers of the United States. It is grown successfully in parts of Canada, where it has been used somewhat with corn and sunflower to make silage; this combination is known as the "Robertson mixture." This mixture does not seem to have made much headway. Frequently the plants are grown to full maturity and a meal made from the bean. Planting may be made early in spring in clay loams. The seed is sown in rows, twenty to twenty- eight inches apart, so as to allow for BROAD BEAN 273 cultivation, which is especially important with this crop for conserving the moisture. Cultiva- tion is discontinued in the latter part of July. If the crop is in early enough, it will stand up well under the snow when used as a winter cover- crop, but will winter-kill. Seeding is done at the rate of six to eight pecks per acre. A good yield of beans is thirty bushels per acre. JAPAN CLOVER Japan clover {Lespedesa striata) is a native of Japan and China, introduced into the southern part of the United States about 1840, since which time it has spread throughout the southern states, where it has proved of great value as pasture, although it is frequently used also for hay when grown on good land. Japan clover is also a valu- able cover -crop "and green -manure crop, as it is well adapted to light and poor lands and withstands drought well, growing and spreading when other plants die for lack of moisture. The plant thrives as far west as Kansas, and as far north as Mary- land, although it does best from Virginia south- ward, where it has spread naturally. Under ordinary conditions of growth, it does not reach a height of more than ten to twelve inches, and on very poor land it simply spreads over the ground. Until recently, it was allowed to seed naturally, or 274 FOBAom CROPS was seeded alone, especially on the poorer lands, the custom being simply to harrow the land and broadcast about twelve pounds of seed per acre, without covering. The seed should not be sown until all danger of freezing is past, as the young plants are tender and will be destroyed by a light frost. Where its advantages as a forage plant are appreciated, it is now often made a part of a mix- ture with grass, and four to five pounds of seed are used per acre. On good land and well cared for, Japan clover will reach a height of two feet or more, and can be readily used for soiling or for hay. It is ready for use about the middle of June as far north as Virginia, and earlier in the more southern states, and makes good pasture as late as November. As with white clover, it should be kept pastured closely for best results, and when so managed is relished by all grazing stock. When grown for hay, the common practice is not to cut until some of the seeds on the lower part of the plant are ripe, which permits it to reseed. While more easily cured than the red clover, it should be handled in practically the same way in order to prevent losses of leaves, which are richer in protein than the stems. As a soil reno- vator alone, it is well worthy greater attention than is now given it, though valuable, also, as pasture, hay and seed crop. CHAPTER XV BOOT- CROPS English agriculture is noted for its root-crops. These crops become a regular part of rotatiou systems. They thrive in the cool moist seasons of that country. In America they have not re- ceived the attention that they deserve, particu- larly in the northern states and Canada, although in the latter country they are better appreciated than in the United States. They afford good nutrient materials in most wholesome and diges- tible forms, and because of their succulence they become a good adjunct to dry and concentrated feeds. "The reason why the production of roots is of special interest in the north Atlantic states," as expressed in a recent Cornell bulletin (Eoot- crops for Stock-feedihg, Bulletin 243), is "that these states raise a comparatively large amount of roughage and a small amount of concentrates, while the north central states raise a -large amount of cereals or concentrates in proportion to hay and forage, as shown in the following table of the ratio of concentrates to roughage in the north (275) 276 FORAGE CROPS Atlantic and north central states, according to the census of 1900: All cereals except wheat, millioii tons . All hay and forage, million tons 15.6 Per cent of cereals, except wheat .... Tons cereals except wheat, per animal unit Tons hay and forage, per animal unit . . North Atlantic North Central 4.4 69.2 15.6 49.0 22.0 58.5 .55 1.55 1.95 1.10 Total tons of food per animal unit (of about 1,000 lbs. live weight) . . . 2.50 2.65 "The significance of this table is further em- phasized when the superior feeding value of concentrates is folly understood. For example, experiments made by Zuntz, of Germany, show that when clover hay was fed to horses, forty-one pounds were digested odt of each hundred pounds of hay fed, while, when oats were fed, sixty-two pounds were digested, or 50 per cent more. It was found, however, that it required the energy of twenty -four pounds of the forty -one pounds of hay digested to chew and digest the hay, leaving the net nutritive value at seventeen pounds. On the other hand, it required only twelve pounds of the sixty- two pounds of oats to masticate and digest the oats, leaving fifty pounds of oats available for producing energy or work. In other words, the oats had three times the value of the clover hay for the production of work in horses. The energy used up in chewing and digesting SIGNIFICANCE OF BOOT-CROPPING 277 food is manifested in heat and helps to keep the animal warm, and is therefore not entirely lost when the ration is merely for maintenance. But since, in any liberal feeding for the production of work, the production of meat, or of milk, the amount of heat thus produced is sufficient to keep the animal warm, the figures given above may be taken as representing their true food value. "One of the objections to roots as a food prod- uct lies in the fact of their high water content. This limits the amount which may be fed and be- comes of special importance where they are fed in connection with silage. On account of this high water content it will not be practicable to feed a sufficient amount entirely to take the place of the cereals, even should this be desirable for other reasons. The trend of experimental evidence is that the feeding value of the different types and varieties of root-crops depends more largely on the percentage of dry matter than on any other factor ; for example, the percentage of dry matter appar- ently modifies their feeding value more largely than the percentage of sugar. "The problem in New York state is whether we can afford to raise roots, and, if so, what kind. The following table shows the minimum average and maximum number of pounds of dry matter per acre which was obtained at the Cornell Experi- 278 VOItAQE CROPS ment Station in 1904, 1905 and 1906 from soxyings made during May: Minimum Average Maximum Mangels 2,168 5,155 8,453 Half-sugar mangels . 5,480 5,880 6,440 Sugar-beets .... 6,014 7,090 8,090 Eutabagas 3,537 4,331 5,079 Hybrid turnips . . . 2,584 3,694 5,111 Common turnips . . 1,710 2,680 3,500 Kohlrabi 3,570 4,070 4,540 Cabbages 4,076 4,662 5,588 Carrots 1,878 3,134 4,379 Parsnips 2,080 3,130 3,680 "The estimated yield of grain from flint corn, the same seasons, at this station, was approxi- mately 2,000 pounds ; while the yield of dry mat- ter in silage from dent corn was about 4,000 pounds. It is probable that the season of 1904 was relatively favorable to the production of roots as compared to Indian corn, but this was not true of 1905 and 1906. During the latter years the aver- age yields from roots were better than "in 1904, although the land used was conceded by all inter- ested to be less favorable than that used in 1904. " The present high price of cereals is a factor in favor of the production of root- crops. If corn meal continues to be worth twenty dollars a ton, or more, in New York state, economy in the pro- duction of roots would be indicated, while, if the price should fall to ten dollars a ton, corn meal would probably be the cheaper source of concen- MANGEL- WURZELS 279 trates. The serious handicap to the raising of root- crops is the fact that,- with present cultural meth- ods, a large amount of hand-labor is required. The point of view that it is desired here to empha- size is that, while roots may not be economically raised as a substitute for silage or other coarse fodders, it may be economical to raise them in New York state as a partial substitute for concen- trates, particularly the cereal grains." MANGELS Perhaps there is no other one crop that has. had so wide use as succulent winter forage as mangels, although they have had less popularity since the general introduction of the silo. It is a crop that can be grown to advantage, however,, and it possesses many characteristics that make it an extremely valuable product, even when silage is also used. Varieties of mangels There are many varieties differing but slightly, as, for example, the Golden Tankard, Mammoth Long Red, Red Globe and Yellow Globe, any of which will answer for forage purposes. Cornell experiments^ give the following indica- 1 Culture and Varieties of Roots for Stock-feeding, Bulletin 244. 280 FORAGE CROPS tions of varieties: "Among the mangels , all of the long varieties seem to be able to produce good yields but have various defects. The Grlobe and Tankard varieties usually contain a higher per- centage of water and are low in dry matter content. Two half-sugar mangels, Vilmorin Half- sugar Eosy and Carter Half- sugar, are recom- mended as suitable stock to use for breeding American strains. Sugar-beets, although rich in dry matter, are generally so much more expensive to harvest that the wiiters are not prepared to advocate their extensive use for stock -feeding." Land, manures and fertilisers In the culture of this crop, particular pains should be taken to provide a deep surface soil, as the deeper the soil the greater will be the proportion of root grown under the ground. Be- sides, the crop requires a large area of soil, in order to supply the rather exorbitant demands for plant- food. When the best yields are ob- tained, it is frequently recommended to subsoil at least eighteen inches, in order that the fine rootlets may penetrate to lower depths. In order to ensure a large yield, the crop should be well supplied with all the constituents of plant-food in available forms. When the land is heavy, it should preferably be plowed deep m the fall, and MANGELS 281 covered with manure at the rate of eight to ten tons per acre. This should be worked into the soil early in the spring, and the whole surface thoroughly cultivated, and fertilizers applied con- taining a high content of nitrogen. A good formula should carry nitrogen, 4 per cent; phos- phoric acid (available), 10 per cent; potash, 6 per cent. If manure is used as recommended, a dress- ing of 400 pounds per acre of this fertilizer at time of seeding may be made with advantage, even on good soils. Seeding and handling The quantity of seed is five to eight pounds per acre. The seed does not germinate quickly, and early growth is slow and, as a consequence, early cultivation is not possible, because the rows cannot be readily followed ; therefore weeds take posses- sion and make hand-labor necessary. It has been suggested that a little buckwheat be added to the seed; this plant germinates quickly, and the broad leaves clearly mark the row, making earlier cultivation possible. Mangels should be sown in rows two to two and one-half feet apart in May or early June, and, after well started, the plants should be thinned to eight to ten inches apart in the row. The cultiva- tion shpuld be frequent, and, early in the season, relatively deep, in order that the soil may be in 282 WOBAOE OBOPS the very best condition for absorbing and retaining moisture, as well as to remove all weeds. The beets should be harvested as soon as frost occurs. In order to preserve them for winter, they may be stored in the field by placing in cov- ered heaps from five to seven feet high, although the better plan is to remove after thoroughly dry to a root-cellar in which they are not liable to freeze and the temperature is not too high. Composition and use of mangels As with all root-crops, the content of dry matter is relatively low, usually not more than 8. to 10 per cent. The nutrients are highly digestible, how- ever, and when associated with so large an amount of water they possess a very high value, particu- larly in furnishing food in a wholesome form. They are extremely palatable, and when otherwise only dry feeds would be used, they answer a good purpose in keeping animals in condition, as well as stimulating the milk flow and the laying on of fat. They are very useful for cows, hogs, chickens and practically for all other kinds of farm stock. Because of their adaptability, the use of mangels is increasing in many parts of the country, espe- cially on small farms where but few animals are kept and where the labor is performed by members of the family. MANGELS 283 Average Composition of Mangels Per cent One ton contains Lbs. An average aere-yield furnishes Lbs. Water . 90.90 • ■ * > • Dry matter 9.10 182 3,640 Ether extract 0.20 4 80 Crude fiber .90 18 360 Protein 1.40 28 560 Ash 1.10 22 440 Nitrogen-free extract . 5.50 110 2,200 A recent Cornell bulletin (No. 243) quotes the following experiments on the value of mangels for milk: "Rather extensive Danish experiments indi- cate that a pound of dry matter in roots is about equal to one pound of the cereal grains, or to three-fourths of a pound of cotton-seed meal, when fed to milch cows. In these trials no silage was fed, the basal ration in each ease consisting of six and one-half pounds of hay and ten pounds of straw per cow. The experiment was so conducted as to eliminate, apparently, the factor of succu- lence, as shown by the following table of average of six experiments including about 150 cows dur- ing several months. Basal ration six and one-half pounds hay, ten pounds straw: Lot A . Cereal grains Lbs. ■ 7 Cotton- seed meal Lbs. 1.5 Dry matter in root mangels Lbs. 4.5 Nutritive ratio 1:8-9 Daily yield of milk Lbs, 22.4 LotB . . 4 4.5 ,, 4.5 1:5-5.5 23.7 LotC . LotD . . 4 . 1 1.5 4.5 7.5 7.5 1:8-9 1:5-5.5 22.5 24.2 284 FOBAOH CROPS "It will be noted that all the cows were fed roots, but two lots were fed roots containing seven and one-half pounds of dry matter, equal to about sixty-five pounds of fresh roots, instead of four and one -half pounds of dry matter, equal to about forty pounds of fresh roots. The additional three pounds of dry matter in the fii-st- mentioned cases gave as good results as an equal amount of cereal grains, the cereals consisting either of Indian corn or of a mixture of barley, oats and rye. Roots, like the cereals, are highly digestible, perhaps even more digestible than the cereal grains, and herein probably lies their high value. From the stand- point of the results which they produce, the roots may be looked on as watered concentrates. They have, apparently, a high net available energy." Yield of mangels per acre When conditions are favorable, the tonnage yield is very much greater than can be secured from corn or other forage crops, frequently reach- ing as high as twenty-five to thirty tons per acre, although the total dry matter is much less than for a smaller tonnage of corn, cowpeas, or other suc- culent forage, and the labor involved is relatively greater per unit of dry matter. The greater ex- pense of the mangel crop is due in large part to the extra cost of cultivation. MANGELS AS FOB AGS 285 Mangels versus corn The relative production of dry matter in a crop of fodder corn and in mangels is well shown by an experiment made by the New Jersey Station in 1894. The soil was good, and the plots on which the crops were grown similar in character. The tonnage yield and yield of nutrients per acre were as follows: Containing pounds of Mangels Weight of green crop . . 56,600 Dry matter . 4,084 Crude fat 33,9 Crude fiber . ... 379.2 Crude protein . . . 684,9 Crude ash . . 503.7 Carbohydrates . . . . 3,112.6 Corn forage 20,000 6,1.^0 152.2 1,484.7 468,9 243.8 8,780.2 Mangels Corn forage increase increase 36,600 216,0 259.9 1,446 118.3 1,105.5 667.6 The first point of importance shown by this comparison is that the total dry matter contained in the crop of mangels was nearly 25 per cent less than in the fodder corn; and for every pound of dry matter contained in the crop it was necessary to handle twelve pounds of water, while in the corn fodder the proportion of dry matter to water was as 1 to 3.2. It is shown, also, that in feed constituents the corn fodder furnished nearly five times as much crude fat, and four times as much crude fiber as the mangels and 20 per cent more carbohydrates. The feed constituent furnished in greatest amount by the mangels is crude pro- 286 FOB AGE CROPS tein, of which more than 50 per cent was shown by analysis to exist in the form of amides, com- pounds less valuable than true albuminoids. . It must be remembered, however, that man- gels possess a value in addition to the actual food constituents contained in them, due to suc- culence and physical character, which it is im- possible to measure in definite terms, particularly for winter feeding in connection with dry fod- ders. Under certain circumstances their produc- tion is desirable, even though the cost of dry matter exceeds that in corn or clover, mainly be- cause of their dietetic effect and of the greater digestibility of the dry matter. SUGAR-BEET Sugar-beets are often recommended in place of mangels, largely because they contain a much higher percentage of dry matter, consist- ing largely of sugar. Varieties highly recom- mended by seedsmen are Queen of Denrnark, White Eose Top and White Green Top, although those ordinarily grown for sugar are quite as useful. The preparation of land and fertilization should be practically the same as for the man- gels. The seeding should be somewhat different, as at least twenty pounds of seed is required per acre. Cultivation and harvesting and storing SUBAB-BEISTS 287 may be practically the same as recommended for mangels. Yields range from ten to twenty -five tons per acre. They contain on the average 18 per cent of dry matter, thus getting in one ton nearly twice as much nutriment as is contained in two tons of mangels. They may be fed with dry foods at the rate of fifty to sixty pounds per cow. They are a good source of carbohydrates, aside from the dietetic value that they possess in quite as great degree as mangels. When only a few • animals are kept, or when conditions of growth are most favorable and labor abundant, the growing of either sugar-beets or mangels is recommended as a source of succulent winter forage. Composition op Sugar-beets One ton contains An average aere-yieid furnishes Per cent • ibs. Lbs. Water . . . 82.00 360 Dry matter . . . 18.00 4,320 Ether extract . . . .' . . . 0.10 2 24 Crude fiber ..... . . . 1.10 22 264 Protein . . .. 1.60 32 384 Ash . . ." 1.20 24 288 Nitrogen-free extract . . . 14.00 CABBOT 280 3,360 The carrot is frequently grown for succulent winter food, particularly for horses, for which purpose it is excellent. As for other root- crops. 288 FOBAQE OROPa the soil should- be deep and well fertilized, as it is impossible to grow a good crop on poor soil. The main varieties for stock-feeding are Long Orange, Long White and Short White. These may be planted from the middle of May to the middle of June, at the rate of about one and one -half pounds of seed per acre, in rows eighteen inches to two feet apart. The early culture re- quires considerable care, as the growth is slow, which usually makes it necessary to hoe between the rows. They should be thinned to about six to eight inches in the row. Carrots are useful chiefly as an appetizer, and are not fed in large quantities. They should be harvested before freezing weather, and stored in a dry, cool place. TURNIP AND RUTABAGA Turnips may be used as a catch-crop late in the season, and they are useful both for late fall and for winter feeding. They are particularly useful for sheep, and also, if carefully used, for dairy cows. They are very watery, and do not contribute a large amount of actual nutriment. They stimulate milk flow, and their action in this respect is responsible in large degree for the belief that they possess superior nutrient qualities. The varieties mainly grown for feeding are the TURNIPS 289 Purple -top and Yellow Globe. The Cow Horn is highly recommended as a catch-crop, because it roots more deeply, thus bringing to the surface plant-food from lower layers. As a catch-crop, turnips may be sown after potatoes, tomatoes or other early crop, or seeded in corn at the last cultivation , serving both to con- serve plant- food and provide a succulent feed. The yield varies widely. When grown primarily for forage and the soil liberally fertilized, as high as thirty tons per acre are recorded. The turnip does not seem to be able to obtain the necessary phosphates so readily as some other crops ; there- fore it is especially benefited by applications of superphosphates. Lands in good condition in other respects may grow a maximum crop of turnips with additions of phosphate alone, applied at the rate of 250 pounds per acre of acid phos- phate. Under average conditions, however, an application of nitrogen and potash should accom- pany the phosphate. Turnips may be sown either broadcast or in drills; when seeded as catch -crops the broadcast method is practiced and seed used at the rate of two to three pounds per acre. Where grown for forage, they should be in drills, seeded at the rate of one pound per acre, and thinned to six inches in the row, and cultivated as other crops. The feeding of turnips to dairy cows, should be 290 FORAGE CBOPS made after the milking, as they are likely to add distasteful flavors if fed at other times. Composition of Turnips Per cent One ton contains Lbs. An average aere-yield furnishes Lbs. "Water . . 90.50 . . . Dry matter . . 9.50 190 2,850 Ether extract .... . . . 0.20 4 60 Crude fiber . . . 1.20 24 360 Protein . . . 1.10 22 330 Ash . . . 0.80 16 124 240 Nitrogen-free extract . . . 6.20 1,860 POTATO It is not frequent that it pays to grow potatoes for stock-feeding ; still it often happens that a large proportion of the crop is not marketable because of the small size of the tubers, when they can then be utilized for cattle or pig feeding. Potatoes contain about 28 per cent of dry mat- ter, are very succulent and palatable, and exercise a very marked effect on milk production. They may be fed raw or steamed; if raw, they should ^be cut, to avoid danger from choking. They should be fed, at first, in small quantities, although the amount may be gradually increased to forty to sixty pounds per day. They should be washed and thoroughly cleansed before feeding. Potatoes should always be mixed with dry feed, the amount added being in proportion to the needs of the POTATOES 291 animal, and the potatoes not in such excess as to cause the animals to scour, which frequently occurs if too large quantities are used. SWEET POTATO Sweet potatoes are also an excellent food for cattle and hogs. In wet seasons, and on heavy soils, the crop is liable to be "rooty," that is, the potatoes are not merchantable, although of good size. These imperfect roots may be fed in the same way as the white potato, although they usu- ally contain a little more dry matter and need not be fed in such large quantities. In the absence of other succulent feed they contribute very materi- ally to the improvement of the ration. CHAPTER XVI THE CABBAGE TRIBE Several members of the mustard family (Cru- eiferse) of the cabbage kind are useful forage plants, and their cultivation seems to be increas- ing. In general feeding practice they may be compared with root-crops. In fact, kohlrabi is often classed with root- crops, and well it may be, since it is very closely allied to the turnips and rutabagas, differing chiefly in having the thickened part above ground rather than below ground. The leading cabbage-like forage plants are rape, cab- bage and kohlrabi. The kales are not much grown for forage in North America. Their culture does not differ greatly from that of rape. Thousand- headed kale is the kind mostly recommended, but it does not appear to have any advantage over rape for forage. EAPE As a forage plant rape is a recent introduction into the United States. Several varieties have long been grown in Europe and other countries for forage purposes. Of the various kinds, but two are generally grown, — Dwarf (Dwarf Essex) (292) GBOWINe OF BAPE 29S and Giant. The former is more generally useful, especially on the light, chalky lands of England, and it is the only one that has given satisfaction in this country. The other is grown on strong lands, and occupies a full place in the rotation. Rape has taken the place of turnips to some extent, and is very similar in its management. All varieties are annual,, but in England they sometimes do not mature seeds the first season. The advantages of rape are: (1) it is well adapted to most soils; (2) it can be seeded either in spring or summer, serving an excellent purpose as a catoh-crop and for green -forage; (3) the expense of seed and seeding is low; (4) it is especially useful for sheep and swine, although with care it may be profitably fed to dairy cattle. Preparation of land, and seeding Th« seed of rape is small, and the preparation of land is therefore very important. The land should be deeply plowed, covering all vegetable matter, thoroughly pulverized, and the surface soil made extremely fine previous to seeding. Although rape does well on soils of medium fertility, the best results are secured when they are naturally rich, or have been well fertilized. When grown for forage, an application of barn- yard manure at the rate of eight tons per acre. 294 FOJpAOH CHOPS well worked into the surface soil, is desirable, as the plant is a voracious feeder. For its best growth it must have abundance of available nitro- gen. Hence, if manures are not readily obtainable, an application of fertilizers rich in nitrogen should be applied. Experience has shown that a fertilizer containing Nitrogen 5 per cent Phosphoric acid (available) / 8 per cent Potash 9 per cent applied at the rate of 600 pounds per acre, will supply the food in good proportions. Should the season be unfavorable for rapid growth, an addi- tional application of 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda when plants have well started will stimu- late growth and help to ensure a large crop. This top-dressing of nitrate should be made when the plants are dry. The rape may be seeded either in drills or broadcast any time from early in May for pastur- ing in July or August, or as late as July or August for late summer and fall pasture and also for cover-crops. When used for a cover-crop, the broadcast method is probably the better. When a large yield of succulent forage is desired, it is better to plant in drills two to two and one-half feet apart, as this permits early and thorough cul- tivation. The quantity of seed to be used is to be determined by the condition of soil and weather. SEEDING OF BAPE 295 The quantity should be increased in dry weather and on poor lands. When sown broadcast, three to five pounds per acre will be sufficient, and when sown in drills from one to two pounds is recom- mended. For soiling purposes, it should prefera- bly be seeded in drills and about the time that corn is seeded, or when time of severe freezing is past. Machinery adapted for planting small seeds can be successfully used for this purpose. Tillage should begin as soon as the plants are well started, and repeated as frequently as possible until the plants have arrived at such stage of growth as will not permit of further cultivation without injury. Ordinary cultivators will answer for the work, but one that will out close to the line of the row, without covering the plants, is the best, especially in the earlier stages of growth. As with corn, the first cultivation should be deep and gradually become shallow as the roots take possession of the soil. Feeding value of rape crop The value of rape as forage is chiefly as a soiling crop or for pasture; that is, it cannot be harvested and preserved with advantage. When used as a soiling crop, it may be cut with a mower and placed in heaps, which will remain good for two or three days. The following description of 296 FOBAGE CS.OPS rape as a pasture for sheep is in Farmers' Bulletin No. 11, of the United States Department of Agriculture : "Eape is unrivaled as a pasture for sheep in autumn in those parts of this continent where it can be successfully grown. As a fattening food in the field it is without a rival in point of cheapness or effectiveness. The sheep that pasture upon it do the harvesting in a most effective manner, and with but little cost to the owner; and the manure made from it is distributed over the field which produced the crop, and in a form which is readily- available for the plants of the succeeding crops. While rape thus grown and fed does not add fer- tility to the soil, unless in the plant-food it brings up from the subsoil, it does not detract from the fertility when the sheep which eat it off are in- closed upon it. When rape can be successfully grown as a pasture, the necessity for sending sheep and lambs to the market in a lean condition will be removed, and the numbers that may yet be fattened upon it in this country will only be limited probably by the inclination of the farmers and the demands of the market. Four to five millions of acres of arable land would suffice to grow rape enough to fatten all the sheep at present in the United States. " The manner of feeding off the rape when pas- tured by sheep and lambs is in outline as follows: THE FEEDING OF RAPE 297 " They should be tagged before being turned in upon the rape, or soon after, as they are liable to become purged to some extent at the first. They should not be turned in upon the rape when hungry at any time, as they may so gorge themselves that bloating, followed by death, may ensue. When they have access to an old grass pasture at the same time, the grass eaten by them is usually very effective in preventing scours and other disorders arising from impaired digestion. When the ani- mals are once turned in upon the rape it is not necessary to remove them, unless in time of severe and prolonged storms of rain or sleet. At such times they may be given the protection of sheds when these are available, otherwise the shelter of a grove may prove of some service. After they have fed upon rape from two to two and a half months they will be ready for market. When it is desired to carry on the lambs into the winter mouths after the season for pasturing is over, they will go on improving in fine form where the man- agement is judicious. In other words, pasturing on rape is an excellent preparation for winter feeding. "The sheep or lambs should be visited two or three times a day by the shepherd. This may be done on foot when the flocks are small, but when feeding over large areas the aid of a saddle horse should be called in. When sheep get fat and 298 FORAGE CROPS heavy they are somewhat liable to roll over on the back and so perish. They do not require any water when feeding upon rape, but should have access to salt at will. "There is no limit to the numbers that may be put upon one field except its capacity to sustain them. The labor of hurdling does not seem neces- sary, as the sheep waste very little of the rape. When it has grown strong and rank, they feed around the borders. Like an invading army of crawling insects, they make clean work as they go, but when the crop is hght and thin they feed in any portion of it." Rape is also good forage for cattle, although, when fed to dairy cows, it is liable to contribute Imdesirable flavors to milk and its product's, even though fed after milking, as recommended for turnips or other members of this family of plants. In experiments at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station (Bulletin No. 115) to deter- mine the quality of cheese as affected by the feed- ing of rape and other forage plants, it was found that whenever the rape was fed before milking, there was, in most cases, a very pronounced rape flavor; when fed Just after milking, there was also a very noticeable flavor. In no case was the amount fed larger than ten pounds per day, al- though it was all consumed between the morning and night milking. In fairness to the rape, it is BAPJS FOB FUmDINQ AND OOVHIB 299 stated that other green crops, as cabbage, com and clover, also unfavorably influenced the flavor of cheese. To avoid danger of over-eating when pastured, cattle should be allowed to feed in the rape for a short time at first, gradually extending the period until they may be left with reasonable safety 1 When fed as a soiling crop, this danger is avoided, as the quantity given is entirely under the control of the feeder. In feeding sheep or lambs on rape, they should preferably receive in addition -a small ration of oats in the morning, although in many cases they may be fed exclusively on this plant. As a cover -crop Eape also possesses great advantages as a cover-crop, as it may be sown thickly as late as August for late fall pasture, and. that which has not been used as forage will serve as cover in winter, preventing blowing and washing of the soil, and maintaining much better condition of soil in spring than if the land is left bare. It is de- stroyed by the cold in the northern and central states, and for this reason is not so advantageous as winter leguminous crops for this purpose. Nevertheless, because it can be seeded later and makes a large fall growth, it possesses very superior advantages as a cover- crop. 300 FOR AGS CROPS Yield and composition of rape Owing to the fact that rape is usually fed from the field, data in reference to yields are somewhat limited. At the Wisconsin and New Jersey Sta- tions, the yields have ranged, in round numbers, from twenty-three to twenty-seven tons per acre. When mature, rape contains more dry matter than most root -crops, as, for example, mangels and turnips and the total yield of nutrients is much greater. The average composition and yield of nutrients per acre are as follows: One ton Average acre- contains yield furnishes Per cent Lbs. Lbs, Water 86.2 ... ... Dry matter 13.8 276 6,900 Ether extract 0.5 10 250 Crude fiber 1.9 38 .950 ' Protein 2.4 48 1,200 Ash 1.8 36 900 Nitrogen-free extract ... 7.2 144 3,600 At the New Jersey Experiment Station, rape when at the best stage for soiling showed the following composition: Composition op Dwarf Essex Rape One ton contains Per cent Lbs. Water 84.50 . . . Dry matter 15.50 310 Ether extract 0.50 10 Crude fiber 2.60 52 Protein 2.30 46 Ash 2,00 40 Nitrogen-free extract 8.20 164 O ABB AGS FOB FSHDING 301 CABBAGE Cabbage has not been largely used in this coun- try for feeding live-stock, although knowledge as to its value for this purpose is undoubtedly ex- tending. That cabbage possesses a very distinct value as a succulent forage crop is well understood by those who grow the crop for the markets and use the refuse for feeding. The extra cost 'of grow- ing cabbage beyond that of growing turnips, rape or other similar plants has probably been the cause of a lack of attention to it. The disadvantages of cabbage as compared with the other better-known crops mentioned, are (1) the expense of planting; (2) the large plant -food requirements; (3) the difficulty of. storing for winter use; (4) the low percentage of dry matter contained in the crop. Farmers with small areas for growing forage will find cabbage a useful green crop, as it is excellent feed for all farm animals, and it is a fairly well balanced ration for milch cows. The crop is adapted to a wide range of condi- tions, although its best growth may be obtained in cool, moist climates, as are found in the more northern states and in Canada, or in certain re- gions along the shore, as on Long Island, where the atmospheric conditions seem to be peculiarly favorable. The crop may be planted in a rotation, taking the place of oats in a rotation of corn, oats. 302 FORAGE CROPS wheat and grass, as it is a good preparatory crop for wheat. Preparation of land' for cabbage, and seeding As with rape, the land should be deeply plowed and thoroughly cultivated, the surface well com- pacted and made fine, in order that the plants may^ not suffer for lack of food as soon as set. If seed is used in the field, the germination should be prompt and the early growth rapid. Farmyard manures are excellent, and, as the cabbage is a gross feeder, applications of ten tons or more per acre should be made even on good soils, and this dressing supplemented with nitrate of soda. The fertilizers recommended for rape, both in kind and quantity, will answer for cabbage. Attempts should not be made to grow cabbage unless there is an abundance of available food. As a rule, cabbage is not grown from seed planted directly in the field, and it is doubtful whether its successful and profitable use as a forage crop will warrant the extra labor required in transplanting. Of course, more seed should be used when the seed is planted directly in the rows, thus permitting the removal of extra plants when they have reached such size as to determine their vitality. The seed, in this case, may be sown with the ordinary grain drill. The rows should be about-two and one -half to three feet SMEDINQ OF CABBA6E 303 apart, and the plants thinned to about. two feet apart in the row. The wider rows are preferable, because of the greater ease of using machinery. The depth at which the seed should be planted is preferably from one to two inches, according to the nature of the soil. Light lands should be rolled Number of thousands Surehead 92 per cent , Autumn King 71 per cent . Yolg'i. 72 pcir cent Volga 73 per cent Ballhead 87 per cent Carter Model kohlrabi 96 per cent Purple Vienna kohlrabi 48 per cent White Vienna kohlrabi 91 per cent Pig. 56. Germination of commercial cabbage and kohlrabi seed and number of seeds in a pound (Cornell Experiment Station). The black bars show the number of thousand seeds in a pound; the light bars show the number of thousand that germinated. 304 FOBAQE CROPS immediately afterward, in order to draw the mois- ture to the surface and cause quick germination. From one to two pounds of seed per acre will be sufficient. The time of seeding will depend on the place it is given in the rotation. The young plants are tender, and should not in any case be planted in spring until all danger of freezing is past, although light frosts will do no injury. It is better to sow either early or late, since, if the cabbage is not seeded until late in the spring, the heads will not form so well, but, if sown very late, the plants will be hindered from making heads before cold weather sets in. In recent experiments at the Cornell University Experiment Station (Bulletin No. 242), the fol- lowing statements in reference to soil and seeding are made: "The soil considered best adapted is one rich in organic matter. Good crops can be raised on almost all types of soil, provided they contain the above requisite, are in good physical condition and contain an adequate although not excessive supply of water. Cabbages differ from almost any other farm crop in that their successful production is little influenced by the type of soil on which they are grown, or, in other words, they show a wide range of adaptability, so far as this factor is con- cerned. Undoubtedly, this power of adaptability OABBAGM 305 to varying soils was an important factor in leading the primitive people of northern and central Europe to cultivate the cabbage, and, having been grown by the common people of these regions under all sorts of conditions of soil and climate, with more or less success, from prehistoric times until the present, this power of adaptability has been preserved. "The soil should be loose, friable and well pre- pared, deep fall'plowing being advised. An ap- r ^ ffgf ^^ 1 ^M P^^m J i^n p.t :"' "1 E! w ^ fti f\.'- ^ Wk ^ a4[ * ^B "^* Pig. 57. Solid (at the left) and loose heads of cabbage. plication of ten to twenty tons of manure per acre may be made before plowing. In spring, after harrowing, an application of well- slaked lime, at the rate of 1,000 pounds of quick-lime per acre, may be made, and harrowed in. The harrowing should be done before rain falls, otherwise the lime cannot be so readily incorporated with the soil. The advantages of lime for cabbage are recognized by many growers, and one of its benefits is its action 306 ' roMAom crops in destroying the fungus that causes clubroot. After the lime is harrowed in or before liming, it may be advisable to apply part of the fertilizers. Amounts frequently used are 400 to 800 pounds of acid phosphate, 15 to 16 per cent available, or its equivalent, i. e., 60 to 120 pounds of phos- phoric acid; 100 to 150 pounds of muriate of potash, and fifty pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. Manure, lime and fertilizers should be uni- formly applied. This important matter should not be neglected. If the seed is sown where the plants are to grow, the last harrowing should be done with the Meeker harrow or some tool which will fit the surface equally well." The bulletin also gives the yields of varieties for 1904, 1905 and 1906, and states that the fol- lowing are essentials of a high yield: "First, rotation. It matters little what crops be grown, provided they are in accordance with rational practice, the main point being that when cabbage crops follow each other in succession the soil is likely to become infested with the clubroot fungus, which will render it unfit for gi-owing cab- bage for a number of years. Second, early plant- ing. This gives time for full growth and develop- ment of the heads. Third, uniform stand. The number of plants per acre may vary between seven and ten thousand. As with many other tilled crops, however, it is more essential to have the CABBAGE 307 largest number of plants possible in the rows, and the rows wide enough apart to permit free use of horse implements in tillage. This may cut down the number of plants per acre, but it will be economical in the end." The points clearly brought out by these experi- ments are: (1) that the tonnage per acre of all varieties is large; (2) that the percentage of dry matter in all varieties is low; (3) that-, as a rule, the larger the yield the lower the percentage of dry matter; (4) of the varieties usually grown, the Fig. 58. Forms of cabbage heads. In order: flat, spherical, obovate, oblong, conical. Surehead gave the largest yields in. all the years, whether seeded in May and afterwards thinned, or whether grown as plants and transplanted in June ; (5) the early planting produces the best yield of both fresh substance and dry matter. The most important points shown by these data is that cab- bage does not compare favorably in yield of dry matter with many forage crops that require but two or three months for maturity, and which per- mits of two or three crops per year. With cabbage, one crop is practically all that can be' grown, as it requires a long season. 308 FOBAGE CROPS The average composition and yield of nutrients per acre of cabbage are as follows : One tou Average acre- contains yield furnishes Per cent ' Lbs. Lbs. Water 90.5 ... ... Dry matter 9.5 195 4,800 Ether extract 0.4 8 200 Crude fiber 1.5 30 750 Protein 2.4 48 1,200 < Ash 1.4 28 700 Nitrogen-free extract . . 3.8 76 1,900 The average analysis of cabbage, which is here given, shows a much higher content of dry matter than is recorded in the Cornell bulletin; and the average yield per acre, with this analysis, would doubtless be much lower than is recorded in the bulletin, probably nearer twenty -five tons per acre, the average here assumed. KOmiiHABI Kohlrabi is another valuable member of the cabbage family, and one that may be fed without risk at any period of growth. It requires a rich soil in order to attain its best development. If the land has been well prepared, it produces very heavy crops. There are a number of varieties, both bronze and green, but the green is almost exclusively grown. There are hardy, or big- topped varieties, and small-topped kinds, which come to KOULBABI FOB FEEDINB 309 quick maturity, but are not able to withstand the severity of winter, and are, therefore, useful only for autumn food. Kohlrabi is particularly suited for filling in gaps between other forage crops. A recent Cornell publication (Bulletin No. 244) speaks as follows of kohlrabi as a forage crop: "It Fig. 59. White Vienna kohlrabi. It is a heary yielder of both tubers and leaves. Background of six-inch squares. (CorneU Station.) 310 FORAGE CROPS can be grown wherever rutabagas are grown, and will thrive if treated as described for the latter crop. In the naiddle West where rutabagas have a tendency to run to necks and form little root, this crop is a very good substitute. So far as now known, in New York the yields of the two crops are about the same, but both yielded less than mangels on the experiment station grounds. In addition to being quite a free-growing crop, it has the following advantages over rutabagas: "1. It is not so subject to clubroot or finger- and-toe {Plasmodiophora brassicce) , and some other diseases. "2. It withstands drought better. "3. It can be grown on heavier soil, as clays, and does admirably on muck land. "4. It stands well out of the ground and can be readily pastured by sheep if desired. "5. It has not been known to cause taint of milk when fed to dairy cows. "6. It is I'ather better than the rutabaga in with- standing frost. "7. It may be grown where the climate is too warm for the best development of the rutabaga. "8. The leaves are as valuable as the stem. "Among well-known varieties are the White Vienna (Fig. 59) , Purple Vienna, Short-top White, Goliath, Carter Model." CHAPTER XVn PERMANENT MEADOWS AND PASTURES The raising of hay forms a very important part of the farming interests of the eastern and central western states. The aggregate area in hay is greater than in any other crop. While in parts of the eastern states the hay crop is deemed worthy of the best attention of the farmer, this is the ex- ception rather than the rule; therefore, while there may be profit frora its growth, the yield and value are much less than should be secured were the crop given the same attention as the other crops in the rotation. In most instances, the hay is seeded rather as a catch-crop with wheat, rye or oats, and, while good catches are frequently se- cured, more often the stland is thin, thus reducing the yield, besides permitting the growth of natural grasses and weeds, and very materially reducing the quality of the product. Modern conditions would seem to warrant greater attention being given to this ci^, and experiments show clearly that the hay crop will respond quite as profitably to good care, and the use of manures and fertili- zers, as any other field crop. (3U) 312 FOBAGB CBOPS MEADOWS The main market hay is timothy, and market quality is reduced in proportion to the quantity of other kinds of grass mixed with it. Other grasses are of value, however, and these will undoubtedly be a feature in the hay markets, and exercise an influence in grading for market, when their value is generally known. From the standpoint of the grower, it is desirable to have more than one variety of grass, as it permits of thicker seeding and larger yield, for, when conditions are unfavor- able for one grass, they may be favorable for another. Besides, the conditions that are unfavor- able for the permanency of one grass may be favorable for the permanency of another, thus lengthening the period during which meadows may be profitably mown. Therefore, mixtures con- taining timothy, blue-grass, red-top, and other grasses of known value, in addition to the ordi- nary mixture of timothy and clover, are to be recommended. It is desirable that the varieties of grasses used in a mixture should mature practi- cally at the same time; otherwise, the mixture would contain over-ripe and under-ripe grasses, which would unfavorably affect tke quality of hay. To insure permanency of meadows, it is not good practice to pasture them, as the tramping of the animals, especially should the land be wet, will MEADOW LANDS 313 destroy many plants, and the vacant places will be occupied by weeds. It is much better to utilize the second crop as hay or green forage. If pasturing is practiced, care must be exercised to see that it is not carried too far. Lands and their preparation Lands suitable for hay-growing range from sandy loams to heavy clays, although, on the lighter soils, more difficulty is experienced in get- ting a stand and in securing its permanence. On heavier lands, the grasses are more likely to secure their needed food, and to grow without deterioration for a longer period. The main point, particularly on the heavier lands, is to have the soil suitably prepared, if a good crop is to be guaranteed. The preparation usually given for the seeding of wheat or rye is generally very good for timothy and red -top, sown at the time of seeding the grain. As already pointed out, such seedings are not to be regarded as the best, as the purpose in the seeding is to secure the grain crop rather than the grass, and the grass crop is assured only when the conditions are all favorable for germination and subsequent growth. It has been demonstrated that, in order to secure the best results, the land intended for permanent meadows should be specially prepared. 314 FORAGE CBOPS not only plowed deep, but frequently and thor- oughly cultivated, both to destroy weed seeds and to put the soil in an exceedingly fine tilth, which promotes the solubility of plant-food and permits the easy penetration of the roots of the young plants. It has been shown, also, that grass thus seeded does not usually require a nurse- crop, and that such seedings will give a larger yield of hay, the following season, than can be expected when seeded with grain in the customary way. Seed and seeding When seeded for permanent timothy meadow and for market, hay is the object sought; hence, if land is well prepared and clean, twenty to thirty pounds of seed should be usedj although it follows that with this thick seeding abundance of avail- able food should -be present. The common practice of mixing timothy and clover is a good one, as gen- erally a larger ci'op is obtained the first season^a sufficient increase to pay, although the selling price is lower for mixed hay. In this case, the follow- ing mixture of seed has been found to be good (using twenty to twenty-four pounds of seed per acre) : Timothy 12 pounds Red clover 4 pounds Alsike .,,.,...,....,.. 2 pounds 316 FOBAGJS OBOP8 This mixture makes an excellent hay for home feeding, especially for cattle. The following mix- ture of seed has been found to be most excellent for lands well adapted to grass, the finer grasses making a thick sward, and insuring a larger yield: Timothy 8 pounds Red clover 4 pounds Alsike 2 pounds Kentucky blue -grass 2 pounds Eed-top 2 pounds On clay loam lands that are naturally moist, the red-top and blue-grass are likely to crowd out the timothy, leaving a practically pure seeding of the red -top and the blue -grass. These make hay that is not readily salable, although, if cut when in full head and before the seeds have ripened, it is readily eaten by cattle. If allowed to ripen, the quality is much reduced, as it is not only unpala- table but is less digestible. Timothy for market should be cut as soon as the blossoms have dropped and the seeds formed, but not hardened; the leaves are still bright, while the yield has practically reached its maximum. Whatever the mixture, the seeding may be made in the early fall, during a period ranging in southern sections from the latter part of August to early in October. The main point is to have the seeding made early enough to ensure a good growth before winter, and late enough to avoid FBBTILIZING MEADOWS 317 such summer weeds as crab -grass. Unless too large growth is made the first fall, it should not be removed nor pastured, but allowed to remain on the land. If heavy growth is made, it is better to mow, rather than to pasture it off before winter. Manures and fertilisers In seeding down meadows for permanent mow- ing, it is very important that the land, even though naturally fertile, be well supplied with available plant-food. This may be either barnyard manure or commercial fertilizer; in the absence of barnyard manure, commercial fertilizers can be depended on exclusively. In the use of barnyard manure, the quantity applied should range from six to eight tons per acre, preferably in fine condition, distributed evenly, and thoroughly cultivated into the surface soil. This should be supplemented at time of seeding by a fertilizer mixture made up largely of phosphates and potash salts, as the manure will supply an abundance of nitrogen to give the plant a start and insure its growth the first season. A good formula or mixture for application at time of seeding is the following: Nitrate of soda 50 pounds Ground tankage or bone 200 pounds Acid phosphate 600 pounds Muriate of potash 150 pounds 318 FOB AGE CROPS This application, when used without manure, may be 300" to 600 pounds per acre; with manure, about 200 to 350 pounds per acre. This should be applied previous to seeding and well harrowed in. If the stand on young meadows is good, no top- dressing is needed the first year, on good lands. In spring, after the first year, the meadow should be top-dressed with a commercial fertilizer, or with finely divided manure early in the season, in order to supply the food needed for the rapid growth, as well as to encourage the deep rooting of the grasses, and a thickening of the sward. The mixtures for spring top-dressing should contain a large proportion of nitrate of soda, as this is the one form of nitrogen that is soluble and readily diffusible in the soil; this will penetrate deeply and encourage a deeper rooting of the plant. A formula made up as follows is one of the best: Nitrate of soda 500 pounds Ground bone 200 pounds Acid phosphate 200 pounds Muriate of potash 100 pounds The summer or fall applications may contain a larger proportion of the minerals, and a formula made up of Nitrate of soda 200 pounds Ground bone 200 pounds Acid phosphate 500 pounds Muriate of potash 100 pounds FERTILIZING MEADOWS 319 may be used in order to encourage the growth of the second crop, or aftermath. For this purpose, an application of 150 to 300 pounds of the mixture per acre may be made. Experiments to determine the most useful quantity show that, for the spring top-dressing, as high as 450 pounds of a mixture rich in nitrate, as the one above, will pay better than smaller applications, although in many in- stances, where the areas are large, farmers are not prepared to provide so large an allowance. These top -dressings, as already pointed out, may be either manure or fertilizer, but they should be applied every year, if permanence and good crops are expected; and, while the proportions of the different grasses may change somewhat, experi- ence shows that the yields will be more profitable and will gradually increase, owing to the improved fertility of the land. Experiments at the West Virginia Experiment Station show that the use of manure alone, when applied to a soil not highly fertile, caused an increase in yield from less than two tons per acre in the first year to over five tons per acre in the sixth year, and with nitrate of soda alone to about four tons. The. average for the six years was four tons and over, for the manure, and three tons and over for the nitrate. "The entire meadow produced hay during the six years of the test to the value of more than thirty-six 320 FOBAOM CROPS dollars per acre per year, in addition to paying for all the fertilizer applied, while the land at the close of the five years was more valuable than at the beginning of the test. This plan of growing hay would not only result in increasing the value per acre to the farmer, but largely improved his soil for other crops," Eecent experiments at Cornell (Bulletins 232, 241) did not give very encouraging results on tim- othy with fertilizers alone (muriate potash, acid phosphate, nitrate of soda, and combinations) as compared with good stable manure: "It is per- fectly obvious from these experiments that, on the Dunkirk clay loam on which this experiment was conducted and in this climate and under the conditions of this experiment, stable manure, at fifty cents a load,^ brought much better finan- cial results than any application of commercial fertilizer at current prices for the same. It also demonstrates that on this soil, which has been under cultivation for two or three generations, when stable manure is available, excellent crops of timothy hay may be produced. Where stable manure can be procured in sufficient quantity, the use of commercial fertilizers is not necessary. iln making such comparisons as this, everything depends on the value placed on the manure. It is possible that fifty cents a load for manure is a comparable price on some farms, but farmers cannot buy manure and haul it at this figure. One dollar a load is probably a fairer price ; and for city manures even this figure must be at least doubled. FERTILIZING TIUOTHT 321 On the other hand, these experiments give rea- son to believe that, when stable manure is lack- ing or not sufficiently abundant, commercial fertilizers may be used, if used judiciously, with good results. "For the New York farmer, especially those who wish to raise the maximutn amount of hay, a judicious blending of stable manure, legumi- nous crops and commercial fertilizers will prob- ably bring both the maximum yield and the most economic returns. For the farmer who wishes to raise a larger proportion of hay on Dunkirk clay loam, an eight -year rotation may be suggested: hay, five years; an mtertilled crop, such as corn, potatoes, beans, mangels, rutabagas or cabbages, one year; oats, one year; winter wheat or rye, one year. Timothy would be seeded in the fall with the wheat or rye and a mixture of red and alsike clover the following spring. In this rotation stable manure should be applied to the grass land before plowing for the cultivated crop. No fertilizer of any sort need be applied for oats. To the wheat apply commercial fertilizer relatively high in phosphoric acid and potash and low in nitrogen. Apply in the spring to each grass crop, just as soon as the grass starts, commercial fertilizers relatively high in nitrogen and low in phosphoric acid and potash. Mixed fertilizers usually contain too u 322 FOB AGE CROPS high a proportion of phosphoric • acid and too low a proportion of nitrogen for the production of timothy hay upon the soil and in the climate under consideration. It would probably be best for the farmer to buy the separate ingredients and mix them himself. The following mixture or its equivalent is recommended, nitrate of soda, 200 pounds; 16 per cent acid phosphate, 100 pounds, and muriate of potash, 80 pej- cent purity, 50 pounds. Whether this quantity should be applied per acre, or a greater or less quantity, ' can best be determined from the history of the land and the appearance of the meadow from year to year. In the experiments under consid- eration, only acid phosphate has been used as a source of phosphoric acid, although experiments at the Pennsylvania and Illinois Stations indi- cate that finely ground phosphate rock may, in the course of a rotation, be equally useful." PERMANENT PASTURES The treatment of permanent pastures follows the same general procedure as for permanent meadows. In many parts of the country, past- ures occupy the rougher areas of the farm. In some instances they are too wet, in others too rough, and in practicallj'^ all cases no attention is given to their improvement, either in the way 324 F0RA6E OBOPS of added fertility, or of drainage, or in cleaning the land of foreign growths. Experience has shown that pastures may be very materially im- proved, and at slight expense, if careful plans are made and a definite system of treatment is laid out and practiced. In the preparation of the land, and seeding, the suggestions already made for meadows may follow, except that many grasses will serve as pasture that are not so well adapted for hay; besides, the objections made to mixtures for hay do not hold good for pastures, as the farmer uses them for his own stock rather than offers them for sale. Seed mixture The following mixture of grasses and clovers will probably answer quite as well as any other, in the seeding down of pastures, as the variety of grasses is such as to insure a thick sward, as well as to provide for both early and late grazing: Timothy '6 pounds Orchard grass 2 pounds Red-top 2 pounds Kentucky blue -grass 2 pounds Italian rye- grass 1 pound Meadow fescue 2 pounds Red clover 4 pounds White clover 2 pounds PMBMANENT PASTUBE 325 Preparation of land and top-dressing In the preparation of the land and in seeding, great care should be exercised to remove all weeds, by allowing the land to lie bare for a time previous to seeding, and frequently to cul- tivate it. Since the pasture is to remain for a long period, it is usually important that the land be well limed, using from forty to fifty bushels per acre, and thoroughly ha4rrowing it into the soil in the summer befofe the seeding. This will not only sweeten the soil, but will encourage the growth of clovers and other valuable legumes, which are always desirable. Top -dressings should then be made at least once each year, preferably early in spring before the animals are turned on. The mixture may be similar to that recommended for meadows, applied at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per acre. If ap- plied in the fall, after the pasturage has ceased for the season, one not containing nitrates is prefer- able. An equal mixture of kainit, ground bone and acid phosphate has been found to be very useful, at the rate of about three hundred pounds per acre. This top-dressing not only causes a thicker growth of the nutritious grasses, but encourages a tendency to deep rooting, and thus a greater resistance to drought, besides improving the soil from year to year and preventing nmning out of 326 FOBAOE CROPS the grasses, which is so common on neglected pasture. Weeds and brambles which are not consumed by stock should be removed each year, preferably in August, at which season the destruction of the plant is likely to result. Systematic management and treatment of pastures will result in many in- stances in increasing the yield more than two-fold ; this should be a part of the practice of every far- mer. On rough lands, where it is not possible to plow and prepare the soil and where grasses come in naturally, the permanency of the pastures may be increased, and the quality improved, simply by dressing with commercial fertilizers, using mainly ground bone, acid phosphate and muriate of pot- ash, and liming once in about fotir years. Many hill pastures, that furnish scanty herbage, may be very quickly improved by this method, and the yield of forage very largely increased. In these cases, the soil is frequently dry and poor, and it requires only that the minerals should be applied, in order that the plants may develop more rapidly, and continue for a longer time. Benewinq old pastures Old pastures that have become sod-bound and mossy may be greatly improved by scarifying with any suitable tool ; a spike-tooth harrow will answer PERMANENT PA8TVKE 327 the purpose, as it will do greater service among stones and stumps than most others. Lime the land at the rate of twenty- five bushels per acre, and fertilize with the mixture of ground bone, acid phosphate and kainit at the rate of 200 to 500 pounds per acre. The stirring of the soil will let in the air, the lime will sweeten it, and the fertilizer will provide additional food. Seed should then be sown and lightly covered. The expense is not great, while the value of the pasture is manifestly improved, and its greater permanence assured. CHAPTER XVIII BERMUDA- GRASS AND RUSSIAN BROME GRASS Timothy, red- top and June -grass are the staple • meadow and pasture grasses of the older parts of the United States. The remarks in the preceding chapter apply specially to them and to combi- nations with clovers. There remain very many grasses of recent introduction, or which have lately come into notice, but a discussion of them is scarcely called for in a brief popular work of this kind. Two other grasses, however, need to be specially considered, and a discussion of them now follows. BERMUDA -GRASS Bermuda-grass is now regarded as one of the most valuable grasses for the southern states, par- ticularly for pasture. It is perennial, the creeping stems of which produce nodes at short intervals; each joint is capable of producing a new plant, even though it is cut off and completely separated from the main stem. It is because of this charac- teristic, although valuable from the standpoint of securing a thick stand, that many farmers object to its introduction, as, after it is once seeded, the (328) BBBMUDA-GBA88 329 cleaning of the land is very diflBcult. Many growers now think that, when rotations are desired, it is not necessary completely to clean the land of Bermuda -grass, since, if a few joints are left, these serve to bind the land and to hold moisture ; then, when the grass crop is wanted again, enough joints remain alive quickly to form a cpmplete cover. The plant makes a thick, leafy growth with branches of five to ten inches in height. It is the common lawn grass of the South. Bermuda-grass is a hot-weather plant, and thrives only in those regions in which the winters are short, and the frost does not penetrate deep or persist for a long time. It grows through the entire summer. While it will make a much better yield on good lands, it is also well adapted for pasture on poor lands, and on those liable to wash and guUey; and its power of withstanding heat and drought, and to revive quickly when moisture comes, are among its valuable characteristics. It grows best on light soils, river-bottoms and at the foot of hills, where the soil has been washed from the higher levels. Its habit of throwing out under- ground stems, makes it better adapted to sandy lands than to stiff heavy clays; nevertheless, when once well established on the heavier soils, it is serviceable. It has rendered great service in the South in preventing the washing of lands, a danger that is common in the southern states. 330 FORAGE CHOPS Preparation of the land As with other grass plants, the better the prep- aration of land, and the cleaner, the guicker will the stand of grass be secured. The conditions which result from the planting and care of corn, cotton and tobacco, provide a suitable preparation for Bermuda-grass. Owing to the high price of seed and its low vitality, the method now generally used to secure a stand, is to plant pieces of root- stocks rather than to seed in the ordinary way, although it is necessary to have a small area seeded to use as a cutting nursery for enlarging the area. For this purpose, the seed should be sown broadcast, on clean, moist land, and covered with a rake or light harrow. Five pounds of seed is sufficient for an acre. This plant responds well to fertilizers, and top- dressings with nitrate of soda, where the soils have been suitably fertilized with minerals at time of seeding, are very profitable. Bermuda-grass for pasture or meadow The following methods of securing a pasture or meadow of Bermuda -grass are described by Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner^: — "On account of the high price of seed, and the 'Circular 31, Div. of Agrostology, Dept. o£ Agr., Washington, D. C, BERMUDA-GBABS 331 necessity of a thorough preparation. of the soil, pastures and meadows are more often started from cuttings. To prepare cuttings, the sod is gathered and cut into small pieces with a feed cutter or other similar machine, or a wooden block and hatchet can be used if only a small quantity is needed. Since most of the propa- gating stems are near the surface, it is necessary to shave off a layer of sod only an inch or two thick. If cuttings are wanted in large quantities, the sod can be plowed and the roots harrowed into windrows or piles. In all cases care should be taken not to allow the roots to get dry. The cuttings may be planted at any time of the year in the South, except the coldest winter months, but the work is usually done in March. If a meadow is desired, more care should be taken in the planting of the cuttings to insure a level- surface for the mowing machine. The cuttings are planted by dropping them at intervals of a foot or two in shallow furrows, and covering with the next round of the plow. This can be done when the field is plowed, the cuttings being dropped every other round or every third round. Or the field can be prepared first and the cut- tings dropped upon the surface and pressed in with the foot as they are planted. For meadows it is best to go over the land with a roller after planting. For pastures, when a smooth surface 332 FORAGE CROPS is not necessary, it is sufficient to plow shallow furrows every two to four feet and drop the cut- tings therein, covering them with the foot or by turning the soil back over them with the plow. "Professor Tracy remarks: — 'So easily may Bermuda -grass be propagated that good stands can be secured by scattering a dozen or more sods to the acre and cultivating the land in corn or cotton two or three years, when the grass becomes distributed in the field.' " Yield and value of crop Bermuda -grass is relished by all kinds of live- stock, and in all stages of growth, making a palatable and nutritious pasture and hay. Owing to its drought - resisting qualities, it provides pasture throughout the entire summer season, which ranges from seven months, in North Caro- lina, to nearly the entire year in the far South. It is not desirable, however, to graze throughout the entire year, as grazing naturally reduces the vitality of the plant. Neither should it be grazed too closely soon after planting, as this has a tendency to destroy the runners, thus prevent- ing the formation of new plapts. On established pastures, however, close grazing is desirable, because the pasture is more palatable, — the stems not becoming hai-d and wiry and less digestible. BJSRMUDA-GBASS 333 For use as hay, the crop should be harvested when a large proportion of the stems are in bloom. The number of cuttings in a season must depend on soil and season, ranging from one to four per year, with a total yield of one to three tons per acre. The following reports^ from the states indicated show that Bermuda -grass is highly regarded and likely to prove one of the most valuable forage crops : "Alabama. — This grass will grow under the most flagrant neglect; while care and cultivation will bring out its characteristics to a marked de- gree, and will repay the cultivator for all his ex- pense and trouble. It is an excellent grass to prevent the washing of the land, for filling up gullies and preserving terraces. It makes one of the best lawns on account of its smooth and regu- lar growth, and its power to withstand the heat of the sun. The Bermuda-grasc is not so difficult to eradicate from the field as most farmers seem to think. Close cultivation in cotton for two or three years, and thorough pulverization of the soil will destroy this plant. "Arkansas. — Bermuda-grass is the best summer pasture grass we have for the sandy soils of south Arkansas, and is one of the best hay grasses for all parts of the state, except the northwestern ^ Bulletin No. 55, Oklahoma Experiment Station. 334 FOJRAGM VBOPS part. It is not generally regarded with much favor, but, where it has established itself and is being utilized, it is regarded with great favor. On the barren soils it does not succeed, but it suc- ceeds on all other soils whether wet or dry. It makes hay of superior quality that is highly rel- ished by live-stock. When the value of Bermuda- grass for hay, pasture and a soil-renovator is appreciated, and the proper methods for cultivat- ing and controlling it are understood, tt will be a highly appreciated grass. Shade is fatal to the grass, and by using the harrow, then oats, then cowpeas and cotton, the grass can be subdued and eradicated. To start the grass by seed is uncer- tain. The cheapest and best way is to start to turn up a Bermuda sod and harrow the roots into piles, then chop them into short pieces with a hatchet and sow them on freshly broken soil and plow them in. The roots must not get dry while out of the ground. "California. — This grass has introduced itself in a bold and uninvited manner. Its perfect adap- tability to the conditions is evidenced by the thrifty growth on all kinds of soil, including strong alkali, very dry and very wet, producing more than any other grass (without care or planting), abundant feed during nine months of the year. The objec- tions to this useful grass are mostly founded on the prejudice of the people, which renders them BJHIBMUDA-GBASS 335 blind to their own interests. Many men are wear- ing out their lives in poverty, trying to grow fruit on land poorly adapted to fruit-growing, but emi- nently adapted to Bermuda -grass. "2/0Misia«ai^For winter and early spring, Texas blue -grass and the clovers seem to fulfil all the requirements, followed in summer by Bermuda- and crab -grass, the two best grasses we have. It was impossible during the wet summer to restrict the last two to the plots allotted to them, but to- gether, they covered the whole area of the (grass) garden, yielding several cuttings of hay for our work animals. ^'^Mississip;pi. — This grass is the most valuable species we have in the South, and is too well known to need any description. It succeeds best on rich bottom lands and on. the black prairie soil, where it will yield two cuttings in a season, mak- ing two to four tons of hay per acre. This hay is of the very best quality, being especially valuable for horses and mules." J. S. Newman, in Bulletin No. 76, of the South Carolina Station, says of the plant: "This most valuable acquisition to our list of pasture grasses seems to have come from India, where it is called 'Dhab.' "Until its great value as a pasture grass and, on moist, fertile soils, as a hay producer, became known, it was regarded as a pest by the cotton 336 FOBAGS OMOPS planters all over the southern United States. Many plantations, in the south Atlantic states, were abandoned on account of its prevalence upon them, which are now yielding more profitable returns from Bermuda pastures and Bermuda hay than were ever realized from the same fields while cultivated in cotton. There is a well authenticated record of 13,000 pounds of Bermuda hay, per acre, from . three mowings during one season, on the Oconee river-bottoms in Georgia. "Farmers who, a few years since, dreaded its appearance upon their farms as they did Canada thistle or the famous coco or nut grass, are now industriously planting Bermuda pastures and meadows." Meadows of Bermuda-grass should be renewed once in three or four years, as the tendency is to become sod- bound. The meadows may be re- newed by deep plowing, and seeding in the lat^ fall with any of the crops usually grown for spring pasture or soiling; vetch and winter oats have been used for this purpose with great success. An abundance of seed should be used and the land well fertilized in order to insure a vigorous growth that will help to choke the grass. The sods and roots left will spread rapidly after the forage crops have been grazed or cut, provided the land is naturally fertile, or has been even manured or fertilized. BESMVDA-GBASS 337 Methods of eradication "The very qualities which render Bermuda so valuable as a pasture grass serve to make it an aggressive and pestiferous weed. On account of its tendency to spread and insinuate itself into land where it is not wanted, and to persist in fields which are to be used for other purposes, it has, in many cases, not been utilized to the extent that its good qualities would indicate. However, it can be eradicated from a field with comparative ease by proper cultivation. Since it will not thrive in the shade, it is only necessary to smother it out by some quick-growing crop. A method recommended by southern agricul- turists, and which may be modified to suit con- ditions, is to plow the land after the last crop of hay is cut, if the field is a meadow, or aboiat this season if it is a pasture. Sow the field to oats, wheat or other thick -growing crops. When this crop is harvested, plow the land immediately and plant to cowpeas. It is probably best to plant these in drills and cultivate them until the vines meet, after which they will shade the ground and prevent the growth of Bermuda. Usually this treatment is sufficient to completely destroy the Bermuda; but if not, the process can be repeated." (Circular No. 31, Division of Agros- tology, Department of Agriculture.) 338 V OB AGE CROPS RUSSIAN BROME GRASS {JSromus inermis) (Pigs. 62, 63) This perennial grass was introduced into the United States in 1882, and is now widely grown in Canada and in North and South Dakota, and in ■ the western parts of Minnesota, also in Kansas and Nebraska, and in parts of many other of the western states, both because it is itself a good grass crop and because it resists cold and drought. The habits of growth of this plant are similar to those of quack- grass; it has creeping root- stocks, branching out in every direction, and these produce at each joint a bud, which is capable of producing another plant. It grows to an average height of about two feet, although under good con- ditions it will reach a much greater height. The leaves are broad, thick and abundant, when the soil is good. This grass niakes a large yield, because -of the thickness, even though the height is somewhat reduced, It is well adapted to light, dry soils. It starts in spring earlier than any of the other valuable grasses. It matures usually in the month of June. It is a very palatable grass, all animals being fond of it. Because of its habit of growth, it makes a valuable pasture throughout the entire season, and is also useful as hay. The yields from an average crop are one and one -half 'to three tons per acre. Bronms inermis is adapted to a wide variety .->\ 'C Fig. 62 Bromus inermis. Photographed by H. L. BoUey, North Dakota. 340 FOB AGE CROPS of lands, although it seems to do very much better on light sandy soils, deficient in moisture. This makes it a useful plant where others would not grow well ; but it does not follow that it will not grow much better on soils of higher fertility. This brome grass is not well adapted to a rotation of crops, because of the difficulty of cleaning the land, although this is less difficult than in the case of Bermuda -grass. It should not be allowed to grow for a long period without breaking up, if used in rotations. Fertilising Bromus inermis In renewing either pastures or meadows of Bromus inermis that are too thin, seed may be added in the fall and lightly covered with a har- row, although a thin stand will ordinarily thicken up sufficiently, if the plant-food is ample. As with other grasses, fertilizers or manures are beneficial, and top -dressings of manure, either in the late winter or early spring (four to six loads per acre), or top-dressings of nitrate of soda when the plants are well started, will usu- ally pay well. When lands are rich and moist, there is sometimes difficulty in destroying the grass, when land is broken for other crops; but if plowed deep and followed by one or more cultivated crops, there need be little anxiety on this score. 342 FORAGE CHOPS The preparation of land, and seeding Eussian brome grass does not grow rapidly the first season. Therefore the land should be well prepared and free from weed seeds before planting. It is more desirable to sow after a cultivated crop, or on land that has been sum- mer - fallowed part of the season. The good preparation necessary for the seeding of any grass will answer. It may be sown in fall or spring, although, under average conditions, the most favorable time is the early spring, especially if sown with a nurse crop. If seeded in August or September, on land that has been well pre- pared, it should make a good crop the following season. In the South, it is preferable to sow in the fall, owing to the fear of destruction by the hot, dry weather of the following summer. When seeded without other grasses, twelve to fifteen pounds per acre is sufficient, when in- tended for hay; sixteen to twenty pounds should be used when intended for pasture. When it is a part of a combination of other grasses, the proportions may be two to five pounds, according to the object of the seeding, although little expe- rience has accumulated in this country as to its permanent character in pasture and meadows. Its natural tendency is to crowd out other less vigorous grasses' BBOME GRASS 343 Pasturing and harvesting For pasture, the brome grass will stand close grazing, particularly on good lands, but if pastured very late and close in the fall, the yield of the next season's crop is likely to be reduced. ' In cutting for hay, it should be harvested when fully in head, although for horses it may be cut when the blooms have disappeared. Probably the best time for cutting, as for other grasses, is when the plants are in full bloom. The cut- ting and curing does not differ from the methods recommended for timothy, or the other better known grasses. CHAPTER XIX COMPOSITION, FEBTILIZEB AND COEFFICIENT TABLES This chapter contains tables showing the aver- age composition of American forage crops and feed stuffs, together with the fertilizer constitu- ents contained in them, and the average coeffi- cients of digestibility. The analyses represent the average as near as may be, although it should be understood that average compositions of products of varying qual- ity are a guide only when accompanied with knowledge of the possible variations that may occur; they are chiefly useful in showing differ- ences in the composition of groups, rather than giving exact information as to what may be ex- pected under different conditions. This is particu- larly true in the case of crops used for green forage, as the range in content of dry matter is very wide, owing to the necessity of beginning to harvest when the plants are immature and con- tinuing it so long as they remain palatable. The composition of fine feeds also varies widely, although it is possible now to so classify as to eliminate the variations that formerly existed. (344) COMPOSITION TABLES 345 The tables showing the average fertilizer ingre- dients of fodders and feeds are also subject to the same criticism, although not to the same degree. These data are of special service, in the ease of farm crops, in showing the relations between the different classes, and, in the case of fine feeds (which are not forage-crop products) , in indicat- ing the gains or losses that may be incurred in the exchange of home-grown herbage feeds for the more concentrated refuse -or by-products. The average coefficients of digestibility are also subject to variations, as must be apparent to those who give the matter consideration. They are to be used as guides only, and not as absolute facts. The data contained in these various tables have been derived from a number of sources, but mainly from tabulations of analyses made by the various experiment stations of this country. The coefficients of digestibility are the averages of American digestion experiments contained in the report of the Hatch Experiment Station of Massa- chusetts, for 1906. PLAN OF TABLES I AND U 1. Green fodder, pp. 347, 358. A. Cereals and grasses. B. Legumes. C. Combination crops. D. Miscellaneous. 346 W0BA6E 0B0P8 2. Silage, pp. 349, 359. 3. Hay and dried coarse fodder, pp. 349, 359. A. Cereals. B. Grasses — hay. C. Legumes — hay. Z). Miscellaneous. E. Straw. 4. Boots, pp. 351, 361. 5. Grains and other seeds, pp. 351j 361. 6. Oil cake meals, pp. 352, 362. 7. Corn products, pp. 352, 362. 8. Oat products , yp . 353,363. 9. Wheat products, pp. 354, 363. 10. Bye, buckwheat, rice, etc., pp. 354, 363. 11. Brewery and distillery products, pp. 355, 364. 12. Feed mixtures, pp. 355, 364. 13. Stock, calf, and poultry mixtures, pp. 356, 365. PLAN OP TABLE III I. Experiments with Buminants 1. Green fodders, p. 366. A. Cereals and grasses. B. Legumes. 2. Silage, p. 367. 3. Hay and dried coarse fodders, p. 368. A. Cereal fodders. B. Grasses and millets. C Legumes. -D. Miscellaneous. 4. Boots and tubers, p. 370. 5. Concentrated feed stuffs, p. 370. A, Protein. B. Starchy materials. II. Experiments with Swine. III. Experiments with Horses. IV. Experiments with Poultry. COMPOSITION TABLilSi 347 TABLE I Average Composition op Fodders and Feeds 1. Gresn Foddeb. a. Cereals and Orasses. Corn (Maize) White Thoroughbred Mint corn Southern White corn Sweet corn Sweet corn, Stowell's Evergreen Teoslnte Rural Branching doura Yellow milo maize . . . Sorghum Sorghum, Early Am- ber Sorghum, Early Orange Sugar-cane Japan millet Japan broom-corn millet Barnyard millet Pearl millet Common millet CanaryBird Seed millet Early Harvest millet. Golden millet Hungarian grass Millet.. Hog millet Broom-corn millet . . . Bed kaflr corn White kaflr corn Eye , Barley Wheat ii 71 10 2 2 14 3 13 2 16 1 1 1 11 1 1 2 1 1 12 .3 1 Founds per hundred 77.* 80.3 73.5 79.1 77.9 90.1 85.9 83.2 76.3 85.2 83.2 84.2 79.9 78.7 84.8 81.5 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 71.1 80.0 80.0 78.6 81.6 83.4 81.9 76.6 77.3 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.3 1 5 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.7 1.1 1.4 1.4 1:3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.9 1.8 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.2 1.8 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.1 0.8 3 1 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.8 2.4 5.2 3.8 5.3 4.4 4.5 2.7 4.7 5.5 5.8 4.0 5.5 4.0 59 6.2 4.5 6.2 6.5 7.1 7.4 7.0 9.2 5.3 6.5 7.5 4.8 4.6 4.3 70 5.9 !^.S 14.0 12.7 17.7 12.8 14.0 4.1 6.0 7.5 15.2 . 7.7 7.5 9.0 10.4 10.3 7.1 9.3 10.5 10.0 9.7 10.7 14.2 11.7 10.2 10:4 9.9 8.0 9.6 11.4 11.9 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.« 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 348 FOBAGM CROPS Tablb I. AvKBAGK Composition of Foddebs and Feeds— Continued Pounds per hundred Gbeen Fodders — Cereals .and Grasses, continued. Oats Pasture grass Mixed grasses and clover Johnson grass Ofchard-grass Tall oat-grass Italian rye-grass h. Legumes. Red clover Crimson clover Mammoth Ked clover. Alsike clover Sweet clover .' , . . Alfalfa Cowpea Canada field pea Soybean Velvet bean Sand vetch Spring vetch Kidney vetch Rape Horse bean Mat pea Sainfoin Serradella Sulla c. Comhination Crops. Oats and peas Barley and peas Corn and peas Sweet corn and peas,. Millet and peas Sorghum and peas . . . Corn and soybean,. . . . Barley and vetch Oats and vetch (1-1). 7 7 2 1 8 4 24 43 4 4 4 4 35 32 26 20 1 14 4 1 5 1 2 1 3 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 75.0 63.1 75.0 75.0 73.0 70.0 73.2 70.8 84.0 80.0 74.8 80.0 77.5 84.4 84.7 75.1 82.2 85.3 85.0 85.0 85.7 85.0 85.0 75 85.0 75.0 79 7 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 1.7 3.2 1.6 1.4 2.0 1.6 2.5 2.1 1.4 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1 9 1.3 2.6 1.9 2.1 1.4 2.0 2.5 0.9 1.3 2.1 1.0 2.3 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.8 3.1 5.6 2.9 1.2 2.6 2.3 3.1 4.4 30 3.0 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.9 2.8 4.0 3.5 3.6 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.5 4.4 4.4 2.2 4.3 2.4 2.8 2.1 1.8 2.4 1.6 2.6 2.8 3.0 8.0 7.4 8.0 8.9 8.2 10.8 6.8 8.1 4.1 5.8 7.4 6.3 6.3 3.6 4.4 6.7 5.1 4.0 4.5 2.3 2.1 4.3 3.7 6.0 4.4 5.2 6.1 6.8 5.3 4.8 7.5 6.5 5.0 6.5 6.3 11.5 19.2 11.7 13.2 13.3 14.7 13.3 13.5 7.0 8.9 11.0 7.4 10.1 6.8 6.3 10.6 6.6 4.6 6.1 7,4 7.0 6.9 5.0 11.6 6.5 12.5 9.6 82 10.4 11.4 8.0 9.9 10.4 9.0 8.4 COMPOSITION TABLES 349 Table I. Avbkage Composiiion of Poddeks and Feeds— Continued Gheen Fodders— Combina- tion Crops, continued. Oats and vetch (4-1).. Wheat and vetch Tall oat -grass and alsike Orchard-grass and f'alsilie d. Miscellaneous. Apple pomace Sugar-beet plilp Cabbage waste Carrot tops Prickly comf rey Purslane Spurry 2. Silage. Corn Sorghum Bed clover Brewers' grains Bye : Cowpea Soybean . , ' Soybean and corn Soybean and millet . . . Millet Apple pomace 3. Hay and Dried Coarse Fodder. a. Cereals. Corn fodder Corn stover Oat fodder h. Grasses. Hay. Mixed grasses and clover , Orchard-grass a 3 70 6 1 4 1 1 1 6 9 3 1 118 60 6 12 10 Founds per hundred 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 83.0 90.0 82 80.0 87.0 91.0 72.0 79.8 75.8 72.6 70.3 80.8 83.3 74.9 76.0 79.0 74.0 85.0 27.5 40.5 15.0 15.0 10.4 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.5 0.6 0.1 4.9 2.8 2.8 1 5 2.6 1.2 1.0 2.7 1.2 1.6 2.0 4.1 2.3 2.8 2.4 0.6 4.6 3.4 6.9 5.4 5.5 2.7 3.4 2.7 2.4 1.0 1.4 3.6 4.2 2.3 2.3 2.9 1.6 0.8 3 8 6.3 2.4 2.8 4.5 2.7 2.8 1.7 1.2 5.0 3.8 11.7 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.4 5.8 6.5 2.9 2.5 2.6 2.7 1.5 1.6 7.0 6.3 8.6 4.5 5.8 3.9 6.1 7.3 7.2 7.5 3.3 22.9 19.7 25.5 28.0 31.1 8.8 8.1 9.5 9.0 11.6 5.9 6.6 9.9 6.1 3.4 15.4 11.1 15.8 11.4 15.6 9.1 6.7 8.9 10.9 7.2 13.6 8.8 38.8 31.5 38.3 41.6 43.8 350 FOBAGE CBOPS Table 1. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued Ba7 and Dried Coarse Fodder— Grasses, Hay, con, Timothy Rowen Hungarian grass Short sedge Creek sedge Herd-grass Salt marsh hay Hlack grass Marsh rosemary Bog hay Canada blue-grass. . . . Kentucky blue-grass.. English hay Meadow fescue Barnyard millet Tall oat-grass Italian rye-grass Perennial rye-grass . . Red-top White-top c. Legumes. Hay. Red clover Mammoth red clover.. Alsike White clover Crimson clover Alfalfa Cowpea Oats and peas Oat-grass and alsike.. Orchard-grass and alsike Oats and vetch (1-1).. Wheat and vetch d. Miscellaneous. Bay. Hairy lotus White daisy 25 29 11 1 2 1 13 7 1 i 1 3 102 7 9 4 4 4 8 1 23 4 9 1 3 7 4 6 2 1 3 4 Founds per hundred ^ 13.3 14.0 10.7 8.5 41.8 7.5 15. U 12.6 7.8 11.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 J4.0 14.0 11.6 1.5.0 11.2 7.1 9.0 8.7 11.2 10.5 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 .a 4.1 6.4 6.2 10.6 6.6 4.8 6.6 7.1 5.8 7.0 4.8 6.4 5.3 7.1 7.9 4.6 6.4 7.9 4.3 6.0 7.1 8.2 8.0 9.0 8.1 7.8 9.1 7.1 6.5 6.6 7.4 6.8 7.0 6.0 6.3 11.4 7.8 7.3 2.0 6.3 6.1 6.8 5.3 7.4 5.9 7.7 7.9 5.8 10.6 6.4 7.1 10.1 6.1 11-.2 12.7 13.1 12.7 14.1 13.5 16.5 15.5 10.3 11.6 10.1 12.8 14.5 12.6 6.6 29.3 23.9 26.3 21.3 16.2 26.6 23.4 25.0 25.1 25 9 31.3 30.5 27.7 32.2 28.7 30.9 28.6 25.4 30.1 24.4 26.2 24.4 26.3 27.3 29;8 27.1 22.0 28.3 24.5 27.6 26.7 27.2 16.8 30.7 45.1 41.3 47.3 49.9 32.3 53.3 46 8 46.2 54.0 46.7 42.1 39.7 42.8 39.3 37.1 42.1 42.2 40.5 43.9 41.5 40.0 37.6 40.0 40.4 35.7 37.2 40 41.2 40.1 38.3 .^5.8 34.4 46.1 39.7 COMPOSITION TASLWS 351 Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued O (S U DO Pounds per hundred I (A * ^ Ha* ant> Dbikd Coarsb FODDEKS, continued e. straw. Wheat Rye Oat Oats and peas Buckwheat Barley Horse bean Soybean Millet Roots. Sugar-beets Mangel-wurzel Artichokes Beets, red Yellow fodder beets . Cabbages Carrots Mangolds -. . . Parsnips Potatoes Sweet potatoes Rutabagas Japanese radish Turnips 5. Grain AND Other Seeds. Corn Sweet corn .... Sorghum seed . Millet Oats Rye Wheat Buckwheat . . . . Soybean Cowpea IG 6 7 2 1 2 1 3 4 4 2 1 7 4 2 S 5 1 22 6 3 1 6 15 3 G 5 20 G 21 1 1 2 11.2 6.6 8.1 7.4 9.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 82.0 90.9 78.0 88.0 89 90 5 89.0 88.0 80.0 80.0 71.1 89.0 93.0 90.5 15.4 11.0 12.3 11.5 11.4 12.0 12.7 10.8 9.6 10.9 3.9 3.3 4.8 7.2 6.5 4.8 8.1 6.1 5.2 1.2 1.1 l.l 1.1 .1.0 1.4 0.9 1.2 1.5 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.8 1.3 1.9 1.8 2.9 3.1 1.8 1.9 2.3 4.8 3.3 4.4 3.1 4.0 4.6 7.8 6.5 8.3 4.7 4.1 1.6 1.4 29 1.5 1.3 2.4- 1.0 1.4 1.3 2 1 1.5 1.2 0.5 1.1 9.1 12.5 8.6 ll.G 11.3 10.2 10.8 10.1 35.4 19.5 34.2 38.2 36.3 35.2 37.2 32.2 35.2 36.1 34.2 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.7 1.0 1.5 1.1 0.8 1.5 0.5 1.3 1.3 0.7 1.2 1.5 2.4 1.8 7.6 9.9 1.7 1.9 8.7 5.0 3.4 44.8 47.5 44.7 43.4 38.8 39.0 32.1 36 3 39,7 14.0 5.5 16.9 8.6 7.5 3.8 7.8 8.5 15.0 16.4 24.7 7.2 5.0 6.2 68.6 64.9 71.9 61.8 59.5 72.6 71.0 65.6 26.2 61.4 352 FOBAGE CROPS Tablb 1. Average Composition of Kodders and Feeds— Continued S3 Pounds per hundred s S f5 £ Grain and Otheb Seeds, continued Blacls-eyed pea Hungarian grass seed Broom-corn seed Rice Oats and peas Horse beans Red Adzinki beans... Saddle-beans Barley 6. Oil, Cake Meals. Cottonseed meal Cottonseed meal (un- decorticated J Cottonseed feed Linseed meal (old process) Linseed meal (new process) ; Flaxseed meal Palm-nut meal Corn-oil meal Germ-oil meal Blood meal (Armour's Edible) Cocoanut meal 7. Co 'N PRODnOTS. Chicago gluten meal . . Cream gluten meal . . . Hammond gluten meal King gluten meal Buffalo gluten meal . . Davenport gluten meal Globe gluten meal Iowa Golden gluten meal 144 9 4 191 7 9 2 3 1 3 3 19 1 3 2 63 7 18 12 2 9.5 8.9 12.0 9.9 14.0 14.0 14 12.0 7.6 10.4 98 9 3 8 3 9.n 8.7 11.0 9.0 9.8 7.4 8.2 8.3 8.,5 7.7 8.2 8.3 3.3 5.0 4.5 0.2 4 7 3.8 3.6 5.3 2.4 6.6 4.9 3.3 5.5 5 7 4.2 13.6 2.4 2.0 3.1 4.7 0.9 1.6 1.0 1.4 2.8 1.2 1.5 1.0 21.6 9.9 10.7 7.4 16.7 25.8 21.0 13.0 11.2 44.6 25.3 9.3 33.9 35.6 23.9 14.8 24 8 19.6 84.3 20.4 3.-).9 41.8 28.4 37.2 26.0 24.5 25.9 29.4 4.1 '7.7 b.i 10.9 7.0 4.0 4.1 5.7 4.9 18.5 35.6 8.1 5.1 22.8 0.7 5.7 11.0 1.9 1 5 0.9 1.4 6.8 7.4 7.9 3.1 57.2 63.2 •73.3 80.0 54.0 48.6 56.7 49.4 66.8 25.8 35.1 38.7 35.7 38.1 23.8 37.7 43.6 41.6 1.2 40.6 47.0 32.1 50.4 33.2 52.5 54.6 53.5 46.6 1.6 47 2.6 0.3 3.8 0.8 0.7 14.2 1.9 10.5 7.4 2.7 7.8 32 34.7 1^6 13.5 22.4 0.4 4.3 4.5 15.6 11.1 18.5 3.4 4.6 3.0 11.6 *Includes fiber. COMPOSITION TABLJJS 353 Table I. Average Composition ov Foddees and Feeds— Continued S 9 Pounds per hundred K.£ CoBN Products, continued. Nebraska gluten meal Pekin gluten meal. . . . Queen gluten meal . . . Kockf ord Diamond gluten meal Star gluten meal Warner's gluten meal Waukegan gluten meal Hominy meal Cerealine feed Maizeline feed Corn bran, fancy Com bran, or sugar feed Starch feed, wet Starch feed, dried Corn meal Cob meal Corn cob Corn germ meal Corn sprouts Corn and oats (prov- ender) Corn, oats, barley . . . . Com screenings 8. Oat Pboduots. Ground oats Oat ifaiddllngs Oat chop Oat hulls Hulled oats Canada oat feed Cream oat feed Chester stock food . . . Iowa oat feed Friends oat feed Royal oat feed Monarch oat chop .... 1 15 6 2 2 4 86 24 8 18 28 4 2 no 18 4 2 1 5 2 4 11 1 3 1 10 1 12 13 4 8.0 7.6 9.1 90 96 6.8 9.2 8.4 68.8 9.1 12.7 12.6 31. 5 7.2 8.3 12.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 7.8 6.8 7.4 '7.3 7.4 '8.7 5.9 7.2 10.1 1.3 1.7 0.9 1.1 2.8 2.6 3.6 2.6 1.2 0.4 0.9 1.5 1.4 1.0 1.6 5.6 2.2 3.1 2.1 3.8 3.8 5.9 6.7 '5.9 8.8 V.'a 5.9 7.3 3.4 19.6 26.1 24.2 27.0 23.2 17.8 20.8 11.0 10.5 99 12.6 10.0 5.0 14.6 9.0 7.6 1.5 11.4 26.0 9.8 114 7.4 11.1 16.3 8.3 3.4 16.2 44 7.1 7.4 10.6 8.6 70 8.9 6.3 6.6 6.5 6.5 3.6 5.4 6.7 12.2 11.8 2.9 6.7 1.7 5.6 24.0 7.8 5.8 3.3 83 2.9 9.8 8.2 22.1 30.7 28.4 21.7 11.1 18.8 21.0 24.9 9.0 61.8 56.2 59.4 62.8 65 64.1 65.2 60.0 62.9 19.9 64.0 71.0 69.6 41.7 61.2 52.0 68.5 62.4 72.6 60.3 56.2 53.8 50.5 51.9 51.8 54.2 55.2 50.8 64.6 354 FORAGE CROPS Table I. Avibage Composition op Foddeks and Feeds— Continued S^ Pounds per hundred < Oat Peoducts, continued Vine oat feed «X» oat feed 9. Wheat Peoduots. Wlieat flour Ground wheat Wheat bran Wheat middlings, white Wheat middlings, brown Feeding flour Wheat feed Wheat chaff Wheat bran and oil . . . Gluten flour wheat.... Gluten meal wheat 10. Bye, Buckwheat, Rice, etc. Ground rye Bye bran Eye middlings Bye feed Buckwheat bran Buckwheat middlings Buckwheat feed Buckwheat flour Bice bran, or feed. . . . Bice polish Bice hulls ....j Bice meal Barley feed Pea meal Pea bran Bean meal Peanut bran .Peanut middlings Peanut meal and hulls 17 1 6 4 190 91 57 49 35 2 3 1 2 1 11 5 18 13 30 12 5 3 1 4 1 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 7.2 6.9 12.4 12 11.2 11.3 10.6 10.1 10.8 11.1 '55 8.0 12.0 11.7 11.8 12.0 12.5 13.6 12.3 14.1 9.0 9.5 '8.5 9.5 10.8 11.0 10.9 10.9 5.7 6.1 0.4 'e'.o 2.7 3.8 4.3 6.5 0.4 0.9 3.3 1.7 1.7 4.2 5.6 4.0 0.7 92 6.3 7.4 4.5 2.5 2.7 5.7 2.1 7.0 7.5 12.0 10.2 16.0 15.8 17.8 19.4 17.0 4.3 15.4 84.8 39.8 9.1 13.9 14.3 9.6 20.0 30.5 18.9 4.8 11.5 14.3 2.9 14.4 14.4 27.4 10.0 23.2 8.5 9.7 7.0 25.6 22.5 1.8 8.1 3.5 5.5 2.6 5.1 29.2 0.2 0.8 3.5 2.4 1.5 4.3 3.1 18.3 13.0 3.3 33.5 8.0 8.7 39.7 3.8 14.2 39.3 62.9 51.7 53.9 74.0 M.i 62.5 57.0 58.1 47.5 's.i 48.9 94.7 66.9 73.4 53.6 39.2 41.4 79.6 48.0 55.4 47.6 58.6 *ii7.1 35.6 54.9 14.7 2.8 3.1. 1.2 2.0 4.6 4.2 5.3 5.3 .4.7 1.4 7.9 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.9 2.9 1.8 5.4 8.0 5.1 0.8 9.3 11.2 1.2 14.1 4.3 2.2 1.0 1.5 4.4 6.5 2.4 ♦Includes fiber. COMPOSITION TABLES 355 Table I. Average Composition op Fodders and Feeds— Continued si Founds per hundred a « 3^ -A S Ete, Bdokwhbat, Eioe, etc., continued. Peanut meal Cocoa shells... Cocoa dust Cocoanut meal Glover meal Sugar-beet feed, wet.. Sugar-beet feed, dried Molasses-beet feed, dried Marsden feed. No. 2.. Cornaline (coffee hulls) 'Cotton hulls Cotton hull bran Flax seed screenings.. 11. Brewery and Dis- tillery Products. Halt sprouts Brewers' grains, wet. Brewers' grains/, dried Brewers' swill Distillery grains, dried Molasses grains Molasses feed Molasses, Porto Bico.. Atlas gluten meal .... Ajax Hakes Com protegran Sucrene dairy feed . . . Sucrene oil meal Grrano-gluten feed .... 12. Feed Mixtures. Blomo feed Bibby's dairy cake . . . Boss cora and oats feed in? 13 119 I 9 6 2 2 3 4 1 4 3 6 5 4 8.0 2.7 7.0 1.0 89.9 9.4 7.6 11.0 11.0 7.0 9.6 74.1 8.5 94.3 7.0 11.4 10.8 2t.0 '6.5 7.6 10.2 9.0 6.0 13.3 10.0 9.2 4.0 10.7 6.3 0.8 4.4 6.9 2.6 1.9 5.4 6.9 1.0 3.8 0.3 1.6 7.7 6.6 6.8 '2.3 1.7 5.7 2.6 11.6 7.7 4.1 49.0 15.5 14.4 9.9 5.8 1.1 8.1 9.6 4.0 2.7 5.3 2.3 15.7 25.8 6.4 25.7 1.9 23.7 19.3 18,6 3.1 35.0 32.4 31.3 19.6 23.2 26.9 16.3 19.7 8.8 3.5 9.9 5.5 7.5 29.2 17.9 15.7 28.4 58.2 39.7 35.0 16.5 10.6 3.7 13.6 0.7 12.8 10.6 8.3 13.0 12.2 9.0 10.7 11.6 10.9 8.6 12.3 24.7 44.7 42.7 15.3 59.8 39.0 48.7 44.5 44.9 12.7 41.4 2.0 44.0 48.2 52.9 66.1 33.8 36 4 i's.e 41.4 46.9 44.9 61.1 356 FOBAOE CBOPS I'able I. AvEBAQE COMPOSITION OP FoDDEBS AND Peeds— Continued Founds per hundred ^ 2 Feed Mixtubes, continued. Buffalo dairy feed Buffalo horse feed Buffalo stock feed Cornelia dairy feed . . . Crackerjaok dairy feed De Fi corn and oats feed Diamond corn and oats feed Durham corn and oats feed Empire teed Excelsior corn and oats feed H, O. dairy feed H. O. horse feed Holstein sugar feed . . . Imperial dairy feed, . . Marsden feed, No. 1. . Macon sugar feed .... Nutro-gleu Proteina Parson's Six-Dollar feed Puritan ground feed. . Quaker dairy feed. ... Schumacher's stock feed Speltz Star chop Victor corn and oats . . 13. Stock, Calp and Poultry Feeds. American calf meal. . . Blatchford's calf meal Cut bone American poultry feed H. O. poultry feed . . . H. O. scratching feed 1 1 2 15 18 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 26 10 1 1 33 1 5 15 3 7.8 8.2 9.0 7.1 11.1 8.9 8.3 9.5 8.0 7.6 'e.o 8.9 8.0 11.0 11.1 7.3 8.9 80 '9.6 9.0 26.0 10.2 9.0 10.7 3.8 3.8 3.6 7.0 2.6 6.7 3.6 2.7 6.7 4.7 4.7 2.5 7.9 3.9 5.5 4.8 3.9 4.7 5.5 21.5 3.7 2.9 2.1 15.6 13.3 9.1 22.7 30.7 8.7 9.7 7.5 7.8 9.9 18.6 13.2 12.6 8.3 13.7 14.0 20.2 21.8 10.0 7.5 14.4 12.7 11.5 8.5 9.1 17.3 25.2 20.7 13.8 17.5 12.5 11.8 9.0 17 6 5.2 7.6 14.3 8.9 13.1 7.3 9.0 12.0 9.2 10.0 20.0 12.0 10.2 7.4 10.0 17.9 13.7 15.3 9.0 11.1 11.8 10.5 2.3 4.6 "i.h 4.7 2.2 56.7 60.2 54.1 35.5 67.2 59.7 53.2 61.0 60.0 56.3 61.6 53.9 51.1 51.1 61.2 53.7 59.0 62.9 62.3 50.6 0.2 61.5 60.4 68.4 COMPOSITION TABLM8 357 Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and PEEDs-Contlnued izi" Pounds per hundred Stock, CAiiF and Podltry Feeds, continued. Paine's stock food. . . . Nutrium milk powder. Animal meal Beef scrap Raw ^ound bone Cut clover Meat and bone meal . . Meat scrap . . -. Mutton scrap Granulated milk Bakery refuse Cassava starch refuse Mellin's food refuse.. Starch refuse 16 11.3 "i.S 7.9 8.0 10.0 6.0 9.0 7.0 10.0 13.0 12.0 7.0 12.0 10.1 64.4 6.8 37.4 17.6 33.1 26.5 10.1 1.6 3.9 1.8 .11.3 33.8 38.0 55.5 23.9 17.9 39.5 50.8 39.9 35.9 8.0 0.8 11.4 4.8 10.1 20.5 0.3 6.1 7.1 3.8 46 9 3.4 41.8 6.3 4.5 53 18.1 63.0 78.8 67.2 76.3 10^ 0.7 10.4 15.0 0.3 3.0 10.8 18.1 14.7 9.6 5.6 0.7 3.4 1.3 358 FORAGE CROPS TABLE II Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds 2; Pounds per hundred 1. Gkeen Fodder a. Cereals and Brasses. Corn White Thoroughbred Flint corn Southern White corn Sweet corn Teosinte Rural Branching doura Yellow milo maize Red kafir corn '. White Jcaflr corn Broom-corn Japan broom-corn millet Japan millet Barnyard millet Pearl millet Millet Sorghum Sugar-cane Orchard-grass Pasture-grass Hungarian grass Rye Barley Wheat Oata i>. Legumes. Red clover. . .' Mammoth red clover Crimson clover Alsike clover. Sweet clover Alfalfa Cowpea Canada field pea Soybean Velvet-bean 45 45 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 8 1 1 8 2 4 7 1 U 1 1 3 20 3 12 6 1 33 20 14 39 1 0.33 0.33 0.26 0.24 0.28 0.35 0.28 0.27 0.29 0.30 0.32 0.64 0.32 0.27 0.18 0.29 0.19 0.20 0.43 0.90 0.30 0.32 0.46 0.38 0.72 0..'>4 0.50 0.4? 0.53 0.43 0.58 0.47 0.44 0.63 0.55 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.14 0.06 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.17 0.16 0.13 11 0.15 O.U 0.08 0.09 013 0.26 12 0.17 0.10 0.16 0.19 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.15 .0.12 0.12 0.13 O.U 0.14 0.14 0.31 0.31 0.28 0.24 0.38 0.92 0.46 0.57 0.45 0.50 0.70 0.73 0.43 0.58 0.71 0.43 0.24 0.44 0.56 0.74 0.42 0.60 0.54 0.60 0.5G 0.67 0.27* 39 0.50 0.40 .0.50 0.46 42 0.56 0.57 ♦Below normal evidently. FERTILIZER INGREDIENTS 359 Table II. Feetiuzee Ingeedients of Fodders and Feeds— Continued Sis Founds per hundred Green Fodder— Legumes, continued. Sand vetoli Rape Horse bean Wliite lupine Yellow lupine Flat pea Small pea.. Sainfoin Serradella ^ Sulla Spring vetch Kidney vetch Oats and peas Oats and vetch c. Miseellaneous . Apple pomace Carrot tops Pricljley oomfrey Common buclswheat Japanese buclswheat Silver-hull bucliwheat 2. Silage. Corn Corn and soybean Millet and soybean Millet Sorghum Red clover , Brewers' grains Rye Cowpea Soybean 3. Hat and Dbied Coarse Fodder. Corn Oats a. Grasses. Say, Orchard-grass Timothy 6 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 ] 3 i 2 1 1 1 1 1 30 1 5 3 6 1 4 1 1 1 64 3 7 18 0.55 0.35 0.41 0.45 0.40 0.75 0.40 0.68 0.36 0.68 0.36 0.44 0.33 0.30 0.21 0.69 0.37 0.44 0.26 0.29 0..'!3 0.65 0.42 0.26 0.13 0.61 1.01 0.38 0.44 0.71 0.78 1.87 1.07 1.08 0.14 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.20 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.15 0.14 0.02 0.13 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.15 O.U 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.28 0.65 0.33 0.35 360 FORAGE CHOPS Table II. Fertilizer Inqeedients of Fodders and Feeds— Continued Pounds per hundretL I Hat and Dried Goarsb Fodder— Grasses, Hay, continued. Hungarian grass Short sedge Creek sedge Herd grass Salt marsh hay Salt hay Black grass Marsh rosemary Bog hay , Barnyard millet Italian rye-grass Kentucky blue-grass Meadow fescue Perennial rye-grass Ked-top English hay (mixed) Rowen Branch grass Fox grass 6. Ijegumes. Hay. Red clover Mammoth red cloTer Alsike White clover Crimson clover Alfalfa Cowpea Oats and pea Oats and vetch c. Straw. Oats and pea Wheat Kye '..'.'. Oats Buckwheat Barley Soybean Millet 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 2 3 i 2 6 2 4 13 13 1 1 22 3 7 1 3 7 i 2 4 2 15 6 7 1 2 1 1 1.22 0.16 1.33 1.00 0.73 1.05 1.07 0.84 1.23 1.29 1.12 1.20 0.93 1.16 1.07 1.34 1.72 1.06 1.18 2.09 2.14 2.04 2.25 2.48 2.66 2.48 1.65 2.00 0.74 0.43 50 0.65 1.24 0.95 0.69 0.68 0.43 0.14 0.03 0.35 0.09 0.23 6.06 0.18 0.43 0.53 0.39 0.37 0.53 0.33 0.32 0.48 0.19 0.18 0.43 0.52 0.51 0.25 0.B2 0.54 0.66 0.61 0.60 0.39 0.13 0.29 0.22 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.18 1.54 1.13 0.53 1.57 0.82 0.64 0.27 0.73 2.88 1.19 1.54 1.98 1.47 0.95 1.61 l..'i8 0.87 0.95 2.08 1.16 1 12 1.06 2.11 2 46 2.36 1.81 1.27 3.20 0.74 0.79 1.22 1.14 2.03 1.04 1.73 FERTILIZER INGREDIENTS 361 Table II. Fertilizer Inqbediknts ob" Fodders and Feeds — Continued as Pounds per hundred Hat and Dried Coarse Fodder, tinned d. Miscellaneous. Broom-corn waste (stalks) .... Palmetto root Spanish moss White daisy Roots, etc. 1 Sugar-beets Mangle-wurzel Artichoke Beets, red Beets,' yellow fodder . Mangolds Carrots \ Parsnips Potatoes Japanese radish Turnips Rutabagas 5. Grain and Other Seeds. Corn. Oats . Rye. Wheat Buckwheat Soybean Red Adzuki bean . . . . , White Adzuki bean . . . Saddle-bean Cowpea Horse bean Hungarian grass seed Broom-corn seed Common millet seed . , Japanese Millet seed . , Bice Oats and peas 15 20 6 21 I 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 0.87 0.54 0.61 0.26 0.26 0.19 0.46 0.24 0.23 0.15 0.16 0.22 0.29 0.08 17 0.19 1.48 1.81 1.62 1.73 1.62 5.30 3.27 3.45 2.08 3.12 4.10 1.59 1.71 2.00 1.58 1.08 2.68 0.47 0.16 0.07 0.41 0.12 0.06 0.17 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.09 0.19 0.08 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.61 0.77 0.81 0.96 0.78 1.87 0.95 1.00 1.49 1.01 1.20 0.47 0.72 0.95 0.63 0.18 1.02 362 FOB AGE OJROPS Table II. Pertilizer Ingredients op Fodders and Feeds— Continued Founds per hundred 6. Oil Cake Meals. Cottonseed meal Cottonseed meal, Undecorticated Cottonseed feed Linseed meal, old process . . . . ^ . . Linseed meal, new process..; ... Flaxseed meal Palm-nut meal Cocoanut cake Corn-oil meal Germ-oil meal 7. Corn Products. Chicago gluten meal Cream gluten meal Hammond gluten meal King gluten meal Buffalo gluten meal Davenport gluten meal Globe gluten meal Iowa gluten meal Nebraska gluten meal , Pekin gluten feed Queen gluten feed •. Rockford Diamond gluten feed . . Star gluten feed Warner's gluten feed Waukegan gluten feed Hominy meal Cerealine feed Maizeline feed Corn bran, fancy Corn bran, or sugar feed Starch feed, wet '. Starch feed, dried Com meal .' Cob meal Com cob Corn genu meal Corn spronts Corn and oats (provender) Corn and cob meal 144 9 4 191 7 9 2 1 1 19 1 3 2 63 7 18 2 1 1 l.") 6 2 2 4 86 24 8 18 28 4 2 110 18 4 2 1 88 29 7.14 4.04 1.49 5.43 5.70 3.82 2.69 3.88 3.97 3.13 5.74' 6.68 4.54 5.95 4.16 3.92 4.14 4.70 3.14 4,18 3.87 4.32 3.72 2.80 4.29 1.75 1.68 1.58 2.02 1.60 0.80 2.34 1.44 1.22 0.24 1.82 4.16 1.57 1.38 3 09 1.85 0.45 1.88 2.16 1.30 1.10 1.60 1.40 0.91 0.34 0.31 0.50 0.66 1.15 6.62 0.43 0.44 6.'37 6.33 0.32 1.40 1.27 1.41 1.01 0.22 0.05 o.'es 0.55 0.07 0.39 1.54 0.71 0.56 FMStlLtZER INGREDIENTS 363 Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 8. Oat Products. Ground oats ; Oat middlings Pat chop Oat liulis Hulled oats Canada oat feed : Cream oat feed Chester stock food Friend's oat feed Iowa oat feed Monarch oat chop Royal oat feed Vim oat feed ''X"oat feed 9. Wheat Products. Wheat flour Wheat bran Wheat middlings, white Wheat middlings, brown . . . . Feeding flour, dark Wheat feed Wheat chaff Damaged wheat 10. Eye,, Buckwheat, Bice, etc. Bye bran Bye middlings Bye feed . Buckwheat bran Buckwheat middlings Buckwheat feed Buckwheat flour Buckwheat hulls Bice bran Bice polish Bice hulls Barley feed tJround barley Pea meal is 5 2 4 11 1 3 1 10 12 1 4 13 17 1 G 190 91 57 49 3.'> 2 1 11 5 18 13 30 12 ^ 1 3 1 4 7 1 2 Pounds per hundred 1.78 2.61 1.34 0.E4 2.59 0.71 1.14 1.18 1.38 1.70 1.42 1.12 1.12 1.20 1.'92 2.56 2.53 2.85 3.18 2.72 0.69 2.26 2.25 2.29 1.54 3.20 4.88 3.02 0.77 0.49 0.71 2.29 0.58 2.30 1.56 4.39 0.76 1.27 0.66 0.24 6.31 0.56 6.'62 0.48 0.63 48 0.56 0.61 2.20 2.92 1.34 1.87 2.14 2.04 0.95 0.83 1.54 0.56 0.77 1.77 2.60 1.58 0.52 0.07 0.29 3.29 0.17 1.29 66 0.91 364 FOBAGE GSOPS Table II. Pebtilizee Ingkedients of Poddees and Feeds — Continued Eye. Bfokwheat, Rice, etc., continued Pea feed Bean meal Peanut meal and hulls Peanut feed Peanut husks Cocoa shells Cocoa dust Clover meal Sugar-beet feed, dry Molasses beet feed, dried Cotton hulls 11. Bbeweet and Distilleey Peg DUCTS. Malt sprouts Brewers' grains, wet Brewers' grains, dried Distillery grains, dried Molasses grains ' Molasses feed Molasses, Porto Rico Ajax flakes Corn protegran Sucrene dairy feed Grano gluten feed 12. Feed Mixtdees. Bibby 's dairy cake Blomo feed Blood meal. Armour's Boss corn and oats Buffalo dairy feed Buffalo horse feed Cornelia dairy feed Crackerjack dairy feed Empire feed Excelsior corn and oats feed H. O. dairy feed H. O. horse feed Imperial dairy feed ■= -3 107 13 119 9 6 2 1 4 1 i 6 1 5 1 8 1 1 1 2 1 2 15 18 1 Pounds per hundred 2.39 3.72 1.13 1.46 0.80 2.48 2.30 0.93 1.29 l..'i4 0.75 4.13 1.02 4.11 3.79 3.09 2.98 0.51 i5.]9 5.01 3.14 4.30 2.94 2.61 13.55 1.40 2.49 2.13 3.63 4.92 1.25 1.58 2.98 2.11 1.32 0.72 0.94 0.15 0.23 0.13 1.14 1.34 6.24 0.15 0.18 1.61 0.26 1.01 0.60 0.85 0.82 0.12 0.68 0.58 0.60 0.65 2.07 0.45 0.26 0.88 0.89 l.OI 1.45 2.24 0.83 0.99 0.86 0.99 0.47 0.72 1.45 0.62 0.79 0.48 2.39 0.63 0.57 1.81 1.08 1.78 0.03 0.08 0.17 2.11 1.96 3.68 0.18 0.11 0.24 0.19 1.67 2.54 0.18 0.63 0.56 0.70 0.85 1.70 0.54 0.73 0.61 0.60 0.51 FERTILIZER INGREDIENTS 365 Table II. Feetilizek Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds— Continued l§ Pounds per hundred g Feed Mixtures, continued Marsden feed. No. 1 Kutro-glen Froteina '. Puritan ground feed Quaker dairy feed Schumacher's stock feed Star chop Victor corn and oats feed 13. Stock, Calf and Poultry Feeds American calf meal Blatchford's calf meal American poultry feed ' , H- O. poultry feed H. O. scratching feed ■ Saine's stock food Nutrium milk powder Animal meal , Beef scraps Meat and hone meal Meat scraps 1 1 1 I 26 10 1 33 5 15 3 1 1 7 16 10 4 2.19 3.23 3.04 1.20 2.30 ■ 2.03 1.36 1.46 2.77 4.03 2.21 2.80 1.99 1.80 5.41 6.08 8.88 5.92 7.63 2.05 1.02 0.55 0.98 1.15 6.'77 1.45 1.21 1.32 0.95 1.98 14.68 8.11 1.20 0.58 0.58 0.89 0.75 o.'eo 1.13 0.91 0.73 0.48 0.82 366 F0BA6E CROPS TABLE III Coefficients op Digestibility op Feed Stupps 1. Expeiiments with Ruminants Gbeen Fodders a. Cereals and Grasses. Corn, dent, immature. Corn, dent, mature . . . Corn, dent, mature, Band W., coarse . . . Corn, Eureka, silage, just forming ears . . Corn, Sanford, mature Corn,sweet,milk stage Corn, sweet, roasting Millet, barnyard, blossom Millet, Japanese Hungarian grass Sorghum Barley, bloom Barley, seeds forming Oat Bye 6rass,meadow, young Grass, meadow, young dried Timothy Timothy rowen '). Legumes. Alfalfa... Soybeans, medium green, blossom Soybeans, medium green, seeding Crimson clover, blos- som Bed clover, blossom.. Clover rowen, blossom Cowpeas, ready for soiling Per cent 68 6a 62 67 69 77 70 66 67 74 69 71 64 61 65 66' 68 Sa 71 12 64 68 67" 68 62 66 63 67 69 'ei 74 42 34 42 34 48 56 55 42 00 32 40 25 28 23 1 1 O i g 66 65 71 53 57 73 24 46 59 67 6(1 72 52 75 71 77 75 81 62 60 - 77 65 73 71 50 62 67 63 70 67 46 59 74 72 61 71 . 69 56 74 73 55 62 79 80 71 65 74 72 71 77 73 48 56 66 72 64 68 74 43 72 77 47 71 78 45 77 77 56 74 67 53 78 62 52 65 76 60 81 68 74 66 66 74 74 58 68 62 74 60 49 69 74 55 60 52 5'-! 39 50 55 60 65 61 59 C0BFFICII1NT8 367 Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs— Continued 1. Experiments with Ruminants Per cent ©a g ft a »£ Grein Fodders, continued Canada field peas, before bloom Canada field peas, bloom to seeding . . Spring vetch Winter vetch Dwarf Essex rape Barley and peas, bloom ' Oats and peas, bloom Oats and peas, seed.. Oats and spring vetch, bloom Winter wheat and hairy vetch 2. Silage. Corn, dent Corn, flint, mature, small varieties. . . . : Corn, flint, earing, large Corn, fine crushed, steers Corn, fine crushed, • sheep Corn, mature, fed raw Corn, mature, cooked Corn, steamed Corn, sweet, mature . Kafir corn, mature ... Sorghum, mature . . . . Soybean and barnyard millet Soybean and corn (9-14) Clover Soybean '. Cowpea G8 64 62 71 85 '76' 67 69 64 70 64 54 7.S 68 55 57 59 69 44 56 60 71 65 68 62 70 77 72 76 70 57 59 72 45 67 37 17 42 63 54 49 47 53 44 37 34 48 42 36 82 81 71 83 89 75 74 74 75 75 49 65 56 21 45 39 55 54 28 9 57 63 35 66 57 62 45 44 63 87 .52 64 55 68 65 77 72 75 64 59 70 76 71 57 58 09 62 48 53 52 71 76 76 77 92 ■68 72 63 68, 73 69^ 79 76 65 55 71 75 76 72 62 64 59- 78 45 65 72 368 FORAGE CROPS Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stdpps— Continued 1. Experiments with Ruminants k 2 Silage continued Oats and pea Ooyn: lA Sunflower heads MA. Horse- beans KA Corn: lA Sunflower plant KA. Horse- beans HA 3. Hay and Dried Coarse Fodders. a. Gereal Fodders Corn, dent, immature Corn, dent, mature... Corn, flint, ears form- ing Corn, flint, mature... Corn, sweet, mature . Corn, stover Barley hay Oat-hay Oat-straw h. Grasses and Millets, Mixed grasses (8-10 per cent protein ) . . . Mixed grasses, tim- othy predominating Meadow, swale or swamp hay Tall oat gras.s Wild oat grass Orchard-grass Pasture grass Prairie grass Red-top Rowen Black grass Branch grass Flat sags 65 66 65 62 70 70 67 57 59 54 50 60 55 39 55 64 56 73 56 60 67 68 69 63 70 55 54 52 62 58 65 56 73 'ei" 65 56 52 57 52 41 26 43 23 41 '39" 47 30 ii' 52 25 69 58 62 63 58 50 45 70 64 64 36 65 53 57 47 34 51 58 60 73 18 61 69 58 56 52 61 60 65 67 63 72 76 74 64 62 51 58 60 65 33 55 68 61 76 61 61 66 59 54 60 67 72 74 62 73 71 71 68 59 63 55 53 61 59 46 58 65 55 74 61 62 64 52 49 55 COEFFICIENTS 369 • TABiiK III. GoEFFiciENTS OP DiOESTiBiUTY OF PEED Stuffs — Continued 1. Ezpetiments with Ruminants Per cent & a i 1 !| 1 9 3 1 Hay and Dried Coarse Fodders — Grasses and Millets, continued Fox grass 54 54 55 50 55 54 61 54 65 56 61 57 58 63 61 62 62 59 62 57 66 ■59' 60 66 69 58 66 61 "se' 62' 'ee' 54 60' 56 54 67 59 'ef 'ss' 'eo' 58 69 39 16 ig" 'si' '24' 8 24 44 53 '42' '36' 'ie' '53' 42 56 47 58 60 42 48 20 38 39 58 23 60 31 38 34 43 61 14 72 71 66 69 58 73 65 65 63 70 82 65 74 73 53 58 50 \ 41 53 55 62 56 68 63 60 67 49 70 64 47 61 50 45 54 61 47 43 52 58 61 55 65 58 53 52 62 62 60 60 66 58 67 56 66 60 61 65 65 72 69 .66 62 64 70 63 71 70 72 73 59 68 61 36 Salt hay, mixture Timothv 28 50 Timothy, cottonseed xneal 59 Timothy and clover, poorly cured Timothy and red-top . 58 42 57 Qoldeb millet Hungarian grass Millet 49 64 50 Kafir corn, fodder Kafir corn, stover Sorghum fodder, Min- nesota Early. Amber Sorghum fodder leaves Sorghum fodder ba- 61 75 65 47 46 c. Legumes. Alfalfa 43 29 Clover, alsike . Clover, crimson 38 44 55 Clover, white , Clover rowen 51 60 50 66 '71 Winter vetch Oats and vetch Wheat and sand vetch Oats and peas 70 55 64 59 370 FORAGE OBOPS Table III: Coefficients of Digestibility of Peed Stuffs — Continued 1. Experiments with Ruminants Per cent % ja 6 % A 2 _^ *i u u ao u .a- C e8 •3S cS ft d