CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM f^'irl Beci'.er The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030468155 COMMUNITY CIVICS BY R. O. HUGHES PEABODY HIGH SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH Cornell University Library JK274 .H89 Community civics olin 3 1924 030 468 155 o»{o ALLYN AND BACON ISoaton N£to iorfe fiCljicaga COPYRIGHT, 1917, B-y R. O. HUGHES. DAN NotinooJ) ptcsa J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. FOREWORD A NATION is safe for democracy only when it is composed of citizens who think seriously and intelligently, and who act on itheij^onvictions. The boys and girls of our schools constitute the source from which a thinking citizenship of this kind must be developed. Every one is in some degree his brother's keeper. The belief that these three principles are true and funda- mental is responsible for Community Civics. It is not a compilation of facts. Some facts are vital, and most of the specific statements of the book are worth remembering, but the great emphasis has been placed on making the pupil think for himself. As an aid in this direction, questions and suggestions for thought and investigation are placed in the body of the text where the pupil cannot help seeing them, as well as at the end of each chapter. There are also special topics requiring original investigation, which can profitably be assigned to individual members of a class; but neither the questions nor the topics are exhaustive, nor does each class need to take up every one. The method of approach and the order of treatment follow in the main the recommendations of recent Committees on Social Studies, without adhering slavishly to any one outline. The student is first introduced to his own community and its immediate problems. Then he takes up the framework of government, without a knowledge of which the larger problems cannot be properly comprehended. Finally these broader questions, sometimes termed the "problems of democracy," are laid before him. In studying government, the federal government is taken up first. In spite of our theories as to what ought to be most familiar, the fact remains that children and adults iv Foreword alike know more about the national government than about state or local governments. Analogies and contrasts are much simpler when a common basis of comparison has al- ready been laid. But any one who wishes to follow a different order of treatment wiU find little difficulty in taking up the chapters in the order which he Hkes best. No attempt has been made to display erudition by using technical language or by filling space with long bibhographies. The small school can make no use of elaborate book fists, and the school with large fibrary facifities does not need them. I have tried to write in language comprehensible to the aver- age pupil and to put flesh and blood upon the dry bones of constitutions and laws. The numerous illustrations add to the interest of the text and help to give the pupil a more concrete idea of the subject. The book, in short, is the outgrowth of actual experience, and its outline has been covered in the author's own classes several times. A number of the chapters were read by Congressman M. Clyde Kelly, who contributed valuable suggestions. Principal David R. Sumstine of the Peabody High School, Pittsburgh, Mr. Ben G. Graham, Supervisor of Junior High Schools, and Mr. W. A. Laning, Mr. G. A. Lundquist, and Miss Mary D. Potter, fellow-teachers of Civics in the Pitts- burgh High Schools, have also read the manuscript or the proof. Miss M. Kathryn Sheets of the Peabody High School has read the proof and helped with comments from the pupil's viewpoint. None of these friends are to blame for any in- accuracies or other faults which may stUl remain, in spite of every effort to avoid them. Community Civics is issued in the hope that it may prove an aid and guide to our boys and girls in the study of what is perhaps the most inspiring and significant subject in the whole curriculum. ■R. 0. Hughes Pittsburgh, September, 1917. ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ILLUSTRATIONS Grateful acknowledgment is due to those who have fur- nished materials for illustration. Mr. J. D. Stevenson, of the Bureau of Engineering, Department of Public Works, Pittsburgh, Pa., furnished Nos. 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 37, 45, 48, 54, 64, 69, 79, 133, 136, and 144. Superintendent C. A. Finley, of the Bureau of Water, supplied Nos. 51, 52, and 53. Mr. J. W. Henderson, of the Bureau of Smoke Regulation, furnished Nos. 41, 42, 125, and 164. Valuable personal courtesies were rendered by Mr. Z. Z. Hugus in connection with the pictures credited to the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Besides these, thanks are due to the friends mentioned below for furnishing the pictures whose numbers follow each name : Mr. Walter T. Bennett, 10, 23. Mr. R; C. Braun, 65, 118, 166. Mr. P. J. Brinkman, 49, 117. Mrs. Mary Chambers, 175. Mrs. Mary E. Clarkson, 5. Mr. H. E. Cole, 203, 209. Miss Irene Davis, 73, 85. Mr. P. G. Dove, 57, 103. Mr. H. M. Eastman, 124, 141, 204, 226. Miss -Ray FitzGerald, 60, 160. The H. J. Heinz Company, 156, 159, 161, 233. Mr. Norman E. Henry, 111. Miss Flora L. Hubner, 44, 66, 67, 115, 137, 162, 168, 174, 176, 224, 235. Mr. C. K. Hughes, 81, 157, 167, 202, 212, 213, 215. Mr. T. H. Hughes, 86, 173. Mr. H. R. Insley, 130, 143, 216. vi Acknowledgment of Illustrations Mr. George Kirch, 101, 163. Mr. William L. Lawson, 151, 152, 229. Pennsylvania State Forestry Commission, 165. The Pittsburgh Railways Company, 38, 40, 139. Mr. Howard A. Power, 107, 108, 109, 128. Mr. Charles A. Reed, 30, 47, 76, 201. Mr. AKred D. Reid, 58, 63, 134, 208. Miss Marguerite Ruch, 12. Miss Hermine Schumacher, 70. Mr. Joseph SimboU, 194. Mr. E. P. Taft, 217. Mr. Paul Wakefield, 129, 135, 138. Mr. James B. Zimmermann, 35, 36, 46, 75, 83, 234. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I. COMMUNITY LIFE CHAPTER 1. THE COMMUNITY AND ITS MEMBERS SECTION PAGB 1. Our Desire for Community Life . 1 2. Communities in Which We Live . . ... . . . 2 3. Economic Factors in the Community 3 4. Kinds of Communities 3 5. Services of the City , 5 6. Growth of Cities .......... 6 7. "The Life Together" 8 CHAPTER IL NEEDS AND FORMS OF GOVERNMENT 8. Needs for Government . 9. Definitions 10. Forms of Government . 11. The Government of the United States 12. Departments of Government 13. Checks and Balances . 11 13 13 15 16 17 CHAPTER in. THE CITIZEN — HIS RIGHTS AND DUTIES 14. Explanations 19 15. Acquisition of Citizenship 20 16. Naturalization 21 17. Rights of Citizens . 22 18. Duties of Citizens 25 19. Some Questions on Citizenship .26 PART II. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE CHAPTER IV. THE PLANNING OF THE COMMUNITY 20. Importance of Community Planning .... .28 21. Notable Examples 30 vii viii Table of Contents SECTION PASS 22. Topographical Difficulties 32 23. Systems of Street Planning 33 24. Civic Centers . 34 25. City Zones 35 26. Possibilities of Is: provement 36 27. The Laying Out c f Streets 38 28. Street Paving 41 29. Street Cleaning 45 30. Street Lighting 47 31. Franchises and Thoir Evils 48 32. Water Transportation 50 33. Bridges 52 34. Services of the Railr?ad 53 35. Improvements in the Railroad 54 36. Street Railways 57 37. Quality of Street Car Service 60 38. The Smoke Nuisance 61 39. Trees and Parkways 64 40. Unsightly Places 66 41. Unnecessary Noise 68 CHAPTER V. THE HEALTH OF THE COMMUNITY 42. Death Rates 72 43. Control of Disease 73 44. Prevention of Disease 74 45. Food Inspection 74 46. Water Supply 78 47. Purification of Water 79 48. Drainage and Sewerage . 82 49. Disposal of Wastes 83 50. Home Owning 86 51. The Slums .88 52. The City's Food Supply 91 53. Markets 94 CHAPTER VI. THE HlGHEi? LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 54. Public Provision for Recreation and Culture .... 97 55. Parks . 99 56. Playgrounds 100 Table of Contents ix SECTION PASE 57. Libraries 102 58. Religion 104 59. Religious Instruction 107 CHAPTER Vll. THE PROTECTION OF THE COMMUNITY 60. Fire Losses 110 61. Fire Fighting Ill 62. Fire Prevention 113 63. Fire Insurance 115 64. The Work of the Police 115 65. European Systems of Management 117 65. Management in the United States 117 67. Police Corruption 118 68. Emergency Measures 120 CHAPTER Vlll. TRAINING THE YOUNG CITIZEN 69. Reasonsfor Public Schools 122 70. Education in Other Countries 123 71. Difference and Likeness in the States' School Systems . . 124 72. School Administration 126 73. School Attendance 128 74. School Revenues 129 75. Making the Schools Useful 130 76. School Buildings 132 77. New Features 133 PART III. THE MECHANISM OF OUR GOV- ERNMENT CHAPTER IX. POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 78. Reasons for Pohtical Parties 136 79.' Party Organization 137 80. Dangers in Parties 138 81. Nominations 139 82.' The Campaign 141 83. Elections 142 X Table of Contents SaOTlON PAGE 84. Qualifications of Voters ... .... 144 85. Woman Suffrage . . . . , ... 145 86. Forms of Ballots ......... 146 87. Initiative, Referendum, and Recall ...... 149 CHAPTER X. HOW OUR NATION'S LAWS ARE MADE 88. Making the Constitution 152 89. Congress 153 90. The Senators 153 91. The Representatives . • 154 92. Special Powers of th^ Houses 156 93. Sessions of Congress 157 94. Government and Rules of Congress 159 95. Officers of Congress 160 96. The Committee System 162 97. The Process of Law-making 163 98. Powers of Congress . 164 99. Special Provisions Affecting Congressmen .... 167 CHAPTER XI. OUR CHIEF EXECUTIVE 100. Importance of the President 101. Term, Qualifications, and Salary 102. Method of Election 103. Succession to the Presidency 104. Powers and Duties of the President 171 171 173 177 178 CHAPTER XII. NATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS 105. Development of the Cabinet 106. Functions of the Cabinet 107. Comparison with the English System 108. State Department 109. Treasury Department 110. War Department 111. The Army . 112. Navy Department 113. The Navy . 114. Department of Justice 115. Post Office Department 184 185 186 187 188 189 189 191 192 194 194 Table of Contents XI BKOTION PAGE 116. Department of the Interior ....... 196 117. Department of Agriculture 198 118. Department of Commerce 200 119. Department of Labor 200 120. Interstate Commerce Commission 201 121. Civil Service Commission 202 122. Federal Trade Commission . 203 123. Special Institutioiis 203 CHAPTER XIII. OUR NATIONAL COURTS 124. Services and Importance 207 125. Relation of State and Federal Courts 208 126. District Courts 208 127. Circuit Courts of Appeals . 209 128. Supreme Court . . 210 129. Special Courts .211 130. Term and Salary of Judicial Officers 211 CHAPTER XIV. MISCELLANEOUS FACTS ABOUT NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 131. Removals from Office 132. Treason .... 133. Amending the Constitution 134. The Amendments 135. The " Unwritten Constitution " 136. The Territories . 137. Colonies or Possessions 138. District of Columbia . 139. Protectorates 213 214 214 215 216 217 219 221 222 CHAPTER XV. OUR RELATIONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 140. Basis of International Relations 141. Rights of States 142. Foreign Representatives 143. Enforcement of Treaties and Obligations 144. War 145. Effects of War on Persons and Things 146. Arbitration ... 147. The League of Nations 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 xii Table of Contents CHAPTER XVI. THE UNION AND THE STATES SEOTION PAGE 148. Relation of the States to Each Other 233 149. Fugitives from Justice ........ 235 150. National Supremacy and Obligation 236 151. Distribution of the Powers of Government .... 237 152. Admission of States 239 CHAPTER XVII. OUR STATE GOVERNMENTS 153. The Original States 242 154. State Constitutions . 242 155. The Form of State Governments 244 156. Preliminary Proceedings in a Criminal Case .... 247 157. The Trial 248 158. Proceedings in a Civil Suit 250 159. Measures to Prevent Wrong 250 CHAPTER XVIII. LOCAL GOVERNMENTS 160. Subdivisions of the State 253 161. Systems of Local Government . . .... 254 162. County Administration . . . . . 255 163. County Officers .... 255 164. The Town or Township 256 165. The New England Town .... ... 258 166. The Township in Other States 260 167. Boroughs and Incorporated Villages 260 168. Formation of Cities 261 169. City Officials 262 170. City Problems 265 171. Special Plans of City Government 266 PART IV. PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL SCOPE A. FINANCIAL PROBLEMS CHAPTER XIX. MONEY AND CREDIT 172. Money and Its Uses ... .... 269 173. Characteristics of Money 270 Table of Contents Xlll SEOTIOH PAGK 174. Our Currency System 271 175. Our Paper Money 272 176. Meaning and Importance of Credit • 273 177. Credit Instruments 274 178. Banks and Their Services 276 179. The Clearing-House 278 180. Dangers in the Use of Credit 279 181. The Federal Banking System 280 CHAPTER XX. SOME IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL TERMS 182. Property and Its Ownership 283 183. Ways of Acquiring Property 284 184. Mortgages .286 185. Contracts 287 CHAPTER XXI. HOW OUR GOVERNMENTS GET MONEY 186. What Is a Good Tax ? 187. Tax Definitions . 188. The Cost of Government 189. Government Revenues 190. National Finances 191. State and Local Finance 192. The Assessment and Collection of Local Taxes 193. Budget Making . 194. Proposed Tax Reforms 195. The Protective Tariff . 289 290 291 293 293 296 297 298 300 302 B. ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS CHAPTER XXII. LABOR AND INDUSTRY 196. The Factors in Production • 305 197. Industrial Accidents 307 198. Prevention of Accidents 309 199. Workmen's Compensation Acts 310 200. Dangerous Trades 311 201. Sweat Shops 312 xiv Table of Contents SECTION PAGB 202. Child Labor 314 203. Effects .... 316 204. Child Labor Laws .... .... 318 205. Women Workers ...... . . 318 206. Women's Labor Laws 320 207. Unemployment 322 208. Remedies 322 209. Labor Unions and Their Objects 323 210. Union Methods 324 211. Accomplishments of the Unions 327 212. Conciliation and Arbitration 328 CHAPTER XXllI. BUSINESS ORGANIZATION 213. Capital and Its Importance 331 214. Forms of Business Organization 333 215. The Trust 335 216. Relations of the Workers 336 217. Monopolies 338 218. Monopoly Prices 339 219. Public Policy Regarding Monopolies 340 220. The Anti-Trust Laws 341 221. Our Merchant Marine 343 222. Industrial Preparedness 344 CHAPTER XXIV. SAVING OUR NATURAL RESOURCES 223. Importance of Natural Resources 347 224. The Conservation Movement 348 225. Forest Conservation 350 226. Water Conservation 352 227. Land Conservation .• . . . 354 228. Other Conservation Problems 357 229. Homestead Laws . 358 230. Animal Life . 358 C. SOCIAL PROBLEMS CHAPTER XXV. THE STATE'S BURDENS 231. Crime and its Classification ....... 361 232. Causes of Crime = ^ • 363 Table of Contents xv BKOTION PAGB 233. Treatment of Criminals . . 364 234. Institutions for the Criminal ....... 367 235. Convict Labor 369 236. Juvenile Courts 370 237. Poverty and Its Causes 371 238. Methods of Relief 374 "■•-■ *L.wtit(.s^i: ukj Cfliu'v .-iwl J- '^jV I ■"^fr' Copy of a Naturalization Certificate. 22 The Citizen American citizen, he must, if over 18 years old, go before a state or federal court and formally declare his intention of abandoning his allegiance to the government imder which he was born and of becoming a citizen of the United States. By the time he has Uved in the United States at least five years, providing that not less than two years have passed since he filed his declaration of intention, he may again appear in court, take the oath of allegiance to the United States, and receive his certificate of naturalization. This process makes him fully a citizen of the United States, with every privilege that a native-born citizen has except of be- coming president or vice-president. When a foreign-born married man is naturahzed, it is un- derstood that his wife and any children under 21 years of age are made American citizens by the same process. Only whites and negroes may be naturalized. Anarchists are excluded. What are the reasons for the last restriction? Do you think the requirements for naturalization are strict enough? In what ways might an American citizen lose his citizenship? 17. Rights of Citizens. — A citizen of the United States is also a citizen of the state in which he lives, though if hving abroad he possesses only national citizenship. Commonly we do not think of any distinction between state and national citizenship. Yet when a person moves from one state to another he may find that his rights as a citizen are not ex- actly the same in the new state, though his national citizen- ship has not been affected at all. We can summarize prac- tically all the rights of citizenship guaranteed by the national and the state constitutions under three general heads : (1) Personal Security. — Every citizen has the right to enjoy life, health, and a good reputation, and no one may by any unjust act deprive him of them. If that is at- tempted, he may ask the state to protect him. Even the government itself may not take the citizen's life, liberty, Personal Liberty 23 or property " without due process of law." His house may not be searched unless a warrant has been issued for that purpose. Soldiers may not be quartered there without his consent except in time of war, and then only if he is properly paid for any loss he suffers. He may keep and bear arms for his own defense. Under what circumstances should a man be allowed to carry a deadly weapon ? If he is accused of crime, he must be indicted by a grand jury (§156) before he is tried. He is entitled to a trial by jury and to have a lawyer and witnesses ia his behalf. He cannot be compelled to testify agaiast himself. If he is once Warning Sign. acquitted, he cannot be tried again for the same offense. Excessive bail must not be demanded when he is under arrest, and if he is convicted, no cruel and imusual pimishment may be inflicted or unreasonable fine imposed. (2) Personal Liberty. — A citizen may go wherever he wishes and do whatever he desires, so long as he violates no law of the state and does not interfere with the equal rights of others. No man may be held as a slave. Every citizen may worship as he pleases. He has the right of free speech, a free press, and freedom to meet with other citizens and to petition the government to reUeve injustice. Why are people sometimes arrested for holding meetings ? Should a man have the right to work when, for whom, and for what price he pleases? The writ of habeas corpus, inherited from England, is re- garded as a sacred privilege to be used in defense of both the rights we have mentioned. If a person is arrested and held in prison, his friends may go before a judge and secure a writ, or order, commanding the officer in charge of the 24 The Citizen prisoner to bring him before the judge for a hearing. The judge will then decide whether the prisoner shall be tried at once, let out on bail, or treated in some other reasonable way. The object of the writ of habeas corpus is to prevent the holding of a person in prison indefinitely without giving him a trial. In time of war or other serious public danger, when it may be necessary to keep men under guard who are suspected of disloyalty, spying, or other offensive conduct, the writ may be suspended. Read the story of "Coxey's army" in Washington in 1894. Was their treatment a violation of these rights? (3) Private Property. — A citizen is free to acquire, make use of, and dispose of, possessions of any kind, in a lawful and honorable way, without interference from any one. This right is fundamental, like the others, for upon it rests the entire foundation of modern business and trade. The government itself is forbidden to take private property, even for pubhc use, without fair paynaent. Under what conditions should a man not be permitted to use his private property in any way that suits him? If your rights in the use of property conflict with another man's right to hfe, health, or happiness, which should give way?j Every governmental organization — • ciby, county, state, or nation — may exercise the right of eminent domain, however, and sometimes this is granted to private corpora- tions. Under this power the government may take, even against the owner's wish, all or a part of a piece of property, but if there is any difference of opinion about its value the government will have the value determined by a special board or committee and then force the owner to accept that amount. Discuss the limitations which must be accepted to any of these rights in order to permit others the equal enjoyment of them. Should we have rights against our governments as well as against persons? Does the citizen exist for the benefit of his country The Duties of Citizens 25 or the government for the benefit of the citizen? Axe all men created equal ? with equal rights ? Is there danger that in time of peace citizens wiU be denied any of their rights ? 18. The Duties of Citizens. — Most people think and talk more about their own rights than about the rights of others or their own duties. It would not be fair to leave our discussion of citizenship without suggesting the fact that rights and opportunities bring obUgations along with them. Sometimes people do not get all their rights. Some- times, though rarely, an innocent man is sent to prison. But far more common are those who sneak out of the per- formance of their just duties and who treat the opportunities of a free country as so many more chances for selfish ad- vancement. The " square deal " ought to be the aim of every citizen. We talk often, for example, about the " right " to vote. Voting is not a right. It is a privilege which the state gives to those whom it considers fitted to exercise it. And it is a privilege which every voter ought to exercise with care, thoughtfulness, and honesty. It is a citizen's duty, if he has the voting power, to use it,* and to use it only after he has thought carefully about the issues of an election and the men who are candidates for office. Should voting be made compulsory ? When men have been elected and laws are made, it is a citizen's duty to respect their authority. If he does not hke them, he has the privilege of trying to get them changed by the peaceful means that are open to every citizen, but he has no right to refuse outright to obey them. Europeans say we are the most lawless people in the civilized world. Is that true? Whether true or not, is it complimentary? Does the amount of law in existence affect the extent of a citizen's rights? What do you think the Declaration of Independence meant in saying that "governments derive their just powers from the con- sent of the governed" ? 26 The Citizen 19. Some Questions on Citizenship. — Preaching, of the style that dictates to a man what he ought and ought not to do, is sometimes less effective than quietly dropping a hint which will make him think the thing out for himself. We are therefore going to put the rest of our treatment of this topic in the form of questions, asking you to think about them and answer them honestly. Should a person pay taxes willingly? Does the world owe every man a living, regardless of how much he does himself? Is it a man's duty to serve as a juror, if he is summoned? Is a line of conduct justifiable in business or politics which is unjustifiable in private life? Is it a citizen's duty to give information to the authorities about law-breakers? Is it ever a citizen's right or duty to take the law into his own hands? Should a public officer enforce some laws and neglect others? How can you, as a citizen not yet in full possession of all the rights and privileges of citizenship, best help in the cause of good government and social welfare? Does it make any difference to the community if you are careless about your own health or property? QUESTIONS Give a definition of citizen. Who are citizens in the United States ? Are you ? In what respects do the duties or privileges of an alien differ from those of a citizen ? What difference of opinion has existed between nations in regard to transferring citizenship? When this takes place, what should be the citizen's feeling toward the land of his first citizenship ? By what means have persons at some time or other acquired American citizenship ? Explain the process of naturahzation. Under what circumstances might an alien become naturalized without any act of his own? Who may not be naturahzed? To what extent is a person's citizenship affected by moving from one state to another? Explain the three general rights of American citizenship. Give four or five special applications of each general right. Explain Special Topics 27 habeas corpus; eminent domain. Show with each special right the limits which are placed upon it by the equal rights of others. Which are more important, rights or duties ? Are voting, office holding, and obedience to the laws, rights, duties, or both ? Do you think of any other important questions relating to the duties of a citizen besides those in section 19? Give a brief convincing statement of the reasons why a study of Civics is essential for every school pupil. SPECIAL TOPICS A Naturalization Court. (If copies of the form to be filled out by an ahen at his declaration of intention, or of a naturalization cer- tificate, can be secured, it wiH make the matter seem more real.) German-Americans during the Great War. Patriotism in War Time. Patriotism in Peace. Community Welfare. • — We shall next discuss some of the special problems that every community deals with or ought to deal with. In considering these we shall have a fine chance to observe the oppor- tunities that exist for every citizen, old and young, to contribute his little bit toward making his community the prettiest, cleanest, happiest place that it can possibly become. No one should be satisfied with less than that, even if he does not realize his ambitions. " Watch your step," as the saying is, and be sure it is no fault of yours that your community is less fine a place than it can be. In taking up the subjects that follow — the "elements of com- munity welfare," they are often called — let us observe in each case how they apply to our commxmity. Is it as good as it might be ? If not, whose fault is it? Can any improvement be made, and how? Is there anything we can do about it as individuals ? If we can bring these matters right home to ourselves, we can make our study exceed- ingly profitable in all the things that make for good citizenship. We can show our patriotism just as truly in doing so as in learning poems about the flag and celebrating the Fourth of July, worthy as those endeavors may be. Let our loyalty and good will appear in doing both the things that every one sees and the quieter, harder things that few may ever know about. PAET II ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY WELFARE CHAPTER IV THE PLAIfiriNG OP THE OOMMTJITITT We are concerned . . . with maTcing our cities year hy year in their physical arrangement and equipment, healthier, pleasanter, and more economical instruments for the use of the people who dwell within them,. — F. L. Olmstead. 20. Importance of Community Planning. — Convenience, health, and beauty are three notable objects to be attained in laying out a city or town. If a city is laid out properly in the first place, one needs to waste little time following the windings of " corkscrew " streets, and can go almost directly from any important place to almost any other. To the modem business man, in a very real sense, " time is money." A well-planned city saves both time and energy for its citizens. Again, in some commimities thousands or even hundreds of thousands of people herd together in rickety tenements on narrow alleys and close-built streets, where in the hot days of sunmier a real breath of fresh air or a cooling breeze is a veritable godsend, and the smallest patch of green grass is like a bit of heaven, where at any season of the year the darkened rooms and close contact of the people make it as easy as possible for everybody to acquire his neighbor's ailments and vices. But in a properly plarmed community the streets are wide 28 Importance of Community Planning 29 enough and well enough arranged to allow the winds to sweep through and clear away the foul air. Buildings are not permitted which force their tenants to Hve without pri- Two Types of Back Yards. These scenes are only a few blocks apart. vacy and comfort, without fresh air and light and safety. Every house need not sit up so close to the next that a street is almost like a continuous wall. A small back yard 30 The Planning of the Community with perhaps a httle garden can furnish rest and pleasure to every workingman if other thoughts than money-grabbulg are at work when his part of the city is laid out. Beauty is almost as easy to have as ugliness. K some one plans it soon enough, a river-bank, kept like a park, can advertise the attractiveness of a city instead of presenting a waterfront that is an eyesore to a traveler. Tree-Uned avenues can give shade from the burning sun and add their natural beauty and dignity to the whole city instead of serving simply as thoroughfares for travel. Buildings can follow the lines of art in their construction and stand in right relation and proportion to their surroundings instead of being notable for nothing but size or ugliness. In the picture on page 42, notice how the irregularity of the buildings detracts from the appearance of an otherwise well-planned street. 21. Notable Examples. — Most communities were not plaimed. They just happened. It is striking to note the difference within the same community, when we compare the older part of it with the part that was laid out since people began to realize that city planning ■ is important. Boston and Pittsburgh are good examples of cities that merely " happened." One can easily accept the tradition that Boston's streets follow the Unes of old cow-paths, when he looks at a map of the city, or better still when he tries to get aroimd in the city before he has been there long enough to get " the lay of the land." The older part of New York city shows somewhat the same state of affairs, in contrast with the later portions, where the long avenues run north and south and are crossed at right angles by streets numbered in regular order. Phila- delphia is another city that is laid out on the checkerboard plan, at least that portion of it between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. We find evidence of plaiming in some smaller cities, as well as in the newer sections of the larger ones. Notable Examples 31 The one fine example of a well-planned American city is Washington, conceived by the genius of the Frenchman, Major L'Eniant. The Capitol is the center of the city's plan. Streets running north and south intersect at right angles with others running east and west. To vary the A City That Was Not Planned. Compare this map with the pictures on pages 32, 45, and 52. What difficulties in planning would attend a city so located, even if proper fore- sight had been used? Why are the railroads in the places where you observe them? Are the parks well situated? Refer to this map in the discussion of the various city problems which .we consider. Black figures show the number of each ward. monotony of the scheme, and to promote the beauty and convenience of the plan, a system of diagonal avenues intersects the " checkerboard." Where the avenues and streets come together, httle parks known as " circles " are formed. Really a beautiful city is our national capital. Some of the European capitals have also gained a reputa- tion for their beauty and convenience. Paris is now one 32 The Planning of the Community of the finest cities of the world in appearance. Its boule- vards are world-famous. Perhaps no street in any city is better known than the beautiful Champs Elysees in the great French capital. Yet in most instances large parts of this city had to be remade and boulevards constructed at great expense in order to atone for the neglect and lack of foresight of monarchs centuries ago. London is indebted even to such a great calamity as the fire of 1666 for a chance to rebuild What Some Communities Have to Contend With. on a bigger and better scale. San Francisco had a similar opportunity in 1906, of which, however, she only partly took advantage. 22. Topographicar Difficulties. — It is easier to say how a community should be laid out than it is to fit any plan to the geographical peculiarities of some cities. A plan that could be adopted for level grovmd hke that on which Phil- adelphia is situated would be utterly out of the question for San Francisco or Seattle or Boston, with their hills. Take a combination of three rivers, steep hills, and gullies carved by nature in the midst of these hills, such as Pittsburgh has to contend with, and he would be a genius indeed who could Systems of Street Planning 33 work out in advance a plan for scientifically laying out a great city at that place. A city located on an ocean or lake frontage, with a harbor, has to keep its business district in proper touch with its wharves, and yet, if possible, not force its residential sections away from the sight and breezes of the water. A town situated on both sides of a river has a still different problem to deal with. Sometimes conditions below the earth's surface require that substantial business blocks be built at a certain place in order to give them a sohd foimdation. When that is the case, the plan of the city simply must be adapted to that fact. We can say in general not much more than this — that a community is well planned if it is suited to its surroundings and makes them minister to the con- venience and health and sense of beauty of its people. What traces of this problem do you find in your own community ? 23. Systems of Street Planning. — The checkerboard system of lajdng out streets has met much favor in many places. It is the simplest method of securing regularity, and makes it easy to identify any particular spot. Espe- cially if an orderly scheme of naming the streets is observed and the plan of letting each block count for 100 in number- ing houses is employed, even a stranger would have little excuse for getting lost. The most serious objections to this system are the monotony of appearance which it produces and the necessity of going around too many right angles in getting anjrwhere. But if this plan is modified by lajdng out diagonal avenues from the heart of a city to its outer comers and by con- structing boulevards to encircle the city and reach its beauty spots, it is likely to serve a greater variety of conditions than any other. Some people like the spider-web as a model for laying out a city's streets, but it is seldom used. The " ring street," which goes all the way around a city, has been constructed in some European cities on the ground occupied 34 The Planning of the Community by the wall and moat which surrounded the city in medieval times. What system of naming and numbering streets seems best to you? How would your system work if applied to Pittsbtirgh. or MoConnelsville ? What systems are used in any communities that you know about ? Sketch of MoConnelsville, Ohio. This is an example of the small middle western community. Does it seem to be well planned ? Discuss its main features. 24. Civic Centers. — The idea of having a civic center appeals strongly to city planners of to-day. By this term is meant a group of public buildings such as a courthouse, city hall, post office, library, or other institution frequently used by the people, located where they will be convenient of access by street car or otherwise from all sections of the city. This will naturally be at the point where some of the most important streets intersect. If these buildings are well arranged and a small park with fountains, monuments, and the like, laid out, a sense of unity and an City Zones 35 appreciation of beauty will be promoted in the minds of the people more than by almost any other means. In a large city it would be undesirable, of course, to have every hbrary, school, and museum crowded into one section. In that case several smaller centers should be created to (Jourte^y of Pennsylvania RaUroad Comvany "The Square," Cleveland, Ohio. serve different sections of the city. Parks and playgrounds are likewise needed, so placed that all the people can enjoy them without great expense for carfare or waste of time. 25. City Zones. — A suggestion which has been adopted in several European cities and has been recommended for our own is that the city should be divided into zones. Each 36 The Planning of the Community zone is set apart for a certain purpose — one for factories, another for business houses, another for residences of a cer- tain kind, and so on. This plan helps to keep the value of property in a district fairly stable, for then only one sort of buildings may be erected in one section. As it is now in most of our cities, a man may build an at- tractive house in a pleasant residence district only to have his neighbor sell out to an automobile company which puts up a public garage on the lot. The value of the residence property in that vicinity at once drops disastrously, and no- body but the automobile firm is any better off. This is grossly unfair. To crowd all business places into one section of a very large city would be extremely inconvenient, but enough business zones to serve all sections could be per- mitted, and business buildings kept out of the purely resi- dential districts. New York was the first large American city to take up this problem officially. In 1916 the making of a comprehensive zone plan for the city was accomplished. Make a large map of your city or neigliborliood, showing as we proceed every point of interest or importance — attractive and unat- tractive sections, schools, churches, saloons, factories, etc. 26. Possibilities of Improvement. — Perhaps you think that all this talk of city planning is a waste of breath in a long-established community. It is true that it is more work, and costs more, to tear down buildings in order to lay out a broad, beautiful avenue than it would have been if the avenue had been planned before the buildings were erected. Yet a city seldom regrets improvements after they are made, if the money which they cost has been honestly spent for good work. No matter what natural difficulties a city may labor under, it can do great things, if it will, to overcome unfavorable surroundings. Three times Pittsburgh pared off the " Hump," as a steep hill that hemmed in its business section was called, and the same city has raised several of its streets many feet to keep them above the floods of the Allegheny Possibilities of Improvement 37 river. Boston has filled in its Back Bay and changed it into one of its most attractive sections. New York has allowed tubes and tunnels to be built under the Hudson and the East rivers, and up and down the whole rocky back of Manhattan Island. Seattle washed away the greater part of a hill which stood between its business district and a part of its water front. Los Angeles, having no harbor, reached Cutting the " Hump," Pittsburgh. out twenty miles and annexed one, spending millions of dollars to improve it. Yet the cost and trouble of all this work is a constant re- minder to every community that it is good sense to think ahead, to reason out the direction in which a city is likely to grow, and to plan for a growing and beautiful city rather than a stagnant and ugly town. After a community's business streets are all built up closely, it is like crying over spilt milk to bewail their narrowness and congestion. If a town, when it grew, left no place for parkways or breathing- spaces in its crowded districts, there is not much hope that 38 The Planning of the Community business houses will be torn down and trees and grass and flowers put in their place. Is there anything which your community can do or ought to do to improve its physical appearance or arrangement? Draw an ideal plan for your own community, or for some other real or imaginary place. 27. The Laying Out of Streets. — A city or borough coun- cil or other similar authority must generally authorize or order the laying out or paving of streets. If a very exten- A City Street Before Improvement. sive piece of work of this kind is undertaken, money is often secured by selling bonds, on which interest must be paid for a long term of years. But more commonly the property own- ers whose lots will be benefited by the improvement are asked to stand the expense to an amount corresponding to the increased value of their property. Extra expense be- yond that smn will be paid from the public treasury. Sometimes, when a house or lot is damaged by cutting through a new street or changing the grade of an old one, the owner will be paid by the city instead of having to con- The Laying Out of Streets 39 tribute to the cost of the improvement. After a street has been laid out and paved, the cost of keeping it in repair is usually borne by the local government. The main purpose for which a street is to be used deter- mines largely its width, general plan of construction, and kind of paving. A street in a residential district where there is httle heavy travel can be constructed less expensively and need not be so wide as a business street, imless special provision is made for trees, grass plots, and uncommonly wide The Same Street After Paving. sidewalks. Thirty feet from one curbstone to the other is a fairly satisfactory width for such a street. To furnish variety and add to the beauty of a district it is well to have some residential streets of more than or- dinary width, with plenty of provision for trees and per- haps a stretch of grass or a row of flower beds in the middle of the street. Streets on which street railway tracks are laid should be several feet wider than would otherwise be necessary. A residential street is much more attractive if the houses are not crowded close upon the sidewalk, and 40 The Planning of the Community if they are not all of the same construction. Grass, trees, flowers, and shrubs add to the attractiveness of any street. The main item for consideration in the business street is convenience, but that does not need to mean that all trees and everything else suggestive of beauty must be removed. Some business streets do not need to be broader than the main residential highways, but the most important business Street Repairs Under Way. streets ought to be at least 100 feet wide. They must generally permit two lines of car tracks, and should have room on each side for at least two lines of vehicles to pass, one of automobiles or other fast travel, and one nearer the sidewalk for slower traffic. In many of our large cities much narrower streets than this are the rule, but the city with narrow streets must put up with delays in trafiic and other inconveniences which a better planned city need not suffer to such a degree. A city that has to be encumbered with an elevated railroad should by all means keep it off the main business streets, or they will not be able to accommodate the ordinary surface traflac. Street Paving 41 Many cities are troubled, too, by delays to street cars when stubborn wagon drivers keep their teams on the car tracks as long as they possibly can. How often are your streets repaired, and by whom? Draw a plan of a good business street ; of a residential street. 28. Street Paving. — The proper surface for a street depends upon the principal uses to which it is put. A street Atti?active Residential Street. that is to be used for heavy teaming must be paved with material that will stand hard pounding. Block stone or cobble stone seem to be necessary for such streets, particu- larly if they have any noticeable grades, in spite of the roughness and noise which cannot be avoided with such paving. Some cities have experimented with wood blocks on their business streets. These are generally made of yellow pine treated with some kind of creosote or tar preparation which adds greatly to their wearing quality. They are smooth and almost noiseless, and if they prove durable they will be 42 The Planning of the Community very popular. For streets whose chief traffic is automo- biles or light wagons sheet asphalt is very commonly used Wide Business Street. Observe how the- irregularity of the buildings mars the appearance of an otherwise attractive thoroughfare. A narrow business street is shown on page 274. A Cobble Stone Street. See other types of paving on pages 39, 43, 44, 45, 47, 57, 261 , and 264. especially in the residential districts. It is attractive in appearance, smooth, and not very noisy, but is not safe to use on grades that are at all steep. Street Paving 43 Brick pavements are found in both residential and business streets. They are comparatively easy to repair and cost considerably less than the kinds above mentioned. Some Laying Wood Block Pavement. Preparing the Street for Paving. city streets, as well as many park roads and country high- ways, are macadamized ; that is, their top coating is made of fine crushed stone rolled hard and perhaps treated with a 44 The Planning of the Community tar or oil preparation to bind it together and keep down the dust. There is much more in paving than simply laying down the surface material. The street must often be dug down a a' Asphalt * ^wvv^Y»^vwvwvw TOW T ^°°* °^ more and cafe- p*i^'^^^'^^i|^vis^V> fully graded. For a block 'MV^9^.^^-J^ t g^Q^g^ ^QQ^ ^^^^y.^ Q^ brick r Binder 6"Coiicrete DETAILS or ASPHALT PAVING '^^^'^^^^ '^^^^^^ concrete thick is commonly put in as a base, and covered with a layer of sand of sufficient thickness to serve as a cushion. On this the surface material is placed. For asphalt or macadamized streets the bottom layer is composed of several inches of concrete, or broken stone ^ ^ ^ ^BBB^^^^^r^^^^'- ^i^ ^^^K^. _ id I'. ->..■■-*''■'■""'! wlF'^'iiMiflUhfc r i^fff I—— " T*^ ft^^r^P^ki lif ,J WlJ^ IsflMI |MH|H|. kH|BB3 ^^^9Bb|h n * m hH V I^H 1^^*" '^189 i^^^l^B t.^)^ I^^^^^^H ^^^^^■ypi^ 9"- ^^*^^ra^ ^^^1 w^^HBKf^^" ^^^1 ^^^1 ^B^^^^^^V^0^." :~^ ^^^fc Hi^l ^^^^^H ^^^^^F "-. r _ _^_..,..^ sS i^^l Concrete Alley Pavement. This is not as clean as even an alley should be. not larger than an egg. Asphalt is generally of two grades, a coarse material which covers the broken stone, and a finer kind for the surface. This must be thoroughly rolled and allowed to harden before it is used. What kind of pavement would you prefer in front of your own house or place of business ? Street Cleaning 45 29. Street Cleaning. — Streets littered with paper or strewn with all kinds of dirt indicate that the people of a community are either shamefully lazy or distressingly ignorant. It is discouraging to try to keep a lawn looking attractive if the street in front is filthy. Beauty in any form is almost out of the question, and, worse than that, the health of the residents on that street is menaced. When we see children playing in some of our streets — the only playgrounds some of them have, poor things ! — we wonder rf^frt^' -'*■ ■ ■ '■^^^SSKBSSSk t -.j'^^^^^^^^B ,.. -< .■/iiaa»^«e' ■ '^ A Scene in the Slums. How much do you think could be done to improve this ? Often the build- ings are more crowded than in this picture. such conditions can be found in ahnost any large city. Look around in your own community, even if it is not a large place, and see if you do not find something that might at least grow into a slum district if you let it do so. Read " How the Other Half Lives " or " The Battle with the Slum," by Jacob Riis. We cast no reflection on the work of the foreign missionary when we say that a reading of such books may shock one who had never reaKzed how much missionary work needs to be done in our own metropolis. In such conditions good health would be almost a miracle. 90 The Health of the Community Every disease germ that afilicts mankind would find friendly lodgment there. Worse than this, the health of the whole city is endangered. The disease-burdened inhabitant of the slums may pass in the crowded street or ride in the same street car with a member of the most carefully nurtured family in the city.» Garments made in these slum districts may go to other cities, taking the dread germs along with them. The nioral effect of this Ufe, too, is unspeakable. Every temptation to crime and immoraUty is active, and there is Httle to encourage a person who wishes to keep straight. Voters in these sections care nothing about clean poUtics or honest government. They pay no taxes, or very few. Any politician can get their votes who will give them a free picnic once a year, or appeal to race or religious prejudice. The slum is a disease that gnaws the very vitals of the city. Is there any remedy? Yes, something is being done by settlement houses and social workers who try to interest the slum-dwellers, particularly the young people, in the higher things of life. The schools do a wonderful work in teaching the children how to live, how to keep clean, what things make for good citizenship. In such measures is perhaps our best hope, for we cannot change the older people greatly. But we can attack the property owner who knowingly permits disgusting conditions to exist. In New York and elsewhere scores of tenements have been completely torn down, to make way either for better buildings or to aUow a little park, a breathing spot for the people, to come into being. Sometimes the city itself puts up model tenements or provides small one-family houses which are fit for decent people to live in. Fire escapes, windows, air space and ventilation are now required by law, and sometimes the owner of a lot is forbidden to cover more than a certain per cent of the lot with buildings, so as to secure the needed fight and air for the neighborhood. At least we have begun to The City's Food Supply 91 realize the evils of the slum and to show a purpose to get rid of them. 52. The City's Food Supply. — The big city of to-day is absolutely dependent upon the railroads to keep its citizens ahve. There is never in any community at one time more than enough flour, sugar, butter, eggs, and such staple foods to last more than a few weeks at most, for the amount of any of those articles produced within a city is so small that it may be almost neglected. Its milk is not brought from so far away, but even one day's interruption of the mUk trains or trouble with the farmers or drivers of milk wagons makes some of its resi- dents suffer. Even the supply of vegetables and small fruits is furnished only in part by the farmers and mar- ket gardeners in the vicinity of the city. The Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, and other southern states supply the rest. The meats, whether fresh or canned, are likely to come from centers of Chicago, Kansas City, Products of the South. the great meat-packing St. Joseph, and Omaha. The flour, quite possibly brought from the mills of Minne- apoUs, may have been made from wheat grown in North Dakota. Cantaloupes may have come from the Imperial Valley and oranges from Redlands or Riverside in California. The sugar was probably grown in Cuba or Hawaii, and the coffee in Brazil. It is a wonderful business — this feeding a great city. Can you estimate how many people had a part in furnishing your breakfast ? 92 The Health of the Community Show on a map of the United States the principal sources of our leading food products. A North Dakota Wheat Field. It is very evident' that the farmer who grows the wheat and the stockman who tends the cattle cannot sell directly to the person who wants bread or beefsteak. Several people deal with the commodity between the producer and the A California Fruit Ranch. At Redlands, California. consumer, each one incidentally taking his Uttle profit and adding to the final price. The farmer in central New York who raises apples may sell them to a commission merchant The City's Food Supply 93 in the city. The merchant may dispose of them to a whole- sale fruit dealer, and the dealer in turn to a huckster or retail dealer or grocer. Charges are often made that the conomission merchants combine and make agreements to keep the price of goods unreasonably high, even going so far as to let goods rot in the produce yards rather than be put on the market and prob- "^•"'•Tl ^^ i^ 1 .hi'>-i'vXaii2 pn mn^ ^T - ;|f3^ -•*-.■ M H^^l^^^^:- fy , - ^^ '** ^^P ■.'*!?- Grain Elevators, Montreal. ably lower the price. Speculation in cold storage products such as eggs, by buying them when prices are low and keep- ing them for a time of high prices, is also attempted. It is difficult to prove in court that such conspiracies are formed, and the government has trouble iq trying to pimish the men who do these things. It may not be possible to get rid of all the " middlemen " who are connected with the sale of food products, but if some way could be found to accom- plish this, even in part, it would help to reduce the cost of the people's food. 94 The Health of the Community Trace a barrel of apples or a crate of oranges from the grower to you. Could your community support itself if necessary ? 53. Markets. — In order to make it possible for farmers to deal directly with food buyers in town, some municipali- ties have built market houses where people can come and buy fruits, garden vegetables, poultry, eggs, meat, and the like. Farmers who wish to take advantage of this chance to seU may rent a booth or stall in the market which they Old Market House. wiU regularly occupy. City officers are supposed to keep the market clean and see that honest weights and measures are used. In some places the market is well patronized. People feel that they are getting fresher goods than they could buy elsewhere and probably making a slight saving in cost. The city makes some profit from the rentals and everybody is satisfied. Not aU cities have been equally successful with a pubMc market. It is about the only way available for getting rid of the middleman, but the farmers in the markets will naturally keep their prices up close to those charged else- Questions 95 where, so that the saving in money to the public is not great. A heartfelt vote of thanks is waiting for the man who will work out a scheme by which the people can get fresh, clean food products from convenient places without paying trib- ute to four or five men or firms who have dealt with the goods somewhere on the road. What classes of people in a community would probably be opposed to public markets? What new expedients to provide peo- ple with food or to keep food prices down were undertaken as a result of the Great War? What mistakes in the kind or amount of food used are made by families of your acquaintance? QUESTIONS Compare the ideas of former times and to-day with reference to disease. What is the record of the United States now in death rates ? Where are the best and poorest figures within the country and why ? ' In whose hands rests most of the authority for the control of disease? Explain quarantine rules for dealing with individual cases of contagious disease or with epidemics. Is a person a good citizen who tries to evade a quarantine ? Mention the principal means of a pubhe nature which aim to pre- vent disease. Specify such measures as apply to individual citizens. As far as you have observed, are these laws enforced? Can you do anything about it yourself ? What does the national government undertake to do in order to prevent the sale of unfit food products ? Mention certain activities of state governments in the same direction. What items of food regulation are usually left to local governments? Mention any instances that you know about. Explain the necessity for public water supply in large com- munities. From what sources do some of the large cities get their supply? Why must many communities purify their water ? What is a filtration plant and of what use is it ? Is there any danger in using water from wells ? Explain the distribution of water to the people. Should all houses be metered ? What kinds of waste matter have to be drained away and why is this necessary? Explain in general the operation of a sewage system. What is done with the matter collected in the great drains or sewers? Describe the three kinds of solid waste matter. What methods 96 The Health of the Community have been employed to remove these? Which of them is used in your community ? What is done with the material collected ? Of what benefit to a family is it to own their home? Why do some people prefer to rent ? Which would you do, own or rent, if you were free to choose ? Why do slums come into existence? Do you think the fault is chiefly the owner's or the tenant's that these conditions prevail? In what way do the slums affect their inhabitants and the commu- nity at large ? How can they be abolished or prevented ? Could anything be done with the scene shown in the picture ? Show the dependence of the city upon others for its food. Where do the principal articles in our biUs of fare come from ? What is the purpose of the public market ? Do you think it helps to lower the price of food? Can you make any other suggestions to that end? SPECIAL TOPICS The Most Common Diseases of To-day. % The PubUc Health Service of Our State and Community. What Sanitation Did for the Canal Zone. The Fight against Yellow Fever. The White Plague and How to Combat It. The Hospitals of Our Community. My Experience in a Hospital. The Safety First Movement. The Water Supply of Our Community. Housing Conditions in Our Town. Our Grocery Stores and Meat Markets. The National Bureau of Chemistry. Herbert C. Hoover and the National Food Administration. CHAPTER VI THE HIGHEE LIFE OF THE OOMMUNITT Yet I doubt not through, the ages one increasing jyurpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns . — Tennyson. 54. Public Provision for Recreation and Culture. — " All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy," says the proverb. Play, if it means rest, recreation, and enjoyment that make Carnegie Museum, Music Hall, and Library, Pittsburgh. it easier for one to work hard afterward, is coming to be regarded more and more as desirable for both young and old. But where are people going to play? A private house and yard, even the mansion and wide surroundings of a mil- lionaire, cannot accommodate all the people of a large com- mimity. The cormnunity must do it, if it is to be done. 97 98 The Higher Life of the Community The city which tries to give these extra pleasures and bene- fits to its people is the one where the citizens are most likely to be happy, healthy, and orderly. And so, besides the parks, playgrounds, and libraries, many cities maintain museiuns and art galleries, furnish free band concerts and even open pubhc dance haUs, properly chaper- oned, for people to broaden their minds or have " a good time." Sometimes a wealthy man wQl by some mu- nificent gift play Santa Glaus for the town where he was born or where he made his money. John D. Spreckels did this for San Diego, in present- ing the city with a won- derful organ for use in giving open air concerts. Andrew Carnegie put millions of dollars into a marvelous musemn, music hall, and library for Pittsburgh. Some critic will say that he had better have paid the workmen in his mills higher wages. But since he did not, why should not the community where most of his money was made accept gladly the part of it which he is willing to restore to her? Many a well-to-do man never thinks of sharing his wealth with the city which helped him make it. Is not a com- munity both unwise and ungracious which rejects the wealth which it can use to the good of its people? Open Air Organ, San Diego, California. This was constructed in time for the San Diego Exposition of 1915-16, but has been permanently given to the city. Parks 99 What does "recreation" really mean? What advantages does your community offer for recreation for men, for women, and for children? Are country or city people better off in this respect? 55. Parks. — Parks are the most common form of pro- vision which communities make for public recreation. Here one may get into the open air and rest, and get as near to nature as is possible in a large city. Flower-beds, bushes, and trees help to make the place inviting in appearance and spread a quiet, uplifting influence toward beauty and the Scene in Garfield Park, Chicago. higher things. The greenhouses and conservatories which many parks possess are educational as well as interesting, and the " zoo " is an endless source of enjoyment and in- struction to old folks as well as young. Boston Conmion and the PubUc Garden form perhaps the oldest public park in the country. Central Park in New York, Fairmount Park in Philadelphia, Lincoln Park in Chicago with its wonderful collection of animals, Golden Gate Park in San Francisco, are known all over the nation. Many other cities have beautiful parks which are no doubt equally deserving of mention. 100 The Higher Life of the Community The question is sometimes raised : Should a city have one or two large parks or several small ones? By all odds the small ones, if it cannot have both. For the poor man with a good-sized family cannot afford to take them all on the street cars Sunday afternoon or any other time to get to a park, and he is the one who most needs it. But if the city can afford at least one fine large park, besides the smaller ones, it will be still better, for it cannot be expected to fur- ViEw IN THE Public Garden, Boston. nish every little breathing space with all the beautiful and attractive equipment which can be readily supplied in the large park. Should the main idea in a park be use or beauty ? Should every- body be obliged to "keep off the grass" ? 56. Playgrounds. — Probably nothing has done more to improve the life of the poorer districts of a community than the opening of public playgrounds. Here are swings, sand- piles, and other things which deUght the children, and in- structors who watch over their play and show them new Playgrounds 101 games. If the playgroimd is at all large, it will have one or more baseball diamonds for the boys and men, and basket ball courts and tennis courts which the girls and women also may use. There should be a field house with baths, lockers, a gym- nasium floor, and opportunity for indoor athletics of all kinds. In some cities there are swimming pools, indoor or outdoor or both, or if the city is at the seaside or lakeside it may maintain public bathing, beaches in connection with a playground. Sometimes classes are held which give instruc- A Playground is Needed in this Neighborhood. tion in subjects of special interest to women or children, such as sewing, basketwork, and the like. It is very evident that to secure the best results from the playgroimds they must be closely and carefully supervised. If all the loafers and rowdies of a neighborhood collect around the playground and make it unpleasant for quiet and orderly people to go there, one may question whether the com- mimity is much better off for having the grounds, even though the children are safe from the wagons and cars of the streets. But with proper supervision the playgrounds will minister 102 The Higher Life of the Community wonderfully to the health, happiness, and decent living of children and older people alike. If they are so situated as to be within easy reach of those who most need them, and especially if they are operated, as in many places they now are, in connection with the public schools, they can help to develop in a very high degree the physical, intellectual, and moral interests of the community. 57. Libraries. — Very few families can afford all the books, magazines, or newspapers which at some time or Library, Middlebury, Vermont. A type of library building that is becoming common in moderate-sized communities of the better class. other they want to use. Now that our schools have done so much toward arousing in our people an interest and pleasure in reading, it is clear that the community must choose between providing the means of meeting this desire of the people or letting it go almost wholly ungratified. Every progressive community of as many as a few thousand people now has a pubUc Hbrary, from which any citizen may draw books for home use and where he may go to study, amuse himself, or merely pass away the time. The great majority of these libraries are maintained by public taxa- Libraries 103 tion, and in many cases building and all are paid for by the community. Wealthy citizens have often adopted the idea of giving a town a hbrary building when they wished to do something for it. Town after town in the United States owes to Andrew Carnegie the existence of its pubhc library to-day. It has been his rule to insist that a town which received a library building from him must agree to contribute each year a cer- Pageant Scene, Medford, Massachusetts. It is becoming common to celebrate anniversary dates in local history by pageants that symbolize or illustrate notable movements and characters. tain sum to keep it in good running order. No doubt this requirement has made many a community help to educate itself when it otherwise would have neglected this duty on the plea of expense. In a number of states the state government has under- taken the support of a hbrary system, particularly for the benefit of the rural districts. Traveling libraries, as they are called, are sent from place to place, remaining in one community a while and then being exchanged for another 104 The Higher Life of the Community set of books which a different community has been using. There is no question of the great service rendered to the people in this way. In both city and country Ubraries have discovered that one of the most effective fields which they can cultivate is the public school. The library may send out assortments of books which the school will keep for some time, and use in connection with its class work. It encourages children to come to the library to read and to use its reference books. For the younger ones it may hold a story hour, when some one gifted in talking to children will tell them the great fables of literature, stories about famous men and women of history, or other things which they like to hear which are at the same time helpful in some way. Get a child started on the right path in his reading, and you have done much toward making him a thoughtful and valuable citizen. Is there any difference between the object of the library and of the school? If so, what is it? How many books are in your local library? Of what kinds are they? Are you familiar with the exhibits in your museums, art galleries, and the hke? What have they to offer that wiU benefit you in school work or general culture? 58. Religion. — It is one of the most cherished principles of American government that the State should in no way whatever force a man to accept any particular creed or sup- port any particular church or interfere in any way with his religious behefs. This doctrine was almost revolutionary when Roger Williams first proclaimed it in the old Massa- chusetts Bay Colony. They exiled him for it, and thus gave Rhode Island the opportunity and glory of establish- ing that principle in the world. But now our National Constitution declares that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or the free exercise thereof," and every state adheres to the same doctrine and practice. Religion 10.5 In what countries does the government still help to support any church? Is free worship permitted to other churches ? On this account it is difficult for a community to do any- thing directly to assist religious institutions. Nevertheless we must recognize the great importance of churches, Sunday schools, Y. M. C. A.'s, and the like in the higher life of any community. Entirely apart from their distinctly " spiritual" or theological teaching, they contribute wonderfully toward Mormon Temple and Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, Utah. making any community clean, wholesome, orderly, and happy. Most states recognize the value of religious insti- tutions by exempting from taxation any property owned by them. There are people who say that this custom violates the principle of complete separation of Church and State, but if all churches are treated alike it is hard to see where any harm is done. The number of different denominations is large. The Homan Catholics, with about 15,000,000 adherents, are more ■numerous than any one Protestant body, but the total mem- 106 The Higher Life of the Community bership of Protestant churches in this country is about 30,- 000,000. Methodists are the most numerous and Baptists second. In New England the CongregationaUsts rank first, in New Jersey and Pennsylvania the Presbyterians. Epis- copalians, Disciples of Christ, and Lutherans have also a numerous membership, but they are not centered in any par- ticular section. The public school is not the place for arguments over the relative merits of different denominations. It is sufl&cient Church, Concord, Massachusetts. for us to say that much unnecessary ill-feeling has resulted because some have not realized that others could hold different views and still be as sincere and well-meaning as themselves. It is usually the case, too, that when denominational differences are introduced into political cam- paigns, the results are very unpleasant. In time of war men of aU faiths have stood loyally by the cause of om- country. It will be well if we can have the same co- operation and mutual respect in time of peace. A number of questions that relate to religion are the cause of honest disagreement. The observance of Sunday is one Religious Instruction 107 of these. In the West most places of amusement are "wide open " on Sunday, but in the East, while most people are far less narrow in their views than formerly, there is still a strong feeling that Sunday should be observed more quietly than other days, that en- terprises carried on solely for amusement and profit should not be open, and that the attitude of the government should en- courage the use of the day for worship and rest rather than for other pur- poses. Many states have strict laws relating to the mat- ter, which were passed years ago, but few of them are enforced hter- ally. Pubhc sentiment seems to be willing to leave much discretion in the matter to the officials, and whether the Sunday laws are enforced at all or not depends on the controUing sentiment of each com- munity. 59. Religious Instruction. — Another topic for disagree- ment is the teaching of religion or morals in the schools. Many people think that these must be taught in the schools if they are taught anywhere. A great many children do not go to any Sunday school, and many families pay little atten- tion at home to these matters. It is hard, however, to work out any code of instruction which will suit everybody. Christians and Jews, Catholics and Protestants, interpret certain portions of the Bible Cathedral. 108 The Higher Life of the Community differently, and one group is inclined to think that some particular teaching is fundamentally important which the other does not consider in the same light. The schools of Gary, Indiana, and a few elsewhere, allow a part of the regular school hours to be used by priests or ministers to give religious instruction to children connected with their own denominations. This plan, however, has not been received with sujB&cient favor to cause its general intro- duction. In some states credit is given for properly attested Bible study done outside the school. Several states have laws reqtiiring the reading of a certain number of verses of the Bible each day in school, but the courts in a few states have ruled that the Bible is a sectarian book and must therefore not be taught or read publicly in the schools. On one point almost every one will agree — that the na- tion with low religious and moral ideals is doomed to down- fall. The need of sound and strong moral instruction is clear. But whether the public schools can safely do any- thing more than this, or whether we must leave strictly religious teaching to the church and the home, is a question which should not be answered on the basis of religious partisanship. Our sole purpose should be to do that which will establish the highest ideals of hfe and conduct without denying to any citizen absolute freedom of religious belief. QUESTIONS Why should a eortununity pay taxes to enable people to play or rest? What do you think of the -wisdom of a community's accept- ing gifts from private citizens ? For what purpose do we have parks? Mention some notahle parks. Should they be large or small, and where should they be located? Describe a well-conducted playground. Of what service may it be? What does the pubhc Ubrary do for the community ? What are "Carnegie" libraries? traveling libraries? What effect do reUgious organizations have upon a community? Special Topics 109 What is the policy of our governments toward individual religious beliefs and toward religious organizations? Is iU feeling among religious denominations necessary? What are the main facts in regard to the observance of Sunday? Should religion and morals be taught in the public schools ? State the main arguments for and against the proposition. What are the laws or customs in your state or community in regard to Bible reading in the schools ? SPECIAL TOPICS A Visit to Park. Andrew Carnegie and His Benefactions. The Rockefeller Foundation and Its Work. What Our Community is Doing for the Physical, Mental, and Moral Uphft of Its People. The Churches of . What My Church Believes In. (It would be enlightening to have each member of the class write on this subject and to have the best statement for each denomination read by the teacher without giving the name of the author. This topic should be omitted, however, if the teacher thinks it would lead to unpleasant argument, or if state laws forbid the discussion of religious doctrine.) CHAPTER VII THE PEOTEOTION OP THE COMMUNITY The greatest good can he done hy preventing the commission of unlawful acts. — Fred L. Kohler. 60. Fire Losses. — No other civilized country bums up so much valuable property as the United States does. Some- body has figured out that if all the buildings burned in a year in this coimtry were lined up side by side, they would fill both sides of a street 1000 miles long, or as far as from New York to Chicago. The property destroyed in a year in this country is worth more than $225,000,000. Add to that nearly 2000 lives lost, many thousands of people thrown out of work, and the indirect losses and expenses caused by ruining homes or interrupting industries, and we get a total impression which is, to say the least, frightful. The worst part of it is that most of this loss and suffering is pathetically unnecessary. Europe does not suffer such losses. The per capita loss in her large cities is anywhere from one half down to one fifth of ours, although we have probably the most efficient fire departments that the world has ever known. What is the cause of all these fires? Carelessness, criminal carelessness, in more than three quarters of the cases. John Smith scratched a match and failed to be sure that it had gone out when he threw it down. Alec Smart threw away a cigarette butt without looking to see whether it was still burning or where he threw it. Bridget lighted the kitchen 110 Fire Fighting 111 fire with kerosene. Mary washed her gloves in gasoline in the neighborhood of an open fire. Little Johnny and Sarah were playing with matches. Uncle John had a bonfire in the garden and did not bother to make sure that it was out when he left it. So we might go on for another page. Some fires are deliberately set. Such an act is almost inhuman, but fires started by carelessness do just as much damage. Fires that are unavoidable, such as those caused by lightning, do not cause more than one dollar's damage in every seventy dollars lost. Find out about some of the great fires of history — particularly how they started. 61. Fire Fighting. — There is good reason, then, why the fire departments of the United States are the best in the world. They have to be ! One who is heartless enough to forget the loss and suf- fering caused by a fire will be tempted to laugh when he reads of the frantic but almost hope- less efforts to put out fires before the modern fire engine came into use. The "bucket brigade," which passed pails and tubs from hand to hand from a river or well to the fire, represented a community's sympathy and struggle against misfortune, but often not much more. The pump on wheels which was dragged to the scene of the fire one hundred and twenty-five years ago could get a little more force apphed to the water, but if no well was handy, it was useless. The vol- unteer fire company, who assembled as soon as they could after an alarm was given, and drew the engine to the fire by hand with the help of long ropes, was a decided improve- FiRE Engine. 112 The Protection of the Community ment; but no large city to-day would care to trust itself to them. We must have regular companies always on duty, officered and organized to work with military efficiency. We have our engines, our hook and ladder trucks, our chemical appa- ratus which, if the fire has not too much of a start, can put it out without causing the dam- age that comes from hurling thousands of gal- lons of water. The largest cities also have their water-towers and fire-boats to use in get- ting at a fire which has got started in an awk- ward place to reach. Electric or gasoUne power is generally displacing the horses. The number of engine- houses and firemen needed by a city depends somewhat on the ground which they have to cover. A hilly city, like Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, or San Francisco, needs more than a level city. When we see the firemen sitting around in the engine-house playing cards or looking at the scenery, we may wonder why we pay taxes to get men to do that. But when we realize that within ten minutes these same men may be risking their lives to save others and that their skill and courage may keep a whole city from destruction, we are willing to admit that perhaps we should want more pay than they get if we had to take their places. Engine House. Fire Prevention 113 Many cities have a pension system which enables a fire- man to retire from active service on reduced pay after a cer- tain number of years. Special training-schools for firemen are frequently provided, so that they may be fully instructed in everything that relates to their work. 62. Fire Prevention. — Big fires still occur, for sometimes a blaze has gone so far before it is discovered that the best A Dangerous Fire Hazard. At Revere Beach, Massachusetts. A fire started anywhere in this row would probably sweep away the whole of it. that can be done is to limit it to the building where it broke out. The proper way, after all, to fight fires is to see that they do not get started. This may be done in two ways : by constructing buildings so as to make them less risky, and by urging people to be careful and showing them how their carelessness may cause a fire. Most of the large cities now establish " fire limits," within which they do not allow any large wooden buildings to be erected. Theaters must have asbestos curtains, to shut off 114 The Protection of the Community the auditorium from the stage and the rest of the building. Automatic sprinklers are installed in many business places. Stairways and air shafts must be of fireproof material, as far as possible. To protect the lives of people in public buildings, the aisles must always be kept open, doors must open outward, and there must be plenty of fire escapes, all plainly marked. Many of these require- ments must be observed in the construc- tion of tenements. Schools must have fire drills, so that every one in the build- ing may get out in the quickest and most orderly fashion possible. Fires in homes can almost entirely be prevented by the most ordinary kind of care. The lists of "Don'ts" which are issued by fire officials from time to time are so simple that they seem almost silly, but most house fires are caused by disregard of these simple rules. Fire- places or gas stoves unprotected by some kind of screen are responsible for many fires and deaths, especially of children. The handling of explosives or matches is to blame for many more. Electric wir- ing if done by some one who does not know his business is dangerous. Putting hot ashes in . wooden boxes or piling up wood or paper near a stove or furnace is a frequent cause of fire. Common sense would tell us not to do these and many other reckless things, but many of us do not use it as often as we ought. One reason why fires are not so common in European cities is that the governments pay more attention to the inspec- tion of private houses and business places than we do, and that they enforce strictly the rules which they lay down. Here we have almost no inspection of private houses, for Fire-alarm Box. " Break the glass, open the door, and pull down the hook." The other side of this post holds a police telegraph box. Just behind these is seen a mail box. The Work of the Police 115 Americans think that this is inquisitive meddling into private affairs and they resent it. A little miprejudiced thinking will show that this is wrong, and that we need more " meddling " rather than less. Some cities do have bureaus of building inspection which make factory owners and proprietors of tenement houses comply with the laws. Three fourths of the states also have fire marshals, who may make regulations for fire prevention and go into any building to inspect it and see that the regu- lations are obeyed. They also investigate the causes of fires that have occurred. What would you do if a Are started where you were ? 63. Fire Insurance. — From two thirds to three fourths of the fire loss in the United States is covered by insurance. Considerably over $50,000,000,000 of fire insurance is in force in this coimtry. It comes in very handily if one suffers from a fire, but after all it is a kind of waste, even though necessary. It is simply a means of distributing one man's loss among many, so that no one will feel it very heavily. If there were no fires, all the money paid for premiums on insiu'ance could be saved, and these amount to about double the payments for fire losses. 64. The Work of the Police. — Probably the first thought that enters our heads if we are asked the duties of the police- man is that he arrests lawbreakers. True, that is one of his valuable services. He may arrest a person whom he sees committing a crime, or whom he finds acting in a sus- picious manner, or for whose arrest a warrant has been issued. But another important reason for having policemen is. to prevent crime. The very fact that there are policemen causes people who are tempted to break the law to refrain from doing so. Sometimes a word or act from a policeman may keep a person out of mischief, may quiet an unruly mob, or may induce a man to do right instead of wrong. Still another large function of the policeman is to give 116 The Protection of the Community advice and assistance to people. The " traffic cop " stands where two or more busy streets intersect, helps ladies get across in safety, and directs the movement of automobiles and street cars so as to keep them from hopeless confusion. The little girl who has strayed away from her mother and does not know the way home can go confidently and ask the policeman to direct her. Strangers who want to know how to get to the Palace Hotel or any other place expect the Cornerman on Duty. A much busier traffic man is seen on page 59. policeman to be able to tell them — in fact he is the one person in a strange city in whom a visitor has a right to put absolute confidence. Keeping the streets clear so that parades may pass, preventing disorder at public meetings, warning people who do not clean the snow from their side- walks — these are a few of the thousand and three things which a policeman has to do. In European cities, notably in Germany, they keep watch of a person's movements with a strictness that seems to most Management in the United States 117 Americans unendurable. But at least it must be said that it is not easy for a criminal to get away from the German or French police authorities. If they could only get the same results without treating an honest man like a possible criminal too, it would be fine. Maybe the ideal is a compromise between European strictness and American laxity. Do police officials in your neighborhood enjoy the respect of the citizens? 65. European Systems of Management. — Two features in particular distinguish European police management from American. (1) The control of the police is in the hands of the central government. Sometimes a Minister of Police is in the national cabinet. This arrangement makes it possible to police an entire nation with a thoroughness which is out of the question in this country. (2) The miUtary element in their work is very noticeable. The high authorities are likely to be army officers, and every policeman on the con- tinent has spent not less than two or three years in compul- sory military service. They have been taught that orders are given to be obeyed and that laws which are made are to be enforced. The result of all this is a strictness of law en- forcement, an unyielding discipline, and a fear of authority which are wholly lacking among us. 66. Management in the United States. — In this country we usually allow each conmiimity to organize and manage its police force. We expect each local government to pay the cost of its own police protection. There is almost no imiformity between one city and another. Generally some one called the chief .of police or superintendent of police is at their head, and below him are captains, Ueutenants, ser- geants, and the like. The patrolmen constitute the great body of the force. They have a specially assigned " beat " to go over within a certain time, except when they have to go out of their regular way to arrest a person or attend to some other unusual work. 118 The Protection of the Community A first-class policeman needs to possess firmness, good judgment, and ability to move quickly when occasion re- quires. In large cities a system of civil service examinations requiring both mental and physical tests is required for both policemen and firemen. Where these tests are really applied, the policemen are a vigorous, athletic, intelligent group of men, not at all like the incompetent fellows who get on the force in cities where bad politics or other evil influence holds sway. Many cities have a pension system for policemen as well as for firemen. The detective force or " plain clothes men " have the special duty of getting evidence in cases where it is not wise to deal too openly, and keeping particular guard to protect the public from pickpockets, forgers, and other criminals who are uncommonly tricky or skillful. Some of these men the detectives know by sight and if one is found in a city he may be warned to get out before he has any chance to rob or cheat anybody. Some cities have recently appointed policewomen to positions on the force. In a few states, the state government exercises a direct oversight over the police of its largest cities. This is done on the theory that what happens in the big city concerns the rest of the state so much that it should not be free to do wholly as it pleases, particularly in enforcing some laws. If the big city is controlled by a different political party from the rest of the state, another less creditable reason for state control appears. Do you think you could be a good policeman? 67. Police Corruption. — We have to admit that there are times when the poUce, instead of impartially suppressing all crime which they know of, wilfully ignore or even en- courage it. The saloon-keeper who wants to sell on Sunday, the grocer who hkes to cover half the sidewalk with a dis- play of his goods, the man who owns a house where gambling and other vile practices are carried on, are very willing to Police Corruption 119 pay the policeman good money not to see the forbidden things which they want to do. If these lawbreakers are coimected with a dishonest political ring, they have an in- fluence which a policeman would probably not dare to defy. One of the distressing things about the whole business is that sometimes when a poUceman is personally honest and wants to do his duty, he finds that it is of no use to arrest Sidewalk Marketing. Scenes like this can be observed in almost any large city. Goods are exposed to handling and to all kinds of dirt. Traffic is impeded on the sidewalk and in the street. certain people. If they are taken to court they are never punished, because some one " higher up " in the police de- partment or in politics may himself be getting a secret, dis- honorable profit out of this very lawbreaking. So many secret trails and by-paths can be followed by the forces of evil in a large city that the mass of the people never know how or why things are done. 120 The Protection of the Community The only remedy for this bad situation is to see to it that we have men in the highest city offices who are strong and wise. The great majority of the men in the ranks are honest or will be honest if they have the proper encouragement from their superiors. After all, conditions are almost every- where better than they once were. 68. Emergency Measures. ■ — • There are times when the local police force caimot handle a riot, a great strike with its disorder and destruction of property, or a situation grow- ing out of a great fire or flood. In such a case the governor of the state may be asked to send the state mihtia or national guard, or a part of it, to the scene of difficulty. Such occa- sions are rare, yet there are times when a body of men from out of town will be more respected and will feel more like maintaining order than the local officers. A few states, suoli as Pennsylvania, have a special state police force, called the "state constabulary," who are directly under the authority of the state, and may be sent anywhere within its borders. Would you advocate this plan for your state? Even the President may be asked by the state legislature, if it is in session, or by the governor, to take a hand by send- ing federal troops, or may do so on his own responsibiUty if he beUeves the authority of the United States is being dis- regarded, as President Cleveland did in the Pullman strike of 1894. It is seldom necessary to keep the state troops or federal troops on duty more than a week or two. If they are needed beyond that period, it is evident that some condi- tion is utterly wrong in the life of the neighborhood and that a reform of some kind is needed rather than the endless show of force. QUESTIONS Compare American flre losses with those of other countries. Why do we have so many fires ? Compare old and new methods of fighting fires. Give an account of the firemen and their work to-day. Special Topics 121 State the principal regulations that aim to, prevent the loss of property and Ufa if a fire gets started. Make out a hst of " Don'ts " that may help to prevent fires. Discuss government inspection as a means of preventing fires. Do you beUeve in fire insurance? How much is carried in this country to-day ? Make a list of the things which a pohceman on an ordinary beat may have to do. What other special services are required of the police ? Compare European police management with that of the United States. What titles are given to officers in our police forces? What qualifications are needed in order to serve successfully on the force ? Should the state government have anything to say about the local police? Under what circumstances might the state gov- ernment take charge of affairs in a community to keep order? Could the national government ever do anything of the Mnd ? What is meant by "pohce corruption"? Do you think it is common ? Who is to blame ? SPECIAL TOPICS Our Local Fire Department. The Great Fire of Chicago or San Francisco or (your own or a neighboring town, if it has had one) . What to Do and What Not to Do when a Fire Breaks Out. Our Local Police. CHAPTER VIII TEAINING THE YOUNG CITIZEN It was in making education not only common to all but in some sense compulsory on all, that the destiny of the free republics of Am,erica was practically settled.— Lowell. 69. Reasons for Public Schools. — There is no sense in giving a man or woman the ballot who does not know enough to have an intelligent opinion about the questions with which the government has to deal. A nation which believes in democracy as much as we do ought to have every citizen as thoroughly educated as his own abihties will permit. Since some parents do not take enough interest in their children's progress to make them go to school, the state has to compel them to do so. It would not be possible, either, for the state to leave education entirely to the churches. Some denominations think that schools ought to be part of the work of the church, but in most communities those of particular beliefs are not numerous or wealthy enough to conduct their own schools. On the whole, then, it seems best to leave to the state the important matter of training the future citizen. Many families, too, can not afford to pay to send their children to any kind of private schools, and so the state must train them if they are to receive any education at all. For the fitting of the children themselves to take up their work in life honestly and inteUigently, and for its own pro- tection from ignorance and lawlessness and incompetency, the state must educate its children. 122 Education in Other Countries 123 Some one may ask : Why should those who have no chil- dren in the schools pay toward the cost of running them? The answer is : Everybody benefits directly or indirectly by it. The great majority of all our people do attend the pubhc schools. Over 23,000,000 of them attended in 1916 alone. The life, property, and general welfare of every citizen are safer if all the people are educated, and every one is indirectly benefited thereby. And certainly there is just as much reason for a man to refuse to pay taxes to be spent for keeping up any street except those which he uses, as to be unwiUing to support the schools to which all the chil- dren of all the people may go. Does the furnisMng of free public education by tbe state create any obligation on the part of pubhc school pupils ? 70. Education in Other Countries. — Other great nations follow different hnes in managing their schools from those which we pursue. In many of them, even England, the established chiirch either controls the schools or is helped to maintain its own schools out of the national treasury. England is like the United States in not having a thoroughly organized national school system. The great boys' schools and the colleges are not connected in any direct way with the " board " schools, or what we should call the public schools.^ France and Prussia are the great models for centrally con- trolled and definitely arranged national organization of the schools. In France a minister of public instruction is a member of the national cabinet. The system there in vogue provides distinctly laid-out courses of instruction all the way from the kindergarten to the universities. Only about seven years are compulsory, however. Probably the German schools have been more widely ad- vertised than any others because of the thoroughness with 1 In England the name " public school " is applied only to expensive, en- dowed schools like Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Winchester, and a few others. 124 Training the Young Citizen which everything German was supposed to be done. Their system had some features which we should not want to adopt in this country. Right at the very start, ahnost, a distinction was made between the schools which lead to the universities and those intended for the working people, so that a class distinction was marked most of the way. The schools were not free as they are here, and the training offered for girls has been much less complete than that for boys. A New England Academy. This institution, as well as numerous others, has been forced to close its doors as a result of high school competition. 71. Difference and Likeness in the States' School Sys- tems. — Our American schools grew instead of being planned. Each state has worked out its own system of management and organization, and no two are alike. At first the public schools, for example, did not go beyond what we often call " the grades." Academies were left for churches or private enterprise and generosity to establish, and col- leges were wholly outside the thought of the public schools. It was not until after the middle of the nineteenth century that there were many high schools supported by pubhc money. But the twentieth century has witnessed a most wonderful expansion of high school work. The West has State School Systems 125 followed rather consistently a system of free instruction all the way from the primary school to the state tmiversity. In every state there is a Superintendent of PubUc Instruc- tion, though not always called by just that title, and usually a State Board of Education, composed of a small number of men interested in the public schools. In about two thirds of the states the Superintendent is elected by popular vote. In the others he is appointed by the governor or State Board. High School and Stadium, Tacoma, Washington. The powers of the State Superintendent and Board vary greatly. In some states they do not do much except re- ceive reports and make reconmiendations. In others they exercise a very close supervision over the schools of the whole state. In New York the Board of Regents arranges for imiform examinations to be given throughout the entire state. In some states the same textbook is adopted for use in every school, but in others each school district or township is allowed to select its own. Some states do not furnish free textbooks, except to poor children. Should free textbooks be furnished in all pubUe schools ? Is it best for all schools in a state to use the same books? 126 Training the Young Citizen A Country Schoolhouse. For the management of the schools the common plan formerly was to let each Uttle community form a school district and handle its own affairs. This system began in New England with the very start of the common schools, back in the old days when there were no pubhc schools anywhere else. The dis- tricts naturally had very different kinds of schools. One might be rich and be willing to pay for good teachers and pleasant buildings, while the next one might choose its teachers be- cause they were related to the school board, and might have very Httle money to spend. But in most of New England and ia many other states, the township or city now forms a school district. All the schoolhouses in the district are under the same management. Often central schools are maintained to which the pupils are brought from all parts of the township. Better teachers and finer equip- ments can be supplied to all in this way. In many southern states the schools, like everything else, are administered by counties. Either the comity as a whole is considered a school district or else it is subdivided into districts. Try to flnd figures about the attendance in public scbools as compared with, private schools. How many colleges are there in the country? Name ten of special note. To what extent do women go to college in comparison with men? Do you advise every one to go? 72. School Administration. — In each school district there is a board of directors or trustees, who are responsible School Administration 127 before the law for the conduct of school affairs in their dis- trict. If the district is large or moderately large, they are likely to elect a superintendent and intrust the active manage- ment of the schools to him. In each county there is a coimty superintendent, who in many states is elected by popular vote. The most important part of the whole school system is the teacher. With a good teacher a good school can be tii«ifeaaBaBBig-.;^s^^ 4f ifS^^SSKBm ; "' f'fl 9k Ji^'l ifefe^ p ^^■'^wl 'K^~*P^ ■ ^ "-^' OT ^^ r 1 Jii 1 v^B ,..B!^M ^T'' " '4'"' ^ .^^H rm ■£^a^i^ T'^f^E'ly i;^rii|;«4 1 Kflfe'^HH^IflN H Courtesy of National Child Labor Commiuee Union School in Rural Kentucky. This building represents the much needed work now going on for the improvement of conditions in southern country life. held in a barn, but the most expensive building will be the same as money thrown away if its rooms are not in charge of teachers who know what they are supposed to teach, know how to teach it, and take a real interest in the progress of the boys and girls who come imder their care. Most states now have normal schools for the training of teachers and require most of their high school teachers to be college graduates. Every teacher must have a certifi- cate, which will be graded in accordance with the teacher's education and experience. Pohtics and family connections 128 Training the Young Citizen should not have anything to do with the choice of a teacher, and a teacher who does good work ought to feel sure of holding his position indefinitely. Work out a diagram showing the plan of management of your own school system. 73. School Attendance. — Most of the states require that schools shall be open from seven to nine months in the Southwestern State Normal School, California, Pennsylvania. year. Some of the best schools have a ten months' term. In the South the school term has been shorter than in other sections of the country, but great improvement is appearing there as well as everywhere else. Are our school days and school terms long enough? Almost every state requires children to attend for six or eight years — from 7 to 15 or 8 to 16 years of age, for ex- ample. Laws against employment of children in mills and factories before they are 14 years old have been passed by several states, and in some, if a child leaves school before School Revenues 129 he is 16, he must attend a " continuation school " until he reaches that age. One of the problems of the school has been to keep the children there long enough for them to get an education that would amount to something. Always there are pupils who want to get to work at the earliest possible minute. Many times the parents are as much to blame as the children, for the family income may be small or the parents too lazy to do all. they can to give their children a good start in hfe. With the improvements that have been made lately in A California Grammar School, Calexico, California. school buildings and in the courses of study, the school offers something for everybody. No one ought to feel that he has all the school can give him until he has at least had the benefit of a full high school course. Can you find haw large a percentage of all pupils get into the high school and how many graduate from it ? How many of these go on to college? Use figures from your own acquaintance as well as others. 74. School Revenues. — Most of the money needed to keep up the schools is paid by each district in the form of a local tax. This is frequently th^ largest item in the tax biU, though that fact is nothing against it. No money spent by 130 Training the Young Citizen the city or state gets more returns, even though they may be hard to measure exactly. In Massachusetts $24 out of every $25 spent on the schools comes from local taxes, and Massachusetts has excellent schools. Throughout the coun- try about three fourths of the school income is secured from the community which is served by the school. Many states appropriate considerable sums from the state treasury to help out the local schools, especially if there are rural or other needy communities which would other- wise find it hard work to keep their schools at a high stand- ard. In the central and western states it is common to find certain permanent funds definitely set aside, whose income is used to help support the schools of the state. These are usually derived from the sale of public land, either that which was set apart for the use of schools when the town- ships were first surveyed or which has been devoted to that use since. In some states various kinds of fines, fees, and the like, even dog licenses and liquor hcenses, are turned into the school fund. In the entire country somewhat over $500,000,000 a year is spent on the schools, a tremendous sum, — about a quar- ter of our bill for intoxicating liquor. How much do the schools cost in your community and state? Do the taxpayers get their money's worth? How does your state compare with others in its support of public schools ? 75. Making the Schools Useful. — How can we make the schools most useful to all the people? That question is asked more often than any other to-day by those who are interested in them. " Readin', and 'ritin', and 'rithmetic " no longer are the only subjects in the course of study, though they must always be given prominence. History and civics, music, art, science, foreign languages, commercial subjects, and others have their place, in many cases begin- ning in the early years of the course. Do we teach too many things in the schools to-day ? Making the Schools Useful 131 Lately a great deal of attention has been given to sub- jects directly useful in the routine duties of home or indus- try, such as cooking, sewing, woodwork, metal Work, and the Uke. Even though a larger percentage of the high school graduates each year go on to college, we have come to feel that the pupils who cannot go to college must be given just as good a training as those who do, for as long a time as l!*Sfc^.*1 At Work in the School Gardens. The children not only get healthful exercise, but have flowers or vegetables to repay their labor. they are in the schools. Colleges are becoming more liberal, too, and many of them are now willing to take a high school graduate who has made a good record in any course which the high school has offered. Night schools for the benefit of those over sixteen who have to work in the daytime are common in every large city, and a special appeal is made to foreigners to take advantage of these schools in order to learn English and otherwise qualify themselves to be American citizens. 132 Training the Young Citizen Of what benefit is your school work to you ? Can you judge the value of a course in school by the money you earn afterward? What changes in your course of study have been made in the last few years? Do you recommend any others? 76. School Buildings. — The new school buildings, as they are erected by old and new communities aUke, are made as substantial and attractive as possible. Fireproof, well ventilated, well lighted, with homehke rooms, the modern schoolhouse is often the finest building in the com- munity. It is possible to be extravagant in putting up school Corridor of the High School, El Paso, Texas. buildings as well as in any other respect, and people fre- quently complain about the cost of the schools more quickly than about almost any other public expense. But in view of all the school does to make the community a better place to live in, the people ought to be willing to pay money generously for this purpose, providing it is honestly spent. The school buildings ought to be used more than they are. In the holding of public meetings, lectures, social gatherings, entertainments, educational and civic clubs, and every other kind of public assembly, the schoolhouses can be made of very great service to all citizens, old and young. New Features 133 It is wise, too, for the playgrounds of a community to be managed in connection with the schools and to be located, if possible, on the school grounds. We have learned that the right kind of play is itself part of our education, and that if we train the mind without caring for the body we are neglecting the foundation of all health and sanity. Gym- nasiiuns have a place in the ideal school building as well as book closets. Open Air School Room, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. For the benefit of children with tendencies toward tuberculosis. They keep comfortable even in cold weather. 77. New Features. '■ — New ideas are advanced every hour, we might ahnost say, for managing the schools. Most of them which have anything whatever of good in them will get a hearing and trial somewhere. Some notions advanced in connection with the school are freakish, of course, yet many ideas which every one now accepts as reasonable were once laughed at. The schools of Gary, Indiana, have been very widely 134 Training the Young Citizen advertised in late years because their superintendent, having an extraordinary chance to build a whole new school system exactly as he wanted it, introduced some unusual ideas. By having the pupils go from room to room, being in a classroom one period and in a workshop or laboratory or auditorium or on the playground the next, it is possible to handle in one building almost twice the number of pupils that can be accommodated if one set of pupils stays in one room most of the time. These schools also try particularly hard to treat each pupil as an individual instead of as merely one of a crowd. No other community needs to imitate every strange idea that has been put into practice at Gary, but the " platoon system " and the individual treatment of pupils are being employed in very many places with as great success as at Gary, even if they are not so widely known. Do teachers deserve pensions and large salaries? Do parents take enough interest in schools? What other agencies than the schools furnish opportunities for education? QUESTIONS Why do we need public schools ? Why should all taxpayers help support them ? What advantage or disadvantage is there in pubhe schools as compared with private schools? Compare European school systems with ours. Why is there considerable difference in our public schools between one state and another ? What parts of our public school system have grown most rapidly in late years? Give the main general facts about state supervision of the schools. Explain the changes in the "district" school system. How are the schools in a district managed ? Discuss the impor- tance of the teacher and the quaUflcations he ought to have. Is the teacher's work appreciated as it should be? What are some of the laws about school attendance? What is a continuation school? When and under what circumstances is it justifiable for a child to drop out of school? Who supplies the money to maintain the schools? From what sources is it derived? How much does it amount to ? Special Topics 135 What are the principal subjects taught in the schools to-day? Which of them were not taught when your father was in school ? your grandfather ? Is it justifiable to spend large sums of money on school buildings? For what purposes other than holding classes should school buUdings be used? Mention some of the new features in the arrangement of school programs. Is it wise to teach aU pupils in just the same way? Can you think of any real improvements that could be made in the schools that you know about ? SPECIAL TOPICS Schools of a Century Ago. An Eight-hour School Day. The Gary Schools. Pupil Self-Government in Schools. Thus far we have been speaking of the civic problems which must be worked out mainly by each community in accordance with its own peculiar needs. Before we go any further it will be well for us to know how the officers are chosen who manage our public affairs, and to learn a little about the special duties of the most important of them. Since so many officials are elected and public policies decided through the agency of political parties, we shall first explain their place in our activities and then describe briefly the framework of our governments, national, state, and local. We shall take them up in that order, be- cause the national government concerns every one, no matter what city or state he lives in. The national government can then serve as a pattern with which to compare the state government and to point out the differences in form or method of working. After doing this, we shall take up several problems which concern national rather than local policy, and with which the local community is not commonly so closely identified as with those which we have just been considering. PAET III THE MECHANISM OF OUR GOVERNMENT CHAPTER IX POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS Se serves his party best who serves his country best. — Rutherford B. Hayes. The people can overthrow civil evils whenever they want to, and can have a government as good as they themselves make it or as had as they suifer it to become. — Joseph W. Folic. 78. Reasons for Political Parties. — No voter has any right to excuse himself for neglecting to take part in tha nomination and election of pubKc officers on the ground that his one vote does not count for much. A margin of just one vote has elected a governor in one of our states, and for local offices close contests are common. Yet it is true that one man, unless he is exceptionally famous or influential, is not usually able to affect the opinions of very many other people by any expression of his own views. When thousands of persons who think somewhat alike combine to advocate certain principles or to support certain candidates for office, the chance for the success of their opinions or candidates is multiplied many fold. It is as true in pohtics as in business that a good organiza- tion will make money and energy count for much more than the same amount could accomplish if every individual worked by himself. A political 'party may be defined as a group of 136 Party Organization 137 persons of similar political opinions, who have organized for the purpose of making their principles the policy of the government. Of course all members of a party do not exactly agree on everything, but the very fact of dravsdng up a set of principles which shall be known as the party " platform " causes men to reason more clearly about their own views, and helps toward a better undei'standing of pubhc questions. The party helps at least to bring out the great issues of the day, if there are any. The existence of more than one party is sometimes beneficial, too, in causing the persons who are in office to be more careful and honest than they otherwise might be, lest they should afford the party out of power too much to talk about when the next contest for office comes around. What have been some of the great issues that have divided na- tional parties ? 79. Party Organization. — If we grant that parties are useful, we must admit the necessity of party organization, for nothing will succeed if conducted in a haphazard, un- systematic way. Every great party has its national com- mittee, made up of one person from each state in the Union. Besides this, it has a state committee in every state, a county conmiittee in every coimty, city and township committees, and often even ward or precinct committees, especially in the cities. Each local committee is responsible for arousing interest in the party, getting the voters out on election day, and attending to the welfare of the party generally. These committees are usually chosen, when they are permanently organized, in the same way that the party candidates are nominated for office. Comnaittees for a particular campaign are agreed upon in some way by the leaders of the party. The party platform is drawn up at a convention of party candidates or of delegates elected specially for this conven- 138 Political Parties and Elections tion. Often one man or a very few men do all the work of preparing the platform, and the convention does nothing but go through the form of consenting. Sometimes certain " planks," or statements of opinion, which the party leaders never intend to carry out are put into a platform in the hope of catching a few extra votes. Too often, as it has been expressed, a platform is something to get in on, and not to stand on after you get in. Such an attitude is dishonorable, and voters ought to rebuke at the first opportunity a candi- date or a party that is guilty of it. 80. Dangers in Parties. — The ideal way to manage a party would be to have its affairs handled by its ablest and strongest men, who had been thoughtfully chosen for that purpose by the voters of the party. But unfortunately the men of high character who could do such work well are so active in other hnes that they cannot take time to do the work of the poUtician. Besides, the rank and file of a party do not think as carefully as they should about the motives and ability of the men who control its affairs. As a result, party " bosses " who care for nothing but their own advance- ment and profit often get the machinery of the party into their own hands. They can then put themselves into office without trouble, or, as they sometimes prefer to do, put in less known men who will do as they are told by the boss. The habit that many voters have of supporting bhndly any candidate who bears their party name is the mainstay of the power of the boss. Only as the voters learn to judge a candi- date on his own merits and to disregard party names when they mark their ballots, can we hope to force parties to select the best men for office and thus to get really good government. If there is a political boss in your state, how did he get his power? As it stands to-day, an officeholder who dares to defy party authority and act always as his conscience tells him is often punished for his uprightness by being denied any further political honors. Outrageous though such a situation is, the Nominations 139 mass of the voters are not thoughtful enough to discern and reward the official who reaUy serves the people. The use of national party names in state and local elections is another unfortimate custom which confuses the voter and makes it much harder to obtain the right type of men for local offices. Happily we have seen in the last few years a much greater spirit of independence than formerly prevailed. Voting a " spHt" ticket — that is, voting for a Hst of candidates for different offices who do not all belong to the same party — has become reasonably common. But we have still long to go before we reach the time when a candidate is judged on what he has done, what he beheves, and what he can do, rather than by the party tag which has been attached to him by a group of pohticians. What seem to you to be the principal policies advocated by the political parties of to-day? Is there any advantage in having a governor of the same party as the majority of the legislature? How do the parties rank in your state ? Is there any special reason for this? 81. Nominations. — For a great many years the most common way of selecting a party's candidates for office was by a caucus or convention. The term caucus may be applied to almost any kind of meeting of the members of one party within a limited district. It may include those in a certain precinct, in a state legislature, or in Congress. A convention is usually an assembly of persons who have been elected bj' caucuses or by other means to meet for some definite pur- pose. We stUl use the convention method for nominating a presidential candidate, and it is not easy to see how we can get rid of it entirely. But the opinion has become some- what general, and not without reason, that a caucus or con- vention, on account of the small number of its members, is too easily handled by political schemers and " wire-pullers." In order to give the mass of the voters in a party a fair chance to say something about its nominations, a different plan, known as the direct 'primary, has now been adopted 140 Political Parties and Elections by amajority of the states and will doubtless spread to the rest. A few weeks or months before a regular election, a primary election is held, which is conducted by the same officers and in about the same way as the regular election. Persons who wish to be the candidates of a certain party for office are required to present a petition signed by a certain number of voters, and a party ballot is prepared for each Democratic Primeury Ballot 1 eth District, 1 1th Ward, City of Pittaburgh COUNTY OF ALLEGHENY, STATE OP PENMSYLVUflA Primary held on the 21at day of September, 1018 (Vm. t. Q«,| |i.l™i k h.^ xb H-.,4. Mi^^b U.ll.im [- Hint, UML.nitxin llo>i>..(h 1 Clerk of CourU (Vf 1" o-.> Tluinu BniDi) Cnb Wild, Pinitmiih J.iKl 1-. Flpm Hrll.iK Bar.»(b 1 County Tmiurer (V„, („ Oi) AiWpk Gdlii jtK W.rd PiiiMiu'th WOta t- Hifibtr Wilmtnlirvi Bormiih R. ]. Hi>4t Ofncrr Bsrouih CoiHir CoDtrollar Wirnf P.ul.n . . . , 171I1 IViri. Pni>l»r[h 1 ™^^ ,.rf H.n] lh,..l,«Tl, Jimci HoiiUhca JI.D..I. B"i«ih jAhn.l Uin.h IJ W.M. r"l-l~'«l' J»l,„r .lrll„l,„l N,^l.H,™Tr*„J,^ John T M-hi.loa. . >llli IViid Pll<>1~r(t. RegUter of Willi and Ex-Officio Clerk of the Orphan.' Court n..d n DLukii^ . -Oji.™.! Hkwiii. 1 {V« to o«j h fi rwr.n. [>Bq™~ B»M»it. H10.U1 S Ji>r«.. IVIS WinL PHlibmib 1 In*p«ctor of Election A hRiMARY Ballot. party. This contains the names of all would-be candidates for that party. When the voter arrives, he is given the ballot for the party to which he is supposed to belong, and is allowed to mark his preference for each office. It cannot be truthfully claimed that all the improvement has come from this method which was hoped for, but at least if the mass of the voters in a party do not get the kind of nominations which they wish, it is nobody's fault but their own. The direct primary is certainly an important step toward government by the people. The Campaign 141 It is still possible for a person to get his name on the ballot as a candidate in most states, even after the primaries. This is done by securing the signatures of a certain number of voters on a petition or " nomination paper " and entering the contest under some new distinguishing party title. Usually one or two per cent of the total vote of a state at the last election is required to secure the placing of a party name on the official ballot for the next election. Persons who have to get their names on the baUot in this way are under a decided handicap in running against the candidates of organized political parties, but they sometimes succeed. 82. The Campaign. — When the leading parties have adopted their platforms and made their nominations, the race is fairly on. The candidates and other " spell-binders " address pubHc meetings or " rallies." Advertisements, news items, and editorials appear in newspapers and magazines urging the people to vote one way or another. It used to be the custom more than now to hold big parades and burn a great deal of red fire and otherwise get the pubHc excited over a party or a candidate, as in the famous " Log Cabin and Hard Cider " campaign of 1840. But with the spread of general intelligence it has become more common to use methods more suitable to educated men, though many of the arguments put forth in a political contest would sound foolish if employed in any other serious business. In every national election and in the majority of state elections, the outcome is determined by the way the inde- pendent vote is cast. The particular appeal is therefore made to those voters who do some thinking for themselves, and the " regular," who would vote for a gray mule on his own party ticket, is simply urged to come to the poUs on election day. Most of the methods used by poHtical parties are honest and honorable, but when the well-wishers of a party con- tribute generously to fill its treasury, the temptation is sometimes strong to use the party funds in ways that are 142 Political Parties and Elections questionable or downright dishonest. Large corporations formerly gave liberally to campaign funds in the hope that the party which received their gifts would allow no laws to pass which would hurt the corporations. To prevent the dishonest use of money, not only have states passed laws providing heavy penalties for bribery, but there are both state and national acts requiring the pubUcation of the names of contributors to campaign funds, and forbidding a party to accept gifts from corporations. Candidates for office must also file statements showing their own receipts and expenditures. What, in your opinion, are proper and improper uses of money in campaigns? Who contributes this money and why? Would conditions be improved if campaign expenses were paid out of the state or national treasury ? Who should be punished, the man who gives a bribe or who accepts one, or both? 83. Elections. — Presidential elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday of November in leap years. Every state except Maine chooses its state officers and members of Congress on that same day of the year, when- ever such officers are to be chosen. In many states elections for city, county, or other local officers are held separately from state and national elections, either in the spring or in December, or in alternate years. Such an arrangement helps to reheve the evil of mixing state and national pohtics. There is no general rule governing the time of holding primary elections. Each state settles that for itself. Communities containing more than a few voters are generally divided into precincts or election districts. In each district there is usually a judge, with two or more inspectors and ballot clerks, chosen by the voters of the dis- trict and representing more than one party. The whole American election system really depends upon the honesty of these small election boards, for if they are too ignorant or corrupt to count the ballots correctly, there is not much use in holding an election at all. Each party may have Elections 143 " watchers " at the polls, who can " challenge " persons whom they suspect of not being entitled to vote and can require them to prove their right. It is pleasant to be able to say that " stuffing the ballot box " and other forms of cheating at elections are now, taking the coimtry as a whole, exceptional instances, and are no longer excused on the groimd that anything goes in politics Copyright, Underwood & Underwood President Wilson Casting His. Ballot. Princeton, N. J. as long as our side wins. We should not feel, on the other hand, that all political workers can be trusted without watch- ing. There are still dishonest men and men who cannot resist temptation. The polls are open practically all of election day, although the exact hours vary in different states. Sunrise to simset, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., 7 A.M. to 7 P.M., are examples. Imme- diately after the polls close, the election officers begin to count the votes. If the ballot contains the names of many 144 Political Parties and Elections candidates, constitutional amendments to be voted on, and the like, the work is long and tiresome. After finishing the count, the officials send or take the returns to the county or state officer as required by law for the purpose of tabulating and officially announcing them. Usually the result of a presidential or other im- portant election is known on election night through esti- mates based on the early returns gathered by newspapers, but if the vote in a state is close and the outcome depends on the vote in some country districts, it may be days before the result can be stated with certainty. Bound the voting precinct in which you live. In what building is the voting done? How does the precinct generally go politically? 84. Qualifications of Voters. — We should understand clearly that the national constitution has little to say about who shall vote in any state. The 14th amendment declares that if states deny the vote to any male citizen over 21 years of age for any reason except the commission of some crime, their representation in Congress shall be cut down; but by various tricks this provision is evaded, and Congress has never dared to enforce the penalty. The states do almost exactly as they please in the matter, and the quali- fications required of voters vary considerably. The ownership of property was once demanded in most of the states as an essential, but that has disappeared almost everywhere, as inconsistent with the spirit of democracy. An age requirement of 21 years is universal. United States citizenship is necessary in most states, though some allow an alien to vote who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen. A residence rule for the state and for the voting district prevails in most states, and several demand the pay- ment of some kind of tax. Some states require the ability to read and write or to understand the constitution of the United States or the state. Do you favor an educational test for voters? Woman SuflFrage 145 In some states, particularly those with large cities, voters must go personally before a registration board and enroU their names, if they wish to vote. Some such rule as this is about the only way to prevent the " padding " of the voting lists with fraudulent names and voting more than once by the same person — " repeating," as it is called. In country districts and small towns such fraud cannot so easily be committed, and there the enroUment of voters is made by the assessors or other local officers. Make up a complete and exact list of requirements for voters •which you would consider fair and reasonable. How does this com- pare with the laws of your own state? y .11 m Wi 1 1 liTL-t ra ^ 1 •='1 T„-.v°,r„ 85. Woman Suffrage. — One of the hve questions of recent date in many states is whether women should be given the ballot on the same terms as men. Wyoming was virtually the pioneer in this field, for as far back as 1869, long before it became a state, it gave the vote to women. The rise of women to prominence in so many fields of activity has given new force to the demand for woman suffrage. The entire West with the exception of one or two states has yielded. Fifteen of the states now grant full suffrage, several more 146 Political Parties and Elections permit presidential suffrage, and others, even in the con- servative East, have brought the question before their voters directly. A constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote has several times passed the House, only to meet defeat in the Senate. On June 4, 1919, however, the amendirent, which had already passed the House, finally secured the necessary two-thirds vote in the Senate. Would there be any advantage in having the right to vote regu- lated by the national government rather than the states ? What is your opinion of woman suffrage? To vote for a person, stamp a cross (X) in the square at the right of the name REPUBLICAN TICKET DEMOCRATIC TICKET SOCIALIST TICKET For U. S. Senator H. W. JOHNSON For U. S. Senator W. W. PATTON For U. S. Senator A. B. COLE For Representative in Congress E. W. HARBISON For Representative in Congress Wm. KETTNER For Representative in Congress E. W. ROBBINS For Secretary of State F. C. JORDAN For Secretary of State L. P. HOLMES For Secretary of State C. S. TOLMIN For Comptroller J. S. CHAMBERS For Comptroller H. F. RICHARDS For Comptroller R. B. HUNT For Attorney-General U. S. WEBB For Attorney-General F. R. WILKINS For Attorney-General M. F. COSTELLO " Party Column " Ballot. A form like this has been used by California, Vermont, and several other states, though some of them have abandoned it. The old style New York and Indiana ballot had also a picture of some kind at the top of each column as a distinguishing mark, with a place indicated where a voter could vote for an entire party ticket by making only one cross. 86. Forms of Ballots. — At the beginning of the nineteenth century people usually voted by word of mouth and in some states the poUs were kept open for several days. In place of that method, the use of a written or printed ballot was later introduced, each political party suppljdng its own. Forms of Ballots 147 Although this was an improvement over the former practice, it was still too open and permitted fraud too easily. Beginning with about 1890 the states have adopted some form of the system of voting previously used in Australia FIRST COLUMN This Column is for Straight Party Votes To vote a straight party ticket, mark a cross (X) >n the square in the first column, opposite the name of the party of your choice. A cross mark in the square opposite the name of any can- didate indicates a vote for that candidate. DEMOCRATIC WASHINGTON REPUBLICAN SOCIALIST PROHIBITION KEYSTONE United States Senator {Vote for one) E. L. Oavis Dem. P. C. Knox Rep. Key. C. W. Eevin Soc. Representative in Congress (Vote for OTte) M. C. Kelly Dem. Wash. Pro. Rep. Key. 1 State Treasurer (Vote for one) J. M. Cramer Dem. H. M. Kephart Rep. Key. Chas. Sehl Soc. Representative in the General Assembly (.Vote for two) C. H. Clifford Dem. G. F. MmoELET Dem. C. C. Baldbidge Rep. J. R. Wtlie Rep. A Pennsylvania Ballot. and therefore called the Australian ballot. The cardinal features of this plan are that (1) the names of the candidates of all parties are printed on one ballot, which the voter must mark in some way ; that (2) the state or county authorities supply the ballots ; and (3) that the marking is done in a private booth, so that no one can see how the voter marks his ballot. 148 Political Parties and Elections Bribery is discouraged by this system, because the briber caimot be sure that a bribed voter will mark his ballot as he agrees to. Independent voting is promoted, too, because men who, for fear of losing their jobs or incurring the ill wiU of some prominent person, would not dare to vote openly as their conscience told them, may have the courage to mark the ballot in secret in the way that they beHeve to be right. O'emuioiucrnltli af ,Hlliir,'„iiliii'.i'll;j. SPEeiJWEN BALLOT. 7.r-7,cof.. fVn-lU, (0, Wliyi, *(«!«. 'HZ-nj JC*. 'WWWIS <^ 6^^."^. ,. L'! .... I..I, 1 f.:, r,l rt'.^-. . ' ;. ...•! .••II..U -' •vri\-::,-TL'.-'-\'-^~x\'Z'\'-~J~~^'-'^'^-'~'--'^'-''^~ X [I ■"-'.:.: :' :r,;T -;.,-■-■,:- r.^_\' . ^ : . - -i. -:".■:,■;:.:: jri'x e:l- --■■_"■ ■■ ■ c...r..« :, ■ ! , -■ "- -'■'""■' ■"■"'"! ■ - ' - -"■— ^ |.: ■ ■ 1 "' ■■^-■T-i-j'^-t. ■ • ■ ■■■ . ■■■ - __>i^Jl'-"L=7| . 1. 1 -, ■_ " ■"■^■■■' ■.■■.■■.' ' " " "'^ "" " .-^-'l- , ., ■ 1m^ ; HUM mil '-,;.•,,■ ■', ■i.:.'K,i, .iH,,ijir .■ ti^ ■ ', '. ".", I ■ '■J-'^'- :-':U;?- ,--;,■„- -z -■•■•^■. "--sh j' ums'H rf=; --'..iL-w ■■■ -■■^-■-■- "L> ' ; ■-.^^,. , --:^-^:' ^^^^^~:- -^■ - '■ -- ■, ■■,■ ■■ ,-— ^ mA^ ;::.:.;iitiiSfeuteia ig---- " I-. J^^^— ^- ■ '- ■' ': ''■'"■ ' ' ^"^^•'^■^ ' " ^'■' ■"1 A Massachusetts Ballot. There are several styles of arranging the names of candidates on the ballot. One system widely used puts all the candidates of one party in one column and allows a voter to vote for all these candidates by marking a cross at the head of the column. If he wishes to " split " his ticket, he can make a cross opposite the individual names of candi- dates, taking some of them from one column and some from another. The so-called Massachusetts ballot groups all the candidates for an oflSce together, arranging their names in Initiative, Referendum, and Recall 149 alphabetical order. There is no " party square," and a voter must mark for each oflBce separately. This form of baUot requires the most intelKgence to use and encourages independent voting more than any other form. It has been adopted by several other states than Massachusetts. The systems in vogue in the other states are either a com- promise between these two methods or a variation of one of them. Voting machines have been used in a few places, but they have not yet become generally popidar. 87. Initiative, Referendum, and Recall. — With the spread of the spirit of democracy it is only natural that people should Uke to have some part in the making of laws as well as in the election of officers. Since the New England town meeting is suitable for only a comparatively small comnumity, a kind of substitute which can be used on a much wider scale has been employed. This has found con- siderable favor, especially in the West, where people are not afraid of a thing merely because it is new, and are willing to try experiments. This plan is not an American invention, for the initiative and referendum, as they are called, have been in use in Switzerland, New Zealand, and elsewhere for some time. The initiative is the right given to a certain percentage of the voters to draw up a law or force the law-making body to draw up one, to be submitted to popular vote. The sub- mitting of a measure to popular vote before it is to go into effect is known as the referendum. Referendum votes on laws, constitutional amendments, and the hke, are generally taken at the time of regular elec- tions, and the measures to be voted on are printed on the regular ballot. Special referendum elections, however, are sometimes held. Several states make use of the referendiun in matters such as constitutional amendments and laws of unusual importance, even though they do not permit the use of the initiative; but the initiative would not be of much use without the referendum. 150 Political Parties and Elections Experience seems to show that the use of these political instruments should not be made too easy, lest a small group of " cranks " might bother the voters too frequently by compelling them to vote on hasty measures which they might not understand at all. But it is well to have these weapons available when a legislature neglects to pass laws which the people really want. The initiative and the ref- erendum are likely to promote pubHc interest and encourage intelligent thought on the part of voters. Is a voter likely to act more wisely in voting on a law than in choosing a member of the legislature to do it for him ? The recall is often mentioned in connection with the initia- tive and referendum, though there is no necessity for doing so. The recall permits a certain percentage of the voters, by draw- ing up a petition, to force an officeholder to submit to a special election before the end of the term for which he was elected. The result of the election determines whether he shall serve out the term or give way to some one else. It is open to the criticism that it may make voters less careful about electing their officers in the first place and may be employed to make trouble for a good official whose duty had forced him to do a thing that was unpopular with a certain class. But since the process of impeachment is so difficult to use, it is possible that the recall, if safeguarded so that it could not be used recklessly, would be a desirable weapon to have at hand in case of an emergency. Many people believe that the voters should elect only a few officers and should hold them responsible for appointing the rest. This idea is called the short ballot. What do you think of it? If it should be instituted in your community, what officers would you have elected? Another idea is that of the preferential ballot. This permits a voter to indicate his second, third, and perhaps further, choices among the candidates for an office. In making up the returns such votes are combined with a candidate's " first choice " votes in some prescribed manner. How do you like it? Special Topics 151 In some places if a voter may vote for two or three persons for a certain office, he is allowed to cast all Ms votes for one candidate. This is called cumulative voting. It aims to secure proportional rep- resentation, so that all the offices may not go to the most numerous party. QUESTIONS Explain how parties are managed. Define platform; boss; caucus ; convention. What does nomination mean? Explain direct primaries. In what ways are they better than the convention system for nominat- ing candidates ? What is a campaign ? How is it and how should it be conducted^ Give your opinion about the use of money in trjring to elect people to office. When are elections held? Describe the holding of an election. Visit an election when it is under way if you can. How and when may we know what candidates are successful? Who has the right to vote in your state? Who decides this? How much does the national government have to say about the matter ? What is registration and why do we have it ? Is there any reason why women should not vote? Where do they have the ballot (see map, page 145) ? Explain the Austrahan ballot and state its merits over the methods of voting formerly used. Compare the forms of ballots shown or explained in the text and give your opinion as to which is best. Which of these forms is most nearly like that used in your own state? Define initiative; referendum; recall; short ballot; preferential ballot. Give your opinion of each of them. SPECIAL TOPICS How Political Parties Came into Existence in the United States. What the Parties of To-day Represent. Famous Presidential Campaigns. The Story of Woman Suffrage, at Home and Abroad. A debate on the Initiative, Referendum, Recall, or the Short Ballot. A debate on the question: Resolved, that elections for state or local offices should be on a non-partisan basis. CHAPTER X HOW OUE NATIONAL LAWS AKE MADE Men are never so likely to settle a question rightly as when they Aiscuss it freely. — Macaulay. 88. Making Our National Constitution. — At the close of the Revolution by which the independence of the United States was secured, the central government was conducted under the Articles of Confedera- tion. These went into effect in 1781 after all the original thirteen states had accepted them. This confedera- tion was so weak and inefficient that intelli- gent men such as Wash- ington, Hamilton, and Franklin, saw that a stronger government must be estabhshed if the nation was to live. So, at a memorable convention held in PMla- Independence Hall. i i i • • ^w^^, , , . , , , , , delphia m 1787 our In this famous building: in Philadelphia , . . , ^ . . the convention met which framed our Present national Constl- national Constitution. tution was drawn up. It 152 The Senators 153 contained very little that was wholly new. But its makers showed wonderful judgment in selecting the best features of the English government and the constitutions and laws of the states. Guided by their own common sense, they combined these so skillfully that only eighteen additions or changes have been needed in over a century and a quarter of mar- velous growth and development. And manj' of these " amend- ments " were made right at the start, before it was certain that they would be needed at all. One would be fooKsh to imagine that our form of govern- ment is so nearly perfect that it cannot.be improved, but nevertheless we can take just pride in the thought that the United States Constitution and government have served as worthy examples for other peoples who were struggling for better things. Could tyranny ever exist in this country? Is a majority vote always cast on the right side ? 89. Congress. — The law-making branch of our national government is known as the Congress, and consists of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are several reasons why our constitution-makers provided two houses instead of one. The British Parliament, with its House of Lords and House of Commons, was to some extent looked upon as a pattern, though there are very many respects in which no likeness exists between those two bodies and the divisions of our Congress. Most of the states also had two houses in their legislatures. The opinion prevailed, too, that it was well to have two houses so that one might check the other and prevent the passage of some laws which might not be necessary or desirable. 90. The Senators. — The voters in each state elect two senators for a term of six years. In order to prevent great changes in the membership of the Senate, and to keep it a kind of conservative body, it is provided that the senators 154 How Our National Laws are Made shall be grouped into three classes, and the terms of each class shall expire two years apart. By this plan only one senator from a state is elected at one time, except when a new , state comes into the Union or when an unexpected vacancy occurs through death or resignation. At least two thirds of the senators will always have had two or more years' experience in, the office. Each senator must be at least thirty years old, a citizen 6 I .1- I— -L._. A Fairly-divided State. of the United States for nine years, and a resident of the state which he represents. How many senators were there in 1789? how many to-day? Who are the senators from your state, and when do their terms expire? 91. The Representatives. — The mmiber of representa- tives from a state depends upon its population. Each state has at least one. New York has the largest number — at present forty-three. The total membership now is 435. A census of the whole country is taken every tenth year (1910, 1920, etc.), and after the count of the population is finished, Congress passes an " apportionment " law, saying how many representatives each state shall have for the The Representatives 155 next ten years. The proportion to-day is about one repre- sentative for each 212,000 people. The state legislature is supposed to divide the state into as many districts as there are representatives to be chosen, and then the voters in each district elect a rep- resentative. If a new apportionment adds to the number of represent- atives from a state, but the legislature neglects to make new districts, the extra member or members are chosen by the voters of the whole state. A member so elected is known as Con- gressman-at-large. The fairest way to dis- trict a state is to make the districts nearly equal in population and com- posed of compact terri- tory. But legislatures sometimes try to give a certain party control of more districts than it deserves by making these districts of queer shapes and imeven population. Somebody invented the word " gerrymander " to apply to this practice. Happily the gerrjnuander is less common than formerly. Make a map tliat mil show whether your state is gerrymandered. In order to bring the House somewhat nearer the people and to permit the frequent expression of public opinion, the terms of the representatives are shorter and their qualifica- tions lower than those of senators. The term is two years, A Gerrymandered State. 156 How Our National Laws are Made and theoretically the entire House could be changed at once. Its members must be twenty-five years of age, citizens of the United States for seven years, and must live in the state from which they are elected. By custom they generally do hve in the districts which they represent, though this is not necessary. The English custom by which a district may elect anybody from any- where to represent it has the advantage of keeping the strong men of aU parties in office all the time, but the idea has never been popular in this country. How many representatives does your state send to Congress? Name those who represent districts near you. What political ideas do they stand for ? Is there any valid objection to the English custom in regard to the residence of representatives? Up to 1917 only one woman had been elected to Congress. Is there any reason why women should not be chosen? 92. Special Powers of the Houses. — In addition to the general duty of law-making, which both houses share almost equally, each house is given by the Constitution certain special powers in which the other has no part. In impeach- ment proceedings, for example, the House of Representatives has the right to bring formal charges against a federal officer whom it beheves to have been guilty of misconduct such as to demand his removal from office ; but after the impeach- ment charges have been brought by the House, the duty of trying the accused official and deciding upon his gmlt or inno- cence rests with the Senate alone. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is necessary to secure conviction. In case no candidate for president or vice president seciu-es a majority of votes of the presidential electors (§ 102), the Senate chooses the Vice President, and the House, the President. Only the House may introduce bills for raising revenue to carry on the government, on the theory that the people can control the House more directly and that the people Sessions of Congress 157 should determine for themselves as far as possible when and how they should be taxed. But this power does not really amount to very much, for the Senate may amend revenue bills the same as any other bills coming from the House, and it sometimes amends them out of all hkeness to the original. In two matters the Senate alone has the power to act. Most appointments to office which the President makes must have the approval of the Senate, which gains thereby considerable pohtical influence. Treaties, which are made under the President's direction,. must also be ratified by the Senate. In this case a two-thirds vote is needed. Much weight in determining the foreign poUcy of the country may through this means be exercised by the Senate. In one sense it would be incorrect to speak of one house as being more powerful than the other, since each may and often does defeat bills that have been passed by the other. But the Senate always has a larger proportion of experienced poHticians in its membership ; it has a more permanent and complete organization; and its members, being fewer in nimiber, have a better chance of becoming known individually to the whole country. For these and other reasons the Senate has acquired somewhat greater prestige than the House. If the two houses disagree over some important matter the Senate more often than the House gets its own way in the end. 93. Sessions of Congress. — Regular elections for members of Congress are held in November of the even years, and persons chosen at that time begin their terms on the 4th of March following. The life of a single Congress is reckoned from March 4 of an odd year until March 4 two years later, since the Representatives are elected for that period only. A Congress is referred to by number, reckoned by counting the years from 1789 until the year when the term of its Representatives expires, and dividing by two. During the fife of a Congress two regular sessions are held. 158 How Our National Laws are Made One, known as the long session, begins on the first Monday of December of the odd years, and lasts until the houses get ready to adjourn — generally during the following spring or sununer. The short session begins on the first Monday of December in the even years, and must end on the next 4th of March at noon, as the terms of its Representatives expire The Capitol at Washington. then. The session beginning December 4, 1916, was there- fore the second regular, or short session of the 64th Congress. Is there any sense in not having Congress assemble until the December after they take office? The President sometimes calls Congress together in a special session, as he has the right to do whenever he thinks the pubhc interest demands it. ' He may also summon the Senate alone for brief special sessions when treaties or appointments are to be considered, as the House has nothing directly to do with these. Government and Rules of Congress 159 94. Government and Rules of Congress. — Each house is the judge of the qualifications and conduct of its own members. If a person is a known lawbreaker, or if his election was obtained by dishonest methods, he may be refused admission. If two persons claim to have been elected to the same seat, the house which is concerned decides whom to admit. Perhaps this matter would have been better left to the courts, for now the vote in such cases is generally along party Unes. Each house may also reprimand or even expel a member for improper conduct. But a two-thirds vote is required for expulsion, so as to make it milikely that a member wiU be expelled merely to secure party advantage, A majority of members is necessary to make up a quorum — that is, the number who must be present in order to carry on business legally. If a sufficient number are not on hand, those who are present may have the absent members brought in. In the House, too, the presiding officer counts every member as present if he is in the hall, even though he does not vote. Each house keeps a journal, or official record, of its pro- ceedings, and has it printed in that extraordinary pubhcation known as the Congressional Record. This is supposed to be a word for word account of everything said in the sessions, and parts of it may be printed separately and sent out free of postage. Congressmen often abuse this privilege by getting " leave to print " or to " extend their remarks in the Record." Thus they get everything they want printed at government expense, and send back to the admiring folks at home copies of long speeches which were never dehvered at all. This is particularly common when a congressman is rurming for reelection. Each house also makes its own rules of order. These differ in some notable respects, for things often need to be done differently in a body of fewer than a hundred men than in an assembly of over four hundred. The House adopts a set of rules at the beginning of each new Congress, although 160 How Our National Laws are Made these generally do not differ very much from those of the preceding Congress. The rules of the Senate continue un- changed except when the Senate takes special action to alter them. In the House, the time that any member may occupy in debate is definitely Umited, and all debate may be cut off by carrying the parhamentary motion known as the previous question. A standing Committee on Rules possesses almost arbitrary power in directing the business of the House and determining what bills shall be given preference in considera- tion by the House. In the Senate, however, until March, 1917, debate was unhmited. This privilege was supposed to make possible the bringing out of all possible arguments on a dis- puted question, though it is doubtful whether the votes of many senators were ever changed by the long-winded dis- cussions that sometimes occurred. Occasionally, notably near the end of a session of Con- gress, a trick known as " fihbustering " is imdertaken. By talking indefinitely and doing other things to take up time, a very few senators have been able to defeat measures desired by a great majority of the whole body. A senator once talked twenty hours consecutively. The feeling aroused by a successful filibuster against a bill which President Wilson desired when our affairs with Germany were in a critical state caused the rules to be changed, so that by a two- thirds vote the Senate can force the closing of debate on a measure. 95. Officers of Congress. — The presiding ofl[icer in the Senate is the Vice President, who takes no part in debate, and votes only when there is a tie. The Senate elects one of its own members as president -pro tempore, who presides when the Vice President is absent, and who becomes the permanent presiding officer if the vice presidency is vacant. The Senate also has a secretary, a doorkeeper, a postmaster, a chaplain, and a sergeant-at-arms. The duties of the latter are to keep order, hunt up absent members, and the like. Officers of Congress 161 In the House the regular presiding officer is the Speaker. He is elected from the House itself and is usually the leader of the majority party there. The position is one of much importance, though its powers have been reduced in recent years. No member may speak or offer a motion unless he is recognized by the Speaker, and the Speaker also makes rulings on points of order, on referring bills to committees, and the like, which indirectly may have an important effect Senate Office Building, Washington. on a bill's chances of becoming a law. He can be a tyrant on a small scale if he so desires ; yet such a large body as the House would get nothing done imless sufficient authority were placed ia some one's hands to direct affairs and keep business moving. Is it better that the Speaker should be a mere presiding of&cer or that he should have extensive powers? The House has a clerk, a sergeant-at-arms, and other officers Hke the Senate. Sometimes former Congressmen are elected to some of these positions, but no person may expect 162 How Our National Laws are Made to get one of them unless he is pohtically friendly to the party in power. 96. The Committee System. — A very large part of the business of Congress is done through committees. At the beginning of a new Congress sixty or more standing com- mittees are organized in each house to deal with certain kinds of business, as Interstate and Foreign Commerce, or Post Offices and Post Roads. Whenever a bUl is introduced it is referred to one of these committees. In the House the Ways and Means Committee, which considers all tax laws, is regarded as the most important and the chairman- ship of this committee is an honor second only to that of Speaker. The number of persons on a committee runs from three to twenty-two. Membership on these committees is really determined by the leaders of the parties in Congress, though the houses go through the form of choosing a special com- mittee to arrange the regular committees. The majority party keeps the control of all the important committees in its own hands. The committee system was borrowed from the EngHsh Parliament, but has been developed far beyond any use of it that England ever saw. Since many thousands of bills are introduced in every Congress, it would be absolutely impossible to allow every bill to be debated by the whole membership. Each committee selects from the bills which are referred to it the ones which it wishes to act on, and ignores the rest. Good biUs as well as bad ones may be " killed " by a committee's refusal to consider them. But we have to put up with this disadvantage in order to get anything done at all. No doubt fewer good bUls would be lost in this way if public records were kept of the way members vote while acting on bills as members of committees. Find out the names of the chief standing committees of the two houses of Congress. Do any of the members from your state hold The Process of Lawmaking 163 prominent positions on them? How many bills were introduced into the last Congress ? 97. The Process of Lawmaking. — The ordinary process which a bUl goes through in order to become a law is about as follows : It may be introduced by any member of either house, unless it is a revenue bill, which must come from the House of Representatives. Then the presiding officer refers it to the committee which considers that kind of bills. At this point the great mass of all bills quietly meet a peaceful death. The conomittee does nothing with them and they are never heard of again. If the committee decides that the bill ought to receive further consideration, they will report it favorably to the house, perhaps offering some amendments. After the report, the bill is put upon the calendar, to wait its turn. When that time comes, it may be debated and perhaps amended. The greater part of the discussion is carried on while the House is meeting under the name of the "com- mittee of the whole." At such times greater freedom in de- bate is allowed, and no record is kept of the way individual members vote. As a result many changes are made which would not occur if a public record were kept of such votes. The final vote on a bill, however, is almost always taken by a roll caU of the members. If a majority of the members present and voting are then in favor of it, it will be passed, as far as that house is concerned. All this has taken place in the house where the bill was introduced. Then it goes to the other house and must run an exactly similar gantlet there. If it is amended in the least, it must go back to the first house for its agreement. If the first house does not agree to the changes, a special conference committee, made up of members from both houses, will try to harmonize the differences between them. If the bill is at last agreed to by both houses in exactly the same form, it is sent to the President. After a bill gets to the President, there are three ways by 164 How Our National Laws are Made which it may become a law : (1) He may indicate his ap- proval by signing it. (2) He may keep it 10 days without taking any action on it. Treatment of this kind would indicate that there were some features about it which he did not like, but that for some reason he did not care to prevent its passage. (3) He may veto the bill, sending it back without his signature to the house where it was in- troduced, with a message telUng why he disapproved it. Then the two houses by a two-thirds vote can pass it over his veto. This rarely happens. Government Building, Newport News, Virginia. If the President vetoes a bill and either house cannot give a two-thirds vote in its favor, the bill is dead, for that session at least. And if a session of Congress comes to an end before the ten days have expired which are granted to the President to think over a bill, that bill is considered dead. Putting an end to a bill in this way is known as the " pocket veto." 98. Powers of Congress. — The powers given to Congress by the Constitution may be classified as follows : (1) Financial. Congress may lay and collect practically all kinds of taxes except taxes on exported goods, but all taxes must be uniform throughout the United States. Powers of Congress 165 Congress may also borrow money on the credit of the United States. This is generally done through the issue of bonds. These are sold in the market the same as any other thing might be. They are reaUy promises that the govern- ment will at a certain specified time, perhaps twenty or thirty years later, pay to the holder a sum of money, mean- time giving him interest on it at regular intervals. Copyright, Underwood & UntUrwood A 12-INCH Mortar, Ready for Action. Fort Wright, Fisher's Island, New York. Congress may also coin money, regulate its value and the value of foreign coin, and provide for the punishment of coimterf alters. (2) Military. Congress may provide and maintain an army and a navy, but in order that this may not be done contrary to the will of the people appropriations for this purpose cannot be made for more than two years at one time. In fact appropriations are made for one year only. Congress may provide for caUing out the mihtia of the states, 166 How Our National Laws are Made and may make rules for their government as well as for that of the regular army. It has the very important power of declaring war, and making rules in regard to captures in war. It has the right to grant letters of marque and reprisal, which would authorize a shipowner to go out as a privateer in time of war and plunder the enemy's commerce. But civilized nations no longer permit privateering, and probably this power will never be used again. (3) Territorial. Congress may make aU laws necessary for the government of the territory belonging to the United States, and may, when it thinks wise to do so, form states out of this territory and admit them into the Union. It has full authority over the District of Columbia, the seat of the national government, and over any place purchased by the national government and used for forts, docks, or other governmental purposes. Although the Constitution says nothing about it, Congress is recognized as having the right to buy or otherwise obtain or dispose of territory. The Supreme Court has ruled that this power belongs to every government and therefore did not need to be specified in the Constitution. (4) Commercial. This group includes a wide range of powers, to the full scope and importance of which Congress is only just now waking up. It has power to regulate com- merce between the states, with foreign countries, and with the Indians. The right to regulate interstate commerce was not made use of until 1887 but has lately been tremen- dously extended to cover a great variety of laws affecting labor and industry. Congress may establish post offices and post roads. By patent and copyright laws it may encourage scientists, authors, and inventors. It may fix the standard of weights and measures, though it has not yet exercised this power very fully. It may make laws governing bankruptcy, in order that a person whose business affairs have become hope- Special Provisions Affecting Congressmen 167 lessly embarrassed may have a chance to start new again. This power also has not been exercised all the time. (5) Political. Congress may pass naturaUzation laws authorizing a foreigner to become a citizen of this country. It may determine the punishment for treason, piracy, and offenses against international law, as well as for offenses committed on the sea. It has the important duty of organiz- ing courts below the Supreme Court, and even of arranging the number of judges in that body and the regulations under which aU the federal courts shall operate. It may propose amendments to the Constitution itself, in which case a two- thirds vote is required. (6) General. At the close of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution is attached a clause commonly known as the " elastic clause." This gives Congress power " to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution " any powers vested by the Constitution in any department or officer of the United States government. This seems on its face to authorize an3rthing whatever that would help to carry out any of the powers we have named. In the early days of our national history many held the view that the powers granted to Congress must be construed strictly, and that the national government must undertake nothing except what was specifically mentioned in the Constitution. But the decisions of the great Chief Justice John Marshall gave the support of the Supreme Court to the " broad construction " theory. To-day no honest and inteUigent citizen would think of reversing this policy. Congress enacts to-day as a matter of course many measures to which nobody objects, but which it would be hard to find authorized in the Constitution. Tell something about the leading advocates of "broad con- struction" and "strict construction" in our history. 99. Special Provisions Affecting Congressmen. — The Constitution declares that members of Congress shall be 168 How Our National Laws are Made paid a salary out of the national treasury. At first it was fixed by law at $6 a day, but has now been raised to $7500 a year. This is supplemented by various extras, such as a private secretary at $2000 a year, mileage to and from Wash- ington at the beginning and end of a session,, free stationery, and the " franking " privilege of sending mail free which deals with public business. The salary is not enormous, it is true, but it is more than some Congressmen could get at anything else, and with economy a Congressman can live on it very comfortably in Washington. In order to prevent the bringing of private lawsuits or other legal obstacles to hinder a Congressman's attendance upon his duties, the Constitution provides that a member shaU be free from arrest while present at the sessions of Congress and while going to and from them, except for the commission of a crime. A person engaged in making the laws certainly ought not to break them, and there is no reason for excusing from the proper penalties a Congressman who so far forgets the dignity of his office as to become a violator of the law. To encourage the freest possible discussion of matters in Congress, no member can be called to accoimt outside of Congress for anything he says whUe there. The house to which he belongs may punish him for abusing this privilege, but no one who feels injured by something a Congressman has said can proceed against him personally unless the objectionable remarks were made outside of Congress. No member of Congress may hold any other office under the United States at the same time. He may, however, resign from Congress and then take another office. But not even this is permitted if the office was created or if its salary was increased during the time for which the person was elected to Congress. If this restriction did not exist. Congressmen might cause salaries to be raised or new offices established for the special purpose of getting them. Questions 169 If a Congressman in a speech on the floor of the House accused the President's wife of being a thief, what, if anything, could be done about it ? A Congressman in Washington once shot a negro in a street oar. Could anything be done to him ? QUESTIONS Why was our present national Constitution made ? When and where? From what sources did its makers get their ideas? Did they do good work ? Of what is Congress composed? Why was this form adopted? Who constitute the Senate? What quaHflcations must they have ? How are they chosen and for how long ? How many representatives are there and how is their number determined? Compare their quaHflcations, term, and method of choice with the Senate. Define gerrymander. State the special powers possessed by each house which the other does not have. Why does the Senate enjoy somewhat greater prestige than the House ? Explain the custom and law in regard to the sessions of Congress. What is the number of the session now going on or most recently held ? When was the last special session called and why ? What control does Congress have over its members? Explain quorum. What is the Congressional Record? Mention some significant customs concerning debate. Who are the presiding officers of the two houses, and what is the importance of their positions? What minor officers does each house have? What is the pirrpose of the committees ? How are they made up ? Trace the complete process of enacting a biH into law, noting (1) the action by the house where it was introduced, (2) further consideration by Congress, (3) the connection of the President with lawmaking. Define conference committee, packet veto. Mention the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution, classifying them as Financial, Mflitary, Territorial, Commercial, Pohtical, and General. Take some Ust of acts passed by a session of Congress and see what clauses of the Constitution would justify each particular act. Explain hroad construction and strict con- struction. What compensation do Congressmen get? Do you think it is large enough? What privileges do Congressmen enjoy by virtue of holding their office? What hmitations are placed upon their holding other offices? 170 How Our National Laws are Made SPECIAL TOPICS The Constitutional Convention of 1787. A Day's Work in Congress. What a Congressman Has to Do. Leading Members of the Present Congress. The Speaker and His Power. Some Famous Speakers. The Committees of Congress. The Congressman from Our District. The Senators from Our State. CHAPTER XI OUE OHIEr EXECUTIVE Here was a type of the true elder race. And one of Plutarch's men talked u/ith us face to face. — Zowell, 100. Importance of the President. — The person in this repubUc who comes nearest to holding the place that a king or emperor enjoys in a monarchy is the President. He is elected indirectly by the people and after he has held the office he retires to hve among them again like any other man. But while he is in office he represents the power of the nation in action, and no monarch who inherits his office, in any government in all the world, possesses as much real authority. The enforcement of the laws at home, the protection of the honor and dignity of the nation in its relations with other countries, the spirit and motives which shall rule oiu- national policies, all depend in large measure upon the character and ability of the man who Uves at the White House in Washington. It is right that the American people should feel that the election of any president may be the making or wrecking of a nation's opportunities for greatness or service, and it is not strange that every other civihzed nation feels a deep interest in the outcome of our presidential campaigns. 101. Term, Qualifications, and Salary. — The President is elected for a term of four years. The Constitution says nothing about reelection, leaving the matter open for the 171 172 Our Chief Executive people to do as they please. Nine of our presidents have been honored in this way. Chiefly because Washington, the first president, refused to take more than two terms, no other man has received more than that number. But all the attempts to alter the Constitution so as to forbid re- election after one or two terms have failed. The people seem to feel that, whatever their custom may be, it would not be wise to give up wholly the right to elect a man as often as they please, if circumstances should appear to require it. The suggestion has been made that the term should be ex- tended to six years and no reelection allowed. What advantages or disadvantages do you see in this plan? Would a business firm choose a general manager on such a principle ? The President must be 35 years old, a native-born American citizen, and a resident of this country for 14 years. They are generally considerably older than 35. Roosevelt, who was not quite 43 when he became president, was the nearest to the age limit, although some have been nominated when even younger than Roosevelt was. The other requirements are intended to make it certain that the president shall be a real American, who will understand the needs of this nation and put them first in his thoughts and plans. The President's term begins on the 4th of March of the year following leap year. His inauguration, or formal in- troduction to oSice, is witnessed by many thousands of people from all parts of the country. Sometimes extensive military display accompanies the ceremonies. The President receives the oath of ofiice from the chief justice of the Supreme Court. He then delivers his inaugural address. Sometimes this is an important discussion of national policies to be followed by his administration, as in the case of Lincoln in 1861. The President's official residence in Washington is known as the White House. Connected with it are the executive offices managed by the President's private secretary and Method of Election 173 assistants. The expense for the salaries of the secretaries, the maintenance of the offices, the conservatories, and other features of the presidential residence are met from the national treasury. As a personal salary the President receives $75,000 a year. This sum is small in comparison with what the heads of most governments receive. People like to have the President do considerable traveling and visiting in different sections of the country. These are expensive if paid for, and yet it The White House. seems out of place for a president, by accepting favors from railroads or other public servants, to put himself under obhgation to them. President Roosevelt therefore proposed that Congress should allow the president to be repaid whatever his traveling expenses for a year amounted to, if the sum did not exceed $25,000. This practice has generally been followed since. 102. Method of Election. — No part of the Constitution has worked as little in the way its makers expected as the method provided for electing the President. They planned 174 Our Chief Executive that a body of electors, specially chosen for intelligence and judgment, should caxefully weigh the merits of public men and vote according to their independent convictions for men to serve as president and vice president. To-day, while the forms laid down in the Constitution are strictly observed, the electors are merely agents who vote as a matter of course for candidates who have been nominated beforehand by some political party. The process of selecting a president now includes the following steps : (1) The nomination of candidates. In the month of June or July in leap years each great political party holds a national convention in some large city of the country. Delegates to attend a party convention are chosen in each state by the members of the party in such a way as the laws of that state authorize or allow. Several candidates may be proposed before the convention by delegates from the different states. If more than one candidate is presented, the delegates take a formal ballot. Thirty or forty ballots are sometimes taken before a candidate is nominated. The • Republicans require only a majority of delegates to make the nomination, but the Democrats require a two-thirds vote. A candidate for vice president is also selected. Before or after the nominations are made, a platform, or official state- ment of party principles, is adopted. One might suppose that each party would try to pick out its ablest and wisest members to put before the nation as its candidates for high office, but frequently this is not done. A great man, because of his positive views on disputed questions, may have made enemies whom a less prominent man would not have and therefore the great man might not get so many votes as a less known candidate. Sometimes a candidate is favored who lives in a large state hke New York or a state like Indiana which is likely to be evenly divided between the two great parties, in the hope that he will win this doubtful state for the party. Sometimes when different factions in a party have been Method of Election 175 fighting desperately to nominate a candidate of their own faction, a compromise is made by nominating a "dark horse," that is, some one who had not been mentioned prominently, if at all, in connection with the nomination. And many an influence unknown to the party at large finds its secret way to turn the action of a convention in a direction which even the convention may not fully realize. (2) The choice of electors. The Constitution requires each Copyright, Underwood & Underwood Democratic Presidential Nominating Convention. At St. Louis, July 14, 1916. state to choose a group of presidential electors equal in number to the senators and representatives from that state in Congress. The total number at present is 531. In such a way as the laws of a state may require, each party nominates a list of candidates for presidential electors. On the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November the voters of each state choose the electors for that state. Each voter may vote for the entire number of electors to which his state is entitled. By custom and common consent 176 Our Chief Executive it is understood that the Republican electors, for example, if they are chosen, will vote for the candidates already nomi- nated by the national convention. A voter who favors election of the Republican candidates for president and vice president will therefore, if he has good sense, vote for the whole list of electors nominated by that party ; for the per- sonal qualities of the electors are of no importance, as they have nothing to do now but to perform a certain formal duty. This November election is the decisive feature of the whole process. It follows a period of several months in which all kinds of efforts have been made to win votes. Unless the election is very close, it will probably be known during the evening of election day in almost every community which party has been successful in most of the different states and who will therefore be the next president. Most of the rest of the process which we are describing might as well be omitted as far as it has any real importance. But the Constitution provides it, and so it is carried out in due form. Notice that except in very unusual circumstances the electoral vote of a state will be cast solidly for one candidate, even though his popular vote in that state may be only a little larger than that of some other iCandidate. Would it be possible for a candidate to get a majority of the electoral vote who did not stand first in the popular vote for the entire country ? Prove your answer from our history. (3) Voting by the electors. The electors in each state meet at their state capital on the second Monday of the following January and cast their votes for the candidates of the parties which they represent. They make out three reports of their balloting and send two of them to the presiding officer of the Senate at Washington. The third is left with the United States district judge in whose district they meet. (4) Counting the electoral votes. On the second Wednesday in February both houses of Congress meet in the hall of the House of Representatives and in their presence the presiding officer of the Senate opens the returns and causes them to Succession to the Presidency 177 be formally counted. If it appears from this useless cere- mony that some person has received a majority of the whole number of electoral votes for president or vice president, he is declared elected. (5) Special election by the Houses. If, however, no candi- date for president has a majority, the election is referred to the House of Representatives, which will elect one of the three highest candidates. In this case the members vote by states, not as individuals. This has not happened since 1825, when John Quincy Adams was elected. If no one has a majority for vice president, the Senate makes the choice, voting individually. Richard M. Johnson was elected this way in 1837 — the only time it has occurred. How much of this process of choosing the president could be safely done away with? Do you think of any possible improve- ments in any step of the process ? Review the story of the presidential election of 1876. How did the Electoral Count Act of 1886 aim to prevent the repetition of the events of 1876-77? 103. Succession to the Presidency. — If the President dies, resigns, or is removed, the Vice President becomes president. He also will act as president if that officer is temporarily unable to serve for any reason, though thus far no occasion has arisen to make this necessary. It is evident that the office of vice president ought to be filled with almost as much care as is shown in choosing the president himself. The sad experience of the Whig party with Tyler and the Republicans with Johnson when those men unexpectedly became president ought to have taught parties to be careful in making nominations for the vice presidency. But in practice the candidates for this office are selected to represent a certain state or section or a disappointed faction of a party more often than for any other reasons. Like an extra wheel on an automobile, a place has to be found to put the Vice President while waiting for an emer- gency in which he may be used. The Constitution therefore 178 Our Chief Executive makes him the regular presiding officer of the Senate. This is not an attractive place for a man of active disposition, and on that account men of real ability have sometimes objected to being chosen for the position. What vice presidents became "accidental" presidents? Were any of them afterward given a regular election to the presidency? Can you think of any way of increasing the dignity of the office of vice president ? The Constitution gives Congress the power to arrange for the filling of vacancies in the presidency that may occur when the vice presidency is itself vacant. The law now in force provides that the heads of the executive departments, commonly known as the Cabinet, shall form the line of suc- cession, as far as those departments were in existence when the law was passed. The Secretary of State heads the list, followed by the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of the Interior. Why is it unlikely that any one further down the list than Secretary of State will ever act as president ? If the successful presidential candidate should die between the November election and the second Monday of January, what do you suppose would be done about it? What if he should die between tha latter date and the 4th of March ? 104. Powers and Duties of the President. — It will be noticed that while the president is primarily the " chief executive " of the nation he has some duties that are con- nected with lawmaking and some that have also a judicial phase. (1) It is his duty to see that " the laws be faithfully exe- cuted." He can actually do very little of this kind of work himself, but his attitude toward the enforcement of laws and toward the faithful performance of duty by subordinate officers will have a tremendous moral effect upon the whole administration of the government. (2) He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the Powers and Duties of the President 179 United States and of the state militia when called into the federal service. He may use this power in any way that is necessary to make the laws of the comitry obeyed. Al- though a declaration of war can come only from Congress, the president could so use the army and navy as to make war almost inevitable. No president has ever abused this Courtesy of Fennsylcania RaUroad Company Cadets of Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. power, but if he should try to do so Congress could restrain him either by impeaching him or by refusing to spend more money on the army and navy. Could the president take actual command of an army in the field in time of war ? Would he be likely to want to do so ? (3) He appoints all officers of the United States whose appointments are not otherwise provided for, subject, with some exceptions, to the approval of the Senate. Such ap- pointments made when the Senate is not in session will hold good until the close of the next session of that body. The requirement of the Senate's approval has led to the 180 Our Chief Executive practice known as " Senatorial courtesy." In accordance with this notion, if a man appointed to office is not satis- factory to the senators from his state, he may be rejected without regard to his fitness for the position. Presidents of course make occasional mistakes in appointments, and it may be well to have a check upon them. But it is nothing short of disgusting to witness the Senate rejecting a good man merely because a senator has a personal spite against him. Along with the power of appointment goes the duty of signing the commissions of officers and the power to remove them from office. This rests entirely with the President. Federal judges, however, though appointed by him, can be removed only by impeachment. (4) He may make treaties with foreign countries. As there is no limit to the subjects with which a treaty may deal, from the protection of game birds to the buying of provinces, a wide field is opened in which the President may undertake acts of far-reaching importance. In this matter, as in making appointments, the approval of the Senate is necessary, and here a two-thirds vote is required. In making treaties, therefore, the attitude of the Senate must always be kept in mind. Frequently the President directs the Secretary of State, one of our foreign ministers, or some persons specially ap- pointed, to do the actual work of treaty-making. A treaty is often named after some one who has had a hand in mak- ing it. Do you think it is wise to tie the President's hands somewhat in treaty-making by requiring ratification by the Senate? Most countries do not do that way. (5) He decides whether to receive persons sent from other countries as ambassadors or ministers. The use of this power often determines whether another country shall be recognized as independent or which of two contending par- Powers and Duties of the President 181 ties shall be regarded by the United States as the lawful ruler in some other country. It might happen that so serious a question as peace or war could hang on the president's decision in exercising this power. The whole Mexican poUcy of President Wilson's administration rested on his refusal to deal with Huerta as the rightful head of the Mexican govern- ment. (6) He must act upon all measures passed by Congress. Since it is very rare that a two-thirds vote can be secured in Vkl" - r .- '--i 9 ->'■ Si:AtL i:^"...!. "S-^-.; .V./'^:.'. =^^ • ^^_-L_^^iV=^ -- /^ J- >- ._.^»' — ',^ ^^ "/ ,* '^^^'^ - - ,^t m m: President Wilson Addressing Congress. Congress to pass a bill over his veto, this power gives the president much to say about lawmaking. Cleveland vetoed several times as many bills as all other presidents put to- gether, but they were largely private pension bills. Some presidents get the same results by notifying the leaders in Congress privately that a certain bill will be vetoed if passed, and urging them not to allow it to get through Congress. (7) He prepares a message to Congress at the beginning of each session and at such other times as he thinks desirable. The chief object of this is to recommend some matter for 182 Our Chief Executive Congress to act on, though sometimes, as the Constitution suggests, he may give them some " information of the state of the Union " which they had not received through the newspapers or otherwise. In order to obtain such informa- tion himself, he may require reports from the heads of the departments under his supervision on matters which concern their departments. For a long time the presidents, beginning with Jefferson, who was not a good speaker, sent these messages in writing. But President Wilson, believing that a message delivered in person would receive much better attention, restored the custom of the first two presidents of presenting his messages before the houses meeting in joint session. (8) He may call a special session of Congress when he thinks the needs of the country demand it. If the two houses disagree about the time of adjournment, the President may fix the date. (9) He may grant reprieves and pardons to persons con- victed of crimes against federal laws. A reprieve is a delay in carrying out a sentence. A pardon releases a person from whatever part of a sentence has not been carried out. He may also exercise the power of commutation, that is, making a sentence less severe. This form of judicial authority is a survival of one of the old powers of the English king. It does not extend to cases where an official has been impeached, else one of the checks which Congress has upon the other two departments would be made almost worthless. This power might be abused by a president to set lawbreakers free, but no one has ever done so or is likely to do so. In fact, the worst charge that can be truthfully made against any of our presidents is that they have made mis- takes, and have at times done the thing that seemed most advantageous politically rather than that which demanded the highest moral courage. But they will compare more than favorably with any line of rulers that any other country has ever had. Special Topics 183 Is there any respect in whioh you think the power of the President should be increased or diminished? Mention some important occasions when the action of the President determined the course of American History. What questions of precedent or authority were raised by President Wilson's participation in the Peace Con- ference at Paris? QUESTIONS Why is the office of president important? Compare it with positions of prominence in other countries. Explain the law and custom in regard to the President's term. Do you think there should be a limit to a person's holding any office ? Tell the main facts about the inauguration of the President. What compensation does he get for his services? Is it enough? What quaUfications must he possess? Why? Mr. Bryce has written on "Why Great Men are not Chosen President"; should that be taken as a reflection on the men who have served in that office? If not, what does it mean ? Can you mention any cases when some- thing else than real fitness for the office had something to do with the election? How are presidential candidates nominated? Explain the electoral college : its numbers and its functions. Why is the vote of a state rarely divided? Wherein does the process you have de- scribed differ from what the makers of the Constitution intended? How large a vote of the electors is necessary to cause an election? What happens if no candidate gets so many as that? When has such a thing occurred ? Should the office of vice-president command much respect? Does it? What is the order of succession to the presidency below the vice-president? Siunmarize the powers and duties of the President. Are his powers limited more or less than they should be? What is the im- portance of the message and how is it delivered? Define reprieve; pardon; commutation. SPECIAL TOPICS The White House. The Life of the President. Our Present President. CHAPTER XII NATIONAL ADMINISTEATIVE DEPAETMENTS The jiKry essence of free government consists in considering offices as public trust, bestowed for the good of the country. — Calhoun. 105. Development of the Cabinet. — The Constitution nowhere states that there shall be a Cabinet. In Article II, Section 2, there are two allusions to the heads of depart- ments, but everything else about the Cabinet is the out- growth of custom, not of the Constitution or of any law. The ten executive departments are each established by act of Congress, but in no law are they required or assumed to act together. In Washington's presidency four officials composed his list of advisers — the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney- General. In 1798 the Secretary of the Navy was added. In 1829 the Postmaster-General, whose office had existed for many years, began to be considered one of the Cabinet. In 1849 the Secretary of the Interior was provided for, and in 1889 the Secretary of Agriculture. In 1903 a new depart- ment was created which ten years later was divided into two, headed by the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of Labor. Who are the present members of the Cabinet ? Recall any past Cabinet oflficers whose service was marked by notable accomphsh- ments, 184 Functions of the Cabinet 185 106. Functions of the Cabinet. — There are two definite functions which the Cabinet, either by law or custom, has come to exercise: (1) Each member is the head of an administrative depart- ment, and some members have authority over many thou- sands of subordinate officials and employees. For the management of his depart- ment each Cabinet member is responsible to the Presi- dent, who appoints him for a term corresponding to his own, but who may remove him at will. (2) The members, either individually or as a group, act as advisers to the Presi- dent. Washington was in the habit of consulting them separately, but in a short time the custom was estab- lished of holding meetings at which all the members might express opinions on ques- tions of public poUcy. Now regular meetings are held at a fixed hour twice a week and special meetings at such times as the President wishes them. Sometimes the President asks the Cabinet to agree on a policy which the administration will follow in dealing with a certain matter ; but he reserves the right either to disagree with their recommendations or to pursue a policy on his own responsibihty, as Lincoln did in issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. The mem- bers sometimes differ in their opinions; but if a member found himself seriously or repeatedly at variance with the President or his associates, he would probably reheve the embarrassment of the situation by resigning. Show how Congress might exert partial control over the Cabinet. Office of the Secretary of the Treasury. 186 National Administrative Departments 107. Comparison with the English System. — Although we have taken the word " Cabinet " from the English govern- ment, their Cabinet is so different from ours that some of the distinctions should be carefully noticed. (1) The English Cabinet members have seats in Parliament. (2) The English Cabinet proposes the important laws of Parliament and has gen- eral control of Parliamen- tary proceedings. (3) The members of the English Cabinet belong to the party which controls the House of Commons, and will resign if they cannot keep control of that body. Their term of ofSce depends on their abiUty to keep command in Parliament. (4) The offices included in the English Cabinet some- times vary in different minis- tries, and the pay varies with the office. (5) The English Cabinet act as a unit with the prime minister, or premier, as the real head of the government. Our Cabinet cannot be members of Congress. Why? Our Cabinet can do no more than recommend that Congress pass a bill or get a member to introduce a bill as a favor. Our Cabinet are usually members of the President's party, which may not happen to be the party that controls Congress. They may stay in office as long as they please the President, subject only to the impeachment power of Congress. The membership of our Cabinet does not vary except as new offices are perma- nently added, and the salary is uniform ■ — now $12,000 a year. Our Cabinet do not have to agree on all matters. No one member can control any officials except his own sub- ordinates, and all are subject to the will of the President. In short, the United States has the presidential system of government, with responsibility for administration centered State Department 187 in the President's hands. England has the parliamentary system, with responsibility centered in the Cabinet, which is really a committee of Parhament. The English system makes no attempt to separate the three departments of government, — executive, legislative, and judicial. Most governments follow the Enghsh cabinet system. Which system makes it easier to change the govermnent to agree with changes in public sentiment? How far, if at all, would you advise either Great Britain or the United States to adopt the other's methods of government ? 108. State Department. — If there is any distinction in rank among the departments in the Cabinet, first mention should go to the Department of State. The Secretary of State and three Assistant Secretaries are at the head of it, and the Coim- selor advises it on points of international or do- mestic law. It has two kinds of work to per- form, which do not have any necessary connec- tion with each other. (1) The department directs the administra- tion of foreign affairs. It deals with foreign ministers to this country and has supervision over our own representa- tives in foreign lands. It is frequently intrusted with the work of making treaties. The Secretary of State should be a skilled diplomat, and many of them have been so. Men like Adams, Seward, Blaine, and Hay rank high among the diplomats of the world. (2) The department has various clerical duties. It keeps the originals of all laws and treaties and causes copies of them to be pubUshed. It also has charge of the great seal of the Entrance to the State, War, and Navy Building. 188 National Administrative Departments Front of the Treasury Building. United States, which must appear on the President's procla- mations and on many other pubhc documents. 109. Treasury Department. — The Department of the Treasury has the oversight of the financial affairs of the United States. The Secretary of the Treasury has general responsibility for the management of the entire department. He has three Assistant Secre- taries. The Treasurer of the United States is in actual charge of the keeping of the government's money. The Comptroller of the Currency has special duties in connection with the national banks of the country. The Register of the Treasury keeps a record of all paper money, bonds, and the like, issued by the government. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue supervises the collection of internal taxes, such as those on tobacco and liquor. The Director of the Mint has charge of the coining of money, and the Superintendent of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing has charge of the printing of the paper money and certificates of all kinds. There are several Auditors, who inspect the accounts of the other Cabinet departments. The Secret Service was originally established to detect counterfeiters and so was placed in this department, al- though it does many other kinds of work. The Surgeon- General of the Public Health Service and the Captain Commanding the Coast Guard, under whose direction is the Life-Saving Service, are other officers in the Treasury department who do not seem to have any special reason for being in that department rather than somewhere else. The total number of clerks in customhouses, tax collectors. The Army 189 and employees of all grades makes the payroll of the Treasury department a very extensive one. 110. War Department. — The Department of War has charge of the United States Army and of activities connected with the national defense, such as the fortification of the coasts and the improvement of rivers and harbors. One of the greatest engineering works of all the ages, the Panama Canal, was constructed under the direction of Colonel George W. Goethals and his assistants from the Engineering Corps of the army. At the head of the Department is the Secretary of War, with three assistants. They are not usually military men. The management of the department's affairs is done through several bureaus, such as those headed by the Quartermaster- General, who provides supplies for the army except food ; the Commissary-General, who suppUes the food ; the Chief of Ordnance, whose work is to provide the weapons ; the Surgeon-General, who looks after the army's health, and others. As a connecting link between the War Department and the army itself, a General Staff was created in 1903 on the recommendation of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root. The head of this group is the Chief of Staff, who is, for the time being, the acting head of the army. The other members are army officers of different grades. Their work is to recom- mend plans for national defense, to make suggestions in regard to the needs of the army, and in general to harmonize the work of the department and the army. 111. The Army. — All able-bodied men of the ages of 18 to 45 inclusive are legally included in the militia, and are therefore liable to be called on for military service in times of necessity. Their number to-day counts up over 20,000,000. But only a small fraction of these have the least idea how to use a gun or to care for themselves in camp. In time of war such ignorance might be disastrous to the nation. The experiences of nations in the great world- 190 National Administrative Departments conflict have convinced many Americans that every man physically capable of receiving military training should be compelled to have a certain amount of it. The American people, however, like the British, do not take kindly to compulsory service in times of peace, and one cannot now predict with certainty what our permanent poUcy will be. The entry of the United States into the Great War was marked by one great change from our past custom. Instead of calling for volunteers in large numbers, REGISTRATION CERTIHCATE. To wBom it nay concern. Greetings: ^^imMt ^°' __ ^ittsiiiuG^j (Th» number inutt coirapond wilb THESE PRESENTS ATTEST \WW^ that oo the RegHbaUoD CanL; That in accordance with the proclamation of the President of the United States, and in compliance with law. (Nsme; (City or P. O.) Precinct G)unty of , Stale of has submitted himself to registration and has by me been duly registered this . day of . 1917. lUcJatrar. Certificate of Registration under Selective Draft Act of 1917. Every man who registered received one of these certificates. Congress passed an act requiring the registration for possible service of all men of the ages 21 to 30 inclusive, and from these, with certain exemptions, troops were drawn. Later all men within the militia age were required to register. 3,700,000 men were in France or were in training here before the armistice was signed which ended the fighting. Before this occurred. Congress had raised the strength of the army in peace time, always pitifully small, to a maximum of 175,000, and had provided for bringing the National Guard of the states directly under federal control. In addition to Navy Department 191 the supply of trained officers furnished by the National Mili- tary Academy at West Point, N. Y., special training camps for officers and men were authorized at Plattsburg, N. Y., and other places. Here men who were interested in mihtary life or were impelled by a sense of duty to learn something about it, were given an acquaintance with it without being required to enhst in the regular army. A Squad at the Plattsburg Training Camp. Jotn D. Rockefeller, Jr., is quoted as saying ttat compulsory mUitary training for all men would be the strongest possible in- fluence toward democracy. Do you agree witb Mm? Why? 112. Navy Department. — This department has charge of the construction, equipment, and repair of war vessels, and the general direction of their operations. Congress has appropriated money for building a government armor plant which will be under this department's direction. The Naval War College at Newport and the Naval Academy at Annapohs are also controlled by it. The men at the head of the department are the Secretary of the Navy and one Assist- 192 National Administrative Departments ant Secretary. Presidents have been known to appoint men to these positions who have seldom been aboard a warship. Several bureaus administer the work of the department, such as the Bureau of Yards and Docks, of Ordnance, of Steam Engineering, and of Construction and Repairs. There is a General Board, composed of officers whose duty it is to give advice and recommendations concerning the policy and management of the navy, but it is not at all the equiva- lent of the General Staff in the War Department, and each bureau operates more or less independently. The naval officers of high rank are alternated between service at sea and shore duty in connection with one of the bureaus or elsewhere. 113. The Navy. — The opinion has been common in this country that a strong navy is more necessary to our safety than a strong army, because most of the enemies whom we might have to meet could approach us only by sea. After years of neglect, a " bigger navy " policy was adopted and ships were built until we were surpassed only by Great Britain, but before the Great War Germany passed us. Between 50,000 and 60,000 officers and men are in service in time of peace. One unfortunate feature of naval construction is the cost of keeping a navy up to date. New inventions and improve- ments have followed each other so rapidly that a ship is hardly more than completed before a new idea in construc- tion makes it a back number, and in a few years it is worth not much more than so much junk. The dreadnaught, the battle cruiser, the submarine, and the aeroplane, "the latter having its uses on both land and sea, have shown surprising developments in late years. Some have hesitated to favor spending much money on war vessels for fear it would be money utterly thrown away. Our national dock yards have been used chiefly for repair work. The building of the vessels has most often been done by contract with a private ship- building firm. The Naw 193 Copyrigtii. Keystone View Co. War Vessels in San Diego Harbor, California. In the foreground are submarines, with larger vessels in the distance. Admitting that some form of national defense is necessary, do you favor a large army or a large na^-y? To -what type of warship do you think we should give greatest attention? Does Great Britain need a navy more than we do ? 194 National Administrative Departments 114. Department of Justice. — Not organized as a depart- ment till 1870, though its head, the Attorney-General, was an oflBcer in the first of our Cabinets, the Department of Justice is perhaps the least known of any. Yet some official of the department conducts every case in the federal courts in which the United States is concerned. And the Attorney- General is the chief adviser of the President and other federal officers on points of law and constitution. Next to the Mail Trucks Loading up with Sacks to be Taken to the Railroad Station . Attorney-General come the Solicitor-General, seven assist- ant attorneys-general, and a solicitor for each of several other departments of the Cabinet. 116. Post Office Department. — No branch of the national government reaches the ordinary citizen as directly and as often as the Post Office Department. The carrier who brings the mail to our door or the country postmaster who hands it out from the office window is a familiar figure to every child, yet they are just as truly officers of the United States as the President himself. It is a great business that Uncle Sam is engaged in, this job of carrying the mail — one of the very few business Post Office Department 195 enterprises, in fact, that he conducts. He allows no one else to engage in the same business and does not care very- much whether he makes money at it or not. For his main object is to render as much service as he can, and some postmasters-general have cared too little whether they made both ends meet. Besides carrying letters, cards, magazines, papers, and parcels of all kinds, and exchanging them with other coimtries all over the globe, the department conducts a postal savings bank. At every office of importance any person may open a savings accoimt and deposit a sum up to $2500 on which the government will pay 2 per cent interest. At this low rate there is almost no competi- tion with private banks ; but as some people will trust the gov- ernment with money which they would not put in the care of any one else, money is brought into circulation which otherwise would be hidden somewhere doing nobody any good. The Postmaster-General is the head of the department. There are four assistant postmasters-general and several chiefs of divisions who are responsible for a certain part of the business. There are about 54,000 post offices scattered all over the coimtry, each of which has its postmaster and such clerks and carriers as it needs. Very many rural de- livery routes have been established in late years, and as these take the farmer's mail almost to his own door many country post offices have become uimecessary. The salary of the postmaster depends on the amoimt of business done by the office. Formerly appointments were made on the The Postman. 196 National Administrative Departments recommendation of some congressman or other person in poli- tics ; but now all postmasters, the clerks in the larger offices, and all city and rural carriers, over 200,000 in all, must take an examination before being appointed and are chosen from those who get the higher marks on the examination. Mail matter is classified as first class if it is written or sealed; second class if magazines, newspapers^ or other periodicals published at least four times a year ; third class if circulars, photographs, or other printed matter than books and periodicals ; and fourth class or parcel post if merchan- dise or books. In carrying parcels and selling money orders competition has been permitted, and a person might take his choice between having Uncle Sam or a private express com- pany do it for him. During the Great War the express busi- ness was taken over by the government. Find out the main facts about the rates charged for the different classes. Is there any reason why the postage on newspapers and magazines should be so much less than it costs to carry them ? 116. Department of the Interior. — Perhaps the easiest way to explain the varied duties of the Department of the Interior is to say that it supervises aU the activities of the federal government in domestic matters which are not assigned to some other department. At its head are the Secretary of the Interior and two Assistant Secretaries, and it is subdivided into several bureaus, each presided over by a commissioner or director. In explaining briefly the duties of these officers we can sketch the functions of the department. The Commissioner of the General Land Office has charge of the public lands of the United States and superintends the surveying and selling of them. The Commissioner of Pensions directs the examination of claims for pensions for those who have served in the army or navy of the United States or who were dependent upon them, and oversees the regular quarterly payment of pen- sions to those whose names are on the roUs. Our govern- Department of the Interior 197 ment has been very generous in this respect. There have been at times a miUion names on the Ust at once, and a total of over four billion dollars has been paid from the treasury for this purpose since the Civil War. Should a pension be regarded as a right or a favor? The Commissioner of Indian Affairs looks after the interests of the Indians who are still Uving as tribes on reservations. Their education, the protection of their rights, the assign- ment of land to them as individuals, are examples of his Jupiter Terrace, Yellowstone Park. ' The National Parks are under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior. duties. No longer can our government be accused of treating the red men imjustly, but the reform was a long time coming. The Commissioner of Patents has charge of the grant- ing of patents. These give to an inventor the right to con- trol the manufacture and sale of an invention for a period of 17 years. The commissioner has a considerable force of assistants and examiners to look into the various claims and decide which are Just and worthy. The Patent Office, which preserves plans or models of hundreds of thousands of inventions of all grades of merit, is a remarkable institution. 198 National Administrative Departments The Commissioner of Education has the duty of collecting facts and figures in regard to educational conditions in the country and of publishing them for the benefit of school officials and the pubhc. He has no actual authority over the schools in any state, but indirectly has been able to give inspiration and help and advice that have often been valuable. The Director of the Geological Survey is in charge of the study of the geological formation of the different parts of the land. Especially his office tries to discover the location and extent of the mineral deposits of the country. The Director of the Reclamation Service is concerned with the irri- gation of the desert lands and the construction of the great dams and reser- voirs which provide the water to make these lands fit for cultivation. Much money has been invested by the government in this enterprise, with results that are wonderfully encouraging. The Director of the Bureau of Mines conducts the work of the government for the preservation of the mineral re- sources of the country, the wise and careful operations of the mines, and the safety of the men employed in them. 117, Department of Agriculture. — Beginning in a modest way its work along lines intended to benefit the farmers of Courtesy of l/ie Reclamation Service Shoshone Dam, Wyoming. This is 328 feet high and 200 feet across the top. Department of Agriculture 199 the country, the Department of Agriculture has taken up a wide range of activities important to the health and prosperity of all classes of people. It is headed by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Assistant Secretary, and its work is divided among several bureaus. Waiting for Inspection. A section of a large stockyard, showing its general structure. Federal inspectors are stationed at all such places where interstate trade is con- cerned. Best known of these is doubtless the Weather Bureau. Weather statistics are twice daily gathered by it from all sections of the covmtry, and forecasts are published which have been the means of saving Hves and property to an extent which cannot easily be measured but which must be very great. The Bureau of Animal Industry inspects meat intended for interstate or foreign shipment, and tries to prevent diseases among cattle. 200 National Administrative Departments The Bureau of Plant Industry tries to find methods of improving crops, introduces new varieties, and studies the prevention of the growth of weeds and harmful plants. The Bureau of Forestry has charge of the national forest reserves, plants trees for future use, and has tried to arouse the people to the dangers of wanton cutting down of our forests. The Entomologist studies bugs and insects and the means of preventing their ravages. The Experiment Stations at various places, especially at the state colleges aided by. appropriations from the national treasury, try to learn the crops that can best be grown in certain sections and the conditions most favorable to their growth. The Chemist examines foodstuffs and drugs that are on the market, to find whether they contain adulterations or poisonous or otherwise harmful ingredients. His work is of great value to the public health. 118. Department of Commerce. — The name of this department suggests its work — to attend to the interests and needs of American commerce and trade. Like several others it has a Secretary and an Assistant Secretary, and is organized in bureaus. Of these the Census Bureau is the most familiar. Every ten years it takes a complete census of the population of the United States, and in the meantime is engaged in tabulating its returns and in gathering and publishing statistics concerning the industries and the people of the land. The Bureaus of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, of Lighthouses, of Fisheries, of Navigation, and of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey, are the most important phases of this department's activities. 119. Department of Labor. — The infant among the administrative departments is the Department of Labor. It interests itself in gathering information about conditions in the world of labor and industry and in trying to improve them. The Bureau of Immigration receives and inspects Interstate Commerce Commission 201 the hundreds of thousands of foreigners who come to our ports every year and tries to direct to a proper place those who are admitted. Hand in hand with this bureau works the Bureau of Naturahzation. Its heads try to keep in touch with the foreigners who have come here to stay and to direct their steps toward American citizenship. It cooperates with night schools in the cities and otherwise does everjrthing possible to fiu-ther the steps of the immigrant toward in- telligent citizenship. The Children's Bureau is a new venture, resulting from the thought that it was ludicrous to spend thousands of dollars improving the hogs of the country and not put a cent on the study of the children. Anything that concerns the health, the occupations, or the welfare of children is within the scope of this bureau. 120. Interstate Commerce Commission. — Three impor- tant commissions deserve special mention. They are not directly connected with any department of the Cabinet, but are responsible to the President and make reports directly to him or to Congress. The Interstate Commerce Commission was organized by Congress in 1887, to take advantage of the neglected power to regulate interstate commerce. Since then its powers have been greatly increased. It has nine members, each of whom gets a salary of $10,000 a year. They earn it. They have jurisdiction over all matters arising under the laws governing interstate commerce as far as they affect railroads, express companies, telegraph and telephone companies, sleeping car companies, and oil pipe lines. They investigate supposed violations of these laws and have power to bring such cases before the courts. Changes in rates which are proposed by the companies under the super- vision of the Commission must have its approval, and the Commission itself has the right to fix the maximum rate which mav be charged. 202 National Administrative Departments Appointments to this Commission have been made by the presidents without regard to politics, and the value of its services in securing fair treatment to shippers and the general pubhc is not likely to be reckoned too highly. Safety in travel and sound management of the roads themselves can be partly credited, too, to the work of the Commission. 121. Civil Service Coipmission. — It is too bad that the American people had to let the " spoUs system " kill a presi- dent before they reahzed how vicious it was. From the time of Andrew Jackson this custom of turning out the members of the defeated party from the offices which they held was the regular rule in the national goverimient, as it had been in some of the states from even an earlier time. President Grant and a few reformers had tried to make a change in this practice, but they got almost no support from Congress. But the murder of President Garfield by a disappointed office-seeker brought up the evil in such a way that it could no longer be neglected. Finally in 1883 the Civil Service Commission was organized. It received authority to make rules to govern the examination of pubhc officers, and to investigate violations of laws affecting officeholdjng. The President has the right to designate the offices for which a competitive examination must betaken. This can- not be required of the highest offices in any department ; but postmasters, maU clerks and carriers, clerks in the depart- ments at Washington and elsewhere, and almost aU appointees who need technical or scientific knowledge, must first pass an examination. All examination papers are marked by examiners connected with the Commission, and when a vacancy occurs in an office in the " classified service " the person appointed is to be taken from the three whose marks in the examination for that position were at the head of the list. No one would pretend that a person's ability can be fully tested by such an examination, but at least it assures the appointment of persons who possess a reasonable amount of general intelli- Special Institutions 203 gence. And for some offices the examinations require special training of a high order. Of the 460,000 persons now in the public service about two thirds had to pass examinations before they were appointed. President Roosevelt added more offices to the list to be filled by examination than all the other presidents. Cleveland, Taft, and Wilson also deserve much credit for similar service to the cause of good government. The Civil Service Commission has three members appointed by the President, with a chief examiner and such other clerks as they need. The commissioners must not all belong to the same pohtical party. 122. Federal Trade Commission. — A late feature in the line of federal commissions is the Federal Trade Com- mission. The purpose of this body is to supervise the business operations of large companies so as to prevent the use of unfair methods. It has power to order a corporation to stop a practice which it considers unjust. The Commis- sion may require reports from corporations, and may make recommendations to Congress in regard to trade .conditions affecting the United States. It has five members. 123. Special Institutions. — Several institutions with headquarters in the city of Washington exist more or less independently of other branches of the government and are important on their own accoimt. We shall mention four of these : The Library of Congress is one of the largest and finest in the world. It has at present over 2,000,000 publications on its shelves. In connection with the Library is conducted the granting of copyrights. A copyright may be granted to the author or pubhsher of a book, picture, piece of music, or other composition, allowing him the sole benefit of its pubhcation for 28 years, and it may be renewed by him or his heirs for 28 years more. The Smithsonian Institution and National Museum were founded for the purpose of carrying on scientific studies and 204 National Administrative Departments preserving a collection of objects of historical or scientific interest. The institution was started with money left by an EngHshman named James Smithson. It has assembled a marvelous collection of articles which could not possibly be duplicated anywhere. The Government Printing Office, presided over by the Public Printer, is the largest printing office in the world. It Front of the Congressional Library, Washington. prints the Congressional Record and the reports of the various departments. Several of the departments, notably the Department of the Interior and the Department of Agri- culture, issue a large number of pamphlets and bulletins containing a great variety of helpful information. These they either give away or sell at cost to those who wish them. The Pan-American Union was organized for the purpose of collecting facts and spreading information about the countries of the New World so that they may know more about each other. The Director and his Assistant try to create a friendly sentiment and common sympathy among the republics of North, Central, and South America. Their headquarters are in a fine building given by Andrew Carnegie. Questions 205 The support of this Union comes partly from the other countries of the New World. In some places graduating classes in high schools make a trip to Washington instead of spending large sums on elaborate graduation exercises. Do you think this is worth while ? QUESTIONS What offices compose the Cabinet? What constitutional basis is there for its existence ? What are its two chief functions ? Point out definite contrasts between our Cabinet and the English body which is called by the same name. Explain the duties and organization of the State Department. Name some of our great Secretaries of State, and mention some of their special services. What are the special duties of the principal officers in the Treasury Department ? Explain the services and organization of the War Department. Who are legally included in the militia ? What had been oiu" poUcy in regard to a standing army prior to the Great War ? Do you think that was the right idea? What changes in our miUtary system were caused by our entrance into the War? What is the significance of the terms National Guard, West Point, Plattsburg ? State the functions and organization of the Navy Department. Compare our army and navy with those of other countries. Should we try to keep up with them ? Explain the work of the Attorney-General and the department of which he is the head. What is the importance of the Post Office Department to the ordinary citizen? Of what use are the postal savings banks? Explain the classification of post offices. How many are there? How are postmasters chosen ? How are the different kinds of mail classified and what are the rates? Does the post office make money ? Should it ? Name eight important bureaus or divisions in the Department of the Interior. Explain briefly the work of each. What is a patent ? On what terms may it be obtained ? Is the Department of Agriculture of greater service to farmers or to other people ? Mention the principal officials connected with it, and tell their duties. What are the principal matters attended to by the Department of Commerce ? 206 National Administrative Departments Describe tlie main services of the Department of Labor. What authority does the Constitution give for the Interstate Commerce Commission ? What is the nature of its work ? Why was the Civil Service Commission created? How does it carry on its work? What presidents have been particularly in- terested in it ? Should aU offices be filled only by persons who have gained first rank in a competitive examination? For what purpose does the Federal Trade Commission exist? Do you think its powers should be extended ? Mention four impprtant special institutions in Washington and explain their purpose. What is a copyright? How is it secured? SPECIAL TOPICS A Sketch of the Present Cabinet. The Treasury Building. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The Life and Work of a Soldier. The Life and Work of a Sailor. West Point and Annapohs. Resolved, that the money spent on an army and navy, beyond what is needed for police service, is wasted. The Different Types of War Vessels. The Autobiography of a Letter. The Dead Letter Office. The Patent Office. The Weather Bureau. The Census Bureau. How the Immigrants are Received. A Civil Service Examination. (Let the class try one.) Each of the four special institutions mentioned will also make an interesting study if time permits. CHAPTER XIII OUR NATIONAL OOUETS Justice, sir, is the greatest interest of man on earth. — Webster. 124. Services and Importance. — No other courts in the world have so great power and importance as those of the United States. Nowhere else is the judicial department considered on a plane of equality with the executive and legislative, and nowhere else does it have power to set aside rulings or acts of the other departments. The kinds of cases tried in federal courts may be grouped in three classes : (1) All cases arising in the enforcement of any law of Congress, of the Constitution, or of any treaties made in accordance with it. (2) A class of cases which might not receive unprejudiced consideration in the courts of a state ; such as, disputes be- tween the states, between citizens of different states, or between a state and a foreign country or the citizens of either. In order to limit the number of cases that the federal courts shall have to deal with, Congress has pro- vided that a suit between citizens of different states must be brought in the state courts if the amount involved is not more than $3000. (3) A class of cases which would not properly come under the jurisdiction of any particular state. This includes: cases affecting ambassadors and other foreign representatives, because their personal dignity gives them too much impor- 207 208 Our National Courts tance in our international relations to make it wise to allow a state court to deal with them ; crimes committed or cases arising on the waters beyond the limits of any state ; and cases to which the United States itself is a party. The federal courts have been very careful to keep their activities within the limits given them by the Constitution. They will not take upon themselves any responsibility which the Constitution gives to any other branch of the government. They refuse to give general opinions, and insist on having a particular case brought before them, before they will render any decision on the constitutionality or meaning of a law. 125. Relation of State and Federal Courts. — We should understand clearly that the federal courts are created for the special purpose of dealing with the kinds of cases we have just mentioned, and that all others are reserved wholly to the state courts. Every crime committed or other case arising under the laws of a state, even so serious an offense as murder, is dealt with as a rule by the state courts alone. But if the defeated party in a case in a state court de- clares that the law or constitutional provision which con- cerns his case is contrary to a law or treaty of the United States, or if his rights under the United States Constitution are being disregarded, he may appeal his case from the state court to the federal court. The final decision in any case of this kind rests with the Supreme Court of the United States, and whatever that court decrees must be accepted without question by the courts of every state. Unless this were so, no strong central government could exist. May a state court declare a law of Congress unconstitutional? 126. District Courts. — Congress is authorized by the Constitution to establish courts of lower grade than the Su- preme Court. Exercising this power, Congress passed the famous Judiciary Act of 1789, of which Oliver Ellsworth was the principal author. So well drawn was this law that we hold to-day to the plan of organization set forth in Circuit Courts of Appeals 209 it. Two grades of courts are provided in addition to the Supreme Court, which is required by the Constitution itself. There is at least one federal District Court in each state, and the larger states are divided into two or three districts, or even four in New York and Texas. Each district court has at least one judge. In each district there is also a United States district attorney, who has charge of prose- cuting offenders against the national laws, and a United States marshal, who makes arrests and performs such other duties as the courts may require, including the care of con- victed persons until they have been safely placed in a fed- eral prison or have otherwise performed their sentence. There are also United States Commissioners in each dis- trict who give hearings to people accused of breaking a national law and decide whether the evidence is suflacient to make the trial of the case worth while. These courts have original jurisdiction only. That is, they try only cases which have not been heard in any other court. Every kind of crime or lawsuit that may be tried in federal courts is brought before a district court, except two rare kinds of cases that are reserved for the Supreme Court. Cases are tried before a jury, and the method of trial is in general like that in the ordinary coimty court which we shall later describe. (§§157, 158.) 127. Circuit Courts of Appeals. — A person dissatisfied with the ruUngs of a judge, or with some other feature of the trial of his case in the district court, may appeal to a higher court known as the circuit court of appeals. For this purpose the country is divided into nine circuits, each one of which contains at least three states. From two to five circuit judges — 32 in all — are appointed in each circuit. They hold court without a jury at different places in their circuit, and hear appeals from the district courts in that circuit. Unless the case brought before them involves a question of constitutionality, or for some other reason re- quires a ruling from the Supreme Court on such a point as 210 Our National Courts the interpretation of a law, the decision of the Circuit Court is final and ends the case. 128. Supreme Court. — The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. It meets only in Washington. Like the Circuit Court of Appeals, it ,has no jury, and except in rare cases hears no witnesses. Law- yers present the argument on each side of the case, and a majority of the justices is sufficient to render an opinion. It has original jurisdiction in two kinds of cases — those concerning ambassadors and other foreign representatives, and those in which a state is a party. In other cases its jurisdiction is appellate, as the Circuit Court's jurisdiction is entirely — that is, the cases to be heard have been ap- pealed from some lower court. Cases may be appealed directly to the Supreme Court from the district courts or from the highest court of a state or territory, if the point at issue involves the United States Constitution or the final interpretation of a national law. The authority of the Supreme Court is greater than that of any other court in the world. Its opinion in all matters brought before it is final, and every other branch of the government is expected to abide by its decision. No matter how much Congress or the President may wish to see a law in force, if the Supreme Court says the law is unconstitu- tional, no citizen need feel bound to obey it. Yet even the Supreme Court would not wantonly exer- cise this great power ; for it must depend upon the executive branch to carry out its decisions, and Congress may by law alter the organization of the court itself. The need for the three departments to work in harmony and with mutual respect is clear. So wisely has the Supreme Court conducted itself in almost every instance that the finaUty of its opinion is generally accepted by the country as a matter of course. Is the Supreme Court in 1920 bound to adhere to the same prin- ciples in its decisions as the Court in 1820 ? Andrew Jackson, when President, is said to have remarked on one occasion, "John Marshall Term and Salary of Judicial Officers 211 has made his decision. Now let him enforce it." What do you think of a remark of that kind ? 129. Special Courts. — A few special courts have been created by Congress to deal with matters of peculiar char- acter. The Court of Claims, made up of five judges meet- ing at Washington, hears all money claims against the United States other than pensions. If it decides in favor of a claimant, he may then go before Congress and ask for an appropriation to pay off the claim. The Court of Cus- toms Appeals is another court of five judges with power to make rulings on points arising under our tariff laws. The courts of the District of Columbia, by reason of their loca- tion, sometimes have to deal with cases that would not come under an ordinary state court. Each territory has its own courts, too. 130. Term and Salary of Judicial Officers. — All federal judges are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate, and their term is for good behavior, which gen- erally means for life. They can be removed only by impeach- ment proceedings. They are separated as far as possible from any temptation on account of popular prejudice or po- litical influence to consider anything else than their honest convictions in making a decision. The supreme justices get $14,500 a year, with an extra $500 for the chief justice. Judges in the Circuit Court and the Court of Customs Appeals receive $8500; in the Dis- trict Courts and the Court of Claims $7500, with $500 more for the chief justice of the Court of Claims. At the age of seventy a judge may resign or retire with his salary con- tinued at the same rate. But many judges prefer to continue all or a part of their work after reaching seventy. The life term does not apply to district attorneys and marshals or to territorial judges. They are also appointed by the President, and their term is generally four years. Is the life term for judges inconsistent with the general ideas of American government ? 212 Our National Courts QUESTIONS Of what unusual importance are the national courts in this country? Why are national courts needed? What three classes of cases are tried in them ? Give examples under each class. If the President wished to know how the Supreme Court would rule on a matter in which he was interested, how could he find out? Is this a good plan ? What relation do the state courts bear to the federal courts? Explain fully your answer to this question : If John Smith were convicted of murder or of counterfeiting in the courts of the state of Virginia, coidd he appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States? What are the three grades of federal courts? Explain the organization of each grade. What special work is assigned to each? Make clear the particular importance of the Supreme Coiu"t. Who are its present members and how long have they served? What special federal courts are there outside of the regular system? State the term and salary of federal judges. Are the federal courts in any way dependent upon Congress or the President? SPECIAL TOPICS The Supreme Coiu-t : Its Members and Its Customs. Resolved, that judges should be elected by popular vote. John Marshall. Some Important Supreme Court Decisions. CHAPTER XrV MISCELLANEOUS FACTS ABOUT NATIONAL 60VEENMENT Our Country . . . however bounded or described, and be the meas- urements more or less,— still our country, to be cherished in all our hearts and defended by all our hands. — Winthrop. 131. Removals from Office. — Sad but true it is that some- times Americans who have no right to ask such honor get into office. Occasionally one is dishonest. More often the fault is plain unfitness for the position. For the good of the nation such men ought not to be allowed to remain in public service. We have already noticed that either house of Congress may expel one of its own members by a two-thirds vote, and that any persons appointed by the President may also be removed by him, except judges. The same rule applies to persons appointed by lower administrative officers; but those appointed imder civil service rules may not be re- moved without cause, and they may receive a formal hearing of the charges against them if they wish it. One method provided by the Constitution may be used against a president, vice-president, judge, or any adminis- trative officer. That is impeachment. Formal charges of impeachment may be drawn up by vote of the House of Representatives. The impeached person is then tried be- fore the Senate. If the president is imder impeachment, the chief justice presides, but in other cases the vice-presi- dent or president pro tempore. If two thirds of the sen- ators present vote against him, the accused person is found 213 214 Facts About National Government guilty. In that case he must be removed from office, and may be disqualified from holding any other office under the United States. Thus far impeachment proceedings have been used only against men holding prominent offices and accused of really serious misconduct. Experience shows that it is much easier to impeach than to convict, for out of ten impeach- ments the Senate convicted only three persons. Some other means than impeachment has always been found sufficient in the cases where lower officers were to be re- moved. 132. Treason. — Lest the government should become high-handed and deny to people the right to criticize it rea- sonably, the Constitution declares that only two offenses can be considered treason. These are making war upon the United States, and giving assistance to the enemies of the country. Moreover, it is also required that a person shall not be convicted of this grave crime miless he admit his guilt in court or two witnesses testify to the same treason- able act. Under such restrictions few convictions for treason are likely in this country. The famous case against Aaron Burr fell through because of lack of witnesses, and not even after the Civil War was any one punished for treason, although in a certain sense those who fought for the Confederacy made war upon the United States. Congress may deter- mine what the punishment for treason shall be, but no one other than the guilty party himself shall lose any of his rights on account of that person's fault. The proposal has been made that it should be considered treason to attempt to kill the President. Would you favor such a defini- tion of the term? Is the constitutional limitation of the term too narrow? 133. Amending the Constitution. — Times change, and the needs of government change with them. He would be a foolish constitution-maker who did not provide some way The Amendments 215 to keep the constitution up to date by such changes and additions as experience might show to be necessary. But in keeping with the ideas of years ago the process of amend- ment was made fairly difficult, so that no amendment is likely to be adopted which is not demanded by a large majority of the people. There are two ways of proposing amendments : (1) Con- gress may propose them by a two-thirds vote of both houses. (2) A special convention must be called by Congress to propose them if the legislatures of two thirds of the states request it. Only the first of these methods has thus far been used. No proposed amendment will become a part of the Con- stitution until it has been accepted by three fourths of the states. The approval or disapproval of the states may be given either by their legislatures or by special conventions called for that particular purpose. Congress decides which method of ratification shall be used. Thus far it has always referred an amendment to the state legislatures. What advantage does either method have over the other? There is no fixed time limit to the process of ratification. No amendment thus far added has required more than four years for ratification. In proposing the prohibition amend- ment in 1917 Congress provided that it would not be valid unless ratified within seven years, but the propriety of such a restriction is questioned by some able constitutional lawyers. 134. The Amendments. — Eighteen amendments have been made. The first ten are in the nature of a Bill of Rights. They were ratified in 1791. They were really unnecessary, but were added to make it certain that the making of the new government did not take away from the people any rights which they had previously enjoyed. The Eleventh Amendment was adopted in 1798. It forbids the bringing of a suit in the national courts against a state 216 Facts About National Government by a citizen of another state. The amendment was a mis- take, and was the result of an unreasoning fear that the national courts might disregard the rights of a state. The Twelfth Amendment, adopted in 1804, instructed the presidential electors to vote for president and vice-president separately. The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth, adopted in 1865, 1868, and 1870, grew out of the issues and problems of the Civil War. Slavery was abolished and the attempt was made to give the former slaves all the privileges of citizenship, including that of voting. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth have been in part evaded in the South. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments were ratified by the required number of states in 1913. The former definitely gave Congress the right to levy an income tax. The latter provided for the election of United States senators by popular vote. The Eighteenth, ratified in 1919, forbade the manufacture or distribution of intoxicating liquors in the United States for use as a beverage. It was to go into effect one year from the date of its adoption. Numerous other amendments have been discussed in Con- gress from time to time, and some have even been laid before the states. On June 4, 1919, the Woman Suffrage Amend- ment, which had previously failed in the Senate whenever introduced, passed by the necessary two-thirds vote. 135. The " Unwritten Constitution." — Like every other people, we are in the habit of observing certain customs and practices in government just as faithfully as if they were definitely written in our Constitution. Probably it is not wrong to call these customs, as some do, the "unwritten constitution " of this country. The custom that presidential electors shall always vote for the regular candidate of their party seems to be firmly established. The existence of the Cabinet could not be more evident if a thousand laws were passed in regard to it. That the United States may annex territory ansnvhere will no The Territories 217 longer be questioned. The vital part in legislation taken by the committees of Congress shows no sign of change. One would best not be too hasty in assuming that a prac- tice is permanent because it has been observed for a long time. Only a few years ago it seemed settled that the speaker of the House would always appoint the House committees, but that rule has been set aside. Events of recent years Copyright, Keystone View Co, Harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. seem to indicate that the people may some time disregard the hoary tradition which would refuse a man more than eight years in the presidency. Yet it certainly is plain that some customs may become just as positively a part of our political practices as a law or a constitution itself. 136. The Territories. — During practically all of our national existence there has been a considerable amount of land that was either thinly settled or wholly unoccupied except by savages. About the close of the Revolution several of the states turned over to the national government 218 Facts About National Government much Mfild land which they had claimed. To govern some of this land the Congress of the old Confederation passed the famous Northwest Territory Act of 1787. So well thought out was this law that its general features have been regularly observed from that day to this in deal- ing with regions not ready to be made into states. To settle any doubt about the right to govern such .territory, the Constitution specifically declares that " Congress shall have Copyright, Underwood & Underwood Douglas, Alaska. The steep wooded slopes furnish much lumber. With all its evident newness, the town has electric lights and a fine school building. power to make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property of the United States." The form of government known as a territory was de- vised to prepare for full self-government a region which was expected to become in time a state. A governor, other executive officers, and judges are appointed by the Presi- dent for a term, usually, of four years. A territorial legis- lature of two houses is elected by the voters of the territory, but its laws are subject to the veto of the governor and to the disapproval of Congress as well. The voters of the Colonies or Possessions 219 territory elect a Delegate, who has a seat in the national House of Representatives and may take part in debates, but has no vote. Only six states of the Union besides the original thirteen did not go through this territorial stage, — Vermont, Ken- tucky, Maine, Texas, California, and West Virginia. At present Hawaii and Alaska are territories, and imder the law of 1917 the government of Porto Rico is very nearly the same. None of these seem likely to become a state very soon. 137. Colonies or Possessions. — Other lands owned and governed by the United States are called colonies, depend- encies, or possessions. Their relation to our national gov- ernment does not differ much from the relations of the well- managed British colonies to their mother coxmtry, or the royal colony in America before the Revolution. The chief difference between these possessions and the territories is that the possessions are given whatever form of government seems best suited to them, without thought of whether they will ever become states or not. The islands of Guam and Tutuila and the new Virgin Islands acquired from Denmark are directly under the authority of officers of the navy. The Panama Canal Zone is managed by a civil governor with several sub- ordinate departments. The Philippines have furnished the most serious problems in our government of colonies, because of their situation and the various races and stages of development that have ex- isted there. Our policy has been to give them steadily more and more of responsibility for their own administration as fast as they became fitted to exercise it. They have now a governor-general, and a vice-governor, appointed by the President, who must be Americans, three other executive officers appointed by the President, who may be Filipinos, and a legislature composed of a senate and a house of rep- resentatives elected by the men of voting age who can read and write some language or dialect. The Philippines elect 220 Facts About National Government two commissioners, who attend our national House of Representatives. Copyright, Keystone View Co. House Boats at Manila. These boats are the permanent homes of many families. The view in the distance shows that Manila possesses many features of a live modern city. Whether the Philippines shall be permanently retained under the ownership of the United States or given their inde- pendence has been one of the notable disputed questions of District of Columbia 221 public policy since the islands were acquired. Unfortunately the merits of the question have been obscured by mixing it with party poUtics. The latest law for Philippine govern- ment declares it to be the intention of the United States to give the islands their independence when they are ready for it. But this declaration is so indefinite that one can hardly say that we are absolutely committed to any specific poUcy. Discuss the desirability and justice of Philippine independence. The decisions of the Supreme Court sustain Congress in the right to pass any laws it wishes concerning the Dis- trict of Columbia, the territories, and the possessions, with- out regard to the acts of any territorial legislatures. In the possessions, there may even be different tariff laws from those applying elsewhere, and the people may receive all, a part, or none at all of the rights of citizens of the United States, as Congress may decide. 138. District of Columbia. — The Constitution gives Con- gress full power to control the seat of government and any other government property, such as forts, arsenals, dockyards, and other pubUc buildings. As at present governed, the District is treated simply like so much property. Its affairs are managed by a board of three commissioners appointed by the President. Congress itself acts as the law-making body. The cost of government is paid half from the national treas- ury and half from taxes on private property in the District. The permanent residents of the District do not vote for any officers whatever and have no part in their own gov- ernment. Nevertheless the city of Washington, with the Capitol, the Library of Congress, the White House, the many other public buildings, the beautiful streets and parks, is a most attractive city and its people appear to be contented with their government. Is the government of the District an example of "taxation without representation" or "government by consent of the governed" ? Is It justifiable ? 222 Facts About National Government 139. Protectorates. — There are certain regions over which the United States government exercises supervision but which it does not own or govern entirely. Cuba, for instance, is subject to intervention from the United States to put down internal disorder. Its foreign affairs and financial management must also be satisfactory to our government. The financial administration of the republics of San Domingo and Haiti has been assumed by the United States. With the republics of Panama and Nicaragua we have an imderstanding which gives us the right to offer sug- gestions in connection with certain phases of their govern- ment. The relation which we hold to these smaller coun- tries we speak of as a protectorate. The chief reason for our taking up any responsibility for them lies in their incapacity to manage their own finances. Many Europeans have money interests in these places. Since the United States through its Monroe Doctrine has commanded Europe to refrain from interfering in the New World, the European governnients rightly expect that we will assure fair and honest treatment of their rights in this hemisphere.' Partly to remove any excuse for European intervention on account of these little countries not paying their just debts, and partly to protect our own interests in the same httle countries, we found it necessary steadily to bring them more closely under our supervision. One of the greatest of our recent problems has been whether our interest and duties shall in the same manner force us to intervene and reorganize the government in that much larger but equally disordered republic of Mexico. Are there any reasons why Mexico should be treated differently from Haiti? QUESTIONS What is impeachment ? Who may be impeached ? Explain the method followed in impeachment proceedings. How may a Congressman be removed? a postmaster? Special Topics 223 How does our Constitution define treason 1 What is provided in regard to its punishment ? Why should any constitution provide a way for its amendment? Should that way be easy or hard ? What methods does the national Constitution offer? Is any change in the process of amendment desirable? How many amendments have been made? Explain briefly the nature of them. What other proposed amendments have received serious consideration ? Are there any at the present time which you would hke to see adopted ? Give examples to show that we have something hke an "un- written constitution" in this country. Is it best that these customs shall not be included in the written constitution? Tell the circumstances under which oiu- first territories were organized. Under whose authority are they governed? What territories do we have now ? Describe their form of government. Distinguish between a territory and a possession or colony. Name our colonial possessions and tell the method of government in operation in each. Why is the problem of Philippine government somewhat more difficult than that of the other possessions? Does "the Constitution follow the flag"? How is the District of Columbia governed? Is this method wise and fair ? What is a protectorate? With what countries do we hold that relation and why ? To what extent does the Monroe Doctrine bind us in our relation with New or Old World countries ? SPECIAL TOPICS The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson. The Trial of Aaron Burr for Treason. Resolved, that constitutional amendments should be adopted by majority vote of the people. Hawaii, an Island Paradise. Alaska : Its Needs and Possibilities. What the Philippines Owe to the United States. Resolved, that the United States should retain the PhiUppine Islands permanently. Our West Indian Possessions. The Story of the Panama Canal. Resolved, that the Monroe Doctrine should be abandoned as a feature of our foreign policy. CHAPTER XV OUR RELATIONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES TVe shall never war except for peace- — McKinley. The world must be made safe for dem,ocracy. — Wilson. The crest and crowning of all good. Life's final star, is Brotherhood. — Markham. 140. Basis of International Relations. — The time has passed, if it ever existed, when a nation would be justified in trying to provide wholly for its own needs without having anything to do with other nations. Commerce, the spread of knowledge about other coimtries, a common interest in rehgion, learning, and the arts of civiUzation, have drawn all parts of the world more closely together than any two ad- joining coimtries could have been in ancient or medieval times. When questions came up from time to time in which two or more nations felt a common interest, and they wished either to settle a quarrel or prevent one, it came to be the custom to enter into a formal agreement, known as a treaty, by which each party agreed to do or not to do certain things. Other customs which might not happen to be written down in any treaty came to be observed regularly by states in their dealings with each other. A Dutch jurist called Hugo Grotius published in 1625 a book which received surprising attention from the monarchs of his day, and which set forth clearly the principles which ought to guide states in their relations in both peace and war. From his day to ours the principles which he laid down 224 Rights of States 225 have been expanded and made clear by state papers of various kinds, peace conferences, and other methods, imtil we have a fairly definite system of principles which we call International Law. International Law is defined by Professor Lawrence as " the rules which determine the conduct of the general body of civihzed states in their dealings with one another." In one important respect it differs from other law — there is no sovereign authority to enforce it. It must depend upon the moral sentiment of the civilized world. In case a state deliberately disregards it, war may be the only means of com- peUing such a state to respect its rules. Notice that in this chapter we use the word " state " in its broad, general sense. It means an independent country, not one of the parts of our Union. Could the United States supply all the needs of its people in peace or war ? 141. Rights of States. — It is generally agreed that a state has a right to decide upon its own form of govern- ment and to manage its own internal affairs as long as it protects the life and property of the citizens of other states who have interests there. A state has jurisdiction over all the land and water within its boundaries, and over the waters for three miles from the coast. All persons and things within the borders of a state are subject to its jurisdiction, with the exception of foreign sovereigns or their representatives. Why was the " three mile limit " agreed upon? If the rule were being made new to-day, do you think that distance would be adopted ? Pirates may be dealt with by any state that gets hold of them, but other criminals are not subject to punishment by a state where their crimei was not committed. Most civ- ilized nations now have extradition treaties in force, under which a runaway criminal will be returned for trial to the 226 Our Relations With Other Countries country where the crime was committed, unless it was a " political " offense, such as taking part in rebellion. 142. Foreign Representatives. — In order to carry on negotiations with other governments and to look out for its own interests, modern states regularly send persons to reside in other countries and to represent them there. The foreign representatives of the United States are under the direction' of the Department of State. They are classified as diplo- matic representatives and consuls. The diplomatic representatives include : (1) Ambassadors. These were once the personal representatives from the head of one government to the head of another, and are al- ways recognized as of higher rank than any other. We send them now to 14 of the larger countries. An EngHsh- man once defined an ambassador as " a person sent to He abroad for the benefit of his country." Proficiency in that line is no longer considered essential, and that fact shows the change in the nature of diplomacy as compared with what it used to be. (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary. Their duties are about the same as those of ambassadors, the difference being chiefly one of rank. We send persons with this title to the civilized nations to whom we do not send ambassadors. (3) Charges d'affaires and other minor officers. They do not at ordinary times exercise much responsibility, but may sometimes be en- trusted with a special mission or occasionally be left in temporary charge of an embassy. Consuls are stationed in important cities all over the globe. Their duties are : (1) to assist, in any proper way, American citizens who may come into their neighborhood, such as protecting them from harm, making out legal papers, or communicating with the home country; (2) to act as the business agents of the United States, keeping an eye on trade conditions, the prices of commodities, openings for American business, and the like. Positions in the consular service as well as some in the Enforcement of Treaties and Obligations 227 diplomatic service, are now generally filled through civil service examination. The salaries paid by the United States in either the diplomatic or consular service are not large, in comparison with those paid by other coimtries. Only a man with a private income will risk the drain on his pocketbook produced by residence in the great European capitals in the station of an ambassador. A diplomatic representative takes the place of his sover- eign, and therefore is not subject to the laws of the country where he is stationed, but to those of his own nation. To a less degree the same exemption applies to members of the minister's family and to his servants. If, however, a minister so conducts himself as to be per- sonally objectionable — " persona non grata " — the gov- ernment to which he was sent may demand that he be recalled. Washington's request for the recall of the French minister Genet, and Wilson's of the Austrian ambassador Dumba, are notable instances of the exercise of this right. If the reason is merely a personal one, the other country has no right to take offense. Usually, in fact, a government will inquire before sending an ambassador whether a certain particular person will be acceptable. The chauffeur of the British ambassador was once arrested by a local constable for speeding. What constitutional or international bearing would this case have ? 143. Enforcement of Treaties and Obligations. — " In the eyes of international law treaties are made to be kept." And yet is there anything more to back up a treaty than is behind international law itself, if a state sees fit to violate it.? Unfortunately there is not. The shock to the moral sense of many neutral nations caused by Germany's inva- sion of Belgium in 1914 shows how sacred the thought of a treaty is, in general ; for Belgium's safety was supposed to be guaranteed by an international treaty. Yet there was nothing that could be done about it by a neutral except to 228 Our Relations With Other Countries Flags of Three Allies. Great Britain, United States, France. protest. No matter how wicked the act might appear, war was the only penalty that was available ; for Germany did not ask the opinion of any other nation before entering Belgium. Fortunately, treaty keeping is more common than treaty breaking, and a treaty that was honestly made in an effort to be fair to all concerned is seldom broken. A treaty which has ceased to be fair and reasonable may be annulled, if the state wishing to do so gives proper notice of its intentions. 144. War. — The last resort in settling disputes is war — that is, it should be the last. It is justified only (1) in national self-defense to protect a nation's citizens or its territory or honor ; (2) to secure necessary reparation for grievous wrongs ; or (3) to avert a threatened injury or a crime against civihzation. The extreme " pacifist " of to-day would say that war is never justifiable. In one sense that is true, for war set- tles nothing except which party is the stronger, and may not even do that. But until all nations follow the Golden Rule in deahng with others some will have to choose be- tween war and submission to wrong. Back of aU govern- ment, even good government, is force. It is the duty of a state which makes war to indicate its intention in some way, so that its own people and others who may be affected may suit their affairs to the threatened change in conditions. Often a formal declaration is issued ; sometimes the recall of an ambassador from a foreign court and the dismissal of that state's representative from the home court is done under such circumstances as to amount to a declaration of war. Is it humanly possible for a world without war to exist? Effects of War on Persons and Things 229 145. Effects of War on Persons and Things. — When war breaks out, all states automatically become either belligerents, taking part in it, or neutrals, remaining at peace and not assisting either side. All individuals, including those in the belligerent countries, are either combatants, who are connected directly with the fighting force, or non- combatants, who do not take part in or directly support Copyright, N. G. Moser, Underwood & Underwood U. S. S. Nevada. This is one of our newest dreadnoughts. The use of oil and improved methods of firing boilers make good speed possible with very little smoke. mili tary operations. Surgeons, nurses, and chaplains, even though in an army, are treated as noncombatants. AH property is contraband or noncontraband. By con- traband is meant that which is useful in carrying on mihtary operations. Inventive genius has greatly increased the num- ber of articles which can be of mihtary use, with the result that commodities, such as rubber and cotton, which once would never have been thought to possess military value, have been included in the lists of contraband goods an- nounced by governments recently. 230 Our Relations With Other Countries A careful distinction must be drawn between the govern- ment of a neutral state and its citizens. Neutral private citizens have a right to continue relations and carry on trade with either party, even to the extent of selling them miUtary supplies. If individual citizens leave a neutral country and enlist in the service of a belligerent, the neutral government will take no notice of it tmless the movement Small Canadian Custom House, Cardinal, Ontario. The special duty of these soldiers was to guard a near-by canal from pos- sible damage by German sympathizers. Nowhere on our whole Canadian frontier is there anything to suggest hostile relations between Canada and the United States. becomes open and extensive; but persons who enlist in foreign service cannot demand protection from their own government while engaged abroad. 146. Arbitration. — The terrible conflict of 1914-18 im- pressed upon every thoughtful mind the feeling that some other way than war must be afforded to settle international disputes. Great Britain and the United States have settled more disputes peacefully than any other modern states, and The League of Nations 231 several of them were settled by arbitration. Arbitration means the calling upon impartial representatives of dis- interested parties to decide or help to decide matters in con- troversy. The international conferences which met at the Hague in 1899 and 1907 caused the estabHshment of a Court of Arbi- tration to which nations might refer cases in dispute. Its services were employed several times and its decisions were always accepted. In 1914, however, Austria refused to permit the reference to the Court of the situation which was made the excuse for starting the Great War. 147. The League of Nations. — The Peace Conference which assembled to settle the problems arising from the Great War was convinced that some means of averting future wars must be sought if the world was to be safe. They suc- ceeded in formulating a constitution for a League of Nations of which all well-disposed peoples might become members. This League has an executive council composed of one repre- sentative each from nine nations, the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan, and four others selected by the assembly. In this assembly each member state has from one to three delegates, but only one vote. The executive council is to choose a secretary-general, whose office is to be permanently maintained. A permanent court of arbitration is also to be established. The seat of the League is at Geneva. All international disputes which cannot be settled by the nations concerned must be submitted to arbitration. Na- tions which go to war contrary to the provisions of the League covenant are to be boycotted by the other nations, and the executive council of the League may in extreme cases arrange for a military and naval force to compel nations to conduct themselves properly. National armaments are to be reduced and the private manufacture of arms restricted as far as practicable. All treaties must be registered with the secretary-general and published by him. 232 Our Relations With Other Countries Is this all a dream? Why need it be only a dream unless some nations want something else than justice and a square deal ? Do you think that the maintenance of the Monroe Doctrine by the United States is an aid or a hindrance to world peace? What prob- lems are likely to cause the most difiBculty for the League of Na- tions? Is there any reason why the United States should hesitate about participating in such a league? QUESTIONS Explain the conditions which make it impossible for a wise nation to live by itself. Define treaty; international law. How did international law origiaate? How great is the extent of a state's authority over persons and things? What is the reason for sending representatives to foreign coun- tries? Describe the three classes of diplomatic representatives. Name the present American ambassadors to the leading countries. Do you know the names of any of their representatives here? What rights does a diplomat have when in the country to which he is sent? Explain the duties of a consul. How is he chosen? What guarantee is there that treaties will be kept if they are made? Is there any way short of war that wiU be available to compel the keeping of a treaty? When if ever is war justifiable? How is it made known? What is its effect on persons and things? What duties are incumbent upon neutral governments and citizens? Review the causes of the wars in which the United States has taken part. Do you consider the attitude of our country justified in each case? Exactly what is meant by arbitration? Give some notable instances of its use. Have the Hague Peace Conferences been of any real value to the world? Explain the influences that brought about the proposal of the League of Nations. SPECIAL TOPICS The Requirements and Duties of an Ambassador to a Great Nation. International Law in the Great War. The Relations of the United States to the Great War. The Story of the Hague Peace Conferences. Pirates. The Red Cross Society. The Peace Conference of 1919 and Its AccompUshments. CHAPTER XVI THE UNION AND THE STATES Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. - Webster. 148. Relation of the States to Each Other. — In a federal government like ours, some of the most delicate questions of policy and administration arise out of the relations of the parts of the Union to each other. It is clear that, to escape disagreement as much as possible, matters of this kind should be stated rather definitely in the national Constitution. Only by this means, too, can such uniformity and fairness be se- cured as win make the people in aU parts of the country feel that they arp treated alike. The ConstituMon tells us that " full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state." This means that an act legally done in one state must be respected as a legal act by the other states, even though their own laws might differ on the point in question. A deed to property which has been recorded in a lawful manner in one state must be recog- nized by the courts of another state. A corporation which has received a charter in any state must be recognized by othei; states as having the right to carry on business as a corporation, even if it could not have received a charter anywhere else. Would it be an advantage if corporations were chartered by the federal government ? Would it be better if marriage and divor6fe laws were uniform throughout the country? Should such laws be easy or strict ? 233 234 The Union and the States A citizen of one state is entitled to all the " privileges and immunities " of citizens of any other state while he may be within the borders of that other state. A citizen of New York staying for a while in Pennsylvariia may claim all the privileges of a citizen of Pennsylvania, no more and no less. He has no right to violate a Pennsylvania law simply because an act he may want to perform would not Boats on the Ohio River. Smoke regulation is still in order. be a crime in New York. It is understood that it is a person's duty to keep informed as to the laws of the place where he is, and not offer his ignorance as an excuse for a habit of law- breaking. In spite of the many differences in detail between the laws of one state and the laws of another, the great mass of fun- damental principles and customs are aUke in all the states. When there is a difference, our attention is particularly called to it. We may forget the ninety per cent of features that Fugitives from Justice 235 are common to all, in looking at a part of the ten per cent in which there is a difference. Nowhere is there so much dif- ference that a person moving from one state to another would have any serious trouble in adjusting himself to his new surroundings, so far as government is concerned. There is absolute freedom of trade between the states. Intrastate commerce, that is, commerce entirely within a state, may be regulated as that state sees fit. But when a journey or an exchange of goods or messages crosses the boundaries of a state, then it becomes interstate commerce and is subject to the control of Congress. No state is al- lowed to tax goods brought from another, except for the pur- pose of inspecting them. The need for anything of, this kind is rare. Prove that a very large part of present-day industry is subject to national regulation. 149. Fugitives from Justice. — The laws of a state are not in force beyond its own limits, but a criminal may not make use of this fact to escape punishment by fleeing from the state in which the crime was committed. Suppose, for example, a person who was accused of mm-der in Cincinnati went to Chicago after the crime was committed. The au- thorities in Cincinnati might lay a statement of the facts before the governor of Ohio. He would then send to the governor of Illinois a " requisition " asking that the accused person should be returned to Cincinnati, and in ordinary cases the governor of Illinois would instruct the Chicago police authorities to do this. Many times an accused person, under such circumstances, knowing that he will have to go back anyway, agrees to go without making this proceeding necessary, but he can com- pel it to be done if he insists on his constitutional rights. Occasionally a governor, for what he considers a good reason, will refuse to honor a requisition made by another governor. No punishment is provided for such a refusal, and in the rare cases when this happens the accused person 236 The Union and the States is safe, at least while that particular governor remains in oflSce in the state where he has taken refuge. If a criminal escapes to a foreign country, the process of getting him back is taken up by our State Department, as the individual states are not allowed to deal directly with a foreign coimtry. With most of the coimtries of the world we have special " extradition " treaties covering cases of this kind. 150. National Supremacy and Obligation. — The Consti- tution of the United States and all laws and treaties made in accordance with it, shall be " the supreme law of the land, and the judges in every state shaU be bound thereby." So says the Constitution itself very plainly. If the two spheres of authority conflict, the state must give way, and recognize the higher authority of the nation. So as to assure this recognition of the national authority, all public ofl&cers of the states as well as of the nation must take an oath to support the Constitution of the United States. Some people assert that there is a "twilight zone " in which it is hard to distinguish between the authority of the nation and of the state. But the ordinary person does not need to worry much about it. If he does wrong, it makes little difference whether he is punished by the state or the national government. If he does right, neither is hkely to bother him. Perhaps in return for the recognition of this supremacy, the national government undertakes certain obUgations toward the states. It must guarantee them a republican form of government. It is very unhkely that any state will ever try to estabhsh a monarchy or any other objec- tionable style of government ; but if it should, the national government would be bound to prevent its continuance. The Supreme Court has ruled that the responsibility for deciding when a state has a republican form of government rests with Congress and not with the Court. Further, the United States must protect every state from Distribution of the Powers of Government 237 invasion by an enemy, though the state is expected to take its own part also, if such an unhappy event should occur. Finally, if a state cannot by its own efforts maintain order and put down a riot or insurrection within its own limits, its governor, or its legislature, if that body is in session, may appeal to the federal authorities for help. 151. Distribution of the Powers of Government. — (1) Forbidden powers. We must notice that some powers are forbidden by our national Constitution to both the national government and the states. There may be no ex post facto laws — that is, laws xmder which a person might be pimished for doing an act which was not contrary to law at the time it was done. Of course a law may be passed declaring an act to be a crime which had not been considered so before, but it can apply only to occasions after the law was passed. Neither may there be any bill of attainder. This is the name applied to an act of Parliament or similar body con- demning a man to punishment without giving him a trial in coiui;, and perhaps depriving his family also of some of their rights or privileges. No title of nobility may be granted here, and no public officer may accept a present or office from a foreign govern- ment without the consent of Congress. A little thought will show why it seemed wholly dangerous and contrary to the spirit of free government to allow any of these things to be done. Slavery is forbidden within our borders. All persons bom or naturalized in the United States are citizens and entitled to the equal protection of its laws. No one may be denied the power of voting because of " race, color, or previous condition of servitude." When we put the first nine amendments to our national Constitution alongside the Bills of Rights in the state con- stitutions we have a rather formidable Ust of restrictions on the powers of our governments in relation to the privileges 238 The Union and the States of the people. As a matter of wisdom the provision is also added that no tax should be placed on goods exported from any state. Some countries make use of this kind of tax, but it was feared that such a tax might hinder the progress and prosperity of the country. (2) Concurrent powers. Coming now to the long hst of possible powers that stiU remain, there appears to be one set of powers which may be employed by either the federal or the state governments. This embraces vital privileges such as laying taxes and borrowing money, and others less often mentioned but still important, such as bankruptcy laws, acts regulating weights and measures, the trial of certain cases at law, and the like. (3) Federal powers. Other powers are exercised by the federal government alone. We find here the making of treaties and alliances, the granting of letters of marque and reprisal, coining money, declaring war, or keeping an army or navy in time of peace. These are very clearly acts which if done at all can be safely permitted only to the central government. In this section we must put three other powers which are forbidden to the states although not specially granted to the federal government. (1) The states may not " emit bills of credit " — in other words, issue paper money. (2) They may not make anything but gold and silver " a tender in payment of debts." That is, a state may not force a person to accept paper money in payment of an obhgation. (3) The states may not " pass any law impairing the obhga- tion of contracts," — that is, interfering with or preventing the performance of agreements already made. Whether it was an oversight on the part of the makers of the Constitution that they did not impose these three re- strictions on Congress too will never be known. As it is. Congress has done all three of these things and has been sus- tained by the courts in the act. (4) State powers. The powers that are left are the powers Admission of States 239 which the Tenth Amendment declares to be " reserved to the states respectively or to the people." The list of them would be almost endless. The care of the pubUc health, education, regulation of local government, the care of the poor, the insane, and the sick, the granting of the right to vote, — • these are only a few of the many matters which are controlled by the states. The national government investigates some of these matters, as we have already learned, and even, through its control of interstate commerce, touches some of them with real authority. But whatever the federal government does with them is incidental to the exercise of some other power. Only the states deal with them directly. Yet one would be mistaken to think that the federal and state governments never work together or disregard each other's existence. Often they cooperate directly, as in handling a contagious disease. Sometimes the federal government leaves to the states the carrying out of its own laws, as when the districting of states for the election of representatives in Congress is left for the state legis- latures. That this spirit of cooperation and harmony could be improved is very true. But even as it is, each makes use of the other's services. Neither can forget that there are states and that there is a federal constitution and government binding them all in one. Would it be -wiser to centralize more power in the federal govern- ment ? Are there any advantages in our present system of distribu- tion of powers? 152. Admission of States. — The admission of new states is in the hands of Congress. If the new state is to be made from land wholly or partly within the limits of one or more of the existing states, the legislatures of the states that are concerned must give their consent. Maine and West Virginia are the only states which have been so formed. But most of the other states of the present forty-eight were territories before they were states, and came into the Union only when Congress got ready to let them come. There is 240 The Union and the States no law requiring any particular population or area. When a state has once been admitted, it is on fuU pohtical equality with the others, and there is no way of getting it out. One would suppose, therefore, that Congress would be very careful about this matter. Sometimes it has been, but sometimes the desire to get more electoral votes or members of the Senate for the benefit of a pohtical party has been the chief reason why a state was admitted much earlier than it should have been. Nevada, for example, had only 20,000 population when it was admitted, and even to-day you could put the people of six Nevadas in the one city of Pittsburgh. The process most often followed in admitting a new state is the following. Congress passes an " enabling act " which authorizes the people of a territory to choose delegates to a convention for the purpose of drawing up a state constitu- tion. This constitution is then submitted to the vote of the people of the territory. If it is accepted by them and is satisfactory to Congress, that body passes a resolution to that effect. The President then issues a proclamation an- nouncing that a new state has come into the Union. The arrangement of stars in the flag is adjusted soon afterward to make room for the new one. Sometimes Congress tries to insist on certain provisions which a state must comply with in order to be admitted. Oklahoma, for example, for the benefit of the Indians, was obUged to prohibit the hquor trafiic for at least 21 years. Utah was kept out for many years until the rulers of the Mormon church were understood to have given a solemn pledge that the church had ceased the practice of polygamy. When was your state admitted ? How did it rank in population then and how does it now, in comparison with the other states? Compare it also in area, total and per capita. Bound it. What direct benefits does the national government give to the businessman? to the farmer? to you? What does the state gov- ernment do for each of these ? The local government ? Special Topics 241 QUESTIONS Why is it essential that the relations of one state to another should be rather definitely marked out ? To what extent must one state recognize the acts of another? What rights does the citizen of one state enjoy when he is in another state? Which are more numerous or evident, the hkenesses or the differences between the laws of the states ? Describe the process followed when a person accused of crime goes outside the state where the crime was committed. According to the national Constitution as you read it, to what extent does it demand recognition by the states? How far does your view agree or disagree with the theory advocated by Calhoun in the days before the Civil War? How far does it concern the na- tional government or the other states what form of government any state estabUshes ? How far is the national government responsible for law and order in a state ? Make an outline or a diagram that will show the powers forbidden to national and state governments aUke, those forbidden to the states but exercised by the national government, those not granted to the national government but exercised by the states, and those exercised by both national and state governments. Define bill of aiiainder, ex post facto law, bill of credit. How many states are there ? Are any more in prospect ? What are the constitutional requirements in regard to the admission of a new state? What customs commonly characterize the process? Do you think this matter has always been wisely handled ? What general considerations would you suggest that should always be observed in this connection? SPECIAL TOPICS Extradition Treaties with Foreign Countries. The Webster-Hayne Debate. The Story of the American Flag. CHAPTER XVII OUE STATE GOVEENMENTS The Constitution in all its provisions looks to an indestructible Union composed of indestructible states. — Chase. 153. The Original States. — We must not forget that some of our states are older than our present federal government. The thirteen colonies which in 1776 declared their inde- pendence from Great Britain already had well-organized governments of their own, and Vermont governed itself independently of any of them for several years. Con- necticut and Rhode Island, indeed, used their colonial charters for state constitutions for many years after they broke away from Great Britain. Every colony had a governor. Every colony had a legis- lature or assembly, although Pennsylvania and Georgia had only one house in it.^ So in changing them- selves from colonies to states they altered their form of government very little. In several states the change amounted to little more, as far as form went, than electing a governor instead of having him appointed by the king or by a proprietor. 154. State Constitutions. — After the Declaration of Independence was adopted. Congress advised the states to draw up whatever plan of government their special needs might call for. In the four years from 1776 to 1780 all of them, beginning with New Hampshire, and including Ver- 1 Vermont had only one house in its state legislature until 1836. 242 State Constitutions 243 mont, made state constitutions, except Connecticut and Rhode Island. Most of these states have changed their constitutions since then, several of them having had as many as four different ones. Massachusetts alone has never adopted an entirely new one, but in 1917 it elected a con- vention to revise its constitution of 1780. In comparing the early state constitutions with those made in late years we notice a number of differences. The new ones are much longer. New Hampshire's constitution of 1776 had about 600 words ; Oklahoma's of 1907 had 50,000. The early constitutions were often made by the state legis- latm-e ; now. a special convention usually is called to do that work and nothing else. The later constitutions are much easier to amend, and deal with a much wider range of sub- jects. States do not seem to feel as much reverence for their own constitutions as they do for the national Constitution, and are much more ready to change them. State constitutions generally contain at least the following general divisions : (1) A Bill of Rights. We must remember that the first ten amendments to the national constitution apply to the federal goverimient only. If the people of a state are afraid that their state government wiU disregard their rights, they must protect themselves in their own constitution. It is unhkely that either the federal government or any state goverimient would wilfuUy disregard the fundamental lib- erties of the people, but most of the states seem to think that " safety first " is a good motto to follow in this matter. (2) An explanation of the frame of government of the state — its oflacers, the method of choosing them, and their duties. (3) Various provisions relating to the administration of the state government and the powers it may exercise. The tendency is very noticeable in the recent constitutions to include a great many matters which very probably ought to be dealt with by laws. Constitutions do not limit their 244 Our State Governments provisions to the fundamental things as was formerly the custom. (4) A " schedule," or statement of the conditions under which the constitution will go into effect. Outline the constitution of your own state, observing how much space is given to each of these parts. 155. The Form of State Governments. — It is best to get a few facts about our own state thoroughly estabhshed. In doing that we shall get a general understanding of the Mi^f^ ^ J i\ I a 2 i i i i i i i i i i i ,- , , I I ■ ■ ■ ' Minnesota State Capitol, St. Paul, Minnesota. main features of state government, for the great majority do not differ much in general principle. We shall at this point mention only a few common facts, showing some of the notable likenesses and differences. Name the capital of each state. Every state has a legislature of two houses. In many states the official title of the lawmaking body is the General Assembly. Massachusetts and New Hampshire call it the General Court. The upper house is called the Senate and is much the smaller of the two. The lower house is called most often the House of Representatives, but some states use the The Form of State Governments 245 140— Priatcf ■ No. File Fullo— 1188 LEGISLATURE OF PENNSYLVANIA. FILE OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. No. 240 lof i9ia ISTBODUCBD BV UB. BTEIN, JAKUABV 29, 191X BEI^XBRED TO COUUITTEE ON EDUCATION, JANUARY 29. 1913. AN ACT . hnndmt' term Assembly for this body. The officers of the two houses and the process of lawmaking are so nearly like those of Congress that it will hardly pay us to study the differences except as we find them in our own state. If possible, make a map of your state showing its division into legislative districts. At least be able to describe those in which you Uve. There has been much criticism of the quality of the members of the average legislature. Much of this criticism, imfortimately, appears to be well founded. But who is to blame ? The legislators are chosen by the people, and come from the people them- selves. Generally the legislature will be just what the voters who take part in the elec- tions wish them to be. Fault-finding is no remedy at all. Bnpplemoittnf tod umndlof •rcHoa tvo thotuaod algbt ■sd tmrntj-tav (S8M) ot artk1» lwcntj-cl{hl of u art co- tlUid "Ab act to crtabUib ■ public Kbool ijitsm In (l>« CommnivMltb ot PmujIranU totcthrr wtth the prarjitaiu by «bkb it ihili b« admlninend and prcKriUeg penaKk* tor tb« ttolatloD thenar proridlnf rtmut (o «at«bll*h and nuln- laln tha mm» aad tlw nwthgd of collcetljir neb rerennc and Rpealloc all Uwt general apeclal or local gr an; paru thereof thai are or aaj be Inranditent Tberewlib" apprared fte dcbtMBtb dar of Mar <>■>• thoiuand bine bDodrcd and •bren t? &il^ ud redDdng the mlilafe [henLii provided ror tba lerj of a ipeclal (ax in an; kLodI • district of ibe flnt claM B«sming anj bonded indebtedoeaa of an; fonner aebool diatrin nb«cbool dlilrlct or ward acbool dlatrkt vitUD Saetloa 1 Ih ■> nirfnt IW CamuoMtemlll tkt Btftait htrwbf mteud ay (A« dgfat bnndnd and il^onif of (kf tarn* TbU fentr-foor (3824) «d First Printed Copy of a Bill. This has been introduced and referred to a committee and is printed for the use of members and for public distribution. Notice the formal title and " enacting clause." Find out what is meant by lobbying and log-rolling, A few states require that lobbyists must register with some legislative official. Do you approve the plan? Draw up a bill for introduc- tion in your legislature. Hold a mock session for the discussion of the bills which the class presents. In every state the chief executive officer is the governor. His term is either one, two, or four years. In most of the 246 Our State Governments states he has the veto power and other powers like those of the president in the national government. He appoints very many executive officers, with the approval of the state senate. Three fourths of the states have a lieutenant-gov- ernor to succeed to the office of governor in case a vacancy occurs. He generally presides over the state senate. There are many other executive officials or commissions to deal with particular branches of the state's administrative work. They do not, however, form a cabinet as in the federal government, and the authority of the governor over them is usually very much less than that of the president over the national executive departments. Do you believe in having a strong governor or one with little power? Among these administrative officials appear the following : The Secretary of State has charge of the official records and papers of the governor and legislature, and has numerous other duties which vary considerably from one state to another. In Massachusetts and Pennsylvania this officer is known as the Secretary of the Commonwealth. The Auditor, Auditor-General, or Comptroller, must see that no money is spent from the state treasury unless it has been authorized by law, and sometimes has other duties connected with the state's finances. Every state has a Treasurer, who is responsible for the actual care and expenditure of the money paid into the state treasury. Almost all the states have an Attorney-General, who is the legal adviser of the^ state officials. He and his assistants also represent the state in legal cases in which the state is directly concerned. Most of the states have also an Adjutant-General, with important duties in the state's National Guard ; a Superin- tendent of Education, Superintendent of Public Instruction, or Commissioner of Education; and a Commissioner of Insur- Preliminary Proceedings in a Cpiminal Case 247 ance. Many of them have a Commissioner of Agriculture and a number of other officers whose names suggest then- duties. In some states these officials are appointed by the governor and in others they are elected by popular vote. Every state has a supreme court, though not always known by that name. Every state has also a system of lower courts. Perhaps there is more difference in the organization of the judicial departments than in either of the others. The terms of the judges run from two years in Vermont to twenty-one years for supreme justice in Pennsylvania. The general powers of the courts are about the same in all the states. 156. Preliminary Proceedings in a Criminal Case. — It will be worth while to follow from beginning to end the steps connected with the trial of a case as it would usually be conducted in the lowest organized court in a state's judicial system. We will take as an example a case of burglary. As this is an outright violation of the laws of the state it is of course a crime. Naturally the first step is to get the suspected person. The arrest may be made by an officer who sees a person com- mitting a crime or finds him under suspicious circumstances ; or it may be made after a warrant has been issued authorizing it. In the latter case a detective or some other person must have made a complaint telling why a person should be ar- rested. Next the supposed burglar is taken before a police magis- .trate or alderman, if we are in a city, or before a justice of the peace, if we are in a smaller community. The justice conducts a hearing, to find what the charge is and why the arrest has been made. If he thinks the man may be guilty, he will hold him for trial in the proper court. If the man has friends who will go on his bail, he may go free till time for the trial. His friends agree to pay a certain sum of money in case he does not appear when the trial is called. 248 Our State Governments The district attorney presents to the grand jury the main features of the evidence against the accused person. This body is composed of voters of the county. Twenty-four of them are summoned by the jury commissioners and the sheriff. If all can attend, one is excused, so that there may be an uneven number. Twelve must agree on an indictment, even though as small a number as sixteen are quaUfied to act.^ If the grand jury thinks that there is a chance of con- victing the accused, they will " find a true biU," and draw Sonoma County Court House, Santa Rosa, California. up an indictment, or formal charge, against him. If they beUeve there is no possibiUty of conviction, they will "ig- nore the bill," and the accused man will be released. 157. The Trial. — If the man is indicted, his case is set. for trial before the court. When its turn arrives, a petit jury of twelve men is drawn from the whole number who have been summoned for jury service at the session of court then being held. The district attorney or his assistant acts as the lawyer for the " Commonwealth of Massachusetts " (for example) and brings witnesses to show that the defend- ant is guilty. The accused man's lawyer does the same ' In some states the grand jury does not have twenty- three members. The Trial 249 n a B a a a D D w][|] [^ Client I D a Witnesses \ a a a a I n n n n Seats for I D n n n Spectators I D a a a I a a a a a a R^ilin; Standing Room for Spectator5 in his behalf. Each has the right to cross-examine the witnesses for the other side. Each attorney sums up his case and tries to win the jury's favor in a closing speech. The judge then " charges " the jury, telling them the laws that apply to the case and mentioning the points of fact which they ought not to overlook in reach- ing their conclusions. The jury then retire ( from the courtroom for deUberation. They must be all agreed if a verdict of "guilty" or "not guilty " is found. When an agreement is reached or it appears that no agreement can be reached, the jiuy will announce the fact to the court, and will then be discharged from consideration of that case. If the verdict is " guilty " the judge will impose sentence. This varies, according to the offense, from a few days' im- prisonment or a few dollars' fine to a heavy fine or a long term in the penitentiary, or both fine and imprisonment. In the case of willful murder the penalty is death or fife im- prisoimient, depending on the law of the state where the crime is committed. In other crimes the judge is generally allowed some discretion concerning the amount of a fine or the length of a term of imprisonment. If the jury says " not guilty," the accused is discharged and cannot be tried again for the same offense. If the jury disagrees, the case may be tried over again in the same court. If a convicted man's lawyer thinks he can convince the higher court that something was done improperly in the course of the trial, that the judge was mistaken in some Plan of a Court Room. W is the witness's chair. S is a table for the court stenographer and clerk. 250 Our State Governments ruling, or that the law was incorrectly applied in some way, he may appeal, in the hope that the higher court may order a new trial. But if the higher court decides against him, the man must serve his sentence. What kind of people are most suitable for jurors? Is that the kind that are commonly obtained in your neighborhood ? How are they secured? Some details of the processes described in Sections 156 to 158 may be sUghtly different in your state. Note such dif- ferences, if they exist. 158. Proceedings in a Civil Suit. — The parties in a civil suit are the plaintiff, who brings the charges, and the de- fendant, who is sued. The plaintiff's lawyer files a com- plaint with the proper officer of the county court, giving the reason why he thinks the defendant has wronged him and ought to pay money "damages" because of this wrong. This official notifies the defendant. If he admits the truth of the charges, judgment will be entered against him at once. If he denies any obligation such as the plaintiff claims, his attorney will file an answer. The case will then be placed on the " docket " of the Court. From this point on, the process of trial is very much like that of a criminal case. The plaintiff's attorney takes the place of the district attorney, and the jury is often called a "traverse jury." If the jury finds in favor of the plaintiff, the defendant will be compelled to make a money payment. 159. Measures to Prevent Wrong. — It is more desirable that wrong should be prevented than that it should be pun- ished when committed. Courts not lower than the county courts have the right, with that thought in view, to issue orders which are intended to prevent the commission of a crime or act of disorder. The writ of mandamus is an order to a public officer, a person, or a corporation to attend to some duty which ought to be done but has been neglected. Courts may also issue injunctions. An injunction orders a person or body of persons not to perform some act which appears to be dangerous or improper, or which may deprive Questions 251 some one else of his rights. If it appears after a time that the proposed act will not do any harm, the injunction will be set aside, but while it is in force any disregard of it may be punished. Each state has a statute of limitations which requires that, except in very serious matters, prosecutions must be brought within a certain time after an act has been com- mitted. Sometimes this works so as to enable bad men to escape deserved punishment ; but the idea underlying it is to relieve a man from endless worry of prosecution for an act which did not seem serious enough to demand attention at the time it was committed, or which occurred so long ago that to bring it up after years had passed would serve no other purpose than spite or revenge. Does the amount of money a man has make any difference in his treatm.ent by the coui:ts? 11 you were being tried, would you rather have a judge or a jury decide whether you were guilty? Study thoroughly the form of government of your own state. Learn the names and duties of its principal officers. Observe care- fully the points of likeness and difference between your state and the national government, and between your state and the general statements we have made. Always try to keep up to date with any changes in of&eials or form of government. QUESTIONS Is the nation older than the states? How much change in the form of state governments was caused by the American Revolution ? Compare the state constitutions made in Revolutionary times with those of later years. What features appear in practically all state constitutions? Take the constitution of your own state and see how much space is taken up by each of these features. Mention the respects in which the form of all state governments is alike. Give the main general facts about the legislative, the executive, and the judicial branches of the state government. From anything that you have read or have learned from other sources, do you think that the quality of men who conduct state governments is higher or lower than of those in the national govern- 252 Our State Governments ment? Who is to blame if either is below par? Should there be any difference ? Outline the steps that are taken in the process of bringing to trial a person accused of committing a crime. Make clear the difference between the grand jury and the petit jury. Describe the chief features in the conduct of the trial itself. What follows or may f oUow the announcement of the verdict ? Outline the prehminary proceedings in a civil suit. Wherein does the course of events differ from the trial of a criminal case ? Define mandamus; injunction; statute of limitations. SPECIAL TOPICS Constitution Making in Our State. A Visit to a Trial in Court. (Let the whole class attend if possible. If not, try to have a few attend and then plan out a mock trial for the whole class. If you do this, be careful about the form of oath you administer to the witnesses. No one should ever, even in fun, agree to tell "the whole truth," etc., unless he does teU it.) Most of the special work done in connection with this chapter had better concern itself directly with the government of the pupils' own state. An outline following the Unes of our study of Congress can be worked out by the teacher and the class and the necessary facts obtained from the state constitution, legislative directories, handbooks, and the hke, which practically aU state governments issue. Try always to keep up to date with the names of important pubhc officials, changes in important laws, etc., and be sure the pupils understand that state laws, customs, and officials are not as change- less as the "laws of the Medes and Persians." Resolved, that the system of trial by jury should be replaced by trial by a permanent board of judges. CHAPTER XVIII LOOAL GOVEENMENTS It is one signal merit of the peaceful and untrammeled way in which American institutions have grown up, the widest possible scope teing allowed to individual and local preferences, that differ- ent states adopt different jnethods of attaining the great end at which all are aiming in com,mon— good government, —FisTce. 160. Subdivisions of the State. — Every state is divided into regions known as counties.' These are often irregular in shape and they may differ considerably in area and popidation. The reasons for creating counties are to make it easier to manage the business of the state, to hold courts and punish lawbreakers, and to give better attention to the local needs of the people. The legislature usually has power to make new counties, but some constitutions require a coimty to be of a certain size and to contain a certain number of ■ people. Sometimes a popular vote is taken in a county where a division of it into two counties has been proposed, and the division is not made unless a majority of the voters favor it. The same reasons which lead to the formation of counties also cause many states to subdivide the counties into towns or townships. When a community becomes more thickly settled, it may be given a more thoroughly organized govern- ment and called a borough or a city. In most states a city ' 1 In Louisiana the divisions are called parishes. 253 254 Local Governments continues to be a part of the county to which it previously belonged, although St. Louis, Missouri, Baltimore, Maryland, and several cities in Virginia have no connection with any county government. Part of the states give very Uttle importance to any smaller divisions than the county ; in some of the states such divisions are called precincts or hundreds. 161. Systems of Local Government. — You have probably learned that when the early colonists came to New England there were many reasons why they kept rather close together in towns or villages. In the southern colonies the kind of farming carried on was such as to cause the people to spread widely over large areas, so that it was impossible for them to keep together in towns. New England, therefore, produced a kind of local govern- ment where the town was the center of every interest, and when the New England states organized counties it was done as a mere matter of convenience for holding courts or some such purpose. In the South, on the contrary, the county government attended to every want of local communities, and town government of the New England type was unknown. As we might expect, the middle Atlantic colonies found their needs to be partly like and partly unhke both New England and the South. They naturally produced a mixed system which had a place for both the township and the county. New York, being nearer to New England, made the town more important than did Pennsylvania. These three systems, the town system, the county system, and the mixed or county-township system, are all in use to-day. When the New England people went west they took their ideas of government along with them ; and so we find in states like Michigan or Wisconsin a form of local government with many features patterned on New England or New York. Pennsylvania's county-township system has been used as a pattern by such states west of her as Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas. County Officers ^55 The pioneers who crossed the AUeghenies from Virginia and the Carolinas were used to the county system, and estabUshed it in the regions which they settled. The states which use the county system have smaller counties and more of them. Sometimes a state like Illinois, which was settled by people from both the northern and southern Atlantic states, has allowed a county to choose for itself whether or not it would be subdivided into townships. 162. County Administration. — In a large majority of the states the county is the most important subdivision of the state. Almost everywhere the administration of justice is based largely on the county. There is a courthouse in each county, which serves as a place to hold courts and to furnish headquarters for the county officers, and almost every county has a jail in which to keep criminals. Counties have the right to acquire property for these purposes and to put up such buildings as may seem desirable. As the county courthouse is the " seat of justice " for the county, the place where it is located has come to be called the county seat. Usually a central location in the county is chosen for the courthouse. On that account we sometimes find to-day that the county seat is no longer the most im- portant place in the county, because railroads or other industrial changes have given greater prominence to some less central place. 163. County Officers. — Just as in the organization of state governments, we shall find numerous differences in the officers of counties, if we pass from one state to another. In many states the most important county officials are called county commissioners. They have general oversight of the county business, fix the rate for the county tax, and in many cases are responsible for keeping up the highways. In New York, Michigan, and some other states, a board of supervisors composed of one member from each township in the county performs these duties. The sheriff is to keep order in the county. The treasurer handles the county 256 Local Governments money. The auditors inspect the accounts of other county officers. One or more officers keep the records of court proceedings. Another officer or two record the deeds, wills, or other legal papers that concern the ownership of property. The district attorney, or state's attorney, prosecutes persons accused of crime. Most counties have a superintendent of Orange County Courthouse. Santa Ana, California. schools, and in many states there are directors of the poor in each county. We shall leave any detailed account of the duties of these and other county officers for you to learn as you study your own state. 164. The Town or Township. — The oldest and simplest of all forms of local government is the town or township. Here it is that government comes most closely in contact The Town or Township 257 with the people and here they can most directly have a part in it. Matters most vitally affecting their Uves, such as the support of schools, the maintaining of roads, the collecting of taxes, and other affairs in which each particular locality has its own pecuUar interest, are dealt with in large measure by the township government. We remember, of course, that in speaking in this way we Old Town Hall and Church, Rockingham, Vermont, Regular services are no longer held here, but an annual " pilgrimage" is arranged every summer. refer to those states which have the town or county-township system of local government. It is hard to state in general terms just how much of pubUc business is handled by the township, or what is the relation of the township to the covmty. Where the New England idea prevails, the county has little direct authority over the town, but in other states the township is thought of as simply a convenient division of 258 Local Governments the county. In some states the legislature alone can form new townships. In others this is done through the county courts or other county officers. When the pubhc lands were surveyed in what are now our middle western or far western states, they were divided, in accordance with the laws of Congress, into " townships " six miles square, each containing 36 " sections." This was first done as a matter of convenience in mapping and selling ojr giving away the public land, but it proved to offer equal convenience in managing schools, roads, and the like, after people began to settle. As a result, complete local governments were formed on the basis of the so-called Congressional township. The equal size and regular shape of such townships are in marked contrast with the angles and inequahties that you see when you look at a town map of a New England state. 165. The New England ^own. — The word " town " in New England refers to a poHtical organization rather than a group of people. It means somewhat the same as " town- ship " in other states. A New England " town " may con- tain three or four villages within its limits. The great distinguishing feature of the .New England system of government is the town meeting. This is regularly held in the spring, though special meetings may be held at other times. All the voters have the right to attend the town meeting, elect town officers, and take part in discussions of town affairs. The town meetings act on almost every conceivable thing, from fixing the tax rate or putting up a new school building to selHng a worn-out road scraper or appro- priating money for band concerts. Nothing exactly Uke this exists in any other part of the world, and no better training in democracy was ever afforded anywhere. Large commimities cannot easily permit this freedom, but its simplicity and relative inexpensiveness make the people hesitate about giving it up. Brookline, a suburb of Boston, one of the richest communities in the world in The New England Town 259 proportion to population, has 30,000 population, but is still a " town." Town oflScers are very numerous, but are never paid high salaries. The most important are the selectmen. There are usually three of them. During the interval between town meetings they represent the town and act in its name when- ever it may be necessary. The assessors or listers put a Interior, Old Town Hall and Church, Rockingham, Vermont. Observe the old-fashioned high pulpit. The date indicates when repairs were made. valuation on all the taxable property in the town. The constables are the police officers. The justices of the peace perform various legal ceremonies and hold court in small cases. The auditors, road commissioners, school directors, and all the rest, down to the fence viewers and pound keepers, have duties of greater or less importance. Short terms for officers prevail throughout New England, and one year is the extent of term for which most of the officials are elected. Where there are three of a kind, such 260 Local Governments as selectmen, listers, or school directors, one may be chosen each year for a three-year term. 166. The Township in Other States. — The New York township has a supervisor whose duties are similar to those of the New England selectmen. Pennsylvania has super- visors whose chief interest is the care of the roads. Almost everywhere we find a treasurer, an assessor, auditors, jus- tices of the peace, constables, overseers of the poor, a col- lector of taxes, and school directors. The fundamental difference from the New England system is the absence of the town meeting. The voters of a township elect its officers but have no direct part in the conduct of township business. In this system of government no particular attempt is made to distinguish between legis- lative and executive powers. Several of the township officers may be called on to exercise both. A longer term than in New England for township officers is the rule in states which have the mixed system. What form of town or township government do you like best? Do you think the New England system would work well in other states ? 167. Boroughs and Incorporated Villages. — It often happens that within a township a community of some size wiU grow up. The people of this community may want better schools, paved streets, improved street, lighting, or fire protection, which would be expensive if extended through- out the township. At the same time they may not have enough people to form a city government or care to assimie the expense that often goes with it. Some of the states have made special provision for this class of communities by organizing boroughs or incorpor- ated villages. The method of formation varies with each state, but the approval of the majority of voters or property-owners is commonly required. In Pennsylvania and Minnesota a borough becomes wholly independent of the township of which it may have formed a part. Formation of Cities 261 In some of the other states the borough or village may be organized to meet only certain special needs, such as street lighting, or fire protection, and for other purposes may continue as before to be simply a part of the township. This is the plan in such states as Connecticut and Vermont. The borough or village elects a small body known as the council or board of trustees, who become the lawmakers for their government. The Pennsylvania borough has also a ^^^^^Hbh^^^BH^^'*^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^«l^v^°'f ■ '^^K^^^KK^t^^ ^^K^^^'* 'V ^hHH|H^^^^^^^^U^^^^^^HHj^H^H I^H^^H^^W^ _,;;;>r^^^^^m f ' '«A .b^^^l ^'^^'-' --^^ l^w . -■ ... ...^„. A Macadamized Road. chief executive known as the chief burgess. The other officers are about the same as in the township. The formation of this kind of government is often a step toward city govern- ment, but some communities wait a long time before they reach that condition. 168. Formation of Cities. — We have learned that a city is a community, for the most part thickly settled, which is governed under a charter giving it extensive powers for the administration of its own local affairs. The number of people required to form a city varies in different states. 262 Local Governments Some states have no definite requirement, and may use the word for small communities as well as large ones. Others require a specified population, such as 10,000, for example. It is conunon for states to group their cities in classes, in accordance with their population. The charter of the city corresponds to the constitution in the national or state government. In some states the legis- lature passes a special law for the purpose every time a city is chartered, but in others there are general laws which all sities of a certain size must abide by when they adopt city government. In most states the city is a part of the county to which it belongs, but its only real superior is, after all, the state gov- for the legislature has power to alter city's government. Many honest sup- home Municipal Building, Springfield, Massa- chusetts. ernment itself ; completely the porters of reform in city government advocate rule" for cities. They believe that each city should have the right to frame its own charter and work out the details of its government to suit its own needs. What is the law of your own state eoncermng the formation of cities? 169. City Officials. — Most cities have a mayor, who is the executive head of the city government. In addition to enforcing the ordinances of the city, he generally has the right to appoint many city officials, and to sign or veto all ordinances of the city councils. His salary varies from almost nothing in the smaller cities to $15,000 in New York. The lawmaking part of the city government may be in City Officials 263 VOTERS Maijor -►Veto Council either one or two houses. K there is only one, it is called the council. If there are two bodies, the smaller is called the aldermen or select council, and the larger the common council. The term of office of both mayor and council varies with the city or state. It may be either one, two, or four years. Whether power shall be divided evenly between mayor and council, so that one may serve as a check on the other, or whether almost all power of administration should be placed in the mayor's hands, so that he may be held responsible for the government of the city, is a question over which the practice of cities has not been imiform. The tend- ency of the present time is toward centrahzar- tion of power in the mayor. It is the rule, however, that his ap- pointments must be con- firmed by the council, and that a two-thirds vote of :-riin peach -♦^— r^' Public WorKS Sa^e^ Charities Health Supplies Subordinate Bureaus and Officials Common Type of City Government. Notice the division of authority. Mayor and Council are so "checked and bal- anced " that it is hard to tell who is responsible for anything. the lawmaking branch may pass an ordinance over his veto. Very many administrative officials are needed in a large city, and these are commonly grouped into a few great depart- ments. Every city must have, under some name or other, a department of public works, to look after highways, sewers, water supply, and the like ; a department . of public safety, controlling policemen, firemen, building inspectors, and similar officers ; a department of health; and perhaps a department of charities and other departments to meet the peculiar needs of the city. A treasurer, a controller, a city solicitor or attorney, and others may also be found. 264 Local Governments Every city has its school board or board of education, which in many states is allowed to manage its affairs independ- ently of the other administrative departments. In many states the judicial branch of the city government is relatively less important than the others, for most crimes and lawsuits will be taken up directly by the county courts or lowest grade of the state court system. But there are always police judges or magistrates who have authority over small cases, especially violations of city ordinances, and who give Old Style Cobblestone Street. hearings to persons accused of graver crimes, just as a justice of the peace does in the township. Too often in the police courts justice is tempered with politics, and the magistrates may be men wholly without fitness for the duties they perform. No phase of the ad- ministration of " justice " is so unsatisfactory as this. It is not strange that the foreigner, who sees more of the poUce and the niagistrate than of any other public officials, wonders if what he gets from them is the liberty he heard about before he came across the ocean to us. If you live in a city, outline thoroughly its frame of government. How many of its ofScials are you personally acquainted vrith or do you know by sight ? Why is the position of pohce magistrate so City Problems 265 commonly filled by unfit men? Find out if your father knew all the men for whom he voted in the last local election. What were the leading issues in that election ? 170. City Problems. — The wonderful growth of cities has often taken place so suddenly and quietly that men have been surprised and shocked when some great problem seemed to burst upon them all at once. The packing together in small compass of thousands of people and millions of dollars Mm •'"'-J 'L Mtfiife mi mm^hwm^' §j^mMm w^ 1 A Street Corner in Pasadena, California. A pepper-tree is in the foreground. The men are taking moving pictures. of wealth would alone give rise to many difficulties. Add to this the coming of miUions of foreigners, ignorant of American life and ideals, most of whom herd in the cities, and the situ- ation is tenfold worse. National pohtical issues have attracted the attention of voters much more than local questions, except when the taxes rose beyond endurance. In some cities graft, bribery, and all the other evils of rotten politics have had their way almost without hindrance for years together. " The government of cities is the one conspicuous failure of the United States." So runs a familiar quotation from 266 Local Governments the Hon. James Bryce. We have tried to govern them by the same means which we used for the agricultural districts in the old states, and found only too late that other methods were needed. We have borrowed money by the millions and spent it on public works constructed by contractors who " stood in " with the politicians who ran the city, and we have learned after it was all spent that we should have to pay interest on it for two or three generations. Only as the best citizens are wiUing to sacrifice a little time and energy to help keep city government in the hands of honest and competent officials can we hope to find relief from these ills. Happily the situation seems brighter than ever now, and there is reason to hope that the worst of our cities' shame is past. 171. Special Plans of City Government. — Dissatisfied with the ordinary type of government, many cities have tried something new in the hope of getting more efiiciency and honesty of adminis- VOTERS III I Commissioners Manager Chartties Health Supplies tration. A plan which is now in operation in over 300 places in the country is called the commission form of gov- ernment. A small body, often five in mmaber, is elected by the voters as a commission who will exercise both the legis- lative and administran tive functions. The commission makes the ordinances needed for the city. Each member of it is the head of a department. One of them may be called the mayor, but his power is little greater than that of the others. The theory is that this small commission Public Publi( Works Safety Subordinate Bureaus and Officials The City Manager PLA^f. Observe the simplicity of it and its cen- tralization of responsibility. Questions 267 will feel special responsibility for doing its work well, and by operating all branches of the government in harmony, waste and confusion will be almost wholly avoided. In the city manager plan, which is much like the system in vogue in many well-governed European cities, centraliza- tion is carried still further. One man is chosen by the council or commission to assume entire charge of the administration of the city's affairs and he is given whatever power is neces- sary to enable him to get results. Dayton, Ohio, and a nimaber of smaller places are governed in this way. Thus far it must be considered in the light of an experiment in this country, but it seems to have worked well almost every- where that it has been tried. The state of Kansas has adopted a similar system for handling state public business. QUESTIONS What is a county? Why is it formed ? Who forms it? What are the subdivisions of a county? (Be sure you understand how things are in your state.) Distinguish the systems of local government which developed in colonial times. Which of these prevails in your state ? How does their effect appear in other sections of the country ? How and why did this come about? How many counties in yotrr state ? Can you make any general statement about their size and form ? Which are largest and smallest in area and population? How does your county compare with the rest? What is the county seat of your county? Why was that place chosen? What are the duties of county commissioners f Of what is the county board composed under the New York plan? Name five other offices which are found in county governments almost every- where. What relation does the town or township government bear to its people ? Explain the relation of the township to the other agencies of government? What is a Congressional township? Define town as the word is used in New England. Describe the town meeting and show its political significance. Mention the principal town officers and state their chief duties. Point out the differences between the middle states' township and 268 Local Governments the New England town. Which form of local government do you like better ? Why are boroughs and incorporated villages formed? What is their connection with other governmental agencies ? How are they governed ? What is a city? Explain its frame of government. What is meant by home.rule for cities? Do you beheve in it? Make an outUne or diagram of the government of your own city. What are the duties of its chief oflacials ? Why have serious evils arisen in the conduct of city governments ? How are these evils illustrated by the police courts and the public works ? What is the best remedy for such conditions ? Describe the commission plan of city government ; the city manager plan. What is your opinion of them? Would you like either of them in your own community better than what you have ? SPECIAL TOPICS Most of the special work done in connection with this chapter should consist of a definite and thorough study of the pupil's own county and of the subdivision of it in which he lives. Let him make a good map of the county, showing its subdivisions. He should be familiar with its natural, industrial, and other special features. The particular type of county government which prevails in his state, the of&ces of his county government, and the persons who hold the important positions, should all be studied. Some one might sketch the history of the county. In the study of the "Elements of Community Welfare" many of the local activities wiU have been taken up with all necessary thoroughness, and nothing further wiU remain except a connected outline of the machinery of local government and some comparison with other forms. The New England town meeting wiU repay some study, no matter what system may be locally in vogue. If you have the town meeting, by all means let the class conduct a session or two themselves and visit one if possible. Resolved, that the city manager plan of government is the best yet suggested. Resolved, that the New England town meeting system should be introduced in all townships of less than 5000 people. PAET IV PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL SCOPE A. Financial Pboblems CHAPTER XIX MONET AND OEEDIT To secure the fullest development of the resources of the country and the freest interchange of commodities and services, an adequate supply of the media of exchange is essential.— Bogari. 172. Money and Its Uses. — If every person who had a sheep to dispose of and wanted to buy a chair had to hunt around till he found some one who had a chair to get rid of and wished to get a sheep, we should say that it was a nui- sance of the worst kind. Yet once that was the only way to trade. We call it barter — exchanging one thing directly for another. It is easy to see that under such circumstances little trading would take place. As soon as a community makes much progress toward civihzation — and trade has very much to do with producing civihzation — it must have some commodity which every one is willing to take in exchange for the things which he is willing to dispose of, knowing that with it he can get the things which he himself desires. A commodity which serves this need and acts as a medium of exchange is known as money. Money helps also in other ways. We can compare the value of other things with the value of a certain piece of 269 270 Money and Credit money, and so have a way of expressing or measuring the value of any article of trade. If we make a trade to-day but do not receive or give pay for it until a later time, we can express the value of what is to be paid at a later time in terms of money. Money has, therefore, three important uses — as a medimn of exchange, as a measure of value, and as a standard for deferred payments. Without it, modern busi- ness would be utterly impossible. 173. Characteristics of Money. — A commodity to be generally acceptable as money must have some value in itself. Possibly a nation which had no business dealings whatever with the outside world could print pieces of paper and say that every one must take these as money. But if it cares to trade with another nation, that nation wants something which it can use itself in exchange for the goods it sells. A second necessity is that it shall contain enough value in a small bulk to make it easy to carry around. Otherwise the inconvenience of using it would almost offset any advantages it possessed. Again, it must not wear out quickly. Otherwise there would be no certainty that a piece of it would always retain the value it was supposed to have. Further, it must be readily distinguished from other commodities, so that it cannot be easily counterfeited. And it ought to be capable of division, so that various amoimts can be represented by pieces of money. To put the thought in a few words, money should have value in itself, and should be portable, dm-able, recognizable, and divisible. To find a commodity that will answer all these reqiiire- ments is not easy. The strings of. shells which the Indians called wampum might do for them and for people who traded only with them, but would not at aU suit an advanced com- munity. Salt has enough value among some savage tribes so that it has been used, but its durability is decidedly open to question. Long experience has shown that of all the com- modities that have been tried gold and silver meet most nearly all the requirements. Our Currency System 271 Mention five commonly known commodities which would be suitable for use as money, and five which would not be, giving reasons. In order to identify different amounts of it, governments stamp pieces of it with distinctive marks. Such pieces we call coins. Copper and nickel are used to help out for certain small amoimts. Paper is also extensively used. This fact may seem to conflict with our statement that money must have value in itself. But if the paper can itself be exchanged for gold or silver, or has gold or sUver held in reserve to make it good, it is as acceptable as the metal it represents. The great convenience of paper money makes its use very desirable if it is suitably protected. 174. Our Currency System. — Our decimal system of coin- age was adopted in 1784 at the suggestion of Thomas Jeffer- son, and is the most convenient system for reckoning in existence. For many years there was a dispute over the question of monometaUism or bimetalhsm. Should we use one metal alone as a standard, or try to keep both gold and silver as standard at a comparative value fixed by law? Most people in the United States seemed for many years to prefer the double standard, but it was difficult to find a ratio which would always agree with the comparative value of gold and silver when used for other purposes than coinage. In 1900 the present law was passed which made the gold dollar the standard for our currency. 23.22 grains of gold constitute the standard weight of the dollar. To this is added other metal as alloy, enough to equal one tenth of the whole weight of the coin. By a queer paradox the standard coin of our system is not coined at all. The gold dollar is a little too small for con- venience. We have gold pieces in values of $2.50, $5, $10, and $20 — quarter-eagle, half-eagle, eagle, and double eagle. Silver dollars are no longer coined, either, but such an enor- mous number have been coined in the past that we do not need any more. Besides, they are awkward things to carry around. 272 Money and Credit We have silver pieces reckoned at 50, 25, and 10 cents. The nickels, which are four fifths copper, and the cents, which are mostly of bronze, complete our hst of coins. There are four mints at which coins are now made. The oldest is that at Philadelphia, and the others are at New Orleans, Denver, and San Francisco. Coins made at mints other than Philadelphia are marked with a little letter to distinguish the place. Some people have a notion that the more money there is in circulation, the richer the people are. That is a big mistake. Instead, economists tell us that the greater the amount of money in circulation, the higher are prices of goods hkely to be. If we have enough for convenience in actual purchases of goods and payment of wages, much more would be detri- mental rather than helpful. The report of the Secretary of the Treasury on November 1, 1916, announced that there were in circulation $1,562,373,319 in gold certificates, $479,021,918 in silver certificates, $341,703,873 in United States notes, $770,863,158 m national bank notes, $650,123,528 in gold coin, $250,886,697 in silver coin, and $247,140,465 in notes issued through the federal reserve system. That was equivalent to about $41.18 for every man, woman, and child in the United States. If you did not have as much as that, where do you suppose it was? 175. Our Paper Money. — The paper money now in use is of five kinds. Gold certificates represent actual gold coin or bullion kept in the United States Treasury. Silver certifi- cates represent silver coin in the Treasury. The United States notes were once commonly called green- backs. They were first issued during the Civil War. They were made legal tender, that is, any one must take them when they are offered in payment of a debt. They are nothing more than a promise on the part of the United States govern- ment to pay the sum mentioned on the face of the note. If people have confidence in the United States government, Meaning and Importance of Credit 273 they are as willing to take them as any other kind of money. To-day any one can exchange them for any other kind of money, and so we would just as soon have them as anything else. But that was not true during the Civil War and they depreciated greatly in comparison with gold. National bank notes are a form of paper money issued by the national banks, and federal reserve notes and federal reserve bank notes are issued by the federal reserve banks. These wiU be explained in sections 178 and 181. It is ex- pected that within a few years the federal reserve bank notes win wholly take the place of the national bank notes. Compare the different kmds of paper money, and notice the word- ing on them. 176. Meaning and Importance of Credit. — With all the convenience which money affords, it would be embarrassing for any busiaess man to be obliged to carry with him every- where he went the money which he might need to carry on his business. Large business transactions between one city and another would be almost impossible, if actual money had to change hands with every trade. Happily credit takes the place of money in ninety-five per cent of the business transactions of to-day. Credit is simply the giving or receiving of a promise to pay in place of actual money payment. By the use of credit a merchant ia San Francisco can trade freely with a merchant in New York or Yokohama. Much less money is needed than would otherwise be the case, and our stock of the precious metals can be used for many other piuposes. Because credit exists, great business enterprises can be imdertaken which could otherwise never be risked. Even governments themselves depend upon credit for the most of the financial operations which they themselves carry on. Every private enterprise too employs it. True, it is based on the existence of money, but money without credit might be even less useful than credit without money. 274 Money and Credit To what extent is credit used in the business with which your family is connected? 177. Credit Instruments. — The forms of legal papers which we use in giving or accepting credit we caU credit instruments. Of these there are at least five kinds. Some of the Big Business Houses of a Great City. Two large department stores are in sight, as well as some costly office buildings. The stores do both a cash and a credit business in selling their goods, but it is evident that neither their buildings nor their business could exist if they had to pay actual money every time they made a contract or a purchase themselves. The simplest form of credit is book credit. When a person gets goods at a store and says, " Charge it," he is making use of this form of credit. If the merchant thinks the purchaser will pay his bills in a reasonable time, he will take the promise implied in the words " Charge it," and record the sale on his books, with the understanding that the purchaser will pay at some future time, perhaps the first of the next month. Credit Instruments 275 But often we want something more than a person's word. In that case we may ask for a promissory note. This may read about as follows : Washington, D.C, Dec. 23, 1916 Sixty days after date I promise to pay to the order of Theodore Wilson, Four Hundred Dollars, with interest at 6%. Value received. WooDROw Roosevelt. This is a definite written promise to pay at a specified time. Sometimes the place of payment is also mentioned. When the note is due, the man to whom it is owed, called the payee, may either collect it in person or turn it over to his bank, which will collect it from the bank where the man who drew the note does his banking business. Sometimes a note is cashed before it is due. In that case the bank deducts from the note the amount of interest from the time it is " dis- counted " until it falls due. Another means of paying a debt without the use of money is by check. This is a written order directed to a bank where a person has money deposited, instructing it to pay a stated amount to a particular person or to his order. Like a promis- sory note a check is usually negotiable — that is, it can be signed — " endorsed " — by the person to whom it is made out and turned over to another party. Sooner or later it will be deposited in a bank by some one, and then returned to the bank on which it is drawn. No. 9999 Cleveland, Ohio, Jan. 4, 1917 The First National Bank Pay to the order of John D. Carnegie $154.2.78 One Thousand Five Hundred and Forty-Two and -^ Dollars Andrew Rockefellek 276 Money and Credit A draft differs somewhat from a check in form, and may mention a specific time in the future when payment is to be made. Drafts are often made " on sight," also. The person who wishes to pay the money is understood to have a regular business account with the firm to whom the draft is directed. $562.00 Boston, Mass., February 6, 1915 Ten days after date, pay to Peter Henderson & Co., or order, Five Hundred and Sixty-two Dollars, value received, and charge to my account. rn T -D T.ir s (^ HeNHY CaBOT LoWELL To J. p. Morgan & Co., New York A hill of exchange is on the same principle as a draft. It is used particularly in trade with foreign coimtries, and is fre- quently made out in terms of foreign money. A person, for instance, wishing to make a payment to some one in London might buy a bill of exchange for the amount he wished to pay from a New York banking firm which has some London firm as its regular financial correspondent. The buyer can then send the bill to his creditor in London, who will present it to the London firm and get his money. Find the meaning of "two name paper," "call notes," "short term " and " long term " paper. 178. Banks and Their Services. — In speaking of credit instruments we have mentioned banks. They have acquired a position in the financial world of to-day so important that upon the soundness of a country's banking system depends in great measure its business prosperity. A hank is usually formed by a group of people who organize as an association to receive and lend money and to facilitate the use of the credit instrmnents which we have described. Banks which have been formed under the supervision of the national govermnent, which own some of its bonds, and are inspected at irregular intervals by its agents, are called Banks and Their Services 277 national banks. They have had the privilege also of issuing bank notes, based on the value of the national government bonds that they own, which have fornied one of our common kinds of paper money. Many private companies, commonly called trust companies, do a similar kind of business, and in addition make a special point of investing money or caring for the property of other persons. Congress has put such a high tax on bank notes Entrances to a Large Bank. The oldest and surest kind of street cleaning is going on in front of it. issued by any other than national banks that all the profit which might come from the use of such notes is removed and these banks do not issue them. In addition to receiving and lending money, banks may lend their credit. If a person borrows $2000 from a bank, it may simply credit him on its books with that smn and let him draw checks against it. Meanwhile it charges him inter- est on the $2000 which he has borrowed, though it may not have actually handed him a cent in real money. In receiving deposits from individuals, banks render a dis- tinct service, for in this way funds are brought together which might separately be too small to be of much use in the Indus- 278 Money and Credit trial world, but after being collected can be invested by the bank profitably. Many banks maintain a savings department apart from the accounts against which checks can be drawn. They pay a larger interest to the depositor on savings accounts than on checking accounts, for the latter are chiefly con- ducted as a convenience in business and perhaps no interest at all is paid except on large ' sums. Banks render a service, too, in discounting notes and drafts when some one wants cash for them before they are due. 179. The Clearing- house. — To require every bank to maintain separate accounts with every other bank would mean endless confusion and trouble. To let ac- coimts run for a long period without settle- ment would be danger- ous, and to settle with each bank directly every day would be physically impossible. A bank in one community therefore usually arranges with a particular bank in another community to act as its agent there, and carries on its financial business with that section through that bank. In every large city there is also an organization called the clearing house. Here are gathered each business day the 3 'Miilllll I a in ^tt : :■ II II I' »» S« ij ,1 , ^s fla 83 sa i ^i iz ti ^i i m l!,«»^UJri(t Bank and Office Buildings. Farmers' Bank and First-Second National Bank, Pittsburgh. Dangers in the Use of Credit 279 returns from each banking institution in the city. Checks and drafts received by one bank upon another are turned over to the proper institution and everjrthing is straightened out very simply and easily. The clearing house also helps each banking institution to keep in touch with the general course of financial matters in the community. Sometimes the clearing house, as represent- Counesy of Am. Tel, d: Tel. Co. Broad Street, Philadelphia, To-day. An important business center. ing the banking interests of the whole city, will give help at a time of special stress to a bank which is really sound and honest but which has by some misfortune fallen into a httle difficulty. By saving such a bank from closing its doors it may have served notably the financial welfare of the entire community as well as one particular institution. 180. Dangers in the Use of Credit. — The use of credit brings some dangers against which we must guard. The ease with which credit can be employed to draw interest without 280 Money and Credit risking actual cash, and the profit derived in that way, may lead to carrying it too far. No bank attempts to keep on hand more than fifteen per cent to twenty-five per cent of the amount of money which has been deposited with it, for it is seldom that any large part of those deposits would be called for at any one time. But if too many credit loans have been made and the amount cannot be collected on short notice, a bank may have to close its doors imtil its affairs can be straightened out. Such an occurrence is always embarrassing even if the bank is really solvent. Extravagance, speculation in the rise and fall of stocks, stock watering, and other features of what is sometimes called " high finance " are the outcome of a wrong use of a most valuable feature of modern finance. 181. The Federal Banking System. — The national bank- ing system which is in operation to-day was founded during the Civil War in order to create an additional market for the bonds issued by the government and to add a new, acceptable kind of paper currency. For, as we have explained, each national bank was required to own government bonds and could issue bank notes with the bonds to back them. For many years after 1863 there was little system about our national banks. Several financial panics showed that something was out of joint. After years of study of our bank- ing system, the measure now in force, known as the Glass- Owen act, was passed by Congress in 1913. Every national bank in the country is required to join the federal reserve system established by the law, and banks chartered under state laws are permitted to j oin. The country is divided into twelve reserve districts, and in an important city of each district a federal reserve bank is estabHshed. In -whicli district are you ? Where is your reserve bank located? If you can get the information, make a map showing the division of the country into reserve districts. A reserve bank does not deal with individual depositors, but with the banks that belong to that district. It discounts Questions 281 notes and the like for them, and on the basis of the notes which they deposit with it the reserve bank provides them with federal reserve notes to use as currency. These are expected soon to take the place of the national bank notes issued by the separate banks. The reserve bank in each district is managed by a board of nine directors, three of whom are chosen by the Federal Reserve Board and six by the banks in the district. The Federal Reserve Board supervises the whole system. It has seven members, including the Secretary of the Treasury, the Comptroller of the Currency, and five other persons appointed by the President. The system has worked well during the trying period since it was established. Its friends say it wiU prevent any more financial panics. The reserve board in each district can so adjust matters as to reHeve its own banks when any one of them needs help of any kind, and the Federal Reserve Board can make any adjustments that are called for between one district and another. The centralized control which was sadly needed is now supplied, and as far as can be seen every conceivable emergency has been provided for. QUESTIONS Explain barter. What are its disadvantages ? What is money f Tor what is it used? What characteristics should a commodity have in order to make it useful as money ? What coins do we now have in circulation? What other United States coins did you ever see? Where are our coins made? What forms of money does our government now issue? How do they compare with each other in amount ? Explain the kinds of paper money. What makes people mUing to accept them ? When is money a hindrance to business? Describe the substi- tute which is commonly used, explaining its advantages. Write foiu: forms of credit instruments. Explain the difference between them. Define discount, endorsement, hill of exchange. Why is a bank organized and what services does it render? Explain the lending of credit. How differently is a savings account 282 Money and Credit handled by a bank from its cheeking accounts? Where do the profits of a bank come from? What is the value of the clearing house ? Mention some of the dangers of operation against which a bank must guard. Could a bank do business without the extensive use of credit? What is meant by "high finance" ? How did our present national banking system come into exist- ence ? Describe the important changes in the system introduced. Outline the organization of the Federal Reserve system. SPECIAL TOPICS Our Mints and Their Operation. The Organization and Officers of a Bank. The Clearing House. The Federal Reserve Board : Its Members and Their Work. CHAPTER XX SOME IMPOETANT OOMMEEOIAL TEEMS l%e richer any man gets hy honest methods in productive industry, the richer does he make his neighbors. — J- A. Puffer. 182. Property and Its Ownership. — Among the funda- mental rights of citizenship we have mentioned that of private property. We conamonly divide all property into two classes — real and personal. Real property, often spoken of as real estate, includes everything that is fixed and permanent in its character. Land, for example, is real property. So, usually, is anything built upon the land or growing on it at any par- ticular time. Personal property includes aU that is movable and may with reasonable ease be carried aroimd with a person wherever he goes. Money, cattle, and household furniture are examples of personal property. So are stocks and bonds. Stocks are issued by corporations to those who invest money in their business. The stockholders are entitled to share in the management of the corporation, and in its profits, if there are any. Usually a stockholder in a corporation has one vote for each share of stock that he owns. Bonds are promises to pay, much hke a promissory note. They usually are arranged to run for a fixed length of time, with interest payable annually, semi-annually, or quarterly. They form a definite obKgation against the company or government which issues them, and interest on them must be paid when due if credit is to be maintained. 283 284 Some Important Commercial Terms Stocks are often of two kinds. Preferred stock carries a fixed rate of interest, which must be paid out of the profits of the business before any other payments are made. Com- mon stock receives whatever is left after the preferred stock has been attended to. If the business is very profitable the income on common stock may be greater than on preferred, but it is likely to vary from year to year according to the prosperity of the business. What is meant by this: "D. L. & W.soldat240,B-&M.at60"? How is this possible? What is a stock exchange? 183. Ways of Acquiring Property. — " Possession is nine points of the law," says a famihar proverb. Perhaps, but possession and ownership are not the same thing. Unless something is known to the contrary, possession of personal property is considered evidence of ownership, but even this class of property may sometimes be held and used subject to certain conditions. A man may have the right to use certain property in his own lifetime only, or he may lease or rent it for a definite period. A person does not have full ownership of property unless it is his to dispose of as he sees fit and to pass on to his heirs at his death. The three common ways of transferring owner- ship are by inheritance, gift, and sale. A property owner niay at any time in his Hfe make a written statement of the way he desires his property to be distributed at his death. This statement, known as a will, must be signed in the presence of witnesses, and should provide for the appointment of some one as an executor to carry out the terms of the wiU. A new will may be made at any time to revoke one previously made, or a change may be made in the original by adding a codicil to it. It is understood that the making of a will is one's own free act. If it can be shown that the maker was not of sound mind or was subject to unfair pressure from some one else the courts may set the will aside. If a deceased person has Ways of Acquiring Property 285 left no will, the nearest relatives inherit. In that case the court appoints an administrator to settle the estate according to law. In your state what name is used for the court or official to whom wills are presented? Find out the customary procedure. A second method of transferring title to property is by ffift. The law does not care particularly what is the motive for the gift, so long as it is not made to cover up the commis- sion of a crime or to avoid the payment of just debts. A gift may be made conditionally — that is, if the recipient does not perform certain required acts, the property comes back to the former owner. The most common method of transferring ownership is by sale. In this case something else of value must be given in return. As soon as the price is paid or other definite arrange- ments for the transfer are completed, the property passes from the control of the seller to that of the buyer. When the title to real property is transferred, a paper is drawn up which is called a deed. This states the fact of the transfer, mentions the money or " other valuable considera- tion " involved, describes the property which is transferred, and is signed by all parties who are directly concerned. Deeds, wiUs, and any such papers of importance are filed with the proper pubhc official, so that they may be on record for later times. One can of course transfer no more than he possesses. If his title to a piece of property is complete he may give a warranty deed, but if he is only part owner he can give only a quitclaim deed, which gives up whatever title the seller actu- ally possessed. Where would you go in your community to find out about the ownership or valuation of a piece of land in which you were interested? The Torrens land title system, under which the government de- termines and guarantees the title to land within its jurisdiction. 286 Some Important Commercial Terms is in vogue in some places, occur to you? What arguments, for or against it, 184. Mortgages. — Even when the title is transferred, the new owner may not own the property in full. If the buyer is not able to pay the entire purchase price, or does not care to do so, the former owner may retain a claim on a part of the property, expecting the remainder of the payment to be made County Recorder's Office, Santa Ana, California. Not many public offices are so attractively decorated, but the general ai'rangement of this one is typical. later, with interest. Such a claim is known as a mortgage. If the amount due is paid when it should be, the mortgage is cancelled. If it is not paid, the holder of the mortgage may " foreclose." That is, he may cause the property to be sold and keep enough from the proceeds to satisfy his claim. Frequently property owners who wish to get ready money for some purpose will give a mortgage on their property as security for the repayment of the amount which they borrow. Many sales of real or personal property are Contracts 287 made on the installment plan. The buyers pay part of the price every week or month or quarter, for example, and do not become full owners until the whole cost is paid. See if you can learn the difference between a " first mortgage " and a "second mortgage." Who are " loan sharks " ? Should they be permitted to do business? 185. Contracts. — A contract is a definite agreement be- tween two or more persons to do or not to do some particular thing. The term is appUed to many different transactions. Hardly anything is done in the business world that is not connected with the making or carrying out of a contract, express or imphed. Deeds and mort- gages are contracts. When a person is engaged to work for another an implied contract to pay him is understood. A postal money order is an imphed contract to pay the amoimt mentioned. Without the power of making con- tracts and the assurance that contracts would be kept, modern business would be impossible. So important is the certainty that a contract will be exe- cuted that the national Constitution specifically forbids the states to pass any law " impairing the obHgation of a con- tract." The Supreme Court has interpreted this word very broadly, too. In the famous Dartmouth CoUege case it declared that the charter of a college is a contract. In the case of Fletcher vs. Peck it declared that land grants by a state legislature are contracts. A contract cannot be enforced, however, if either of the parties is not legally entitled to make a contract. A person imder twenty-one is considered by the law as a " minor " or " infant," and cannot lawfully make a contract, except for the necessaries of life. Bankruptcy laws perhaps come the nearest of any laws to " impairing the obhgation of a contract." A bankrupt is a person who has been legally declared unable to pay his debts. The national Constitution gives Congress the power to pass unif orm bankruptcy laws, but that power was not in 288 Some Important Commercial Terms use except for two brief periods until the present law was passed in 1898. Meanwhile each state made its own laws to cover the matter. A person who wishes to take advantage of the bankruptcy law must turn over all his property, with some few exemp- tions, and aUow it to be apphed to the payment of as large a part of his debts as it will meet. Then he will be allowed to start business anew. An honest man will feel bound to pay his old debts in fuU as soon as he is able to do so. Men have been known to abuse the privilege by going into bankruptcy when it was not necessary, and have even made money by doing so. But the object of the law is simply to give a new start to a person who has been unfortunate in business and is so hopelessly tied up that a new deal will be welcome to his creditors as well as himself. QUESTIONS Explain the two Mnds of property. Define bonds, stocks, com- mon stock, preferred stock. By what means may property be acquired? How is property disposed of at the death of the owner? What is a deed ? What two kinds of deeds are there ? What reasons move people to give mortgages on their property? Do you think a mortgage is a good form of investment for the one who holds it ? What is a contract? What does the national Constitution say about contracts? Can you make a contract? Define bankruptcy. Is any moral principle involved in taking advantage of bankruptcy laws? SPECIAL TOPICS The Legal Standing of a Person under Age in regard to Property and Contracts. Resolved, that a first mortgage in real estate is the safest kind of investment. CHAPTER XXI HOW OUE GOVEENMENTS GET MONET The subjects of every state ought to contriiute to the support of the government as nearly as possible in proportion to their several abilities. —Smith. 186. What is a Good Tax? — One of the easiest ways to make an American protest is to levy a new tax. In Revolu- tionary days our ancestors acquired the habit of objecting to taxes and this habit seems to have stayed with us, whether the taxation is with or without representation. Yet in a sense this is not surprising. The right to have private property is one of the fundamental rights of an American citizen. A tax is nothing else than taking a part of one's private property and using it for pubUc purposes. But the government does not take it without giving some- thing in return. Even when it exercises the legal right known as eminent domain, the " condemned " property must be paid for at a price which is considered by a jury or board of viewers to be fair and reasonable. So it is with taxes. The govern- ment gives protection to every person's life and possessions. It is only fair that those who are protected should give some- thing to the state in return. What should be the principle on which taxes are levied? At first thought we might say, " In accordance with the benefits received from the government." But when you come to think of it, a great many people with almost no property at all receive countless benefits from the state. While this principle should not be disregarded, it is evident that it win not meet the needs of the state. Regularly, then, 289 290 How Our Governments Get Money a person's ability to pay is made the basis of consideration. The person with large wealth will not miss the comparatively small simi taken as taxes. Besides, the more property he has, the more the government must protect. Certain other conditions every taxpayer, rich or poor, has a right to ask. The money received should be used for the benefit of all, not for a favored few. No distinction should be made between individuals, but all persons or property in the same class or condition should be taxed ahke. The tax should be levied in a public way and the time and manner of assessing and collecting it should be known to everybody. It should be easy to collect and should cause no unnecessary inconvenience in pajonent. If taxes are based on these principles, a citizen is indeed unpatriotic who tries to avoid pajong his fair share to support the government which does so much for him and which can- not be maintained without his help and his money. Can you judge the progressiveness and sound management of a community by the amount of its tax rate ? 187. Tax Definitions. ^- We commonly divide all taxes into two great groups — direct and indirect. Direct taxes are those whose burden is intended to be borne by the person from whom they are collected and not to be shifted to some one else. Taxes on buildings, land, incomes, inheritances, and the like, are direct. Most of the taxes levied by city, town, or county governments are of this kind. Indirect taxes are those whose burden is likely to be borne by other persons than those from whom the government collects them. A tax on imported goods, for example, is really paid by the person who uses them, for the importer adds the tax to the price he charges for them, and it does not come out of his pocket. The taxes levied by the national government are largely indirect. This kind of tax is usually more popular than the other, for people pay it without know- ing it. The Cost of Government 291 After all, it is the community as a whole that pays every ' tax. High taxes mean high rents, high prices for goods, and other expedients for getting the money out of the public. Our main problem, therefore, is to invent a tax system which shall make every one pay his fair share. The exact form of the tax is not so important. When a tax is collected on a fixed percentage basis, regard- less of the total value of the property, it is called a -propor- tional tax. If the percentage rate increases in accordance with the value of the property, it is a progressive or grad- uated tax. Those who lay great stress on the idea that a tax should be in proportion to one's abihty to pay beheve strongly in the progressive tax. Excises are taxes on goods produced or sold within a country. They are often called internal revenue. The taxes on manufacturers or dealers in Hquor and tobacco are examples of these. Customs, duties, or imposts, as we use the terms, are taxes on goods brought into the country. These are of two forms : specific duties, which lay a definite amount per unit of goods, as 10 cents per yard, dozen, or pound; and ad valorem, which collect a percentage of the value of the goods. In one way the latter are fairer, but the former are easier to collect and cheating is not so easy when they are used. 188. The Cost of Government. — Three great services which governments perform, and which justify the collec- tion of taxes, may be called protective, industrial, and social. Their protective functions include the defense of the nation against foreign enemies, and the suppression of disorder and the safeguarding of Kfe and property within their borders. The first of these must be done almost wholly by the na- tional government ; the other is distributed among national, state, and local governments. Industrial functions include the encouragement of industry and the promotion of proper conditions in its operation ; the construction of roads, canals, bridges, and the improvement 292 How Our Governments Get Money of rivers and harbors ; and the supervision of the relations of industrial workers to each other. Since the Constitution gives the national government entire control of interstate and foreign commerce, a considerable part of these functions must be performed by the national government, but a very- great deal remains for the states, as weU as niuch for cities and counties. The social functions relate to the relief and improvement of the people. The care of the poor, the sick, the insane, and An Arch Bridge under Construction. the unfortunate, the prevention of poverty and disease, the education of all the people, the maintenance of hbraries and museums, and the promotion of learning in any form, are embraced within this group. Comparatively little of this can be done by the national government as our Constitution now stands. The great bulk of it rests upon the local com- munities, with more or less assistance from the states. It has been estimated that of all the money spent for the administration of government in the United States the national government spends a Utile over one third, the state National Finances 293 governments about one tenth, and the various local govern- ments the rest — nearly three fifths. The fact that the debt of New York City alone was in 1916 greater than that of the national government may bring out the extent to which the expense of administration of affairs rests upon the cities. 189. Government Revenues. — To meet these expenses three general sources of income may be drawn upon. (1) Sale and gift. The sale of public lands has been a soiu-ce of more revenue than it is ever Ukely to be again. The income from pubKc industries hke the post office and water works might help a Uttle, but these seldom make much profit. Gifts from public-spirited citizens are made occa- sionally, but it is clear that neither this nor the other sources of revenue mentioned in this group can be depended upon very extensively. (2) Taxes. Taxes of one form or another must always be the main source of income. Other forced payments by citizens are fees for Ucenses and other special services, special assessments for special work, and fines for violations of law. These are of course variable in amoimt, but they can be estimated to some extent. (3) Loans. Borrowing money is an expedient for any except a hopelessly bankrupt government. It is too often a refuge from incompetent and dishonest management of government, and a cowardly shifting to others of burdens which ought to be met at once. The payment of interest over a long period of years will much more than eat up the original cost, and such a method is justified only when a sudden emergency has arisen or when an improvement is undertaken which will be of positive benefit to the people for years to come. Every national government in the world has a debt, as have also most of the states and cities of the United States. 190. National Finances. — Our national government be- fore we entered the Great War was spending over one billion dollars a year. What a staggering figure that would have 294 How Our Governments Get Money seemed to the people of Alexander Hamilton's day, who recognized that he rendered a tremendous public service in arranging for the settlement of a public debt of $54,000,000 I Over $300,000,000 is spent by the post office department, which for the last few years has a httle more than paid for itself. Nearly $160,000,000 goes for pensions. Considerably over $200,000,000 goes to meet the salaries of officers, the construction of public works and buildings, and other costs of administration. The care of the Indians and the interest on the debt take somewhat less than $25,000,000 apiece. The rest goes for mihtary and naval expenses. In recent years we have been forced to spend for this much more than we have desired, but the saddening lesson of the Great War in Europe has convinced many that such preparation is inevitable as an insurance poKcy. It is not complimentary to us, however, to be forced to admit that for our expenses on our army and navy we get much less in return than other governments. Explain the term " pork barrel " in connection with governmental expenditures. The figures given above were for the year before we entered the Great War. Compare them with any later figures you can obtain. Until the Civil War the leading source of revenue was the income from duties on imports, but during that war a very extensive internal revenue system was estabUshed which has been abandoned only in part. It is now by far the greatest source of revenue. Manufacturers and dealers in liquors, tobacco, cigarettes, oleomargarine and renovated butter, and other commodities, have to contribute to this revenue. Taxes on the income of corporations and of individuals are another source of revenue. The act of 1916 provided a con- siderable number of special taxes and a new system of taxes on inheritances. Duties on imports bring in a considerable portion of the revenue, though not so large a part as for- merly. The demands of the war caused the enactment of an extensive series of new taxes, many of which were of a National Finances 295 temporary character and were meant to be abandoned when the emergency which required them had passed. CovvTlgM, Keystone View Co. U. S. S. Missouri in the Panama Canal. This was the first large vessel to pass through the canal. No extensive borrowing was done for years except for the expenses of the Spanish War and the construction of the 296 How Our Governments Get Money- Panama Canal. But our activities in connection with the European War caused an enormous increase in our expenses. To meet these and to make loans to our allies, " Liberty Bonds " to the amount of over $16,000,000,000 were sold to our own people, besides an additional " Victory Loan " of $4,500,000,000 after the fighting was over. Do these sources of revenue reach all the states in equal propor- tion? 191. State and Local Finance. — We have stated (§ 188) the principal objects of expense for state and local governments. To meet these expenses the main resource has been the general property tax. The attempt has been made to reach all kinds of property, real and personal, without distinguish- ing the uses to which it is put or the income derived from it. This does not always work fairly. The rate of assessment may not be the same between one commimity and the next, so that if a state or county tax is collected which is based on the estimate of property value made by local assessors, one community may have to pay more than its just share. Then, too, it is difficult to get hold of a large part of the personal property. The assessor may guess with some ac- curacy what a man's house is worth, but in the attic of the same house or in a safe may be stored thousands of dollars' worth of valuable stocks and bonds which the assessor may never know anjrthing about unless the man himself tells of thern. So a premium is put on dishonesty and the honest man pays more than his share. The general property tax is supplemented by fees for li- censes of various kinds, franchises, and the like, and to a small extent by fines and penalties. Many states have inheritance taxes and corporation taxes, and a few have income taxes and taxes on mortgages or money otherwise out at interest. Several still collect a poll tax, which amounts to one, two, or three dollars for each person, regardless of property. In some states there is a small income from pubhc land. Assessment and Collection of Local Taxes 297 Why is an inheritance tax considered a just tax? Should the rate of tax be greater on big inheritances ? Is there anything wrong ■with a poll tax ? Cities must depend on licenses, fines, and the general prop- erty tax for most of their income. When a special piece of improvement work is done, Uke laying out a new street, it is the custom in most cities to make a special assessment against the property owners who will be directly benefited, thus mak- ing them pay at least a part of the cost. Main Street, Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Notice the street lamps, as well as the general plan of the street. When a city operates its water system or fighting plant, a separate charge is usually made to the owner or occupant of a building, but as the intention usually is to run these plants at about cost, it will not affect materially the rest of the community's expenses for government. 192. The Assessment and Collection of Local Taxes. — As long as the general property tax is used as a means of revenue, a record must be made by the government of the value of the property which it can tax. Such an assessment is made every year in some states, less often in others, by 298 How Our Governments Get Money assessors connected with the local government. While in theory all property should be assessed at its real value, in practice it often is not. In some communities the figure is deliberately put as low as one third of the probable value. Do you see any reason for this practice ? If you think your prop- erty is not fairly assessed, what can you do about it? If there is no limit on the tax rate, the amount of the assess- ment makes little difference, for the rate can be high enough to offset the low valuation. Whatever the custom may be, an honest, intelligent assessor is a prime necessity to a fair and just system of taxation. By some means the authorities estimate how much money wiU be needed from the general property tax. By adding up the total taxable valuation of the commxmity, and dividing the amount needed by the total valuation, a decimal is obtained which is the rate for all individual taxes. If the property valuation of a township is $10,000,000, and the amount to be raised from the property tax is $120,000, the quotient is .012. As it is conomonly expressed, the rate in that community would be 12 miUs on the doUar. A person whose property was valued at $5000 would then have to pay $60 in taxes to that community. School taxes, county taxes, and state taxes are often levied by different bodies of men, and the rate of taxation will vary. But for convenience the school and other local taxes are usually paid to the same official, and state taxes are fre- quently collected through the county. In many cases a discoimt is allowed if the tax is paid before a certain date, and a penalty added if not paid by a certain later date. If taxes are not paid on property within a reasonable time, the authorities have the right to order it sold at pubUc sale. Whatever remains after the taxes and costs of the sale are taken out is given back to the former owner. 193. Budget Making. — In most of the states of the United States, in many of the cities, and in the national Budget Making 299 government, budget making has been unknown. A budget is simply a darefuUy calculated summary of the probable ex- penses of a government or other organization for a year or a season, with a similar estimate of means to provide revenues to meet these expenses. Most European governments have a special cabinet officer who is expected to do this work. In England he is called the Chancellor of the Exchequer. In the United States there has been no such person. The Secretary of the Treasury and the President sometimes offer suggestions regarding certain forms or rates of taxation, but Congress has done exactly as it pleased with these sug- gestions. Revenues and expenditures for a year may fail to come out within many million dollars of being even. Appropriations are made without any reference to the money in the treasury, and appropriations and revenue bills are not even referred to the same committees. The folly of this method has at last made an impression upon Congress. Listening to recommendations of Presi- dents Taft and Wilson and other thoughtful public men, it has now (1919) imder consideration a measure that creates a Budget Bureau, headed by a director and an assistant director, and provides for a comptroller-general and an assistant. The Budget Bureau, under the direction of the President, will prepare a budget for submission by him to Congress. The comptroUer-general wiU be the head of an auditing department subject to Congress, and will have power to pass upon the legaUty of all expenditures. A similar plan is in use in some cities and states. Each officer who has charge of the spending of money makes an estimate of the probable financial needs of his department for the next year. Such estimates are presented to one official or to a special budget committee. The estimates are then combined to determine whether the revenue usually obtained will be enough. If it will not, the estimates should be pared down to meet the probable revenue or else new sources of revenue should be suggested, or both. 300 How Our Governments Get Money Then the budget official or committee lays the plan before the body that levies taxes — council, legislature, or Con- gress. It would not be safe to permit taxes to be levied by the budget committee alone, but the argument that fol- lows the submission of the budget should show the soundness or folly of any propositions that were advanced. Only when we have universally some system of this land can we expect intelligent financial administration of our governments. Here is the budget of a large city for the year 1915 : Expenses Public safety, fire, police, etc $2,570,000 Sanitation 895,000 Highways 943,000 General administration 868,000 Water 836,000 Street lights 523,000 Charities 376,000 Libraries 243,000 Parks, etc 498,000 Sinking funds, etc 1,516,000 Health conservation 340,000 Interest 1,962,000 Miscellaneous 345.000 Total $11,915,000 Receipts Taxes $7,822,000 Water rents 2,692,000 Liquor licenses 687,000 Rents and sales 273,000 Fines, permits, interest on bank balances, fees, etc 1,003,000 Total $12,477,000 Notice that the interest charges amount to a large figure. Do you think this indicates good business management or not ? Some say that a city needs the liquor license revenue to make both ends meet. Do you think it is so in this case? Would you judge this city's budget to be intelligently planned and administered? 194. Proposed Tax Reforms. — It is much easier to find fault than to correct the fault. With all the talk about the Proposed Tax Reforms 301 iniquities of the general property tax, no one has yet brought forward a substitute which does not have faults of its own, as well as some of those of the property tax. Take, as an instance of the proposed reforms, the so-called single tax. The foremost advocate of the idea in the United States was Henry George, who wrote a book called " Progress and Poverty," in which he urged that his plan would almost bring about the miUennimn. He proposed that nothing wjiatever should be taxed except the value of land. Land, he said, is the gift of nature, and when individuals occupy this land for their own use, they should pay the state for it but should not be taxed for the buildings and other improvements which their own energy and labor brought into existence. The gobbling up of land in cities by a few speculators who intended to hold it until it became more valuable was in his opinion responsible for the crowding of people in the slums and the resulting disease, crime, and poverty. If imoccupied land were taxed so that it would no longer be profitable to hold it idle, it would be built upon, the pressure on the crowded districts would be reheved, and everything would move on to happiness. Several new Canadian towns have adopted the plan and have prospered during its operation, but whether the pros- perity is due to their newness or to the single tax is not clear. Many converts have been made to Henry George's doctrine and there is a pretty general feehng that land values have, to say the least, not contributed their share of taxes. But the question rises whether it is fair that the owners of land which costs nothing to protect should bear much of the burden of taxation, while the buildings which demand so many expenses for fire protection and other purposes should go wholly free. Moreover it is not proved to the satisfac- tion of aU that the filling up of aU unoccupied land with buildings would be a great improvement, or that the happi- ness and morality of any large number of people would be promoted by doing so. 302 How Our Governments Get Money If a plan could be satisfactorily worked out by which national, state, and local governments could draw upon dif- ferent sources of revenue, instead of overlapping, as they sometimes do, doubtless we should find an improvement. Inheritance taxes and franchises, and no doubt other subjects of taxation, can without injustice be made to contribute much more than they do. After all, while many individuals pay less than they ought to, very few pay more than they, get in the way of benefits. The honest expenditure of the revenues is a far more vital problem than the occasional unfairness of present revenue systems. 195. The Protective Tariff. — Getting revenue is not the only thing that can be done with taxes. They can be so arranged that industries can be encouraged or ruined, or that certain goods can be excluded entirely. To put a tax of $10 a pound on imported butter would be the most certain way of keeping foreign butter out of the country. If a tax on imported butter were five cents a pound, however, the result would probably be to reduce considerably the amount of butter imported and to permit butter makers in this country to charge four or five cents a pound more than they could otherwise get. Butter makers would be glad of that, but how about the rest of the people? Here is the kernel of the whole argument between a pro- tective tariff and a revenue tariff — is it better for the people as a whole that Americans should be able to make everything they need and that, in order to do that, manufacturers should be enabled to charge prices higher than we could get the same thing for elsewhere? Or should this artificial encouragement of home manufacturers be removed, with a probable detri- ment to some industries and a reduction in prices due to the lower cost of foreign-made goods ? If we believe that it is desirable to have a protective tariff high enough to enable us to produce everything we need, it does not follow that we must try to justify every protective tariff law that we have had. At last both the great political Questions 303 parties seem to have reached the conclusion that the tariff shoiild not be a pohtical question, but that it is an economic problem. A Federal Tariff Commission of six members has been established, with the power to recommend desirable changes in the rates, so that they can be altered by Con- gress without passiQg an entirely new tarifif biU and upsetting business generally. QUESTIONS Wlat is a taxf Has a citizen a right to try to avoid paying taxes ? Has the government the right to take yoiir property with- out paying for it? On what principles should the levying of taxes be based ? Explain direct and indirect taxes. Explain the following words used in connection with taxes : proportional, progressive, graduated, excise, customs, duties, specific, ad valorem. What great functions do governments perform which justify the collection of taxes ? To what extent do national, state, and local governments perform each of these functions? How large a pro- portion of the whole cost of government in normal times is incurred by each of these agencies ? What som-ces of income are drawn upon to meet these expenses? Which source supplies the most money? When is it good policy for a government to borrow money ? Make out a table in which you show the principal items of ex- pense and leading sources of income of the last normal year for which you can get figures, for national finances, state, county, and munici- pal. Use the figures which particularly concern you in the last three parts of the table, not those of some other place. What do you think of the general property tax ? Can you sug- gest any satisfactory substitute? What is meant by the assess- ment of property? How are the local tax rates determined in your community and how are the taxes collected? What is the single tax ? How do Henry George's ideas impress you ? Wliat is a budget f Is the budget system in use in your state, county, or local community? If not, why not? Explain the underljrLng distinction between a taiifif for revenue and a protective tariff ? Does it follow that because a certain tariff policy seems to work well in one country that it would be equally good for all ? Would it be an improvement if the tariff were wholly removed from politics? What is the purpose of the Tariff Commis- sion? Who are its members? 304 How Our Governments Get Money SPECIAL TOPICS The Cost of the Great War and How It is to be Paid. The "Pork Barrel." What I would do if the United States or my State made me Chancellor of its Exchequer. The Time and Manner of Assessing and CoUeoting our Local Taxes. How our Governments could Save Money. Resolved, that the prosperity of the United States depends upon the permanent retention of the protective tariff idea. B. Economic and Industeial Problems CHAPTER XXII LABOR AND INDUSTEY Labor in this country . . has not to ash the patronage of capital, but capital solicits the aid of labor. — Webster. But the obligations are not all on the side of capital. Society is as little ready to accept an oligarchy of labor as to tolerate longer an oligarchy of capital.— Haworth. 196. The Factors in Production. — The economist says there are three factors or agencies that help in producing the things that we use, eat, or wear. He defines them as follows : (1) Land is any gift of nature which is used in producing goods. Water which is used to turn mill-wheels and the trees which grow in the forest are land, in this sense. A longer expression that means the same thing is natural resources. (2) Labor is any activity of men which helps in the pro- duction of goods. This need not be physical labor. The man in the office who does nothing but think and give orders and dictate letters is just as much a laborer as the man who looks after the furnaces in the great mills or the girl who watches the swiftly moving shuttle m the factory. (3) Capital is any product of labor that is used for produc- ing more goods. Iron and wood, which are a form of land, are changed by the labor of several people into a shovel. Then if the shovel is used to throw coal into a furnace or to help in removing the ashes from a mill it has been used as a 305 306 Labor and Industry form of capital. By all means get the idea that a great many other things than money may be capital. In fact a great many people are capitalists without knowing it. If the " white-wing " on the street owns the broom that he uses, that broom is a part of his capital, just as a great factory-building and a railroad train are part of the capital of the manufacturer and the railroad company. Which of the three is most important? Land is necessary for any kind of economic activity, but it can do nothing of Ohio River Barges. Carrying coal, sand, and gravel. To what extent do you discern, in the economic sense, the use of land, labor, and capital, in this picture ? itself. Capital is necessary in every industry. See whether any of you can name a modern industry which does not use capital to some extent. Yet it cannot exist unless some- body's labor and some form of natural resource have first been brought together. And labor is the only one of the three factors, in the sense in which these terms are here used, which possesses intelligence. It can lead and direct, but the others must wait to be acted upon. Labor, then, is of great importance and must be as care- fully cared for as the two other factors of production. By Industrial Accidents 307 all means, we ought to make special effort to look out for the men, women, and children who furnish the labor needed to do the world's work. We ought to save them from imneces- sary danger and injury, to keep them in good health, and to avoid wearing them out by toil which they are not old Courtesy of NoXixmal diUd Labor Committee Living Conditions among Cannery Workers in Maryland. Men, women, and children are crowded into places of this kind. or strong enough to perform without harm to body and mind. 197. Industrial Accidents. — The old common law of England took the position that accidents were an inevitable feature of industry and that when a person went to work in any industry or in any place he took upon himself all the risks of injury. It made no difference whether the fault was the employer's, the worker's, or a fellow-workman's, it was 308 Labor and Industry \ a part of the risk of the business and everybody took his own chances. This idea, coupled with the carelessness that seems natural to Americans, has made our record of accidents extremely bad. Some one has figured that every sixteen seconds some- body is injured in the factories, mines, or railroad business of the United States. In these three kinds of work there are probably more unavoidable accidents than in any others. Steel Mills, Pittsburgh. Many accidents occur in factories of this kind. but there is no need whatever for so many as do occur. Such a condition is intolerable. If no one suffered except the person who was hm't, the evil would be bad enough ; for he may lose the wages he would otherwise have earned, and may never be able to do as good work again. But suppose an injured man has a family. Then they too may have to suffer from lack of food, clothing, or care. They may have to go out and work when they ought to be at home or in school and so they may lose the proper training for life. If the injury or illness is prolonged, the city or state or a charitable society may have to help them and the cost of doing this must come from the whole people. The injury to one is the injury of all. Prevention of Accidents 309 How frequently do accidents occur in the occupations with which the members of your family are connected? How many of them carry insurance against accident or sickness? 198. Prevention of Accidents. — We have awakened to the situation sufficiently to take a real and lively interest in " safety first " campaigns of all kinds, as a means of making people careful and thereby escaping accidents. We expect the traveler on the street and the worker in the mill to watch where they are going and what they are doing. We expect the owner of a factory to keep those parts of machines cov- ered which might catch a worker's clothing or some part of his body and inflict injury. We think the manager of the factory ought to see that it is properly lighted and ventUated and that no preventable A " Safety First " Bulletin. conditions exist which wiU injure the health of his workers. Mines ought to be safely piUared and protected so that cave-ins or falling rock or poisonoiis gases may not kill or cripple the miner. Railroads must be run with the idea of getting every pas- senger to his destination ahve and well rather than of madly rushing to break speed records. Losing even an hour's time is far better than not getting there at aU. Safety brakes for slowing up or stopping trains, automatic couplers so that men do not have to go between cars, and steel and concrete coaches which cannot be easily smashed, are among the valuable improvements which every good railroad wants. BuDiliiii Are Rnd b; 2^,000 WorkmcD Eidi Week /£ NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL, chicaoo. ilL \ Practice Safety Yourself OTHERS WILL FOLLOW YOU 310 Labor and Industry Not only does public sentiment believe in these things, but laws of Congress and of state legislatures are enforcing them when mill, mine, or railroad managers are obstinate. " Full crew " laws, which require a certain number of trainmen for trains of a certain number of cars, and laws Hmiting the number of hours when a trainman may be kept at work, so that he may not get completely exhausted and unfit to work, have also been enacted by many states. Why are railroad com- panies generally opposed to "fuU crew" laws? 199. Workmen's Compensation Acts. — But it does not seem likely that all the laws ever made would pre- vent all accidents, even if these laws were en- forced. To deal with injuries which occur in spite of our efforts to prevent them, most people have come to beheve that it is fairer to put at least part of the burden upon the whole commimity rather than to make the individual worker bear it all. This is the principle which underhes " workmen's compensation " acts and " employers' Uability " laws. When a workman is hurt while at work the employer may be asked to pay a certain percentage of wages while he is forced to stay at home, or to give a fixed sum if the injury is a. permanent one. Under other systems, the employer pays part of such expenses and the state pays part, or the state may maintain an insurance fund or compel employers to insure their employees in private insurance companies. All these plans work out in about the same way. If the employer stands the expense, he charges a little more for his Fan for Purifying the Air in a Mine. This can make 250 revolutions per minute. Dangerous Trades 311 product and the pubKc makes it up. If the state pays the cost, taxes will be a little higher. But the worker and his family who have suffered are reheved from serious distress and the burden upon other persons is extremely slight because it is distributed among many. Charging Board for Miners' Lamps. In the best managed mines, electricity furnishes the only light permitted. Many dangerous gas explosions are thus averted. 200. Dangerous Trades. — There are some occupations which seem to have about them conditions which affect unfavorably the health of those who work at them. This may be the result either of the materials they have to use or of surroundings in which the work must be carried on. Painters and others who work with some form of lead often suffer from a certain kind of poisoning. Workers in industries 312 Labor and Industry where arsenic or mercury is used, or where the filing of brass is required, suffer from impaired health that seems to be caused by the fine particles or poisonous fumes that are taken into the lungs. Until recently a disease called " phossy jaw " was frequent in match factories which made use of phosphorus. Probably we shall learn more from year to year as the study of these diseases continues. The discovery of a different process for making matches made it feasible for Congress to pass an act which has virtually ended the danger from " phossy jaw." In other cases the attempt is made to force the workmen to wear safety apphances of some kind while they are at work, in order to prevent inhahng dangerous substances. An extensive force of inspectors is necessary to enforce these and, in fact, all laws regulating labor condi- tions. Both employers and workmen are often careless and will not obey laws, even for their own good, unless they are compelled to do so. 201. Sweatshops. — The " sweatshop " is a place where work is done for long hours and low wages in surroundings not intended to be used for industrial purposes. Ready- made clothing, artificial flowers, cheap cigars and cigarettes are among the commodities most often made in such places. Frequently whole famihes are engaged in the work that is carried on, from the mother down to the three-year-old child. They are paid ridiculously low wages by a contractor or " sweater," who has assumed a contract with a large manufacturer to get a certain amount of work done. Very often, as in the case of clothing, only a part of the work is done in the sweatshop, such as sewing linings, putting on buttons, and the Uke. A whole family working twelve or fifteen hours a day may not get more than fifty or sixty cents for their labor. With anywhere from three to fifteen or twenty working in the same room — quite likely the same room where a family eats and sleeps — sanitary conditions are anything Sweatshops 313 but attractive. Health and vitaUty of the workers suffer, disease germs flourish, and all kinds of contagion may be spread among those who work there and among those, per-, haps a thousand miles away, who wear the garments sewed in such places. Sweatshops exist because of some people's greed and other people's ignorance and poverty. Most of this kind of work Courtesy of National ChUa Labor Committee Home Work in the Garment Industry. Often many workers are found in a room of this character. What can the home life be under such conditions? is done by foreigners. Years ago it was chiefly the Irish, then the Germans, then the Jews of various nationalities, and lately the ItaUans are getting into it. They hve in the crowded districts of large cities and have no place to do such work outside of their own homes, which are already pitifully small. The head of the family may be earning only smaU wages and the rest of the family think they must help him out. 314 Labor and Industry Other families whose chief wage-earner is sick or dead know no other means of getting a few cents a day to keep them- selves alive. So many families are willing to do this work that the contractor can get his work done for starvation figures. To remedy this evil, laws have been passed in some states forbidding the performance of certain kinds of labor except in rooms that contain so many cubic feet of air-space and are otherwise half-decent places to work in. Like all laws these must be enforced in order to be of any use, and that does not always occur. The payment of higher wages to the un- skilled workers in general would remove some of the excuses for the sweatshop work. The public can do something, too, by insisting on buying products which are not made in a sweatshop.' The Con- sumers' League is a private organization which tries to educate the pubHc to the seriousness of the sweatshop evil and to spread information that will enable them to know when they are getting goods made in proper conditions. The Con- sumers' League label may be used by those firms which comply with the laws and provide suitable sanitary conditions in places where their goods are made. , Have you any reason to believe that the garments you are wear- ing were not made in a sweatshop? 202. Child Labor. — It is much better for a child to have something to do than to be allowed to " loaf." The old- fashioned home of moderate means gave every member some httle part in the daily tasks, with opportunity, too, for a reasonable amount of play outdoors, when school hours were over. Hardly any better place than this could be imagined for a boy or girl to grow up healthy and happy. But such homes are growing fewer and fewer every day. Many homes do not have enough for the children to do, while others because of poverty or other causes work the children far beyond their years. Child Labor 315 Not until great factories appeared as places in which labor was carried on did the evil of child labor as we know it become common. This industrial period began in England in the latter part of the eighteenth century and in the United States somewhat later. The factory owners were glad to get all the laborers they could, and worked them just as many hours as they could. Courtesy o/N'ational Child Labor CommUtee Shucking Oysters. "Children, eight years old, working steadily, make five, 'pots' — thirty cents — a day." When at last the English Parliament learned what condi- tions prevailed in some of the factories, extensive investiga- tions were started. It was discovered that children even seven or eight years old were at work 14, 15, or 16 hours a day in some cases. Speedy action followed, and laws were passed reducing the hours and raising the ages within which child labor was permitted. Very mild indeed these restric- tions would seem to-day, but they were a step in the right 316 Labor and Industry direction, and they have been extended further and further as time has passed. Since human nature does not differ very much in any part of the world, the same greed of factory owners caused similar conditions to arise in the mills of the United States. New England first experienced the temptation, and Massachusetts was the first state to pass any laws Hmiting child labor. Workers under 16 years of age in the United States now number 2,000,000 or more, but owing to an aroused public sentiment on this subject the percentage of such workers to the whole population has begun to decrease. Mills, mines and quarries, canneries, and various forms of agriculttiral work, are the principal fields where child labor finds a place. Southern states like Mississippi and Alabama, where cotton mills have recently been built, are the worst offenders, but Massachusetts, where the evil first came to fight, has so improved conditions that it shows as clean a record as any state. 203. Effects of Child Labor. — The ruinous effects of child labor are many. First of all, a child who is forced to spend many hours a day even in a well-managed cotton mill , sitting or standing in one position much of the time, is likely to suffer a stimting of the body and duUing of mind and soul which wiU prevent his ever becoming as strong, healthy, and bright as a normal man or woman ought to be. If these children when they grow up become parents, their children in turn are almost certain to lack the physical inheritance and moral guidance which it is desirable for every child to receive. What kind of inteUigent citizens can be expected to come from homes where sometimes everybody works but father, and where all reach home at night tired from a hard day's work, with no ambition to think of self-education or better- ment of any kind? It takes the noisy, glaring, grosser kind of amusement to make any appeal to their hardened souls, and if they do take time for pleasure, it will probably be the kind that leads to vice and crime. Child labor and education Effects of Child Labor 317 are positively opposed to each other, for it is next to impos- sible for a child to work and study at the same time. If he is in the factory, he cannot be in school. Child labor also affects disastrously the condition of all labor. If a manufacturer can get a child to work for a small wage, he wiU not want to pay adults much more. In the end this comes back upon the MAKING HUMAH JUNK GOOD MATERIAL AT riRET employers themselves, for ignorant, incompetent laborers cannot do the quality of work that can be performed by intelli- gent workmen. It has often happened that manufactm-ers have declared that they would be ruined if they h^d to give up child labor, but when they were forced by law to do so, they have foimd that machinery could do better the work that children had been doing. So they have been pleased in the end that they were forced to change their methods. If child labor is so bad, why has it been so com- mon ? We have just mentioned one reason — the short- sighted greed of employers who were anxious to get any labor which they could at the lowest possible wages. Poverty in famihes where there were many children has sometimes seemed to justify the children's going to work as soon as a job of any kind was offered. Frequently, however, parents have put their children to work in order to be able to take No future and low wages "Junk" SHALL INDUSTRY BE ALLOWED TO PUT THIS COST ON SOCIETY? Courtesy of National Child LaUOT Committee What Child Labor Does. 318 Labor and Industry things easy themselves. They he about their children's ages and report their financial condition to be v/orse than it is. Then again, when boys or girls get along toward the age of twelve or thirteen a kind of restlessness sometimes appears. They get tired of school and think they want to do somethiog real. If their parents are too easy-going or lack control, they let the children leave school, to drift into some poorly paid jobs and perhaps lose all chance of ever getting a good posi- tion in life either industrially or socially. Read some account of child labor as it has been common even in recent years in canning factories or southern cotton mills. 204. Child Labor Laws. — All of the states now have some laws concerning the employment of children, but not more than ten or a dozen have really effective ones. No child under 16 should be allowed to be regularly employed more than 8 hours a day or to be employed at night at all. Along with every child labor law should go a law for com- pulsory attendance at school, for to forbid employment without giving a child anything to do would be folly of the worst kind. There are some , industries in which children ought never to be employed. To back up the states which have good laws and to set an example to the rest of them, Congress passed a law in 1916 along the lines we have indicated, denying the right of trans- portation in interstate commerce to goods produced where the terms of the law were not complied with. The Supreme Court later ruled by a 5 to 4 vote, that this law was uncon- stitutional, as an unwarranted interference with a state's do- mestic affairs. Congress then undertook to reach the same end by putting a high tax on the products of child labor. Should a child be required to do any regular work while attending school? If so, how much? 205. Women Workers. — The employment of women in the business world raises problems which in some respects are hke those of child labor. Certain kinds of work and Women Workers 319 unduly long hours are harder on them than on men, and to a still greater degree may affect the health and prosperity of future generations. The employment of women outside the home is also due chiefly to the development of the factory system. The states with many cotton and woolen mills, Massachusetts, ..