CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 arV15822 
 
 The art of teachinj 
 
 3 1924 031 388 949 
 olin.anx 
 
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 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031388949 
 
THE 
 
 ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 BT 
 
 JOHN OGDEN, A.M. 
 
 FbikcipalofthbOhio Central Normal ScQ00L;~AnTH0R of "Science of Education,' 
 "Outlines of Pedagogical Science," etc. 
 
 VA]Sr ANTWERP, BEAGG & CO. 
 CINCINNATI. NEW YORK. 
 
COPYRIOHT, 1879, 
 
 "VAN ANTWERP, BEAGG & CO. 
 
 RNELL 
 
 UNIVCHSITYj, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A firm conviction that all the essentials pertaining to Ed- 
 ucation as a Science, and to Teaching as an Art, can be 
 formulated into a system suited to the needs and conven- 
 iences of normal-school and private learners, has led to the 
 preparation of this volume. 
 
 It deals exclusively with those questions and duties that 
 relate to the teacher's work, such as organization, study, recita- 
 tion, government, etc. of schools of various grades, together 
 with some special methods of teaching the branches them- 
 selves. 
 
 It is the author's opinion, formed and strengthened through 
 a quarter of a century's almost exclusive labor in normal 
 schools and teachers' institutes, that by far the greater number 
 of mistakes and failures in teaching is attributable to the want 
 of a consistent system, and of a practical knowledge of the 
 duties involved, rather than to any essential lack of the 
 knowledge to be imparted, however great, in general, that 
 want may be. More depends upon the manner of imparting 
 and enforcing truth, than upon the mere possession of it, as 
 such. 
 
 Hence the very great importance of professional training, to 
 supplement, and to classify and make vital, the mere acquisi- 
 tion of knowledge in the several branched of science. 
 
 This implies true method, the acquisition of which, so far at 
 least as this depends upon professional training, proceeds upon 
 
 (iii) 
 
IV PKEFACB. 
 
 the plan that the child must be studied first, in all its physical 
 and psychical characteristics and relations, as a thing or object 
 to be treated or educated ; second, that the study of science or 
 knowledge must be pursued, not as an end, but as a means for ac- 
 complishing an end, viz., the development and refinement of all 
 of man's faculties, soul and body; third, that the study and prac- 
 tice of methods in harmony with the end to be attained, viz., the 
 complete development of these faculties by the harmonious 
 blending of all possible educational forces in the exercises of 
 the school-room, must be the one great aim of the true teacher. 
 These are the leading features underlying this system", to 
 vrhich the student of pedagogics is earnestly invited. 
 
 WoRTHiNOToif, Ohio, July 25, 1879. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 Page. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 CHAPTER FIRST— SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES 7 
 
 Akticlb I. Preliminaries. .» 10 
 
 Sbction I. Opening Exercises 10 
 
 Section II! Organization..' 19 
 
 Section III. Assigning Lessons 30 
 
 CHAPTER SECOND— STUDY 43 
 
 Article I. Objects and Ends 45 
 
 Article II. Requisites and Modes 51 
 
 Article III. Means of Securing Study 61 
 
 CHAPTER THIRD— RECITATION 85 
 
 Article I. Objects and Aims 85 
 
 Article II. Conditions iind Requisites 92 
 
 Article III. Methods Ill 
 
 Article IV. Specific Methods 139 
 
 CHAPTER FOURTH— SCHOOL BUSINESS 155 
 
 Article I. Objects, etc 156 
 
 Article II. Requisites, etc 166 
 
 Article III. Mode of Conducting 172 
 
 CHAPTER FIFTH— RECREATION 179 
 
 Article I. Necessity and Objects 180 
 
 Article II. Requisites, etc 187 
 
 Article III. The Varieties 194 
 
 CHAPTER SIXTH— SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 205 
 
 Article I. Objects and Means... 207 
 
 Article II. Qualifications and Requisites 241 
 
 Article III. Qualities and Methods 245 
 
 (V) 
 
s-^isTOFSxa r. 
 
 Openino Exeb- 
 
 CISES. 
 
 Iteadlng tlie Scriptures. 
 SingiDg. Chanting. 
 Prayer. 
 
 
 C Enrollment and seating, etc. 
 Obganizatioh. X Examination and classification, 
 ( Order of Exercises. 
 
 The Assignini 
 
 Lrssonb, 
 
 NINO 0» } 
 'NS. ] 
 
 Deflniteness. Extent. Not too much assigned 
 at once. Tolnts of interest and difficulty. Man- 
 ner of recitation named. 
 
ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTIOiSr. 
 
 We come now to consider that part of the Science 
 of Education, which relates more particularly to 
 school-keeping, or special Didactics, — that part in 
 which the special applications are shown, — that part 
 for which the author's previous work on the subject 
 has in some degree, it is hoped, prepared the mind of 
 the student. 
 
 It might be thought by some to be sufficient had 
 we confined ourselves exclusively to this department 
 of the science; but it must be apparent to any one, 
 on mature reflection, that to commence the subject 
 here, would be to commence it in the middle ; it would 
 be to take things for granted, whose truths had never 
 been demonstrated. It would be downright empir- 
 icism. It would be like the attempt of the mex'est 
 charlatan to establish a science upon naked as- 
 sumption, or upon a limited number of experiments; 
 and it lias been shown in another place, that experi- 
 ment is no science or any part thereof. What is true 
 m the individual case, is of no determinative value until 
 it can be shown that all possible cases, falling under 
 the same head, are true also. Individual facts, there- 
 
 (7) 
 
8 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 fore, prove nothing conclusively in establishing gen- 
 eral truths, until they can be generalized. Experi- 
 ments are useful chiefly in discovery, and, so far as 
 they go, they give good testimony ; but their employ- 
 ment in the establishment of general principles, vrould 
 prove rather tedious for this utilitarian age. Hence 
 we must have general truths in all sciences whose 
 principles are susceptible of demonstration. From 
 these we may deduce specialties. 
 
 This seems to be the precise character of this sci- 
 ence. It answers to all the conditions. The fact is, 
 for every operation in nature there is a cause; and 
 every step in growth or education has its antecedents. 
 Every act performed is either right or wrong. There 
 are no indifferent ones ; and every thing done in school 
 is eitherx»f one class or the other. If the act is right, 
 there is a reason for it, which may be sought out, 
 generalized, and made a guide to subsequent acts and 
 investigators. If it is wrong, there is also a reason 
 for it, which may be demonstrated and developed in 
 such a way that it may become a warning to alf who 
 pass over that same way. 
 
 The whole subject of special didactics, therefore, 
 may thus be referred to general laws, whose principles 
 underlie the whole superstructure of human culture. 
 Every step in practice, if it is a right s'-.ep, is only the 
 application of a general principle to a particular cas ;, 
 and can therefore be referred back to theory or gen- 
 eral principles for authority ; so that there may be as 
 much definiteness, nay, certainty, in the art of teaching, 
 when once it is thoroughly apprehended, as in any 
 other art. The very existence of the science of edu- 
 cation and art of teaching, as we have before shown, 
 is predicated upon this truth. But this discussion 
 
SCHOOL-EOOM DUTIES. 9 
 
 will not be continued farther than merely to show 
 the connection and mutual dependence of theory and 
 practice, or general and special didactics. 
 
 In presenting the practical part of this subject, 
 special attention will be given, uot only to methods 
 of teaching and learning, but to the reference of these 
 to the general principles discussed heretofore; so 
 that nothing may seem to be taken for granted, or 
 adopted without authority. The whole, therefore, 
 will have the appearance, at least, of a perfect system. 
 
 The Home and Miscellaneous Duties have already, 
 to a great extent, been disposed of. As far as it will 
 become necessary to refer to them again, they will be 
 blended with those of the school-room, since their 
 nature and influence are so similar. 
 
 The topics for consideration have been named in the 
 introduction to the Science of Education, and may, 
 we believe, be made to include every thing pertaining 
 to the duties of teacliing and managing schools; and 
 what is one of the most interesting features is the 
 exact coincidence of the two parts, or of the science 
 and the art. Not a single application in the latter, 
 that does not find its principle in the former. E"ot a 
 stroke in art that does' not find its counterpnrt in 
 science. The one is the echo of the other. 
 
 The topics for investigation are the following, which 
 we propose to take up in the order in which they 
 occur: 1, Preliminaries; 2, Study; 3, Recitation ; 4, 
 Business ; 5, Recreation ; 6, Government. 
 
 In the discussion of these topics we propose to con- 
 sider the young teacher about to assume, it may be for 
 the first time — the duties and responsibilities of his 
 office. We shall attempt to meet and dispose of every 
 duty.and difficulty that he will be likely to encounter. 
 
10 THE AET OF TEACHING. 
 
 Article 1— Preliminaries. 
 
 Under this head we propose to consider every thing 
 that relates to the organization of schools, the open- 
 ing exercises, and the mode of assigning lessons and 
 making preparation for study ._ 
 
 Section 1 — Opening Exercises. — We place these 
 first, because we think, in point of time, they stand 
 first; and because we believe the organization and 
 other duties can be much more easily conducted after 
 those exercises have been disposed of in a proper 
 maimer. 
 
 I believe it is universally admitted that those per- 
 sons succeed best in their pursuits, of whatever char- 
 acter they are, who attach the greatest importance to 
 them ; that their success is usually measured by their 
 devotion, and the estimation in which they hold their 
 employment, other things being equal. So, to apply 
 the same principle to teaching, I have found, almost 
 without exception, that those teachers who were actu- 
 ated by a deep and abiding sense of the responsibili- 
 ties of their calling,have succeeded best. The fact is, 
 that Providence, however provident he may be, 
 does not usually help those who do not help them- 
 selves. Much less will he help those who ignore his 
 existence, and consequently will not apply to him for 
 aid. A great many of our teachers fail for want of 
 earnestness. They do not take hold of their work 
 as if they felt their souls wrapped up in it. They 
 set a low estimate upon their duties and labors, and it 
 can not be expected that their scholars will do more. 
 They fail to command that respect for themselves and 
 for the school which is so necessary to success. The 
 stream will rise no higher than the fountain. To 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 11 
 
 make others feel, we must feel ourselves. To warm 
 their hearts, the fii-e must burn within our own bosoms. 
 An iceberg emits no rajs of heat, however majestic it 
 may stand. The north wind seldom breaks the fetters 
 of winter, and wakes the young flowers to life; but 
 the silent, unobtrusive rays of the sun penetrate the 
 very heart of Nature, and start the warm currents of 
 her life-blood through every vein and artery in her 
 broad bosom. So that native earnestness and unde- 
 viating honesty, which spring up in the heart deeply 
 imbued with a love for the calling, will usually melt 
 down the hardest cases and surmount the most inveter- 
 ate difliculties, though other qualifications may be by 
 no means extraordinary. 
 
 Again : others fail for want of system. I am per- 
 suaded that the errors and failures in teaching are 
 more tlie result of a want of system or ability to use 
 knowledge than from any want of knowledge itself. 
 It is said that " knowledge is power," and in the sense 
 in which that maxim is generally understood, it is 
 true ; but knowledge is not power any further than it 
 can be wielded to accomplish results, any more than 
 a huge, overgrown boily void of sense or reason is 
 power. It is powerful perhaps in the same sense as the 
 earthquake, the volcano or the hurricane is powerful ; 
 powerful for mischief and destruction ; powerful, it 
 may be, like the locomotive, — unable to accomplish a 
 single good result, until directed by the skillful hand 
 of the engineer. Such is mere knowledge without 
 system. 
 
 I am persuaded, also, that without system, at least 
 one half of the teacher's power is as good as thrown 
 away, since it is expended, for the most part, in mis- 
 directed efforts; that with the same amount of scien- 
 
12 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 tific knowledge now possessed by the profession of 
 +eachers, twice the amount of good might be accom- 
 plished, were this vast force directed by some well- 
 digested plan of operation. No one can succeed in 
 anj' department*of business without a system or a plan 
 by which-to work. If farmers, merchants, mechanics 
 and business men generally, manifested no more con- 
 cern about their employment, and worked as objectless 
 and aimless as many teachers do, there would be uni- 
 versal failure and bankruptcy all over the land. Sys- 
 tem guides and gives success to the military general in 
 his battles and campaigns. It guides the scholar in 
 his investigations, and the statesman in his legislation. 
 In a word, the worlds are guided by it, in their cease- 
 less whirl in space. The seasons go- and come accord- 
 ing to the plan laid down for their observance; and 
 day and night are perpetual in their round. Sys- 
 tem reigns in every department of nature and of suc- 
 cessful art. It is the secret of success every-where else, 
 and it would not seem probable that teaching forms 
 any exception, save that the necessity seems greater 
 here, in proportion to the greatness of the duties and 
 rosponsibilities. 
 
 This want of system in teaching comes, in the great 
 majority of cases, from a <vant of a clear understand- 
 ing of the intention and importance of the duties, and 
 a frank acknowledgment of them in the presence of 
 the school. No school can succeed well, when there 
 is not this clear understanding and cordial reciprocity 
 on the part of all concerned. I know of no better 
 way of bringing about this state of things, than for 
 the teacher to lead off in the matter, not waiting for 
 parent or pupil, but to show by his conduct and con- 
 versation, that he is deeply in earnest in this matter. 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 13 
 
 But earnestness without prudence, will avail but little. 
 Great energy without skill, would resemble the loco- 
 motive without a hand to guide it ; and great powers 
 minus humility, would become offensive and nugatory 
 where great interests are at stake. 
 
 Let us instance two cases to illustrate the point. 
 One teacher, with hat in hand, and blustering, it may 
 bo, from his recent exertion, enters the school-room 
 about the time to open the school. Presently a rapid 
 succession of heavy raps, or the loud ringing of the 
 bell is heard in the vicinity of the teacher's desk; and 
 through all, and above all, the stentorian voice of the 
 teacher is heard calling to order (?). By repeated 
 effort, and great exertions, this is so far accomplished 
 at length, that one accustomed to such scenes would 
 hardly be mistaken as to the intention, at least. Order 
 being thus far secured, without one moment's reflec- 
 tion, to say nothing about opening exercises of a 
 formal character, the classes are called, and the teacher 
 and pupil rush into the arena of duties to contend and 
 toil, to fret and sweat (I will not say swear), over the 
 day's difficulties. 
 
 Now, we submit, are the minds of teacher and 
 scholars in a proper frame to encounter such perplex- 
 ing duties as will most likely meet them ? If for no 
 other purpose than merely to afford time for a few 
 moments' reflection, and opportunity to call in their 
 thoughts, and to place them on the duties in which 
 they are about to engage, it would be desirable to 
 have a portion of time set apart for some formal open- 
 ing exercises. 
 
 Take another example. The teacher enters the 
 room quietly, unobtrusively, and in ample time to take 
 a general survey of persons and things before the hour 
 
14 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 for opening the school arrives. Preseutly a gentle, 
 but well-known signal is heard, and all are quietly 
 seated in their proper places. A moment or two of 
 silence elapses, during which time all are listening and 
 expecting ; and then there break forth from the stand, 
 in subdued but earnest tones, the blessed words well 
 chosen from the Bible. The teacher reads, but his 
 soul is full of the inspiration from that holy book, and 
 he bears the shafts of Divine truth to the hearts and con- 
 sciences of those that hear. His remarks arepointed, 
 and mostly bearing upon the duties and difficulties of 
 the day. But hark ! a hymn of praise now rises from 
 that little band, and echoes from the hillside and the 
 forest. And now ail is hushed again, save one earnest, 
 pleading voice devoutly imploring Divine favor. The 
 scene closes, and the sunbeams of joy steal in uncon- 
 sciously upon those confiding hearts, and all their an- 
 ger and dark suspicions, if they entertained any,, have 
 melted away like frost-work before the sun, under the 
 beam of Divine Truth. Now, are not these hearts, 
 these minds, in a, better condition for study and recita- 
 tion than those in our first picture ? 
 
 There may be those in the school who would aflfect 
 indifierence to these things, and so they might, were 
 the heavens to fall; but that afteeted indifference 
 would not screen them from the infiuences thus 
 brought to bear upon them. These things will com- 
 mend themselves to their sober judgments; and if 
 consistently and persistently prosecuted, they can not 
 fail to produce the happiest results. But it is not 
 our purpose to dictate. AVe only wish to present 
 the case fairly, and allow teachers to chose for them- 
 selves. To this end, we suggest the following exer- 
 cises, any one or all of which may, as shall seem best 
 
SCHOOL-KOOM DUTIES. 15 
 
 to the teacher, be adopted as appropriate opening 
 exercises. 
 
 1. Heading the Scriptures. — The reasons for this exer- 
 cise may be briefly summed up as follows : 
 
 1. The children need moral and religious instruction 
 as we have shown, and as everybody admits. This is 
 a most favorable time, when their minds are clear and 
 vigorous to apprehend those truths. 
 
 2. It offers the best possible opportunity to make 
 impressions. The words of inspiration have more 
 force than any others, simply because they are in- 
 spired. No mere human words or composition can 
 have the effect that these have; wlSen read and felt by 
 the teacher himself. 
 
 •3. It prepares the way for successful study and in- 
 struction in other departments. It opens the heart 
 and the mind to receive and impart the truth, which 
 will grow all the better for being watered thus daily 
 by the dews of Divine Inspiration. 
 
 4. It offers the very best opportunity, to smite down 
 some of those vicious habits that may be making in- 
 roads upoD the school. It would not be wise, perhaps, 
 to take special pains to make it bear upon these points ; 
 but the silent influence of the Word itself will prove 
 sufficient, in most cases, to work the reform. 
 
 The manner of conducting this part of the opening 
 exercises, will be left to the judgment of the teacher, 
 with these simple suggestions, that while some would 
 succeed best with one plan, others might adopt a dif- 
 ferent one and succeed equally as well. I have known 
 most charming results produced in primary and secon- 
 dary schools, by the whole school's repeating the Lord's 
 Prayer in concert. The same may be done with portions 
 of Christ's Sermon on the Mount, and selections from 
 
16 THE ART OF TEACHING 
 
 the Psalms. Then again, I have seen a whole school, 
 teacher and all, affected even to tears, by a careful and 
 earnest reading, explanation and application of some of 
 the most interesting portions of holy writ. The historic 
 parts of both the Old and Few Testament are suitable. 
 Others again I have known to succeed best by joining 
 with some or all of their pupils in reading. But what- 
 ever may be the form, children should be taught to 
 regard the reading of the Bible with more interest and 
 earnest attention than they do other books. Other- 
 wise there is great danger of their coming to regard it, 
 by and by, of no greater value. - It may become unto 
 them " a savor of* life unto life, or of death unto 
 death." It is a sharp, two-edged sword for good or 
 ill. It is an educational instrumentality, of such force 
 that no teacher can aftbrd to do without it ; and it is 
 to be devoutly hoped that the time is past when its 
 use will be objected to. It is suitable for all conditions 
 of the human race, but is used to greatest advantage 
 when the passages are carefully and wisely selected 
 for the occasion. It then acts like a charm upon the 
 heart. There are storms of troubled passions there. 
 But Christ's words, " Peace, be still ! " that echoed 
 from wave to wave over the troubled waters of the 
 sea of Galilee, were scarcely more potent to produce a 
 calm than these passages will become when properly 
 selected, and read with the right spirit. 
 
 2. Singing is an exercise, at once, so appropriate 
 and so common, that it needs no argument to recom- 
 mend it. There is scarcely any excuse for not prac- 
 ticing it in school ; for if the teacher can not sing, 
 some or perhaps all the pupils can, and all that is 
 necessary is to grant them permission, and the thing 
 is done; perhaps not in the most approved 8tyle,but 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 17 
 
 time and practice will improve it. Of course, it need 
 not be confined to the opening exercises. It may 
 mingle with all others. It will gladden and enliven 
 all. All know the magic power of music to subdue the 
 passions, to cultivate the voice, and to refine the feel- 
 ings. Let its sweet strains, therefore, mingle freely in 
 all the exercises of the schoolroom. For the opening 
 exercises, such selections should be made as shall com- 
 port with the occasion, and should be so arranged, if 
 possible, as to allow all to participate. 
 
 There is one particular mode of singing, fast com- 
 ing into use in the schools, which seems to possess 
 merits for opening exercises, surpassing all others, 
 viz. : the chant. It does seem that nothing can be 
 more appropriate than this, when the whole school 
 can unite in chanting the praises of God, morning 
 and evening, for what we have said of opening exer- 
 cises is mainly true of the closing. 
 
 3. Prayer. After what has been said of reading 
 the Scriptures, and singing , etc., the arguments in 
 favor of prayer or some form of devotion might be 
 iuferred. It is the crowning excellence of all the rest, 
 as it is a virtual acknowledgement of allegiance to 
 God, and of dependence upon him. It more than all 
 others, will show the teacher to be deeply in earnest. 
 Of course, it presupposes that every teacher should be 
 a good man ; for who else should teach ? Ifot the 
 bad man surely ! And there are but these two classes. 
 Therefore the argument runs thus. All good men 
 pray ; none but good men should teach ; therefore 
 teachers should pray. ■ 
 
 But it is not our purpose to proscribe those who do 
 not; for we believe that many excellent teachers do 
 not presume to pray, for conscience' sake, or because 
 2 
 
18 TUE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 they do not make a public profession of religion. 
 I honor and respect such ; but I can not avoid the 
 conviction that their excellencies would be very much 
 enhanced, could they consistently add this other grace 
 also. It would sanctify and intensify every other 
 power. And it would seem, on a careful examination, 
 that if there is any one duty in all the wide range of 
 human duties that demands prayer, it is that of teach- 
 ing. If there is one position in life in which a man 
 needs Divine guidance, that position is the one in 
 which the training of human beings is concerned. 
 Add to this the moral effects of prayer upon both 
 pupil and teacher, and its claims are set beyond 'a 
 shadow of a doubt. 
 
 !N"ow, if this form of opening exercises be objected 
 to by any on the plea of want of time, let such be 
 answered as follows : That if these things are of the 
 importance claimed for them, then they have as much 
 claim upon the time of the school-room as any others ; 
 and it would be just as unreasonable to quibble about 
 the time devoted to recitation in Grammar or Arith- 
 metic, as about this. And when it is considered how 
 much these exercises really add to the sum total of 
 education, not only by preparing the minds and hearts 
 of pupils, etc., but in actual instruction in matters of 
 the most vital importance, it will readily be seen that 
 so far from being any loss of time, it is actually time 
 saved. " To study well is to have prayed well," was 
 a maxim of one of the greatest students and reform- 
 ers the world ever knew; and it is not without its 
 application here. But the time thus employed need 
 not occupy more than ten or fifteen minutes at the 
 most, and often it can be brought within the compass 
 of seven or eight. 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 19 
 
 Sec. 2 — Organization. — The organization of schools 
 is of so much importance, that its claims to a separate 
 hearing can not be set aside without very much im- 
 pairing the completeness of the plan we have marked 
 out. The efficiency and success of the school depend 
 so essentially upon a thorough and systematic organ- 
 ization, that teachers should study this subject with as 
 much care as they do any other, relating to the school. 
 
 At the commencement of a term of school, the great 
 anxiety of the teacher seems to be, to begin the hear- 
 ing of classes; but it will be found that time may be 
 saved, as well as perplexity avoided, by a little care 
 and attention at the outset. A week, or even ten days 
 may be spent to great advantage in organizing and 
 trying the machinery, before starting oft" for the term, 
 especially if the school be a new one. This will be 
 found to be much better than to commence the first 
 or second day with an imperfect organization, only to 
 run into difficulty, and expose the teacher and pupils 
 to the mortification of a reorganization and perhaps 
 a failure. The examinations and other general exer- 
 cises which will be described by-and-by, will afford 
 ample employment for both teacher and pupil until 
 the regular exercises begin. 
 
 Another reason why teachers should not be hasty in 
 completing the organization of their schools, especially 
 if they are unacquainted with their pupils, is found in 
 a want of a mutual understanding between the parties. 
 Teachers need time to observe and study the capacity, 
 advancement and natural inclinations and dispositions 
 of their pupils; and they, in turn, stand equally in 
 need of time to make a similar acquaintance. The 
 exercises about to be recommended afford these oppor- 
 tunities in due proportion. 
 
20 THE ART OF TEACHINfi. 
 
 I have sometimes made this remark to teachers that 
 were about going out, perhaps for the first time, to 
 engage their schools ; and the recommendation may 
 not be inappropriate here, viz. : that if they can spare 
 the time, they should spend at least a week in visiting 
 the families of the neighborhood or district, for the 
 purpose of getting acquainted with the parents and 
 children, and with the influences that have been, and 
 still may be operating upon them ; or in other words, 
 to learn their antecedents ; for no teacher is prepared 
 to give direction and instruction to a child until he 
 knows something of its capacity and antecedents. In 
 the ordinary way of organizing, he is left without any 
 means of knowing, except that which is aftbrded by a 
 very imperfect acquaintance, acquired in the ordinary 
 recitation. 
 
 Let him not go on these visitations, however, as a 
 pedagogue, or as one whose special business it is to 
 instruct ; or he may not find those who are willing to 
 learn from so green a disciple. Let him not- go to 
 lecture the parents upon their duties, etc., and to 
 frighten the children and old ladies with his immense 
 learning; or he may breed contempt in the minds of 
 those who are as wise as himself. But let him go, 
 rather, as a friend to converse and counsel with, and 
 receive instruction from them, in reference to their 
 labors, daily duties, habits and wishes ; and he will 
 acquire more valuable information in a half-day's 
 friendly intercourse, than he would in a whole week's 
 recitation, simply because he then comes in direct 
 contact with the real boys and girls, which is not 
 always the case at school. He may thereby avoid 
 error.i, which if committed, will lead to the defeat of 
 his most sanguine purposes. How often has the 
 
SCHOOL-KOOM DUTIES. 21 
 
 teacher had reason for sorrow and repentance for his 
 treatment of children, after learning what those poor 
 little ones have to contend with at home ! Teacher, 
 look well to your children's homes, if you would 
 educate them. 
 
 Again : a thorough and systematic organization of 
 the school, before starting off, will do much to con- 
 vince the pupils, both of the importance of their duties 
 and of the ability of the teacher to conduct them. A 
 few master-strokes here (I do not mean strokes from 
 the master) will give him a greater ascendency over his 
 pupils, than any or all the other kinds of strokes he 
 may employ subsequently. Whereas, a few mistakes 
 will have a tendency to sink him correspondingly low 
 in their estimation. 
 
 Many teachers fail from this cause. They come 
 before the school, perhaps for the first time in their 
 lives, without any definite or well digested plan. The 
 consequence is, they are embarrassed. They hesitate 
 and halt in the performance of their duties ; and how- 
 ever wise they may pretend to be, and however 
 earnestly they may labor, nothing will conceal from 
 the lynx-eyed children (and they read motives by 
 intuition) the lamentable deficiency, or save him from 
 exposure. He may struggle, but his embarrassment 
 will increase ; and at every successive blunder, he will 
 sink lower and lower in their estimation, and deeper 
 and deeper into difliculty, until his resurrection be- 
 comes impossible. 
 
 But take an example of a teacher well versed in 
 didactics; one who has wisdom and a plan, and dis- 
 patch to execute it. He comes before his school, 
 without ostentation or embarrassment. He knows 
 what is the first thing to be done, and the second. 
 
22 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 and the third, and so on. He disposes of them in their 
 proper order, and in such a manner as to convince his 
 pupils that " knowledge is indeed power." The whole 
 IS completed with that eminent ability which proves 
 him to be a master workman. And what is the eftect 
 upon the pupils ? They yield their willing and' un- 
 qualified subtnission ; and the teacher rises, at each 
 successive step, until he stands before them an em- 
 bodiment of power. Such a teacher can teach. Such 
 also is the effect of system, or a studied plan of opera- 
 tion. This alone is argument sufficient to convince 
 any one, that there is something more than mere 
 familiarity with the branches of study necessary to 
 secure success in teaching. ISo amount of mere scien- 
 tific acquirements can compensate for this deficiency 
 in professional skill. This must be learned some- 
 where, either before 6v after the teacher commences 
 his duties. It were better far to learn it before, since 
 this may save him from a world of mortification and 
 perhaps failure, and his pupils from a still worse 
 calamity. 
 
 The opening exercises disposed of in a manner 
 similar to that described under that topic, the school 
 now is supposed to be in a condition to favor a good, 
 thorough organization. 
 
 There is, however, one thing common to the rural 
 districts, which usually operates against such an organ- 
 ization. It is the want of a full attendance of the 
 pupils, the first few days of school. But the plan 
 proposed will, in some measure, meet that difficulty 
 and greatly relieve it; since it delays the complete 
 organization until a greater number can be present. It 
 is to be regretted, however, that parents can not see 
 the utter hopelessness of a respectable organization, 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 23 
 
 where the children are delayed in their attendance 
 until the second or third week of school. It is of the 
 utmost importance, therefore, that the children be 
 present on the very first opening of the school. Par- 
 ents ought to know, and feel too, that every hour 
 any scholar delays in entering the school, is not only 
 so much time lost, and worse than lost to him, but 
 that he actually inflicts a wound upon the school, in 
 interrupting and delaying its organization. 
 
 What, for instance, would be thought of the wisdom 
 of a neighborhood that had adopted as one of its reg- 
 ulations, that no one should be allowed to commence 
 the spring plowing until every other one was willing 
 and ready to commence also ; and that if some few of 
 them had taken advantage of the pleasant weather, 
 and had actually done a part of their work, that they, 
 forsooth, because their lazy neighbors were not ready, 
 must unplow or unsow that which their industry 
 secured ? And yet this policy resembles, in no slight 
 degree, the wisdom and justice of sending pupils to 
 school after the school is organized, and compelling 
 the reorganization to accommodate them. 
 
 Or what would be thought of the wisdom of that 
 farmer, for instance, who was about sowing his wheat, 
 but, forsooth, because he had not seed enough pre- 
 pared wJien the time came for sowing, instead of pre- 
 paring more, should go on and sow what he had, over 
 the whole field; and then wait a week or two, until 
 the grain sown had got fairly growing, and then 
 sow another sowing and harrow it in, right among the 
 tender shoots of the growing grain ; and then again, 
 along in May of the next year, when the crop began 
 to spring, he should discover that it was not quite 
 right yet, and should sow the residue of his grain, and 
 
24 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 harrow it in as before, right among the growing grain ? 
 Why, such a man would be thought a fit subject for 
 an insane asylum, and so it would seem ; but a policy 
 very much like this is practiced in nearly all our 
 country schools. What kind of a crop would that 
 man reap, if he reaped any at all ? It would resemble 
 very much the intellectual and moral harvests that are 
 too frequently gathered in many of our schools. That 
 growing grain thus mutilated by repeated additions, 
 is but too apt a type of many of our schools, dis- 
 turbed and rent asunder by a fresh arrival of pupils 
 every few weeks. But until parents can see this evil 
 in its true light, it were better perhaps to endure it 
 for a time, and provide for its removal as soon as 
 possible. 
 
 One of the first steps in the organization of the 
 school, is the enrollment and seating of pupils. This, 
 though apparently a small matter, oflfers an excellent 
 opportunity for the teacher to exhibit that skill and 
 wisdom which are to give him command over his 
 pupils. There is a right way and a wrong way in 
 everything, and the principle descends even to this 
 small duty. If the teacher do those duties well, the 
 pupils will give him credit for it ; if he do them ill, 
 they will place it on the debit side, and woe be to that 
 teacher, if, when the balance is struck, the debit should 
 exceed the credit. 
 
 It is not our purpose, however, to recommend any 
 particular method of doing this duty, to the exclusion 
 of all others. The great diversity of the form and 
 manner of seating in school-rooms, and other circum- 
 stances, would forbid this. But we shall indicate a 
 few plans which will, most likely, prove suggestive to 
 teachers. 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 25 
 
 1. The teacher needs a general roll, for reference 
 and other purposes, and it should be arranged in 
 alphabetic order. He therefore makes this announce- 
 ment to the school, explains its use, and says, " All 
 whose names (meaning the family name) begin with 
 A, will please to arise." As fast as their names are 
 called and recorded, they take their seats. The letter 
 B is called in a similar manner, and so on through all 
 the letters. 
 
 This exercise also offers a fine opportunity for the 
 teachers to learn the names of his pupils — a matter of 
 no trifling importance — to make general remarks, and 
 to become somewhat acquainted. A similar course 
 might be pursued in forming class rolls also. This 
 matter well done, will impress the school with the 
 idea that order prevails every-where"; that it is one of 
 the first and firmest laws of nature ; and its appear- 
 ance here will be greeted with respect, to say the least. 
 
 2. The next step, perhaps, is seating the pupils. In 
 this matter the teacher will have to be governed some- 
 what by the form and size of the room, and the posi- 
 tion and arrangement of the seats. In most instances 
 he will find it to result in the greatest convenience, to 
 seat the larger pupils in one part of the room, and the 
 smaller ones in the other, placing the larger ones back, 
 and so grading the school forward that the smaller 
 ones shall occupy the seats nearest the teachers desk. 
 This will give the school an orderly appearance. No 
 one likes to see a large boy aad a very stnall one 
 occupying the same seat. It is out of proportion and 
 disorderly. It resembles too much a team composed 
 of one very large horse and a very small one, or a 
 muie harnessed with an elephant. The objection, 
 that this plan would prevent children who wish to 
 
 3 
 
26 THE ART OF TEACHING 
 
 study together, or who wish to be together for any 
 other purpose, is not a valid one. Since to prevent 
 this is the very thing aimed at, it is the chief excel- 
 lency of the measure. Children should not be per- 
 mitted,as a general thing, to assist each other in their 
 lessons, but should be taught to rely upon their own 
 individual exertions, as we shall have occasion to re- 
 mark more at length when we come to notice the topic 
 of study. The practice of studying together, and 
 assisting and prompting each other, is ruining thou- 
 sands of scholars in our schools. It destroys that self- 
 reliance and independence so necessary to make a man. 
 
 Again : this plan would prevent any noise and mis- 
 chief, which are sure to be the result when the practice 
 is allowed to any extent. It will be found also where 
 children are allowed to select their own seats, without 
 any general system, that if there happen to be two or 
 three mischievous ones (and such cases, I believe, are 
 not unsupposable), they will be sure to get together 
 " to have a good time." Now all this may be prevent- 
 ed. All these evil combinations may be broken up, 
 by a judicious arrangement; and the teacher should 
 have the entire management of the seating of the 
 pupils in the school. The effect of this arrangement 
 may easily be anticipated. The pupils will see, at 
 once, the propriety of it, and will say within them- 
 selves, if not audibly, " well, I think there is going to 
 be something done this term.'" " I wonder if it would 
 not be best for me to fall right in ranks, and assist in 
 carrying out these plans ? " "I see plainly that the 
 teacher knows something, and that mischief and idle- 
 ness will not pay, this term." Such will be the mental 
 cogitations of the pupils. 
 
 The matters of enrollment and seating disposed of, 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 27 
 
 the next item of importance will be the examination 
 and classification of the pupils. These will constitute 
 the great burden of the organization. Too much pains, 
 therefore, can not be taken with them. It requires the 
 greatest care and discrimination, combined with the 
 most unflinching integrity, to perform this duty well 
 A hundred and one reasons will perhaps be offered, 
 both by child and parent, showing why " so and so " 
 should be put into this class or that; all of which are 
 to be heard and disposed of. And, while I would not 
 encourage obstinacy or self-conceit on the part of 
 the teacher-, yet I would have him distinctly to under- 
 stand, that it is his exclusive prerogative, to determine 
 the position, in classes, of every scholar in school. B^ 
 should not assert this prerogative, however, without 
 duly considering all the circumstances, cautiously con- 
 sulting the wishes of all parties, and receiving all the 
 instruction possible from whatever source. The teach- 
 er is supposed to know better than any one else, what 
 will be the best for the child in school. If he does 
 not, he ought not to teach. 
 
 Again : some one must have the general direction 
 of affairs. If that person is not the teacher, pray, 
 who should it be ? What would be the condition of 
 the school, for instance, provided every little Master 
 or Miss, every fond mother or doting father — to say 
 nothing about the grandmas, aunts, and other func- 
 tionaries interested — should " have a say " in the 
 arrangement of affairs at school? No two opinions 
 would agree, and anarchy and confusion would reign. 
 
 But in rendering these decisions, examining the 
 pupils and arranging the classes, respect should be 
 had to the following points : 
 
28 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 1st. To give the pupil credit for what he thinks he 
 knows, as far as possible. 
 
 2d. To give him credit for no more than he knows, 
 proved upon careful examination. 
 
 3d. To reserve the privilege of correcting any false 
 notions in reference either to capacity or acquire- 
 ments, and the right to determine his standing and 
 position in class. 
 
 This course will most likely disclose the following 
 facts : that some scholars place too high an estimate 
 upon their abilities ; that others, again, place that esti- 
 mate too low ; and still another class that need spe- 
 cial attention, viz., those who,through pure indolence, 
 or a desire at least to escape from hard labor, will 
 select classes and studies far below their abilities. 
 Such need a special spur. 
 
 The main point to be observed is, so to dispose of 
 every member of the school, that as few changes as 
 possible will be required after the school once com- 
 mences in earnest; for all who have had any experi- 
 ence in these matters, know how. demoralizing it is to 
 all concerned, to be obliged to rip up the organization 
 of classes, and to make changes, or to form new ones. 
 To those pupils who have to be turned back in their 
 studies, it becomes a matter of severe disappointment 
 and discouragement. Their aspirations and anticipa- 
 tions have been raised by an unwise step, only to be 
 dashed to the ground ; and in too many instances, all 
 hope perishes, and with it, the desire for study. Now 
 a teacher has no right to treat a pupil in this manner. 
 Hence the greater necessity for knowledge upon these 
 points. And then again, to those who have to be set 
 forward, the evils are sometimes scarcely less ruinous. 
 
SOIIOOL-EOOM DUTIES. 29 
 
 Their pride and self-conceit, are often- pampered, and 
 indolence and superficial habits take the place of hon- 
 est industry and frugality. 
 
 In conclusion upon this topic, it is but justice to re- 
 mark, that most of the evils here pointed out, are 
 amply provided for, and the recommendations happily 
 anticipated in ^our best organized union or graded 
 schools. But the object of this work is, if possible, 
 to bring the common district school up to a level with 
 the union or graded school. 
 
 The examination of pupils and the formation of 
 classes completed, the scholars will begin to cast about 
 them for some employment. This should be furnished 
 them in exact measure. Ko time should be lost by 
 the teacher, in furnishing them ivith an Order of Exer- 
 cises. Much valuable time is lost, and much mischief 
 concocted, from not providing for this want, from the 
 beginning. Pupils may not really desire to be negli- 
 gent or vicious ; indeed, very few, if any, do ; but in 
 consequence of their not knowing exactly what to do, 
 and, in some instances, not exactly caring about doing 
 any thing, or not feeling the special necessity of labor, 
 their duties are therefore neglected. But if a general 
 order of exercises, stating the exact amount of labor, 
 and the precise time of every recitation, and of every 
 other duty, were placed in such a position that every 
 pupil might see it, and learn just what to do; and 
 when to do this, and when to do that, these tempta- 
 tions would be, to a great extent, removed. There 
 would be less excuse for ill-prepared lessonsj for the 
 lessons and time to prepare them, would all be meas- 
 ured and balanced. The scholars have a right to 
 know this arrangement ; and it will do more to form 
 and strengthen the habits of regularity and industry, 
 
30 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 than any amount of lecturing and scolding that may 
 be bestowed upon them; and then the very habits 
 formed here, are the- ones that will follow them into 
 the workshops, on the farm, into the office, counting- 
 room, pulpit, bar or school-house. They are the ones 
 that will render them successful or unsuccessful 
 throughout an eventful career of life. The fact is, a 
 great many of the evils we complain of most bitterly, 
 in the school, are the results of some such mistakes, 
 in not providing the scholars with the means for pro- 
 secuting these duties. 
 
 Another recommendation equally worthy of adop- 
 tion, at least by all the larger members of the school, 
 is the construction of a separate order for individual 
 use, in which every hour and half-hour of the day, 
 shall be provided for. Let one be written out by each 
 individual pupil ; to meet his particular case; and, if 
 need be, let it be revised by the teacher, and compared 
 with others of similar character. This will cut off 
 the last possible excuse for neglect of duty, and will 
 have a tendency to make orderly and successful men 
 and women, in whatever department of life they may 
 chance to labor. But this plan will be described more 
 fully, under the head of " Special Order of Daily 
 Duties." 
 
 Section 3 — Assigning Lessons. — There is still an- 
 other duty which may be regarded as preliminary, 
 though not in th'e sense in which the organization and 
 opening exercises are. The first, it will be observed, 
 is a preliminary which, if once disposed of properly, 
 does not need repeating; the second is periodical, 
 occurring each morning; but the third, or Assigning 
 Lessons, is a duty that may occur every half-hour or 
 less often ; it is preliminary or preparatory to study 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 31 
 
 and recitation, and hence is not without its im- 
 portance. 
 
 It is laid down as a fundamental principle, in an- 
 other part of this work, that the scholars will be gov- 
 erned in their estimate, and consequent discharge of 
 duty, by the estimation in which these duties are held 
 by the teacher himself. If, therefore, carelessness and 
 indifference are manifested by the teacher in assign- 
 ing lessons, the same disposition, will most likely be 
 manifested by the pupils M'hen preparing and reciting 
 those lessons. For instance : after a hurried recitation 
 in which, perhaps, not more than one half or two 
 thirds of the previous lesson has been recited, the 
 teacher says — hastily turning the leaf of the book 
 and glancing hurriedly at the contents, for the bell 
 has rung, and,being a little behind, the next recitation 
 is pressing hard upon him — " Here ! your lesson com- 
 mences somewhere in the neighborhood of the or 
 
 page, and may extend — let me see — how far can 
 
 you go ? " (to which not very satisfactory or unan- 
 imous answers are given) well, go as far as you can. " 
 "]!^ext class!" and the books are hastily closed and 
 the puj)il8 hurry to their seats, and make busy prepa- 
 rations to^ do nothing, absolutely nothing ! for 
 
 the teacher most emphatically announced to them 
 that task, by his failing to circumscribe the limits of 
 their work. He said in the most forcible manner : 
 " Do just as you please ; " and they may please to do 
 nothing. 
 
 Now what kind of a recitation will that teacher meet 
 when he next calls the class ? He ought not to expect 
 any thing more or better than he gave ; and since he 
 gave nothing, he should expect nothing. If he be 
 thus modest in his expectations, he may not be disap- 
 
:J2 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 pointed ; but he is apt to expect more. The recitation 
 is about to commence. One says, " Why, I thought 
 the lesson commenced here ; " another says, " No, 
 there," a third, " I don't know where ; " but a fourth, 
 with more roguery than honesty may saj, '■' I didn't 
 know there was any ; " and so it goes. One is called 
 upon to recite. The question is asked, but the answer 
 comes complainingly : " I didn't study that." " How 
 perplexing ! " (fortunate if nothing worse escape him,) 
 sighs the poor teacher, chafed and worried by a suc- 
 cession of such difficulties. "Well, whose fault is it, 
 teacher? Who set the example? If you want your 
 pupils to be precise, prompt and faithful, you must be 
 so j'ourself. If you would have them do the work, 
 you must mark it out for them. 
 
 What would you think of a carpenter, for instance, 
 who is about erecting a house, if he should go on 
 the ground with a-score of green hands, and commence 
 in this wise, " Here, boys, are the timbers. Well, I 
 want you to bore the holes, make the mortises, fit the 
 tenons, square the beams, trim the braces and ties, 
 make the doors and windows, and in fact do as well as 
 you can ; now go to work." And they go to work 
 " with a vengeance," every one doing what he thinks 
 best (?) The frame is erected — and such a frame! 
 What would you give, gentle readers, to see that house ? 
 I venture to say you would give one groan at least. It 
 might be no idolatry to fall down (if it didn't fall first) 
 and worship it; for it would not have its likeness 
 cither on the earth, under the earth, in the sea or in 
 the heavens. But bad as it is, it would be but too 
 correct a likeness of the mental and moral habitations 
 that are sometimes erected in our school-houses. The 
 comparison can be readily carried out. 
 
SCHOOL-KOQM DUTIES. 33 
 
 Now, in such a case, a good workman would take a 
 square and compasses, and, passing carefully from tim- 
 ber to timber, would mark off, here a mortise, there a 
 tenon, here a brace, there a tie, here a door, there a 
 window, etc., until all is completed ; and then he 
 might say with some propriety, "Here,' boys, go to 
 work." So a good teacher would take a book and 
 pencil in hand, and calling the attention of the class, 
 would carefully mark off the lesson. He would say, in 
 the first place, " The lesson commences precisely with 
 
 the article, and extends to the article; and 
 
 every word and sentence is to be studied and recited." 
 Hence definiteness as to place and extent is a matter first 
 to be considered. The pupils should know just where 
 a lesson commences and where it ends, and every 
 thing else that, will be demanded of them. This may 
 be tested by actual examination by the teacher before 
 the class leaves the recitation seat, if there is any doubt 
 about it. They then will have no excuse from that 
 quarter for neglect of duty. It brings the matter 
 under their immediate notice, and fastens it so upon 
 the memory that there will be no escape from tts 
 claims. 
 
 Again : care should be taken not to assign too 
 much or too little. The tendencies are to err in the 
 first extreme. In this case the mind soon wearies of 
 fruitless endeavors to encompass much, and the result 
 is that nothing is done well; superficial habits are 
 formed. The effects of this mania, " to get through 
 books," are very discernible in all departments of 
 business, especially in the western country, where the 
 evil prevails to the greatest extent. It shows itself in 
 fast living, in overweening desires, in hastening to be- 
 come rich, in living beyond the means, and often in 
 
34 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 open bankruptcy. I have thought also that I could 
 discover the results of too long lessons given in school, 
 on some of our western farms, where an attempt is 
 made to cultivate 200 or 300 acres of land, with 
 means hardly adequate to cultivate 50 well. The 
 results are broken-down fences, dilapidated buildings, 
 inadequate cultivation, poor crops, briers in the fence 
 corners, and a general appearance of slovenliness per- 
 vading every thing ; while in New England, where, to 
 my certain knowledge, the lessons given in school are 
 not more than one-half so long, the farms and the 
 way-side, and every thing, seems to wear an air of 
 neatness and finish, which have been the subject of 
 just praise by the traveler. May we not seek for the 
 cause of this in the foregoing? Indeed I think we 
 may safely conclude, tha't whatever errors or excel- 
 lencies we behold in the walks of society, are but the 
 reflections of the school and the family. The child's 
 capacity should therefore be exactly measured, in as- 
 signing a lesson, and just enough given to keep his 
 powers in active exercise, for the requisite length of 
 time, and then the labor should be remitted or changed. 
 This, it is true, would require skill and wisdom ; but 
 it is their claims we are trying to enforce. 
 
 Again : to make the matter sure, there should be a 
 distinct understanding, that no lesson is to be assigned 
 twice for any cause, save the most unavoidable acci- 
 dents. One of the prevailing errors in the present 
 mode of teaching is the one of allowing the pupil to 
 have two or three trials at the same lesson. They 
 come to think, by and by, that they can not get a 
 lesson the first time, and their efforts seldom exceed 
 their expectations. The evil is brought about in this 
 way : teachers give too long lessons in the first place ; 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DDTIES. 35 
 
 ill the second place, they do not take sufficient pre- 
 cautions to secure the study of them ; and in the third 
 place, if the lessons are imperfect, as they most surely 
 will be under these circumstances, they are assigned a 
 second, third, or even a fourth and fifth time, before 
 they are completed. liTow, any one can see at a 
 glance, that this is nothing more nor less than a bid on 
 laziness. The pupil will console himself with reflec- 
 tions like the following: "Well, though this is a 
 pretty hard lesson, yet there is this consolation, that if 
 I don't complete it now, I shall have another trial or 
 two." " The master will be easy with me, and what 
 I do not understand, he will explain." " I will there- 
 fore get but a portion of it, or the whole imperfectly, 
 and complete it at another time." 
 
 'Now any one can see where this would lead ; and it 
 would be safe to say that a very great part of the poor 
 recitations, as well as of poor scholarship, may date 
 existence to causes like these. There should therefore 
 be a distinct understanding, that no lesson is to be as- 
 signed a second or a third time, and that if a lesson is 
 accidentally or carelessly lost, its loss falls only upon 
 the unfortunate or guilty one. (The cases that might 
 be regarded as exceptional will be noticed in another 
 place.) This, I imagine, will do more than almost 
 any one thing, to correct the evil habit of careless and 
 superficial study. 
 
 Another matter relating to preliminaries deserves 
 attention, which, perhaps, will be more clearly under- 
 stood by first showing the evils to be removed, and the 
 benefits to be secured by its adoption. 
 
 In almost every lesson, there are some interesting 
 points that may not attract the attention of the 
 •learner, unless such attention is particularly called to 
 
36 THE ART OF TEACHINR. 
 
 them. They exist sometimes in a kind of undefined 
 state, but only need to be pointed out, not explained, 
 in order that they may be apprehended, and thus be- 
 come strong incentives to study. History and geogra- 
 phy abound in such matters, and no branch of study 
 is, perhaps, entirely wanting in them. Again : there 
 are also, iu most studies, a greater or less number of 
 points of diiEculty, to which it may be well to direct 
 the attention of the learner, especially if the lesson is 
 a new one. Pupils are not unfrequently brought in 
 contact with those things iu a manner calculated rather 
 to discourage them than to excite their energies. It 
 would not be wise, therefore, to remove them entirely 
 out of the way, but, rather, prepare their minds, as 
 far as possible, to encounter them. The practice of 
 merely defining the limits of a lesson, and saying to 
 the pupil, " There, now study," is too much like taking 
 him up to the border of a seemingly impenetrable 
 forest, through which he is required to pass, and say- 
 ing to him, " There, now pass through the best way 
 you can." Would he not be more likely to accomplish 
 this feat, more to his own pleasure and profit, and to 
 the satisfaction of all parties, were the teacher to give 
 him a little instruction, such, for instance, as the 
 " points of the compass," the direction to go, etc., and 
 to point out to him a few of the difficulties he will be 
 most likely to encounter, giving him directions how 
 to avoid them, rather than allow him to blunder 
 through without such aid? 
 
 Would he not be better prepared to meet those 
 difficulties, and to enjoy those pleasures also, if the 
 teacher should say, " At such and such a place, you 
 will come to a steep mountain ; but its bight has 
 been scaled, and you can ascend. The top affords vou 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. d7 
 
 a most beadtiful prospect. That passed, and you 
 descend into a most delightful valley covered with a 
 carpet of the richest verdure and flowers. You will 
 not tarry nor rest in its borders, lest night overtake 
 you. Next you will encounter a deep and rapid 
 stream, bounded by high ledges of rocks, and flanked 
 by deep ravines. But by the aid of some hanging 
 boughs* that nature has kindly furnished for the 
 traveler, you may safely swing yourself upon a plat- 
 formf on the opposite side, erected for your accommo- 
 dation, from which your passage will be easy. You 
 next pass into a beautiful plain that ends ere long in 
 a most dismal marsh. Here it will be necessary to 
 exert the greatest caution, lest you plunge into some 
 of those pools of water, or sink into some of those 
 filthy quagmires that abound throughout its whole 
 extent. But by carefully observing, and by making 
 good use of that light J you hold in your hand, you will 
 discover a narrow, graveled walk that leads to the 
 opposite side, where your journey will terminate." 
 
 Now, would not the prospect of pleasure and of 
 daring adventure animate and nerve his limbs Ijke 
 steel to plunge into that forest, and to explore its 
 wonders ? So in reference to assigning lessons. The 
 pupil knows but little of the difficulties, dangers and 
 pleasures of the way. The teacher has been over the 
 ground ; and, if he has been observing, he has marked 
 all those points, and by pointing them out to the 
 pupil, he prepares him also to encounter them. Or, 
 to refer to our forest again — which, by the way, is a 
 very good representation of a difficult lesson — let the 
 teacher plant, as it were, a light at some distance from 
 
 » Common sense. t Definitions. t The rule. 
 
38 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the border, but within sight, so that the pupil's eye 
 may catch its glimmering, and it will serve as a mark 
 to guide him thither ; and then another beyond, and 
 so on, each one affording him light enough to carry 
 him to the next, until the goal is reached^ This, in 
 effect, will be following the annexed direction, viz., 
 To note the points of interest and difficulty, and give some 
 general directions how to treat them. 
 
 Again : pupils are sometimes perplexed to know 
 how, or in what manner the lesson is to be prepared 
 and recited, and the result may be a failure to get the 
 lesson in the manner intended by. the teacher. They 
 may succeed, as they think, but when they come to 
 recite, they are surprised, disappointed and chagrined, 
 to find that they have entirely misapprehended the 
 nature of the recitation. Now, it is their right and 
 privilege to know the manner of recitation before they 
 commence the study of the lesson. In the several 
 branches, ample scope is afforded to point out how 
 the lesson is to be recited. In reading, for instance, 
 pupils should be apprized beforehand what particular 
 feature of it will be made the special topic for the 
 next recitation — whether loudness, distinctness, the 
 high or low keys, or whatever variety may be named : 
 or in grammar, whether it be analysis or synthesis, 
 whether of words or sentences, and how ; and so of 
 other branches. Hence the manner in which the lesson 
 is to be recited should be distinctly named. 
 
 And lastly, it would not be wise to name or require 
 all the things that relate to the various kinds of reci- 
 tations at once. Suppose the teacher should say to a 
 ,clas8 in reading, for instance, " ISTow I want you to 
 read this lesson to-morrow with the right degree of 
 force or loudness, on the right key or pitch, neither 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 39 
 
 too fast nor too slow, to articulate distinctly, to give 
 the proper emphasis, to observe all the pauses, cir- 
 cumflexes, sweeps, bends, slides, closes, and every 
 other variation." What would be the result? Most 
 likely, that not one of these things would be observed, 
 and the reason is quite obvious. It would be about 
 as reasonable as to demand that a child should do 
 as many different kinds of work, and to do them all 
 well. Suppose you wished your boy to remove a pile 
 of stone to a different quarter of the yard. He goes to 
 work, but on your going to inspect the progress, you 
 find him tugging and toiling to remove the whole pile 
 at once. You remonstrate with him ; but he says, 
 " Why, father, you told me to remove this pile of stone, 
 and I am doing the best I can." " So I did," would 
 be your reply, " but common sense ought to teach you 
 that you could do it more easily and quickly, by 
 taking one or two at a time." So common sense 
 ought to teach teachers, that if they expect or even 
 wish to accomplish anything, they must attend to one 
 thing at a time. 
 
 It could hardly be expected that the pupil could re- 
 member even the one-half the list named to him 
 above, much less that he should accomplish it. But 
 if but one, or at most two things be attempted at once, 
 and then, for the time being, all the energies of the 
 body and mind be directed to them, the difficul- 
 ties will melt away gradually, and more surely than 
 if the teacher should open a whole battery of abuse 
 against the scholar. 
 
 l^ow it is but justice to say, that in order to follow 
 these directions and recommendations, it will require 
 time ; but if this be offered as an objection, we reply, 
 as on a former occasion, that if they are right they 
 
40 'IHE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 have as much claim on the time as any other duties. 
 But it will not be inferred, that all that has been said 
 of the last topic, for instance, will be required at every 
 lesson. The probabilities are, that not more than one 
 half or a fourth will ever be required at any one time ; 
 but they are nevertheless all necessary, and all de- 
 manded in their proper places. It will be found, that 
 from three to five minutes will be amply sufficient to 
 dispose of all that vyill be really necessary for any one 
 recitation. That much time can not possibly be better 
 spent. It will be ten times that amount saved in a 
 very few weeks, and success instead of failure, in 
 the end. 
 
42 
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 AMD ENDS, 
 
 STTisroi'sis II. 
 
 • To discipliue tlie mind. To learn to think. 
 
 r TO aiscipuue i 
 J To acquire and 
 (_To be able to 
 
 and clasBiiy knowledge, 
 communicate to othelB. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 H 
 
 CR 
 I. 
 V. 
 
 &£ 
 H 
 
 H , 
 C 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 Hi 
 
 o 
 o 
 n 
 
 u 
 
 REQUISITES 
 AND MODES. • 
 
 C Health. 'Wholesoihe air. 
 CoNi EKIENCES. X Comfortable seats. Silence. 
 ^- A time set apart for study. 
 
 Antecedents. 
 
 MEANS OF 
 SBCUBING. 
 
 ^ FaocESSBS. 
 
 Stsataqbh. 
 
 DiBECT AP' 
 PEALS. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Attention. 
 
 Investigation. 
 
 Betiection. 
 
 Generalization. 
 
 Attention of eye and ear. ConTersation. 
 Waking up mind. Wonderful phenomena. 
 Mental repetition. Silent Analysis. 
 
 r Objects. Places. Outline. 
 Descbiption. 1 Distance. Excursions. 
 \. Transactions. Stories, 
 
 Conscience. Usefulness. 
 Happiness. Approbation. 
 Self-interest. Compulsion. 
 
STUDY. 43 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 STUDY. 
 
 The claims of this branch of the subject to special 
 consideration, are such as scarcely need argument. 
 Study, with recitation, constitutes the great staple of 
 the school. Without it, there cou'd be no real prog- 
 ress or development. It is a condition of growth in 
 the intellectual world, as essentially as cultivation is in 
 the vegetable world ; and the condition of the mind 
 without study or discipline, is not inaptly compared to 
 an uncultivated field, over-grown with brambles and 
 unsightly weeds. Study keeps the powers from stag- 
 nation, and the mind and body both in a healthy state. 
 If they are left without this regulating force, either 
 one or the other, or both, take on a monstrous or 
 diseased growth. It has been remarked already, that 
 if good seed is not -sown, bad will be ; if good habits 
 are not formed, bad ones. will be; and if the harvest 
 is not garnered by skillful hands, it will be trodden 
 down by the feet of the wicked and dissolute. This 
 is true in an intellectual sense as well as in a moral. 
 
 But there are. difficulties in the way of study that 
 must be removed, before any successful labor can 
 proceed. These difficulties are of such a nature, as 
 often to defy the unaided efi:brts of the young. One 
 of these difficulties exists in the form of weakness, or 
 natural inability to study, arising from extreme youth. 
 The mind, like the body, needs practice, before it can 
 
44 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 perform its functions properly; and like it, too, its 
 motions at first are awkward, feeble, and confined 
 chiefly to the simple operations ; and they are of short 
 continuance. 
 
 Again : the difficulty may arise from constitutional 
 dullness or stupidity. This also finds its similitude in 
 bodily weakness and imbecility. Hence the same 
 amount and kind of study should not be demanded 
 of all alike, any more than the same amount of food 
 and labor should be apportioned to all, without respect 
 to age or constitutional dififerences. 
 
 The early formation of bad habits is another fruitful 
 source of difficulty. These, like au incubus, weigh 
 down the mind, and divert it from its proper channel. 
 The mind, in its natural or unobstructed state, possesses 
 no aversion to study ; but by wrong treatment and 
 misdirected effort, early prejudices are formed, which 
 become serious obstacles to healthy study; not only so, 
 but habits of superficial stud/ are formed, which, in the 
 end, are scarcely less formidable, than aversion itself. 
 
 Again: willful obstinacy is a condition of mind 
 that must be met and provided for ; for among all the 
 obstacles, none will demand greater patience or skill 
 to overcome. From these, and various other sources, 
 the mind is hindered in its approaches to progress and 
 development; so that we would be safe in saying that 
 from one-half to two-thirds of the time devoted to 
 study in the schools, is employed to little or no pur- 
 pose, or perhaps to positive disadvantage to the pupil. 
 This would seem like a grave charge against the 
 institutions of our country ; and yet the facts, as 
 carefully deduced from experiment, will justify the 
 assertion. The very time and energies that were 
 intended for the most benevolent purposes, are most 
 
STUDY. 45 
 
 shamefully perverted, and turned against the child, as 
 a shaft of self-destruction. They are squandered, and 
 worse than squandered, at a time too when they can 
 least be spared. This is too fearful an expenditure for 
 the morning of life ; and the loss is much aggravated 
 by the reflection, that what is lost here only prepares 
 the way for subsequent losses. But we propose to 
 notice, 1. The Objects of study ; 2. The Requisites 
 and Processes ; and 3. The Motives and Means of 
 securing study. 
 
 Article t — Tlie Objects and Ends. 
 
 It is necessary that we have clear ideas upon these 
 points ; otherwise our efforts may be entirely misdi- 
 rected. It will be found also, upon the examination 
 of pupils, that they possess very inadequate notions 
 with regard to the true objects and ends of study — 
 many of them ranging no higher than a mere desire 
 to recite the lesson well, to keep up with their classes, 
 or to receive as high a credit as possible. Now all of 
 these may be well enough in their places ; but any one 
 can see, that they are not the objects that should be. 
 held before the mind, to guide it in its development. 
 They are selfish ; and their attainment would defeat 
 the very object the teacher should have in view in 
 requiring study. They circumscribe the limits of 
 thought, and confine the mind to the mere drudgery 
 of selfish toil. 
 
 Again : others get the idea that the highest object 
 of study is to acquire knowledge, in whatever way 
 iney can. Hence they come to regard the mind as a 
 kind of warehouse, or lumber room, into Avhich they 
 may deposit their knowledge and ideas for safe-keep- 
 ing, rather than as a fruitful field to be cultivated, that 
 
46 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 it may yield a continuous supply of these, all fresh and 
 vigorous, and unlike the musty and withered ware- 
 house ideas, dragged forth from where they may have 
 been molding and rusting for years. 
 
 Section 1 — Discipline. — The chief object of study, 
 therefore, is to dfkci'pline the powers of the mind, or to learn 
 to think closely, accurately, methodically and continuously. 
 The Americans — perhaps justly — are styled a nation 
 of talkers ; and if there is truth in the maxim, that 
 " He who talks much must talk in vain, " this is no 
 very flattering tribute to our talent. The compliment 
 would certainly he more acceptable if it included 
 thinking also. We maintain that it is just as nec- 
 essary that we learn to think, as that we learn to 
 talk ; not that talking is antagonistic to thinking ; but 
 that we learn to think independently of talking. 
 There seems to be more need of sound, sober thinking 
 and study, than for the proclivity to which allusion is 
 made. For this reason, there should be a portion of the 
 time set apart for the cultivation of this talent. 
 
 It will also be found, upon the examination of pu- 
 pils, that few possess the power to think or study 
 closely and accurately. They do not dive into the 
 depth of a subject, but skim upon the surface. Their 
 thoughts are not distinct and well-defined, but in a 
 blurred and indefinite state. This may be called 
 superficial thinking or study, and afibrds little or no 
 discipline for the mind. 
 
 Others again may possess the power to elaborate 
 clear thoughts; but they lack system or method. 
 Their thoughts are in a chaotic state* They rush on 
 in a confused and disordered manner. Their force is 
 expended without accomplishing the desired results. 
 
STUDY. 47 
 
 They resemble the disconnected links of a jhain, lying 
 scattered round. The links themselves are all proper 
 enough, but there is no connection. Now, it is the 
 business of education and discipline to regulate and 
 bring into line this untamed and scattered force, and 
 harness it into the car of consecutive thought ; to give 
 point and efficiency to the efforts of the mind; not 
 only to arouse thoughts in the mind, but to wing 
 them, and send them on their mission. 
 
 Another difficulty or hindrance to successful think- 
 ing or study, is the want of the power of concentra- 
 tion or continuous eftbrt. Some seem to be able to 
 think for a few moments vigorously, but are unable 
 to protract the process at will, to any considerable 
 length. They resemble those birds that fly rapidly 
 for a few rods, but are unable to continue long upon 
 the wing. Such persons must necessarily be circum- 
 scribed in their effiarts ; for it is only by continuous 
 and protracted eftbrts that great results are produced. 
 There is a vast difference between the mere passage of 
 thoughts through the mind, and close consecutive 
 thinking. The one resembles the fitful glare of the 
 meteor, — the other, the steady blaze of the summer 
 sun. The one dazzles the eye for a moment, and 
 then disappears in darkness,-the other pours down 
 a continuous ray, until the whole ^firmament is in a 
 blaze. Few are thus capable of holding their minds 
 upon a given point, until it has mastered it; or of 
 commencing at the beginning of a subject, and think- 
 ing it through without stopping, or allowing the mind 
 to wander. But it is the province of education and 
 discipline to impart this power; to arm the mind 
 with strength, to grapple with and overcome difficul- 
 ties; to subdue and chasten itj and bring it under such 
 
48 THE AKT OF TKACHING. 
 
 control that it may, at pleasure, bend its energies 
 upon a given point, until that point yields. This is 
 discipline, one of the first and most important objects 
 of study. Every lesson assigned should look to this 
 object. It is not so much the mere acquisition and 
 possession of the facts~~in science that educates, as it is 
 the exercise and labor of acquiring. 
 
 There is, therefore, this difterence between acquisi- 
 tion and discipline, between instruction and education. 
 Acquisition and instruction collect the materials, dis- 
 cipline and education dispose of them in their proper 
 places. The first feed the faculties of the mind, the 
 second exercise them ; the first constitute the means, 
 the second the ends ; the first develop knowledge, the 
 second power; acquisition is learning, discipline is 
 wisdom ; instruction afi"ords nourishment, education 
 begets strength. Knowledge is the accumulation of 
 facts and principles, wisdom is the ability to use them. 
 An instructed man is a man of knowledge, an edu- 
 cated man is a man of wisdom. Instruction is a con- 
 dition of education; knowledge,, of wisdom; acquisition, 
 of discipline. Instruction and acquisition afford the 
 opportunities of improvement; education and disci- 
 pline make use of these opportunities for the accom- 
 plishment of the duties 'of life : so that they are all as 
 essentially necessary to perfect development of mind, 
 as food and exercise are to the growth and perfect 
 development of the body. 
 
 Section 2 — Acquisition. — The next object, there- 
 fore, of study is acquisition, which, while it does not 
 rank as high as that of discipline, is nevertheless, no 
 mean object ; and one of the most fortunate circum- 
 stances connected with this subject is, that the very best 
 
STDDY. 49 
 
 modes for discipline are the very best for acquisition, 
 and vice versa. • That acquisition which does not call 
 into exercise, more or less, all the powers of mind, 
 should at least be distrusted. This, is evidently the 
 intention of acquisition, that while it feeds the mind, 
 it should also work it, and make it strong. The mere 
 acquisition, without the discipline, would produce the 
 mental dyspeptic, whose powers, rather enfeebled than 
 otherwise, would sink down under the unnatural 
 burden. 
 
 Section 3 — Communication. — But suppose the in- 
 dividual, if it were possible, should stop with mere 
 discipline and acquisition ; wonid the objecisand pur- 
 poses of study be fulfilled ? In this case, he would re- 
 semble the miser who had hoarded away his silver and 
 gold, to canker and corrode on his hands. We de- 
 spise such a creature. We say of him, " There goes a 
 man that has robbed the world — the widow and the 
 orphan of their dues." Thousands may be dying of 
 want, and yet he clutches his ill-gotten gain still 
 more tightly. He becomes an object of detestation 
 and loathing ; and he ought not to expect more, for 
 he has no right to human sympathy, since he gives 
 none, ^o man has a right to deprive his fellows of 
 the necessities of life, without sufficient cause. But 
 how much better is an intellectual miser, one who has 
 hoarded away his intellectual treasures, while the 
 world may be dying for them, than the merely phys- 
 ical miser ? Rather, we should ask, how much worse ? 
 If depriving men and women of that which merely 
 feeds the body, becomes a crime, what must the enor- 
 mity of that oft'ense be, which deprives them of their 
 mental food ? 
 (5) . 
 
50 , THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Here again would appear the liHrrnonj' and econo- 
 my of right modes of education ; for while tlie indi- 
 vidual learner is most actively engaged in disciplining 
 the powers of his mind and acquiring knowledge, he 
 is at the same time throwing off rays which enlighten 
 others. Man, when he lives right, lives not for him- 
 self, but for'*others. His chief advantage, as well as 
 his chief happiness (and they are never separated), con- 
 sists in doing good to others. The very best way of 
 disciplining the powers of our own minds, and of 
 acquiring knowledge, is to make use of those powers 
 in giving away our knowledge as fast as we acquire 
 it. What we give away, we keep ; what we keep, we 
 lose. This is a seeming paradox, but it is no less than 
 one of the benevolent designs of the Creator ; for if a 
 person is free in the use of his knowledge and intel- 
 lectual powers, he not only keeps what he has, but is 
 constantly acquiring more ; whereas, if he attempt to 
 retain it, without using it, he is sure to lose it. Hence, 
 " To him that hath (and uses) shall be given, and he 
 shall have more abundance ; but from him that hath 
 not (improved) shall be taken away that which he 
 hath." This is the reason why the profession of teach- 
 ing, when properly pursued, offers larger opportunities 
 for thorough, full-orbed development of soul, body 
 and intellect, than any other in the whole range of- 
 professions. It is the Heaven-appointed means of per- 
 petuating knowledge, and of educating the race ; for 
 when and while an individual is educating himself, 
 after the true mode, he will furnish the conditions 
 whereby all within the circle of his influence, may be 
 educated. All are, therefore, to some extent, teach- 
 ers, but some more so than others ; and the more fully 
 they act in this sphere, and fulfill the conditions of 
 
STUDY. 51 
 
 the true teacher, ihe more exalted are their privileges 
 and powers. By the very nature and design of this 
 profession, it furnishes these privileges in larger meas- 
 ure than any other ; for while it gives, it I'eceives, 
 and while it exercises, it strengthens. Who ever heard 
 of a teacher becoming demented Ay teaching ? "When 
 this happens (but it never happens from real teaching), 
 the teacher is no longer lit for service. He should 
 therefore be removed, and treated with the care and 
 humanity vvhicli such unfortunate beings deserve. 
 
 A third object of study, therefore, is to learn to com- 
 municate to others what we have learned ourselves. This 
 object should be kept constantly before the eye of 
 both teacher and learner. The understanding should 
 be, that the lesson is to be so well prepared that it 
 may, with ease, be communicated to others. This 
 completes the discipline and renders the acquisition 
 more rapid and certain. 
 
 Article 3— Requisites and modes. 
 
 There are certain conditions necessary, in order to 
 secure the results anticipated under the head of Ob- 
 jects, etc., which are clearly entitled to consideration. 
 In addition to those named in the introduction to this 
 chapter, there are others of a more special character, 
 which will be treated under the topics Requisites and 
 Modes. 
 
 Section 1 — Health, Etc. — Among the conditions 
 necessary to secure good study, the physical health 
 should not be overlooked. The body should be in a 
 sound condition, and the surrounding circumstances 
 should all be favorable, l^o child can study well, when 
 it is suffering from disease, or when it is placed in an 
 
52 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 unnatural and uneon^fortable position. But to attenrpt 
 to consider all the conditions of the body necessary to 
 healthy study, in detail, would require a treatise on 
 physiology and hygiene. We shall content ourselves, 
 therefore, by noticing a few of the more general points. 
 
 1. The air should be in as pure a state as possible. 
 It is terrible to witness the suffering that arises from 
 breathing impure air. It vitiates the blood, which, in 
 its turn, acts upon the brain, causing disease there, 
 and rendering it utterly impossible to secure anything 
 like a healthy action of that organ. Healthy thoughts 
 must proceed from a healthy brain, and a healthy 
 brain is dependent upon healthy blood, and healthy 
 blood can not exist without pure air, and pure air can 
 not exist in poorly ventilated school-rooms. Hence, 
 healthy thoughts depend, in no small degree, upon 
 the condition of the school-room. 
 
 There has been much said and written upon this 
 subject lately, and yet people have not more than be- 
 gun to open their eyes upon the enormity of the evils 
 arising from the want of pure air, in the growth and 
 education of children. Teachers and pupils are yet 
 co^ifined in small and badly ventilated apartments 
 from two to three hours at a time, with scarcely 
 breathable air enough to supply the demand for fifteen 
 minutes. The results are pale, sallow countenances, 
 headache, colds, indisposition, languor, fretfulness and 
 bad temper, and a general dislike to the school and 
 all its exercises ; and if we add to this vitiated atmos- 
 phere a dusty and filthy school-room, which is too 
 apt to be its accompaniment, we have all the condi- 
 tions necessary to produce permanent disease, and 
 sometimes death. ISo pecuniary considerations should 
 be weighed against the provisions for furnishing a 
 
STUDY. 53 
 
 constant supply of wholesome air to the inmates of the 
 school-room. 
 
 Section 2 — Seats. — Again : comfortable seating is 
 a consideration of no small importance. It is plainly 
 a condition which ought to be considered in connec- 
 tion with study. No successful study or thinking can 
 he carried on when the body is constantly tortured 
 by confinement in uncomfortable positions. The en- 
 ergies of the mind are exhausted in devising ways and 
 means for escape or diversion, while those of the body 
 are either exhausted or wrongly directed in eftbrts to 
 endure the pain, or to evade it. This is true of adults : 
 what then must be the effects upon those who are far 
 less able to bear suffering? Children need all the 
 minds they have for study ; and it seems strange that 
 any other means should be devised for disposing of 
 them. 
 
 But these evils are fast disappearing from our 
 schools. People are coming to understand more fully 
 the physiological and psychological nature of man : 
 that there is really a connection between body and 
 mind, and that it is not necessary to torture one in 
 order to develop the other; but that when any injui'y 
 is inflicted upon the one, it is transmitted to the other. 
 
 Section 3 — Opportunity. — There is another class 
 of conditions or requisites which we shall call oppor- 
 tunity. We often require of children, what they are 
 incapable of performing, until we have provided them 
 the means, or removed some of the difficulties from 
 the way. Their little minds are weak, and, like their 
 bodies, require the most careful treatment, until they 
 acquire strength. They are incapable, for the most 
 
54 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 part, of any protracted efforts in study or thinking , 
 and yet it is not an uncommon thing to hear teachers 
 give orders like the following : " Now I want you all 
 to he perfectly quiet all this forenoon, and to study all 
 the time." l^ow if the teacher really means what he 
 says, in this requirement ; and if it were fulfilled to 
 the letter, for a series of days, there would soon he a 
 fine job for the undertaker. The teacher in this case 
 has demanded what is next to an impossibility, even al- 
 lowing the necessary movements for breathing, &c. 
 What, children to be perfectly still for two or three 
 hours at a time !' Why, it is monstrous ! He might 
 with about the same propriety-have said : " Now don't 
 you breathe ;" or," Don't you think a single thought." 
 Does he think that education consists in being still ? 
 Does he know that motion is a law of the universe, 
 and a necessity for children ? and that what he has 
 demanded, viz., study, requires motion ? that he has 
 interdicted this law and this necessity? Does he 
 know, in, fact, that he has given them a lesson in dis- 
 obedience? that they must necessarily disobey him? 
 and that the force of his commands, however reasona- 
 ble in other respects, is thereby weakened ? 
 
 'Now if children were vegetables, and required to be 
 kept in one position all the time, to insure their growth, 
 there would be some propriety in this requirement. 
 But they are animals, thinking and rational animals 
 that require alternate rest and motion. Education is 
 not confinement; it is freedom and activity of body 
 and mind. It is not torture and pain ; it is pleasure 
 and enjoyment. It is not weakness and decrepitude; 
 it is strength and vigor. It is not sickness ; it is 
 health. It is not death ; it is life, glorious, active, 
 busy, buoyant life, with the largest liberty and most 
 
STUDY. 55 
 
 perfect development of all of man's rational and legit- 
 imate powers. Why then should the teacher make 
 such an unreasonable demand? And then he has re- 
 quired them to " study all the time." He might, with 
 about the same propriety, have required them to eat 
 all the time. It is impossible for them to study all 
 the time. Hence, the probabilities are, they will study 
 none of the time, since no particular portion has been 
 assigned them. 
 
 Children are incapable of thinking upon one subject 
 more than a few minutes at a time. ITow provisions 
 should be made to suit this want. One of these would 
 be a time set apart and devoted exclusively to eflbrts, 
 to call out and develop thought. The ordinary reci- 
 tation will accomplish this in part; but it is not suffi- 
 cient. There is one kind of thinking — and the most 
 useful kind, too — that it does not necessarily promote, 
 viz., the silent thought, so necessary in preparing les- 
 sons. Children do not know how to study or to 
 think until they are taught how. There should, there- 
 fore, be thinking exercises, in which nothing else is 
 done but pure thinking or study. This will afford op- 
 portunity for the formation of the habit of thought 
 and self-control, which is so valuable in every pursuit 
 in life. It will be described under " Means of Securing 
 Study." 
 
 Sectiok 4 — Silence. — Again: the circumstances 
 should be favorable in another respect. Silence is a 
 condition necessary to this kind of study. No pupils, 
 unless they possess extraordinary powers of concen- 
 tration, can study with a continual noise and buzzing 
 about their ears. Their powers of voluntary attention 
 are necessarily weak ; hence, whenever any thing from 
 
56 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Without, having a stronger attraction for them, oh- 
 trudes itself upon their notice, their attention is drawn 
 from those things having less attractive force. There 
 should, therefore, during the time set apart for think- 
 ing or study, be no unnecessary noise, not so much as 
 moving the lips. Children should be taught to think 
 with their months shut. Their lips are not the neces- 
 sary appendages of thought, any more than their fin- 
 gers or toes are. Hence, during the time of study, 
 which should not exceed live or ten minutes at a time, 
 children should not be allowed to interrupt one another 
 by studying half audibly or "buzzing," as it is com- 
 monly called. The " loud school," as it is termed by 
 some, or the practice of studying aloud, is an anomaly, 
 and should never be countenanced. Whatever may 
 be said in palliation of this practice, can never redeem 
 it from the objections which have been offered above. 
 The silence there recommended, will afl'ord opportu- 
 nity for the formation of the habit of close consecu- 
 tive thinking, which will do more to strengthen the 
 power of attention than all the loud study that can be 
 practiced. Whatever excellency this mode of study 
 may possess as a means of cultivating the ability to 
 think in the midst of confusion (and it may possess 
 merit in this respect), is more than counteracted by 
 the loss of time and dissipation of thought (to say 
 nothing about the inconvenience and annoyance to 
 the teacher), by the noise and confusion arising from 
 it. And then, to say the least of it we can, if it is 
 not absolutely disorderly in itself, it offers one of the 
 greatest temptations to superficial study, and for car- 
 rying on mischief, that could be devised. 
 
 Section 5 — Interest and Attention. — The modes 
 
STUDY. 57 
 
 of study are ulso worthy of notice. All valuable study 
 is accompanied with interest and attention. Attention 
 is the key to investigation. It may be either volun- 
 tary or involuntary. The former is the genuine, but 
 it often becomes necessary to resort to the latter as a 
 means of securing it. Children, however, seldom pos- 
 sess sufficient self-command to force attention. It 
 therefore becomes necessary to " bait them " with a 
 little interest, and the more the better, so that it does 
 not amount to undue excitement. The two things, 
 viz., interest and attention, are so nearly allied to each 
 other, in the process of study, that it seems difficult to 
 separate them ; and that study (?) which is secured at 
 the expense of either is of little or no value. Children, 
 may "say their lessons over" from morning till noon, 
 and from noon till night, without securing the disci- 
 pline which it is the design of study to give. 
 
 There is a kind of attention which is not desirable. 
 It is that which forces the lesson for the time being 
 upon the memory, and charges it to keep it until after 
 recitation ; but further than that, it does not concern 
 itself. This kind of attention and study seldom leaves 
 the mind any better than it found it. Indeed, aside 
 from the little knowledge that may accidentally have 
 clung to the walls of memory in its rapid passage 
 through (for it does not remain there), the mind is 
 rather injured than otherwise by the formation of a 
 bad habit. Just as soon, however, as any thing having 
 the properties that possess attraction for the mind, is 
 presented to it, interest is excited, and attention is 
 elicited. The mind is now in a favorable state for 
 progress. A series of inquiries are at once begotten, 
 which result in investigation and reflection. These may 
 be, at first, in a feeble state — scarcely noticeable indeed'. 
 
58 THE ART OF 1 BACHING. 
 
 For instance : take the young child in the nursery. 
 Give him some pleasing toy. His interest and atten- 
 tion are at once excited. This must be the case, 
 or he would not even notice it ; much less become ab- 
 sorbed in it. Now mark the process that follows the 
 interest and attention, just as surely as the thunder 
 follows the •lightning, or as light is the result of 
 the rising of the sun. He, in all probability, breaks, 
 tears or bites his toy ; for his hands are his instru- 
 ments of apprehension, and his mouth is his test-tube, 
 retort and crucible, into which he introduces all his 
 substances for examination and experiment. But in 
 all this, is that boy doing nothing more than merely 
 amusing himself? It would seem so ; and he can 
 give no further pccount of it, himself. He,perhaps, is 
 unconscious of any further motive. But watch him. 
 What prompted that desire and that movement? 
 They must have a cause ; and their existence indicates 
 design. They could not have been given for the pur- 
 poses of mischief and destruction alone. This would 
 be impeaching the wisdom and benevolence of the 
 Creator. But there is the wisest and most benevolent 
 design connected with all this. What therefore, shall 
 we call all this manipulation and experiment? It is 
 investigation in its nascent state ; and though it may 
 scarcely bear a mark of that exalted mental operation, 
 as it appears in manhood, yet that little boy is inves- 
 tigating just as essentially as the chemist in the labora- 
 tory, or the mathematician at his formula, or the 
 astronomer as he sweeps the heavens with his tele- 
 scope. They are all investigating, the one as essen- 
 tially as the other, with this difference, that in the 
 latter case, the process is guided by judgment and 
 will ; in the former, by mere impulse. The first is in- 
 
STUDY. 59 
 
 vestigatioii in embryo ; in tiie second, it is ripened into 
 a purer and higher type. In the first, it is investiga- 
 tion to gratify an apparently idle curiosity; in the 
 second, to answer the highest ainis of life; but it is 
 easy to trace back this higher form, through all the 
 various stages, until we arrive at the very threshold 
 of intelligence ; or until we find it in its incipient state, 
 in the nursery and among the toys. Hence it will be 
 seen, that investigation becomes a second step in learn- 
 ing, and therefore a mode of study. The process 
 itself has been described in the Science of Education. 
 But with pure investigation alone, the mind would 
 not receive the full benefits of study. It is followed 
 by memory and reflection, as surely as investigation 
 follows interest and attention. The memory gathers 
 up the thoughts and fragments of thoughts, as they 
 are disengaged from the subject of study. Reflec- 
 tion is the power which the mind possesses of re- 
 viewing its own conclusions for the purpose of as- 
 certaining more certainly their truth, and of fixing 
 the fiicts and principles more permanently, in their 
 appropriate place. Just as soon, therefore, as the 
 mind becomes active in the pursuit of truth, these 
 several processes commence, as surely and essentially 
 as the several wheels, bands, cranks and spindles 
 all start oft" in motion when the power is applied at 
 the water-wheel, or at the engine. How vain, there- 
 fore, to attempt to put this tremendous machinery in 
 motion by tugging at some of the bands, or twisting 
 at some of the spindles ! And yet this is the process, 
 when we attempt to secure study without Interest 
 and Attention. But let the engine move ; and, if 
 the gearing is perfect, the whole machinery will 
 move also. 
 
60 THE ART OF TEAOIUNG. 
 
 Sectiox 6 — Abstkaction, Generalization, etc. — 
 There are yet other processes, following or accom- 
 panying investigation etc., which while they may be 
 regarded as a part of it, nevertheless have some dis- 
 tinctive characteristics, worthy of a separate notice. 
 Their importance also to teaching, and learning is 
 Buch as to entitle them to a brief recognition. 
 
 As the mind advances, step by step, from the simple 
 notices and apprehensions, on through the several 
 stages of investigation and reflection, it arrives at a 
 point where there is an evident need of other opera- 
 tions, growing out of its own relations and the exist- 
 ence of matter. It is not our purpose to investigate 
 this feature of the subject, further than to show the 
 character of this want, and the mode of supplying it. 
 
 For instance : if the mind should halt in its progress, 
 when it had investigated or tracked out all the facts and 
 apprehensions, its state would resemble that condition, 
 should it pause with simple acquisition. It might not 
 be able to appropriate its acquisitions to the purposes 
 for which they were intended. Abstraction, or that 
 power which enables it to separate and consider, apart, 
 particular and distinct properties or species, arising 
 out of general or complex subjects, becomes neces- 
 sary. Children, for the most part, are incapable of 
 doing this, to any great extent. Care, therefore, 
 should be taken in the arrangement of their studies, 
 not to perplex their minds with those studies that 
 require too much abstraction. 
 
 The process of generalization, or the power to 
 arrange under their appropriate heads, the facts and 
 principles elicited in the process of investigation, is 
 indispensable to learning and teaching. It completes 
 the modes or processes of thinking, just as communi- 
 
STUDY. 61 
 
 cation or the £irt of expression, to which it is prepara- 
 tory and an indispensable prerequisite, completes the 
 object of study. It will be observed, therefore, that 
 the objects of study and requisites are concomitants, the 
 one answering to the other in points of mutual coop- 
 eration. Thus : health and convenience, interest and 
 attention, being indispensable to discipline and thought, 
 investigation (including the other mental operations), 
 to the acquisition of knowlege, and, lastly, abstraction 
 and generalization to that of communication or the 
 art of teaching. The application, or process of mak- 
 ing use of knowledge constitutes, within itself, a mode 
 or process of culture ; but its claims have been con- 
 sidered elsewhere. 
 
 It will be necessary to keep the objects, requisites, 
 and modes of study distinctly in mind, while investi- 
 gating the means of securing it, since the success of 
 the whole system, and indeed of any system, will de- 
 pend upon the closeness with which we adhere to the 
 principles involved in it. For this reason we have 
 been more particular in describing some of the mental 
 processes concerned in successful study. 
 
 Article 3— Means of Securing Study. 
 
 It might be well now to inquire after the means 
 whereby this valuable mental exercise can be elicited 
 and conducted. In doing so, we shall have recourse 
 to the following classification of means : 1. By Strata- 
 gem. 2. By Narrative and Description. 3. By Dire-t 
 Appeals. 
 
 Section 1 — STRATAcjEM.^These terms will need a 
 little explanation, since it is not claimed that they con- 
 
62 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 vey any particular dircctioD in and of themselves ; nor 
 yet is it claimed that they arc the best that could be 
 used : they are only the best we could find. We shall 
 hope, therefore, to receive some indulgence, if we suc- 
 ceed in making their use intelligible in this connection. 
 For instance : it is not intended by the use of the word 
 " stratagem,"- that we may resort to deception and low 
 tricks in securing study ; but rather, a judicious em- 
 ployment of means and motives that have been fur- 
 nished us by the Creator for the express purpose of 
 calling out and adorning the minds of the young. It 
 is employed in the sense of tact, skill, wisdom, pru- 
 dence, forecast, or strategy, which last, perhaps, would 
 be a better word. ^Jfarrative and Description are used 
 to indicate that mode of inducing thought and study, 
 by calling out and making use of the knowledge 
 already acquired, as a means of inciting to further, 
 acquisitions and use. The Direct Appeals have refer- 
 ence to a class of motives that may be used, according 
 to circumstances," with a higher grade of development, 
 such as we usually find in the intermediate and high 
 •schools. 
 
 In describing the various devices that may be re- 
 sorted to, in leading children into habits of thinking, 
 we shall consider the simpler modes first, on the sup- 
 position that we are operating with small children, 
 and thence pass to the more advanced. It was stated 
 in the' article on the "Object of Study," that to disci- 
 pline the mind, or to learn to control its powers, is one 
 of the first and most important objects; and iu the 
 article on " Requisites and Modes," that health, con- 
 venience, opportunity, interest, and attention are re- 
 quisites that could not be dispensed with. It is not 
 within the province of a work of this kind, to descend 
 
STUDY. 
 
 63 
 
 to the particular modes of fulfilling the first thieo con- 
 ditions, further than they are described in the preced- 
 ing. These being complied with as far as possible, it 
 will be necessary to inquire after the best modes of 
 eliciting interest, and cultivating attentiov, that vagrant 
 of the mind, which, when once tamed, becomes the 
 engineer of investigation — the key that unlocks the 
 storehouses of knowledge. 
 
 In order to possess ourselves of the citadel of atten- 
 tion, we must besiege the outposts and gain admittance 
 through the open gates ; for to batter down the walls 
 and force a passage (even were this possible) would 
 yield no advantage, since by committing this outrage, 
 we render useless all the engines, anmmnition and 
 energies of the besieged. It is desirable, therefore, that 
 the entrance be made through the natural gates; and 
 since these are open during ail the waking hours of the 
 mind, the difficulties of admittance are much reduced. 
 Again : to render success certain, we must approach 
 these outposts, not as enemies, not as a belligerent force, 
 but as friends, seeking the peace and happiness of the 
 inmates. This citadel is rendered still more accessible, 
 from the fact that the sentinels on the outposts are 
 continually on the alert, and seeking some one to 
 enter, that will give them exercise and pleasure. They 
 however, persistently refuse to admit any that will not 
 give promise to this effect. 
 
 The eye and the ear are the two grand gatew-ays or 
 highways to this citadel of thought; since, if these, 
 with one other, which is a kind of subterraneous 
 passage — the sense of touch, or the avenue of tactual 
 knowledge — were closed before any impressions have 
 been made through them, however perfect the organ- 
 ism in other respects mny be, the individual would be 
 
64 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 incapable of the exercise of thought. The teacher, 
 should, therefore, first avail himself of the command 
 of those avenues,. that he may direct their energies 
 upon proper themes; or, rather, he should so operate 
 upon them, and the mind through them, that their 
 notices and the whole attention shall be as nearly 
 voluntary as possible. Take, for example, the eye 
 the window to the mind, which, in childhood, is ever 
 on the alert, ever seeking gratification and food for 
 the mind. The object should be to train it, not only 
 to the appreciation of the beautiful, but to habits of 
 close observation, and continuous application for a 
 given period. 
 
 Many children are incapable of confining even their 
 eyes to observe anything closely, for a minute at a 
 time. Hence, when the eye wanders, the attention 
 wanders also. The weakness of mind in this respect 
 on the part of children, is truly remarkable. They 
 may be induced, it is true, to look at a beautiful 
 picture, a flower, or something novel or wonderful, 
 for a greater length of time, and even here the obser- 
 vation is apt to be superficial ; but to confine the 
 attention at will, and make it do the bidding of the 
 mind, are matters of such difiiculty, that few children 
 can accomplish them without special assistance. Many, 
 indeed, spend half their time in weak and ineffectual 
 efibrts to study ; while others, from the same want of 
 discipline, spend still a greater portion of theirs in 
 mischief. 
 
 Now, this error can be corrected, and this fearful 
 loss and abuse of time and energy can be saved. This 
 squandering was never intended ; and if the common 
 schools can not correct the evil, then they are not the 
 proper instrumentalities for the education of the 
 
STUDY. 65 
 
 people. "What we wish to cultivate in the children 
 is the power to fix the attention at will, and to hold it 
 upon a subject until the object for which it is held, is 
 accomplished ; or in other words, the power to study 
 their lessons and to think. The ordinary mode, or that 
 which children, if left to their unaided efforts, are apt 
 to adopt, does not do this ; since it is no uncommon 
 thing to see a whole bevy of children actively engaged 
 in what they call study, while perhaps not one in ten 
 is exercising his thoughts upon the lesson. Such 
 study is a positive injury. 
 
 A little expedient, to which I have resorted, on 
 some occasions, may be suggestive of means that may 
 be adopted for correcting these evils, and of fixing the 
 attention. Holding up my watch to the school, I 
 have said, " How many of these little boys and girls 
 ' can look at it for one minute at a time?" The idea 
 perhaps is a novel one, and their little voices and 
 hands will respond, anxious for the experiment. Some 
 will say boastingly, " I can look at it an hour ! " " Two 
 hours!" responds another little captain who is anxious 
 to make a display of his prowess. At this juncture, 
 I ask, " How many would be willing to make the ex- 
 periment of one minute continuous looking, provided 
 I should give you five dollars if you should succeed?" 
 At this announcement there is a shower of hands and 
 a shout of voices raised to the highest pitch. " Well 
 I will not promise you the five dollars; but let us try." 
 "All ready!" "ITow!" and their forms straiten up, 
 and all eyes are bent with intense earnestness upon 
 the watch. It grows very quiet, and every one listens 
 
 and looks Presently it occurs to half a 
 
 dozen or more of them, that they are doing it about 
 right. "I wonder if John, or Charles, oi -James, or 
 6 
 
66 THE ART OY TEACHING. 
 
 Mary, or Jane, or Ellen is looking too?" " Wonder if 
 they all are doing as well as I am," and their thoughts 
 leave the watch and the promise, and wander after 
 Charles or Jane, and the temptation to look away 
 becomes so great that in about a half a minute or less, 
 you will see an occasional pair of eyes glance hurriedly 
 to some convenient quarter of the room, and back 
 quick, to the watch again : others, still less cautious, 
 will turn the head, and look carelessly away ; others 
 again, will drop off entirely, and cease to look ; while 
 some, more resolute and determined and careful than 
 the rest, will not remove their eyes for'a moment, and 
 at the expiration of the time, will announce their tri- 
 umph with evident satisfaction. At the close, some will 
 insist upon a new trial. It may be granted; and then 
 others will succeed : and here it might be well to vary 
 the experiment. The question might be asked: "If 
 you are capable of holding your eyes fixed upon that 
 watch, can you, with equal success, confine them to a 
 picture or mark upon the board ? " This experiment 
 may also be made and repeated, accompanied with 
 such explanations and variations, as may seem de- 
 sirable. 
 
 "Ifow if you can look at a watch, a picture, or a 
 mere chalk mark upon the board, for a given time, 
 can you look at your books as long, without change?" 
 The intention here, perhaps, will be discovered by 
 some; and they will begin to see the force of it. 
 Let the experiment be made, however, and repeated 
 with the book, without attempting to study. Indeed 
 I would not allow them to study, for the first few trials. 
 They must simply look. And if they succeed well, sug- 
 gest that if they can look upon one page of the book, 
 they might study that long, without looking away. And 
 
STUDY. 67 
 
 here it might be well to explain the whole matter to 
 them, and pledge them to an exercise of this kind, once 
 or twice a day. This would be applicable, of course, only 
 to those who can read or spell ; but it may be varied to 
 suit any grade. And if they can thus confine the at- 
 tention for one, two or three minutes, they can also, by 
 practicing, continue it to five and six. But it will be 
 found that young scholars are not able to endure more 
 than three or four minutes, even after weeks and 
 months of practice. 
 
 A similar stratagem may be employed for the pur- 
 pose of securing quiet, for a limited time, and then it 
 should not be insisted upon beyond that time. All 
 noise may be hushed for a minute at a time, and then 
 for two, three, four, etc. Here it might be well to sug- 
 gest, " What an excellent opportunity for study ! " 
 Show the importance of quiet in study ; the advan- 
 tages of doing but one thing at a time, and of doing 
 that well. Pledge the children to the trial ; and exper- 
 iment patiently with them, until the results are secured. 
 
 Now the question arises : Can they think of their 
 lessons for the required length of time ? for there is 
 such a thing, all are aware, as watching and mouthing 
 lessons, without study or thought ; or at least, while 
 the thoughts are busied about something else. The 
 object now is to induce the mind to follow the eye. 
 This, a few weeks of practice will usually accomplish, 
 yet it can be greatly facilitated by a few special ex- 
 ercises, similar to those described for the eye, only the 
 object how is to confine the mind upon the subject of 
 experiment. Suppose this to be the watch, as before. 
 " Now how many can thi7ik of the watch, for one 
 minute, or during the time that the eye and the ear 
 are giving attention ? " 
 
68 THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 It will be bettor here, however, to select some object 
 about which it will be easier lor them to employ their 
 thoughts. The pictures of animals will form good 
 subjects, since their nature, habits and the anecdotes 
 respecting them will form excellent topics of thought 
 while suitable experiments are made. These exper- 
 iments should be repeated, both with and without the 
 looking exercises, until satisfactory results are secured. 
 At first the novelty of the thing itself will prevent, to 
 some extent, the accomplishment of the object; but by 
 and by, if the practice is persisted in, the habit will 
 become a matter of ease and pleasure. 
 
 Now it is not maintained that these are the only 
 modes of cultivating attention. They only constitute 
 a class that may be varied to almost any extent, and 
 are useful chiefly in preparing the way for study. If 
 five minutes of each day were thus employed, even if 
 nothing more is attempted than merely keeping quiet 
 and looking at the book, it would be worth practicing, 
 since it would then exceed what many children do, 
 without such an exercise. The habit of idling time 
 away, in fidgety attempts to study, or of gazing into a 
 book, pretending to study, in order to deceive the 
 teacher, is not only a shameful waste of time, but it is 
 ruining the morals of the pupil ; for what is it but 
 downright hypocrisy and lying? And yet I have 
 known it to be practiced from morning till night, and 
 from week to week, and term to term, with scarcely a 
 variation. Can it be expected that boys and girls, 
 taught after- this fashion, will do any thing else than 
 deceive whenever occasion is ofiered ? Like will not 
 produce its like, if they will not. And let it be borne 
 in mind, that a lie can be acted as well as be told 
 with the tongue. 
 
STUDY. 69 
 
 But this practice of devoting just so much time of 
 each day, to silent thought and study, strikes at the 
 very root of this evil. It has a tendency, not only to 
 break up the bad habit, but to form its opposite ; and 
 the lessons which cause hours of anxiety, perplexity 
 and dread, not to say sin, may be disposed of in a few 
 minutes. Then the books should be laid aside, not 
 kept as tormentors of the little folks, or to hide their 
 mischievous faces behind, but laid aside, to be taken up 
 again when the exercise is to be renewed, or a recita- 
 tion is to be heard : laid aside, and their little busy 
 hands and brains furnished with other employment. 
 This will not only keep them out of mischief, but will 
 use up all their mischievous desires in profitable labor. 
 
 Ifot to be tedious in description, we only add that 
 there are other means of inducing children to think, 
 which may be treated under the head of Conversation. 
 These appeal more to the voluntary than the involun- 
 tary attention, and may include all the exercises that 
 were described in Chap. VI., Science of Education, 
 to which the reader is again referred. Conversation 
 possesses a power over the minds of children, amount- 
 ing almost to magic. Here is the place to niake use 
 of it, in inciting the incipient thoughts to action, 
 and in putting in practice what has been heretofore 
 recommended. The exercise may, by way of distinc- 
 tion, be called waking up 7m7id by a recital of interest- 
 ing narratives, etc., and a description, or rather an 
 allusion to some of the wonderful phenomena of 
 nature — such as described in the chapter alluded to 
 above. 
 
 Still another mode might be described here ; though 
 it is na'; strictly strategical. We shall call it mental 
 repetition^ and append a brief explanation ; but first the 
 
70 THE AKT OF 'lEACillNG. 
 
 difdculties it is intended to remove. Many children, 
 as has been remarked, are incapable of carrying for- 
 ward a series of mental operations, without some ex- 
 traneous aids; and unless these aids are furnished, 
 they too frequently remain in this state of inability. 
 They need something to cling to, until their minds 
 acquire strength to move without the " props and 
 stays." In some instances, the evil manifests itself in 
 the want of power to reproduce what may have been 
 understood. This acts adversely upon the ability 
 to think independently ; for if a person have the 
 power to call to mind a connected series of words and 
 sentences, and to follow a train of thought furnished 
 by another, he will find less difficulty in his independ- 
 ent efforts, since the efforts thus made produce the 
 required discipline ; hence the utility of mental repe- 
 tition, or the practice of frequently and statedly calling 
 to mind the words, sentences and thoughts of others. 
 It should be commenced gradually, and something 
 after the following manner: 
 
 Let a brief, simple sentence composed of three or four 
 words, be read in the hearing of the class, requiring each 
 member, as soon as it is completed, to call all the words 
 to mind, in the order in which they occurred in the sen- 
 tence. When completed, let it be announced by the 
 uplifted hand. Then let the same sentence.be repeat- 
 ed, compelling the mind, without the aid of speech, to 
 examine every word carefully, as it passes before its 
 vision. Another of greater length may then be intro- 
 duced and treated in the same manner. And so on, 
 until by practice, say five or six minutes per day, the 
 class will, in a few weeks or months, be able thus to 
 call to mind the consecutive words of sentences com- 
 posed of twenty, thirty and, in some cases,fifty words. 
 
STUDY. 71 
 
 This cultivates close attention, and the* pupils that can 
 thus hold the mind upon the words of a sentence, will 
 soon learn to make use of the same power in the pur- 
 suit of other subjects. It is learning how to think con- 
 secutively. 
 
 The same thing, with slight modifications, is prac- 
 ticed in many of the best schools. A sentence is read 
 to a class, and then the members, in consecutive order, 
 are required to spell the words as they occur in the 
 sentence, without the teacher's repeating them ; and 
 it is astonishing to witness, not only the accuracy and 
 rapidity with which they will reproduce the whole, 
 but the extent to which they will carry it, often spell- 
 ing sentences composed of thirty, forty and fifty 
 words, after hearing them once pronounced. 
 
 Now, children taught in this way are not so apt to 
 forget what they hear and read. They are not com- 
 pelled to read the same page a half-dozen times before 
 fixing it in mind ; and, hearing a discourse or lecture, 
 they will be more apt to remember it, in the order in 
 which it was delivered. 
 
 Still another method, ■which we shall call Silent 
 Analysis, may be employed with success. Its chief 
 use, however, would be confined to pupils who possess 
 the power of calculation, to some extent. It may be 
 described thus. The teacher reads a question like the 
 following : " If three oranges cost fifteen cents, what 
 will seven oranges cost ? " The class is now required 
 not to give the answer, which could be done, perhaps, 
 almost the instant the question is anriouneed; but they 
 are required to pass quietly over the whole example, 
 bringing vividly before the mind, and examining every 
 step of the analysis ; thus, in thought, " If three oranges 
 cost fifteen cents, one orange will cost one third of fifteen 
 
(-i THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 cents, which is five cents; and if one orange cost live 
 cents, seven oranges will cost seven times five cents, which 
 are thirty-five cents," examining every step and word 
 as they pass along, and when the conclusion is reached, 
 to announce it simply by the uplifted hand ; then, at 
 a given signal, all are required to review the process 
 and report as before. Another question or example 
 may be given in a similar manner, and repeated again 
 and again, till the pupils acquire the power to fix the 
 attention, at will, upon whatever point they please. 
 N"ot a word is to be spoken during the whole exercise, 
 except the mere reading of the question by the teacher, 
 or some member of the class. 
 
 It will be observed that this is a purely mental ex- 
 ercise. It is compelling the mind to take cognizance 
 of its own operations, which will be found, at first, a 
 more difficult task than a mere announcement of the 
 result, after a brief survey, and then giving the anal- 
 ysis orally, which is the common mode of recitation 
 in mental arithmetic. The former mode secures by 
 far the greatest amount of discipline. But this will 
 be described more fully under Recitation. 
 
 Section 2 — Faruativb and Description. — These 
 modes have been briefly described under the head of 
 Intellectual Culture, in the Science of Education. 
 Their use, as means of inciting to study, will be 
 further illustrated here. 
 
 It will be found upon a careful analysis of the 
 modes and processes of thought, that they continually 
 seek a tangible expression. We shape our thoughts, 
 in some degree, after the objects of nature and of art, 
 with which we are most familiar. The mind is con- 
 tinually seeking comparisons, similes, metaphors, etc. 
 
STUDY. 
 
 73 
 
 Hence all the figures of rhetoric. This peculiarity 
 obtains more strongly in the earlier stages of think- 
 ing, as well as in earlier stages of civilization. The 
 feeble powers continually seek some sensible object, 
 through which, and by which to give expression to the 
 ideas. In other words, thinking is done by the aid of 
 sensible objects. The simple, touching, forcible, and 
 sometimes almost sublime expressions of childhood, 
 will abundantly testify to this fact. Hence the narra- 
 tive and descriptive modes are the processes they em- 
 ploy. 
 
 Now it is the policy of every wise teacher to take 
 the thought, and the mental strength already developed 
 in children, and to use it as a means of acquiring or de- 
 veloping more, to use the present stock as a principal, 
 from which a continual annuity arises ; for these 
 thoughts, accurately expressed by their possessor, will 
 awaken other thoughts, which become in their turn, 
 antecedents to others yet unborn. The advantage that 
 this exercise possesses over many others, is that the 
 thoughts must proceed in consecutive order, or the 
 beauty of the narrative or description will be de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 A plan like the following might be adopted. Let a 
 certain portion of the day be set apart,by general con- 
 sent, as a time in which everything of importance which 
 occurs, is to be carefully noted in the memory, in the 
 order in which the several transactions take place. 
 These are to be related in the same order, by the pupils, 
 at the appointed time. Or the whole day might be ap- 
 portioned out to the whole school, in the same manner, 
 each one having a certain allotted part — the incidents 
 to be reported at the proper time. This, I apprehend, 
 would have a powerful efi'ect upon the order of the 
 (7) 
 
74 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 school. It should be guarded, however, from any 
 system of espionage. The object is an entirely differ- 
 ent one. Or the subject of narration or description 
 may be some particular incident : in all of which cases, 
 care should be taken that every thing be related in its 
 proper order, and be strictly true. 
 
 An excursion after specimens in natural history 
 would afford one of the finest opportunities for culti- 
 vating this power of observation, of attention, and of 
 the ability to think in consecutive order. Different 
 departments might be allotted to different members, 
 one taking the objects of one particular class, and 
 another, another. The occurrences and events might 
 constitute another theme, which could be disposed of 
 in a similar manner. It will be amusing, as well as 
 instructive, to listen to all the minutiae. If circum- 
 stances are favorable, these things might be committed 
 to writing. This will also prepare the way for com- 
 position writing, which certainly should be preceded 
 by some exercise, to give or induce thoughts, since the 
 want of them seems to be the principal deficiency. 
 If a child is capable of telling a straight story, it is 
 pretty good evidence that he has thought it straight 
 beforehand, which is just what we want. And if he 
 can think a straight story, he may make a ready 
 transfer of this power to his books and lessons. 
 
 Again : Objects and places form another class of ex- 
 cellent exercises for this kind of practice. For in- 
 stance : an object of some kind is named or exhibited 
 to the class, and each member is required to give a 
 description of it, including the size, form, weight, 
 color, and all the properties belonging to it, including 
 history and use. The object may be a chair, a block 
 of wood, a fragment of rock, a lump of earth, a 
 
STUDY. 7.5 
 
 branch of a tree, some part of an animal, or it may be 
 some kind of grain, fruit or flowers : what a theme for 
 conversation and description opens up here ! What 
 an endless varietj^ of them ! 
 
 Places may be the theme. In such case, it may be 
 well to commence with the placef occupied by the 
 pupil, and then advance to tliose whose peculiarities 
 are well remembered, such as the door-yard at home, 
 the garden, the orchard, the meadow, the farm, the 
 neighborhood, etc., etc. : or take the dwelling-house, 
 and what a fine subject is off«red in the description of 
 the several apartments ! 
 
 A description of outline and boundary is an excellent 
 exercise for inducing thought. Let the simple out- 
 line of some well-known field, farm or forest be given 
 as a lesson for description. Let a person be supposed 
 to pass round it. The objects and places passed 'or ap- 
 proximated, should be named in the consecutive order, 
 commencing at a given point. 
 
 Way or distance- may be described in the same man- 
 ner. The pupils are requested to note every thing 
 worthy of description, that they observe on the road 
 to or from school; or to describe accurately the road 
 from their homes to the school-house door. Such ex- 
 ercises will not only make the pupils close observers of 
 nature and art, but will make them close thinkers and 
 describers, which latter acquisition is fully as valuable 
 as the former. 
 
 JSTow it will usually be found that the first efforts in 
 narrating and describing, will be rather rude and in- 
 definite, which rudeness and indefiniteness are sufli- 
 cient reasons in favor of this practice : for what is 
 our education for, if not to make us able and exact? 
 Practice, however, will soon remove the inaccuracies. 
 
76 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 Let these exercises be repeated, day after day, at reg- 
 ular intervals, in connection with other duties, taking 
 up the topics in some systematic order, and teachers 
 will be astonished at the accuracy that will in a short 
 time be acquired. Lessons will be studied and recited 
 with ten times the care and accuracy that would 
 obtain, were no such aids used. For, if a pupil can 
 tell what occurred within a given space of time, during 
 the school hours, he can certainly study and remem- 
 ber the events and incidents recorded in his history 
 lesson, with greater ease; and if he can describe the 
 one, he can the other. If he can describe the outline 
 and boundary of a field or farm, with accuracy, he 
 certainly can apply the same to the study of geogra- 
 phy. If he can gather up, and treasure in his mind, 
 the several incidents as they occur by the wayside ; if he 
 can describe objects accurately and fully, he has al- 
 ready taken the first step in the study of language. 
 He may, therefore, with greater ease, apply the 
 principles and rules of grammar, or follow the 
 solution of a problem or the demonstration of a 
 theorem. 
 
 Such are some of the advantages of narration and 
 description ; but their chief importance, as means of 
 inducing thought and study, can only be estimated by 
 their use. A fuller description of these modes will be 
 given under the head of Recitation, in connection 
 with others, bearing more immediately upon that 
 subject. 
 
 Section 3 — Direct Appeals. — 1. We shall now 
 proceed to notice another class of means, intended 
 more immediately for a grade of pupils, capable of ap- 
 preciating the higher motives, which we shall endeavoi 
 
STTJCY 77 
 
 to present in their natural order, beginning with the 
 highest. 
 
 It is a well-established principle in ethical philoso- 
 phy, that a desire to do right, simply because it is 
 right, or from purely conscientious feelings, ranks, if 
 not the highest, at least among the highest motives of 
 liuman action. Hence, an appeal to conscience for a 
 faithful discharge of duty would be the highest ap- 
 peal that could be made. It will be understood here, 
 that we mean conscience, as developed by reason, and 
 founded upon the most exalted ideas of God and a 
 future state. These appeals then become a potent in- 
 strumentality, not only in the discharge of the duty 
 itself, but in cultivating the conscience. 
 
 Motives of this kind, however, could avail but little 
 with children of the age and advancement of those for 
 whom we have been recommending the other two 
 classes of means. It would avail but little, for in- 
 stance, to say to a child that could not understand the 
 right clearly, or comprehend the motive, or feel the 
 obligation, "I^Tow you must study, because it is youi 
 duty; it is an obligation of the highest possible force.' 
 The child thus addressed, might have no ill designs, 
 but on the contrary, the impulses might be of a gen- 
 erous order; but the force of that appeal would 
 scarcely be felt, simply for the want of a proper un- 
 derstanding and appreciation of it : and yet I have 
 known teachers and ministers to talk to children just 
 as if they could be moved by the same class of ap- 
 peals which are appropriate for adults. Their lucid 
 illustrations of right and wrong, would make the chil- 
 dren stare, but would leave them v/ondering at such 
 profundity, or reproaching themselves with ugliness 
 or stupidity, when, in fact, the stupidity, at least, was 
 
78 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 on the other side. But with a class of pupils who are 
 capable of appreciating appeals of this nature, to con- 
 nect their duties thus with their highest destiny, and 
 show their intimate relations and certain dependence, 
 would act with a force measured only by the power 
 of conscience. 
 
 2. The appeals to a desire for usefulness are closely allied 
 to the appeals to conscience. This desire, it will be 
 seen, is purely a benevolent one, and the appeals to it 
 become, like those to conscience, both the means of 
 securing study, and of cultivating the desire itself. 
 This desire, we maintain, is a natural one ; for no one, 
 except a fiend, or one greatly depraved, could desire the 
 misery of human beings, or even of brutes. We see 
 this desire exhibited among children in a remarkable 
 manner, in the sympathy they so readily manifest in 
 each other's joys and sorrows. When properly culti- 
 vated, it leads them to desire the welfare of all their 
 associates and friends, and when more fully developed 
 and Christianized, it ripeiis into that holy ardor for 
 usefulness that burns in the bosom of the missionary 
 of the cross or the true philanthropist. This desire 
 will also be found to exist in various stages of devel- 
 opment in the minds of pupils, and often sadly min- 
 gled with selfishness. When; however, it can be 
 shown that true usefulness depends upon faithful- 
 ness in the discharge of duty, especially that of study ; 
 that the power to do good is measured by development 
 and discipline, no healthier stimulant can be applied. 
 It is free from all those excesses to which so many of 
 the ordinary motives are subject. 
 
 3. The desire for happiness is another powerful mo- 
 tive. It is intimately blended with the preceding one, 
 since usefulness and happiness are inseparable. The 
 
STUDY. 
 
 79 
 
 desire for happiness is like the desire for existence 
 itself. It is a universal desire. It pervades all ranks, 
 ages and conditions in life ; and it even reaches be- 
 yond this life, and becomes one of the leading motives 
 to impel a preparation for the life to come. It can 
 hardly be said to be strictly benevolent, since it seeks 
 self-gratification or enjoyment ; and yet even this may 
 be regarded as a species of benevolence. Indeed it 
 becomes a very high order of benevolence when it is 
 so regulated in its actions as not to mar the happiness 
 of others in seeking its own. A purely enlightened 
 selfishness, in this sense, would lead a man to do right; 
 for, since the happiness of man depends upon the ful- 
 fillment of the law of love, or "to do unto others as 
 ye would that others should do unto you," he would 
 necessarily seek the fulfillment of that law. The 
 amount of virtue, however, that such actions would 
 involve must be determined from another standpoint. 
 
 It may be clearly shown that the enjoyment of the 
 faculties of the mind, and hence of the mind itself, 
 depends upon action, development, and discipline of 
 those faculties; that a lack of healthy, activity would 
 impair the growth ; that a sickly development would 
 beget feeble enjoyment; that imperfect discipline 
 would involve precarious happiness ; and again, that 
 the entire happiness depends upon usefulness, since, 
 according to the well-known laws of mind and matter, 
 just as soon as a man ceases to be useful to his fellow 
 man, he ceases to be happj' ; that there is no such 
 condition in the economy of things as a man's carry- 
 ing his happiness outside of his usefulness, since they 
 both lie precisely in the same line ; and that if he 
 loses the one,he loses the other also. 
 
 What a merited rebuke upon sordid selfishness! If 
 
80 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the poor, blind devotee of gaiu, or power, or pleasure, 
 could but open his eyes upon this path, how soon 
 would he recognize the folly of his course ! God has 
 made it impossible for any human being to be happy, 
 outside the path of duty and usefulness ; and the 
 degree of pleasure is usually measured by the devotion 
 to this course. What stronger, healthier,' higher, 
 holier motives can be employed in the school-room 
 than these ? Does any one ask, " When and how they 
 shall be applied ?" "We answer, by appealing to them 
 in every lesson, recitation and duty, by making every 
 word of instruction point to this great object of ex- 
 istence. 
 
 4. The love of approbation is a motive that may 
 be gently plied in the school-room. The affections 
 which sometimes exist, ' and which should always 
 exist between teacher and pupil, can be wielded with 
 powerful certainty by those who understand their 
 business. It exists in various degrees, from the simple 
 cold respect, up through all the various grades of 
 regard, esteem, veneration, reverence, friendship and 
 love. The higher the grade of affection, the more 
 potent the influence becomes. Now, if the pupil feel 
 any or all of these generous emotions for the teacher, 
 whatever of approbation he receives, will tell just so 
 far, as a motive to duty ; and whatever of disapproba- 
 tion is shown, will sting the conscience and self-respect 
 to active exertions, to repair the losses and regain 
 favor. 
 
 But in the use of approbation and disapprobation, 
 the greatest care should be exercised. There is great 
 danger, on the one hand, of fostering pride and self- 
 conceit, -and a morbid desire for praise, which, if not 
 bestowed, results in jealousy, envy and childish whims; 
 
STUDY. 81 
 
 and on the other hand, in discouragement, petulance, 
 and churlishness. The approving smile and look of 
 love will do far more to elevate, purify and stimuiat* 
 the desires, than all the fulsome praise and idle flattery 
 that can be bestowed ; and on the other hand, the look 
 of sorrow and disappointed hope, the gentle but earn- 
 est reproof, will do more than all the censorious fault- 
 finding and angry threats that can be employed, in the 
 government of children. 
 
 5. Self-interest, as a motive for study, is one that 
 admits of two interpretations. If it is meant by it, 
 that regard for self which leads the individual to seek 
 his own happiness from the highest sources, and with- 
 out interfering with the rights of others, or in a man- 
 ner described under " Usefulness and Happiness " there 
 certainly can be no objection to it. But, if by self- 
 interest, is meant the mere gratification of selfish de- 
 sires, without regard to the feelings or rights of others ; 
 or to rise by pulling another down, or to acquire at 
 another's sacrifice; or if it be the mere gratification of 
 self for self's sake — it is not only of doubtful utility, 
 but radically and unequivocally wrong. 
 
 The practice, therefore, of giving prizes or rewards 
 of merit, can scarcely be free from these objections. 
 To say the least we can of the principle, as usually 
 practiced, it is apt to engender an unwholesome spirit 
 of rivalry, to discourage the backward and timid, to 
 provoke jealousies, to stimulate inordinate ambition; 
 and above all, and worst of all, it is setting a paltry 
 price on learning. The practice is therefore wrong in 
 principle, when it proposes to pay a pupil for benefit- 
 ing himself. In accepting, he takes that for which 
 he has rendered no equivalent. He gets all the bene- 
 fits of study or obedience himself, and then expects 
 
82 THE ART 0¥ TEACHING. 
 
 to be paid for it besides. Too much care can not be 
 taken to teach children that they should, as far as pos- 
 sible, render an equivalent for every thing they obtain. 
 There can, however, be no objection to giving tokens 
 of^>approbation ; but the practice of holding out the 
 idea, that for so much study, so much pecuniary re- 
 ward will be given, is at once to degrade study or obe- 
 dience in the estimation of every right-minded pupil. 
 And then again it is accompanied with this diffi- 
 culty, that when the incentive is removed, when there 
 are no more rewards to be received, the mind having 
 been fed on such motives, there will remain no whole- 
 some desire. It is apt to cease to act, when the 
 false stimulant is removed. And yet we will not un- 
 dertake to decide, th^t there can be no system of 
 prize-giving, free from these objections. We will only 
 say we do not know of any. 
 
 6. Now, in conclusion, allow us to add, that it is alto- 
 gether possible that cases will arise in school, that 
 none of these appeals, nor yet any of the artifices here- 
 tofore described, will effectually reach. Such cases 
 are not only supposable, but doubtless have an actual 
 existence ; and it would not be granting too much, 
 perhaps, to say that various degrees of laziness^ stu- 
 pidity and stubbornness exist throughout all the 
 grades here described. But what shall be the resort 
 in the extreme, cases ? The question is a plain and 
 fair one, and is entitled to a courteous and frank an- 
 swer. We therefore reply definitely and distinctly, 
 that, when all other means have been exhausted, or 
 where the probabilities are that they would be insuffi- 
 cient, if applied, that recourse may be had to absolute 
 compulsion : that forced obedience is better than re- 
 bellion, " What," says one, " force a child to study ? " 
 
STUDY. 83 
 
 " Would you force a child that is not hungry, to eat ? " 
 No ; but I would force a diseased person to take med- 
 icine or nourishment, if the disease were of such a na- 
 ture or malignity as to deprive the patient of judg- 
 ment and reason; provided that food or medicine 
 were the prescribed remedy. I would confine a pa- 
 tient by physical force, to submit to amputation of a 
 limb, if I were satisfied that that course was neces- 
 sary to save his life: so I would compel a pupil, on 
 the same principle, to submit to study; for I wouM 
 consider him dangerously diseased mentally, if he could 
 refuse all the means heretofore described ; and the 
 sooner treatment of this kind is resorted to, the better, 
 since the disease is apt to become aggravated from 
 delay. But if a dose of silent study, administered by 
 compulsion, once or twice a day, and an occasional 
 amputation of a bad habit were performed skillfully, 
 it is more than probable that the patient would soon 
 show signs of convalescence; whereupon milder meas- 
 ures might then be employed. 
 
 "With these suggestions, we close the chapter on 
 Study. But before leaving it, it is but just to say", that 
 it is not claimed, by any means, that the list of mo- 
 tives which may be employed for teaching children 
 how to think, has been exhausted. The fact is, we 
 have only just approached the subject. It will be 
 found, also, that the ordinary means will be sufficient 
 for the great majority of cases; that resort to special 
 eftbrts will only be required where special difficulties 
 exist; and that with proper study b^' the teacher, 
 upon these points, no difficulty can arise, but that a 
 remedy will be suggested. 
 
84 
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 OBJECTS 
 
 AND 
 MOTIVES. 
 
 s~x-]sroi»sis III. 
 
 To aacertaizi the extent of preparation. 
 To aid in understanding and retaining. 
 To cultivate the expressive powers and regular batlts. 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 <! 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 fa 
 
 V 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 P 
 
 
 
 O 
 O 
 » 
 
 t 
 
 Hi 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 AND 
 REQUISITES 
 
 r Becitation seats. 
 CoNVENiENO's. ^ Blackboards and maps. 
 V. School apparatus. 
 
 / A thorough knowledge on the part of leachoT 
 QtJALiFiCAx'NS. -< Preparation of leBson by the pupil. 
 V. A cultivated voice and manner. 
 
 r Simplicity. Energy. Dispatch. 
 Specialities. \ Fidelity. Patience. Gentleness. 
 V. Strict order and arrangement. 
 
 PRINCIPL ES 
 
 AND 
 
 METHODS. 
 
 Genebal Di- 
 rections. 
 
 , Completeness. Deiiniteness. 
 
 J ComprehenBiveneas. Independence, 
 
 (^ Answers given without prompting. 
 
 Concert. Consecutive. Promiscuous. 
 
 Modes op An- \ o-i 4. -d • in 
 
 SWERING. "S Silent. Beciprocal. Proxy 
 
 Monitorial. Contests. Writing. 
 
 Modes of Con- 
 ducting. 
 
 ' Interrogative.* 
 Topical. 
 Didactic. 
 
 r Subjects. 
 \ Diagrams. 
 
 f Conversation. 
 \ Lectures. 
 
 *See Modes of Answering, 
 
EECITATION. 85 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 EECITATION. 
 
 Wb now approach that mooted and much belabored 
 bubject — Bedtation: the one which forms, perhaps, the 
 great burden of treatises on teaching; but M'hich, 
 important as it is, is entitled to no higher considera- 
 tion than many others. From the fact that it has 
 long been regarded the summa summarium of teach- 
 ing, its claims have been considered paramount to all 
 others ; but upon a careful study of these claims, and 
 a comparison of them with some others, recitation in 
 many respects will be found to rank even below study. 
 For instance : recitation is an instrumentality chiefly 
 in the hands of the teacher; and may be wielded by 
 him as a powerful force in the education of the child ; 
 but study, so far as it relates to the actual duty, be- 
 longs to the child himself, and hence is more direct 
 and potential. It constitutes the chief means of 
 learning and discipline. Kecitation, however, may do 
 much to facilitate study ; and in this sense its impor- 
 tance increases. 
 
 We shall proceed to examine this topic, first, with 
 reference to its Objects and Aims; secondly, its Con- 
 ditions and Requisites ; thirdly, its General Principles, 
 and their Application. 
 
 Article 1— Tbe Object and Aims. 
 
 It will be found that there is a lamentable deficiency 
 among teachers, as well as among pupils, in reference 
 
86 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 to the objects of recitation. Many have taken no 
 further pains to inform themselves upon this point, than 
 merely to acquaint themselves with some of the leading 
 modes. They take it for granted that the practice of 
 reciting is all right, of course, since it is customary. 
 But the time when it was not customary, except in 
 a few branches, — such as reading and spelling, — still 
 lingers in the memory of many of the present genera- 
 tion. But modern improvements have wiped out 
 many of the old usages, and brought about a radical 
 change, and with that change many inconsistencies. 
 It is but reasonable to suppose, however, that in so 
 great a revolution, there should obtain many errors, 
 mostly of an opposite extreme. And so we find it in 
 recitation. From the extreme of no lecitation, or 
 scarcely none, we find all recitation, or nearly all. 
 From no explanations, it is all explanations ; and the 
 pupil has only to place himself in the receptive attitude, 
 and the mental pabulum is dealt out to his taste. The 
 process of deglutition is scarcely necessary, to say noth- 
 ing of mastication, since the acquisition is made so 
 easy by dilution, as not to require much effort on the 
 part of the scholar. His delicate nerves are not to 
 be disturbed by any such vulgar process as that of 
 thinking. That is already done to his hand. The 
 processes of simplification have gone on, to such an 
 extent, that the various subjects of learning have be- 
 come exceedingly simple — so simple indeed, in many 
 cases, as to be absolutely silly. But these errors will 
 be noticed in due order in the course of this chapter. 
 We shall not attempt an exhaustive list of the ob' 
 jects of recitation, since they are so numerous as to 
 forbid any such effort. It is due the subject to say 
 however, that the knowledge upon these points should 
 
RECITATION. 87 
 
 be very definite. Both the teacher aud the pupil, 
 should know why they recite, and the objects to be 
 gained by the recitation, or the probabilities are, that 
 the lesson will neither be assigned nor studied in a 
 proper manner. Among the objects to be kept before 
 the mind, while conducting a recitation, the following 
 may be named : 
 
 1. To ascertain the extent of ^'reparation, on the part 
 of the pupil. According to the principle laid down 
 in reference to " assigning lessons, " no more labor 
 should be given, than can be thoroughly mastered by 
 the pupil ; and then, when time for recitation arrives, 
 every thing assigned should be demanded, when the 
 aforesaid object can be ascertained. "When a lesson is 
 assigned in a proper manner, the pupil is laid under 
 the most binding obligation to prepare it. Any fail- 
 ure to fulfill that obligation, should be regarded as an 
 act of willful disobedience, and treated accordingly. 
 Indeed, I would never suffer a pupil for any cause, 
 save that of unavoidable hindrance, to enjoy the bene- 
 fits of the recitation, if he had not spent the required 
 amount of time and eftbrt in preparing the lesson. 
 I would at once send him to his seat as an offender. 
 I am aware that this might seem like a harsh meas- 
 ure ; aud yet what are our recitations for ? Are they 
 to cover up the faults and defects of the pupil, or are 
 they to expose and correct them ? Are they to pam- 
 per and indulge laziness and disobedience, or are they 
 to cultivate habits of industry, and prompt and willing 
 obedience? 
 
 A great many pupils are accustomed to drag them- 
 selves along in recitation, by depending upon their 
 neighbors, or their shrewdness in guessing, good luck 
 or some other equally reprehensible expedient ; and 
 
88 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 sometimes, too, through excess of assurance, they oven 
 make a fairer show than some others who have been 
 diligent in the preparation of their lessons. But all 
 this is wrong — morally wrong, — since it is lowering 
 the standard of industry and order, and offering a 
 temptation to others to neglect their duties likewise. 
 Such scholars should at once be informed, that their 
 progress in education is measured not by their good 
 luck or shrewdness in evading its duties, but by their 
 faithful discharge of these duties. 
 
 It may be asked by some, " What shall be done 
 with an offender who persists in disobeying — one, for 
 instance, who would rather rejoice than do otherwise 
 at an opportunity to be released from recitation ? " To 
 this, I would answer, that if the additional labor of 
 preparing and reciting two or three lessons at once, 
 failed ; and if confinement to study or recitation dur- 
 ing the hours of recess did not work a reform, I would 
 treat it as I would any other act of disobedience of 
 similar import ; and I would bestow upon it such a 
 punishment" as would soon convince the offender, that 
 it is no light thing nius to trifle with duty and au- 
 thority. 
 
 To ascertain how well the lesson has been prepared, 
 I would have recourse to something like the follow- 
 ing. The class being called, a question like the fol- 
 lowing might be asked : " As many as have complied 
 with the conditions of study will please to rise, or 
 manifest it by the uplifted hand." These conditions 
 should be well defined and well understood before- 
 hand. It may not be necessary for all to study the 
 same length of time, or even to go over the lesson the 
 same number of times; but there should be a standard 
 for every one, either individual or general, by which 
 
RECITATION. 89 
 
 pupils are to be guided in their reports; or there might 
 be several standards, and those who could not reach 
 the first, might reach the second or tliird, and so on. 
 
 Now the next thing will be, to test the correctness 
 of these reports by actual examination or recitation. 
 If they prove correct, all well: if not, then the pupil 
 should be called upon for an explanation. This will • 
 be making a serious matter of recitation, and the 
 scholars knowing that they will be called upon to re- 
 port themselves thus accurately, and then be obliged 
 to submit to the test of examination afterward, will 
 be less likely to spend the time allotted to study, in 
 idleness. They will not be* over-anxious to expose 
 themselves, in the presence of their companions and 
 teacher, in the ridiculous attitude either of deception 
 or failure. 
 
 2. A second object of recitation is, To aid in a more 
 thorough understanding of the subject matter of the lesson. 
 
 The appositeness of this object will be seen at once : 
 but there are some things belonging to it that need 
 attention. For instance : some teachers seem to re- 
 gard this as the only object of recitation ; and that it is 
 most readily accomplished by rendering the labor of 
 the pupil as light as possible. Hence they make it a 
 point, either through pride of display, excess of good 
 nature, or a misdirected zeal, to do as much of the re- 
 citing themselves as possible. Having, perhaps, a tol- 
 erable knowledge or understanding of the subject- 
 matter ot recitation themselves, the) seem to regard it 
 as a sacred duty to lecture and explain the lesson all 
 away, leaving the pupil nothing to do but the de- 
 lightful (?) task of listening and learning (?), or, 
 more properly feeding, upon the mere husks of 
 knowledge. 
 
90 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Now it has been frequently remarked, in the prog- 
 ress of this work, that the pupil's advancement is 
 measured by what he does more than by what he hears, 
 or sees somebody else do. The teacher, therefore, has 
 no more right to deprive the scholar- of his recitation, 
 than he has to deprive him of his food or clothing ; 
 and he would be regarded as rather a suspicious char- 
 acter, if he should be caught plundering the chil-' 
 dren's dinner basket, or purloining a convenient ar- 
 ticle of apparel, occasionally. 
 
 It is proper to remark, however, in this connection, 
 that much additional information may be given dur- 
 ing recitation, aud it is relevant to inquire just how 
 much assistance should be rendered. To this, we 
 would reply, that nothing should be told directly, 
 that the pupil can find out for himself; that the glory 
 of conquest belongs to him, by sacred right; that he 
 should not be deprived of the luxury of thinking; but 
 that where light can be thrown upon a subject, either 
 by word or act of the teacher, in the recitation are both 
 the time and place, in which to do this. If difBeult 
 points have been laid over for future consideration, or 
 experiment, the recitation aiFords the proper opportu- 
 nity. It is. one of its special objects to afford oppor- 
 tunity to dispose of these things ; and all such cases 
 as demand special attention, should be reserved for 
 recitation. 
 
 3. Another important object of recitation is " To aid 
 in retaining the knowledge, or cultivating the power oj 
 memory." In this it becomes disciplinary, as indeed 
 are all the modes of recitation, as well as tho* of 
 study. It is a well-known principle that repetition 
 aids the memory. The very process itself serves to 
 fix facts aud principles in the mind; and at the same 
 
■ RECITATION. 91 
 
 time trains the pupil in the use of language. This 
 matter is worthy of some consideration, since so much 
 of the success in learning depends upon the memory. 
 It is a constant complaint among scholars, that they 
 forget so easily. But the memory was not made to be 
 forgetful, but ready and obedient. It was not made 
 to be treacherous any more than the reason and under- 
 standing were. There is no more necessity for forget- 
 ting any thing that is properly learned, than there is 
 for failing to understand a thing. When people com- 
 plain of a bad memory, it is certain evidence of bad 
 treatment, unless there is a natural deficiency, which 
 is seldom the case where tfie organization in other 
 respects is good. 
 
 The memory is a true and faithful friend ; and it 
 only asks to be treated with the same consideration 
 with which other friends are treated, and it will prove 
 as trusty. Many things, however, that are committed 
 to it, or supposed to be committed, are disposed of so 
 carelessly, that no particular responsibility rests any- 
 where: hence when the memory is called upon to 
 report, it answers verj"^ justly and innocently, " that 
 such and such things never passed this way ; or if they 
 did, their stay was so transient, and the acquaintance 
 so slight, that no permanent impressions were made ; 
 consequently, we are not responsible." It should, 
 therefore, be the especial object of every recitation, to 
 fix securely and permanently in the mind every fact 
 and principle in the lesson. 
 
 4. The fourth and last object that we shall name, is 
 the cultivation of the expressive powers. This will be 
 inferred from what has been said upon this point in 
 other places. Perhaps there is no higher object in 
 reciting, than this. Recitation is the place in which 
 
92 THE ART O'E TEACHING!. 
 
 we should correct inaccuracies of expression ; where 
 we should cultivate clearness and accuracy, strength, 
 beauty and richness of language — should call out the 
 knowledge the pupil possesses, in the best possible 
 forms of expression. But it is a well-known fact that 
 our pupils usually fail in this part of their duties ; and 
 the inference is just as clear as the fact is notorious, 
 that the difficulty arises, in a great measure, from 
 careless and hasty recitations. Teachers are too prone 
 to take for granted that a child knows a thing, either 
 because he pretends to, or thinks he does, or makes 
 some half-way, blundering answer that may be tor- 
 tured into a remote reference to the point in hand. 
 
 But it is not assuming too much to say, that a pupil 
 does not know a thing as he ought to know it, until 
 he can tell it as he ought to tell it ; and it is equally 
 certain, that he can not tell a thing as he ought to tell 
 it, until he knows it as he ought to know it. One of 
 thospecial objects of recitation, therefore, is to affi)rd 
 time and opportunity for the cultivation of the express- 
 ive powers. This relat-es to clearness, distinctness, 
 and loudness of utterance, as well as perspicuity and 
 comprehensiveness of style. The manner is of scarcely 
 less importance, as an educational object, than the mat- 
 ter itself. They aid each other, and are both equally 
 susceptible of cultivation. 
 
 Article 3— Conditions and Requl§ltes. 
 
 These departments of the subject assume consider- 
 able importance, when it is remembered that they 
 involve, to some extent, the preparations and qualifi- 
 cations of teachers. A brief allusion must suffice, 
 hov/ever, since but one class ot qualifications can be 
 
RECITATION. 98 
 
 considered, and since those of a more general char- 
 acter have been discussed in former chapters. 
 
 There is, however, a class of conditions and req- 
 uisites, to -which we propose to call a brief attention, 
 under the head of conveniences, before considering 
 those which belong to the teacher. 1. The size of 
 the school-room is a matter that ought to be ■consid- 
 ered. Of course, it should be ample. One of the 
 chief objections to our present style of building and 
 architecture, is a want of room. Teachers are per- 
 plexed, discouraged, and absolutely prevented from 
 adopting some of the best improvements in recitation, 
 simply for the want of room. They can not bring 
 their classes to the recitation seat, or dismiss them 
 from it, in any kind of order ; nor yet can they ar- 
 range them in convenient forms while there. Every 
 thing has to be huddled together, in the most con- 
 fused manner, in order to alibrd space for the occu- 
 pants of the seats. A teacher in this predicament, 
 has about as much chance to do his duties well, as a 
 ship-carpenter would have in a cellar-kitchen. There 
 must be room, — room to breathe, room to walk, room 
 to stand and room to talk ; room for motions of body 
 and mind; for this too, must have room. The world is 
 wide enough and high enough for all that is on it, and 
 much more, without crowding. The policy therefore, 
 of huddling children together like sheep in a pen, 
 and that too, for the purposes of educating them, is 
 too much like burying a few bushels of corn in one 
 spot, for the purpose of planting it. It is horrible ! 
 Half the corn would rot under such circumstances ; 
 and we should hardly expect that the children would 
 fare much better, in some of our school-houses. The 
 enormity is so great that it should not be tolerated. 
 
94 THE ART OF TEACniNG. 
 
 There should be, at least twenty square feet for every 
 pupil, which would make our rooms from thirty to 
 forty feet square, or about those dimensions. 
 
 2. The form, of the room is another condition that 
 increases or decreases the pleasures and benefits of 
 recitation. It would be impossible, however, to give 
 special directions here, that would apply to the var- 
 ious styles of school-furniture, order of seating, and 
 other conveniences. The arrangement of the desks 
 and other furniture, should be such as to allow the 
 greatest freedom of movement, and other conveniences- 
 in reference to ventilation, heat and light. There 
 should also be a large open space or court, for physical 
 exercises, usually situated just in front of the teacher's 
 stand, and near the recitation seats. The propriety of 
 this arrangement will be seen, when we come to speak 
 more directly of modes of reciting. 
 
 3. E-ecitation seats are necessary, as we have inti- 
 mated above. A school-room without them would 
 be like a dry-goods store without a counter. When 
 an examination of the goods is to be made, the 
 customer is obliged to visit all the shelves and 
 drawers, much to the disadvantage of all. parties. 
 So, when the members of a class for recitation have 
 to be arranged, one in one part of the room, and 
 another in another, their attentio'n is co-^respondingly 
 distracted ; and the teacher's force is often expend- 
 ed in fruitless efforts to collect and concentrate the 
 scattered fragments of mind, that this arrangement 
 has a tendency to dissipate. 
 
 4. As a general thing, the recitation demands black- 
 boards, maps, globes, charts and other apparatus. 
 The first of these are so necessary, that no teacher can 
 do without them. One should occupy a position near 
 
RECITATION. 95 
 
 the teacher's stand, and fronting the class, so that ex- 
 planations maj be given with as little inconvenience 
 as possible. The others, for the use of the class, might 
 occupy all the space between windows and doors, not 
 needed for the cabinet of " common things, " but as 
 convenient to the recitation seats as posiiible ; and 
 they should be ample enough to allow twenty pupils 
 to operate upon them at the same time. 
 
 The use of maps, globes and other apparatus will 
 be readily inferred, and is best learned from actual 
 observation and practice. They add much to the in- 
 terest and benefits of recitation, since they render 
 tangible many things that otherwise appear difficult 
 and abstruse. 
 
 5. For small children, a cabinet of common things, 
 composed of collections of as many of the objects 
 from the three great kingdoms of nature, as can be 
 procured, together with artificial objects, pictures and 
 models of those that can not be had, forms the best 
 conditions and requisites to their peculiar mode of 
 recitation and study, that can be devised. The object- 
 lessons described in another place, demand these. 
 
 6. Previous preparation by the pupil, is a requisite 
 which has been alluded to in another place. No pupil, 
 therefore, should presume upon his ability to recite 
 the lesson, without having assured himself of that 
 fact, by careful study beforehand. 
 
 7. A thorough knowledge of the lesson by the 
 teacher, is a condition of the first importance. He 
 should know, before the class is called, what the lesson 
 is, and what is in it. The mode of assigning it will 
 aid much in. this respect; but in the majority of cases, 
 the lesson should l*e carefully reviewed by the teacher, 
 on the previous day. Other text-books beside the one 
 
96 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 used, should also be consulted; for there is great 
 danger of his becoming opinionated and cireumscribed 
 in his views, unless he is accustomed to take liberal 
 surveys of men and things. This will also -give 
 greater freshness and accuracy to what is taught, to 
 say nothing about the collateral matter with which he 
 may enliven the exercise. 
 
 No teacher should presume to hear a class recite, in 
 the common branches at least, where he is compelled 
 to hold a book in his hand to guide or prompt him, 
 either in the questions or answers. Unfortunately, in 
 many of the text-books, the questions which the 
 author thinks ought to be asked (a presumption on 
 his part without much foundation), are placed in the 
 margin of the page, or interspersed for greater con- 
 venience (?) through the entire lesson. !N"ow, if the 
 teacher is compelled to resort to these questions, he 
 becomes a mere parasite. He teaches merely with a 
 reflected light; and often the orb whose rays he bor- 
 rows, is a feeble one. Judge then of the feebleness 
 of the light he sheds. He becomes to the pupil what 
 the moon is to the earth, a pale, sickly orb, whose 
 light is only the faint reflections of the sun. It might 
 shine upon the earth for a million of years, and never 
 cause one single bud to start, or flower to bloom, or a 
 spire of grass to grow. The earth would grow colder 
 and colder all the time, just as some scholars do, intel- 
 lectually and morally, under this second-hand teaching. 
 But it is the sun, the warm, mild, yet energizing rays 
 of the sun, that penetrate the bosom of nature, and 
 cause her great heart to beat with emotions of life 
 and joy. So with the true teacher : he should shine 
 with no reflected light; he should warm with no bor- 
 rowed heat; but should vitalize every principle of 
 
RECITATION 97 
 
 intelligence in the child with his own native-born 
 vigor. 
 
 If the teacher is allowed to consult the book in 
 presence of the scholars, during the recitation, for the 
 purpose of asking the questions, or, as it frequently 
 happens, of refreshing his memory on the answer, I 
 see no good reason why the pupil should not have the 
 same privilege. But whether he has such a right or 
 not, he is very apt to take it; since the absence of the 
 teacher's eye, in chase after hvi question or answer, 
 offers a fine opportunity for the scholar to take tliat 
 liberty; and he will be possessed of more than the 
 ordinary share of virtue, for such a school, and with 
 such a teacher, whose every act gives the lie to his pro- 
 fession, if he will not improve it. 
 
 The teacher should have the lesson and all its bear- 
 ings well fixed in mind, before recitation commences ; 
 BO that he may deal out as occasion demands, and not 
 be perplexed or embarrassed with hunting up ques- 
 tions and answers during recitation. He needs all the 
 mind with which he is favored, to direct the recitation, 
 even if he is perfectly familiar with it, without hav- 
 ing to chase it up, or borrow it, as he goes along, 
 and, at the same time, watch a set of unruly scholars 
 that may be nearly as bad in this respect as he is 
 himself. 
 
 There is another evil practice that deserves notice in 
 this connection: it is that of marking off a certam 
 portion of the text, or so much of it as is supposed 
 will satisfy the question. N"either scholar nor teacher 
 should be allowed to indulge in this whim, since it 
 destroys all connection of the subject, and gives the 
 knowledge, if it gives any at all, in piecemeal. If the 
 text-book needs any abridging, it should be done by 
 9 
 
98 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 general consent of the profession, and not mutilated 
 by every bungler that sees proper to tinker at it, and 
 hack it to pieces. 
 
 8. A cultioated voice and manner, are requisites 
 of the first importance. This qualification applies, of 
 course, to both teacher and pupil. The powers of the 
 human voice, as well as its mechanism, are most re 
 markable. Its tones may soothe the wildest passions 
 to rest, or rouse them into a flame. They may wake 
 the purest and loftiest desires, or provoke the very 
 demon of hate. There is no gift to mortals, save that 
 of mind itself, whose interpreter the voice is, that pos- 
 sesses such wonderful properties. Its meek, subdued, 
 and patient strains are readily distinguished from the 
 harsher tones of petulance, anger or revenge, not only 
 by man himself, but by beast, bird and reptile. If joy 
 gladden the heart, and sparkle in the eye, the tones 
 of the voice swell out in sweet liquid strains, or in 
 merry shouts. If sorrow depress it, the mournful 
 cadence tells of the grief within.. If joy and holy 
 desires swell it, the deep music of its earnest tones 
 awake the loftiest emotions of the soul. If hati'ed, 
 and diabolic rage lurk in its secret chambers, the 
 rough, dry, sharp, sudden, half-formed intonations 
 grate like saws or files upon the delicate sensibilities. 
 If deceit, guile and hypocrisy harbor there, the tell- 
 tale voice is sure to reveal the fact. If treachery, 
 cowardice and guilt, its very accents speak it all. If 
 fidelity, bravery and innocence, the noble, manly 
 tones of the voice speak the sentiments within. A 
 man need not tell that he is heroic, highminded and 
 pure; his voice and manner reveal it all : nor yet need 
 be strive to conceal his meanness of purpose, his little 
 soul, his base designs and cowardly spirit ; for lo ! his 
 
RECITATION, 99 
 
 voice,- true to the instincts of nature, has stamped him 
 with his true value. 
 
 The voice is the harp of the soul ; the music it plays 
 is the exponent of the inner life; and the world's ears 
 the interpreters of the song. I know that hypocrisy 
 may be "skilled to grace a devil's purpose with an 
 angel's face;" and that the tones of the voice may 
 affect the purity and sweetness of the dulcet, when the 
 most fiendish designs inspire it; but these designs can 
 not be long concealed ; for the voice, in its own machi- 
 nations, will betray to one skilled in human nature 
 (and children are no mean judges in the art) the most 
 subtle and determined efforts. I know too, that many 
 a noble purpose is misjudged and defeated for the 
 want of culture of voice and manner, but this only 
 argues more strongly the necessity of cultivation. It 
 therefore becomes the teacher, above all other persons, 
 since he deals with the young, since his voice is con- 
 tinually sounding in the ear of childhood, to cultivate 
 that voice to the highest possible degree of excellence ; 
 to cultivate it not to dissembling, not to sycophancy ; 
 but to give the true utterance and potency to the pure 
 thoughts and sentiments within. 
 
 There are four things that should be kept in mind 
 in the cultivation of the voice: 1. The naturalness of 
 the voice. 2. Its quantity,or loudness. 3. Its quality, 
 or pitch. 4. Its variety, or flexibility. 
 
 1. Some teachers seem to think it necessary to 
 address their pupils in an assumed voice and manner — 
 in some affected, dignified or commanding tone. 
 Scarcely any thing will sooner render such teachers 
 ridiculous in the estimation of the shrewd and ob- 
 serving. ISTo assumed voice or manner should ever be 
 tolerated in the school-room. Of course, if there are 
 
100 THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 natural deficiencies in tlie voice, these should be cor- 
 rected; if there are obstructions, these should be 
 removed ; but this can all be done, without interfering 
 with or destroying, in the least, the naturalness of the 
 voice, but rather rendering it more natural. Let the 
 teacher, therefore, use his own voice, but make that 
 voice as perfect as possible. 
 
 ii. Many teachers are in the habit of speaking too 
 loud. This arises more from habit than from any 
 thing else. I remember that I once visited a school of 
 some reputation, in which the teacher was addicted 
 to this fault. I was invited to take a seat upon the 
 stand, to listen to a recitation in geography. The 
 members of the class were called, and took their seats 
 within six feet of the teacher's desk. All things being 
 in readiness, the teacher arose, and, having naturally 
 a stentorian voice, he pronounced the first question 
 with such startling loudness that I, supposing him to 
 be in jest, began to laugh. But I soon found out my 
 mistake. I was sadly out of order. The sober faces 
 that confronted me from every quarter, and the earnest 
 demeanor of the teacher, soon convinced me that it 
 was all in sober earnest. Question after question 
 followed, in such thundering peals, that I began to . 
 seek for an explanation by supposing some to bj deaf.. 
 But this supposition was soon abandoned, for, when 
 addressing the pupils on other points, the teacher 
 dropped his voice down to a moderate tone. And 
 what was still more surprising, the pupils in answering 
 the questions were about as far on the opposite ex- 
 treme. The contrast was most striking and amusing. 
 First, there was an almost deafening scream which, I 
 am confident, could have been heard a half mile, and 
 then the response would come in a faint whimper, 
 
RECITATION. 101 
 
 which, both taken together, reminded one of the 
 deafening roar of the lion, followed by the faint squeak- 
 ing of mice. 
 
 ISTow, no one need be told that this is wrong. The 
 children's ears, in this instance, however, seemed 
 hardened to it, so that it produced apparently little 
 or no' sensation, except a slight scowl which showed, 
 doubtless, the remains of an ancient sensation, such as 
 I experienced. And thus it is. If it should thunder 
 all the time in continuous roar, we should cease to 
 notice it. It would fail to produce an impression. 
 It would be just as if it did not thunder at all. 
 The teacher, therefore, who expects to make an im- 
 pression with the powers of his voice, should, re- 
 member that it consists more in the richness of its 
 tones, and in pleasing and appropriate variety, than 
 in either pitch or power. The teacher is very apt to 
 err in excess of loudness, for as he warms in his 
 subject, the animation unconsciously leads him into 
 loud and boisterous talking. Let him rememljer, 
 however, that a teacher can be animated without 
 being boisterous; and that the tones of his voice can 
 be impressive without being loud. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add that the teacher should 
 speak sufficiently loud, and with sufficient animation 
 to be heard and felt by all who may be listening. A 
 lazy, dull and lifeless teacher, has no business to work 
 with children. He might, however, be of some ser- 
 vice where a soporific is needed ; but where minds 
 are to be energized, tVioughts to be developed, and 
 general activity to be induced and directed, something 
 more is needed than the prosy cogitations of a drone. 
 The teacher must be himself, in actions and thoughts, 
 what he would have his pupils become. 
 
102 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 3. Another fault to which teachers, especially fe- 
 males, are liable, that of choosing too high a key upon 
 which to speak. This, when accompanied with loud- 
 ness and' boisterousness, as it is most likely to be, be- 
 comes exceedingly disagreeable. I have seen a whole 
 school wrought up to a pitch of the most unhappy 
 feeling, just by the harsh, squeaking, cat-like v(5ice of 
 the teacher. Mischief, uneasiness, discontent or stolid 
 indifference was visible upon almost every face. No 
 one seemed to know why he felt unhappy. !N"o one 
 suspected the instrument of torture ; yet all felt it. 
 Mischief and rebellion seemed rife; and the teacher's 
 voice, threats or entreaties were so far from having any 
 tendency to allay this feeling, that they only aggravated 
 it. But let the rich, subdued, mellow, lute-like tones 
 of voice, inspired by the deep, solemn earnestness of 
 the soul, fall upon those ears, and a change will come 
 over the spirit of their feelings. You can almost see 
 the tears start to their eyes. These sweet tones are 
 the melody of the soul, and they touch the soul, 
 which yields responsive to their wooing. If teachers 
 could only estimate the mischief and unhappiness their 
 tones of voice inspire, they would be astonished ; and 
 if they could only realize a tenth part of the good they 
 might accomplish, they would at once set about cul- 
 tivating this powerful instrument of good or evil. 
 
 4. Variety is a quality of voice, that should be cul- 
 tivated. A teacher who talks upon all topics with 
 about the same degree of force, and on the same key, 
 soon becomes monotonous, and will lose both the 
 power to make impression and to control his school. 
 There are occasions that demand the loud, terrible 
 tones that shake the very soul ; and then from that 
 on down, through all the pleasing varieties, to the 
 
RECITATION. 103 
 
 gentlest murmur that falls upon the ear, like the 
 sweet zephyr. There are occasions too, that demand 
 the deep, solemn, awful gravity, that searches the 
 very depths of the heart ; and on frohi that to the 
 tripping merriment and humorous glee, that shake 
 the very sides with laughter. All these varieties are 
 necessary, and will constitute one of the teacher's 
 strongest forces, both in governing and in teaching. 
 
 There is still another quality which properly belongs 
 to requisites, though it refers more to the language 
 itself, than to vocalization. We mean the style of 
 expression. This may include, in addition to what 
 has already been said, clearness, distinctness, simpli- 
 city and purity. We propose nothing further here, 
 than a bare allusion to these properties, and simply to 
 urge upon the student the necessity of studying 
 them from some of our best authors. 
 
 Many teachers, in their eftbrts to use good language, 
 overreach the matter, making use of terms in explana- 
 tion, which are really more difficult to comprehend, 
 than the things they were intended to explain. All 
 definitions should be plaiiver than the things defined, 
 or they cease to be definitions. All explanations 
 should be couched in language precise and definite, 
 and not difficult of comprehension. 
 
 Some again, are very careless in their use of lan- 
 guage, not unfrequently making use of expressions, 
 not onlj' of doubtful signification, but often mean- 
 ing the opposite from what they intend. Their lan- 
 guage lacks perspicuity. Others again, have a labored 
 style, and fail to render themselves intelligible for the 
 want of simplicity and purity. While I would not 
 contend that the teacher should descend to the level 
 with his pupils in the use of language, or that he 
 
104 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 should resort to the mere common-place expressions, 
 and never strive to elevate and purify their language; 
 yet I would have him make use of no terms or ex- 
 pressions, in his explanations, which the pupil can not 
 readily comprehend. I would have his language 
 plain without boldness, exact without stift'ness, rich 
 without superfluity, elegant without affectation, pure 
 without poverty, simple without being silly, and child- 
 like without being childish. 
 
 The manner and personal appearance of the teacher 
 have much to do with his success, and hence are re- 
 quisites to be considered in this connection. We shall 
 speak, however, of those only which concern recitation. 
 
 The foundation of all good manners is a good heart, 
 without which all outside culture seems to be thrown 
 away, since it is often used to cover up wicked designs, 
 and to dress vice in a most attractive garb. But the 
 good heart without the good manners is often inca- 
 pable of exerting a good influence, from that very 
 fact. Therefore the personal appearance and the de- 
 meanor of the. teacher should be as attractive as 
 possible, since his influence for good is often lost, not 
 only from a repulsive air and demeanor, but from a 
 want of neatness, cleanliness and appropriateness in 
 style of dress, etc. But a bare allusion to those points 
 must suffice here, since we propose to speak only of 
 recitation. They have been pretty thoroughly dis- 
 cussed in the popular treatises of the day. 
 
 We remark, therefore, that the manner in recitation 
 should be guarded from, at least, two extremes, viz. : 
 too great reserve on the one hand, and too great 
 familiarity on the other. Perhaps more err in the 
 first direction thau in the second. Some teachers get 
 the idea that in order to be dignified they must affect 
 
RECITATION. 105 
 
 and air of dignity, when in fact nothing is more de- 
 structive to true dignity. It will soon render them 
 ridiculous. Then again, the cold reserve which some 
 teachers assume, when communicating with their 
 pupils, is utterly destructive of that sympathy which 
 is indispensable to good teaching. Such teachers 
 repel rather than attract, and freeze the feeling and 
 thoughts, rather than warm them into life. True 
 earnestness and honesty are the foundation stones of 
 true dignity ; for, whenever a teacher becomes too 
 solicitous about his dignity, he is apt to lose it. Take 
 care of the children and the teaching, and let the 
 dignity take care of itself. 
 
 On the other hand, if too great familiarity is shown, 
 the pupil soon loses a proper respect for the teacher. 
 It is not necessary, however, for him to descend to any 
 low familiarity, in order to secure the confidence and 
 love of children. Indeed they usuallj' become sus- 
 picious of, or hold in absolute contempt, any mock 
 sympathy or forced familiarity. He should, therefore, 
 manifest on all occasions no more interest in their 
 welfare, and no more willingness to sympathize with 
 and assist them in their duties, than he really feels. 
 Let him rather show by his actions that his goodness 
 exceeds his professions, if he would exercise an un- 
 limited sway over the hearts and minds of his pupils. 
 This continual fussing with and flattering of children, 
 are detrimental both to mind and morals, while a mock 
 sympathy will deepen and settle the convictions of 
 dishonesty in them ; and to run at the beck of every 
 pupil and assist him whenever his whims may demand 
 it, will not only make a slave of the teacher, but will 
 destroy all the self-reliance and manly independence 
 of the pupil. 
 
106 THE AUT OF TEACHING. 
 
 The teacher should avoid all rough and coarse ex- 
 pressions in class, all ambiguous and unchaste allusions, 
 or anything that may be construed into vulgarity, 
 or lead to bad inferences. His intercourse should be 
 that of a gentleman, without forced pretensions, and 
 his refinement should be of the highest and purest 
 order. He should also avoid all bodily postures and 
 gestures that partake either of waggishness or of fop- 
 pishness, such, for instance, as sitting with feet 
 elevated upon the stove or desk. The place for the 
 feet is on or near the floor ; and they are sadly out 
 of place when they stray to other positions. Some 
 teachers again, seem greatly at a loss, unless their 
 hands are busied either with pen, pencil, knife, or 
 possibly toying with a button, while engaged in 
 recitation. While I would not urge that -the teacher 
 put himself in a straight jacket during recitation, 
 yet he should avoid the habits alluded to, as much as 
 possible. He should have control of his body as well 
 as his mind. 
 
 Most of the leading characteristics of the teacher 
 have been a! hided to in different parts of this work. 
 We refer to some of them in this connection, for the 
 purpose of showing their application in recitations. 
 
 1. Order and arravgement. Every one must have 
 noticed that some teachers accomplish a great deal 
 more than others in the same length bf time. They 
 do not seem to be in a hurry; yet everything moves 
 with certainty and precision. No false steps are taken 
 to be retraced, and every stroke tells. Others again 
 are continually in the midst of business and excite- 
 ment. They are pressed beyond measure. They are 
 in furious haste, but do not seem to accomplish much. 
 Now the simple difference is this : the first have order 
 
RECITATION. 107 
 
 and arrangemriit , which the}' carry into the recitations; 
 others lack these qualities. The first dispose of one 
 piece of business before they commence another ; 
 the others have a dozen" things on hand at once, all 
 calling loudlj' for attention ; and the poor, distracted 
 beings fly from one to the other, without the ability to 
 concentrate their forces anywhere. 
 
 2. Energy and Dispatch are characteristics that 
 ought never to be separated. Both classes of teachers 
 above described, possess energ3' ; but the distinctions 
 are sufficiently obvious. Energy, without boisterous- 
 ness, and dispatch without haste or confusion, should 
 mark all the movements of the teacher. 
 
 3. Honesty and Fidelity. The occasions for dishon- 
 esty in recitation, on the part of both teacher and 
 pupil, are very numerous. Some of these have already 
 been noticed. It is sufficient, perhaps, to add that 
 any thing like deception in recitation, has a tendency 
 to lower the standard of morality, and to breed con- 
 tempt in the minds of the pupils and teacher, for each 
 other. If a mistake has been made by either party, 
 duty, honesty, morality and policy demand that it be 
 frankly and candidly corrected, and as publicly as it 
 was committed. If the teacher is so unfortunate as 
 not to understand a thing, the moment he is called 
 upon for information or explanation, it is certainly no 
 dishonor for him to say so. Nothing will be lost, but 
 much, gained in the end by telling the truth. Lying 
 IS monstrous, and always out of order. There never 
 was an occasion for it, and it is safe to say there never 
 will be. Not the remotest good can come of it, be 
 cause the whole universe is opposed to it. The very 
 laws of mind and matter a«!e predicated upon the su- 
 premacy of truth, and they rebel at falsehood. What 
 
108 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 good, even the remotest, then, can come from violating 
 these laws? To pretend, either by word or by infer- 
 ence, to know a thing when ignorant of it, to put off the 
 scholar with the plea, " I did know it, but forgot," or 
 " I have not time now," or "Wait till to-morrow ; " or 
 to attempt to palm oft' an error upon tuem, to screen 
 ourselves from blame ; or to hide our ignorance behind 
 a multitude of words, argues a state of depravity too 
 low to be tolerated in the teacher for a moment. The 
 state of public and of private morals will never improve 
 until teachers and parents learn to tell the truth, and 
 teach their children the same lesson. I would not 
 make a confessional of the school, for I think it has a 
 higher mission to perform ; neither would I make it 
 an instrument, for instilling falsehood and deceit in 
 the minds of the young. 
 
 4. Integrity and Fidelity in the discharge of duty, are 
 other matters of great importance to teachers. It is 
 not an uncommon thing for teachers to make large 
 promises to pupils, either by way of encouragement, or 
 to rid themselves from present obligation, without the 
 remotest prospect of ever meeting them. Children, in 
 their innocence of the faithlessness that obtains in 
 higher (?) circles, expect the fulfillment of these, and 
 their sense of right and wrong is shocked if they are 
 not fulfilled. It is a notorious custom also, for teach- 
 ers to threaten and banter with their pupils. This is 
 not only a shameful impropriety, however thought- 
 lessly it may be committed, but a sin of most disas- 
 trous consequences. It is sufficient for the present to 
 say, that teachers have no right to elevate the hopes 
 or to excite the fears of their pupils, needlessly. This 
 practice, however, soon faUs to do either ; but the im- 
 moral tendencies, which may be easily inferred by the 
 
REOITATION. 109 
 
 reader, are still worse. Nothing, therefore, should be 
 promised that can not be performed, or delayed that 
 can be done now; and no threats at all should be 
 made. Threats and promises, for the most part, are 
 out of place in the school-room. The read^'-pay system 
 works better both ways. 
 
 5. Gentleness and Patience are in constant demand. 
 Gentleness, with reiinement, is a virtue of such capti- 
 vating merits, that it commendsitself to the regard of 
 all. In this sense it is the opposite of violence and vul- 
 garity. What the sunshine and rain-drops lire to flow- 
 ers, gentleness is to the heart of childhood. It winds 
 its certain way into the affections of youth, and even 
 into the corrupt and depraved nature of the dissolute 
 and abandoned. It stirs the. fountains of love in the 
 one and opens the door of repentance to the other. 
 Nothing seems more out of place than harsh and bru- 
 tal treatment of children. But there is no virtue for 
 which there is greater demand in recitation, than pa- 
 tience or forbearance. Some children are weak and 
 timid, others are bold and self-conceited. Some are 
 dull and stupid, and some are willfully and incorrigibly 
 vicious. All these- cases, and a great many more that 
 might-be named, demand different degrees and quali- 
 ties of patience. Indeed, there must be no impatience 
 or petulance. These are always out of place. 
 
 It is related of the celebrated Dr. Adam Clark, that 
 when a child, he was remarkable for nothing but his 
 seeming stupidity. His mother had undertaken to 
 teach him some verses, supposing, as most mothers 
 do, that the only evidence of intellectual promise con- 
 sisted in a liking for books and progress in learning. 
 She had labored long, faithfully, patiently, and seem- 
 ingly to no purpose; when the father of the lad, a 
 
110 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 witnesa of the scene and of the mother's final triumph, 
 having long before lost all patience, exclaimed : " But 
 how could you have patience to tell that blockhead 
 the same thing twenty times before he learned it?" 
 " Because, my dear," was the meek but laconic reply, 
 " if I had stopped with the nineteenth time, I should 
 have lost all my labor." 
 
 This example of patience and perseverance is worthy 
 of imitation. The teacher is too apt to bestow praise 
 where it is least deserved and least needed. He is 
 pleased witli the smart scholars; and it seems natural 
 that he should be. But early development is little 
 evidence of intellectual greatness, as the subsequent 
 history of our smart boys and girls too often proves. 
 
 Grace Greenwood tells a story which is to the point 
 here. She was visiting an esteemed and talented 
 friend of here, who, unfortunately, had fallen a victim 
 in early life, to books and. colleges; but who had es- 
 caped to the country to mend his broken health, and 
 save hisfamily from a like calamity. During a pleas- 
 ant summer afternoon, a little boy some eight years 
 old, the son of our friend, was having a frolicking time 
 with a large Newfoundland dog. Witnessing their 
 playful gambols upon the green sward before the door, 
 Grace, who, it is said, has a natural fondness for chil- 
 dren, remarked toier friend, "Why, what a fine, noble 
 boy you have there ! " " Well," coolly remarked the 
 friend, " he is not pretty, nor very smart ; but he is 
 honest and healthy : he is innocent and good-natured ; 
 he is afteetionate and obedient; he never tells lies, 
 and, thank God, he dont know his letters ! " 
 
 Now this needs no comment ; but it is a severe com- 
 mentary upon the popular opinion that children are 
 smart only when thty give early indications of aptness 
 
KiSCITATlOJS. Ill 
 
 to learn from books, the excess of which is rather an 
 unfavorable omen than otherwise. I should ask no 
 stronger indications of future mental imbecility, than 
 precociousness, or that a child should abandon hia 
 hoop aod ball, his sports and. romps, and betake him- 
 self to books and moping study. The boys and girls 
 that give the least promise, those upon whom we 
 ai-e accustomed to look in school, as the dull ones, or 
 the mischievous ones, very frequently make our best 
 men and women. Let patience then have her perfect 
 work, and do not nip the tender bud by petulance or 
 raisjudgment. "The race is not alwajs to the swift, 
 nor the battle to the strong : " but to the faithful, pa- 
 tient, toiling ones. They need our patience, sj'mpa- 
 thy and love, to smooth the asperities of their way, 
 and to encourage them in their labors. 
 
 Article 3 — methods. 
 
 We have thus far spoken only of the objects and 
 requisites of recitation. We shall now devote a few 
 pagos to the consideration of methods, that least im- 
 portant part, since every one well versed in the 
 philosophy of education will, to a great extent, be the 
 manufacturer of his own particular plans. Never- 
 theless, there are some general plans and principles 
 that obtain every-where. They are matters of uni- 
 versal application. These become the common heritage 
 of all who enter the profession, and are no less 
 practical than they are peculiar. Hence the experience 
 of those who have been successful may be of great 
 service in aiding those who are less experienced, to 
 form their modes, etc., and as such we give these 
 methods, repeating the caution, used in another part 
 of this work, that " no one can be successful if he copy 
 
112 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the entire plans of another." " That a teacher's sue 
 cess must be the product of his own skill." " He must 
 be the architect of his own fortune." " That particular 
 methods are serviceable only so far as they cau be gen- 
 eralized; and are thus suggestive of others." .There 
 are, however, a few general directions which logically 
 precede the special modes; and indeed all that is really 
 worthy of special notice in the methods of recitation, 
 may be discussed under these. They have reference 
 more immediately to the manner in which lessons 
 should be recited, and therefore apply more directly 
 to the pupil than to the teacher. 
 
 Section 1 — Completeness — is a condition in reci- 
 tation that should not be overlooked. "There is a very 
 common failing among teachers of all grades, respect- 
 ing this one thing. It shows itself chiefly under the 
 two following forms : First, in fragmentary answers ; 
 Second, in insufficient answers in, other respects. It 
 is no common thing to hear questions and answers 
 like the following : 
 
 1. "In what part of British America, near several 
 lakes, does the MackenzieRiver rise ? " 
 
 Answer. " Central. " 
 
 2. " What mountains in ISTorth America, extending 
 from the northern part of British America, in a south- 
 ern direction^ through Washington and Oregon Ter- 
 ritories, in the Iluited States, separating IS^cbraska and 
 Kansas Territories from Utah, and thence branching 
 off in several divisions in New Mexico ; and termi- 
 nating finally in what are called the Sierra Madre, 
 near the southwestern boundary of the United States?" 
 
 Answer. " Rocky." 
 
 3. " What town in southeastern Virginia, celebrated 
 
RECITATION. 113 
 
 tor a remarkable battle, fought there in 1781, by tJie 
 Americans and French on the one side, under the 
 command of General Washington; and the British, 
 under the command of Lord Cornwallis, in which the 
 latter was defeated and captured, surrendering the 
 whole force under his command, to the Americans?" 
 Answer. " Yorktown. " 
 
 4. " Suppose you wish to calculate the interest on a 
 note for three years, six months, and twenty-seven 
 days : after you have found the interest on one dollar, 
 af the given rate per cent, and for the given time ; 
 what do you do with this,— divide or multiply it by the 
 principal ? " 
 
 Answer. "Multiply." And the same course is 
 pursued in other branches. 
 
 In an example like the following, the evil raaj' be 
 seen in a slightly diiferent light. 
 
 5. "Where does the Mississippi Eiver empty?" 
 The pupil having perhaps associated the words " Miss- 
 issippi," "empty"' and "Gulf of Mexico" together, 
 the latter would be the answer. But on reversing 
 or changing the questions thus : " What flows into the 
 Gnlf of Mexico?" or " What took place at York- 
 town?" "What mountains in North America?" it 
 has been found, in many instances, that no intelligent 
 account could be given. 
 
 Now we do not claim that all of these are the exact 
 words copied from the text-bo*)ks upon these sciences ; 
 yet they are but fair samples of them, especially of 
 sonic that have been manufactured or distorted by the 
 teachers themselves, in order to render them more 
 easily answered : and the answers are just what 
 children would ordinarily give, the fault being more 
 with the questions than the answers; since they cir- 
 10 
 
114 THE ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 cumseribe them to one or two words. All the pupil 
 really has to do, in such cases, is to commit to memory 
 a word or two, usually under each question, and to be 
 careful not to get the answers confounded, one with 
 another. The evil exists in all stages of development, 
 from the very worst, on till it can scarcely be per- 
 ceived. 
 
 'Sow any one can see the evil tendencies of this 
 practice. It is destructive of all progress, since it re- 
 moves, in a great measure, all obligation from the 
 pupil, to say nothing about the bad habits it fosters. 
 Instead, therefore, of the questions containing so much 
 of the information, which belongs properly to the an- 
 swer, it should only call up distinctly the points upon 
 which answer is demanded, leaving the pupils to re- 
 ply to them. And instead of these mere fragmentary 
 answers, or scarcely any answer at all, each one, as a 
 general thing, should be a complete sentence ; and in 
 most instances, should include the question itself, or 
 so much of it, as shall be necessary to make an entire 
 sentence. Thus in the first instance : " Where is the 
 Mackenzie river ? " Answer. " The Mackenzie river 
 rises in the central part of British America (namihg 
 the lakes etc.), flows in a north-western direction, and 
 empties its waters into the ISTorthern Ocean '" (giving 
 the length and tributaries, etc., if desirable). 
 
 Take a case in arithmetic. Thus: "How do you 
 multiply a fraction by a whole number." Answer. 
 " To multiply a fraction by a whole number, we either 
 multiply the numerator by the whole number, and 
 under this product write the denominator, or, when 
 it can be done without a remainder, we divide the 
 denominator by the whole number, and write the 
 quotient under the numerator, and reduce, if neces- 
 
RECITATION. 115 
 
 sary, " etc. The same course should be pursued with 
 all rules and definitions, except, perhaps, in rapid re- 
 views, or when the pupil is known to be familial 
 with them. The clearness, distinctness and complete- 
 ness of utterance, adds very materially to the clearness 
 and comprehensiveness of the understanding. 
 
 IsTow compare the answers given in the first instances 
 with those in the last, and tell me which conveys the 
 most. intelligence, which the most discipline, and which 
 will make the readiest and most exact scholars. Which 
 of the two methods is the easier for the teacher, — the 
 long questions (especially when they have to be read 
 from a book, during the time in which the teacher's 
 eye must be upon the class, to prevent them from a 
 like calamity), or the short questions and long answers, 
 throwing the burden of labor on the pupil where it is 
 needed ? Which contains the greater force, — a half 
 sentence, or a whole sentence ? Which the most 
 .beauty ? Which will cultivate the mind to the great- 
 er extent, — a part of the truth, or the whole truth ? 
 Which would be of the greater demand in a Court 
 of Justice? The one is just as much more forcible 
 th'an the other, for the purposes for which it is in- 
 tended, as a whole charge of powder is than a half or 
 a hundredth part. Every answer therefore, should be 
 an entirety, and should have some immediate connec- 
 tion with the question. 
 
 The case of insufficient answer is one not so marked 
 in its eftects. It differs from the one just described, 
 in^that it attempts completeness as to extent, but 
 omits some important points. It is usually the result 
 of weakness, want of culture, or carelessness. It 
 applies, of course, as well to the incompleteness of 
 articulation and vocalization, as to the poverty of 
 
116 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 language or expression. About the only remedy for 
 this difficulty is practice. If a child fail to give a 
 complete answer iu relation: to this feature of it, it 
 should be repeated even to the twentieth time, or 
 until it is correct. Let it not be passed over by the 
 teacher, with this excuse : " 0, he knows, I guess; 
 only he can't tell it^" " His power to express himself" 
 is so poor, that I do not require much of him:" 
 while, in fact, this is the very reason why he is en- 
 titled to extra attention. This is one of the objects 
 of the recitation, viz., to cultivate the povi^er of ex- 
 pression. If the child were perfect, so far as further 
 improvement is concerned, he need not recite ; and 
 the same principle holds good with any imaginable 
 degree of perfection : the nearer perfect, the less need 
 of recitation ; and the further from it, the "more, so 
 far as that perfection which the recitation can impart, 
 is concerned. Hence the child that halts the most, 
 and makes the poorest recitation, should recite the 
 most, however agreeable it may be to listen to the 
 prompt ones recite. The recitation should therefore, 
 be distributed among the pupils, according to the age, 
 advancement and capacity. 
 
 It will be found that many scholars require frequent 
 repetition before they can overcome their difficulties. 
 It will not usually remedy a deficiency to tell the child 
 his answer is insufficient, or even to correct his errors 
 for him ; he must mend his own errors if he would pro- 
 fifby his labor. We can not correct bad habits by 
 merely exposing them; neither can we establish good 
 ones by mere precept. We need the actual practice. It 
 will not make a boy a good accountant, merely to show 
 him the mistakes of others; nor yet will it to show 
 him the beauty, order, and arrangement of the day- 
 
EECITATION. 117 
 
 book, journal and ledger. He must have the actual 
 practice. To drive out a bad habit, we must establish 
 a good one in its stead ; and to establish a habit of 
 any kind requires practice and repetition. Hence, if a 
 mistake is made b}' the pupil, it is not enough that 
 the teacher say to him, " No ; not that way : thus ; " 
 and then pass on ; but the error should be corrected 
 by the scholar himself, and the correction repeated, and 
 re-repeated,- in -class and out of class, in concert and 
 alone, until it is thoroughly established ; or, the proba- 
 bilities are, the very next time the thing is used, the 
 same error will be committed. 
 
 I recollect that I once listened to a recitation in elo- 
 cution, by a class in one of our best colleges, when 
 something like the following took place : The word 
 "persist," I think, occurred three times in the same few 
 paragraphs. The student read to the first, and pro- 
 nounced it " perzist." " No," said the teacher, " that 
 is pronounced ' persist.' " The pupil read on until it 
 occurred again, when he pronounced it as before. 
 " Persist," remarked the teacher. " Persist," responded 
 the scholar, and read on, until he came to it the third 
 time, when it again became "perzist," which was again 
 corrected by the teacher. I then called upon the 
 young man to read the same paragraph again ; when 
 all three of the ' perzists" came on in their regular order. 
 I then called his attention to it, and requested him to 
 pronounce it with me three times. He did so. I re- 
 peated that process with him several times, after which 
 I requested the whole class (some forty in number) to 
 pronounce it in concert, for a successive number of 
 times. I then turned to the young man, and asked 
 him to pronounce it, and it was " persist " every time 
 after that. The word beneath (subvocalT " th ") was 
 
118 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 corrected in a similar manner. The same thing is 
 true of sentences, rules, definitions, and answers to 
 questions generally. If they are not complete, they 
 should not be passed over until they are. It would 
 not be well to tax the time of the recitation to a very 
 great extent, in this repeating process ; or this may 
 ndace some to defer learning the lesson until they 
 come in class. But this may easily be prevented by 
 care. 
 
 The same principle holds good with problems, ques- 
 tions, examples, and all slate and board exercises. 
 They never should be left or called right until they 
 are complete in all their parts. Not a decimal point 
 or the most apparently insignificant sign or mark 
 should be understood ; for, in business transactions, it 
 would not be" considered satisfactory in a note of $1300, 
 to say that the decimal point is understood between 
 the digits and ciphers. The difference, however, be- 
 tween $1300 and $13.00, is not greater than the difler- 
 ence between right and wrong, morally speaking, in 
 any other respect. Let the most scrupulous care be 
 exercised, therefore, in order to secure completeness, at 
 least in those two particulars named; for " Whatever 
 is worth doing at all is worth doing well." 
 
 Section 2 — Dbfinitbness and Exactness are quali- 
 ties that should be cultivated. "We have spoken 
 already upon some topics nearly allied to these, while 
 discussing the objects and requisites of recitation. 
 Their application to methods, however, is peculiar. 
 Definitcness and exactness, as used here, differ from 
 completeness in its two phases alluded to, in that while 
 the latter remedies the two evils, viz., fragmentary and 
 insufficient answers, and relates to fullness and integrity 
 
KBCITATION. 119 
 
 of answer, or to quantity ; definitencss and exactness re- 
 fer to precision and perspicuity in the use of language, 
 or to quality rather than quantity. 
 
 It is not claimed that the terms here used have the 
 exact logical or metaphysical meaning in themselves, 
 that we have attached to thera : but it will be remem 
 bered they are used simply in a technical sense, and 
 for the purpose, chiefly, of distinguishing and describ- 
 ing practices, etc., that are nearly similar. Teachers 
 are not sufliciently careful to secure plain and precise 
 answers ; and the pupils come to think, by and by, 
 that almost any answer will do ; often depending upon 
 the fortune of the occasion for manufacturing one, or 
 resorting to the guessing process, by which they are 
 enabled to slide* along somehow. Their knowledge 
 exists in a kind of chaotic state. It lacks system and 
 arrangement. ]5fow it is the business of education to 
 regulate this mass of vagrant matter, to point it, and 
 energize it, to make of the seemingly dead carcass 
 a living soul. 
 
 One particular form of indefiniteness will be pointed 
 out, from which others may he inferred. It exhibits 
 itself at the blackboard, in some instances, where 
 pupils have not had the advantages of early training in 
 the use of marks and figures, such as described in a 
 former chapter. They have been accustomed, it may 
 be, to express themselves, both at the board and in 
 other recitations, in so vague and indefinite a manner, 
 as to pay little or no attention to the size, form, position 
 and arrangement of the figures and lines; and hence 
 it is not an uncommon thing to see pictures like the 
 following, upon the board during recitation. 
 
120 
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 An 
 
 TTS 
 
 
 
 Perhaps some teachers will recognize the above pict- 
 ure as a familiar acquaintance ; for it is but a fair 
 transcript of what may be seen upon blackboards in 
 all parts of the country; and it is a fair inference to 
 suppose that it presents a very just view of the state 
 of the mental discipline of the children who formed it. 
 Now how long will it require a child to Jose himself 
 and become discouraged in working an example after 
 this fashion? I presume it would not be too much to 
 say that nine-tenths of the mistakes and failures which 
 occur at the board, find their origin, either immedi- 
 ately or remotely, in some such indefiniteness as the 
 foregoing exhibits. How long a time will it require 
 to acquire clear and definite ideas upon grammar and 
 the use of language ; upon the geography of his coun- 
 try ; or, in a word, to acquire a fund of knowledge 
 
RECITATION. 121 
 
 tliiit will be permanently serviceable to him, if he is 
 thus indefinite in all his recitations? It is true, this 
 general " mixing up " and vagueness of expression 
 might, in time, wear itself down to something like an 
 understandable shape; but it is the object of educa- 
 tion, and especially of recitation, to save this time, and 
 to correct and refine, to trim and prune this misshapen 
 mass, just as specifically as it is the business of the 
 gardener to trim and prune, to bend and straiten, the 
 crooked, gnarled and unsightly branches of the tree. 
 Instead, therefore, of the suspicious-looking charac- 
 ters in the foregoing examples, and the glaring want 
 of order and precision in the arrangement of them, the 
 following will in all respects be preferable. 
 
 J 
 
 r:r 
 
 
 Now the child will take a thousand times as much 
 interest and pleasure in these examples, because they 
 are more beautiful and more orderly. 
 
 Section 3 — Comprehensiveness. — Every recitation, 
 definition, rule and application should be rendered as 
 comprehensive as possible, both with reference to a 
 clear and explicit understanding of the matter, and in 
 making it as specific as possible. This part of teach- 
 ing is too much neglected. Teachers are too easily 
 satisfied with the mere repetition of words, or with the 
 bare recitation, without giving it a sensible or life-like 
 U 
 
122 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 turn, without making it comprehend the busii ess 
 transactions or apply to the life-duties and therali- 
 ties to which the lessons frequently refer. Hence it 
 is not difficult to find those among pupils (I will not 
 say among teachers) who^ though they have "ciphered 
 through the book," yet do not possess a dozen clear 
 and well-defined ideas upon aritlimetic : or those who, 
 though they have "said all the grammar in the book," 
 yet are incapable of writing or speaking without 
 making the most ridiculous blunders. 
 
 Again: there are those who, though they may be 
 able to answer all the questions printed in their- geog- 
 raphies, are nevertheless profoundly ignorant of dis- 
 tance and direction in general, or the relative position 
 of places on the globe. When, for the sake of test- 
 ing their comprehension of local geography, I have 
 requested them to point toward the differeut places 
 and things about which they were reciting, such, for 
 instance, as Spain, Iceland or California; the Andes, 
 Alps or Alleghany mountains; to Constantinople, 
 Cincinnati or St. Petersburg; or to places, lakes and 
 rivers in the more immediate vicinity; almost all im- 
 aginable directions have been given ; some ur-, some 
 down, some to the right and some to the left, repre- 
 senting nearly all the points of the compass for one 
 single place. In a very few instances, indeed, has 
 there been any thing like correctness or uniformity ; 
 showing a most lamentable deficiency in comprehen- 
 sion. Their ideas of geography had not been local- 
 ized. They had learned the answers to the questions, 
 which in itself, is all well enough, but they had not 
 got beyond that. Their ideas were of books and maps 
 and not oi' the earth ; and when they thought of these 
 places (or their names rather) they at once called to 
 
RECITATION. 123 
 
 mind the liook, and their position and appearance 
 there. One boy, and one of my own teaching too, 
 contended stoutly with me, that the waters of the St. 
 Lawrence ran toward the south-west, since, as he 
 aflBrmed, the water could not run up hill — as he sup- 
 posed from the position of the map upon the Avail, 
 from which he bad obtained much of his geographical 
 knowledge, would be the case, if they ran toward the 
 north-east. Others again have told me that Indiana 
 is red; Ohio, yellow; Kentucky, green; and Pennsyl- 
 vania, blue ; that the rivers and lines representing 
 boundary are black, since these things are so repre- 
 sented upon the map. Sometimes, on my asking these 
 simple questions on local geography, there would be a 
 vacant stare, or a half-suppressed laugh, as much as 
 to say, " Why, that question is not in the lesson or 
 book." 
 
 Teachers, therefore, can not be too careful to local- 
 ize, or transfer the ideas from the book to the things 
 intended. In geography, for instance, in speaking of 
 mountains, instead of confining the mind solely to the 
 dark or light spots upon the map, the pupils should 
 be carried in imagination to the base, or plain below. 
 They then should cast their eyes up along the sides 
 to the hight of two or three very tall trees (if the 
 children live in the country), or church steeples (if 
 they live in cities), to the jutting rocks or cliffs that 
 hang ready to tumble from the side : then to a bright 
 cascade glittering in the sunshine a half mile higher 
 up the side; then to the forests of evergreens that 
 skirt the sides beyond, and last of all to the towering 
 peak that lifts its head above all these, and against 
 which the clouds strike and crumble to pieces as they 
 pass along; or if the subject is a river, instead of con- 
 
124 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 fining their minds to the dark lines upon the map, ex- 
 clusively, let them see the banks, low and marshy, 
 beautiful and fertile, or high and rocky, and the farms 
 and foliage in the distance; if a state or country, in- 
 stead of the various and variegated colors upon che 
 map, they should behold the hills and valleys, the 
 plains and forests, farms, grainfields and meadows, 
 houses and barns, roads, cities and villages, and every 
 thjng, in fact, that belongs to local geography. A 
 similar course may be pursued with the other sciences. 
 
 Section 4 — Independence. — Again; the child should 
 be taught to manifest a due degree of in dependence' in 
 recitation. There are, however, two extremes here, 
 and chiefly attributable to the practice of the teacher. 
 "We shall endeavor to guard him against both. The 
 one is a blind adherence to books and customs, and a 
 cowardly or indolent dependence, which forbids every 
 attempt to think for one's self: the other is an ego- 
 tistic assurance, or self-conceited effrontery that sets 
 aside all books and definitions. It is a disposition and 
 a habit some teachers fall into, of finding fault with 
 authors, and every body else whose opinions do not 
 agree with their own. They seem to think it a mark 
 of wisdom to quarrel with definitions and rules. They 
 build up their reputation with the bones of their 
 demolished (?) adversaries ; and often build upon their 
 follies and weaknesses. They live by plunder. They 
 are wiseacres. They are continually making dis- 
 coveries, that others have made long before them, but 
 which their better judgment led them to see were no 
 discoveries. They can see but one side of an argu- 
 ment, and that is their side, and unfortunately it is too 
 frequently the wrong side. Such, for example, are 
 
RECITATION. 125 
 
 those who must live by excitement, always inventing 
 some new thing, and straining to make the world 
 believe that everything has been going wrong until 
 they happened to be born. They do not spend their 
 time and energies so much in teaching the sciences, 
 as in finding fault with them, and hence weaken the 
 confidence of the scholar that needs strengthening; 
 unbend the energies that need stimulating ; and un- 
 settle and distract the purposes and knowledge that 
 may have been half formed. 
 
 The other extreme is scarcely less detrimental to 
 true progress, but not so dangerous. The one is 
 absolute destruction, the other is simply a barrier. 
 While the first cuts loose from all mooring, carries no 
 anchor and ignores all faith, save what its own dog- 
 matism invents ; the other remains bound fast to the 
 ancient customs, and dares not believe and practice 
 anything that does not conform to the creed. The 
 one is rabid radicalism ; the other is rank conservatism. 
 The one is meteoric or gaseous; the other is fossilifer- 
 ous. Both are destructive to healthy growth of mind. 
 
 The eftects of either of these extremes upon the 
 pupil can easily be imagined. They either become 
 pedantic, self-conceited and opinionated, or obsequious, 
 stupid and parasitical. But there is a happy mean 
 between the two extremes, and that the teacher should 
 endeavor to follow. While I would not recommend 
 a blind subserviency to the old usages, and to texts 
 and definitions as laid down bj' authors ; yet I would 
 say, agree with authors just as far as possible, lest your 
 distrust and skepticism lead those who have less 
 judgment, too far from a settled belief; and lest you 
 distract the interest and attention so necessary to 
 progress. 
 
126 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 There is still another feature of independence worthy, 
 of consideration in this connection. It aims to correct 
 a prevailing practice, among teachers, which, for evil 
 results has scarcely a parallel. We speak of the 
 practice of rendering undue assistance, or of prompt- 
 ing the scholar during recitation. This evil is so 
 general and has so many slightly diflereut phases, that 
 it will be almost impossible to guard against all of 
 them in the short space allotted here. 
 
 The case of pupils' prompting each other, in recita- 
 tion, prevails in many schools to a very great extent. 
 And what renders it still worse, it is winked at by 
 many teachers, or at least no verj' vigorous attempts 
 are made to break it up. Now I can hardly conceive 
 of a greater insult, except open violence itself, a pupil • 
 could oft'er a teacher or fellow pupil than if, when a 
 question is asked, he should clandestinely commu- 
 nicate the answer to the pupil about to recite. To 
 say nothing about its criminality, as a species of 
 falsehood, the effects upon the progress of the pupil 
 upon which it is practiced, is most ruinous. I have 
 known several instances where pupils have been dis- 
 graced by this vice, to such an extent that they had 
 lost all confidence in themselves, and they were con- 
 tent seemingly to remain in this state of abject ser- 
 vility. I have known others again, who had practiced 
 "telling in class" so long, that it seemed almost an 
 impossibility to break them of it. I know of no 
 remedies other than those used to prevent other crimes 
 of like magnitude. 
 
 But the worst form of this vice is exhibited, when 
 the teacher himself descends to it. It then becomes 
 as it were, a public pest, and it is as if all. barriers 
 to laziness and deception had been thrown down. It 
 
RECITATION. 
 
 127 
 
 is usually practiced by the use of what are called 
 leading qvestions, which may be classified in the follow- 
 ing manner. 1. By asking questions in such a form 
 as only tu require the assent or dissent of the pupil. 
 2. By arranging the questions in such a manner as to 
 make them embrace all the answer except the last few 
 words, that maybe readily inferred from the preced- 
 ing. 3. By suggesting the answer either by a sig- 
 nificant word, tone of voice, look or gesture. 4. By 
 open assistance, or preventing the pupil by untimely 
 assistance. All these forms have a tendency to weak- 
 en or destroy independence in thought and study, as 
 well as in recitation. They can be best illustrated by 
 giving examples in each. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that a class in arithmetic is 
 called upon to recite, when the following dialogue 
 takes place — 
 
 Teacher. You can not add fractions that have not 
 a common denominator, can you ? 
 
 Pupil. No, sir. 
 
 T. Well, when, you wish to add fractions of this 
 kind, they must be reduced to a common denominator, 
 must they not ? 
 
 P. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Very well ! ISow to reduce fractions to a com- 
 mon denominator, you must multiply all the denom- 
 inators together for a new denominator, must you not? 
 
 P. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Well then ; to find the several numerators, 
 don't you have to multiply each one by the product 
 of all the denominators, except its own? 
 
 P. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Then, to add, you must find the sum of these, 
 must you not? 
 
128 THE ART OB TEACHINU. 
 
 P. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Arid then you place the common denominator 
 under this sum, do you not ? 
 
 P. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Then, if the resulting fraction is an improper 
 fraction, it may be reduced to a whole or mixed 
 number, may It not? 
 
 F. Yes, sir. 
 
 T. Very well! (flatteringly), and all parties seem 
 well satisfied with their progress — the teacher in ex- 
 hibiting Ms knowledge, and the pupil in saying Yes, 
 sir : for any one can see that the teacher did what 
 reciting was done, only asking the assent or dissent 
 of the pupil, as he advanced, which, of course, was 
 readily granted. 
 
 2. The second variety of prompting, or that in 
 which the questions are so arranged, as to embrace all 
 the answer, except the last few words which are sug- 
 gested by the preceding, or "answers made easy," 
 may be described in the following maTiner. Take an 
 example of a recitation in Grammar. 
 
 Teacher. The part of English Grammar which treats 
 of the modification, inflection, composition and classi- 
 fication of words, is called what ? 
 
 Pupil. Etymology. 
 
 T. That part which treats of the agreement and 
 government of words, and their arrangement in sen- 
 tences, is called what? 
 
 P. Syntax. 
 
 T. When words denote objects — or the names of 
 all persons, places or things, they are called what? 
 
 P. Nouns. 
 
 T. N"ouns are classified into two general divisions 
 
RECITATION. 129 
 
 or classes, the one including all general or common 
 names, the other all particular or proper names : now, 
 what are these called ? 
 
 P. Common and proper. 
 
 T. Very well :• now that property of the noun, 
 which is used to distinguish the sexes, is called what? 
 
 P. Gender. 
 
 T. When the word denotes a male, what gender 
 is it? 
 
 P. Masculine. (So of all the genders.) 
 
 T. That property of nouns and pronouns, used to 
 distinguish the person speaking, from the person or 
 thing spoken to or spoken of, is called what ? 
 
 P. Person. 
 
 7'. There are three persons used in English Gram 
 mar; the first denotes the person or thing speaking; 
 the second, the person or thing spoken to ; the third, 
 the person or thing spoken of: now, what are they 
 called ? 
 
 P. First, second and third (so of the definitions of 
 the several persons). 
 
 T. That property of the noun and pronoun, used to 
 show their relations to other words in a sentence, is 
 called what ? 
 
 P. Case. 
 
 T. When the noun or pronoun is used as the sub- 
 ject of a proposition, or as the agent, actor or doer of 
 a thing, in what case is il V 
 
 P. JSTominative case. (So of all the cases, etc.) 
 
 The faults alluded to above, are much aggravated 
 if the questions are printed in the text book. The 
 pupils may in this case be hunting up the answers 
 while the teacher is reading the questions. This they 
 have a fair opportunity to do, since the answers are 
 
130 
 
 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 SO much shorter than the questions. This mode, how- 
 ever, is less objectionable than the lirst, in one or two 
 respects, since it does graciously grant the pupil the 
 privilege of slight variations. He is not obliged to 
 say, " Yes, sir,'" all the time; but may make his selec- 
 tions, and guesses from at least a dozen words. But 
 it is more gen,eral in its use ; and hence, in the main 
 more baneful than the other. The first is so glaring 
 in its absurdness, that it would seem, no one would 
 practice it. Yet it is not difficult to find cases in our 
 schools precisely parallel; and then it has almost all 
 possible shades and degrees of inconsistency ranging 
 from this extreme, until we scarcely find a trace of it, 
 or merging into some other practice equally reprehen- 
 sible. We find the other in some of its forms and 
 modifications, in nearly all the schools. But it will 
 be seen at once, that it virtually deprives the pupil of 
 the benefits of the recitation. lie acquires none of 
 that discipline in thought and style which is contem- 
 plated in the objects of study and recitation. He is 
 put upon the stand as a mere piece of furniture. His 
 principal business is to give-mechanical responses. In 
 this respect he resembles the piano at his side. He is 
 for the benefit of the player, or for the teacher to 
 exhibit his skill upon, in asking and answering ques- 
 tions. It is just so much answer for so much ques- 
 tion ; and when the teacher ceases playing his ques- 
 tions upon him, he is as quiet, so far as recitation is 
 concerned, as the dumb piano. The teacher himself 
 is on exhibition, in such recitations as these, and he 
 only uses his scholars as instruments to aid him in 
 making a display : and for all practical purposes, they 
 might almost as well be so many posts or pegs. 
 
 3. The third case, or that in which the answer is 
 
RECITATK IN. 131 
 
 suggested by peculiar arrangement, significant word, 
 tone of voice, look or gesture, is one of most frequent 
 occurrence; and like the others, it may enter every 
 grade of recitation. It is more difficult of description, 
 however, since the tones of the voice, gesticulation 
 and manner can not be represented to advantage, 
 upon paper. Suppose, however, we have a recitation 
 ill geography. 
 
 Teacher. Is the earth a flat plain, or is it round 
 like a ball ? 
 
 Pupil. It is round. 
 
 T. Is there more land or water on the surface ? 
 
 P. Water. 
 
 T. Is there more land south or north of the equa- 
 tor? 
 
 P. North. 
 
 T. Are the Balkan mountains in Australia or 
 Turkey ? 
 
 P. In Turkey. 
 
 T. Is the surface hilly or level in New England ? 
 
 P. Hilly. 
 
 T. Does the Rio Grande, flow into the Pacific Ocean 
 or the Gulf of Mexico? 
 
 P. Into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 T. Is the temperature in the frigid zones higher 
 or lower than it is in the torrid? 
 
 P. Lower. 
 
 T. Where is the Colorado river, in Maine or 
 Mexico ? 
 
 P. In Mexico. (?) 
 
 Or suppose the lesson is in arithmetic. 
 
 T. To multiply a ratio, must you multiply the 
 antecedent or consequent ? 
 
 P. The consequent. 
 
132 THB ART OF TEACHING. ' * 
 
 T. If in a proportion, the answer ought to be 
 greater than the third term, do you place the greater 
 of the two remaining terms in the iirst or second 
 place? 
 
 P. In the second place, 
 
 T. To reduce fractions to their lowest terms, do 
 yoa multiply or divide thqse terms ? 
 
 P. Divide them. Etc. 
 
 It will be seen that this mode is subject to all the 
 objections of the second one, with an additional one, 
 viz. : that of offering a choice between two answers, 
 and that choice always determined either by the posi- 
 tion of some important word, or the tone of voice in 
 which it is pronounced. But its worst form consists 
 in look or gesture. 
 
 Suppose a class to be reciting, and a question like 
 the following is asked : 
 
 Teacher. Where does the Mississippi river rise, 
 which way does it run, aud into what does it tiow? 
 
 Jfupil. "It rises in the northern part of the United 
 States, and " — (hesitates). T. " In what lake com- 
 mencing with ? " (pointing to his eye). P. " In lake 
 Itaska, and runs "r— (hesitates and looks at 'he teacher, 
 who makes a mistake and points the wrong way) — 
 "north." T. "How?" (correcting himself). P. 
 ''South:' T. "Well, into what does it flow?" P. 
 "And flows into" — (hesitates) — T. "Into what 
 gulf? " P. " Into the Gulf of St.— (hesitates and looks 
 at the teacher, who shakes his head) "California!" 
 T. "Where?" P. "Mexico?" T. "Yes! very 
 well ! " And other questions are disposed of in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Take a lesson in parsing. Example : " Careless 
 girls soil their books." 
 
RKCITATION. 133 
 
 Pu-pil. " Careless is a verb." T. " No." (Pupil 
 looks desponding, evidently waiting to be told). 
 
 T. "Wbat part of speecb is it that expressed 
 quality?" P. '' Oh, the adverb!" 7". « JSTo, that mo- 
 difies the verb," etc. P. "Well then (inquiringly), an 
 adjective ? " T. " That is it ! " (flatteringly): " Now 
 go on ; " and he does go on in the same halting, half- 
 guessing, half indifferent manner to the close of the 
 sentence, when he knows but little more than he did 
 before he commenced. 
 
 The practice that pupils sometimes fall into of 
 closing each answer with the rising slide, or as if 
 they asked the teacher if it were not so, is one falling 
 under this head, and should be carefully guarded. 
 This might be called the guessing process, since the 
 scholar by a shrewd bantering way manages to guess 
 his way along, and to call the answer out of the 
 teacher. For instance, a child commences a definition, 
 rule or explanation, and progresses until he arrives at 
 a point where he is not quite certain. He hesitates, 
 and glances at the teacher, who is also watching and 
 ready to respond. He proceeds cautiously, and per- 
 haps makes about a half mistake, when a shake of the 
 head, a knowing, significant look or wink from the 
 teacher, arrests him, and he quickly changes and 
 glides oft' in an opposite direction ; or after hesi- 
 tating and telegraphing the teacher, to know whether 
 he is right or wrong, upon receiving an affirmative 
 reply, by nod, wink or any other sign, he moves or, 
 assured that all is safe. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that the class is spelling 
 orally. The teacher pronounces the word "indepen- 
 dent." The pupil spells " in-de-pend-a " (The 
 
 teacher looks the knowing look), "ent"is quickly 
 
134 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 pronouiif^ed by the pupil. Teacher. "Ceremonial." 
 Pupil. "Se"— T. "How?" "Cer-i"— T. "Cere- 
 monial, not Cerimonial " (accenting and rendering long 
 the second syllable). P. " Cer-e-mo-n " — (hesitates 
 and looks inquiringly at the teacher), " e " — (slight 
 shake of the teacher's head), "i" (an approving look 
 and nod), " Ceremoni-el." T. " How?" P. «al,— Cere- 
 monial." T. " That's right ; " and another word is 
 guessed tlirough in a similar manner. ISow who 
 spelled these words, the scholar or the teacher ? The 
 teacher, of course ; and he might, with a great deal 
 more propriety, have.told the pupil in plain, unequivocal 
 terms : and the latter might,^with a great deal more 
 honesty, have asked the teacher in a plain, frank man- 
 ner, for the answer, than for both of them to deceive 
 each other. 
 
 4. There is still another bad practice that deserves 
 notice here. It is that of telling the pupil outright as 
 soon as he hesitates, or before he has time to answer 
 This practice prevails to the greatest extent in read- 
 ing, though it extends to all other branches. It will 
 be readily recognized in the first by a reference to a 
 common practice with young beginners. Some teach- 
 ers are in the habit, as soon as a child hesitates upon 
 a word or sentence, to pronoahce it for him at once. 
 I have seen whole recitations conducted in that way, 
 the teacher pronouncing at least three-fourths of the 
 words, and the child drawling them out after him ; 
 after which both would seem satisfied, the child that 
 he had said his lesson, and the teacher that he bad 
 said it to him. But the practice is carried into other 
 branches. We shall give but one illustration. 
 
 I remember listening once to a recitation from a 
 class (or teacher rather), in what was called a High 
 
RECITATION. 135 
 
 School. The lesson was in Physiology, and on those 
 most interesting topics, "Digestion and Circulation." 
 The teacher commenced by asking the questions from 
 the book ; and having a good verbal memory, a ready 
 tongue and more self-conceit than judgment, ho, in 
 almost every instance, before the pupil bad time to 
 respond, would commence telling him the answer, 
 sometimes graciously condescending to ask the pupil 
 at the close if it was not so. And though the lesson 
 lasted over half an hour, I am sure there was not ii 
 half-dozen questions answered by the pupils without 
 au interruption from the teacher; and at least five 
 sixths of them were answered by him alone. A few 
 of the pupils, judging from appearance, had prepared 
 the lesson with the evident intention of having the 
 pleasure of reciting it. To them his officiousness 
 seemed annoying ; for, when the question was asked, 
 and they wore about to respond, and when the 
 teacher, either fearing lest some one might suspect 
 his knowledge, or wishing to astonish some one with 
 it, would strike in and crowd them oft', there were 
 evident manifestations of disappointment. Others, 
 less sensitive, seemed to take it patiently, probably 
 from greater respect .for the wisdom and learning of 
 the teacher, or possibly because it was a very easy 
 vvay of reciting the lesson. Now, this case is by uo 
 means an exception ; others could have been selected 
 equally faulty. 
 
 Again : the habitthat some pupils have of waiting in , 
 recitation until they receive "a start" from the teacher, 
 falls properly under this head, as the practice is most 
 probably induced by the failings last alluded to. A dis- 
 tinguished educator in Ohio, in speaking of this class 
 of pupils, compares them to an old rickety pump, into 
 
136 THE ART OP TEACIUNQ. 
 
 which a few pailfuls of water must be poured before 
 any can be pumped out, which, vviien obtained, is but 
 a sickly stream ; and as soon as the pumping ceases, 
 the connection is broken, and all eftbrts to obtain more 
 are fruitless, until more water is introduced from 
 above. The comparison is a good one, since the abil- 
 ity of these pupils to recite seems to depend almost 
 entirely upon the extraneous eiForts of the teacher. 
 
 Now, all these forms of prompting exist, and per- 
 haps many more slightly ditferent. Their deleterious 
 consequences may be readily seen. Some of them 
 pander to the laziness of the pupils, some to their 
 pride. Some cultivate deceit and falsehood, some 
 superficial habits. Some, again, are absolutely annoy- 
 ing and even insulting, while the whole brood are 
 destructive of manly independence and pi'ogress. The 
 remedy for all these forms of evil is short and simple, 
 and perhaps has been anticipated already. 
 
 1. For the first, in asking questions, avoid, so far as 
 possible, all that admit of the answers, Yes or No. Let 
 them be put in such a shape that the pupil shall have 
 the entire benefit of the answer. This is his by right ; 
 and he just as certainly languishes without it, as the 
 tender plants do without the showers. Take the first 
 example, for instance, under the first case. Instead of 
 the labored and childish repetition there exhibited, 
 the question should stand simply thus : " How do you 
 add fractions that have not a common denominator ? " 
 And the answer should follow without a single word 
 from the teacher, until the pupil has done with it; 
 then, if it become necessary, let explanations and illus- 
 trations follow. For beginners, or those less familiar 
 with the subject, it might be staked off something 
 after this manner: 
 
RECITATION. 137 
 
 First Step. The reduction or changiiig of the terms. 
 This consists of two operations : 1. Those relating to 
 the denominator; 2. Those relating to the numerator. 
 
 Second Step. The addition of the numerators. 
 
 Third Step. The disposition of the denominator. 
 
 Fourth Step. The reduction of the fraction, should 
 it be necessary. 
 
 2. As to the second case of prompting: in asking 
 questions, let them be as brief and pointed as possible, 
 neither offering nor denying a choice of words, and 
 conveying no allusion whatever to the answer. Take 
 the example given under the second variety of prompt- 
 ing. Instead of the strained effort to make the an- 
 swers as short and easy as possible, let it stand simply 
 thus : " What is Etymology ? " " What is Syntax ? " 
 " What are nouns ? " "Name the different classes, and 
 define them." "ITame the properties of nouns, and 
 define them," etc. 
 
 3. As to the third case: after the question is asked 
 so as not to allow the child to choose between two 
 things, let the teacher mind his own business until the 
 child has answered, or at least made an effort to an- 
 swer it — i. e., let him not, by word, tone of voice, look 
 or gesture, convey any knowledge to the pupil as to 
 whether he is right or wrong until he has either fin- 
 ished the entire answer or failed ; in which latter case 
 it may either be corrected by the teacher — though this 
 should be rare — or passed to another pupil, and when 
 answered, should be returned to the one making the 
 first mistake for his answer as corrected, and so of 
 all the others. Take the first question under the third 
 case. Instead of what is there stated, let it stand 
 thus: "What is the shape of the earth?" etc. Take 
 
 the one on proportion. Let it stand thus : " State the 
 12 
 
138 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 rule for proportion : 1. When the answer ought to Ic 
 greater than the third term ; 2. When it ought to be 
 less, and the reasons for," etc. For the other form of 
 this variety, take the question given under it, viz. : 
 " Where does the Mississippi rise ? " etc., which is a 
 proper enough form for the question, the difficulty here 
 lying in the mode of answer. Let the answer be given 
 without any intervening questions or suggestions, either 
 by word or by act. And in cases like that given in 
 analysis or parsing, let there be no guessing, no "draw- 
 ing out," no hesitating for suggestion from either 
 teacher or pupil, no rising slides on the part of the 
 pupil, no suggestions, no winking, nodding or negating, 
 to indicate to the pupil whether he is right or wrong. 
 4. In reading, and in all other recitations, avoid 
 the practice of assisting the pupil whenever he hesi- 
 tates upon the pronunciation of a word, or the utter- 
 ance of a sentence, making it a positive injunction 
 that the lesson is to be so well prepared before recita- 
 tion, that, especially in reading, all the words can be 
 named at sight; for if they can not, the child should 
 be remanded at once to eas.ier lessons, even to the 
 " cards " or word and object lessons, until he acquires 
 the ability to pronounce readily. It accomplishes 
 little or no good, for a pupil to drag his slow length 
 along in reading, where not only the meaning of the 
 words, but their connection is lost by his long inter- 
 vals or pauses. Again : avoid the practice of show- 
 ing the pupil how well you can recite yourself, at 
 least until he has had the first trial, which by right 
 and duty belongs to him. This practice is so annoy- 
 ing, it would seem that no one who had witnessed its 
 evil efl'ects would ever tolerate it, much less resort to it. 
 In addition to the annoyance, it discourages all effort 
 
RECITATION. 139 
 
 on the part of those who desire to learn, and pampers 
 the laziness of those who have not the desire. The 
 elocution exercises may form an exception to this rule. 
 Lastly : the practice of assisting pupils to the first 
 few words of the answer, is doubtless the offspring of 
 the last mentioned evil. To correct it, never allow 
 yourself to be guilty of the practice yourself, and never 
 allow your pupils to presume upon your indulgence 
 in this respect. The understanding should be, that 
 tl)e first word is just as important for the pupil to 
 learn, as the second or third ; and that the integrity, 
 as well as the usefulness of knowledge, will be much 
 impaired, if it is based upon as uncertain a process, 
 as that described under this head. 
 
 Article IT— Specific Methods. 
 
 It only remains now to speak of the several modes 
 of recitation, in which an application of these specific 
 directions may be made. For convenience, they mny 
 be classified as follows : 
 
 I. The Int^krogative Method. 
 
 II. The Topical Method. 
 III. The Didactic Method. 
 
 The first is one of almost universal use, and the one 
 in which most, if not all the directions given above, 
 will apply. We shall speak of it under the several 
 forms in which the answers arc given. 
 
 Section 1 — The Concert Method, or that in which 
 all recite at once, is one in general use, and is not with- 
 out its uses and abuses. 1. It is useful in awakeninu- 
 an interest in class and in school. 2. It aids those who 
 may be too timid otherwise to recite, to overcome their 
 diffidence. 3. It gives all an opportunity to recite the 
 
140 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 whole, or a greater part of the lesson, in the same 
 time. 4. It offers the best opportunity to secure uni- 
 formity, and to cultivate the voice; and it shows a 
 school oft' to better advantage : though, whether this 
 last is really a desirable object, will depend altogether 
 upon the style of exhibition. If the object of thb 
 show is to secure answers to the greatest number of 
 questions, without any reference to where they come 
 from, it would then be objectionable. If, however, 
 the displaj- consists in better-drilled voices, greater 
 uniformity, and more promptness in manner, etc., all 
 of which may be secured by this method, then it be- 
 comes a decided advantage. The chief benefits of 
 this method, however, are confined to reading and 
 spelling, which have been described elsewhere ; but 
 it may be used to advantage in reciting rules and 
 tables of currency, weight, measure, and in accurately 
 arranged definitions, and in the declensions and con- 
 jugations of words. 
 
 Some of the more important abuses of this method, 
 are the following : I. It off"ers an opportunity to any 
 that do not know the lesson very well, to attach them- 
 selves, as it were, to those that do, and thereby appear 
 to a better advantage than they really deserve. 2. It 
 affords an opportunity to those who may desire to 
 conceal mistakes, intentional deviations and ignorance, 
 to effect their purposes; though an experienced ear 
 will generally detect any thing of this kind. 3. CTn- 
 less carefully guarded, it has a tendenej' to cultivate 
 an unnatural and monotonous style. 4. Those who 
 have been in the habit of reciting too exclusively in 
 concert, are for the most part, unable to recite alone. 
 They do not acquire the strength and confidence, to 
 enable them to stand without the " props and stays " 
 
RECITATION. 141 
 
 of other voices. Therefore, while tliis method pos- 
 sesses unquestionable merits, and many advantages, 
 it should be used with great caution, never exclusively, 
 and never to usurp the place of other forms. 
 
 Section 2 — Consecutive Method. — This method is 
 one of long standing and perhaps of universal adop- 
 tion. It is that in which *the members of the class 
 are so arranged that the questions or exercises uni- 
 formly commence at a given place in class, and pass 
 on in consecutive order, from head to foot. This plan 
 is not without its merits and demerits. 
 
 1. The labor of conducting recitations after this 
 mode, is less than in most others, the teacher having 
 no other special care than merely to ask the questions, 
 and to see that they are answered properly. 
 
 2. It has the advantage of order and system ; and 
 for advanced pupils, or those who can resist the 
 temptation of inattention, may be used with safety. 
 
 3. It affords an opportunity for pupils to compete 
 for position — if indeed this is an advantage; and we 
 think it may become useful under proper restrictions. 
 
 But the objections to this method, when used with 
 a certain class of students, and without great care, 
 will more than overbalance the benefits arising out 
 of it. 
 
 1. It affords an opportunity for the pupil to neglect 
 certain portions of the lesson. They "will prepare only 
 such portions of it as will most likely fall to them to 
 recite. Hence, it is no uncommon thing to see pupils, 
 eve A after arranging themselves in class — if they are 
 allowed thsir books in recitation — first ascertaining 
 their location in class, then measuring oft' a place 
 in the lesson corresponding to it, and then commenc- 
 
142 THE ART OF TE-ACHING. 
 
 ing a vigorous preparation of that part of the les- 
 son, paying little or no attention to any other part. 
 
 2. If this custom alone is adopted, after a pupil has 
 once recited, he is apt to feel no further responsibility; 
 and for all practical purpo'ses, might almost as well be 
 excused from the class, after he has " said " his part 
 of the lesson. 
 
 3. In large classes, whSre a fixed arrangement is 
 observed, there is danger of slighting some altogether, 
 and hence of inducing them to slight their lessons 
 until such time when they will be most likely to be 
 called upon for recitation. 
 
 It was the misfortune of the writer once to be a 
 member of such a class of about 50 members, arrang- 
 ed in alphabetical order. The lessons were of such a 
 character, that it was not absolutely necessary that 
 more than about half a dozen pupils should recite at 
 one recitation — and that was about the average num- 
 ber — so that each one of us had the privilege of re- 
 citing as often as about once in ten days. And I 
 well remember the demonstrations that were made by 
 some of the class after passing the ordeal of "their 
 turn." The book would be thrown aside with the ex- 
 clamation, " There, I shall have nothing more to 
 do this week, sure ! " One can easily see that the 
 knowledge and discipline obtained in this way, are 
 worthless. 
 
 Section 3.— The Promiscuous Method is one which, 
 perhaps, has more merits than either (»f those just 
 described. It consists, as its name implies, in asking 
 questions of any member of the class, irrespective of 
 time, place or order. It has these advantages : 
 
 1. It compels all to get the whole lesson, since no 
 
RECITATION. 143 
 
 one can know how much he will be called upon to 
 recite, or when or where. 
 
 2. It checks any disposition on the part of the pupil 
 to be inattentive, since each one is liable, at any mo- 
 ment, to be called upon to recite. 
 
 3. It forces all to keep in mind the connection ; for, 
 where the method is properly followed, the teacher 
 may, at any time, and at any stage of the answer, ar- 
 rest it, and require some one else to complete it. 
 
 4. It acts as a kind of a check upon most of the 
 evils described in the foregoing. 
 
 It has, however, the following objections, if not 
 properly administered. • 
 
 1. When the pupil, after having been once called 
 upon, feels sure he will not be called upon again, he is 
 tempted to inattention in the remainder of the lesson. 
 In this it is similar to the second method, only in that 
 the inattention may occur both before and after being 
 called upon ; while in this, only after, since the pupil is 
 obliged to keep a sharp watch for his turn. But even 
 this abuse can be obviated by taking advantage of 
 such pupils, and calling upon them three or four times 
 in succession, in the same recitation. 
 
 2. It requires more care on the part of the teacher, 
 in order to distribute the lesson rightly among the 
 members of the class. But this can hardly be called 
 an objection, since the benefits thence arising, will 
 more than compensate for any additional care. On 
 the whole, this variety of the Interrogative method, in 
 its many applications, and with proper care, is subject 
 to fewer objections than almost any other. 
 
 Section 4 — The Silent Method. — Another variety 
 closely allied to this last, deserves special notice. Foi 
 
144 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 the sake of distinction we shall call it the Silent Method. 
 It is described thus : The question is asked the whole 
 class, and all are required to answer mentally or silently 
 — not merely to call to mind the answers, or to think of 
 the conclusions, but to examine carefully the processes 
 by which they are reached ; and when this is done, to 
 indicate it by a given signal. When all the members 
 have thus signaled, or after the lapse of a reasonable 
 time, let some one of the pupils be selected to give the 
 oral or written answer, or solution. 
 
 This method is thus described : The question is an- 
 nounced distinctly to the whole class. The time elaps- 
 ing betwee#the asking and answering should resemble 
 that which usually occurs between the flash of the 
 lightning and the report of the thunder. It should 
 be impressively still. This gives every one time, not 
 only to get the full import of every question, but 
 really to answer every one mentally, and then to re- 
 view it, when the oral answer is given, which, if cor- 
 rect, may be indicated by the pupils' assuming the 
 proper posture; but if incorrect>4^and as soon as incor- 
 rect, the signal should be repeated, when the one recit- 
 ing is arrested in his answer, and another called upon 
 to complete it, etc. 
 
 This plan brings more minds into active and vigor- 
 ous exercise than almost any other. No one can really 
 escape, since in case of a failure, the plan itself reports 
 the delinquent ; and if false reports are given, they may 
 soon be detected by the teacher. If he have suspicions 
 of this nature, let him require the pupil thus sus- 
 pected to recite ; and a few exposures will generally 
 cure the worst cases of this species of falsifying. The 
 only objection that really operates against this variety, 
 is that it requires a little longer time. But the addi- 
 
RECITATION 145 
 
 tional discipline, in most cases, will more than com- 
 pensate for any loss of this kind. It requires also a 
 considerable previous culture and discipline to make 
 it work well ; but it may then be used in nearly all 
 kinds of recitation. 
 
 Sec. 5 — The Monitorial Method. — Another variety 
 called the Monitorial, has been adopted by a few with 
 success ; though the experience of the best teachers, I 
 believe, has condemned its general use. The only in- 
 stance in which I remember to have seen it employed 
 with any marked success, was in the Model Depart- 
 ment of the Connecticut State Normal School ; and 
 in this case it was not strictly monitorial. A class of 
 about twenty girls was reciting in history. One of 
 their number (the monitress) sat upon an elevated seat, 
 immediately in front of the class, holding in her hand 
 a set of cards, numbered and corresponding with du- 
 plicates held, one by each member of the class. As 
 the teacher asked the questions, the monitress drew a 
 card from her pack, not knowing herself what one, 
 called out the number to the class, and the pupil hold- 
 ing its duplicate, arose and recited. The teacher, in 
 this instance, did nothing but simply ask the questions. 
 The class was. responsible for the balance, even the cor- 
 rection of any errors that were committed. There arc 
 other forms of this variety differing slightly from any 
 hitherto described ; one of which, by way of distinction, 
 we shall call reciprocal. It is nearly monitorial, only 
 every member of the class is a monitor, at the same time 
 all are pupils. The peculiarities of this variety con- 
 sist in placing the whole recitation in the hands of the 
 pupils, each one, according to pre-arrangemcnt, asking 
 such questions as come within the scope of the lesson 
 13 
 
lit) THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 or review, and to whatever member of the class he may 
 choose. Sometimes there is connected with this, some 
 incentive — such, for instance, as contesting for the 
 head, in which case, the pupil standing anywhere in 
 class — say N'o. 7 — may question any member above 
 him, and in case he ask a question that can not be 
 answered by the one of whom he asks it, on answer 
 ing it himself, he takes his place. 
 
 This plan is both amusing and instructive. The inter- 
 est it awakens in class, and the incentives it adds to the 
 preparation of the lesson are surprising; since it must 
 be learned not only to be recited well, but so well that 
 the pupils themselves may teach it. This plan but 
 slightly modified, works well in performing operations 
 at the board, especially in the simple operations in 
 arithmetic where long columns of figures are to be 
 added, or in any others, where practice and rapidity 
 are required. Let the pupils contend in a similar 
 manner, or simply take turns in performing rapidly 
 various parts of the operation. 
 
 Section 6 — Miscellaneous Methods. — (a) One of 
 these varieties', though somewhat limited in its applica- 
 tion, is worthy of notice. For want of a better name, we 
 shall call it a method by proxy. Its chief use is to cul- 
 tivate ready and close attention, and it iiiay be used 
 occasionally, in nearly all the branches. It consists in 
 a repetition and transfer of the question as it comes 
 from the teacher, requiring answer in most cases from 
 those least expecting it. For instance, the question 
 is annoyinced by the teacher, when the pupil to whom 
 it is directed rises and repeats it to the class, and 
 calls upon some one to answer it, who niay also be 
 required to repeat it, and if unable to answer, may 
 
RECITATION. 147 
 
 call upon some one else, etc. This mode, of course, 
 can never be rendered general, its chief use being to 
 cultivate attention and the ability to ask and answer 
 questions under a variety of circumstances. 
 
 (b) The practice of reciting by contests, or better 
 knovpn as " choosing sides," though of somewhat an 
 cient origin, has but few superiors. As a means of' 
 exciting- e,nd sustaining attention, it has few if any 
 equals. Many, doubtless, can yet remember the ex- 
 citement that used to prevail at the spelling-matches, 
 which in fact constituted about the only attractive 
 feature belonging to the old usages. The same in- 
 terest may invest almost all other branches of study, 
 by only submitting them to the same influences. For 
 instance, let the class choose sides to remain chosen 
 for one, two, three or four weeks at a time. Let a 
 careful record of the losses and gains of both sides, be 
 kept by the teacher, or some one or two of the pupils, 
 and reported to the class once a week, or at the expi- 
 ration of the time, if that be deemed best. There are 
 many other modes of keeping tally, besides many 
 other incentives that may be used with this plan. This 
 practice also cultivates the power of criticism, since 
 pupils criticise each other. It also enables the pupils 
 to follow demonstrations or answers of any kind, ex- 
 ercises them in the practice of asking and answering 
 questions, all of which are of great utility to every 
 one, and especially those who expect to teach. 
 
 (c) The plan by written questions and answers is one that 
 ought to be practiced more than it is, since many that 
 can answer very well orally, are nevertheless incapable 
 of doing so by writing. The questions, in this variety, 
 may be written on the board or on slips of paper, and 
 
14b THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 distributed, and answers prepared by the pupils. Of 
 course, care should be taken to prevent communica- 
 tions. In 'this manner, a great deal of time may be 
 saved, since the teacher may be employed about some- 
 thing else, while the class is preparing answers, etc. 
 
 Section 7^ The Topical Method. — This method, 
 for intrinsic merit, perhaps, has not a single equal in 
 the whole list. It levels in one bold stroke nearly all 
 the evils and inconveniences attached to the other va- 
 rieties, and aims a death-blow to superficial habits of 
 recitation, since it throws the whole responsibility 
 upon the individual pupil. This is just precisely 
 what is needed to make independent and self-reliant 
 scholars. Its chief benefits, however, are confined to 
 advanced classes. It also admits of several varieties, 
 a few of which we shall name. 
 
 (a) The mere announcement of the SM6/ed or topic, 
 while reciting, is one. Instead of the enunciation of 
 the whole question, as in the case of the preceding, 
 the teacher simply assigns a topic — embracing more 
 or less, to suit the capacity of the class — upon which 
 the pupil is expected to recite. For instance, instead 
 of saying. How do you multiply a fraction by a whole 
 number ? A whole number by a fraction ? A frac- 
 tion by a fraction? etc. The teacher simply says, or 
 writes, " The multiplication of fractions ; " and the 
 pupil proceeds, at once, to discuss the whole subject, 
 naming and describing the several cases in their order. 
 Instead of asking all the questions as in the example 
 given in grammar, he simply says, "Etymology," 
 "Syntax," "Noun," "Properties," "Relations," etc.; 
 and each one of these topics is then taken up and dis- 
 
RECITATION. 149 
 
 posed of, without further assistance from the teacher, 
 except slight explanations, as they may be needed. 
 
 In geography, where this plan is peculiarly appro- 
 priate, ill describing the mountains of Europe, for 
 instance, instead of asking the position, altitude, name 
 and other peculiarities of each range or spur, the 
 topic would simply be, "Mountains of Europe;" 
 and so of the rivers. In describing the seas, lakes 
 etc., it would be " Bodies of Water. " In describing 
 a particular state or territory, the following list of 
 topics might be suggestive enough. 1. Position, in 
 reference to Latituae and Longitude ; 2. Boundary ; 
 3. Area; 4. Population; 5. Bodies of water; 6. Riv- 
 ers; 7. Surface, including mountains etc.; 8. Soil; 
 9. Climate ; 10. Productions, including the three king- 
 doms of nature, etc. ; Tl. Chief towns and Capitals ; 
 12. Employment; 13. Education: 14. Internal im- 
 provements ; 15. Curiosities, and any others that may 
 be desirable. 
 
 The following are some of the advantages. 1. The 
 labor on the part of the teacher is less, while the advan- 
 tages to the pupil are greater. 2. It presents a con- 
 nected view of a subject. The knowledge thus ac- 
 quired is available. 3. It strengthens memory and 
 cultivates the powers of the understanding and judg- 
 ment. 4. It cultivates good manners, and the powers 
 of expression and description. It teaches to tell 
 straight stories, and to describe accurately. 5. It cul- 
 tivates independence, originality, completeness and 
 comprehensiveness of thought and style.' 6. It cor- 
 rects nearly all the abuses incident to the other modes. 
 
 The objections to it are few, weak and readily re- 
 moved or prevented. 1. Its use is confined chieiiy to 
 pupils somewhat advanced, the Transition and Sub- 
 
150 I'HE AKT OF TBACHINtf. 
 
 jective. 2. It will require time to initiate pupils into 
 this method, especially if the^' have, as Mr. Page says, 
 been subject to the "Drawing-out and Pounding-in 
 system." 
 
 (b). Another form or use of this method consists iu 
 the use of diagrams and analyses. This variety em- 
 braces the practice of mapping out subjects, giving 
 the generic terms and placing their specifics in order, 
 giving, in many instances, the entire analysis, by a 
 process bf generalization ; and it is questionable, 
 whether any other practice is more useful to advanced 
 pupils, or those who wish to teach. It is the very 
 key to investigation of a higher order, since it ar- 
 ranges the materials of knowledge and thought — the 
 tools of progress — in such order, that they become 
 available in further researches. 
 
 The advantages of this variety are similar to others 
 just described ; and th.e only objection I am able to 
 urge against it, consists in its abuse. Some teachers, 
 seeing its beauty and utility in a few things, foolishly 
 attempt to apply it not only to all subjects, but to all 
 grades of advancement ; while it is strictly a sub- 
 jective process. And further, they multiply divisions 
 and subdivisions to such an extent, as rather to con- 
 fuse and confound, than render intelligible the subjects 
 to which they apply it. They should not only remem- 
 ber that facts come before their philosophic arrange- 
 ment, but that they confuse the mind, rather than 
 enlighten and strengthen it, when they are presented 
 in such masses. 
 
 Section 8. — The Didactic or Lecturing Method 
 has already been described. Its use in recitation is 
 somewhat limited; though, for certain classes and 
 
RECITATION. 151 
 
 certain purposes, it produces, when properly employed, 
 most remarkable effects. There are two principal 
 varieties, viz. : conversation and lectures. They are suf- 
 ficiently explained elsewhere, to be comprehended 
 without further description. 
 
 Both these varieties, however, are subject to great 
 abuse. The excessive talking and lecturing in which 
 some teachers indulge, are alike ruinous to their own 
 usefulness and the pupil's improvement. The teacher 
 who makes the least ado, in conducting the exercises 
 of the school, is the one who will, in the end, have 
 accomplished the most for his pupils, provided he so 
 dispose of these exercises, as to secure the greatest 
 amount of thought and action, upon the part of 
 pupils. 
 
 But as this topic has been discussed elsewhere, we 
 close this chapter by a brief reference to the impor- 
 tance of every teacher's having a variety of methods, 
 and that he study the philosophy of them, so that he 
 may wisely apply them. Every one knows that the 
 teacher who has but one plan, and tViat perhaps an 
 old edition stereotyped, soon renders his subjects mo- 
 notonous, wearies the patience of his pupils, and cir- 
 cumscribes the limits of their progress. By the very 
 necessities of the case, he can only reach a few, and 
 call out but that limited amount of talent, for which 
 his " plan " may be peculiarly fitted ; while he who 
 has a variety, and that variety based upon philosoph- 
 ical principles, may wisely suit his plans to every in- 
 dividual case. 
 
 We have therefore presented, under three general 
 heads as generic, some twelve or fifteen varieties. But 
 it will not be inferred, of course, that this exhausts 
 the list ; for, while it will be found that all the nieth- 
 
152 
 
 THK ART OF TEACnDia. 
 
 ods and varieties here described, as well as others prac- 
 ticed by the profession generally, are referable to some 
 one of these methods, or some of their varieties; yet 
 each one of these again admits of a great many slight 
 modifications in the applications, which, of course, 
 would be too tedious for description here. The teacher 
 who acquaints, himself with their nature and design, 
 and also with the peculiar wants of his pupils, will 
 find little difficulty in making his own applications of 
 them. We have therefore avoided as much as pos- 
 sible the multiplication of special modes, believing 
 that the few given are not only distinct enough in 
 their characteristics, but comprehensive enough to 
 admit of all necessary changes, and to embrace all pos- 
 sible varieties. 
 
154 
 
 THE ART OF TEACHINa. 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 Q 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 S^S-KTOT^SIS IV- 
 
 BUSTIVSSS. 
 
 Objkcts, ktc. 
 
 Mannrr. 
 
 Hatiita of neatness, order, promptness 
 Punctuality. Time. Place. Manner 
 Aid in other duties and emergoncies. 
 
 r Change of classes. Commnnicationa. 
 REituisiTES. < A written order of duties, etc, 
 v. Close attention. Self-denial. 
 
 Dispatch, without haste or confusion 
 With a moderate degree of stillnosR. 
 
 (.With 
 
 scrupuIouH care and accuracy. 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 155 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SCHOOL BUSINESS. 
 
 The object of the present chapter shall be to show, 
 in as brief a space as possible, some of the uses of the 
 school life. It might be a question with some whether 
 there is any necessity for such a topic in the " School- 
 room Duties;" but, since there is a class of duties that 
 do not really belong, either to study or to recitation ; and 
 since, if they are not provided for, they are either con- 
 stantly interrupting those exercises, or else neglected 
 entirely, it therefore seems proper and right that such 
 a chapter be introduced. 
 
 It is a fact well attested by the opinions'of our wisest 
 men, as well as by common observation, that school 
 training, notwithstanding its many excellencies, falls 
 short of meeting all the demands of education. It 
 does not, in the great majority of cases, prepare the 
 young for the duties, dangers, and responsibilities of 
 life. Too many leave school with thoughtless, slovenly 
 and disorderly habits, notwithstanding they may be 
 mathematical, philosopliical, learned in the knowledge 
 of books. 
 
 Now it is not proposed that the scliool should do 
 every thing for the pupil, such as furnishing him with 
 a trade, or employment, or even giving him a very 
 large stock of practical knowledge. Indeed, this can 
 not be expected; for nothing but the actual struggle 
 with the life duties themselves will ever give that 
 thorough preparation which these duties demand. Eut 
 
156 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 that the school duties might be rendered more effect- 
 ive in this respect ; that they should become a kind 
 of foreshadowing of these duties, and, so far as pos- 
 sible, the actual preparation, are conclusions inferable, 
 both from their nature and design, as well as from the 
 lamentable deficiencies that exist in reference to such 
 f;ulture. That the education of the child and the 
 man should be a life preparation for life's duties and 
 destiny, is a truth that can not be too thoroughly in- 
 culcated ; and that the school life should, so far as pos- 
 sible, be an epitome of that world life upon which the 
 child is soon to enter, is another truth of equal sig- 
 nificance. We shall therefore treat the above named 
 subject under the following heads : 
 
 1. The objects or necessity for such an application 
 of school duties. 
 
 2. The requisites and means for carrying it into eftect. 
 
 3. The made of conducting this department of school 
 duties. 
 
 Article 1— Objects, etc. 
 
 If it be true that the school-room does afford oppor- 
 tunity for this life preparation, etc., then indeed does 
 it follow, that its exercises should look to that one 
 great object as a central and leading idea, about which, 
 or rather to which, all others should bend ; for it is 
 scarcely possible, and by no means probable, that 
 unless some special pains are taken, these results 
 will ever be secured. It is pertinent, therefore, to in- 
 quire, in the first place, after the habits and traits of 
 character that render children and men and women 
 useful ; and, in the second place, how far these duties 
 can be rendered efficient in the formation and develop- 
 ment of these habits and traits. 
 
school business. 157 
 
 Section 1 — IIabits of Neatness, Cleanliness and 
 Order. — These are habits of acknowledged merit, but 
 at the same time subject to woeful neglect. How far, 
 then, can the actual duties of the school be rendered 
 efficacious, and how far can special duties be intro- 
 duced that shall not conflict witli these, and still be 
 the instruments in the formation of these habits^are 
 questions that ought to be considered. 
 
 The position is assumed in the Science of Education, 
 that neatness and cleanliness, and indeed all forms of 
 outward refinement, as well as heart culture, keep 
 exact pace with the march of intelligence, provided 
 always, that the subject of culture is a fair one, and 
 the system philosophical. This position is true be- 
 yond controversy, or else education is a failure; and 
 we add here, that when these effects are not produced, 
 the teacher may be sure that something is wrong. It 
 follows, therefore, that with every increase in knowl- 
 edge and development, there should be a correspond- 
 ing improvement in the personal appearance — in the 
 habits of neatness, cleanliness, order, etc. But how 
 is this effected ? Will the simple acquisition accom- 
 plish this, without special direction and application ? 
 We answer, not to the full extent, any more than 
 plowing the ground, and sowing the seed will produce 
 the harvest. There must be a nurture, a careful cul- 
 tivation, and a husbanding of the stores, before the 
 precious grain can be rendered serviceable to man. 
 It is thus with th6 processes of education. Its full 
 rewards are never realized, until the uses of knowl- 
 edge are fully established. But how shall pupils be 
 made to feel the force of this general development, in 
 this special direction ? What special exercises can be 
 adopted that will increase the point and power of gen- 
 
158 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 eral acquisition ? "We shall now endeavor to answer 
 these questions. 
 
 1. Every child's desk or seat and its premises should 
 be considered his home. He has, or ought to have, 
 books, papers, pencils, slates, and various other appa- 
 ratus, which are essentially his utensils and instru- 
 ments for carrying on his employment. In this it is 
 like home. He has duties to perform ; he is in this 
 respect, imitating, to all intents and purposes, the 
 scene that will soon open before him on a larger scale, 
 on the stage of active life. Every child's domain in 
 the school-room being his home, it should be .consid- 
 ered under his special charge, while the teacher has 
 the general supervision. The pupil is responsible for 
 the order and neatness of this charge, and this respon- 
 sibility should be just as binding as that of recitation. 
 There should be therefore, in every school, a standard 
 of order and neatness, just as there is in recitation. 
 The position of every article of his stock of imple- 
 ments, should all be decided upon. One great reason, 
 and perhaps the chief, that children are not neater 
 and more orderly is because they have no standard, 
 hence no ideal nor ideas, as to what constitutes true 
 order, further than what they may have gathered 
 from very uncertain teaching. Let these standards 
 and tests be furnished, and contended for, in the same 
 manner as other excellencies are, and it would not be 
 long before the whole face of education and of nature 
 would be changed. 
 
 What is true in reference to the domain of each 
 scholar, and of the whole school-room, each one being 
 responsible for that portion of it in his vicinity, is 
 also true in reference to each pupil's clothing and per- 
 Honal appearance; and as no litter of any kind should 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 
 
 159 
 
 be allowed to collect upon the premises of auy one, so 
 none should collect upon the person of any one. If 
 the house should be clean, so should be the house- 
 keeper. Let both be insisted upon with the same per- 
 tinacity with which other duties are, and it will not 
 be long before these same habits will reproduce and 
 perpetuate themselves in dress and personal app'6ar- 
 ance. The boys will not leave mud or filth upon 
 their feet and clothing any more than they would 
 upon the floor or in their desks. The girls will not 
 permit their dresses to appear in a slovenly and slat- 
 tern way. The school-house and yard will soon show 
 signs of improvement. The window-blinds will be 
 more neatly adjusted. The shawls, bonnets and hats 
 will be disposed of in a more orderly manner. The 
 floor will be kept clean, and the furniture will be 
 dusted. The smaller pupils will catch the spirit, and 
 will soon learn that a spot of mud or dirt upon their 
 clothing or their premises, is out of order; that a tat- 
 tered garment, unwashed hand or face, and uncombed 
 hair are disorderly ; and that filthy and slovenly hab- 
 its, vice and suffering are all of the same species of 
 disorder. What a world of happiness is thrown away 
 by those who neglect these little things ! How our 
 homes might rejoice under the transforming influence 
 of this genius of order, provided the same attention 
 were bestowed upon these things that is bestowed 
 upon arithmetic and grammar! Just as if these alone 
 would make people neat and tidy, contented and 
 happy! The happiness of the world does not depend 
 half so much upon these as upon the little things we 
 overlook in our rage after the "mint and cnnitUin." 
 Roses might bloom where naught but briers grow: 
 
160 THE ART, OF TEACHING. 
 
 life and beauty whore naught but desolation reigns; 
 happiness where naught but misery. 
 
 In addition to this standard of order and neatness 
 in the school-room, there should also be, at least a 
 daily inspection, and a report on the conditions of 
 things, which report should be considered of as much 
 value in deteripining the standing of the pupil as that 
 of study or recitation. This would invest these duties 
 with the same degree of interest that others have. It 
 is unreasonable to suppose that our children will at- 
 tach any eftective importance to them, unless they are 
 brought into prominent notice. It is a rare instance 
 indeed that children become what we propose to make 
 them, merely by preceptive instruction. In this, as in 
 all other departments, they must actually engage in the 
 duty, and feel its responsibility. 
 
 Section 2 — Pkomptnbss and Punctuality are traits 
 of character which this department should especially 
 cultivate. These are of such vital importance, that it 
 may be said with truth, that all permanent success in 
 every department of business, depends upon them. 
 True, the exercises of study and recitation, properly 
 directed, have a tendency to cultivate these virtues; 
 but it is proper to inquire how far promptness and 
 punctuality depend upon special efforts. 
 
 1. As to time. In the transaction of these and all 
 otheP duties, special attention should be given to the 
 time. If we expect our pupils to be, in this respect, 
 what our precepts would indicate, and what we expect 
 of them, they must have these traits of character cul- 
 tivated by the same process that others are. There 
 should therefore be au exact and definite time in which 
 all these duties should be conducted — exact to a min- 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. IGl 
 
 ute — as much so as that a definition or rule should be 
 to a word — and no ordinary excuse should justify or 
 excuse a departure from it. 
 
 2. The place and manner of disposing of these 
 things should be just as definite. Every article of fur- 
 niture about the premises of every pupil should have 
 its appropriate place, and should be arranged in its 
 appropriate manner, and with as much care as if they 
 were words in a sentence, or figures in the solution 
 of a problem. The one will have no greater effect 
 opon the habits and happiness of the future man or 
 woman than the other. Instead of books, etc., beinj; 
 thrown about the desk or room in that confused man- 
 ner which usually costs the pupil and teacher so much 
 perplexity, they should be arranged in just such a 
 place and in just such a manner; so that when the 
 pupil has need of any of them, he need not disturb 
 the whole school, rummaging in his confused pack, ask- 
 ing a dozen needless and impertinent questions about 
 this thing and that, before finding what he wants. 
 How frequently is this the case 1 And how unhappy, 
 not to say miserable, this makes a school ! And then 
 this habit is carried right into whatever business or 
 employment the pupil may select in after life. If 
 he become a mechanic, with these evil habits cling- 
 ing to him, his tools and materials will present the 
 samt disorderly appearance. His saws and files, and 
 nails and hatchets and hammers, will be thrown con- 
 fusedly together, to be injured by the contact; and 
 square and compass, augers and bits, planes and chisels, 
 will be lost in a heap of rubbish, while his nice pat- 
 terns and plates will be greased and soiled — the whole 
 a fair transcript of his desk in school. 
 
 If he become a farmer, his fields will be out of pro- 
 14 
 
162 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 portion. An unsightly stump or tree will be staufling 
 where it ought not to be, and a dozen will be cut down 
 or marred where they ought to be cultivated. Hia 
 fences will be thrown down, or overgrown with bram- 
 bles. Little patches of ground will be left unculti- 
 vated here and -there, about the stumps and wet or 
 stony places. • His door-yard, if he have any, will be 
 bleak and naked, the object of constant depredations 
 from pigs and geese. His cows and sheep, hogs and 
 horses, will all herd together; and his barn-yard will 
 become the common rendezvous for the vagabond ani- 
 mals of the neighborhood. His buildings — well, look 
 there ! You may see them all out of repair, and 
 bleaching in the sun and rain. The saddle and rakes 
 are on the porch — a roosting-place for hens — while 
 bits of broken harness, and remains of harrows, orna- 
 ment the piazza. Old barrels and benches lumber the 
 barn, and pitchforks and plows, scythes and sickles, the 
 house and yard. If he become a professional man, 
 his office and study will present a similar picture; if a 
 merchant or banker, his books and ledgers will be 
 crowded and confused; his accounts unsettled and 
 uncertain. 
 
 But careless and slovenly habits are not alone felt 
 by men. They visit some of their worst woes upon 
 women. The young lady (?) of disorderly habits, per- 
 haps becomes a wife and a housekeeper. Her house — 
 But we forbear. "We will not uncover the secrets 
 within. Over this sad picture we would draw a vail. 
 We fain would hide it from mortal sight. It wei'e 
 enough to say, that in too many instances, squalid 
 wretchedness, angry broils, unhappy households, dis- 
 sipated husbands, children driven from what should 
 be a peaceful fireside, to seek a gratification of the 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 163 
 
 social nature artiid scenes of dissipation and vice, all 
 testify but too strongly against the neglect to cultivate 
 habits of neatness, order, promptness and punctuality, 
 in connection with social and aesthetic training. 
 
 Section 3 — Aid.<3 to Duties and Emergencies. — 
 Another object, which alone should be sufficient to 
 secure the special attention to these habits, is the aid 
 they would afford in the performance of other duties, 
 and the ability they would impart to ward oft" danger. 
 N"o one can estimate the value of the time lost in fruit- 
 less attempts to prosecute business, under circumstan- 
 ces where everything is out of time and place. This 
 evil is felt severely in the school-room, but not more 
 severely there than on the stage of active life. When 
 a book is wanted, for instance, from which to prepare 
 a hurried lesson, it is lost — " somebody has taken it." 
 An impatient search commences, during which an 
 inkstand or two arc upset, the contents besmearing the 
 books and furniture. Pupils in the vicinity are an- 
 noyed. Much time and patience are lost, and above 
 all the peace and order of the whole school are dis- 
 turbed by one such pupil. What, then, njust be the 
 fate of that school, composed — teacher and all — of 
 such? It is more easily imagined than told. But 
 another object, connected with this article, deserves no- 
 tice here. It is the provision or preparation that may 
 be made, while in school, against the emergencies, acci- 
 dents and casualties incident to human life. 
 
 In this uncertain world, accidents will happen. 
 While their number and severity may be much re- 
 duced by an enlightened and highly liberal education ; 
 yet it would be vain to expect to escape all of them. 
 It were, therefore, wiser to provide for them. It is a 
 
164 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 well-known fact too, that few people possess sdifficient 
 self-control, in cases of severe accidents, or in places 
 of imminent danger, to enable them to do any thing 
 available, either for their relief or rescue. In fact, in 
 the great majority of instances, the dangers and mis- 
 haps are aggravated for the want of coolness and self- 
 possession in the hour and article of imminent peril- 
 such, for instance, as in cases of fire, of drowning, of 
 poison, or in the case of asphyxia from any cause. 
 The man who climbed to the third story of a burning 
 house and threw from the window a mantle-clock and 
 looking-glass, down upon the pavement below, and 
 then caught up a feather bed, ran down two flights of 
 stairs and carefully deposited it in the street, is but too 
 apt an illustration of the want of sense that usually 
 prevails on such occasions. A few noble exceptions, 
 I know, we have on record, but these only show us 
 vphat could be done, provided the masses could be im- 
 bued with the same spirit, and these noble traits of 
 character cultivated. 
 
 What an awful calamity was that which occurred a 
 few years since, in one of our Eastern cities, where 
 hundreds of children were precipitated down two or 
 three flights of stairs, and crushed in one mangled 
 mass below, — and all from a false alarm of fire! 
 Ifow, without reflecting the least blame upon those , 
 teachers, allow us to ask, could not these children have 
 been saved? Could they not have been taught, by 
 rigid and careful training, to master their feelings by 
 their judgment? Could they not have been taught to 
 sit quietly in their seats and await the orders of their 
 teachers, in such cases of danger? I know they could, 
 provided they had been taught lessons on the dangers 
 of precipitation, as carefully as they had been in read- 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 165 
 
 ing and arithmetic. I say taught, because I believe 
 children should be shown, by actual experiment, that 
 they only endanger themselves by haste in such in- 
 stances.. Let the experiment be made with the chil- 
 dren in going out in a disorderly and hurried manner 
 — of course avoiding danger — and then, in a quiet and 
 orderly manner, and the dift'erence in time noted. Let 
 it be made frequently, and practiced for the express 
 purpose of providing against accidents, etc. : and it 
 will be found that from one half to three fourths of a 
 minute is sufficient time for all to quit the premises of 
 an ordinary building. Let them see that one minute 
 and a half, at most, is sufficient time to allow all the 
 inmates to escape from a burning building, provided 
 all are orderly; and that it will require ten times as 
 long if they are not, and that no fire is likely to occur 
 which would destroj' egress in one minute of time; 
 and that should this be the case, disorderly haste only 
 augments and aggravates the delay. 
 
 This imperturable coolness and calculation in mo- 
 ments of peril or emergency, will prove of infinitely 
 more service to the pupils in their lives, pei'haps, than 
 nine tenths of all their learning, and will not, mean- 
 while, interfere at all with it. And then in cases 
 of that most frequent and frightful, yet most un- 
 necessary, as well as too frequently fatal class of acci- 
 dents tl.e explosion of lamps, and burnings from the 
 clothes taking fire, how many might be saved if they 
 had only been taught how ! ISTot only how to extin- 
 guish flame, but how to possess their wits at such 
 times. But let it be shown also, how the flames can 
 be extinguished under such circumstances. Perhaps, 
 it would not be good policy or even safe to set any one 
 on fire, for the benefits of"the experiment; and yet 
 
166 THE ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 the whole process might be shown in a very short 
 time to a class of children, which, but for this timely 
 instruction, might not only always be ignorant upon 
 those points, but the actual sufferers themselves. 
 
 And so in reference to poisoning, or suffocation 
 from any cause, severe wounds, freezing, etc., etc., all 
 these things and their remedies and modes of treat- 
 ment, should be discussed in a few practical lessons in 
 every school in the land. The antidotes and remedies 
 for these are usually forgotten in the fright that occurs 
 under such circumstances ; but if children are taught 
 in a series of lessons as before indicated, and these 
 things made the subject of frequent reference, the 
 occasions would be rare indeed, in which they would 
 either be forgotten or neglected from any other cause. 
 
 This part of the subject might be continued at great 
 length, but the information upon these points is abun- 
 dant. All that seems necessary is that the teacher 
 prepare himself to make use of the means; and we 
 might add, that no teacher who neglects these things, 
 does his whole duty. 
 
 Article 2— Requisites, etc. 
 
 We shall now devote a few pages to the considera- 
 tion of _some of the requisites and means, for carrying 
 forward this species of culture. We have endeavored 
 to show, in , connection with the objects and neces- 
 sities, the manner in which the habits of neatness, 
 order, etc., may be established in early life. It might 
 be well to inquire further as to the advantages and op- 
 portunities, the school-room affords for such a course. 
 
 Section 1 — Change of Exercises. — Aside from the 
 advantages of convenient school-rooms, plenty of appa- 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 167 
 
 ratus, etc., etc., which have been noticed in another 
 place, there is this additional one, rising out of a 
 necessity for a change of employment, which is con- 
 tinually recurring. It will be seen, furthermore, by 
 a reference to the close of this chapter, that a certain 
 amount of time is appropriated to the several duties 
 of each day. The changes from one duty to another, 
 therefore, aftbrd the very means we could desire for 
 the cultivation of promptness and precision, both as 
 to time and manner. 
 
 1. There is a necessity for change of classes, oc- 
 curring periodically. These changes should not only 
 take place precisely at the same time each day, but 
 should be conducted with strict uniformity as to man- 
 ner, etc. Children should be taught among the first 
 things, to pass to and from the recitation seat with 
 the utmost care. But there will always be more or 
 less noise on such occasions. It would not be wise to 
 insist upon the usual quiet during these changes. 
 But this time should by no means be lost. It may 
 be devoted, by pre-arrangement, to the transaction of 
 any business that might require the pupils to leave 
 their seats. 
 
 2. It may, and in most cases it is necessary to keep 
 up fires, or to attend to ventilation. This is the time 
 for these duties, and they should not be allowed to 
 usurp any other. How unpleasant and unreasonable 
 it is to have a boy rattling at a stove, or banging at 
 a door or window or a ventilator (if the school is foi- 
 tuuate enough to have any), while the teacher is 
 engaged in hearing a class of pupils that may be 
 troubled with weak voices and weak nerves. Rather 
 let there be a fixed time and a distinct understanding 
 in reference to these duties, and let them be attended 
 
168 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 to when there will be the least loss of time, and the 
 least interruption in other directions. 
 
 Again : communications are necessary. Aside 
 from the fact that children are eminently social be- 
 ings, and hence ought not to be deprived of this priv- 
 ilege entirely, there are duties and labors which ren- 
 der it absolutely necessary that pupils should commu- 
 nicate, both with one another, and with their teacher. 
 There should, therefore, be a time set apart for this 
 purpose. It might be called whispering or business 
 moments, and should occur at least once an hour, but 
 should not exceed from three to five minutes in length. 
 All communications between the pupils, and all ques- 
 tions to the teacher, that do not require lengthy an- 
 swers (most of this latter class come in recitation), 
 should be reserved for this time, and not allowed to 
 mingle with and obstruct other duties. This arrange- 
 ment will Very much facilitate business generally, and 
 besides it will be the surest means of suppressing that 
 troublesome practice, among pupils, of communicating 
 at improper times. Perhaps no one evil has been 
 more universally dreaded, or more stoutly opposed 
 with poor success ; and the chief reason for this is 
 found in the fact that, in the great majority of cases, 
 no provision has been made for an outlet of this 
 superabundant and pent-up vitality and sociability. 
 
 Let there be a time set apart for this, just as for 
 any other necessity, and let no communications (ex- 
 cept cases of extreme necessity) be permitted at any 
 other tim.e, not even the simplest question. It might 
 be a little inconvenient and seem a little hard for a 
 boy or girl to be compelled to wait half an hour 
 before he or she might be permitted to ask what 
 seemed a very necessary question: but it should be 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 169 
 
 remembered that in a school, as well as in a larger 
 community, individual interests and preferences must 
 yield to the public good. But in most cases, it will 
 be found that the business, or request, is not so urgent 
 that it may not be delayed without damaging any 
 one ; and not only so, but that a very wholesome les- 
 son may thereby be taught the delinquent, in re- 
 ference to attending to these things at their proper 
 times. 
 
 Suppose a pupil, for instance, has neglected to note 
 the lesson assigned on a previous day, and that when 
 he takes his book* for the pui-pose of preparing said 
 lesson, he has forgotten where or how it begins; but 
 his companion next to him knows all about it: now 
 ma}' he not obtain permission to inquire after said les- 
 son ? No : rather let him suffer the ill consequences 
 of a failure, so that he may avoid a like calamity in 
 future. Or suppose he has neglected, at the proper 
 time, to get a book that lies within a few yards of 
 him, and that that book is necessary for the prepara- 
 tion of the next lesson, may he not ask for it ? No : 
 let him suffer the consequences, rather than establish 
 a bad precedent. Let the penalty fall upon the guilty 
 one, and upon no other. This constitutes an addi- 
 tional reason, why there should be a set time for all 
 these duties. A few weeks' practice will teach the 
 pupils to dispose of all their items of business at the 
 proper time. How much better thus than to suffer 
 the coiistant annoyance of an attempt to carry on all 
 these departments at once ! The communications 
 should all be disposed of here, the study and reci- 
 tations at their respective times, and practice will 
 soon insure all this. How much better thus than to 
 
 mix them all together ! And how much better than to 
 15 
 
170 
 
 ^' THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 insist upon constant quiet, and perhaps obtain nothing 
 more than constant disturbance. Therefore, provide 
 whispering moments, and let these be observed as 
 scrupulously as any other duty. 
 
 Section 2 — An Order of Duties. — Every- child 
 should be provided with an order of duties. Those who 
 are able to write, ahoifld prepare these, in which every 
 duty shall be provided for, and every moment of time 
 employed. These orders after being prepared by the 
 pupils, might be submitted to the teacher for inspec- 
 tion and improvement, as before directed. For the 
 younger classes, they should be written out upon the 
 board, or upon cards, and so arranged that, with the 
 aid of the teacher, they may direct them in the dispo- 
 sition of their time also. This measure thoroughly 
 adopted and carried out in all the schools, would, of 
 itself, do more to systematize labor, and hence remove 
 the many evils complained. of by teachers, and at the 
 same time assist the pupils in their duties, than almost 
 any other one thing. And then it is just what ia 
 wanted to form and establish good habits and prepare 
 our pupils for the practical duties of life. 
 
 This order should differ from the " order of exer- 
 cises," described in another place. That is general, ot 
 for the whole school; this is particular, or for indi 
 viduals and classes. 
 
 Section 3 — Close Attention. — Another requisite 
 is close attention. In order to meet the claims of this 
 severe regime, there must be no inattention or idleness. 
 The system admits of none. The moment the child 
 indulges, he is lost. He is out of his place, and falls 
 behind. The system itself will either correct him, or, 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 171 
 
 in time, banish him. While there is ample time 
 given for communication, recreation and amusement 
 (and these duties should be encouraged just as others 
 are), there is no time spent without a purpose or an 
 object. 
 
 'Now let a child, or let all our children remain from 
 five to seven years under this severe drill, in which they 
 acquire the habit of making use bf all their time, and 
 what will be the probable, nay almost certain effects up- 
 on them ? Time and existence would not then become a 
 burden. They would not be sent adrift from the school, 
 to become a prey to idleness and the dupes of vipe. 
 Their education will have fortified them against these 
 calamities, instead of exposing them to them. The 
 world would be rid of a race of vagabonds ; virtue 
 and innocence would be comparatively safe ; and com- 
 parative peace and plenty would reign in all the 
 walks of life. Would not this be worth a trial ? Are 
 not this rigid discipline and order more to be desired 
 than the mere acquisition of knowledge, especially, 
 since they are the safest means of accomplishing even 
 this? 
 
 Again: self-denial and frugality will be required. 
 As before remarked, the pupil's personal preferences, 
 will, in many instances, have to be sacrificed to the 
 general welfare; and he will soon learn to make use 
 of the allotted time for the performance of each duty. 
 Here again, he will only be cultivating feelings and 
 habits that he will be called upon to exercise in the 
 drama of life. How much evil does this world suffer 
 from indulgeuce and indolence ! Might not these be 
 arrested here, before they find too deep root in the 
 habits of life ? Mighr not the sAool assist in this 
 preparation ? Is not this its le.itimate object ? Would 
 
172 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 not the discipline and order necessary to carry on this 
 exact training, meet the demand exactly? In one 
 word, is it not the most evident intention of all educa- 
 tion to regulate man's forces, and to give him entire 
 command of all his powers? Let the school then be 
 the instrument of earnest and wisely directed labor; 
 not a mere faiBce, or a place where a few feeble, sickly 
 exercises, are engaged in, day after day, for the pur- 
 pose of filling up the time. No wonder that the 
 children turn with loathing, in many instances, from 
 such tame and tasteless humdrum, such irksome and 
 aimless toil. But we leave this part of the subject, 
 to consider for a moment, 
 
 Article 3— Tlie mode of Conducting', etc. 
 
 This part of the subject will require but little atten- 
 tion, since the manner of conducting these exercises 
 will readily be inferred from what has already been 
 said. We might add a few directions, however, by 
 way of completing the outline. 
 
 1. Dispatch, or haste without confusion. 2. A mod- 
 erate degree of stillness in the transaction of the va- 
 rious items. 3. Scrupulous care and accuracy in ref- 
 erence to the arrangements of books, apparatus, etc., 
 and also in the movements of the body ; all of which 
 topics we shall discuss in the same connection. They 
 are all important features in the transaction of busi- 
 ness of any kind ; but when we come to apply them 
 to the school-room, and to make them the type or 
 standard of the whole life business, their importance 
 is very much augmented. 
 
 It will be found, upon the introduction of the plans 
 and practices here suggested, that much that has been 
 assigned, will be neglected for want of time; and this 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 173 
 
 will be the standing excuse for non-perforraance ; for 
 children, if left to have their own way, will usually 
 consume twice or three times as much time as is 
 really necessary ; besides, they are not always aware 
 of how little noise is really necessary, iind oF how 
 mucli real advantage scrupulous care and accuracy in 
 the arrangements are, in the transacion of the vari- 
 ous duties of the school- room. Hence these things 
 should be shown to them, in a series of special exer- 
 cises, and then practiced in all the regular duties. 
 One class of such exercises might be called " Hand- 
 ling books and apparatus. " 
 
 For the special drills in this exercise there might be 
 a "word of command; " such, for instance, as is usual 
 in Calisthenics. The first might be, "Preparation for 
 study; " in which every book, paper, etc., not to be used 
 should be put away in proper order in the desk. L&t 
 it be done too, in the speediest manner possible, and 
 with no unnecessary noise, and the proper position as- 
 sumed, with books closed and eyes turned toward the 
 teacher ; because it often is necessary for him to give 
 some directions and explanations about the recitations 
 at such times, when it is very annoying to him, for the 
 pupils to be giving their attention to their books. On 
 such occasions, when the books and slates are brought 
 out for use, there will necessarily be a rustling, caused 
 by the great number of movements of this character, 
 at the same time; but there need be none of that 
 obstreperous slamming and banging, so common on 
 such occasions, caused perhaps by a half-dozen slates 
 let fall upon the floor, or two or three desks upset, on 
 making the change from one posture to another. If 
 the first trial is not successful, let the books, etc., be 
 
174 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 replaced, and the experiment repeated again and 
 again, until the proper movements are secured. 
 
 A second word of command might be, ^'■Preparation 
 for recitation," in which every thing not needed in 
 recitation shall be disposed of in a similar manner. It 
 is customary to give a signal for rising, before coming 
 to the recitation seat, and one for advancing, and 
 sometimes one for being seated, and for proper arrange- 
 ment. With scholars undrilled, the first few attempts 
 will be unsatisfactory. A part will not be quite ready; 
 hence some will rise after the balance are up : others 
 perhaps, not having obeyed the first summons, will be 
 occupying such positions as will very much interfere 
 with their graceful movements; hence in rising they 
 are apt to make a disturbance. Others again, will 
 slowly unbend themselves from' a circular posture 
 which they may have assumed, and will occupy about 
 as much time in rising as an old, superannuated .ox 
 would. Others will perhaps- bound to their feet with 
 a quick, nervous movement, that will be equally 
 objectionable. All these movements must be regu- 
 lated. In coming to the recitation seat, some perhaps 
 will dally with some trifling amusement by the way ; 
 some will lounge lazily along, and swing themselves 
 into the seat, as if it were a place of torture — and 
 perhaps it really is to some. Others again will jostle 
 a book or slate upon the floor, or upset a desk or an 
 inkstand; and altogether there will be about as much 
 noise as a four-horse team, or a drove of cattle would 
 make in the passage of a bridge. But let the experi- 
 ment, in all the necessary variety of movements, be 
 repeated for the express purpose of' improving them. 
 In rising up and sitting down, for instance, if it be 
 
SCHOOL BUSINESS. 175 
 
 not in good taste, let the class he politely requested to 
 he seated, the error pointed out, and the whole process 
 repeated; and so of advancing, seating and retiring, 
 until satisfactory results are secured. A similar op- 
 portunity occurs for cultivating these hahits of neat- 
 ness and propriety at the opening and closing of school, 
 and at all the regular recesses. Let the same exact- 
 ness and care be exercised in these as in others; and 
 it will not be long before the pupils will begin to 
 regard all the exercises of the school-room with a 
 new degree of interest. They v/ill look upon them as 
 the means of improvement, and their diffident, uncouth 
 and vnlgar habits will give way for those of refine- 
 ment and order. 
 
 The following scheme for the division of time and 
 labor will be found suggestive, at least. "While it is 
 not claim'ed that this, or indeed that any could be de- 
 vised, that would meet all the circumstances of every 
 school, j'et it is claimed that the time and duties of 
 every school in the land may he arranged in a manner 
 siw?i7ar to this; and the benefits arising from such a 
 disposition of affairs would more than compensate for 
 any difficulties that might he experienced in putting 
 it into practice. Let it be written or printed in large 
 tj-pe, and so placed that all in the room may be able 
 to read it. It will be necessary also, to have a clock, 
 and a small bell, in order to mark those divisions of 
 time. Some teachers have found it a good plan to 
 appoint monitors daily to take charge of the bell, and 
 to mark by slight strokes upon it — -just enough to be 
 heard by all the school — the several divisions of time 
 as they occur. Others again, have found it best to 
 take the entire charge of it themselves. 
 
176 THE ART OP TBACHINO. 
 
 Order of Daily Exerciser. 
 
 FORENOON. 
 
 From 9.00 to 9.10 Opening Exercises 10 min 
 
 9.10 " 9.20 Study 10 « 
 
 9.20 " 9.40 Beginning Class 20 " 
 
 9.40 " 10.00 Reading (C) 20 " 
 
 10.00 " 10.05 Business 5 " 
 
 10.05 " 10.25 Reading (B) 20 " 
 
 10.25 " 10.35 Recess 10 " 
 
 10.35 " 11.00 Arithmetic (A) 25 " 
 
 11.00 " 11.20 Arithmetic (B) 20 " 
 
 11.20 " 11.25 Business 5 " 
 
 11.25 " 11.45 Arith. (C) (M. & W.) ■ ■ • -20 « ' 
 
 11.45 " 12.00 General Exercises 15 " 
 
 AFTERNOON. 
 
 From 1.00 to 1.10 Study 10 mir.. 
 
 1.10 " 1.35 Reading (A) ■ • ■ 25 •' 
 
 1.35 " 1.55 Beginning Class 20 " 
 
 1.55 " 2.00 Business 5 " 
 
 2.00 " 2.20 Grammar (B) 20 " 
 
 2.20 " 2.45 Grammar (A) 25 " 
 
 2.45 " 2.55 Recess 10 " 
 
 2.55 " 3.20 Geography (A) 25 " 
 
 3.20 " 3.40 Geography (B) 20 « 
 
 3.40 " 3.55 General Exercises 15 " 
 
 3.55 " 4.00 Closing • ■ ■ ■ ■ 5 " 
 
 The above is more to show the necessity and prac- 
 ticability of a Plan, than to describe one. For the 
 want of something of this kind, the energies of the 
 teacher and the time of the pupils are spent in useless 
 attempts to perform the duties of the school-room. 
 
fc'CnOOL BUSINESS. 177 
 
 It will be observed that no provision is made for 
 Writing and Spelling. A part of the former, and per- 
 haps all the latter may be done in connection with 
 Reading, and other lessons, as practiced in our best 
 schools. Neither is there any provision made for the 
 higher branches; but it will most frequently occur 
 that some of the classes provided for above will not be 
 needed. In that case the higher branches may take 
 their places. If not, then the other exercises will have 
 to be shortened. 
 
 The limited number of classes may be objected to 
 by some, but we venture to say that the Reading and 
 Arithmetic classes may be classified in three divisions 
 each, with a beginning class, etc., and the Geography 
 and Grammar may be classified in two divisions. The 
 needless multiplication of classes to accommodate 
 either parents, pupils or publishers is ruining the order 
 and efficiency of many schools. Teachers should be 
 competent to judge, and should have the authority to 
 say what and how many classes there should be in the 
 school. 
 
178 
 
 THE ART OF TEAOHINS. 
 
 S^X'IsTOI'SIS "V. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 RECREATION. 
 
 r To rest and invigorate the system, and pre 
 1 vent disease. To aid in symmetrical devel 
 J opment of body. To secure ease, grace, and 
 \_ dignity in movement. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Periodically. Daily. Evening 
 At Bchool, during regular re 
 
 ' Open air. Play-Ground. 
 Rrquisites. - Place. J Play-room. Groves. 
 
 ^ Pleasant surroundings. 
 
 Moderation. Pleasant company 
 ^ Manne}'. ^ An object in view. 
 
 Free from care. Protectipn. 
 
 C Innocent and active games of rivalry. 
 Vakieties. I Pleasure and scientitic excursions. 
 V. Calisthenic exercises. 
 
KECREATION. 179 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RECREATION. 
 
 It has become necessary to refer to this subject so 
 trequently in the course of this work, that its separate 
 treatment here would not be demanded were it not to 
 show the relation it sustains to the special duties; and 
 further to set forth that part of it which relates to those 
 duties, in as condensed and as connected a form as 
 possible. 
 
 The very nature of education is such that recreation 
 enters into it, just as essentially as water does into the 
 composition of plants.. Indeed there is no education, 
 and there can be none ; neither can there be life or 
 growth in the animal world, without it. It is, as the 
 etymology of the term implies, the re-creating or re- 
 newing process, by which, in the animal world, the 
 old and worn-out particles of matter in the system are 
 removed, and their places supplied by new ones. In 
 this respect, it is a highly useful process, since the 
 health and happiness of the individual depend so es- 
 sentially upon it. These particles, if not removed 
 from the system, become obstructions to a healthy 
 vitality, and hence are the fruitful source of disease. 
 And if new particles are not supplied, as the old are 
 removed, there is consequent emaciation. This truth 
 has also an important bearing upon the intellectual and 
 moral man. The mental powers need the renovating 
 influence of activity and rest, since their operation is 
 through a physical organism. 
 
180 THE ART 01' TEACHING. 
 
 'Now, the whole thing is reduced to this: to recrea' e 
 there must be both exercise and rest — exercise ai.d 
 activity or motion of the several parts, in order to 
 throw ofl" the waste material, and to aid in the deposi- 
 tion of the new — rest, to allow time for settling and 
 fixing the deposits, and renewing and invigorating 
 the weary powers. The question now. arises, are the' 
 exercises of the schoolroom prejudicial or beneficial to 
 this natural and necessary process? If necessarily 
 prejudicial, then there is antagonism between man 
 and his own happiness- — an inconsistency so glaring 
 as to forbid belief; if unnecessarily so, then the health 
 and happiness of the race would demand an immedi- 
 ate reform. If recreative exercises are beneficial, then 
 they should be encouraged and pi'acticed. These 
 reasons, and others that might be given, are suffi- 
 ciently apparent to warrant their introduction and 
 practice in the schoolroom. For further evidence 
 upon this subject, the reader is referred to those sec- 
 tions where its claims, as an educational force, are 
 treated more at length. 
 
 Article 1— Ilirece§sity and Objects. 
 
 In accordance with the views expressed above, among 
 the first necessities, objects and uses, would be that of 
 resting the mind and body. It is a well-known fact, 
 that change of employment rests and invigorates 
 or renews the system. This is effected chiefly by 
 changing the position of the exercise from one point 
 to another. It is equally well known that in the con- 
 finement necessary for protracted study, certain parts 
 of the system suffer more than others : certain parts 
 are brought into almost constant exercise, while 
 others remain in comparative inactivity; and that 
 
RECREATION. 181 
 
 some powers are exercised almost constantly, in the 
 same employment, while a simple change in the direc- 
 tion would relieve them. At such times there will be 
 a desire for either motion, rest, or change. 
 
 Section 1 — To Invigorate the System. — Now it 
 should be the care of the teacher not to allow any of 
 the desires to end in evil, or even to run to waste. 
 They are all needed in educating the child. The object, 
 therefore, of all recreative exercises, should be to con- 
 fine, as much as possible, the exercises to those parts 
 most needing them, to rest those which have been over- 
 taxed, and to change or reverse the movements of those 
 parts which suffer most from continuous exercise in 
 the same directions. These principles apply to the mind 
 and body, considered as two reciprocal agents; for the 
 one may be rested by the exercise of the other : but 
 their chief application belongs to the interchangeable 
 relations existing between faculties and sets of facul- 
 ties, belonging to the same particular structure. The 
 main object of recreation, therefore, in the school, 
 should be to equalize and distribute wisely the exer- 
 cise and rest necessary to produce the most harmoni- 
 ous results, both in body and in mind. 
 
 Section 2 — To Prevent Disease. — A second ob- 
 ject, though scarcely removed from the one just de- 
 scribed, is to prevent and to care disease. It is said by 
 anatomists, that there are two contending forces in 
 the animal structure ; the one organizing in its proc- 
 esses, the other disorganizing : the one is life, the 
 other is death ; and that we exist between these two 
 forces, the one building us up, the other tearing us 
 down ; and that we actually live by the process of 
 
182 THE ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 dying. Now it would seem that when our vital forces 
 become so exhausted and weakened, either from over- 
 exertion or want of exertion, that the disorganizing 
 processes become the stronger; that actual disease 
 then fastens upon us, arresting for the time being, the 
 entire process of organization : hence both the suft'er- 
 ing and emaciation caused by sickness. 
 
 It therefore becomes a matter of the greatest im- 
 portance, to preserve, as nearly as possible, the bal- 
 ance between these forces. Especially is this neces- 
 sary in childhood and youth, when, from natural 
 causes, the building-up processes should excel the 
 tearing down. At this period * — as we have shown 
 in other places — owing to the peculiarly flexible, and 
 continuall}' changing nature of the substances, the 
 liabilities to contract disease are greater. But these 
 tendencies to disorganization maj', from the same 
 cause, be more easily counteracted, since the subject 
 is in a formative state, and liable to either direction, 
 determined by the stronger force. It should therefore 
 be the chief object of the teacher to fortify those points 
 most exposed, whether they relate to the body or to 
 the mind, and to build up a superstructure of the 
 greatest possible strength and durability. 
 
 It is also true that disease may be arrested, even 
 after it has made considerable progress, provided the 
 treatment is such as to assist the building-up pro- 
 cesses to such an extent as to throw the balance in 
 their favor. The lungs, for instance, may be suffer- 
 ing, or may be diseased ; but pure air is their element 
 and nourishment. By wise and judicious breathing 
 therefore, the disease may be thrown off and the parts 
 
 * Transition, and perhaps the same is true of the objection. 
 
KECREATION. 183 
 
 healed. Tlie stomach, and consequently the whole 
 system, may be sutfering from indigestion. There is, 
 perhaps, a demand for additional fluids, or motions that 
 will produce them, less stimulating food, or healthier 
 blood. If these demands are complied with, and the 
 derangement has not become too deep-seated, the 
 powers soon regain their accustomed vigor ; and so of 
 all the vital organs. Sometimes exercise, sometimes 
 rest is required. But since many of the duties and 
 exercises of the school, unless carefully guarded, in- 
 vite disease; and since many diseases are already 
 formed from this and other causes, it should be one 
 of the special objects of recreation to remove the ob- 
 structions froiji the path of human progress and hap- 
 piness. For what other purpose could this desire for 
 amusement, diversion, change, etc., have been given 
 us? Surely not that it might torment us, or lead us 
 astray ! Let the teacher, therefore, seize hold of it, 
 and use it, not only to guard his pupils against the 
 encroachments of disease, but for its actual removal. 
 
 Section 3 — To Facilitate Growth. — Another 
 prominent object of recreative exercises, is the valu- 
 able aid they render in the symmetrical development 
 of the body. One of the saddest pictures our sin- 
 smitten race presents, is the distorted, sickly and in- 
 sufficient development of body. The world resembles 
 one great hospital, and its inhabitants the inmates, 
 with here and there an exceptional case. The great 
 majority seem to be sutfering from some malady. 
 Weakness of limb and lungs, of body and brain, 
 sunken chests and crooked backs, diseased livers and 
 distorted spines, poor digestion and poorer powers of 
 endurance,are but the common heritage of our race. 
 
184 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 Indeed it is in the rarest instances that the adage of 
 the ancients, " Mens sana in corpore savo" is realized 
 in the present day, yet education is the boast of this 
 same generation. In the very jaws of disease, we lift 
 up our feeble huzzas for human progress: We boast 
 of our national and internal improvements, and at 
 the same time hug our bodily complaints and mala- 
 dies as evidences of our refinement. But away with 
 such an education and such refinement from the face 
 of the earth ! They are a moral pestilence and have 
 no business aniong a race of men. 
 
 If sunken cheeks and sallow skin, if hollow eyes 
 and emaciated forms, if physical debility and suffering, 
 are evidences of education and refinement, then, oh, 
 give me blissful ignorance, and the life of the savage ! 
 If the broad shoulders and stalwart frame, the ruddy 
 cheek and plump rounded limb, the firm, elastic step 
 and bounding form, the sparkling eye and the joyous 
 laugh, must yield to the narrow chest and pinched up 
 dandy form, the spindle shanks and lily hand, the 
 sickly, sentimental face and its usual accompaniment, 
 a shallow brain, the languid walk and almost breath- 
 less sigh ; if cotton must take the place of muscle, 
 sound, heaithy muscle — and paints and powders the 
 place of the roses and flush of health ; if these and 
 more than these must become our heritage, then close 
 up the school-houses and colleges, and let the races, 
 yet to come, escape their horrors. 
 
 But these calamities are only the results of inade- 
 quate education. They constitute no part of a sound 
 system of culture, any more than, a failure in bank 
 stock constitutes a part of political economy. Educa- 
 tion makes a strong body as well as a strong brain. 
 It makes a good heart as well as a wise head. It 
 
KKCEEATION. 185 
 
 gives a symmetrical development to e\erj limb and 
 muscle, as well as strength to the understanding and 
 judgment. It gives beauty and elasticity to the 
 human form, as well as acuteness of reasoning and 
 brilliancy of imagination. 
 
 Jfow the question arises, what are the instrumen- 
 talities rejected from the list, that have caused this 
 breach in a symmetrical growth ? We shall not claim 
 that recreation and rational amusements have been 
 the only ones, for a thousand other abuses have 
 wrought their inconsistencies into this tangled web, 
 until, with all its excellencies, it seems to be inadequate 
 for the demand. But, however much we attribute 
 to other sources, it must be admitted that, if every 
 encroachment of a physical nature, occasioned by 
 close confiuement or study, were met and repelled by 
 the appropriate physical exercise ; the bodies of our 
 boys and giris, if free from constitutional disease, 
 would grow up sound and healthy at the same time 
 in which they are acquiring knowledge, and expanding 
 their minds. This, therefore, is a cardinal principle in 
 every sound system of education. But it has been con- 
 tended for at every step in the progress of this work. 
 
 Section 4 — Grace in Movements, etc. — Another 
 object of a similar nature to the above, is accomplish- 
 ed by recreation, viz. : ease, grace and dignity of move- 
 ment. This would be but the natural result of the 
 preceding course of training. The healthy and full 
 development of body and limb, gives command of 
 all their motions, while neglect gives awkwardness 
 and ill manners. What a symmetry and beauty, in 
 the complete human form ! No art can equal it. 
 
 16 
 
186 THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 Power's Greek slave, is but the impersonation of the 
 perfect ideal of a great artist; but every teacher has, 
 perhaps, fifty real living beings, of the originals of 
 which this is only the copy. Every one of these is 
 of more value than a hundred " Greek slaves" ; and 
 though he may not make models of all of them, yet 
 he may make, all much better; and he does not edu- 
 cate therti, unless he does this. 
 
 Again : what poetry, what magic, what majesty, in 
 the proper movements of this human form ! There 
 is sublimity in the sweeping torrent, as it leaps from 
 the precipice to the abyss below. There is majesty 
 in the oak, as it sways in the storm ; there is grandeur 
 in the tread of an arn)y, or the rush of battle. There 
 is beauty in the swoop of the eagle from his mountain 
 eyrie, or in the gliding of a ship upon the ocean. There 
 is grace in the stately movements of the bending pines, 
 and ease and elegance in the bounding of the nimble 
 deer ; but man combines them all in the well directed 
 motions of his body. He possesses within him all 
 these elements. They should therefore, be brought 
 out, and cultivated to the highest degree of perfection 
 that circumstances will allow. Much of usefulness, 
 as well as of pleasure, especially among teachers, is 
 lost by neglecting to cultivate the grace and poetry of 
 motion, llowever much children may difl'er as to 
 natural ability, these graces are brought to perfec- 
 tion in any, only by careful practice; and since the 
 young body is most impressible, these gifts are most 
 readily incorporated in their movement by early train- 
 ing, — by taking advantage both of the necessity and 
 desire for exercise and amusement, and making them 
 subserve the double purpose of convenience and re- 
 
RECREATION. 187 
 
 finement. Hence it should be the object of all recre- 
 ative exercises, to cultivate the easy, graceful and 
 dignified, in movements and manners. 
 
 Article 3— Requisites, etc. 
 
 The requisites to recreation may be considered un- 
 der three heads :. First,\n reference to the time: Sec- 
 ond, in reference to the place : Third, m reference to 
 the manner. 
 
 Section 1 — The Time. — We remark, in general, that 
 all recreation, and especially thatkind which includes 
 exercises in the shape of amusements, must be regu- 
 lated with regard to time. It will no more answer the 
 purposes of recreation to engage in it occasionally and 
 at irregular intervals, as convenience or even as inclina- 
 tion in all cases would indicate, any more than it would 
 to pursue the same policy with eating and sleeping. 
 The reason that we experience greater inconvenience 
 from abstinence in the latter cases, is because the bless- 
 ings conferred by these are more directly essential to lifej 
 and also, because the processes of recreation are carried 
 on even by these, and other independent modes. But 
 the actual benefits of recreation are just as essentially 
 interrupted by neglect or irregularity, as those to which 
 allusion has been made would be, by a similar course 
 pursued with them : therefore, these exercises must be 
 regulated, and must occur, as nearly as possible, at ; eg- 
 ular intervals. 
 
 But it will not answer to make the intervals too long 
 or too short, or the occasions too seldom or too frequent. 
 Not being of that class of necessities which are regulated 
 by nature or instinct, they are subject, more or less to 
 
188 THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 the control of the judgment. If too frequent, they 
 either cloy or become a passion, and thereby interfere 
 with other duties. If the intervals are too great, the 
 exercises lose their effects, and keep the powers in an 
 unsettled state. As the day seems to be appointed to 
 labor, and the night to rest, and since recreation stands 
 as a necessity about where labor does, and since each 
 day, for the most part, embraces the whole routine of 
 essential duties, these things would seem to indicate its 
 frequency. We would be safe, therefore, in saying 
 that it should be at least daily. 
 
 The next inquirj' would be. What time in the day is 
 most appropriate ? In this we should be guided by 
 judgment again, though the inclinations point in the 
 same direction. Since the powers become weary 
 through toil, and since the quiet repose of nature in- 
 vites, the evening, between the hours of labor and rest, 
 would seem to be the appropriate time, though of 
 course this could not apply so well to the school. It will 
 therefore become necessary to select other times for the 
 department of recreation that relates to it: and since 
 the regular recesses are jiot employed with other 
 duties, a part, at least, of this time should be devoted 
 to some regular and well directed physical exercise. 
 
 It is a well known fact, that in a great many in- 
 stances, this time is spent to little purpose, compara- 
 tively — usually in some trifling amusement, or idle 
 gossip, without any reference to the wants or the suf- 
 fering of the body. If a game of any kind is selected, 
 it is just about as likely to be injurious as beneficial. 
 Little or no attention is given to direct the exercises to 
 those parts of the body that need them, much less to 
 restrain or distribute them in due proportion. These 
 and other circumstances seem to point to the regular 
 
RECREATION. 189 
 
 recess as a proper time when a part, at least, of the 
 great objects of recreation could be secured. This ar- 
 rangement would render necessary a little direction 
 from the teacher, as we have remarked in another 
 place. His presence and influence are also necessary ; 
 iirst, because if recreation is worth anything, it is worth 
 directing ; secondly, it should be guarded from excess 
 and abuses from other sources ; thirdly, the teacher's 
 presence, or influence otherwise, will have a tendencj' 
 to restrain evil passions and vulgar and jirofane words; 
 fourthly, it gives him the best opportunity to become 
 acquainted with the dispositions and habits of the 
 pupils ; fifthly, the teacher himself needs the exercise. 
 It will clear his head and heart both, from the brood- 
 ing cares and perplexities incident to the profession, 
 and will in no measure detract from his dignity. But 
 it will be found necessary to employ a small portion of 
 the time outside of the regular recesses. This will fall 
 under what we have denominated business moments : 
 when the books and study should be laid aside for a 
 few moments to engage in the hand, arm and body 
 movements, such as described at the end of tliis chap- 
 ter, under the head of Calisthenics. 
 
 Section 2 — The Place. — For general exercises, 
 such as games and sports, the open air is, by all means, 
 preferable ; first, because of the purity of the atmos- 
 phere — an indispensable condition to recreation ; sec- 
 ondly, because of the greater freedom of motion that 
 may be secured. Every school-house should have a 
 play-ground, and this should be arranged with refer- 
 ence to its uses, just as the school-room is with refer- 
 ence to its uses. Where a play-ground can not be had, 
 or will not be had, as is frequently the case in cities and 
 
190 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 large towns, a play-room should be fitted np with 
 special reference to the wants of the children. This i.s 
 a very desirable appendage in all cases, since in inclern- 
 ent weather the play-ground would become useless. 
 But in no case should the school-room be used for 
 games and sports, much less for general romping. 
 It may be used, however, for regular calistheuie 
 exercises. 
 
 Again : the places of recreation and amusement 
 should be free from mud and filth of every kind; and 
 should be far enough removed from any public high- 
 way, place of general resort, or dangerous precipice, 
 rocks, rivers, lakes, ponds, or any thing that would 
 endanger either the health or clothing, lives or morals 
 of the pupils. Too little attention is paid to this 
 matter. A dingy, dark prison-house of a place for 
 play, is about as objectionable as it would be for study 
 or recitation. A muddy street, or forlorn highway, or 
 dirty yard or pen is not much better. But the sur- 
 roundings should be as pleasant as possible. All per- 
 haps are aware of the effects produced by the presence 
 of beauty and order. They elevate and refine the feel- 
 ings. They open the mind to free enjoyment. The 
 blood flows with increased vigor, because the heart is 
 glad. The waste particles are removed more rapidly, 
 and the deposits are made in greater numbers, and 
 with greater certainty. A grove, from this cause, and 
 since it abounds in the greatest variety of natural 
 beauty, which renders it still more inviting, becomes 
 the most appropriate place for a summer retreat. In 
 a word, the place should be selected with express 
 reference to moral and aesthetic as well as physical 
 culture. 
 
KECREATION. 191 
 
 Pec. 8 — The Manner. — The inaaner in which these 
 exercises should be conducted will uext claim a brief 
 attention. The reference will not be so much to the 
 nature of the exercises as to a few cautions and general 
 directions. 
 
 1. Moderation in the movements is one of the most 
 important of these. The tendencies, especially after 
 confinement to hard study, are to excess. Students in 
 colleges, who perhaps have been accustomed to active 
 life, are liable to err in this direction. They confine 
 themselves closely to study, until they feel the impera- 
 tive necessity of recreation or exercise, when, from an 
 excess of vitality, they enter upon it so suddenly and 
 so violently, that they often impair their health and 
 endanger their lives. All exercises of this kind, and 
 of every kind, in order to be profitable, must be ap- 
 proached gradually, and increased as the demand in- 
 creases. At first they should be mild and of short 
 duration, and, on each succeeding occasion, augmented 
 slightly, both in quantity and quality, until the utmost 
 power of endurance is reached, or until the object, 
 whatever it may be, is accomplished. 
 
 2. Another caution seems necessary here, i. e., suit- 
 able protectiov . This condition or requisite is too much 
 neglected, especially by girls. Their clothing, for in- 
 stance, is often insufficient, both as to amount and 
 style. Mrst, it should be composed of strong but 
 light material, but enough to protect the whole person 
 from the chili that is apt to follow active exercise. If 
 any portion of the clothing is removed for convenience, 
 it should be replaced as soon as the exercise ceases. 
 Seeondly, it should be as equally distributed as possible, 
 covering the entire arms and chest; and where there 
 is danger from exposure to the damp ground, the feet 
 
192 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 should be well protected. Numerous evils arise from 
 the simple neglect of these two cautions. Colds, 
 headache, rheumatism, chills, and sometimes severe 
 attacks of dangerous diseases result. Thirdly, the 
 style of dress should be such as to allow perfect free- 
 dom to all the parts, and especially to the arms and 
 chest, since they suffer most from confinement to 
 study. The present fashionable style is at war with 
 this principle. It is with the utmost difficulty, that a 
 young lady fashionably dressed, can lift her elbows as 
 high as her head, without rending some portion of her 
 clothing about the waist, especially if the motions are 
 violent, as they should be in calisthenics. This is also 
 true of the fashionable dress of boys and young men. 
 No exercise can be profitable under these circumstan- 
 ces. The clothing, therefore, must be loose enough to 
 allow freedom of motion and freedom of circulation. 
 But enough has been said, the world over, upon the 
 follies of fashion, and especially upon the evils of tight- 
 lacing, to correct them long since. 
 
 3. The mind must be free from care avd avxiety. 
 It is of little service to engage in physical exercises 
 for the sake of recreation, when the mind is brooding 
 over some hidden grief, harassed by care ; or when it 
 is absorbed in study. There must be a relaxation. 
 All these things must be abandoned for the time be- 
 ing; and there should be ^ delightful play of cheerful- 
 ness and animal spirits. The reason for this will be 
 apparent upon a moment's reflection. The brain 
 needs tlie rest, and the body and limbs need the ex- 
 ercise. The blood should be attracted from the for- 
 mer, and invigorated and vitalized by coming in con- 
 tact with pure air, and being supplied with whole- 
 some chyle. It theii returns, laden with the prin- 
 
IIISCREATION. 193 
 
 ciples of life, and the wheels of thought again roll on 
 with increased vigor. 
 
 4. There should be cm object in view. Hence the supe- 
 riority of the games of rivalry.; of the pursuit of game 
 in hunting; and of the excursions in pursuit of speci- 
 mens in natural history, etc., as described in "physi- 
 cal culture." There is excitement enough in connec- 
 tion with these to keep up that healthy flow of animal 
 spirit. In case of a walk or a ramble in the woods, 
 it amounts to but little to stroll about without an ob- 
 ject, or even with one, if that object is inspired by 
 nothing higher than the mere desire to exercise. 
 Something exciting is needed to make the mind forget 
 its cares, and to revel in the pleasures of the game or 
 chase. 
 
 5. Recreation, as a general thing, should be taken in 
 pleasant company. "Iron sharpeneth iron; so a man 
 sharpeneth the countenance of his friend." It is not 
 e.asy to estimate the value of human sympathy, or the 
 power of conversation. They may enter into and 
 form a part of nearly all forms of recreation. They 
 serve as a medium for the expulsion of gloomy 
 thoughts, and for the introduction of pleasant ones. 
 Many exercises will not permit a connected .conversa- 
 tion ; but even in these cases, the pleasanter the com- 
 pany the better. The glow of sympathy, the beam- 
 ing countenance, the common object and mutual en- 
 ergy and aims: — all serve to dissipate care, to invite 
 happiness, and to beget a healthy flow of the convivial 
 spirit. In the calisthenic exercises, the music and 
 aoug, with which they are usually interspersed, the 
 graceful motions of the body, and all the enchantment 
 of the various figures and movements, have a ten- 
 dency to beguile care and sorrow, to bring into active 
 
 17 
 
194 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 play all the powers that please and delight the senses 
 and the soul. 
 
 When coixVersation can be carried on, the theme 
 should not be too grave, or too exciting, or else there 
 will be no rest to the mental powers, save that which 
 might be experienced from a change of thought. It 
 should turn upon pleasant topics, and should be rather 
 lively than otherwise, even to the merry jest and the 
 hearty laugh: the laugh is particularly valuable. It 
 shakes the cobwebs from the brain and inactivity from 
 the lungs; it stirs the sleepy tide of the vital stream. 
 It is a perfect tonic, and acts with a more desirable 
 force upon the liver than a dozen doses of " blue mass. " 
 
 Article 3 — The Tarieties. 
 
 The various kinds of physical exercises have been 
 frequently referred to, in the progress of our investiga- 
 tions ; so that at present, it only remains to present a 
 classification of those that may be used most advan- 
 tageously in the schools. In doing this, we shall not 
 attempt an exhaustive list. We prefer to give the 
 outline' in connection with a description of some of 
 the most appropriate and convenient exercises, and 
 leave the subject for whatever suggestions and im- 
 provements may be made upon it. 
 
 Those that relate particularly to the school, are the 
 following. 1. For out-door exercises, innocent and 
 actioe games of rivalry stand perhaps among the first. 
 What we mean by innocent is, free from anj' immoral 
 tendencies, such as betting, or any in which the loss 
 of property or character is concerned, or any in which 
 the evil passions are necessarily aroused — those that 
 are free from the contaminating infiuence of vice. 
 What we mean by active games, are those combining 
 
RECREATION. 195 
 
 the lively exercise of the physical powers, without 
 impairing their strength or activity ; not those trifling 
 amusements, — such as " marbles, " "pins" or "but- 
 ton," nor yet the silly nonsense of "ring around a 
 rosy," or " oats, peas, beans and barley grow ! " nor 
 those on the other hand, requiring too severe action 
 such as violent running or jumping (except as prac- 
 ticed in the gymnasium), wrestling or boxing, or any 
 thing that would have a tendency to injure or impair 
 the physical powers, or soil, or otherwise damage the 
 clothing. 
 
 The following are among some that may be safely 
 practiced, provided they are properly cared for by the 
 teacher: 1. Ball, ia all the varieties in which it is 
 commonly practiced. This is the great play of the 
 school, and it is doubtful, whether any other of equal 
 merit could- supply its place. It is a healthy and 
 dignified play, and may be practiced by nearly all 
 classes, and in some varieties by girls as well as boys. 
 
 2. Throwing the discus or pitching quoits, rolling or 
 playing at ten pins, are remarkably healthful exercises 
 for the arms and chest, provided both arms are used ; 
 and we see no good reason why they could not. These 
 exercises, however, are chiefly conflned to the gym- 
 nasium, and are considered appropriate only for boys ; 
 but I see no good reason why girls might not partici- 
 pate in some of them, at least. How much better 
 this than the perpetual idleness to which they are 
 doomed by the hypocritical notions of a fashionable 
 world! How ennobling and dignifying when com- 
 pared with that insipid nonsense, which constitutes 
 too much of their exercises (?) ! What health and 
 development of their chests and arms it would give 
 them ! The blessings they would thus be enabled to 
 36 
 
196 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 transmit to their posterity, would more than compen- 
 sate for any odium that might be heaped upon them 
 by bigots and hypocrites. 
 
 .3. Skating and coasting are forms of amusement which 
 certainly possess many excellencies, though for the 
 want of convenient localities they must be circum- 
 scribed, so far at least as relates to the school. The first 
 is eminently adapted to the wants of both sexes and 
 nearly all ages ; and, could it be free from the dangers 
 too often connected with it, it might be practiced with 
 the best of results. 
 
 4. Pleasure and scientific excursions may be practiced 
 in connection with school duties, though not with the 
 same regularity that others are. They should be a 
 kind of holiday pleasure, to which the pupils may 
 look with expectation and delight. See Chapter 
 Second. 
 
 5. Calisthenic Exercises. The practical illustration 
 of the above named exercises, as practiced in our best 
 schools, will occupy the remainder of this chapter. It 
 will be found that these exercises furnish a greater 
 amount of rational recreation and amusement than all 
 others ; and at the same time can be practiced, for the 
 most part, in the school-ioom. 
 
 For the following arrangement, and brief but accu- 
 rate description of them, we are indebted to the en- 
 terprising teachers of the city of Toledo, Ohio, in 
 whose schools the exercises here laid down, are car- 
 ried to a high degree of perfection. This system has 
 been gathered from a variety of authors, and possesses 
 the advantage of being brief yet eminently practical. 
 It contains about all that can be practiced with suc- 
 cess in the common school and college, and we believe 
 may be introduced, in some form, into every school in 
 
RECREATION. 197 
 
 the country. As such we most cheerfully commend it 
 to teachers and parents. 
 
 The most of the following exercises are arranged for 
 a class of sixteen, though many of them may be varied 
 for a larger or a smaller number. In forming for 
 practice, the misses are always arranged in a circle, 
 assuming : 
 
 Standing Position. — Head erect, shoulders thrown 
 back, chest forward, hands at the side, and feet at' 
 an angle of about 60 deg. The circle is divided into 
 4 sections ; the 1st in each section being its leader. 
 The leader in the 1st section is also the general leader 
 in every exercise. The 1st and 3d leaders stand oppo- 
 site each other ; the 2d and 4th opposite. The 1st in 
 the circle,and every alternate one, is called 'So. 1; the 
 2d, and every alternate one, No. 2. 
 
 Marching in Circle. — Commence with right foot, 
 keep uniform time, step lightly. (Here follows an 
 exercise in the March, directed by the teacher.) 
 
 Steps. — Directions for practice. — School Step. — Touch 
 first the heel, then the toe of the right foot to the floor, 
 at the same time springing on the toe of the left. Re- 
 peat with left foot springing on right. This step may 
 also be taken advancing or retreating. 
 
 Spanish Step, — Bring left foot in front of the right, 
 carrying it to that position in a curve, springing at the 
 same time on the right toe; carry it in the same 
 manner back to the standing position. Repeat, bring- 
 ing the right in front of the left in same manner. 
 
 Triple Spring. — Extend the right foot in front, 
 resting on the toe; carry it to the right side, then 
 resume the standing position, springing on the left 
 foot with each change of the right. Repeat the same 
 with the left foot, springing on the right. 
 
198 THF ART or TEACHING. 
 
 Quadruple Spring. -^'Extend r. ft. to r. side, resting 
 on toe ; carry it to 1. side beyond 1. foot ; return it to 
 r. side, then resume standing position, springing on 1. 
 ft. at each change of right. 
 
 Side Step. — Carry r. ft. to r. side, resting weight on 
 toe. Bring 1. ft. behind the r., resting on toe. Again 
 advance r. ft., etc. 
 
 Promenade Step. — Extend r. ft., resting on toe ; bring 
 1. foot forward nearly even with right, bearing the 
 weight lightly upon the toe, while the r. is again ex- 
 tended. Repeat, extending 1. foot iirst. An easy 
 gliding motion is desirable. 
 
 Slight Courtesy. — Extend r. ft. to the side, place the 
 left behind the right, sink and then rise. Repeat, ex- 
 tending left ft. placing r. ft. behind left. 
 
 Arm Exercises. — With marching step the class pass 
 half round the circle ; the Ist leader and her mate pass 
 through the center to the head of the circle, followed 
 by the others, and form columns, all the No. I's com- 
 ing up on the right hand side of the ISTo. 2's. 
 
 The columns being formed, they separate, by each 
 bowing to her partner, leaving a space of about three 
 feet between the columns. Then with school step the 
 columns advance, meeting in the middle of the space, 
 then retreat with the same step. Then to give space 
 for arm exercises let the alternate ones of each column 
 advance with school step to center of space, thus: 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 1st Ex. — Raise the hands to the top of the head, 
 throwing them off with force to the side. 
 
 2d. — Place the backs of the hands under the arms, 
 
RECREATION. 199 
 
 throw the hands forcibly downward, closing thera 
 tightly. 
 
 3d. — Place the tips of the fingers upon the shoulders 
 in front, throw the arms forward in a straight line, at 
 a level with the shoulders. 
 
 4th. — Place ends of fingers upon the shoulders, throw 
 the arms to the sides at a level with the shoulders. 
 
 5th. — Place the fingers as before; throw the hands 
 upward. 
 
 6th. — Extend the arms in front, with the palms of 
 the hands together. Throw them backward, meeting 
 the backs of the hands. Each exercise to be repeated 
 8 or 12 times, with counting or singing. 
 
 EiGTjRES. — Ist. Winding Circle. — The 1st leader pass- 
 ing just inside the circle, commences gradually winding 
 up to the center, with side step, so that when she has 
 reached that point, the form of the figure will re- 
 semble a watch spring. Turning, she unwinds, passing 
 through the spaces of the previous winding, until a 
 perfect circle is formed. Wind up again, the 3d leader 
 passing inside the circle, winding and unwinding in 
 the same manner. 
 
 Song : " Lightly Row." 
 
 2d. Moving Columns. — The 1st and 3d leaders march 
 through the center of the circle, passing each other on 
 the right. P]ach describes an oval figure. They pass 
 each other three times, then form a large circle. 
 
 Song : " We roam through forest shades." 
 
 3d. Single Columns. — Form columns as for arm exer- 
 cises. The columns being formed, the 'So. I's pass to 
 the right with promenade step, No. 2's to their left 
 describing a circle. Meeting, the mates join hands, 
 and, continuing the step, pass up to the place where 
 the lat couple stood in the columns. Separate, and 
 
200 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 pass around as before; all stop in the columns as at 
 first. Pass singly to the left, forming a large circle. 
 
 Song : " Hail Columbia." 
 
 4th. Intertwining Promenade Step. — No. 2's step inside 
 circle, facing right side, !N"o. I's facing left side. Mates 
 join right hands as they stand ; commence promenade 
 step. Each No. 1 joins her left hand with the left hand 
 of the next No. 2, so that they pass each other with the 
 Ist step, reversing their places, N"o. I's being inside the 
 circle, N"o. 2'8 outside ; No. I's join hands with the 
 next No. 2's, passing her with promenade step, and 
 again exchanging places ; continue this until mates 
 meet the second time. 
 
 Song: "Harvest Hymn." 
 
 5th. Trio. — Pass about one-third round circle, the 
 Ist leader stopping on the outside of the circle, forms 
 with the next 2 a triangular figure ; all except the last 
 4 form similar figure; the 4 stand in the center thus ; 
 
 2 1 1 
 
 2 2 1 Ist leader. 
 
 1 2 
 12 2 2 2 
 
 1 12 
 
 Lead oft' into a large circle with side step ; the Ist 
 leader passing off 1st, while the other circles take the 
 side step in their several separate circles, leading oft 
 in time to keep the line as unbroken as possible. 
 Song : " Up the hills on a bright sunny morn." 
 6th. Double Columns. — Pass half round circle, the 
 Ist leader and mate stopping at the center. The last 
 half form half a column in the same way, the 3d leader 
 and mate coming up opposite the Ist leader and mate, 
 thus: 
 
RECREATION. 2.01 
 
 1 5 
 
 Lead oft" with promenade 1 ^ step, the 1st 
 
 and 3d leaders passing to 1 g their right, 
 
 and their mates to the left. 2 1 
 
 Having described half a 2 1 circle, come 
 
 up as before. Separate 2 1 into two 
 
 2 1 
 
 circles, the 1st half forming one, the second half the 
 other. Take the quadruple spring, pass oft" with the 
 promenade step, as before. Form the columns the 3d 
 time, and pass into a large circle. 
 
 Song : " Bring Flowers." 
 
 7th. Fronting Columns. — Form single columns, sep- 
 arating as for arm exercises. No. I's commencing at 
 the head of the columns, join hands with their mates 
 and pass down through the columns with promenade 
 step, then separate, meeting after having passed half 
 round circle; go through the center and separate as 
 before. Again passing half round circle, the 1st leader 
 and mate stop in the place they first occupied in the 
 columns. The 2d couple go above the 1st, join hands, 
 and pass down between them to their places. Each 
 succeeding couple in like manner go above the 1st 
 through the columns to their places. Then, lst»leader 
 passing down through the columns with side step, each 
 in order join hands, and with same step pass into a 
 large circle. 
 
 Song : " Life on the Ocean Wave." 
 
 8th. The Wreath. — No. 2's step inside the circle, face 
 their mates, and, joining hands, take the Spanish step; 
 then all facing the center of the circle, the inner circle 
 take the side step once around; the outside circle once 
 around, both cirp|pa together oqce, The Isfo. I's and 
 
202 THE ART OF. TEACHING. 
 
 No. 2'a joining hands in their, respective circles,coarte- 
 sy four times, the fourth time the No. 2'8 courtesying 
 under the arched arms of No. I's. Being thus twined, 
 pass once around with side step ; untwine by No. 2's 
 courtesying from under the arched arms of No. I's. 
 The inner circle pass once around with side step; the 
 outside circle once ; both together once. No. 2's face 
 their mates and courtesy half round the circle ; the 
 inner circle then pass once round with side step ; the 
 outside circle once ; both together half round. Then 
 form large circles, by the No. 2's falling back into the 
 outside circle. 
 
 Song: For Spanish side step: "A rosy wreath we 
 twine for thee." For courtesying : " "What fairy-like 
 music." 
 
 9th. The Bower. — Pass half round circle ; the Ist 
 leader and her mate stop facing each other, and with 
 hands joined elevate them, while the 2d couple pass 
 under their arched arms, stopping just above them, 
 joining and raising hands in same manner; the 3d and 
 4th couples in same manner ; the 3d leader with the 
 remainder of the class pass under the arched arms, 
 until reaching the head of the columns, then turns to 
 the left, leading to the foot of the columns ; then again 
 under-arched arms to the head of the columns; then 
 turns to the right leading to the foot ; then joining 
 hands, they pass with side step to the head of the col- 
 umns ; the 1st leader and mate, with each of the 
 couples above in order, joining hands and with side 
 step pass into a large circle. Wreaths are desirable in 
 forming arches, if convenient. 
 
 Song : " When the day with rosy light." 
 
204 
 
 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 OBJECTS 
 
 AND 
 MEANS. 
 
 f Order. Authority. Obedience. 
 I Self-governmeut. EmploymeDt. 
 L Adjusting and removing temptatloc. 
 
 Conservative -l Self-government. Employment. 
 
 r Conviction. Recognition of guilt. 
 Beformative. ■\ Tlio claims of justice. 
 
 L Punishment. Olgoctsand Methoils. 
 
 Peotective. 
 
 Instruction. 
 
 Encouragement. 
 Watchfulness. 
 
 Pi 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 15 
 
 QUALIFICA- 
 TIONS AND 
 REGULA- 
 TIONS. 
 
 f Self-knowledge. Shrewdness. 
 Legislative. -| "Foresight. Penetration. 
 L Good common sense. 
 
 JuniciAL. 
 
 D iscrimi nation . ComprehonsioD . 
 Deliberation. Explicitncss. 
 , Firmness without obstinacy. 
 
 r Energy. Promptness 
 >- KxKCUTivE. J Determination without passion. 
 [ Generosity. Sympathy. 
 
 QUALITIES 
 
 AND 
 METHODS. 
 
 f Appearance. Demeanor. 
 J Ease and elegance in address. 
 t Sociability. Vivacity. Good healtli. 
 
 Moderation. Forbearance. 
 Disintereatedness. EarncstnesB. 
 - Confidence without affectation. 
 
 r Fidelity. Integrity. ZeaL 
 *■ "aoment'" ■! J-'rtice mingled with mercy. 
 
 L Mildness of manner. Severity of pui'pofie 
 
 Personal 
 Worth. 
 
 Self-control. 
 
SCnoOL GOVERNMJKNT. 205 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVEKNMENT. 
 
 Wb now approach one of the most difficult yet 
 most important subjects of the whole list of school- 
 room duties, viz., Government, or the control and 
 management of schools. Much, in a general way, has 
 been said upon this subject. This seemed necessary, 
 and indeed unavoidable, since the very nature and 
 design of " school-roomduties" are such as to involve 
 the mode in which they should be conducted. 
 
 In the discussion of the subject of government, we 
 shall avoid its general characteristics, except so far as 
 they relate to the school, and shall endeavor to point 
 out a system of government whose administration 
 shall render the school self-governing, and, fit its pupils 
 for that task, after they become men and women. 
 
 All governments arise from about the same necessi- 
 ties, have nearly the same origin, and should have the 
 same objects in view, viz., the good of the governed. 
 The essential principles of government are the same 
 every-where, the distinctions arising more from the 
 mode of administration than from any necessary dif- 
 ference in the principles themselves. Hence the dif- 
 ferent forms of government, such as the monarchy, 
 aristocracy, democracy, etc., with their various re- 
 straints and modifications. All these forms, doubt- 
 less, had their origin in the family, social and com 
 mercial relatione, and intercourse of the races. 
 
206 THE ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 "Without stopping to discuss the relative merits of 
 these several forms, we remark that the school is an 
 association composed of the elements of families, rep- 
 resenting the individual interests of each, and expand- 
 ing and combining these, so as to meet the wants of 
 the community and the State. It therefore represents 
 all these departments, and should be so conducted as 
 not to interfere with any of them ; but on the other 
 hand, it should prepare its subjects for a proper 
 appreciation of, and participation in, the duties and 
 responsibilities enjoined by these several relations. In 
 other words, the school should be the model family, 
 the model community, the model State. Therefoi-e, 
 whatever objects government has in view, in any re- 
 lation in life, these find, at least a similitude in a well 
 organized and well conducted school. It should have 
 all the sympathies, all the restraints, all the encourage- 
 ments, and all the high and noble purposes that ani- 
 mate, subdue, and elevate the human powers. It 
 should be a place in which is warmed into life every 
 principle of intelligence, and every generous impulse 
 of the soul : in which every evil passion is subdued, 
 and every unholy desire checked. 
 
 In form and administration, the school government 
 should, perhaps, resenible, as much as any other, that 
 particular kind of monarchy called the patriarchy; 
 though it should certainly possess many, and perhaps 
 all the restraints to the aliuse. of power, that are com- 
 mon to the best republics. And we might add here, 
 that no teacher is prepared to wield this potent instru- 
 mentality, unless he has studied well its nature and 
 design. 
 
 In presenting the claims of this subject, we shall 
 endeavor to follow an order similar to that observed 
 
SCHOOL GOVEKNMENT. 207 
 
 in the other topics; though such is the peculiar nature 
 of this, that it will be more convenient to treat the 
 objects and means of securing them in the same con- 
 nection ; and so, in the second place, the qualifications 
 and requisites; and lastly, the directious to be observed 
 in the administration of government. 
 
 Article 1 — Objects and Means. 
 
 It is a matter of astonishment, as well as regret, that 
 so few have a correct understanding, or an adequate 
 appreciation of the real objects of government, or of 
 the means to be employed to secure them. The mo- 
 tives to obedience have been so grossly perverted, the 
 incentives to duty have been so essentially weakened, 
 and the abuse of power has been so great, that not 
 only many false theories have arisen, but the very ex- 
 istence of sound family and school government has 
 been endangered. The mere matter of control or 
 mastery on the one hand, without consulting the 
 fitness of the means of securing it, or the uses to 
 which it should be devoted when secured; and, on the 
 other, the almost total abandonment of such control, 
 would be about as true an exposition or outline of 
 these two extremes as could be given ; while the inter- 
 mediate steps have been occupied with many errors 
 and many excellencies. Some of these will be pointed 
 out as we progress. 
 
 Section 1 — Nature of the Objects. — The objects 
 of government, as they relate particularly to the 
 school, may, for convenience, be considered in three 
 classes, distinguished from each other by their nature 
 and office. 1. They are conservative and self-perpetuat- 
 ing ; conservative, in that they maintain universally 
 
208 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 the same policy, and enforce the same claims and 
 obligations; self-perpetuating, in that these claims, 
 etc., are produced and reproduced by the necessary 
 development ofman's innate powers, and are co-exten- 
 sive with his present relations : i. e., the power that 
 controls arises not only from man's necessary exist- 
 ence, but is self-sustaining, since it is itself controlled 
 through the agency of perpetual causes, acting and 
 reacting, producing and reproducing both themselves 
 and their necessities. This will be more apparent as 
 the nature of these objects and duties is unfolded. 
 
 Among the first of these conservative objects, and 
 one standing high as a means of securing the ultimate 
 ends of all government — viz., the universal happiness 
 of the governed — is good order. Without this, all 
 the secondary objects would fail of accomplishment. 
 It stands as a sentinel, truly conservative, and admits 
 no fanaticism or discord to reign in the ranks of the 
 governed. It is that to which all oiher objects tend. 
 It pre-supposes, in the first place, rightly constituted 
 authority; and, in the second, obedience to that 
 authority. All other objects seem to conspire as 
 much to produce this, and through this, the happi- 
 ness of the governed, as any independent result. It 
 becomes emphatically, therefore, both an object of 
 government, and the chief medium through which its 
 whole machinery is moved, in accomplishing all other 
 results. 
 
 We remark, in the next place, that there must be a 
 standard of order, and this must be backed by author- 
 ity ; for of what avail is law or regulations without 
 the ability to enforce their claims, in case of any re- 
 sistance or disobedience? It is this that adds the 
 peculiar dignity to, law, and commands that respect 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 209 
 
 which renders it " a terror to evil doers; but the praise 
 (and protection) of them that do well." This stand- 
 ard becomes a tribunal to which are referred eases of 
 difficult adjudication ; and_ before which all our ideas 
 of right and wrong are summoned to testify in the 
 struggle which justice and mercy, as advocates, wage, 
 in the contest of truth with falsehood : not, however, 
 that these advocates contend, the one for the right 
 and the other for the wrong ; but the one clamors for 
 the blood of the guilty victim, while the other, admit- 
 ting equally the guilt of the oftender, and the claims 
 of the law upon him, yet interposes its scepter, and 
 points to the remedial agents, by which the victim 
 may not only be saved but reformed, and yet the claims 
 of justice be satisfied. Conscience is the great arbiter in 
 this contest, and should be the ruling principle in the 
 decisions of justice. The more of this ingredient 
 there is mingled with the administration of govern- 
 ment, the better. It is the conservator of order, and 
 the safeguard of authority. 
 
 This standard also implies obedience, on the part of 
 the subject, to the properly constituted authority : and 
 the obligations become more or less binding, according 
 as the standard approaches perfection. Obedience im- 
 plies motives, which should he such as will secure the 
 prompt, willing, and even cheerful compliance with 
 the behests of authority, without impairing any essen- 
 tial principle of independence. This is the ultimate 
 object of all obedience; while forcible measures should 
 only be employed for the temporary purpose of re- 
 moving the obstacles to voluntary submission. The 
 different methods that may be resorted to in order to 
 secure obedience, will be referred to again in the next 
 18 
 
210 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 section. They have also been discussed briefly in 
 former cliapters. 
 
 2. Another object in immediate connection with 
 those alroady named, is that of self-governrn.ent, or the 
 power the individual subject acquires to control his 
 own energies. In this will be seen the self-perpetuating 
 nature of government. It should be the especial ob- 
 ject of the family and school, so to develop fhe powers 
 of the subject, that when the pressure of extraneous 
 control (if indeed there is need of any) is removed, he 
 shall go on, a self-acting and self-governing agent. This 
 is the object which is sadly overlooked, and one to 
 which we call special attention. , 
 
 It is generally thought sufficient, at least in the 
 school, that the child be manageable, or entirely sub- 
 missive, while subject to the government, which is 
 often so arbitrary and severe as to remove all necessity 
 for the exercise of any other power than that of mere, 
 submission — if indeed, this can be called the exercise 
 of any power at all. The labor and consequent ad- 
 vantages of such control are transferred from the sub- 
 ject that needs them, to the machinery that enforces 
 them. Hence, it is not at all surprising that the 
 former should languish for the want of them, while 
 the latter should be impaire(i from excessive use. 
 
 It is a well known law of mind as well as of body, 
 that the legitimate use of any power strengthens it; and 
 that neglect weakens it. Now if these powers of self- 
 government are not brought into active service in that 
 stage of their growth when they are assupiing form and 
 character, they are neglected, and consequently weak- 
 ened. This is the inevitable result of excessive govern- 
 ing, or of that form which takes all responsibility from 
 
SCHOOL GOVtRNMEXT. 211 
 
 the hands ot" the governed and forces submission 
 ^^ nolens volens.^'' Hence, again, that form of govern- 
 ment which places the greatest amount of responsibilty 
 in the hands of the subject, and only holds him ac- 
 countable for the proper use of it, is best adapted to 
 the wants of rational and responsible beings. Self- 
 government, therefore, is both an object of govern- 
 «ient and a meaus of securing and perpetuating its own 
 blessings to those who are its subjects. 
 
 It will be seen that one of the most successful meth- 
 ods of cultivating the powers of self-government, is to 
 atibrd the individual healthy employment for all his 
 - powers. Indeed, it is quite certain, that if the proper 
 amount and kind of employment were furnished to all 
 the members of society, not only vice and crime would 
 diminish, but man would acquire the power to direct 
 his energies to the full accomplishment of the purposes 
 of life. We have had frequent occasion to remark, in 
 the course of this work, that none of these powers were 
 created in vain, — not for idleness, nor yet for mischief 
 or for tormentors ; that their chief delight, as well as 
 means of growth and sources of power,consists in exer- 
 cise, which the3' seek as naturally as the plant seeks 
 the light and moisture ; and that if left unemployed or 
 uncontrolled, the groat probability is that they will 
 run into mischief or excess. For a description of the 
 various kinds of labor and rest, recreation and devo- 
 tion, the reader is referred to those sections where 
 these topics are treated more at length. 
 
 Another successful mode of cultivating the powers 
 of self-control is, by removing temptations, such as are 
 likely to prove too strong for resistance, and of ad- 
 justing others that must be met; so that their conquest 
 by the pupil shall prove a source of power. This ia 
 
212 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 one of the most successful means of culture that can 
 be devised, and one that is most shamefully neglected. 
 Indeed, in a great many instances a course is pursued 
 which produces. results exactly the opposite of those 
 named in the above. The multiplication of commands 
 beyond a reasonable extent, the great majority of 
 which stand a better chance to be broken than obeyed, 
 instead of removing temptation, and becoming, as pei* 
 haps they were intended, a means of restraint and a 
 bulwark of defense, only add so much to the chances 
 of disobedience. They serve as so many traps to en- 
 snare the wayward feet of childhood into habits of dis- 
 respect and deceit. In the great majority of cases it 
 were better not to give commands at all, if the pros- 
 pects for disobedience are greater than those of obedi- 
 ence; since, in most eases, the sin of disobedience lies 
 more in the simple act itself than in any results that 
 might follow from the thing's being or not being per- 
 formed. The habits of scolding, continual fault-find- 
 ing and threatening are also fruitful sources of tempta- 
 tion both to stubbornness and to treachery. But these 
 subjects have been treated elsewhere. Their appear- 
 ance here, however, will readily be accounted for, when 
 it is remembered that school government extends to 
 every and all departments of the educational processes. 
 Again : the associations are a fruitful source of good 
 or evil. Bad company is to be deprecated on all occa- 
 sions, while the good should be sought. It is scarcely 
 possible, under ordinary circumstances, to escape the 
 contaminating influences of the one, or to counteract 
 entirely the influences of the other; yet there are two 
 extremes here worthy of special notice. The first is, 
 the practice of exposing children to the influence of 
 vice, without first fortifying their minds to repel it; 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 213 
 
 and the other is, the practice of depriving children of 
 the associations of the world, for fear they may con- 
 tract the evil habits of the world. The two extremes 
 are about equally dangerous ; and, what seems a little 
 paradoxical, lead to precisely the same results. The 
 influences and the results of the first course are sufli- 
 ciently apparent. The second, however, is worthy u( 
 further notice. 
 
 It is a very common reniark, and not without its 
 significance and truth, that those children who have, 
 for the greater part of their lives, been secluded from 
 society for the purpose of shielding them from sin, 
 when once exposed to temptation, fall most readily a 
 prey to it. The reasons are quite obvious. Never 
 having been exposed or tried, their powers of resist- 
 ance ai'e weak. l*[ever having conquered, they know 
 not the glory of the struggle or of conquest. 
 
 Since children, if they live at all, must live in the 
 world, and be exposed sooner or later to the influences 
 of vice; since they must, from necessity, meet and 
 overcome temptation or be overcome by it; it were far 
 better to bring them in contact with those influences, 
 under circumstances where they can be assisted and 
 defended in case the temptation should prove too 
 strong, than to keep them in childish weakness all 
 their days. By this we do not mean that they shall 
 become wicked that they may learn what wickedness 
 is, or that special temptations shall be invented in 
 order to try their strength ; but that they shall be 
 strengthened and fortifled against the encroachments 
 of both. 
 
 There are constantly operating within us, and upon 
 us from without, t^o distinct classes of influences, 
 called by one writer the "Passive Impressions, and 
 
214 THE ART OF TEACHINCJ. 
 
 the Active Principles."* The first includes all the im- 
 pressions that are made upon the mind, from influences 
 of an objective character; the second, all those inter- 
 nal emotions and desires that arise from subjective 
 causes. Now, the meeting of these two influences and 
 their consequent agreement or disagreement will de- 
 termine the character of the result. 
 
 Suppose, in the first place, that the influences or 
 passive impressions are bad, such for example, as a 
 temptation to evil ; and that there is an acquiescence 
 on the part of the individual, the active principles 
 from within rising up and coalescing with the impres- 
 sion from without, the result, in this case, will be bad, 
 since the deed itself will be evil, and the power to re- 
 sist a like impression the second time, will be weak- 
 ened. But suppose the active principle in man, which 
 perhaps in this case is only another name for the will 
 enlightened by reason and strengthened by conscience, 
 rises up and opposes the temptation and overcomes it; 
 the result will be a good one, since an evil deed has 
 been avoided, a temptation overcome, and consequent 
 strength has been developed to resist like encroach- 
 ments in future; but, as in the first case, the power to 
 resist grows weaker and weaker, at each successive 
 temptation, until the poor soul loses all power to resist, 
 and is led captive at the will of Satan, chained as it 
 were, to the wheel of vice, and dragged, it may be an 
 unwilling, yet powerless victim in the slavery of sin ; 
 in the other, at each successive conquest, the power to 
 resist grows stronger and stronger ; until by and by, 
 the man stands up free, emancipated, as it were, from 
 the thraldom into which temptation would force him. 
 
 * Joseph John Giirney. 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 215 
 
 Hence the injunction to "resist the Devil, and he will 
 flee from you," etc. 
 
 But take another case : Suppose the outward impres- 
 sion is a good one, and the active principle rises up 
 and meets it, as in the first case it did the bad one, the 
 result will be good, since the deed itself is good, and 
 it is obedience to a demand made by a legitimate de- 
 sire. But suppose this good impression is resisted, as 
 in the second case, the result then will be its opposite, 
 since there are both disobedience to a legitimate de- 
 mand, and resistance to good impressions. Under 
 these circumstances the individual grows harder and 
 harder to impressions, until what moved hifn once will 
 scarcely make" an impression now. This will account 
 for the indifference and hardness often produced by 
 repeated warnings. "He that being often reproved 
 hardeneth his neck, shall suddenly be cut off, and that 
 without remedy." 
 
 The same principle obtains in all the other cases. 
 Take the first, for instance: the first time temptation 
 to commit an act of injustice was presented, it created 
 perhaps a horror. The first lie, or oath", or theft, or 
 transgression of any kind pained the conscience, and 
 perhaps brought tears to the eyes ; the second, howev- 
 er, produced still less impression, and so on, until by- 
 and-by there was little or no compunction of con- 
 science. This class of transgressors is aptly described 
 by the prophet when he says : " Woe unto them that 
 draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it 
 were with a cart rope ;" and again, by the poet, when 
 
 he says : 
 
 " Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
 As, to be bated, needs but to be seen ; 
 Tet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
 "We first endure, then pity, then embrace." 
 
210 .THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 We need only allude to drunkenness, cruelty, profan- 
 ity, theft, and other kindred vices, of which these are 
 but fair reprerentatives, and the several steps by which 
 they have beej reached can readily be imagined. 
 
 But, take the third and fourth cases alluded to, in 
 which the outward impressions are good, and are re- 
 sponded to, id the one case, by the active principle of 
 good, but repulsed, in the other, by the active principle 
 of evil, and what are the results ? Suppose a man to 
 meet, for the lirst time in his life, a most distressing 
 object of charity, who, stretching out his emaciated 
 hands, implores help. The individual thus addressed 
 feels his compassion move toward the snflerer, and he 
 obeys the impression from without, and the impulse 
 from within. The suffering is relieved, and both the 
 giver and the receiver rejoice together. IS'ow, in this 
 case the principle of benevolence has been exercised and 
 strengthened ; and, as a natural result, the next object 
 of suffering is met in a still more welcome manner, 
 and soon liberality becomes a fixed principle ; the more 
 a person gives, the more delight he experiences in giving, 
 and his beneticence is only limited by his means. The 
 same is true of good impressions from any other quarter. 
 
 But suppose, when the first appeal is made to the 
 individual, that he closes his eyes to suffering and hia 
 hand against giving ; that he shuts up his compassion 
 and refuses to listen to the pleadings of mercy from 
 without, or to respond to the call of conscience from 
 within — what will be the result? In the first place, 
 suffering will not be relieved ; and in the second, his 
 own heart will be hardened. The next case of suffer- 
 ing will be met with less emotion, and so on, until 
 finally the needy will be repulsed with scorn or indif- 
 ference ; or the only effect will be to make the miser 
 
SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 217 
 
 clutch his goJd more tightly, and to steel his heart more 
 effectually against all generous impulses ; and thus it 
 is with all good impressions, from whatever quarter. 
 As paradoxical as it may seem, the same outward in- 
 fluences that have a tendency, when obeyed, to make 
 a benevolent man, will, when repelled, have a tendency 
 to make a miser. The same that develop the Christian 
 graces, and establish a man's moral principles, if not 
 received in a proper spirit, will harden him against im- 
 pressions of good, and confirm him. in iniquity and 
 crime. 
 
 E"ow these principles have a direct bearing in the 
 government and education of children. There are 
 four cases, which may be brieflj'^ recapitulated thus : 
 first, the impression in itself may be evil and the re- 
 sult evil ; second, the impression may be evil and the 
 result good ; third, the impression may be good and 
 the result good ; fourth, the impression good and the 
 result bad ; and all of the influences and results are, to 
 a great extent, put within the reach of parents and 
 teachers, or of the government. Therefore, let the 
 temptations be so adjusted that the power that is 
 within the child may resist them ; and let the positive 
 good from without be so presented as not to annoy or 
 harden the subject, but " to produce the peaceable 
 fruits of righteousness in them that are exercised 
 thereby." 
 
 . Srction 2 — Government, Reformative. — Thus far 
 the objects and means of Government have been con- 
 sidered as they relate to society in nearly a normal 
 condition : or, the conservative and self-perpetuating 
 objects have been considered. But society is often de- 
 ranged, and its members need reforming. , There are 
 19 
 
218 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 offenses and oftenders. It is safe to conclude this of 
 all stages and forms of association composed of fallible 
 beings. This of course will include the family and the 
 school. " It must needs be that offenses come," and 
 consequently there will be offenders, in this corrupt 
 state of things ; and perhaps this will always continue, 
 so long as society is composed of the same or even sim- 
 ilar elements. 
 
 Now, government holds some relation to these of- 
 fenses and these offenders. It can not avoid them so 
 loag as they compose a part of the body politic ; nor 
 can it look with indifference upon this new state of 
 things. Indeed, it regards offenders with a peculiar 
 interest. The mutual claims of government, and of 
 those under its control, when they depart from their 
 integrity or violate their obligations, it shall be our 
 present business to investigate in connection with the 
 administration of that kind of control, calculated tn 
 produce the objects heretofore discussed. 
 
 And first, we remark, since government is com- 
 pelled to deal with culprits, and since these, in many 
 instances, are susceptible of reformation, therefore it 
 should be reformatiiie. It should reach down, but not 
 in a vindictive spirit, to those of its subjects that have 
 been unfortunate, and bring them up, if possible, and 
 reinstate them, so that its claims upon them shall be 
 the same as upon those who have not fallen. This 
 function of government is manifestly neglected, both 
 in public and in private associations. Those who have 
 offended have 'too often been looked upon more as 
 enemies of the commonwealth, lost to the claims of 
 sympathy, and against whom the government hurls its 
 bolts of vengeance, than as subjects entitled, if not to 
 equal confidence, at least to its pity and extra atten- 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 219 
 
 Jion. Punishment is dealt out with au unsparing 
 Jiand, too often with no other object in view than 
 merely to gratify a selfish motive, or at most, the de- 
 mands of justice; when, in fact, the culprit as a mem- 
 ber of society, and society itself, have as great demands 
 upon justice as justice has upon its victim; and these 
 entirely harmonize. Justice demands the satisfaction 
 of a violated law, while society and the oftender him- 
 self are not less urgent in their demands for the 
 reformation of the latter at the hands of justice, as a 
 .natter of safety to the body politic. 
 
 The means by which oftenders may be reformed will 
 next claim attention. First, we remark, they must be 
 convinced of wrong as an initiatory step. There can 
 be no reformation from a point where there is no rec- 
 ognition of guilt. The culprit must first feel the 
 weight, the nature, the tendency of the oftense, befor^i 
 he can truly take a step toward reformation. The 
 government and justice owe him this information. 
 Hence the municipal law punishes no man unheard, 
 or uninformed as to the nature of his oftense. It 
 labors even more earnestly to convict him than it does 
 to punish him. In this it proves its sincerity for his 
 reformation. In this it takes the most direct course 
 to induce repentance — the first step of reformation. 
 
 'Sow this should be the course pursued in schools. 
 No step should he taken, no policy adopted toward 
 offenders, in which they may not recognize the benev- 
 olent intentions of government. For instance, a wrong 
 has been committed; authority has been trampled 
 upon; the integrity of the body politic has been 
 wounded, and it suffers in consequence. The culprit 
 hiiiself, as a part of this body, is a principal sufferer. 
 His -eformation, therefore, is demanded by every claim 
 
220 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 of every claimant iu that body. Now agencies must 
 be employed for restoration ; and it is clear, that if the 
 offender be in the path of the agencies thus employed 
 for healing the breach, or settling tlie claim, they will 
 operate upon him, of course. And if these agencies, 
 which have the double object, the satisfaction of the 
 law and his feformation in view, demand his punish- 
 ment as the safest and most direct means of securing 
 both these objects, of course he must submit, not only 
 as a matter of policy, which by the way is an urgent 
 one, but of necessity, arising out of the claims of jus- 
 tice. This punishment, however, should have nothing 
 but the most benevolent designs in view, and should 
 be varied to suit the nature of the cases. 
 
 This brings us to the most peculiar and most diffi- 
 cult part of the subject, viz., the kinds of punishment, 
 and the mode of administering it. Without attempt- 
 ing to discuss the merits of the several kinds, we might 
 be allowed the general remark, that for ordinary cases, 
 or where the powers have not been so impaired, or are 
 so defective iu their natural capacity, as to be beyond 
 the reach of restoration from natural penalties, the 
 reformation maj' be wrought, and the claims of justice 
 equally' satisfied by what are called purely moral 
 means. For instance, if the child disobey, he should 
 suffer the natural consequences of such disobedience, 
 iwhatever they may be, so far at least as they would 
 go to reform him. If he fail to get a lesson, which 
 indeed would be, in common with almost all offenses, 
 a species of disobedience, the natural penalty would 
 be either the loss of it, or the additional labor and in- 
 convenience consequent upon such a course. If he 
 lose his book or property, he, of course, ought to 
 suffer the loss ; so, if he squander his time iu idleness, 
 
SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 221 
 
 or deface or destroy his desk or clothing, or do any 
 thing of this nature, ho should be made to feel the 
 loss and suffer the consequent inconvenience until he 
 can realize the immediate relations of cause and effect. 
 Or, if he encroach upon the rights, person or property 
 of another in any way, the inconvenience and punish- 
 ment that his treatment would cause in others who are 
 subjected to them, should, as far as possible, be visited 
 upon himself. 
 
 In the great majority of these and kindred offenses, 
 in addition to the natural penalties, the offender lays 
 himself under an obligation to the authorities and 
 "powers that be," similar, in many respects, to that 
 which the debtor owes the creditor. The offender be- 
 comes amenable to the offended powers; and it is his 
 business, when notified of the same, to render his 
 account, and cancel its claims as soon as possible. If, 
 however, after the lapse of a reasonable time, he fail 
 to discharge this obligation, the debt will increase; 
 and if he await a prosecution, he ought surely not to 
 complain, if he have to pay the cost of such a proc- 
 ess. A good plan, therefore, in case of short-comings 
 of this character, is to notify the offender of his in- 
 debtedness and of his obligations to discharge such 
 indebtedness; to give him an opportunity to seek a 
 reconciliation, even to demand this at his hands. This 
 will bring him in such a relation to the government 
 that it can treat with him on more honorable terms. 
 This will throw the responsibility where it belongs, 
 and will relieve the teacher from the disagreeable task 
 of hunting up offenses, or evidences against them. It 
 will also be humiliating to 'the off'ender, and will con- 
 stitute no small share of his punishment. 
 
 And superadded to all of these forms of punish- 
 
222 THE ART OJP TEACHING. 
 
 meiit of a purely moral nature, which should he va- 
 ried to suit the individual cases, is the loss, on the part 
 of the offender, of the usual privileges of the school, 
 until satisfaction »s rendered, and a reconciliation ef- 
 fected. This course may be taken with a great many. 
 It will both deepen their convictions, and hasten their 
 return. It will become efi'ective in proportion to the 
 strength of the attachments, and the agreeableness of 
 these privileges. But above all and more than all, the 
 loss of the little attentions, the extra exercises, the 
 smiles and approbation of the teacher or parent, which 
 will be severe in proportion to his power and influence, 
 may be a keener punishment than all the flogging 
 that could, under ordinary circumstances, be admin- 
 istered; and certainly, in cases of this description, it 
 is more in accordance with sound philosophy. Even 
 some of the most aggravated oft'enses, can most read- 
 ily be punished and corrected in this manner ; for its 
 severity on a sensitive mind, will almost alwaj's be in 
 proportion to the enormity of the offense committed. 
 But if the courtesy of self- rep or ting on the part of 
 the offender is withheld; and if these offenses, or any 
 others are habitual ; if the complaint is a deep-seated 
 one ; it may require some more severe remedy. All 
 cases are not alike. In the first place the offenses 
 themselves are diverse both in motive and in enormity; 
 and in the second place the offenders are unlike as to 
 age and susceptibility of reformation. But all of- 
 fenses are evidences of disease, either chronic or acute, 
 and all offenders are invalids varying in degrees of 
 weakness and persistence, according to the nature^ 
 origin and standing of the'disorder ; and it is no more 
 rational to conclude that the same kind of treatment 
 or punishment will reform every case, than that the 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 223 
 
 same kind of medicine will cure all diseases. It ia 
 Dot, however, beyond the memory of some of the 
 present generation, when about the only remedy for 
 the prevailing disorders of the body, was bleeding 
 and purging. But this species of barbarism has been 
 supplanted by a more enlightened policy in the prac- 
 tice of medicine. Would that a similar one in refer- 
 ence to the treatment of mental disorders had shared 
 a similar fate ! 
 
 The two cases alluded to are strikingly analogous. 
 For one patient, it might bo. necessary to amputate a 
 limb, or to resort to severe remedies, to reduce the 
 system in order to arrest the disease ; for others it 
 would only be necessary to counteract the influences 
 producing disorder, or to aid the powers to free them- 
 selves from the burden, and the recovery is equally 
 certain. So iu relation to the nature and office of 
 punishment as a reformatory measure. For one it 
 might be necessary to resort to severe remedies, to 
 amputate and reduce ; for others, the milder means 
 and precautionary measures would be equally effective. 
 
 A great deal of late has been said about the kinds 
 of punishment, and the mode of administering it ; 
 and indeed there is room for much to be said. Per- 
 haps no practice in connection with school govern- 
 ment has been subject to the same or to an equal amount 
 of abuse. Corporeal punishment seems to be the feat- 
 ure attracting the greatest attention, and the form, 
 against which, the chief objections are urged; and, 
 as it is usually administered; it is certainly one of the 
 most objectionable. But some, lookin^only upon the 
 enormities practiced, have not been sparing in their 
 denunciations against the whole system. Others 
 scarcely less philosophical, have entirely mistaken the 
 
224 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 spirit and mode of administration in which its effi- 
 ciency lies. Hence they have taken the abuse, to 
 judge by it the legitimate use. This is manifestly 
 unfair ; for upon the same principle, scarcely a 
 single practice in the whole process of education 
 would escape condemnation. Recitation itself would 
 be condemned, on the same ground ; yet who would 
 think of abandoning it, because forsooth some bungler 
 had made a bad use of it ? We believe, therefore, 
 that this kind of punishment has its legitimate use ; 
 and, as a strictly reformative measure, for certain cases, 
 it has scarcely an equal, and' surely no substitute. It 
 can not be dispensed with in the present state of so- 
 ciety, and in no state surely, so long as there are gross 
 oflFenders to be reformed, any more than the use of 
 medicine can be, so long as diseases of a violent 
 nature exist. 
 
 In speaking of the modes of corporeal punishment, 
 we select one, viz., punishment with the rod, as about 
 the only kind not objectionable per se; and we shall en- 
 deavor to show that the objections arise entirely from 
 its abuse. Indeed its use has been grossly perverted ; 
 and instead of its being a reformative measure, it is 
 rather a vindictive one. For instance : an offense is 
 committed, or a series of offenses, whereby the teacher's 
 anger is aroused, or his patience exhausted. He falls 
 upon the offender and beats him unmercifully, or until 
 he thinks (if he think at all during the operation) 
 that he has given about enough ; or until his own 
 feelings of revenge have pretty well subsided, when 
 he sends him to his seat with something like the fol- 
 lowing taunts and threats : " There now ! I told you 
 if you did not behave yourself, you would catch it ! 
 Wow you have got it ! Go to your seat, you villain ! 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, 225 
 
 aud if you ever do so again, I will give you ten times 
 as much more! " And he does go to his seat ; but is 
 he reformed ? No more than the tiger is, scourged 
 within his prison bars. If that child be not a coward, 
 or a Christian (not that these characters are the same), 
 he goes cursing that teacher (?) for his meanness. 
 Aud it is mean ! It is cowardly to treat a boy so ! for, 
 if he wanted to fight, why did he not select one of his 
 own size and strength, and not vent his spleen upon 
 one unable to defend himself? 
 
 l^ow this is only a fair representation of what takes 
 place in at least one half of the cases of whipping, 
 as it is commonly practiced. It is nothing more, so 
 far as the principle is concerned, than a street fight, 
 with this difference, perhaps, in favor of the latter, 
 that the combatants in the last case are usually more 
 equally matched. No wonder that whipping has re- 
 ceived a bad name ! No wonder that shortsighted 
 philanthropists have condemned it, and sought to re- 
 move it altogether ! 
 
 There are other modes of administering this kind 
 of punishment, which ought to be noticed. Suppose 
 an offense, as in the first case. Instead of consulting 
 the circumstances and the nature of the offender, the 
 punishment is administered, so many strokes for so 
 much offense: and the culprit goes to his seat, relieved 
 for the time being ; for he has bought an indulgence and 
 paid for it. He has paid all the penalties and has a 
 clear balance in his favor, for the next half dozen of- 
 fenses, at least, when another settlement may be ex- 
 pected. Now there is no reformation here either. It 
 is only a bargain and sale affair, a hardening process, 
 by which, I doubt not, many have been whipped into 
 
22C THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 penitentiaries, or perhaps the last penalty has, or will 
 be expiated upon the scaffold. 
 
 Again: Some children, when whipped, have the 
 faculty of making a great noise, and loud professions 
 of reformation ; but it is soon forgotten : or it may be, 
 the noise is only for efi'ect, by which the teacher is 
 deceived; and the pupil goes to his seat, congratu- 
 lating himself upon his fortunate escape. Others, dif- 
 ferently constituted, and perhaps having more hon- 
 esty and principle, are in danger of excesses from an 
 opposite direction ; and others again, both guilty and 
 innocent, are punished in less objectionable modes; 
 and yet there is no recognition of guilt, no repentance, 
 no reformation. The whole object seems to be too 
 much either to give vent to angry feelings, to pay the 
 penalty of the law, to maintain authority by force, or 
 to seek the shortest way to enforce present obedience, 
 ivithout either consulting the nature of offenses and 
 offenders, or the demands these have upon justice for 
 reformation. But this objectionable use of punish- 
 ment is only accidental; and no more necessary than 
 war or murder is a necessity arising from the exist- 
 ence of firearms, — or than cruelty and oppression are 
 necessary, from the existence of human power and 
 skill. 
 
 The questions now arise, can punishment with the 
 rod be free from these objections ? Is thei'e not some- 
 thing connected with it, necessarily calculated to 
 arouse the evil passions? We answer most unhesi- 
 tatingly. No, not necessarily ; and will hereafter ex- 
 plain. But, does it not degrade both teacher and 
 pupil ? Does there not a great deal of evil grow out 
 of it? And in view of this fact, ought it not to be 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 227 
 
 abandoned altogether? To the last question, we re- 
 ply as to the first; but to the two preceding it, we as 
 unhesitatingly answer. Yes, when the punishment is 
 accompanied hj any of the evil passions ; and here 
 is the place where distinctions and discriminations 
 should be made. When any anger exists in the teach- 
 er's heart, while administering punishment, it will 
 laost likely arouse anger in the pupil's heart; if re- 
 venge, revenge; if hatred, hatred, or some corres- 
 ponding feelings ; for like begets its like every-where. 
 But observe : nome of these passions should have any 
 thing to do with teaching, much less with whipping, one 
 of the most diiBcult duties the teacher is ever called 
 upon to perform. Those who oppose the use of the 
 rod altogether, seem to overlook its legitimate use and 
 predicate their objections entirely upon its abuse. 
 Their arguinents are therefore all admitted; but they 
 do not tend to establish any objection against its 
 proper use. They seem to think that before a person 
 can whip, he must first have his feelings wrought up to 
 what we may denominate the " whipping point ; " and 
 that angry passions must, necessarily be aroused in the 
 pupil. Now this last may be the result in many cases ; 
 but mark, these passions are to be subdued. It is 
 similar in effect to the removal of a cancer or a tumor 
 from the body. It may cause present pain, and all its 
 angry humors may be goaded to madness ; but the op- 
 eration goes on nevertheless, until the oiiending por- 
 tion is removed, when the parts may be healed. So 
 with these passions. They may rage for a time like 
 a tempest, but the opposite feelings accompanied 
 by the proper use of means, will generally conquer 
 them. 
 But it may be furtbev asked, " How can the teachei- 
 
228 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 
 
 manifest these amiable feelings on all occasions, and 
 especially upon this most trying one ? " My friends, is 
 there any occasion for the exercise of unamiable feel- 
 ings, under any circumstances ? If so, then it is barely 
 possible that they may, with propriety, be manifested 
 here. "But how can the teacher love those who are 
 unlovely?" , He may not love them with the love of 
 approbation, or even of complacency ; but with the 
 love of pity and tender sympathy for their suffering. 
 Again.: how can he smite the object of his love and 
 pity, or hold back his hand from vengeance, when 
 provoked ? Ah ! that's the point ! Here is where 
 human nature is weak. Here is where passion and 
 impulse get the better of judgment and reason ; and 
 no wonder that evil rather than good is the result. It 
 is always so. 
 
 The question again recurs: Is it possible for the 
 teacher to whip without first feeling these angry or 
 revengeful passions, or arousing them by the opera- 
 tion ? We answer by asking, Can he not strike a blow 
 upon his desk without anger? Then why not upon 
 the scholar, if he have a great and good object in 
 view? Can he not smite with the same candor and 
 earnest desire to do good that actuated him while 
 reading the morning lesson from the Bible ? Can he 
 not inflict pain, and still pray? Can he not punish 
 and pity at the same time? Can he not love, and 
 lament the necessity that calls for sufl'ering? If he 
 can not, then he ought not to teach, much less to punish. 
 llfi should never lay hands upon that fearful instru- 
 ment, the rod of correction, until he can first lay hands 
 upon his heart, and say, " O God, I do this to glorify 
 thy name." " I do it to reform this pupil, and to 
 bring him nearer to thee." Let him do this, and there 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 229 
 
 will be little (lunger of excess. Let him do it, and 
 half tlie punishment will accomplish the desired end. 
 
 This is asking no more of the teacher than we re- 
 quire of the surgeon. But suppose the latter should 
 hesitate and say, " I can not perform this operation now, 
 because I do not feel mad enough;" or stop in the 
 middle of the operation, because, forsooth, the patient 
 cries. We would call him fool or faint-heart. Sup- 
 pose, on the other hand, at every stroke he should 
 grow more and more angry and vindictive, and should 
 use threats and taunts, instead of words of comfort 
 and encouragement ; or suppose he should leave the 
 'patient bleeding and perishing from the wounds he 
 had inflicted, we would call him a savage or a brute. 
 And yet, teachers who object to the use of the rod, 
 because some have abused it, must perceive that their 
 arguments against corporeal punishment are subject to 
 si milai criticism; and that the same conclusions can 
 be drawn from their objections to the rod, as would 
 here be urged against surgery. 
 
 Again, it may be asked, how can physical punish- 
 ment be made a reformative instrument? How can 
 bodily suffering affect the mind and heart for good ? 
 We answer. Does it not? Is not bodily affliction one 
 of the strongest instruments of correction and refor- 
 mation, that is used by the Almighty himself? All 
 philosophy and experience, as well as human and 
 Divine law, recognize this, though an extreme, yet 
 an effective agent in carrying out the ends of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 There are at least three classes of appeals that may 
 be made use of for correcting the irregularities of our 
 nature, and reforming oftenders: First, the' purely 
 moral ; Second, the intellectual and moral ; Third, 
 
230 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 these two combined and aided by physical force. The 
 efficiency of these appeals is in direct ratio to the 
 number of faculties addressed, and the potency of tha 
 means employed. The two classes acting in concert, 
 are stronger than one ; and all three, for extreme cases, 
 than either the one or two. The first two have been de- 
 scribed briefly. We propose now to speak of all three 
 of these forces combined, as a governmental measure, 
 keeping in view, all the time, the reformation of 
 offenders, the prevention of crime by others, and the 
 vindication of authority. In investigating this sub- 
 ject, however, it will not do to be guided by any pre- 
 conceived opinions or practices. The principles, as 
 they reveal themselves, will urge their own conclu- 
 sions, which the student will not fail to recognize. 
 
 1. We should not separate these forces or appeals. 
 In all such cases as may demand them, thoy should 
 act as a unit. It may not be necessary, however, to 
 employ all of them in the same case as has been in- 
 timated. They sliould be regulated according to the 
 nature and persistence of the offenses. But the mo- 
 ment the higher forces or appeals cease to act, just so 
 soon, and in the same ratio, is the effective force 
 weakened. This is necessarily so. It is just like a 
 human being endowed with all his powers in full play. 
 His mind and moral force constitute his chief means 
 of effective strength. Superadded to these he has 
 physical force. There are some duties in life requiring 
 little or no physical strength. Again, a person may 
 be deprived of the power to act physically, and yet 
 the mental force be unimpaired. But not so with the 
 loss of mind. That gone, and all is gone. On extra 
 occasions, therefore, and indeed, to a great extent, in 
 the majority of instances in life, the mind calls to its 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 231 
 
 aid the physical man ; and when all of these agents 
 put forth their greatest strength, in harmony and in 
 a good cause, it is then that man exhibits one of 
 the sublimest spectacles in the moral universe. Just 
 so in relation to these appeals, and their mode of ap- 
 plication. The purely moral and intellectual, as they 
 have been described, are the great motors and regula- 
 tors, by which the wheels of government are to be 
 moved. They will be adequate to the demand in the 
 great majority of cases ; but when a disorder arises 
 that demands additional force, then these moral forces 
 may call to thei,r aid — mark, not as principal agents, 
 but merely as auxiliary — the physical powers; and 
 when the moral feelings of the oft'ender can not be 
 reached by the mere moral force, as implied in the 
 above, then according to the same reasoning, these 
 feelings can more easily be moved by the combined 
 action of the two, or of the three. But there must 
 be no separation. The moral and intellectual powers 
 must lead. They should act even with additional 
 energy, when they call to their assistance the other 
 forces. 
 
 The chief reason why whipping in school and every 
 where else, is productive of so much mischief, is be- 
 cause when the teacher or parent takes up the rod, he 
 lays down common-sense, self-control, judgment and 
 his moral powers. He is thus shorn of his chief 
 strength ; and what other results can we reasonably 
 expect than those complained of? It is not an un- 
 common thing to hear teachers talk much about 
 moral suasion as antagonistic to physical force, and 
 as if it could not be used in connection with other 
 means. The very strongest moral suasion can be ex- 
 erted in connection with physical force and physical 
 
232 THE ART OP TEACHING. 
 
 suffering. The two are by no means incompatible. 
 If they were, then no moral effect could be produced 
 by physical forces, or vice versa. They harmonize in 
 every particular when properly used. There is. there- 
 fore, as much moral suasion in a switch, judiciously 
 iipplied, as in a sermon preached from the housetops ; 
 and for its specific purposes, it may be doubly ef- 
 fective. 
 
 Now, the whole matter is reduced simply to this : 
 one human being may operate upon another for his 
 good. The latter, of course, is susceptible to a great- 
 er or less degree. If his moral sensibility is easily 
 affected, then the moral force may produce the result. 
 In case the sensibilities have become somewhat blun- 
 ted, or hard to operate upon, then the moral power 
 may call to its aid the intellectual forces in the form 
 of superior judgment and skill in management, which 
 are from necessity variously employed throughout. 
 But if these fail, as fail they must, if the resistance to 
 be overcome is greater than the force employed to 
 move it; if the avenues leading to the affections and 
 will of the child are all closed, and no impressions 
 can be made through them ; these appeals must neces- 
 sarily fail. But still there is one more resort left, the 
 most powerful in all respects for the purposes in hand, 
 the united force of man's moral, intellectual and phys- 
 ical powers, a concentration and harmonious action 
 of all his energies to produce a given result, viz., the 
 reformation of offenders and the vindication of the 
 demands of justice. And on the part of the offender, 
 the operation of these forces are equally philosophical. 
 If, as in the case supposed, the moral and intellectual 
 susceptibilities, the avenues to the heart and mind are 
 closed to whatever forces the teacher has at command, 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 233 
 
 there is yet one more chance, provided the uervons 
 sensibility is complete. , There ia fortunately and 
 designedly a close connection between the bodily sen- 
 sibihties, and the mental and moral. The intellect, the 
 sensibility and the will are all moi'e or less affected by 
 any suffering that may be inflicted upon the nervous 
 sensibility ; and if, when the suffering is inflicted; 
 there is a clear apprehension on the part of the suffer- 
 er, as to its intent, and if it be administered in a 
 proper spirit and in a proper quantity, it follows, from 
 the conclusions heretofore reached, that unless the 
 subject of such punishment is beyond the reach of 
 reformation, these means may and will reclaim him. 
 This brings us to consider the particular mode of 
 applying the punishment, and the extent. This is an 
 important item, o'ne which may decide the whole thing 
 for good or ill. We desire, therefore, to be explicit 
 upon this point, for it is a mostdiffi^nlt one, — more so 
 than either study or recitation ; and, as in those duties 
 there is both a science and an art, so in this. The 
 first we have briefly sketched. The second involves 
 the particular questions, where, or upon what part of 
 the body? under what circumstances? with what? 
 and how the strokes should be applied ? We answer, 
 in reference to the first, that upon the back, shoulders 
 and lower extremities, since there is less danger of sus- 
 taining injury from the infliction of severe blows upon 
 (hose parts; but never upon the hands, head or face, 
 or any other place where it would injure the person, or 
 offer any indignities. The clothing upon those parts 
 should not be so abundant as to demand heavy blows, 
 or injury might result from that quarter. Hence por- 
 tions of it might be removed, under certain circum- 
 stances, and its thickness tested before the operation 
 20 
 
234 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 commences. This will also serve to convince the of- 
 fender that you are really laboring for his benefit. The 
 teacher should know and fully appreciate the nature 
 of the duty in which he is about to engage ; hence 
 great caution should be exercised in the beginning. 
 
 To the second question, viz., "Undei*what circum- 
 stances, whether in public or in private," we answer, 
 that when the vice is an individual or private one, and 
 when a simple reformation from such vice is the main 
 object, then a private punishment will be most efifect- 
 ive; since the child will have less to contend with in 
 this fearful struggle of passion with the moral powers : 
 the opposing forces of an external character will be 
 measurably removed, and he will more readily yield. 
 But where the example is necessary, or where the of- 
 fense has been mainly of a public character, or where 
 the breach of the law is greater than the breach in the 
 individual — both of which should be healed — or where 
 the claims of justice are paramount to those of ref- 
 ()rmati(m, or where a greater good can be effected 
 both with the individual and the body politic, — ^under 
 such and similar circumstances, a public chastisement 
 may be inflicted, keeping the same objects in view as 
 heretofore described. I can also conceive of cases in 
 which the parties alone concerned, i. e., the injuring 
 and injured, should be present; but these cases are 
 rare. 
 
 With reference to the third, we answer, the instru- 
 ment should be a switch. Not a pole, nor a club, nor 
 a paddle, but a light switch : one with which you 
 would not be likely to injure the muscle or bone. The 
 chastisement should be confined to the surface. There 
 perhaps is not a case within the reach of reformation 
 so hardened as not to be reached without going below 
 
SCHOOL GOVKEKMEKT. 235 
 
 the surface. A ferule is a bad instrument of punish- 
 ment, since there is great danger of bruising the hand 
 or the parts where it is applied ; and this is true of al- 
 most every other instrument except the rod, which is 
 the simplest, cheapest, safest, most convenient, and the 
 best every way. 
 
 The fourth question, " How ? " would involve the 
 irequency, severity, and number of blows. All these 
 points should be understood by the teacher. He 
 should study them just as carefully and accurately as 
 he does his lessons and propositions. Indeed, a mis- 
 take here is more cfisasti-ous than any that might be 
 committed in arithmetic or grammar. We remark, 
 therefore, as to frequency, that the blows should not be 
 repeated oftener than about once in a half minute ; and 
 for some purposes the intervals might even be pro- 
 longed beyond this time : first, because the child wants 
 time for reflection between the strokes ; secondly, he 
 wants time to reap all the benefit of one before another 
 is given. In this way, about one tenth the number of 
 strokes will suffice, since every one expends all its 
 force before another is given ; one is not lost or par- 
 alyzed in the pain of another; thirdly, because there is 
 less danger of arousing the passions of either teacher 
 or pupil. The former shows that he governs himself, 
 and this of itself removes more than one-half of the 
 indignity from the practice. Let him strike half-min- 
 ute or minute strokes, and he will feel no anger, but 
 rather pity and love; fourthly, because he then can wit- 
 ness and measure the extent of suffering, and mark its 
 effects ; fifthly, because it offers time'for admonition and 
 expostulation, which will frequently be necessary, and 
 will do as much or more good than the bodily pain. 
 
236 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 It will be mingling the moral and the physical forces 
 together in due proportions. 
 
 There is a very remarkable incident recorded of an 
 English horseman, which is to the point here. A cer- 
 tain nobleman came in possession of a remarkably fine 
 horse; but unfortunately he possessed one "bad habit 
 that rendered him almost useless. He would stop 
 while under the saddle, and no whipping or coaxing, 
 or driving, would induce him to move. After every 
 expedient seemed to be exhausted in efforts to conquer 
 him, a celebrated horseman offered his services and 
 was accepted. The animal was 'suitably caparisoned 
 and brought out for trial. The cavalier approached 
 him with an air of confidence and indifference, paying 
 little or no attention to his eccentricities. He finally 
 mounted him, when the horse started off a few paces, 
 but soon stopped short, as was his custom. Without 
 manifesting any unusual concern, the rider gave him 
 the usual token to move forward. But no ; he confi- 
 dently affirmed (in his way) that he would not. The 
 man, after giving him time to reflect a little upon his 
 conduct, slowly, but deliberately and determinately 
 descended from the saddle, and, stepping to his head, 
 took a firm and decided hold upon the bridle ; and 
 after the necessary adjustment he gave him one severe 
 blow with a weapon prepared for the occasion. He 
 ceased. The horse was chafed and angered, no doubt; 
 but, to his disappointment, the man did not repeat the 
 blow. He expected a shower of them, mingled with 
 curses, doubtless, or that he was about to be fiogged as 
 usual, and consequently had prepared himself to re- 
 sist it. But the horseman leisurely resumed his seat 
 in the saddle, and requested him to go, 'as before; but 
 
SCHOOL SOVERNMENT. 237 
 
 no, lie would scarcely move. He again descended, and 
 repeated the blow with additional force and coolness. 
 The horse was astonished and confounded at such 
 strange and philosophic treatment; and began to show 
 evident aigns of changing his poligy. The man gave 
 him ample time to determine upon his course, when 
 he again placed himself in the saddle, and gave him 
 the sign for going forward. There was evident hesi- 
 tation and trepidation, which showed that the point 
 was nearly won. He was evidently unprepared to 
 resist such treatment, and his inclinations were bal- 
 ancing as it were between two points. This was the 
 time to take advantage of the indecision and turn the 
 scale — to give the finishing stroke. The horseman 
 slowly descended the third time ; and with an intre- 
 pidity and coolness that entirely outwitted the animal, 
 he gave him such a stunning blow that it made every 
 nerve tingle and every muscle start. The horse fairly 
 leaped from the ground. His anger and stubbornness 
 were all gone; and no sooner had he an opportunity, 
 than he manifested the most entire obedience and will- 
 ingness to go when and wherever his master desired 
 him. He was thoroughly and completely conquered 
 with those three philosophic blows; and it is related 
 that he never returned to his old practices.* 
 
 ISTow what conquered him, the blows, or the good 
 sense? Doubtless, both; but the blows never would 
 have accomplished it without the good sense, nor the 
 good sense without the blows. I suppose the horse 
 had been whipped ten times more severely, and per- 
 haps a hundred times as much, many times before 
 
 * The above is related from memory, and may not correspond in all 
 ttip minutise of the incident, as recorded in the account, but the main 
 features are about the same. 
 
238 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 but all to no purpose, simply because it had not been 
 administered in a proper manner: and I venture to 
 say, that nearly all the very hardest cases in our 
 schools, if treated in as sensible a manner, might be 
 reformed by one hajf the punishment endured by this 
 horse. This is but a single case, it is true; but we 
 liave others oa record, both of men and horses, equally 
 remarkable; and I have no doubt that the secret 
 of success attending the remarkable feats of subduing 
 wild and unruly horses and other animals by the re- 
 nowned Rarey, lies in the good sense and severe mild- 
 ness (if we may be allowed that expression) of the 
 treatment. 
 
 The severity of the blows must be regulated entirely 
 by the temperament of the child, the deep-seatedness 
 of the disease, and the objects to be accomplished ; 
 which last should be the entire reformation of the 
 oifender. In most cases where whipping becomes 
 necessary, the blows should produce acute pain, for 
 the moment. They should not be trifling n6r trifled 
 with, by any means; and they should rather increase 
 than diminish in severity, until the turning point is 
 reached. 
 
 The time of one operation should perhaps not be 
 prolonged beyond ten or fifteen minutes (not all con- 
 sumed, however, in administering blows), at one time, 
 but may be resumed from day to day, until the re- 
 formation point is reached. It will be found, however, 
 that three or four strokes, or a half-dozen at most, thus 
 delivered, will usually produce the required results; 
 simply because reason, judgment, good sense, sym- 
 pathy, pity, love, suffering, justice, mercy, tears and 
 prayers, instead of angry curses and vindictive rage, 
 are all combined ; and it must be a desperate case in- 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 239 
 
 ■ deed that can resist all of these. Now let us compare 
 the brutal beating, and trifling mismanagement, and 
 retaliating process described in another place with this, 
 and decide which is preferable, which will be most 
 likely to produce the reformation ? Or, should we pre- 
 fer the coaxing and hiring process, and the covering- 
 up of the corruptions of the heart, to good sound 
 healthy punishment and reformation ? 
 
 Now understand : if we can rule by love, we should 
 do so by all means. But if that is not strong enough, 
 we should strengthen it by other forces. We should 
 bring to our aid every earthly device of an intellectual 
 nature, not inconsistent with moral force; but if these 
 all fail, we are inexcusable if we do not call to our 
 aid whatever other forces God has placed within our 
 reach. Remember, we have the destiny of immortal 
 beings placed, to a great extent, in our hands. It is 
 not for us therefore to consult our own ease or con- 
 venience, or to be influenced either by prejudice or 
 preconceived notions with regard to punishment. We 
 must do right, or God will judge us. Justice will meet 
 us, and perhaps ruined souls that we might have 
 saved, will haunt us, for not doing our duty. We 
 should therefore examine the subject carefully, and 
 not be led astray by false philosophy or shallow- 
 brained philanthropy. 
 
 Section 3 — Government, Protective. — We will now 
 suppose the offender conquered, subdned, reformed. 
 His willfulness has yielded, and his wicked purposes 
 ai-e abandoned. His anger ceases, and he submits 
 willingly, cheerfully, lovingly. What now is the duty 
 of government toward him? Will it answer to turn 
 him loose wilhout protection, as one who has simply 
 
240 THE ART , OF TEACHING. 
 
 paid a penalty and is free from further obligation ; or- 
 to say to him, "There, now take care of yourself; there 
 IS no further danger?" Will it accomplish the ends 
 of government to abandon him thus and expose him 
 to all the temptations that caused him to fall in the 
 first place? I know our State governments do. this 
 m too many instances. Convicts are discharged from 
 prison without a single safeguard ; but they are rather 
 weakened, disgraced, destitute, demoralized, and yet 
 exposed to all the temptations of former crime. But 
 what does the sequel show ? How many recommit- 
 ments! How few really reform, and how few of that 
 number stay reformed under these circumstances r 
 But this is but too sad a commentary upon the weak- 
 ness of human law, but still more perhaps upon the 
 inefficiency of our law-making powers. 
 
 lu all rightly constituted governments, the offender, 
 after suffering the penalty due to his crime, if he be 
 not entirely cast oft', and if he be not beyond the 
 reach of reformation, is supposed to be convalescent. 
 If he is not, justice has not done its whole duty. 
 Now what is the true relation the government sus- 
 tains toward him? He is supposed to be weak and 
 powerless, or at least, entirely subject to the influ- 
 ences which have conquered him. This may have 
 been the work of a day, a month, an hour, or a year. 
 It may have been accomplished by moral, intellectual 
 or physical means, or all combined : still these condi- 
 tions and influences exist always in the same ratio. 
 Instead, therefore, of casting him out to fall again, or 
 of withholding its supporting influence from him, it 
 takes him up in its arms of sympathy, and only ex- 
 poses him a^ his powers are able to endure exposure. 
 He now sustains a relation to government similar to 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 241 
 
 that which a now subject experiences. He needs pro- 
 tection, instruction, educat.ion, encouragement, sym- 
 pathy and watchfuhiess. This want should be the 
 special care of the government, and solicitude of the 
 teacher. If there is one object in all the school that 
 deserves more special attention than any other, it is 
 that poor unfortunate who has fallen, and now lies, as 
 it were, bleeding at the feet of mercy, flung there by 
 the hand of justice. Justice has had its demand ; and, 
 in executing its claims, it has wrought the necessary 
 repentance, and brought the offender within the reach 
 of mercy. Therefore let the government that smote 
 him down, lift him up. Let it reinstate him in its 
 favor and fellowship, and grant him all the immuni- 
 ties, claimed and enjoyed by other subjects. 
 
 Article 2— Qualifications and Requisites. 
 
 We have thus far considered government with ref- 
 erence to its conservative, reformative and protective 
 characteristics, chiefly as they relate to the school. In 
 doing this, it became necessary to make frequent al- 
 lusions to the qualifications and requisites of the gov- 
 erning power, and also to the mode of administering 
 it. This was contemplated in the beginning. It only 
 becomes necessary now to revert briefly to those 
 points for the purpose of showing their connection 
 and completing a list of topics in a uniform order. 
 
 Section 1 — Legislative Talent. — In order to carry 
 forward the objects of government, legislative talent 
 is necessary. Laws are to be enacted, and a general 
 provision established for regulating and running the 
 machinery. The teacher does not usually find these 
 provisions at hand, any further than the general prin- 
 21 
 
242 THE ART OF TEACHINfl. 
 
 ciples and common usage aftbrd them. From these, 
 and from his own judgment and knowledge of men 
 and things, he must manufacture or frame a code to 
 guide liim in the management of his internal affairs. 
 He therefore discharges the functions of a legislator 
 to all intents and purposes. In this capacity, no 
 knowledge will be more valuable to him than self- 
 knowledge, or that which gives an insight into human 
 nature and the motives and modes of human action. 
 With these commodities, he is expected to operate. 
 These forces he must provide for and control. The 
 more familiar, therefore, he becomes with human n-a- 
 ture in all its phases and aspects, the better. 
 
 He should' possess shrewdness, foresight, penetration, 
 that he may be able to anticipate and provide for the 
 emergencies and diflB.culties which must necessarily 
 arise in a perverted state of society. These are talents 
 that characterize all good legislators. They might be 
 embodied in that excellent quality spoken of by the 
 wise man when he says : " A prudent man foreseeth 
 the evil and hideth himself," etc. These qualities, 
 joined with deliberation, are the opposites of precipi- 
 tancy and rashness in the enactment or repeal of 
 laws, the inauguration of a new policy, or a change in 
 the genera) management. In all legislative proceed- 
 ings, there is no quality more necessary, or that will 
 add more weight to such proceedings, than a due exer- 
 cise of caution and deliberation. There is constant 
 danger of conflict from the various interests to be rep- 
 resented and consulted. Therefore, no law should be 
 enacted or repealed, no change in the policy or general 
 management be made, without first consulting all 
 these interests, and weighing all the consequences. 
 
 Again : for the various emergencies that arise, both 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 243 
 
 ui legislating in and administering tho aifuirs of gov- 
 ernment, there is a constant and urgent demand for 
 that kind of talent denominated by Mr. Locke, " good 
 round-about common sense." It is possessed to a very 
 limited extent by some of the most gifted. Indeed, 
 notwithstanding it is " common sense," it is a rare ac- 
 complishment. Hence many possessing qualities that 
 would render them successful in many departments of 
 business, would fail, if submitted to the severe test of 
 governing and teaching; since to do these things 
 well, requires greater versatility of talent than al- 
 most any other employment. This last arises from 
 the fact that almost all other employments are repre- 
 sented in right teaching. There is therefore a neces- 
 sity here for a universal talent, or the faculty of adjust- 
 ing the means to the ends to be accomplished, in a 
 great variety of ways, and in a great many departments 
 of business. 
 
 Section 2 — Judicial Ability. — Laws are to be pub- 
 lished and expounded. All must be notified of their 
 existence ; their scope and meaning must be limited 
 and explained by the teacher or the government. 
 Hence arises another function of the teacher. He con- 
 stitutes the judiciary, and to his tribunal must be re- 
 ferred all cases of difficult or doubtful interpretation. 
 In addition to many other good qualities requisite 
 here, we might name good judgment, or the ability to 
 discriminate in difficult and complicated cases. It re- 
 sults, it is true, in a great degree,"from a comprehensive 
 knowledge of the various forces of human nature. 
 Cases are continually arising for adjudication, that will 
 tax to the utmost the teacher's discriminating powers. 
 It is highly important that all his decisions be as near- 
 
244 THE ART OF TEACHINO. 
 
 ly correct as possible, so that there be no necessity for 
 revision or appeal. The teacher, therefore, needs time 
 for deliberation. He should not be hasty in his decis- 
 ions. 
 
 Again : all decisions should be rendered in as plain 
 and explicit terms as possible. They should be so 
 pointed that but one interpretation may be reduced 
 from them, yet not binding or committing the teacher 
 to any unpleasant alternative or unwise policy. Am- 
 biguity often leads to misapprehension, and uninten- 
 tional error, and leaves a given policy exposed where 
 perhaps it was intended to guard it. There should 
 therefore be a fair and distinct understanding in ref- 
 erence to the common duties of the school. 
 
 It also stands a teacher in hand to he firm. After a 
 conclusion has been fairly reached, and the decision 
 made known, it should not be changed for any ordi- 
 nary cause. A case in. which any change would be 
 admissible, must be one in which a greater difficulty 
 will result from adhering to it than from any modifica- 
 tion. But there is a vast difl:'erence between firmness 
 and obstinacy. The one never yields the truth : the 
 other seldom yields to it. 
 
 . Section 3 — Executive Authority, — Laws must be 
 enforced as well as enScted and expounded. This 
 gives rise to the third function of government, viz., 
 the Executive. This department sometimes becomes 
 the most difficult, owing chiefly to two causes : 1, the 
 inadequacy or want of adaptation of the laws to be en- 
 forced ; 2, the inefficiency of the executive power. 
 
 A good system of laws, with poor executive talent, 
 would be about as inefficient, as poor laws would be 
 with good executive talent. One of the leading char- 
 
S3H00L GOVERNMENT. 245 
 
 actei'isties in good executive officers, is energy, or in- 
 ternal force. It takes up the decisions as soon as ren- 
 dered, and infuses life into them by putting them in 
 progress of execution. Promptness to execute, is a 
 rare gift ; but it acquires additional strength and force 
 when it is exercised in .the alfaii's of the school-room. 
 This quality has been noticed elsewhere in this book. 
 In executing the demands of government, so eft'ect- 
 ually does it call into exorcise the powers of the 
 mind, and so engaged do they sometimes become, that 
 there is great danger of arousing the passions; hence 
 what is needed here, \b determination without passion or 
 undue excitement. Again: the nature of the penalties 
 is such that there will be a constant demand for 
 sympathy and generosity. The very act of controlling 
 or executing the laws, unless checked by a counter 
 influence, is apt to degenerate into indifl'erence or ar- 
 rogance. The necessity for the exercise of these 
 virtues will be seen from what has been said else- 
 where. 
 
 Article 3 — qualifications and Metbods. 
 
 The means to be employed and the methods of 
 application may be briefly summed up thus : — 
 
 Section 1 — Personal Worth. This may include 
 a great many good qualities, but refers mainly to 
 d'.rength of mind and force of character. These con- 
 stitute the most potent influences in the control of 
 human beings. We instinctively yield a tribute of 
 respect to talent, wherever found, but especially if 
 found associated with high moral powers. 
 
 Personal worth may exhibit itself in various ways, 
 among which are personal appearance and general 
 
24G THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 demeanor. These are well calculated to make favor- 
 able impressions. 'So one can disguise the fact that 
 a commanding appearance, neatness and cleanliness 
 of person and habits, combined with a gentle and 
 modest demeanor, will command respect everywhere; 
 while their oppo.sites, even if associated with the most 
 brilliant talents, will fail to produce the good results 
 desired. 
 
 The accomplishments, ease and elegance in address, 
 highly cultivated social qualities, and the vivacity and 
 cheerfulness arising from good health and physical 
 culture, can not fail to constitute a ready passport to 
 almost all hearts. 
 
 Section 2 — Sblf-Contuol. — Again: the very fac- 
 ulty, whose cultivation is so strongly recommended 
 under the head of " objects," viz., " Self-Control," is 
 one of the strongest means of governing that exists. 
 A man can never regulate and direct successfully the 
 forces in others, until he first regulates and controls 
 those within himself. In this, again, may be seen the 
 self-perpetuating nature of government. 
 
 There will be frequent, and indeed almost a con- 
 stant, demand for the exercise of moderation and for- 
 bearance in matters pertaining to the administration 
 of the affairs of government ; moderation in our views 
 and expectations — for children are subject to tempta- 
 tions for which we are disposed to make too little 
 allowance, and forbearance for their weaknesses and 
 short-comings. 
 
 Favoritism in the school-room is sadly out of place, 
 whatever may be its imaginary utility. In the ad- 
 ministration of affairs pertaining to teaching, there 
 must be an entire devotion to truth, and an equal din- 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 247 
 
 tribution of favors and restraints, irrespective of any 
 personal preferences or feelings. This will be a diffi- 
 cult task for many, and perhaps for all. So strong 
 are the likes and dislikes of our nature, and so un- 
 consciously aiid necessarily will certain qualities of 
 mind and body win their way into our regard, that 
 it will require more than an ordinary share of watch- 
 fulness in order to avoid biases in our judgment, and 
 partiality in the administration of the aiFairs of the 
 school-room. But disinterestedness, and an earnest de- 
 votion to truth, should mark all our intercourse with 
 pupils. 
 
 In the administration of justice, there should be no 
 hesitation or trepidation, or want of firmness or decis- 
 ion of character manifested by the teacher. The pur- 
 poses should be well formed, and then executed with 
 that confidence whi?h the cause of truth, and the love 
 of truth and the right alone can inspire. There 
 should, however, be no affected confidence, nor over- 
 weening assurance. It should be tempered with be- 
 coming modesty and humility. This will inspire con- 
 fidence in the hearts of the pupils for their teacher, 
 and strengthen that bond of union so necessary be- 
 tween the governor and the governed. 
 
 Section 3 — General Management. — We conclude 
 with a few words in reference to general management, 
 which will refer, in some measure to every depart- 
 ment of school-room duties, but especially to the mat- 
 ters of governing. 
 
 In addition to other qualities and means already 
 alluded to, fidelity and integrity should mark every 
 transaction. It will not add either to the dignity or 
 influence of the teacher, to make large promises or 
 
248 THE ART OF TEACHING. 
 
 threats without a moral certainty, at least, of fulfilling 
 them. Therefore let him avoid every thing, in his 
 intercourse with pupils, that will have a tendency 
 either to raise their expectations or excite their fears, 
 beyond a healthy degree of interest : or that would, in 
 case of unavoidable failure, or disappointment, destroy 
 the confidenc^in his fidelity and integrity. 
 
 Let him manifest a zeal and devotion in the perform- 
 ance of every duty, and in the interest and welfare of 
 his pupils, that will convince them that he is at once 
 their best friend and benefactor, and abundantly able 
 to reward the good and punish the bad. In all mat- 
 ters where punishment of any kind is to be inflicted, 
 let him not forget its great objects, and that justice 
 mingled with mercy is the divinest exhibition of the In- 
 finite Mind we have on record ; that the more closely 
 he can imitate this superhumaif pattern, the more 
 nearly he fulfills the conditions of a perfect system of 
 rewards and punishments; that no law should be enact- 
 ed for the punishment of offenders, that does not look 
 to their reformation as the one great central idea ; and 
 that no penalty, however' trifling or severe, should 
 be inflicted merely for the penalty's sake, much less to 
 gratify revenge.. 
 
 Lastly : let mildness of manner, coupled with severity 
 of purpose, mark all his demeanor and intercourse 
 with pupils ; but more especially in those cases in which 
 he is called upon to perform that most diflBcult and 
 dangerous task, viz., the administration of punish- 
 ment. And above all things, let him put his trust in 
 Almighty God — the great and only disposer of events, 
 — that he may be guided in the most arduous and 
 responsible duty ever conferred upon mortals — The 
 Education of Human Beings. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 Eclectic History of the United States. 
 
 An entirely new work on the subject. Events are sketched in a 
 clear, lucid and interesting style. Nine large and beautiful maps. 
 Numerous accurate portraits and other illustrations. 196 pp. Full 
 cloth. 
 
 Venable's United States History. 
 
 A School History of the United States. By W. H. Venable. 
 Finely illustrated, and accompanied with carefully drawn maps and 
 charts. 12mo, 288 pp. 
 
 Thalheimer's History of England. 
 
 For the use of schools. A compact volume, comprehensive in scope, 
 but sufficiently brief to be completed in one school term. E.'ccellent 
 maps and pictorial illustrations. By M. E. Thalheimer, foi-merly 
 teacher of Hintory in Packer Colkgiale Iiistitule. 12mo, cloth, 288 pp. 
 
 Thalheimer's Ancient History. 
 
 By the same author. A Manual of Ancient history, from the earliest 
 times to the fall of the Western Empire. Illustrated with full-page 
 engravings, charts of principal cities, and double-page maps. Com- 
 plete Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary. 8vo, 378 pp. 
 
 Thalheimer's Mediaeval and Modern History. 
 
 By the same author. Manual of Mediaeval and Modern History. 
 12 beautiful land accurate double-page maps. Voluminous Index. 
 8vo, 480 pp. 
 
 Thalheimer's General History. 
 
 By the same author. Outlines of the World's History. Concise, 
 but reliable in statement and entertaining in style. 12mo, cloth, 
 340 pp. Illustrated. 
 
 8^" The inctorsemeiUs of Thalheimer's Histories by the press and 
 educators have been mod unqwdified. It is generally conceded Ihut they are 
 trNEQUALED by any similar pMicaiians, in literaUy excellence, reliability of 
 statement, and style of publication. 
 
 Eclectic Historical Atlas. 
 
 A hand-book for students and general readers. Large 8vo, cloth. 
 18 full, clear, and accurately drawn double-page Historical maps. 
 
 Published by 
 
 Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinn.'vti and New York. 
 
Eclectic Educational Series. 
 
 Thalheimer's Historical Series. 
 
 BY M. E. THALHEIMER. 
 
 Thalheimer's (History of England. i2mo., doth, 288 pp. 
 
 Numerous Maps and Pictorial Illustrations. 
 Thalheimer's General History. l2mo., cloth, 355 pp. 
 
 Numerous Maps and Pictorial Illustratious. 
 
 Thalheimer's Ancient History. 8vo., cloth, 365 pp. 
 
 With Pronouncmg Vocabulary and Index. Illustrated with Engravings, 
 Maps, and Cliarts. 
 
 Thalheimer's Mediseval and Modern History. 8vo., cloth. 
 
 Uniform with Thalheivter' s Ancient History, 455 pp., and full Index*. 
 Numerous double page Maps. 
 
 In compliance with a demand for separate Histories of the 
 Early Eastern Monarchies of Greece and of Rome, the Pub- 
 lishers announce an edition of Thalheimei' s Manual of Ancient 
 History in three Parts, viz : 
 
 1. THALHEIMEB'S HISTORY OF EAEL7 EASTERN UOIT- 
 
 ARCHIES. 
 
 2. THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 3. THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 The First embraces the Pre-classical Period and that of Per- 
 sian Ascendency. 
 
 The Second, Greece and the Macedonian Empires. 
 
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 full cloth. 
 
 For convenience the numbering of pages and chapters corre- 
 sponds with that of Thalheimer's Ancient History, so that these 
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 the complete work. 
 
 Superintendents, Principals and Teachers of History are in- 
 vited to correspond with the publishers in regard to the introduc- 
 tion of Thalheittier's Histories. 
 
 // is generally conceded by the Press and Leading Educators that 
 Thalheivic) 's Histories are unequaled by any similar publications. 
 
 Van ANTWERP, BRAGG 6» CO,, CINCINNATI AND NEW VORK. 
 
Eclectic Educational Series. 
 ANDREWS'S 
 
 Elementary Geolog)^ 
 
 An Elementary Geology. Designed especially for the 
 Interior States. i2nio., cloth, 283 pp. 
 
 By E. B. ANDREWS, LL.D. 
 4:32 New and Attractive Illustrations. 
 
 The distinctive feature of Andrews's Elementary 
 Geology is its limitations. It is designed for students 
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 chief references to home geology. The simplicity and 
 regularity of the geological formations in these States 
 render them singularly fitted to be illustrations of the 
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 had been attempted. 
 
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 and zinc mines in the Interior States. 
 
 Of the four hundred and thirty-two illustrations prob- 
 ably three-fourths have never appeared in any text-book 
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 Van ANTWERP, Bragg &> Co.. Cincinnati and new York. 
 
Eclectic Educational Series. 
 
 Hepburn's Rhetoric, 
 
 A Manual of English (Rhetoric, oyA.fD. HE'P'BU'RN, 
 Trofessor in (Davidson College, N. C. 
 
 Designed to meet the wants of classes in High Schools 
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 are stated briefly and exemplified ; the instructor can ex- 
 pand, modify, and apply them according to the require- 
 ments of his classes. Adapted to instruction by Sections 
 or by Topics, izmo., 288 pp. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction. — Definition, Aim and Method of Study, 
 and Distribution of Rhetoric. 
 
 Part I. The Processes Conversant About the Mat- 
 ter OF A Discourse. — Chapter I : The Subject of 
 a Discourse. Chap. II : Invention. Chap. Ill : 
 Disposition. Chap. IV : Amplification. 
 
 Part II. Style. — Chap. I : Qualities of Prose Style. 
 Chap. II : Choice of Words. Chap. Ill : Figures 
 of Speech. Chap. IV: The Sentence. Chap. V: 
 The Paragraph. Chap. VI : Division of style. 
 
 Part III. The Elementary Forms of Discourse. — 
 Chap. I: Description. Chap. II: Narration. Chap. 
 Ill : Exposition. Chap. IV : Argument. 
 
 Part IV. The Principal Forms of Prose. — Chap. 
 I : The Dialogue and Epistolary Prose. Chap. II : 
 Didactic Prose. Chap. Ill : Historical Prose. Chap. 
 IV : Oratorical Prose. 
 
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