'■V,* ■ tVir-'t;.,;? ■?,i M &tate CoUcBK of abdculture lat Cornell IHnibersltp IL^firarp AGRJCUlTURAt-eOtnEGE ITHACA. N.Y. The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924085660193 T-k^IB OF COHTEMTS I I. Introduction Pi.^,e IIo General consideration of the disease • - • • 1 CoKmon names , 1 Description^ , , 1 Geographical distribution 2 Economic importance k History 5 j ill . The causal organi sms , 1 , Claviceps purpurea , 5 ^ a. Hosts 9 b. Tascononigr 15 ( 1) Sclerotial stag©. 15 ( 2 J Ascigerous stage l6 ( 3) Conidial stage • l6 c. Morphology 17 ( 1 ) oclerotiuin • . • 17 (2) Stroma 13 (3) Sphacelia '. 20 d . Physiology. 21 e . Pathogenicity 23 <% fo life history of C laviceps purpurea in relation to pathogenesis .-23 (1) Seasonal developnEnt of the disease 23 " ( 2) Production of spore s ♦ ^ (3y Viability and longevity of sclerotia 29 (4; Viability and longevity of conidia 31 ( 5] Dissemination of spores 32 ^# {aj Di sseimnation of conidia " • 32 •> _ (b) Dissemination of ascospores • •r • 35 l6j Method of infection 37<* (7) Period of incubation. , 37^ ( 8 j Time of natural infection ; 3713 (9) Source of inoculum : }8 ( 10) Ovenvintering of the causal organism - 39 (11) L method of developing the Claviceps stage ,.,; 39 i g. Climate and other factors in relation to the disease W ^ h. Varieties in relation to the disease , ". ^2 i , Control measures kk ( 1) Sanitation UU (2) Clean seed i+5 (3) Soil treatment kS (4) Seed treatment kS ( 5) Cultural methods ^+7 (6) Resistant varieties ^7 2. Other species of Claviceps a. Claviceps halansioidis Mbll ^+9 h. " carcina Griffiths and Morris J . . . . 5O c . " cinereum Griffiths 5x d . " junci Adams 52 e. " lutea 25311 52 f . " microcephala Tul. , 53 " nigricans Tul , ', 56 " pallida var. orthocladea P. Henn..., 57 " paspali Stevo and Hall •. 59 VI. Bibliograd " philippii Eehm 6I " pusilla Ces., 62 ranunculoides MSll 62 11 rolf sii Stev. and Hall 63 Page n. Claviceps sesleriae Stager, 63 • °- •' setulosa (Quel.) Sacc Sk P» " tripsaci Stev, ard. Hall. . .• 6U 1» " wilsoni Coolra 65 r. " sp. on Spartina striata 66 S" '■ sp. on Zizania aquatica and Z. palustris 65 IV. Infection experiments and biologic races of Claviceps species 67 «> CI . purpiorea from rye go CI . purpurea on Festuca SLrundimcea 69 " froEQ Anthozanthtun odoratum , 7O " sclerotia forming biologic race on A. odoratnm 70 CI. purpurea biologic form from Brachypodium silvaticum .... 71 Claviceps from Mlium effusum 72 " " Lolium perenne Jk C . microcephala Tul. from Phragmites coianunis 75 " biologic race on Poa annua 75 Claviceps from Glyceria f luitans 78 " " Zizania 79 7, Toxicology 79 History- 79 Ergot coirposi tion - SI Test for ergot. $5 ^ Ergotism 87 Remedy for ergoti sm : 90 I . Bibliography on the genus Claviceps 4 , 92 G BIJEBA-I COFSIBF'R ATIOW OP THS DISSASB Ergot is a disease of grains and grasses caused hy several species of fungi belonging to the genus Claviceps. The aost common, the earliest loiov/n, and the best tinderstood species of the genus is C> p urpure a Tul. Con- cerning this species we possess an extensive literature, \'*.ereas concerning the others \;e have hut short and rather inadequate taxonimic descriptions. It may he said that practically the entire literature on ergot deals \7ith C.. pur- _purea,. Because of this, son^e chapters in this paper, especially the first five, apply almost, if not entirely, to this species, there being in the majo- rity of cases, no infornation concerning the other species on the points con- sidered. It is, hov/ever- supposed that what is written of _C. "purpurea is true, in a general v/ay also of the other species of the same genus, although here too there is, in the najority of cases, still no supporting experimBntal evi- dence . COmiOW NAMES The name "ergot" is the term commonly used for the disease in this country, although in sor.e sections of the country and also in some textboolcs it is spoken of and described as spurred rye, "spur" being a translation of the French "ergot", meaning rooster's or code's spur, which name was early ap- plied to the disease by Prench writers. In England it is taiown as cockspur, black grain of corn, and ergot; in France, as "1' ergot du siegle", "siegle comu ' , and "siegle ergot^"; in Germany, most comiionly as ■•Mutterkorn", but also as "Komzapfen","Hungerkorn', "Roggenmutter" , "Martinskom'-', "Afterkorn", "Hahnsporn", "Todtenkopf " , and "Gerstenmutter" ; in Italy, as "sporon di gallo", "chiodo segalino", "grano sprone", etc.; and in Russia, as "spomija". DESCRIPTION All Claviceps species attack only the heads of the grain or grass, or rather only single flowers scattered here and there in "ttie head. The em- bryos of the flowers are first infected and EBy be practically destroyed before - 2 - there av-e any visible signs of parasitic growth. Externally, such flov/ers of tlie 'lost, as for instance of a voting rye plant, from v/jiich. later sclerotia de- velop instead of seeds, often have the appearance of the healthy and normal ones. Its normal tissues, hov/ever, imy have already been replaced by a fine, '-ello\.'ish-v/hite furigous growth. The exterior of this growth, visible when the flo'/er is opened caiefully, is divided by sinuous fui-rows into more or less \Tn.iforrn sections. j^s the fungus develops further .finally occu.pying pi-actical- ly the ''hole interior of tiie grain, there also appea.rs a slimy, insipid, svjeet- ish, sors-.vhat cloudy liquid, which is probably a secretion product of the siyce- lia. In this liquid are set free the fungal conidia, giving it the cloudy ap- pear .srice. This liquid scales through the glumes of the flov/er 3-nd collects in crops on them or at vtheir bases. It is called "honey dew'', and the stsige of the fungous development at which dev; is secreted is called the ■•sphacelial" sta-ge, ''Sphacelia ■■ being the generic name of the conidial stage of Claviceps. The ::4nount of "dG"'-' and the length of time during which it is secreted depend upon fis r.;.pic.ity ?,jC. -:,:..oun.t of fungous grourth. ■W^hile the "honey dev/" conti;:.uos to be secreted in drops, the irycelia = t the a,-se of the invaded embryo send out consider£.bly thiclcer branches. These unite fron. below u.pvards into a tmiformly thiclc, hard body on the exter- ior of ./hich the fungous threads build a dense layer, reddish to violet in color- The body thus formed is the young sclerotium on xtiose apex the fungous threads continue to gro\7 uiolf ormly. Lp.ter tliese tlxreads dry out, forming v/hat is c?J-led the ■■cap' usually found on the apex of the ripe sclerotiuia. These erA'ot kernels o: sclerotia are scattered throvighout the head, more commonly at the iov^er or middle part, and are coiauonly long, extended, somewhat curved, longitudinally furrowed, cylindric bodies. On the outside they are grayish- violet, sorstiv.es also with a dusty appearance due to a coatin_g of v/axy scales. GEOG^-PAPHICAL DISTRIBUTIOF JIha_distribution of ergot is very general \/ith the distribution of - 3 - the hosts on vlhich. it occurs, especially \ntli tlrr.t of rye. The disease has been reported from Horth and South America, Europe, Asia, Australia ai3.d Africa In North America it has "been found in Vermont, Connecticut, New York, Michigan Indiana, Tennessee, './isconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, V^oming, Montana, and other states, •besides various places in Canada^ It has been located in parts of South Airerica. In Grreat Britain it has been foxmd in England and Ireland. It has been reported froin Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Non^ay, Sweden and Finland. and and from various parts of Germany, Austria, Hungary/ Prance, where it is conmon in the districts of the Mame and Cologne, In Switzerland it has been obser- ved in ./ildesval, Meiringen and RUtti. In Italy, ergot has been reported from Tornetti, Avellino and pavia. It-has been stated also that its occurrence is common throughout the Balkan peninsula, but it has been reported only from Scrvia and north and south Bulgaria. It is very common in European Russia . throughout tho northern, eastern and middle parts, and in Caucasus n.nd Trans- caucasus. It is very abundant in Siberia, where two of the most important ergot trading centers are located - Tomsk and Omsk. It is reported also from other parts of Asia, from Australia, from Auckland (Nev/ Zealand) and also from Elsenbur-g, C?.pe Colony (Africa) . Ergot is as common in the elevated and m.ountainous regions as it is in the plains. Anderson (5) found _C. laurmrea everyv/here in Montana, as coni- ir£)n at 80G0 feet as at 3000 feet, the average altitude of Montana's plains. Ktihn (145; found ergot in abundance on AA;ro,stis vulgaris and Nardus sstricta in i'jaris<3hen Gesenke" at an altitude of over 4000 feet, Voglino noted that the attack of argot '^vas more severe in the mountainous part of Italy. Cockerel! (43) found C,, Tjtirpurea as high as 8400 feet, but rather' locally distributed, Frank (70; states that ergot in the mountains up to the upper limit of cereal cultivation, Jins is here often as common as it is in the lov/er regions. (1) Reference is i^de by number to "Bibliograpl^''- - 4 ^ Laerssen (164j found ergot in the high mountains as well as in the pJIsins, Stager seGured ergot on several plants from the peak of Merbahu (3119 m.), Java, ECOWOIIIP DilPORTANCE Ergot is an important disease on rye and soire of the grasses, hut relatively uninoportant on v/heat, bayley and oats. It is iniportant from two different standi^oints: first, because it decreases the yield and quality of thi. grain aiad hay; second, because infected grains and hsy ^-re injurious to stock T/hen fed. In general the decrease in yield and quality of grain due to the various species of Claviceps, especially C,. "ijurxiurea . varies with season and locality. Grains, especi.?-lly lye, in some seasons and in some fields are in- fected so heavily that nearly every head imy have one or more sclerotia, as was reported from './isconsin in 1917 (196). Cases v/here from 20 to SO per cent of the heads were infected with eigot have been reported from various parts of the United States and from Europe. During the wet season of 1894 it occurred to a greater extent in Germany, the loss on rye being estimated at 1.6 per cent of the average yield, in contrast v/ith the avei-age annual loss of 0.3 per cent. The airount of ergot for 1917 in Connecticut ranged from one to five per cent. Decrease of the yield by as high as 20 per cent has been reported from Russia (120). The injury to grasses appears to be greater thsxi to grains. Heal^ and Peters (93) report that hs.y ■>'hich consists largely of Agropvron ocoidentale and rye grass of different species, may contain as high as five or si:: per cent of ergot by veight. Single heads of these grasses ms-y produce from one to forty ergot kernels, Rostrup (224) found sclerotia of C. microesphala on Pbraamites cprmunis so abundant that all examined infloresences had imny hun- dreds of them. On one single panicle Rostrup (223) counted 912 sclerotia. - 5 - • He fotm-?. also that a sanrpls of S'estuca had 3700, one of i^oa 5600, one Of HOlcv 500 and t/o seed saroles of Agiostis alba had 2500 and 2700 sclerotia per poimd respectively. I'ot a fe^7 casos havo occurred (79), especially in Irelar c-jr-.d the United States, -.here h?.y -as fovmd to contain one eighth of its vi^eight of ergot. Codsayiie (42; did j:.ot find one out of over 100 sarrples of rye gras; in llzv.s.xja.tu district, Few Zealand, which vas free from ergot. liost of then had not moie tlxssn. 2 per cent bv weight, hut samples containing as nuch as 30 per cent hs-ve been seen by him. It is heavier than the i^re grass seed and so nalces the pxice of t>-e seed higher. The losa to the farmer due to feeding grains s,r.d hay containing ergot n^ay also becoEe consider?.blc under certain conditions^ Ver--- little is l^no^j-m., ho- 'ever, concerning the axict loss in stock fed on ergotized hs.y s:o.d grains. One case is lepoxted in 'England v/iiere a Shropshire breeder lost 11200 in three ye^.rs because of tlie pievalence of ergot in his fields. During the -.vinter of 1901 th'3 loss ox live stoclc from eating ergotized grain was very great in n-any counties in Nebraska. Losses of ca.ttle a,nd horses in sinall numbers due to eating of ergotized h^^f or gra,in have been reported froi-i various parts of this and other coun.trios. HISTORY Eigot is one of the oldest Imovm plant diseases. Its early history is connected "v7ith v^pidcmics anong bofe people and aniii>als. As early as Caesar's and Galen' s"*" time v;e fii^d records of such epideiaics of huiran disea-se ■-hich -'ere attributed to poisonous irrpurities of gra'ins. Knowing no-,r that crt'Ot poss0£.-3ss vj-y }.arl:ed to:::ic pioperties, we are lead to think that such iV'Wuvitios ;erQ due, at least in :?s-rt, to the presence of ergot. .Mso it seens probable that the epideinics recorded d^iring tlie middle ages as "Ignis sacer" /eio ..t l^ast partly due to poisoning caused bv eating ergotized food. (]_ physician and medical writer. A. D. 130-200 ? - 6 - Although the true nature of ergot was not taiovoa "by early writers, Its occurrence and use as a drug is mentioned by iiany of them. Lonicer, ahout the middle of the si3:teenth century, mentions its specific use; Thalius applied the name of "ad sistendum sangiuneum''; Bauhin used the naiie of Secale luicurians; DeCandolle calle it Sclerotium clavus . Pleigk (1795) noted ergot on rye and several grasses and described it as a degenerated kernel. This conception of ergot was prevalent for some t;ime ar.d was supported strongly even up to the middle of tlie nineteenth century by F^e aaid Phdbus (195). They first held that the ergot sclerotium does not have any spores or asci, but con- tains abnornelly developed starch grains and that its external covering con- sists of tho integument of the rye kernel. Ph^bus, on. the contrary, consider- ed the contents of the sclerotium asncrdified albunien, the outer layer being the ''shell'' of the komel. Others, as Bemhard, WilldenoW, and Link, express- ed.' similar interpretations, Bose, Rosier, and DeBomare (.161) attributed er- got to a superabundance of nutritive material, Geoffray antfL DeJussieu regard- ed it as "a rosult of laclc of equilibrium in the processes of fertilization." According to Fries' first conception, the sclerotia on the plaoit tissue corres- pond to tl-o "indulations" on the animal tissue. '^'o Raspoil (2?06) ergot is the product of the presence of a "vibrion'"'. According to Karl tMiller (131; ergot is the pathologically modified kernel, which mx)dification is broxight about by the failure of the flov/er to become fertilized. Schleiden (129) considered tlie fomiation ©f ergot sclerotia as an abnorirelity in cell structui'e brought ■about "Ij,y ii proper nutrition. It \jSis thought also tha.t ergot was formed as a result of -.-oundirig of tlie plant heads or the young fruit through the sting of cort-.in thrips (89; or tho biting of a beetle, Rhagjoaych a melanura Fab'^o. v/hich is v^rv- corr on in tlae field at the time of whe^-t blossoming (4) . St.~ndinger (258j considered it as a'-l^roduct ein.er i./idern-atiirlichen Gahrung in - 7 - feuchter v/ittercmg." Bauer (15) thought that the srgot sclerotivun was merely a rnojistrosity ox transfornation of the ewbryo of the "gerirans" of rje and those gramineous plants which are subject to tlie disease. Concerning the cause of it he IS not certain, hut h>3 considers tliat it is neither due to the rainy and 7jQt seasons nor to insect attacks but tliat it lijay he induced by certain coniJ-i- tions of tlie soil, Tries in his later vrarlc described in 1829 the sclerotiuiQ oi ergot as a fungus under the name of S-oeriaoedia clavus . but he still believed that tlie vfhole sclerotium was a diseased grass seed and again expressed tMs opinion in his publication of 1849 (74) » l^veilld (154^5 in 1820, noticed th^t tlae ergot coramenced v/ith honey d&v7 secretions, and considering this stage to be a distinct fungus parasitizing the ergot sclerotium, he proposed for it the x??,Ke of .Sphacelia seg;etum Since his tiae izany others, Fhilidor, Quekett, and J. Sraith,have vainly atteirroted to explain the qtiestion of ergot foriixition, J.. Smith (236; considered ergot to be a -constitutional disease of tiao plant, brought about by tiie reproductive bodies of the fungxis (conidia found in the ■-honey dov/'O being absorbed during ganrdnation, and carried up by the fluids of the plant and becoMng developed in tlie f;:uctific3-tion even be- fore tlie opening of the floral ervolopes, b\it -,-'icthcr the ove,rium is infcctod \/ith the disease at ohis time or ihcther it is coni;vjani Gated to it during irapreg- nation froiTi the already diseased anther, is a question still to be seen.-' In 1642, in his M^moire sur la genre Sclorotiuja (156;, I6veilld, to whoE! we nstrosity of grass seed,, iiile L^veillt, whose v/orfc has been duplicated -.vithout eiiception, dr-plaiaod the nature of the sclerotia of other plants, he still considered the ergot sclerotiuia of the graii : -^nd. grasses (no\/ called Sclerqtj uin cla-Tis by DeCandolle) as a degenerated Iteme.'': - 8 - whicli harbors the v/hite fungus or "honey dexv secreting* fungus previously de- scribed by him \inder the name Sphacelia sefi-etum L^v- The step tovard the establishing of the relation between the white fungous growth on the rye spilcelets and the later appearance of the violet er- got, was irade without L^veilld's knov/ledge one year before this. Meyeh (175) published in 1841 his observations on ergot and proved that ergot developed fron the fungus Sphacelia se,&etum. Meyen considered the Sphacelia as the itycelium of tlae ergot sclerotia. Corda (4-6;, on tlie otiier hand, thought tliat the Spliacelia -.-ra,s the product of the sclerotia. He described in detail the morphology of ergot sclerotia and speaking of the outer dark covering of the sclerotiui'ii he says, -'or the exterior of this layer is resting tlae spore formin.':, layer of the fungus. This consists of fibrous, sinple, one-celled non-sep- tated basidial cells of white color on whose ends are borne the spores, '■ Fries noticed the germinating ergot sclei-otia and the foriaition. of strojrata with pcrithecia, but thought it was an independent fungus and called it Sphaeria purpurea . Duricn (260; first showed that wlaon. ascosporos from the stromata fall on heads of cereal plants ergot resulted. ""lile this was a considerable step toi'/ai'ds the solution of this problem, one Kore important question TensAnea to be answered, i.e., what becomes of the sclerotia which we call ergot? This question was solved by Tulasne in 1852 who planted a gre^t number of ergot sclerotia in flov/er pots. He saw, 2.s had others before him, a fungus appear- ing on these sclerotia in the form of stronsta- The value of Tulasne 's contrj- bution consists in showing th£,t the purple stronata ( C lavi cep s purpurea Tul.; do not 'appear accidentally on the sclerotium of ergot as had been thouglit by previous workers, but a.re a, direct fruiting form of tlie same; tiiat the ergot sclerotia aio merely the hibernation or resting steiges of the same fungus. ^ 9 ^ whicsh finally appears in the form of a vrliite n^roelial growtli and toiovm under the rame, S-phacelia. seaetum ZS-v. The latter, in order to hibernate, passes into the hard sclerotia. form, which in turn develops into a Pyrenoiryce te . Following this classical piece of work KvUm cajne out with his wprKs on this suhject in which he repeated Tulasne»s work and fully completed the life history of Cla.viceps species known at that time. Since Ki3hn»s tiine till very recently the toclmical v/ork on ergot has heen of coirtparatively minor iniportance The recent work of St%er, however on pathogenicity and race specialization of C » purtJurea . and other species of tlie genus, has yielded contributions of iRiportsnce, CIAVICEPS PUEFUEEA Hosts In the list of hosts of C_. .purpuroa . tha most coirraon and widely dis- tributed species of Cliviceps and one v;ith a very vdde host range, are includer^- tliose plants on which soii:e kind of ergot has been found, but for which there is no esiperimental evidence to show the relation betv/een the ergot occurring on them and £. purpurea . In cases whoro this species has been established as the causs-1 organism by inoculation experiments, tlie host name is marked by an asterisk. GBMiLimm 5?ribe Andropogoneae •I Andropogon ischaeraum* 145 •• sorghum var. hemba hemba 159 Tribe laniceae panicum miliacsum 145 1 Cesati, Eabenhorst, herb, n^rcol, Ed. II. Cent, I, no. 38. 11 10 Pennisetum spicattun ? 143 Tribe Oryzeaa Oryza sativa 2S7 Tribe Phalarideae ' Aathoxanthtan odoratum 279 *Hierochloa borealis 54 " odopata 255 *P.ialaris arundinacea 299 " canariensis 197 Tribe Agrost ideas Agrostis vulgaris 145 Alopecurus agrestis 279 " geniculatus 145 * " pratensis 54 Aramop^la arenaria 279 *CalaiDagrostis arundinacea 246 " canadensis 298 " confinis 298 " epigeiOB 35 " javanica 255 " ■ neglecta 35 "Millium effusum 248 Phleum pratense 145 ■'■ZiHnr.erijKinn (143) found ergot sclerotia on the heads of this plant and thinlcs that they probably belong to the genus Claviceps, 11 Tribe Aveneae *^ Aira coespitosa 299 " flexuosa 299 Arrhenatherum avenacetiin 299 * " elatius Avena elatiOB 197 " pratensis 54 " s.-,tiva 279 Dcschainpsia flexuosa 255 Holcus lanatus 299 * " molle 299 Oats Tribe Pestuceae Arundo arenaria SS> " calamagrostis 145 ^Atropis distans 116 ♦Brachypoditun pinnatum 7© * " sylvaticum 279 *Briza media 246 *B -omas erectus 248 inermis 145 mollis . 145 1 pratensi s secalinus ' 54 sterilis 246 Cata.brosa aquatica 54 *Dactylis glomerata 2279 ^■C -r rather s. ■/- In Jour. R, At. Soc. 10, pt. 11, 1874 13^' ^« Festuca arundinacea 25 " avena 35 " lilatior 299 " gigantea 145 " nubigen 255 " pratensis 299 " rubra 35 " " var. lanuginosa 35 Glyceria flux tans ,197 " nervata 172 " speotabilis 145 Koeleria crista ta 5 " glauca 35 Ifelica ciliata 255 " uniflora 252 *Poa alpina 245 " aquatica 279 " caesia 246 * " compressa 54; * " conciima 248 * " hybrida 246 * " pratensis 296 * " sudetica 70 * " trivialis 248 Tribe HBordffis® i^rcq^jmBU barbulatum 14 " devergens 6 -i:«v 14 Agropyron glauctim 297 " occidentale 93 t II X. A , repens. 190 * repens 197 " SiBithii 190 " spicat-um bl89 ' tenenam 298 • violaoetan • 6 Asprella liystrix 189 ElyimiR arenarius 145 ti X Tritioum jimceum 113 ti cadensis 22 II condensattun 36 11 II giganteus 1 robustus 237 tt stria tus 189 It Ho¥deta virginicus n Tralbosum 189 35 ft disticlium 299 II jubatum 189 « tc murintan 37 n ntidum 14 II vulgare 35 II " tetrastichum 25 Hilsted. la. iigr. Col., Dept. of Bot. Bui. 19. 1886 3* 15 279 279 248 197 197 •35 14 145 279 113 229 299 145 145 " vulgare 279 Unclassified Ataxia HorsfieMii 255 Balding-era arundinacea 144 Liimochloa Baeotliryon 145 Schenadorus inermis 55 CIPSRACEAE Carex species 145 2 " stellulata angustata 82 n seed sample ,t is not known whether this is a true Claviceps as the attempts to germinate he sclerotia failed. *Iolium i tali cum * II perenne * II regidtim * II teimlentum *Secale cereale II montanum Triticum conintim II durum ti hiTjerni II jianceum (1 repens n sativum II speita i» tiirgidum 16 Cyperus species 1^5 Heleocharis malticaiilis 145 " (Soirp) palustris 145 " rmigltanis 145 Scirpus mfus 145 Taaconomv Sclerotial Stage Altho-ugh the true nature of ergot was not kno-wn by early writers ergot is mentioned by many of them as is shown in the preceding history. Lonicer (1565) mentions it -under the name of Clavis Siliginis and speaks of its use. Thalius (1568) referred to it as "ad sistendum sanfuineum" and gave it a pla,ce in his book under the name of Secalis nater. Bauhin (1625), who cites the first t-wo authors, called it Secale luscurians . Itaachliauses (1765), the first to consider ergot a fongus, called ergot scliaayotia Clavaria solida . Baldinger (1771 gave it the name Secs-le dorutum. Schraiik ( 1789J called it Clavaria clavus . Tode(1790) placed ergot in a special genus which he called Sclerotitan. Paulet (1793) described ergot as Clavaria secalina . DeCandolle (1815) applied to it the name Sclerotium clavus . 17 Ascigerous Stage The ascigerous stage of ergot, or£. purpurea Tal, was first de- scribed by PauOet (1793) xmder tha name STahaeropus fupgoruni . and then by- Fries (1832) under the naire Sphaeria purptirea . Schumacher (1823) called the saire Sphaeria entoirorhiza and ^. capitata . V/allroth (1844) described it as jgentrosporium purpurea dn K. niitratum . These two correspond to the tv/o Sphaeria species of Schunacher. Fries later (1846) applied the name Cordvceps purpurea . Tulasne (1851) called it Cordiliceps purpurea and finally ( 1853 Claviceps purpurea . Conidial State Pries (1822) first described the conidial stage of ergot under the name gpermoedia clavus . Leveille (154) in 1826 noticed that the ergot coinffienced with this soft covering (the sphacelia stage) and considering it to be a distinct fungus parasitic on the ergot, and proposed for it the name Sphacelia segetum. Nees applied to it the name Fusarium heterosporum (Sacc. Syil. Pungorum, no. 2, p, 565. John Smith(236) and Quackett in 1841, published a description of the structvire of the fungus in this sphacelia! condition, as far as they were able to observe it. They thonght it was an amorphous mass of small spherical cells, with a number of larger Sjjacelia is a word derived from the Greek and meaning gangrene; the same word in a secondary sense means mildew. We have the English work Sphacelate, which means to become affected with gangrene. 17 18 binucleate oblftng cells scattered among them. It vvas supposed to te the immediate cause of ergot and Que eke tt gave to it the name Brg:otetia ahortifaciens, while Berkley and Broome (2®) believed it to be a true Oidium and removed it to that genus under the name 0. abortifaciens . Ergot on accoxint of the nature of its de:?elopment, has been placed in at least three different families. First it appears as a hyphoncrcGte in the form of Sphacelia segetum 3lev., then the real ergot is produced which is laiown under the name of Sclerotium clavus D. C, ■ ..b'- This develops finally into an ascigerous state, Claviceps Tul., which belongs to the Pyrenomycetes. The fungus passes, therefore, during its life history through the types of not less than tliree families, according to the old classification of fungi. Morphology Sclerotium Upon examination of a head of ergctized rrye v/e find one or more of the rye kernels replaced by blackish horn- like bodies. Upon removing one of these it may be noted that its production has not materially injured the spike and that its growth has been eonfined to the flower from which it was taken. These ergot sclerotia, especially when small in size, resemble in form the kernels of the host on vjhich they are found, except that they are more or less irregular. They are long, twice or tliree times as long and stout as the normal seed, extended, usually curved, somewhat angular, longitudinally corrugated, minutely granular and often slightly split both transversely and' longitudinally, the cracks shBBttmas showing a reddisk ne-rgin, and exposing the whitish interior substance of the sclerotium. 18 Externally, the ergot sclerotia are grayish-violet, soraetimes dark or light violet or grayish-vdiite, teniporarily having a dusty appearance viiiicsh is due to a waxy suhstance on their s\irface« HDhe interior of the nature sclerotia is hard, not airoays uni- form in color, but usually \Thtite. 4ften there are in the internal tissue of the sclerotia distinct ndllc white grayish-vdiite or bluish-isJiite stripes. Although EUhn thinks that there can be no distinction between differently colored sclerotia, sohb have tried to classify them according to color as harmful and haimless sclerotia. A faint, sickly oftor of canphor is noticeable from fresh ergot, its taste isben raw is slightly bitter and nauseating. In size, the sclerotia vary considerably depending first upon the size of the flower glumes in which they are produced, and second upon their member in a single head. The smaller the flowers are the snaller will be the sclerotia. In most cases they are one or two times longer than the flower glumes Although they sometimes may become much longer. In rye they are one to three centimeters long and up to eight millimeters in diameter, Sclerotia from Molinia coerulea are four to six millimeters long and one to one and one-half millimeters thick; from Poa annua they are scarcely three millimeters long; from Poa pratensi s they are never longer than six millimeters On Elymus canadensis they are almost if not fuily as long as on rye. Stroma After having passed through the resting period, the ergot sclerotium, if put in a moist chamber or planted in moist. soil will develop stromata. These stromata may all appear simultaneously or break through gradtially. By the breaking through of the stromata the outer layer of the sclerotium is pushed up in an irregular form and finally pushed aside. At such points there appear globose, coapact, white bodies which gradually in- 19 crea-se in diasceter, usually shov/ing on their surfaces droplets of a clear liquid. These todies are the stroroata which increase to about one-half millimeter in diameter and are then pushed up by their stipes which develop under them. The stipes develop very uniformly in moist chamber whereas in soil they gro^;' just long enotigh so that the stromata will be on the surface of the soil. The shallower the sclerotia are planted, the shorter the stipes will be. The stipes are somewhat thicker and usually covered with vtoite fibers at the bases and smooth above. The stipes are at first pale yellov/ish, later reddish, finally purple-violet colored or lilac above and lighter to nearly viihite at the bases, especially after the stjromata are near- ly mature. As a rule the stipes are uniformly cylindrical and slender, son«- times broadened and of spiral form; broader at the base and tapering toward the apex. Sometimes two stalks and their stromatal heads are grown together. In such cases, the stalks are abnormally shortened and thickened. Delacroix (51) reports a case where a gorminatiiig sclerotium o f Cigur-purea . instead of many stromata 1 heads, formed just a single but much larger one. The number of stromata depends largely on the size of the sclerotium. Kuhn:-.;re- polrts that as many as thiiriiy" three stroirata may be formed on a single sclerotiuzQ The stronB-ta] head at ics base where it joins the stipe is not closely adnate but overhStngs this as a free ring. The stronatal heads are in form almost s|iherical'*and vary in size up to 1.5 mm. in diameter. In color, they are at first light yellowish; later reddish flesh-colored to pale fav/n. Their upper surface is uneven, slightly wp.rty (verrucose) because of the projecting ostioles of the perithecia, vdiich are found sunken throughout the entire surface of the sphaeridixun. 2U The perithecla are egg or fla.slc shaped, with the sharper point towards the ostiole. The little projecting motittis are the ostiolpo- The perithecia are filled with long, more or less curved transparent c^sci *ich are narrow-er at the hase and apex and broadened in the middle. They spring from the base of the perithecitun. The asci are surrounded by numerous sterile threads, paraphyaes, which are somewhat thicker at their apical ends. In the literature ia mentioned that paraphyaes are not present in Claviceps perithecia. However, in fresh naterial by the addition of potassium iodide two kinds of asci are recognized (62). The 3arger number of the asci contain spores, a smaller number have a granular consistency. These are the paraphyses and are distinguished by their contents and not so much by their form. In each of the thin, colorless asci are found eight asco-spores, which evidently are set free by breaking of the ascus at the base. The spores themselves are very fine, long, attenuated, linear bodies and are usually somewhat curved, 50 to 76 |j, long. According to Freeman (72) they are nany septated, sometimes as ma.ny as sixty- two times. Gussow (85) work- ing \7ith barley Claviceps, found that osco spores have but three septa. Fyles (76) found this same number of septa in the ascospores of Claviceps 35rom Zizania, Sphacelitan The ascospores or the conidia of Claviceps when brought to the flowers of the susceptible host and given favorable conditions, germinate, and invade the young ovary. She grov/th enlarges forming a dirty white, soft and slingr mass as long as, or longer, tlian the glumes, and having on its upper surface a wound-like appearance. This stage in the development of Claviceps is called the sphacelia stage. The interior of this growth consists of irregular channels and arles extending longitudinally and transversely. 21 W^Oi whole surface of the Spbacelial grov/th including that of the channels and holes is covered by closely appressed elongated conidiophores, eadh 1^ ■/ « I ' , t one supporting a conidium. 5!he cmidia are fowned continuously on these spore-hearing organs. The hyphae from which the conidiophores arise renain the same as those formed upon the germination of the ascospores. Closely con- nected vath the formation of nasses of conidial* , is the abundant secretion of the "honey dew" previously described, vihich holds in suspension liberated conidia and which carries them out of the spbacelial growth. The conidia are very numerous, are spherical to sphaeroidal hyaline, and very small? -x 3.5|x For a considerable time, little was known regarding the true nature of the spbacelial spores, in spite of the fact that their importance had long been recognized. Berg (19) considered them as spematia in the sense of male fertilizing organs, but this conception was disproire^ 1^ KUhn who showed tihat they were procreative cells - the "stylospores" of the ergot fungus, fie ajyplied the term "Stylo sporen" and not conidia to the spbacelial spores of Clavice-ps tvuhina . because of tlie peculiar way in which they were borne. He thought that they corresponded fully to the uredo-spcres of Uredineae. In his book (144) published shortly before his paper (145) Kuhn referred to Tulasne's secondary spores as '*Keimh'6rner" . JBhysiology Very little cultural work has been done with C_. "purriurea and practically none with the other species of the same genus. The first man v*io studied C.purparea under artificial conditions mas Brefeld (29) He trans- ferred spores of C. purporea to bread T/hich had been sterilized and soa^feed in — ,s«/ a nutrient solution. The spores germinated readaTly, producing a rich growth and numerous conidia (sphacelia) typical in all respects to those developed on infected plants. 22 The whole mass of "bread, vshich meastired eight, inches in length and one inch in thiclmess, was permeated by the fungus. Labyrinth- like passages were formed in abxmdance and their surfaces were covered with conidia. In no cultures were there any sclerotia formed, even when Irept for over six months. In his attempts to produce sclerotia the only thing Brefeld v/as able to obtain was a visible coloring of the fungous growth to violet, as observed in ergot sclerotia, but careful investigations showed that this was not to be considered in any way as indicating formation of sclerotia. Engelke (62) grew C. -purpurea on two different artificial media with the same results as Brefeld. He used nutritive solutions and hard media. The first consisted of 5 percent glucose, 0.5 percent ammonium nitrate, 0.25 percent primary potassium phosphate, and 0.125 percent magnesium sulphate. For nutritive hard media, he added 2 per cent agar-agar to the above. He also used ascospores of C.. -pxtrpurea . Tlie fungus grew well on both media, but in the nutritive solution the groivth was somewhat better. In solid media it is more inclined to pass into what he called "Micro sclerotia" which is especially favored by the lowering of the temperature. He kept the temperature between 15-25°C. Also in a solution containing 10 percent glucose and 5 percent crystal sugar (proJiably cine sugar) the fungus shov^efi equally as good growth, vAiile in 5 percent lactose it showed a weaker development of conidia, Ho gas bubbles were observed in any of the nutritive solutions used. Brown and Ranck (33) grew C. pas-pali on bean pods. The fungus grev/ slowly throughout the pod, but did not show aiy signs of producing reporductive Jjodies. .. 23 Relation to light It has been noted that the strojnata of germinating ergot are positively phototropic and negatively geotropic, and that the inten :.Vj sity of the strona coloring varies directly with the intensity of light within ordinary limits. The first inoculation v/ith aspospores of C.. -pur'aure a was done "by IDurien (280) Tulasne nade inoculations with C.. purpurea . C.. microcephala nigricans . andjC. roaxgETseiiphaia . using "both ascospores and conidia. Euhn repeated the es;periinents of Tulasne v/ith £. -purpurea , following the classical experiments of Tulasne iiaany other workers have been able to pro- duce the disease by artificial inoculation with both ascospores and conidia. Stager in his study has made a large number of successful inoculations, from which he was able to establish some new species and certain specialized races. He also showed the host range of each, LIEB HISTORY OP CIAVICEPS PUEPTBEA. nffiEIATIOH TO PATHOC-EKBSIS Seasonal develoyanentBof the diseas e. The ascospores described in a prededing chapter are produced in great numbers, as we shall see later, and are carried in various ways to the flowers of the susceptible plant. \Vhen moisture and ternperature con- ditions are fayorable, they germinate vdthin 24 hours. At the beginning of the germination, the spores swell and with the progress of germination light spots appear throughout their length, followed by a widening at certain points. 24 Sometimes these widenings au:e close to each, other, and soxnetiines farther apart. Out of these swollen points on one or both sides of the spores there appear germ- tubes, ©le development of the germ- tubes uaa the same spore is not uniform; single germ-tubes may have reached a considerable length while others are still very short. Soon these gern>- tubes grow into long, branched hyphae;. forming nycdiium of the sphaqelial stage. This takes place in spring just T«toen the host plants are blossoming. The young n^rcelitim coming from the ascospores forms numerous conidia at the ends of their lateral branches. The conidia which are formed apically one at a time arrange themselves sidewise on the stalk. They do not adhere in a chain but each new conidium pushes the former aside and they remain in parallel groups until jarred apart. Sterigmata are not to be differentiated. This uni- formity becomes more marked when conidia are formed on nutrient media, as a result of immediate germination of the conidia. The conidia, as already mentioned, are themselves capable of immediate germination and of infecting plants if carried to them when they are in blossom. The germinating conidia may send out a single tube at one or at each end v/ithin six hours, if conditions are favorable. Ehe newly formed mycelium soon becomes rounded at the end, then continues to enlarge into an egg-shaped conidium. Two or more conidia may be fonned at the same time. In such cases they lie length- wise , on the side of the mycelium so as to make room for new conidia. The for- nation of numerous conidia, however, is not always common. The nuclear division in the sphacelial stage goes on very rapidly (109) Each nucleus divides; part of it passes into the newly form- ed Conidium; the other part continues to grow and re-divides. Conidia may be formed also on the side of the promycelium without being preceded by ^ %.i^^ A ohnyt stalk only being projected on which the conidia are borne. 25 A crose \vall is formed •bet\veen the proirycelium and the stalk. The newly forined conidia are like their parents but slightly smaller. The ability • of this fungus thus to form secondary conidia on proiryceliuin is important in that it enables the first conidium when not on proper substratum, siinply to form with sufficient moisture numerous new conidia, one of which at least may possib]""- find its way to a rye plant or other grass host and so further perpetuate the fungus. In its furtlier development the sphacelial growth shows a decidefi tendency to spread itself upward before it has attained its full df/velopment at the point of infection. IRhen this is reached, as a ralfi, the ovary and often even the ajithers are covered with the sphacelial growth. Occasionally parts of the ovary or anthers in the midst of tlje fjingous growth or above it are preserved. Such is the case when the ovary has been more or less developed before, the infection took place, or when the spores, though they have been brong'ht to the ovary at an early time,; because of the dry weather have been retarded in the formation of the spJiiacelial stage. In such cases the formation of sclerotia may fail entirely; and the rye kernel, in spite of the first stage of infection, may yet be informed, though in an imperfect form. However, if the development of such sppacelial stages be favored by moist weather sclerotia may still be formed;, which are crowned by the more or less developed seed. It may also happen that such a kernel retains a normal appearance bi^tt actually is a sclerrotium,. the fungus having failed in its destructive %vork in the attainment of its full develppment. Such a partial development and preservation of the / ^ starbh forming kernel tissue between the sclerotial tissues is a phenomenon of very rare occtirrence. 26 Closely connected with the fonnation of a great number of conidia in the sphacelial state is the abundant , secretion of "honey dew" v^icn holds in suspension liberated spores and carries them out of the sphacelial growth. Since the production of "honey dew" on the rye heads is facilitated by the moist weather (heavy fog, etc.) the farmers have been inclined to think that ergot was caused by v^eather conditions. Because of the peculiar odor of this exudate, which is aocentii&*ed by moist atmosphere so that it is noticeable for long distances, it has been said that the "stinking fogs" v/ere the cause of ergot fornation. There exists a great difference of opinion concerning the nature and origin of the honey dew. Bonorden (26) noticed, on heads in- fected with ergot, the secretion "honey dew" vJiich he says is withoufe doubt secreted by the nectries as a result of the stimulation catieed by the fungus. In hit later work (27) he says "The spores are covered by a liquid having a sweetish taste," but he does not discuss the origin of the same, EUhn con- sidered it as having no connection vdth the host and pointed to the fact that the liquid persists after the parasite has destroyed the internal parts of the flower, and that at that time the secretion is even richer than at the beginning. It keeps pace with the progressive growth of sphacelial hyphae and only begins to decrease after the latter has reached its highest point of development and the formation of the sclerotium has begTin. It seems, therefore, that the hyphae of the sphacelial stage have the property of secreting a special substance before the beginning of sclerotium formation. This slimy secretion of the hyphae appears at the same time as the fornation of spores. . ■. i 27 Eahll, thihks, however, that there is not necessarily a connection between the secretion of the dew and the formation of spores, "but that Tooth pro- cesses are connected with the forimtion of sclerotia. Accordingly the spores liheration in the liquid is accidental, even thongh it is of great importance for the drawing out and dissemination of the sarce (145) To W/ilson (299) it spsxas a mistake to suppose that the fliud is exuded lay the fungus. The quantity is so large and the flow so continuous that ab- sorption from the air seems the true explanation. Sorauer takes Kiihn's view and thinjcs that the "honey dew" is secreted by sphacelial hyphae. JJiile the development of sph^celial stages extends upwards, a Vi±iolly different process takes place at the base of this growth. Here the ngrcelial threads increase in number and send out numerous branches which together with the swelling of the hyphae themselves result in a considerable thickening of the growth. At their growing points the threads are filled uniformly with protoplasm. On their older parts, on the other loand, there appear lighter zones, and through these an apparent tissue formation brought about by the formation of crosswalls at each of these lighter zones. In the thickened threads at this time tliere are formed numerous oi^ drops,' such as occur later in the tissue of the perfect sclerotium. During this building of rcycelial threads the structure of the internal part of the fungus is markedly changed. Some of the tliread ends grow on the outside forming a covering of closely applied threads which lie parallel to each other. These neither thicken nor form oil drops. Their contents become clear and uniform, soon turning reddish, then violet colored. This coloration begins at the base and proceeds upwards, as did the B^rctbaial growth preceding the formation of the sclerotium, V/hen the sclerotium has 26 •reached its ftill development it dries up into a brovmish mass, forming the so-called" cap" or "tip" which cro\vns the sclerotimma Although "tips" are alvra,ys forrced, a great number of them fall off later. The color of the sclerotium is usualljr violet, but it may become darker or remain lighter, or even grayish white. The sclerotiian v^ile still on the plant is cartilaginous. Later, upon drying, it becomes very hard. We have in it the resting njrcelium of Claviceps which is' a typical sclerotium The time necessary for the formation (5f the sclerotitan depends upon the weather. In dry weather the first signs of sclerotia formation the appear about fcuirteon .days after-* appearance of the first "honey dew*», Tsfaile in moist v/eather, which favors a rich K^rcelial growth and rich secretion of "honey dew" the formation of sclerotia may begin as early as a week after the appearance of "honey dew". VJhen the sclerotia are ripe, usually at the time of harvesting, they either fall to the ground iirimediately or, after being stored with the grain find their v^ray back to the fields r/ith the seed. In the fields- they renain in a dormant condition until spring v/hen they resume their further development. The l&ngth of the resting period depends upon the host; upon the particular species of Claviceps; upon the condition of the sclerotia, and also upon the weather conditions. According to Tulasne and Kuhn at least three months are necessary for the full ripening and resting of the sclerotitun. Ergot (C. micro e er)halft/ ; from Phragmites, planted in January germinated in March after fifty-nine days. (C, purpurea) from rye planted in January, according to Kuhn (145) germinated in April, after ninety-six days. Bhe same from Molinia coerulea planted in January germinated in April after ninety days. In nature the ergot of Phragmites genninates later than that of rye. The further development of the sclerotium vdiich usually takes place in late spring and early summer just as the cereals and grasses are 29 heading, consistsgf the formation of stronata as desorihci. in s -oro- ce.ding chapter. These stromata are ripe when their color b-f-ii^ "'••<-' elia-ige into purple violet and their stalks begin to lose their turgM.L+y, The latter condition occurs first at theVprogresses^/Sase ^2) -upvTS-rdc LX 'Lhis time there are formed in the ntmerous perithecla in each spherid;uMi a great numher of asci, each containing eight spores. These apores are shot out from the perithecia and some find their way to sw.sceptible plants, where they germinate if conditions are favorable, causing infection again and thus conrpleting the life history of the fung-us. Pro d uction of spores o Both conidia and ascospores of Claviceps are formed in great numbers, the former in the sphacelial growth and the latter in the stromata. If the cloudy, sticky, "honey *dew" is examined microscopically it is foimd to be teeming with millions of small ellipsoidal hyaline conidia. When it is considered that the "honey dew" is secreted in abundance for a considerable period of time, it is realized the very great number of spores produced in each infected flower. The ascospores are produced also in considerable number. It was estimated by Wllsen (299) tiiat from a sclerotium produced on Glyceria flumtans one- twentieth of an inch in diameter, contained about 3,000 perithecia, and it is Snovm that a number of such stromata may be formed on one sclerotium. Kuhn (145) states that a sclerotium with over fifteen stromata will produce over a million ascospores. Viabil ity and .longevity; of sclerotia The evident fuiaction of a sclerotium is the resistance of un- favorable conditions, such as dry or cold weather or both. Just how long a sclerotium remains viable is not laiown with absolute certainty since the results obtained by various nsn are conflicting, ftilasne states, as a result 30 of his experiments, that if the sclerotium does not produce the stronata during the first year after it has fallen to the ground, it loses its viahility. Early workers viio studied ergot did not loiow that the ergot sclerotium retains its germinating power during one' year if it is not dried out completely. In order to test this Rostowzew (214) undertook the follow- ing experiment, A number of sclerotia from rye were gathered in August and kept in a dry laboratory. Other sclerotia were placed in sand in a shallow pot and placed in a cold room with winter temperature of 0°C. and lower. The saoad was moistened and later watered tivo or three times. In January the following year it was found that the sand and the sclerotia on the surface of the pot were entirely dry. During the remainder of the experiment the second lot of sclerotia were placed in pure sand in a dish and kept constantly moist. In February most of the sclerotia that during the whole experiment were deep in the pot germinated, whereas those that were near the surface of the pot and those kept in the laboratory and thus exposed to drying failed to germinate. The same experiment was repeated during the following year with sclerotia from C.. purpurea obtained from various grasses and C.. microee-ph»3La from Molinia coerula and yielded similar results. Lutz (165), on the other hand., reports that ergot sclerotia from Psainma arenaria harvested in August 1902 germinated in March, 1904, and also later in May and formed a reproductive apparatus similar to that of C.. pur-purea . Zimmermann (304) found, contraiy to the observations of Rostowzew, that dry season or the dry preservation of ergot in bottles until planting time did not affect its germinating power. Working with ergot sclerotia, Zimmermann established the following facts; 1. Sclerotia germinate even during the second year after their formation. 2. Sclerotia, which failed to germinate the first year, even 31 when favoiable conditions are furnished, are also capatle of germinating during the second year. 3. The scletotia that have drc^jEiJ. in the field germinate at the same time as do sclerotia of the same year which were planted later. 4. The development of sclerotia is marlcedly influenced by external conditions. 5. Rotted sclerotia often prove to be capable of germination. 6. Parts of sclerotia can also germinate. Viability and longevity of conidia Conidia of Claviceps have been imovm to retain their germinating power for over ten months and they may rejiain viable for even longer periods. StMger's experiments in this connection are most important and interesting. He used conidia from sclerotia, gathered in Russia, in July and August 1911, and which still had the remains of caps on their tips, were still somewhat Sticlsy, and had a distinct "honey dew" odor. The sclerotia were kept in the dark and over lime. On February 25th, 1912 he tested the viability of the still normal and fresh appearing conidia from the above sclerotia in hanging drops and as expected found them viable. On April 27th, 1912, blossoming plants of Anthoxanthum odoratum were in- oculated with such conidia. at least nine months after the sclerotia had been gathered. On Itoy 10th he observed a slight secretion of "honey dew" on the inoculated plants. On illay 14th, the dew appeared in great quantities and sclerotia were formed later. On July 5th, 1912, he inoculated rye plants with some of the same conidia and secured infections. This shows that the conidia of C.. purpurea retained their germinating power even after ten months. This fact was first demonstrated in 1858 by Bonorden (26), who 32 showed that the dry "honey dew" still contains conidia capable of germina- tion, hut Stager (256) was the first to demonstrate the same by inoculation escperiments. Dissemination of spores Dissemination of conidia Various factors are laiown to take part in the dissemination ' of the conidia found in abundance in the "honey dew". The secretion of "honey dew" continues for a considerable time, thus giving a chance for many different agents to tsike part in the dissemination of the spores. T/inds during the sphacelia stage are especially important, as any motion of the heads, loaded heavily with dew.will bring them in contact with other healthy heads. The spores are spread in this way in a horizontal direction. This has been experimentally tested by Bonorden and confirmed by Rose. Rain helps also in spreading the conidia. Probably the most common method by YBaidi the conidia are spread is by insects. As early as 1847 Leutiis (153) mentions that a certain beetle { Cantharis melanura ) visits in great manbers the infected heads for the"honey dew". Kolaczek (139) mafces the saime statement in his book. StSger made a careful study of the relation of insects (a list of which he gives for certain hosts ) , while visiting the infected plant for the dew, become loaded with conidia which they carry to healthy plants. The leaf louse, so commonly found on rye usually on all parts of the heads, because of their sweet secretion, attract many insects. These insects, v/hen coming after the secretion of the iouse during the period of anthesis, nay carry the conidia and spread the infection. Mercier (173) found that Sciara thomae L. visits very often Lolium nerenne . He found sphacelial spores on this insect, in its digestive organs, and later uninj ured in the excretions of the insect. He concludes i See list of insects I-jsIoviT. S3 that there are two ways in whicsh insects spread these conidia: (1) by carrying them on the exterior of their bodies, and (2) by sucking in along With the dew in a great number of spores which are excreted again uninjured on other plants. Tsohermaris; thinks that ants nay also spread the "hpney dew" to' -uninfected plants. According to Sorauer, there are (239) special insects which visit each plant. He thinks that Molanoetona mellina and Bhagonyclaa_ 2.re the most common and most important of these. The following is a list of insects reported by Stager and others that help in the dissemination of Claviceps. Amblytheles subsericans 2 Ants 2 An thorny idae genus 1, 2, Anustronyche abdominal is Fbr. Brachytropsis calaratus Cantharis melajnura Cheilosia species ? Coccinella quinquepunctata 2 Coccinella septerapunctata 2 Dilophus vulgaris 2 Dolorus pratensis Egeria Pararge Eurygaster Maura 2 Hyleiiyia sp. leaf V^sps Leptis tringaria L. Lissonota cylindrator Vill- C" Lonchaea (fumosa "?) 1, 2 Lucilia sylvarum 2 Melanastoma mellina 1, 2. Note. 1 » Pollen eating insects 2 =lH^iSt'lf"' sucking 34 Mir is holsatus 2 lifelithreptus mentastri 1, 2 Mimesa Dahlbomi Ophyra anthrax Me ig. 1, 2 Pipicella virens Fbr. 2 Platycheirus peltatus 2 Padatrus alpinus PoEftpylus viaticus 2 Pollenia vespillo Fb, 2 Bhagonycha fulva 2 SaproiDiyza sp. Sapronyza api calls Sapromyza quadripunctata 1, 2 Saroppha nigriventris or depressiformis ? 1,2 Sarcophaga species Sciara species ? 2 Sciara thomae L. I^dhina (Genus x Species ? ) Tetanocera ferruginea Tropicoris rufipes Ye spa 2 Wasp Apis mellifica 2 Of all these insects only Melanostonia niellina and Bhagonycha fulva are commonly found on a ntariber of plants, while the others are common only on certain plants and are considered less important in the spreading of Claviceps than the first two. 35 Dissemination of ascospores Practically all men except St^er agree that the asco- spores are shot from the perithecia with great force and are thrown for a considerable distance • St'ager, basirjIThis conclusions upon numerous experiments with various species of Claviceps, holds tliat the ascospores are not shot sudden- ly from the asci but slov>rly exude from the perithecia. He points out also that ascospores cannot be carried by wind because the stroma ta are complete- ly covered with a slimy layer. Daring his numerous experiments he observed irany flies visiting the sphaeridia of the germinating sclerotia. Another argument which, according to Stager, helps to prove that insects spread ascospores ia the fact that usually the single plant on the edges of the fields, T«hich are usually visited. more frequently by insects, are most Cjoramonly infected with ergot. The same is true for fields lying near woods vjhere the number of insects is greater. The higher humidity here may also be a factor in this case, According to Rolfs (261) C.. Tjasiaali and C.» rolfsii asco- spores are disseminated largely by beetles, mostly of the family Carabidae . Engine, on the other hand, showed conclusively that when specimens Icept in a moist chamber or exposed in a glass jar, are exposed for a short time to sunlight and their stroma ta touched with a platinum needle, sirall clouds of shining spores are discharged. These spores may be throrm for a distance of about six centimeters. This tends to show that the spores do not ooze -out from the ostiole of the perithecia but are shot out. Wilson (299) observed that while some of the ascospores were shot out v/ith great rapidity for a time from a papilla here and there, other spores exuded out gradually on the surface.. Moat the cause of projection may be is only conjectured. The conceptacles and the papillae seem to be filled with a brown jelly. The rising of these pA^liia from a previously flat surface shows that a growth i^ gbilig o« and, consequently, pressure is increasing in intensity, 80 that when the ripe heads are e:cposed to a certain tesiperature or to other forces, the tension is Tarought to a crisis and the spores are pro- jected "by elastic pressure. Necessarily \shen this pressure begins to abate by the relief vMch follows the continued discharge, the spores are not acted upon by so great a force as at first, l!his may ejiplain ^y the last spores instead of being shot into the air are merely pushed slowly to the surface. Indeed, it is almost certain that a great many spores are never ejected at all, but perish within the decaying stromata. The liberation of the asco spores taaces place in the follow- ing way. On the ostiole of the perithecium there appears a light drop, from which the spores come singly and very slowly. Finally the spores are ■Girown out, always toward the "light and at a distance of two to eight centimeters. i.s a result of the phototropic rotation and bending of the stipe. One part of the head will be exposed to the light, then another, the dischare talcing place always at a point directly facing the light. The further dissemination of the ascospores is brought about, according to Palck (64) by air currents due to chaaige in temperature. The Claviceps stipe functions in increasing the space for the falling of the freed spores thus affording more chances that they may be taken up by the air currents and carried farther away. If the stromatal heads were but a short distance above the soil surfac*, then only a small number of the ascospores w:ill be disseminated. Siae, weight, and surface area of the spores play an important role in their dissemination. £., -purpurea ascospores have, in 37& relation to their v/eight, a surf ape area seventy tirces greater tMn that of AscoholTis spores. The energy necessary to transport the ascospores is, therefore, only one seventieth of that required to carry away the Ascotolus spores, not taking into account at all the fact that they have only one- five thousandth part of the weight of the latter. By numerous experiments, FalcS: showed that the above factors are operative in the field. He proved that insects, iQiin, and other cliiratic factors are not necessary for the infection of rye "by Claviceps. He showed that as the temperature of the ground at any time is higher tlian is that of the surrounding air, there ia always a constant falling of temperature and, therefore, an air current viiich is sufficient to carry the ejected spores to the heigjht of the heads, where under favorahle climatic conditions, of moist air and quiet weather they will cause infection. Me thod of infection The exact method by which the fungus penetrates the ovary is not loiown. It seems, ho^vever, quite evident that it does not penetrate through the glumes, as indicated by the smaller degree of infection in varieties of plants that have their glumes closed during the period of flowering. Engelke found that infection was successful only before the flovver was pollinated and before the pollen grain had sent out its germ tube. At this stage the spore or oonidium that has found its way to the flower can germinate in the nectar of the flower and then extends into the cavity of the ovary around the ovule, v/here it begins the transfornation of the ovary by the ?5reg4tive processes of the mycelia. This according to him,,' sxplainsthe formation of the sclerotia in the place of the ovary instead cf at the base of the Icernel as was supposed at first. Infection through the "spaltoffnungen 3710 des FrutihtlQibtens ist ausgeschossen", according to him. gerlod of incubation The time y/hich elapses between infection of the heads and the first appearance of "honey dew'* which is the first positive evidence that infection has taken place, varies considerablsr V7ith environmental conditions, also with the stage of flov/ering of the host. Dry and cold weather is lilcely to retard the appes.ran.ce of the honey dew, while moist and hot weather as is well Icnown vdll hasten and favor an. abtrndant secretion of the honey dew. In plants infected before anthesis, first signs of in- fection appear later than under other conditions. The period of incubation varies also vath different species of Claviceps, For C'S purpurea it is from seven to fourteen days; in cold weather, usually about fourteen days. For Claviceps on Poa it is only five to sijt days; C» mlsoni,oi--?j;.t to thirteen days; Claviceps on Lolium eight [ • — ^— — >■ C. BiicrocephAl* to eleven days; d, m±gr aa sagfec^ , ten to sixteen days. While these periods give an idea of the relative length of the incubation period, they should not be taken at their face value, because all of these data have been secured at different times under different conditions. It seems likely that if inoculations had been made at the same tire and under the same con- ditions with various Claviceps species and biologic races the results might have been more similar. Time of natural infection Infection is nature, as well as under artificial conditions takes place usually dxxring the flowering period of the host. There is still, however, some difference of opinion as to the particular stage of blossoming during T,itiich the plant is most sisceptible to infection. Engelke (62) foand that infection with conidia was successful only before the flower was pollenated, that is, previous to the production of the pollen tube by the 38 pollen grain. At this stage the spore or conidtun can germinate in the ' the nectar of the flower and then extend into^'cavity of the ovary and aroimd the houle. Stager (248) on the other hand, ohtained infection by artificial inoculation v^ith honey dew from Anthoxanthum odor a turn even when tlie plants were in "Verbliien". This tends to show that infection icay tsJsB place even after fertilization. TschermarK (274) observed that, in rye, infection takes place in pollenated as well as in unpollenated flov/ers. The failure of florets to become pollenated offers a greater . chance for ergot infection both in rye and in barley as the gl-«mes then remain open for a longer time. No sclerotia are formed on plants infected after the period of blossoming has yassed Stager (248) showed also that plants inoculated with ergot three to four days before flov/ering become infected very refdily. He thinks, however, that infection does not take place inBTiediately but that the conidia preserve their germinating power until the flowers open and then germinate and cause infection in the usual way. It may be true also that the spores germinate imnediately and then continue to grow if there is sufficient moisture, produce new conidia, and then infect the plant when in full blossom. Source of inoculiSft. . From the previous discussion it is apparent that the original source of infection is the germinating sclerotium. On plants infected with ascospores, masses of conidia are soon produced. These are also able to cause infection and again produce new conidia. This process is continued as long as there are susceptible plants in blossom. Only a few infections v/ith ascospores are sufficient, therefore, to cause an enidemic. if other conditions are favorable. 39 In one case, C. ruprpurea biologic race on BrachypodiTan silvaticum, Tbose sclerotia germinate long before the flowering of the host, B. silvaticum . the fungus must pass first to Milium effusum , ViSiich is in blossom at the time the ascospores are discharged. On this host it produces the sphacelia stage and then these conidia are carried over to B. silvaticum v/here they cause new infection. Overwinter jnA' of the causal organism All Claviceps species over\7inter in the forai of sclerotia, the function of which is to carry the fungus through unfavorable conditions. Even though conidia, if kept dry and in the dark, preserve their germinating power for over ten months, it is very unlikely that in nature such conidia would survive for any length of time. There is, however, no experimental evidence bearing on ttiis point. ...A method of developing the Claviceps stage It is often desirable to be able, to produce the ascigerous stage of Claviceps from ergot sclerotia for class use or experimental purposes. Different workers have accomplished this in various \vays, with but \iftietzel and Reddick (294) describe a method'Nshich they were very successful. The following is a description of it. jJC-bout the middle of August they gather fresh sclerotia from the heads of rye or other in- fected plants. These are then enclosed in ordinary screen wire and put on the ground under a tree. The sclerotia are not d-istmibed until about April 6 the following jT-ear xvhen they are taken to the laboratory and placed in moist sand in a covered stender dish and kept at room temperature. About tv/o weeks later the first signs of germination begin to appear. By tlae middle of May a majority of the stromata will be ■^v^iopfd jand a great imny of them will contain mature ascospores. The time of appearance of stroiiiata n.ay, hov^ver, vary slightly for ^ffexent seSierotia^ 40 C1IMA.TB AUD OTHER FACTORS IN RELATION TO THE DISEA.f?B Clinate has a very marked effect upon tlie amo-Ltnt of ergot infection. In dry seasons there is usually very little ergot infection, hut during wet seasons, especially when there is considerahle sunshine during June, it develops abundantly. Warm and sunny seasons are very favorable for ergot infection in the northern part of Erjrope, according to Miiller (185). Ravn (208), viho studied the relation of weather to the degree of infection of various fungi, writes the following for ergot. "For C . purpur ea the temperature condition does not seem to play any role. On the other hand, there exists a close relation between the degree of ergot infection and amount of sun during June, With the exception of the year 1894 the rye remained free from ergot in years with a dry June," Rev, Canon Du Port (58) reports a considerable quantity of ergot among the marshland wheats in the year 1879, in which the suirmer was abnormally wet and stmless. Rostrup (216) states that in 1893, because of the dry weather that lasted during the time of blossoming, there was only a very small degree of infection, while the T/et -season in 1894 favored the development of C., t)urpurea so that it occurred very abundantly. In dry and warm air and soil the flowering takes place very rapidly (274) often wholly within the blade (ttiis is true primarily for barley), fhe possibility of infection under such conditions, therefore is very sirall. On the other hand, sudden heat on moist soil causes rapid heading and the coming out of heads long before the flowering. It also causes a wide opening of the glumes. Cool weather prolongs the flowering outside of the blade and so favors infection. Anything tliat prolongs the duration of the flowering period and the time that the glumes remain open also favors ergot infection. For this reason ergot is found more commonly on isolated plants, on those in poorly over- wintered fields, and on those on the edges of fields. It is also found on late shoots, whose glumes, because pollenation fails, remain open for a week or more. The vi^eather not only affects the degree of infection hut also the amount of ascospore formation and the extent of ascospore dis- semination. The ascospores are throvsn out copiously in hright, \varm weather, are lifted up from the damp places where they are produced by ascending atmos- pheric currents and are parried by the wind. Damp weather is necessary for the ripening of the ascospores and dry weather for their diseemination. Even though such damp and thendiy weather has brought numerous spores into the atmos^ere in July and August, if the season has not been sufficiently damp to make the grasses taller and draw up late spikes, there will be less ergot because of tho smaller number of flowers to be ergotized. A season which is at once favorable to Claviceps and to the production of late flowering grasses is, according to Wilson (299) required for the largest development of ergot in Scotland. Edwards Carroll (27), contrary to the views of other authors, says that ergot is rare when the season is wet, frequent when it is dry. This, he explains, is due to the fact that in Ireland, where he made his observations, the moist atmosphere is enough for the germination and successful establishment of the fungus, while rain would wash the spores off the plants and a superabimdance of water would be unfavorable to their growth. On the continent, where the atmosphere is diy, rain may be necessary for its grov/th, according to Carroll. The topograpihy of the field, the drainage, the shading, the soil conditions and the time of planting have also been associated by some men with the degree of ergot infection. Pammel states that ergot flourishes particularly well on rich soil and in warm, damp seasons (190). It is a well known fact that ergotized grasses are m.ore apt to be found in the low 42 damp ground than where the soil is dry, and it is the wild grasses along streams that are most severely ergotized (87) Ktihn (145) thinks that the occurrence of ergot does not depend -upon ghe soil composition or the topograjhy of the land, Luerssen (164) agrees with Kijhn and adds that moist soil favors the development of ergot. Anth03:anthtnn odoratum is most severely ergotized in shady places, in woods, or on the north border of woods, tardus . striota is ergotized in woods and also on open healthy moors wgere no shad ow falls upon it, Phalaris arundinacea has been found ergotized mostly neao- the edge of rivers. l£t.e sown rye (245) is also supposed to he more heavily infected with ergot than early sown rye. VAEIETIES IN REIA.TION TO THE DISEASE Flowering with closed glumes, uniformity in time of flower- ing, and rapidity of flowering are three iniportant factors affecting ergot infection. Varieties possessing any or all of these characters are less infected hy ergot than are other varieties. Varieties less inclined to remain sterile are infected with ergot to a lesser degree. Tulasne first * observed that cereals and gi-asses, Arundo lohragmites for instance, vftiich under the Parisian climatic conditions remain sterile, are frequently attacK- ed hy ergot. At a very early date V/ilson (299) came to the conclusion that there nay exist a relation between the length of the period during which the glumes are open and the amount of ergot infection, but he was not quite sure about this. "Still there is reason", he says, "to suppose that greater I mechanical exposure is a large part of the explanation of greater liajgility to ergot. The species of Bronms which grow here open very little for fertilization, and soon close very tightly and are never ergotized." Henning (97) noticed that on six-rowed barley the ergot sclerotia appjar mostly on the side rows and comparatively seldom on the flowers of the middle rows. J *.„ A.1-. „ ^M „a. A.1-^ JU 4.T«„ J 1, T „A. „ ..__ AT-^ 43 . . side rows are more apt to be open dtiring fertilization than those of the middle rows. Among the two-rowed barley, the variety nutans very often has ergot and the variety erectum . on the contrary, very seldom. This condition apparently bears some relation, according to Henning, to the fact that open flowers in six-rowed barley, as well as in the variety erectum of t^ro-rowed barley, occur comparatively seldom. He also einphasised the fact that infection with ergot presupposes open flowers. These observations of Henning. were confirmed and extended by Tschermalor. The glumes of the two, four, and six-rowed huHess barley varieties are relatively wide open, hence their inclination to outside pollination and ergot infection. Hannchen barley, which has more open flowers than other varieties, is also more susceptible to ergot (158) Rapidly flowering barley often has open flowers and is., therefore, more exposed to infection (274) TM glumes of wild rye remain open for longer time because the anthers do not discharge their pollen all at once, but the latter are set free very gradually and only after a long drying out. On account of this the wild rye depends more upon an outside pollination than does the cultivated rye. With this mode of flowering, it is more lilcely to remain sterile and therefore more exposed to the spores of ergot. This is also true for the F-, generation of the perennial hybrid Secale montana x Secale cereale, as well as for the greater part of the segregation products of the latter generation. lUie spikelets of late rye remain open longer and they also lose the elasticity which enables them to draw bade the glumes, the latter remaining in this position during dry and hot weather even after ferti- lization has taken place, and regaining their elasticily only after the y coming of rain. ;|fe^while the flowers may become infected. 44 In regard to imiformitjr 'of flowering, a pedigreed strain which, exhihits ttniformity in grov/th and "blossoming suffers less from the disease than do other varieties. The factor of rapidity plays a pari; as illustrated hy the rapidly flowering harley v/hich often has open flowers and is, therefore, more exposed to infection (271) The height of the variety seems also to liave some influence upon the degree of infection. Ihe, nearer the heads are to the ground the more they are ergotized. iimdeirson reports that the variety "lilttfcle rye" is not materi- ally injured by ergot. CONTROL JVEASURSS A. considerable rnanber of control measures for ergot have been recommended at different times, a great many of which are either impossible to apply on a large scale or are ineffective. There are also some control measures v/hich, if applied pi-operly and at the right time, may be of considerable help. Sanitation The earliest control measure recommended and still applied is the gathering up of the sclerotia v/hile they are still on the plants in the field. In this case the sclerotia can be sold to the druggist . ' for a good price. Deep plowing of the fields on which infected crops liave been grown and deep planting of the seed are also recommended for controll- ing ergot, the idea being that the sclerotia contained in the seed or those that have fallen to the ground from the previous crop will be buried deeply and not be able to send out their stromata. Early harvesting, v/h3,ch would tend to lessen the number of sclerotia which fall on the field, is also recommended. 45 Burning over of heavily infected fields or of She land on which ergot has been allov/ed to mature will destroy a large number of the sclerotia. Destruction of all susceptible grasses in the vicinity of the cereal fields, or mowing them when in blossom, is a very useful practice in the elimination of ergot. In some cases, this has to be done several times during the season in order to entirely prevent the formation of sclerotia. Clean seed Only sclerotia-free seed should be used. Separation of the sclerotia from the grain by various means is uead very widely. Screening, sifting, fanning, and sedimentation of the seed are used for this purpose. Weinziere (292) found that by the use of special nachines for cleaning and grading of grain the amount of ergot can be decreased to 0.17 per cent. In rye with 1 per cent of ergot the amount of ergot can be decreased without difficulty to 0.06 percent and even less, accord- ing to Hotter (107) While, in this way, we may decrease the number of scelerotia in the seed it is not possible to separate them entirely. The separation of sclerotia by sedimentation is the most effective method for obtaining sclerotia free seed. Miiller (185) first used this method and he was the first to apply to it the term sedi- mentation. He used a solution of 30 to 32 percent of common salt or 37 percent of potassium chloride for the sejaration of ergot. The grain having a higher specific gravity than the ergot remains on the surface and can be easily tateen out. The grain is then washed with water and rapidly dried. He reconmends the use of potassium chloride instead of common salt because it does not injure the seed and, besides this, it can be used as fertilizer after the treatment. 46 Jacewski reconanends 30 percent salt solution and w?s the first to work out a practical -way of using Muller's method. By this method the grain containing ergot is placed in a specially perforated Vessel, the vessel is then dipped into the container mth the solution, and the grain stirred up in it with a small \TOoden shovel. A.fter the grain be- comes wet, it drops to the bottom of the vessel vhile the ergot sclerotia always remain on the surface and can be easily separated. The seed is then washed v/ith pure water and spread on a floor to dry. The sclerotia obtained in such a way nay be sold to the druggist. Soil treatment Several attempts have been made to control ergot by apply- ing chemicals to the soil but the results are not very promising. Griffiths (79) recommends top-dressing with iron sulphate (from fifty to one hundred pounds per acre) of all land liable to the attacks of Claviceps. McAlpine (170) recommends the same treatment, WuTtherich (303) showed that iron sulphate in the quantities in the qjiantities given above does not in any way affect the germination power of sclerotia. He showed that ergot sclerotia could germinate in 1.4 percent iron sulphate, and that at least a 13.9 per cent solution was necessary to destroy them. Both of these concentrations are too strong to be applied in the fields. WUtherich also did a considerable amount of work on the effect of various chemicals on the germinating power of Claviceps spores and conidia, btii since the results are of no not practical importance they are'^included here. Seed treatment ThoroTigh drying of the seed and dry summer weather will, according to RcKtowzew, kill the ergot sclerotia. Rieliable work indicates, however, that this is not true. 47 McCarthy recommends spajting the seed for eight tc t3n minutes in water heated to 135° to 140°P., after which the seed is dried and planted. Cultriral methods Crop rotation is found to help considerably in decreasing the amount of ergot infection. Clover, sugar and cow beets, potatoes and other crops not susceptible to ergot should be introduced in the rotation. As ergot infection is said by some to be favored by moist soils with.-iunderground water, good drainage is also recommended for prevention of ergot. ks mentioned before, a rapid and uniform blossoming of the cereals will prevent infection on a big scale because of the short period of infection. The above may be brought about by applying all rules of rational farming: good drainage, deep and good cultivation, normal and not one-sided application of manure and fertilizers, proper rotation good seed, and ^planting with a drill. Early and late varieties should not be planted close to each other, because the late sown crop is likely to become infected heavily. All these measures do not, however, prevent the appearance of ergot but hinder its spread. Cereal varieties that stool little should be used, for varieties which do not stool will be in blossom for only a comgparatively short time, and the shorter the time of blossoming the smaller the possibility of infection. Resistant varieties Rgsistant varieties, where practicable, should always be used. The variety "Little rye" is reported to be less susceptible to ergot. (5) Six rowed barley and the erectum varieties of two-roised barley are also 48 reported to be attacked only seldom by ergot. Because of the wide host range of ergot and considering its eq-ually wide adaptation to many unrelated genera. "a:iieoretically;= there- fore, there is very slight probability for plant breeders to find a great difference among races of rye, barley, and wheat in their susceptibilitji to this fungus. The great difference between rye, barley, and wheat in their degree of infection by ergot (the two latter are very rarely attacked by ergot) is evidently connected with the different modes of flowering of these cereals. Eye usually flowers with opened glumes, wheat and barley with td*. r cjosed glumes, and the closed mode of flowering prevents the two latter from being infected by ergot" (28) . Biff en (E3) commmicated the curious fact that there occurred among the P liybrids of Rivet wheat (T. turgidum ) with several varieties of To vulgare some plants vJiich were attacked by ergot, althoixgh the parent forns had never been seen to be attacked by this fungus. Biffin explains this phenomenon as a result of the combiiaation of two Mendelian factors for susceptibility to ergot. These are separated in the parents and in separate forms cannot produce the susceptibility to ergot of wheat, v/hich results when they are combined in the offspring. Vavilov (293) gives a different interpretation to theabove fact, for Tfifoich he finds support in a ssSinilar case reported by Rimpau. In 1891'Eimpau noticed that in the same hybrid Bivet T. vuleare there ^appears in the F generation some sterile plants. In consideration of this fact 1. See. the discussion of this subject under "Vr.rieties in relation to ergot infection". 49 reported by Riinpau, Vavilov says that "sterile plants of cereals as is known flower ustially with open glmnes, remaining jrany days in this state, and commonly are badly attacked by ergot. The sterile plants of F of the hybrid of wheat and rye, for example, are severely ergotized." He concludes, "evidently the sarce fact of appearance of sterile plants T^as observed in the experiments of Professor Biff en at Cambridge, and, as might be supposed, these sterile plants v^ere atis-cked by ergot. Vavilov* s explanation of the ergotized hybrids makes the possibility of obtaining resistant strains by breeding seem slight. It leads us to think that there may be an absence of Mendelian characters of resistance an.d susceptibility. Still it may be possible that varieties with closed gl-umes can yet be obtained by this method. From a practical standpoint, such varieties serve the same purpose as varieties with resistant characters. Clavicex)S balansioidis Ifdll. on Panicum (Echinochloa ) (ISO-- T3® nycelial hyphae of the fungus practically cover the T;*iole spikelet or even two neighboring spiteelets. On the glumes there is formed a white fluffy covering of hyphae on which are produced the conidia, Ihese conidia are hyaline, oblong, and 9 to 12 microns in length. With, the further development of the fungus the cavity between the glumes is filled by the ngrcelial growrth vaiich later becomes the sclerotium. Then, in the place of the formerly loose, white conidia-bearing mycelial growth there appears in time the dark blue to black sclerotiad covering. Sometimes two spikelets nay be included in one sclerotium. The lower glumes remain usually outside of the sclerotium. The sclerotia are of various sizes. Under favorable conditions they will grow above the spikelets forming sclerotia free from inclosures. The sclerotia germinate in three to four months. They send out few stipes with Sj^ieridia, which are yellow in color. The stipes may reach a length go of eight centimeters and the spheridia a diaireter of one to five millimeters. The perithecia have a length of about 3.00 millimeters and one-fourth or more of each perithecium stands free above the spheridia. The asei ate long and cylindrical, 150 to 180 microns long and three microns thi&k oh the apex with a small hyaline cap, The ascospores are threM-like, hany septate, and .5 microns in width, swelling in water to three to four microns. Short side branches coming out from the germinating spore soon develop numerous, oval, hyaline conidia, 12{i, long and 5[x wide. The hyphae bearing the conidia are markedly thimiej? than normal vegetative hyphae, ■vdiich have short, thick cross walls. The conidia are formed in great numbers, and when set free, germinate at once and develop aerial growth and new conidia. According to MSlle r C . balansioides is a mid-form between B53dBiisia and Claviceps. Clavice-ps ? carc ina R-i-iffiths and Morrig on Ga r ex nebraskensis . Andre-^s, Ore. Mycelium of the fungus extending throtighout the entire sub- stance of the parenchymatous tissue of the center of the culm of the host and condenses in one to four places into black, longitudinally striated sclerotia, 1.5 to 5 mm. by 1 to 5 cm,, the interloi .Df which is vvhite, of uniform density and made up of loosely interwoven, colorless, thick-walled and sparingly septated hyphae. Eaithful but unsuccessful attempts have been made to cultivate the sclerotia of this species, and the placing of the species in the genus Claviceps is, according to Griffiths, a wild guess. On the TAtoole, the species is very inconspicuous, but vAien once seen it can be readily detected afterward. The most noticeable effect of the fungus is the rather early death of the culm vJiile the lower leaves are 51 still green. OJhis, however, is lilcely to te mistaken at time-s for ,the natviring of the plant. Usually the sclerotia are formed in the lower half of the culm and fill its entire vertical section, tut they may frequently be formed , above the middle and even near the head. The method of liberation of the solerotia is very interesting. The culm is killed and consequently becomes dry about the time that the sclerotia are matute. In drying, the sclerotia curve into a segment of a circle, thereby ruptur- ing the tissues and falling to the ground. The external resemblance of the sclerotia to those of Claviceps pur"purea is verjr marked, CXaviceuss cinereum Griffiths on Hilaria inntica and H. cenchroides . Caohise, Arizona (80) Thfe stsl&i^ist- of this species are clavate, gradually tapering up\vard, straight, curved, twisted, or contoured, 1.5 - 3 cm. in length by 1.75 to 2.5 mm. in diameter at the base, very viscid while developing, with the base permanently invested by the flowering glumes of the host, v*iich are smooth, shining, black and closely adherent, smooth as far as covered by the glumes, and reticulated for EDiae distance above this. The reticu- lations gradually disappear upward and merge into closely placed longi- tudinal striations, ishich in turn disappear near the apex, vitoere the surface is nearly anooth or irregxilarly roughened. They are dark grey at the base, but gradually fade out to a very light grey or alm.ost white at the apex. In sections the base possesses an external zone of a dark grey color on the outside, within which is a much wider distinctly marked zone of a very light grey, vshile the center, less definitely bounded, is almost pure lAhitCA At the apex these divisions are absent. Stromata are erect, erumpent with cylindrical or usually slightly fusiform, short, stout, alicost white stipe, and a subglobose head, 1.75 to 2.75 ram. in diameter, usually slightly flattened below and overlapping the upper end of the stalk. The head is 52 light grey, a3inost smooiai, viscid, jpnetifonn, with ennall darker points indicating positions of perithecla, Perithecia..sunU:en, not projecting atove stroKatic nass, ovate to very slightly r^yrifonn, 190 to 2E5tj, lay 60 to 90|j,. Asci eight spored, fasciculated, narrowly cylindrical, slight^ ly enlarged at attachment, rounded above, and 135 to 150|jl by 4 to 5^,. Paraphyses vanting. Spores nearly parallel, filiform, coarsely hut rather indistinctly guttulate, 100 to IgOja hy 1 to l.Sp,. ClaviceTis Jtinci Adams The following is Adams' description of this species (l) "The species of this genus are usually fotmd parasitic in the ovary of grasses, sometirces on sedges. ITeither in Saccardo's "Sylloge Pungorum" noU in Engler and Prantl's "Pflanzenf ami lien" is there any mention of the member of the genus occuring on ^shes. The Sphacelia stage only was found, occurring in the ovary of Juncus glaucus . and filling up its in- terior with an immense number of colorless spores. The spores are oblong to elliptical in shape, one-celled, 7,0-10,1^ 2.0O3.5|j,. Obtained on 17th Sept. on Royal Canal bank, Co, Dublin," Clavicpps lutea M611, on Paspalum (180f Before the formation of the sclerotia the flowers are covered with a cottony growth of colorless hyphae on which are formed the conidia. The sclerotium is formed here outside on the spikelet in the form of a cap- like curved pod. The largest sclerotia are about three millimeters in di- ameter. They are attached tightly to the spikelet sending down into its ovorum and between the glumes root-like structures of hyphae. The sclerotia fall down with the spikelets but xvhen they are fully ripe they are easily separated from the spikelets. The sclerotia are white on the inside and distinctly yellov? on the outside, having a slight "korneligrauEh". Sclerotia germinate after seven months with one or two long, fine, light yellow stipes. 5^ which teay reach a length ox 4mn, carrying on their tips spheiSJdbia. Ihe perithecia are sunken in the spheridia, Ijut their upper parts are elevated in form of spherical "bodies (ball). The asci reach a tength of 250^., the asco spores are 190|j, long. They germinate immediately in nutritive solution, first they swell up somewhat, divide hy cross walls, send out side tranches, on which aro formed numerous conidia within 24 hours. They are 9 hy 2|j.. In hanging drops they form aetial grov/th and numerous conidia. ' Claviceps microeeuhala Tul. Synonyms: 1. KentrosT3orium microeephalum Wall (289) 2. Suhaeria microcephala ejusd. Wall (279) 3. S-phaeria acus Trog. (279) 4. Cordyceps X)uri3urea var, Acus Desm. (279) 5. Sphaeria hoolceri E:1. in Engl, ffl, V. (23^) Sacc. Syl, Fung. v. 2, 565 C, micro^.ft^hg.la_ occurs ons phragmites comjHunis (279) Molinia coerulea (279) Arundine calanagrostis (279) Fardus (277) Alopecurus pratensis (193) Folllowing is Tusasne description of this species (279): "C. tota saturate rufo-violacea, suhsolitaria; sclerotic hrevi, exili aut crassiore; stipite longo, gracillimo flfejcuosque; capitulo exiguo molliori." "Spermogonia eamdem prae se fert fabrioam quam supra in Clavicipite purpurea deprehendimus, parique modo in extemo pistilli hospitis pariete, quaedam apud Gramina provenit; quoad mollem macrior est 01^ quMti modo desCTj-lpta^ neo C Krh, C^s, io:i^ior '. su":^wniia) saepe offenditm-. Spermatia fxindit ovata s, elliptior., irtor ae i'erre oonsimilia, nm, 0065 circiter longa dimidioque angustxora; et ovm estemjata obsolescit, corpnsculun sordlduluiB deforineqiie fsacculTim I'aeo) more soli to retert. f^trona s. sclerotiiom, dum sparmogoiiia inferaatur, illi se subducit, partin>- qi7,e in ejus sinu rscondituni paulatijr elonga-tur, ac formam anguste cyliMri- cam, reotam et utrinque mruihil attenuatati obtinet. Caetertim ovarri sedem penitus usurpat, sed S3iri-a5 s genSni iroaea escoedit, licet gluaellis flosculi brevius nonnunquam consistat; millinietra tria ant quatucr in longitudinem plerumque apud ■?!br?.girf.te!r- tant'omcodo adipiscitur et diacjetor Mn, 4-5 aequare solet; ir Molinia autem ira,-:Tas gereratur . Ex utricalis conflatur globosis, perexiginc, cleo ecatentibus, parenchynaque firirrain, ""^ . albidum et passim purpurasf'.ens siiebentibas. fostqxiain in htanenti lino per longam hiensen veluti sepultam jasui-t; , ^ere superveniente , vita in eo evigilatur, nee nisi aestivi terapopis ariditate opprimitur. Molis exigiaae gratis, paucissiinos, sertini, vera proxime elapso, inter gramina sylvulae f Parisinae) Boloniensis, in sclerotic {§_. stercorari o DC, nt opinor; dicunt alii Scl . lacunosum pe:-.'s.) quod insignem Pezizam tuberosam Bull, generare solet, facile comperiius sum nenpe unum aut unum et alteruni, rarius tres, fttngillos entitur; qui hcruince solitarii provenixint e medio sclerotic qaosi ex utero tiunente vulgo assurgunt, reliqui prSioribus adnascun" tur aut natrici externae hinc inde insident, Clavici-piti T>arDurea de uni versa structura haud dissimiles, stipite pradlongo farcto gracillimo (filxfomii) flexuosoque, capituli axiguitate, nee non colore nunc potius ferrogineorubente quo ex tote infjciunbur, quam facillime discrimznaiitur. Stipes de longitudine, prout in loco suffocate aut minus obscuro creverit, fariat, centimetrum enira et quod exoMit longus aut etiam duplo major offenditur, c^itulumque sibi ipsi concolor; vix mm, 7 crassius. 55 Cfmosum, molliwsculxpn, ©;t osUolis obtuse prominulis undique conspersum sustinet. .^onceptapula e memb-rana tenui nee a paxenchymate quo obvolvitru facile solwbili fpimiata, subovata., obtuse apiculata, nan, 25 circiter longa et dimiclie angustjora, thecis linearibua angustissiflfes ereotisque referciuntur, quartan ia. sinu sporas filifoinies nee centimillimetruin longi- tudine excedentes generari coirpertum habuiirjus. Fila haeeee oetona in aeco quolibet proveniunt, septis destituuntur, nee in segieenta postquan dis- persa sunt abire videntur. In f loribus Hiraegnitis coroimnis Trin. et Molinjae casruleae Moench., aestivo tempore autuimoque ineunte plantula vigere ineipit, nee nisi vere et aestate anni insequentis eurrentibus perfieitur seminaque naturat. Fruetiferam legi in paludosis agri Parisiensis (Meudon) , doxnique periffliltas, alias in Phragmite ali&s in Molinia natas, prosper© colue, Semel occurrit cl. Vifellrothio, prope Ebersburgum Senraniae oeeidentalis, nee non D. Bambergero in Helvetia, teste cl- Trogio; oirea Atrebatem, monente el. Mazerio (in Ann. so. nat., loe. sup. cit.)., etiam reperta est. Fungillus jnodo deseriptus a Clavicipite purpurea, duranodo alterum alteri sedulo conferre volueris, nullo negotio distingui-fiaat- Capi- tulum propter textujram laxiorem, cum modice quidem exsiecatur, subito maxime contrahitur, eonceptaeulaqpie in eo inmersa quapro|>ter ita prominent et a se invicem disereta veniunt ut fructum Rubi exsiccattim quodaffimodo tunc imitetur. Plantula in aqua aut spiritu -wini iramersa colorem paulo post lijiuori eedit. ,Pungaii3a non tantmmodo in Fteragmite eommuni Trin, et Molinia '.'■ ilea Moench, sed etima in Arundine Calamagrosti L. et aliis graminibus 66 oriri ol>S«l»Vatiojii"bus a cli lUi^^rib I'Blatis' deblaratum videtur; ego vero f raterq.Ti4 • in aragnilte et Moliuia svipra dictia illius cclerotiian hactenus dimtaxat offeiidiims. Myc&litttn hoc deiiSatxunj apijd Phi'agniiteni, sab xjnius e floribus mddiis cujuslibet spiculea tegumentis vulgo latet ractd multian adhaeret, et in paniCulis qvae per totam hiemen Ventis quas satae sunt, etiam copiosissiutan vejce reperitur. Sxratnum spiculae ^lorem pluries rite fertilem inveni, et ^S: ejus paleis sensn geniuman g*rroans- c[ue, non vero prolem geBaniformen ©(pidi." £. nigricans Tul, on ; Scirpus laaepthryoa (279) S. railticaulis (279) S. unifltirais (279) "C. tota atro-violacea, capitulo diliitiore, nonnihil de- presso, ttajnilloso, papillis (conceptaculis proinineiitibus) xemotis., De origine, situ et fatrica Spermog6nia hujus stirpis cum primogenito antecedentium frucJtificationis adparatu penitus congruitj Srematia etiam forma et crassiini<|ine prioi-a sutaemalaatur. D^an daec disseminantur gl^cit sclerotitun lineare, semi-cylindrieum ant variis modis deformatuin, '^trigque obtusatum, atrtiin, intus vero solito more , ^Ibidum aut squalide purpurascens;' quae suppetunt ju.jus sortis stromata 8-12 Biillim. longitudtne' adaequant, sdd nonnulla raulto breviour eon- stitere. Sicuti Clavicipitibius decet, solerotiufii seminiforme ab extrena aestate in verusque aatml subsequentis t©3f;g©gcit, nee nisi in limo humido diu jacuerit frucCas agere valet. Ideo cum nostris in ter:.-is degertibus lux gererosius largitux, sylvarumque. arbor es sub coelo mitiore facto '■ -i gennas explicant ac fronder&'induunt, turn fungillus noster, dummodo res ei prospere successor int, 6 hyemali aiQ.mno evocatur. atque ad vitae tenninum volens nolens, via praestatuta festinare debet. Eab illius substantis paula- 57 tim cOifltraatata hinc et inde exevmt, assur^tlht, Clavicipites 5-9 aut plures 5-8 millim. altae, totae atro-violaceae sed in capitulo primitus palli- ' diores. Earumiem stipes crassiusculus filis divaricatis basi destituitur aut pauca exserit. Capitultmi qiiadaintenus dopressiim 1 ,,, 25 vel 2 millim. diajnetro metitior et oculo qtddem ircermi ii-Bmilloso-papillosum deprehendittir. Papilae istae ccnicae, obtusatae, e conceptaculis prominentilms originem ducimt, inter se distant, poroque tandem apertae sporas eructant. Thecae octosporae longissiira*, sub apice e:i:tremo nonnihil constrictae , tempore debito tenuatae ruptae partimque consumjjtae evenescere videntur. Sperae liberae factae eo manifestius filiforrass, continuae albaeque conspioiunt ir- Oritur hie fungillus in f loribus Schiporcun, nempe S_. malticaulis Sm. ,__§.. Boeothyyon LinK.:^ S,. tmiglun^is link, et consimilium; quos, domi oultos, fmctum edentes ad banc diem vidi in Scirpo unigliani Lj.nfe- pro- venerant, nee audivi ullum ngrcolegam in parem Clavicipitem (fructiferam) ximquam incidisse. N. B. S-pliaeria Hooleri Kl. ad Clavicipitum genus veri similiter spectat, sed ex manca ejus adumbratixme, in Smithii Flora anglica (t. V, part II (1836), p. 234) edita, aegre perspicitur quae antecedentium habenda sit, dsiquidem quartam speciem sistere non meretur {279). Clavice-pts pallida (Vint.) P. Henn. Synonyms Balansia Toallida V/int. ..,;■.-.,--;-, -1 :,•:■ :^,':".. -< : . ■■■"■'■ ••"i-- ■•■■ -■ "--'-■ ■■'■ ■ -■ ••■"' , "i' ■'~ " Following is V/inter»s description of this species. "Balansia pallida V/inter nova species. Stroma ta gregaria 4ca 4-6), e basi sclerotioidea, in graminum germine parasitica, eumque •Hedwigia, Band"24, Heft f, Jan. -FsbT 1887,' p.32. 5'8 destruente bullosa, subgiobbHa.» 1/2^2 Miin. crassq, extus lutea, intus pallida, carnosa orta, sessilia vel stipit© plus minusve elongate, saepe curvato flexuosove, interdum subcompresso angulatoque, saepe longitudinali- ter sulcato, luteo-albido pradeita. Capitula perithecigera subglobosa, sub- globosa, subtus excavata, supra saepe parum tuberculosa et inqequalia, pallidaluteola, ab ostiolis peri the ciorum prominulls punctulata, ca l/5 1/2 Mill. lata. Feritheoia in capitulis peritherica, dens stipata, a strojnatis substantia vix diversa, elongate obovata, ostiolis papillae- formibus, rotundatis, intensius coloratis strojiatis superfieiem penan prominentia, 290-320|i, alta, 130-160|i lata. Asci qylindraoei, deorsura attenuati, spice lata rotundati, t unica valde incrassata, 8 spori, 175- 220|i longi, 3.5-5p, crassi. Bporae filiformes, ascorum longitudine, tenuls- sinae, ca. 0.8-0. (|j, crassae, hyalinae, septis inultis, sed valde indistinctis, - Stylospoiae in germinibus junionibus, superfieiem fere totam tuberis sclerotioidei obducentes, e cellulis ejusdem superficial libus ortae, filiformes, plerumque curvatea flexuosaeque, hjralinae, utiinque acutiusculae , 4:4-62|j, Iringae, vix 2p, crassae. Brasilia: prope Sao Francisco, Sta. Catherina. In germinibus vivis Luziolae peruviaaiae Juss. Mai 1885. leg. E. Ule." p. Hennings (99) makes also the follov?ing obseraation in dis- cussing another species of Claviceps: ""^benso ist die Art von Balansia riallida Winter ganz verschieden, vv^elche Art in Pruchttaioten von Luziola Sclerctien bildet. Diese Art is jedoch gleiciifalls zu Claviceps als CI. pallida (Wint.) zu stellen und geh'drt nicht zu Balansia." Clavice|)S pallida (Wint.) P. Henn. var. Orthocladae P. Henn. (lOl) Following is P. Hsnnings* description of this species: "%celio sclerotoideo in germine parasitico eumque plus minusve destruente, subgloboso gyroso compressoque, flavido; str— atibus 59 gregariis (4-( ca 2-3 nun longis, stipitatis, saepe basi confluentibus; stipite basi buljjoso, tereti val late compresso, flavido, villoso, 1-2 mm. longG latoqne; capitulis perithecigeris hemisphaericis, subtus excavatis, supra pallide -flavis, ab ostiolis promin-ulis obscurioribus punottilatis 1-2 mm. latis; peritheciis stipatis oblonge oviodeis; ascis cylindraceis, apice rot-cmdato incrassatis, tunicatis, basi attenuatis, 8-sporis 150 - 180 V ^. sporis filiformibus, hyalinis, pluriguttulatis ca. 0.5^ crassis. Pari , auf OtJihoclada spec, auf Fruchtloiotben. 19. Dec. 1889. "Diese Varietat ist von der vorliegenden typischen Form, welche auf jtuzioisi >'!'-: Irxt!--. t. in Rabenh. -Winter Fungi europ. No. 3549 herausgegeben ist, durch die Grossenverhaltnisse der Stronata 'areraentlich verschieden, ebenso durch den filzigen Stiel derselben. Vielleicht diirftee diesser Pilz besser als besondere Art aufgerstllt werden, zunal die Unterschiede bedeutender erscheinen als zwischen C. purpurea (Fr.) und C, micro c ep hala (^a^lr.). Die Stroma ta entwickeln sich aus den Sclerotien and der lebenden Pfianze." C.' •pa^'pali Stev. and Hall Synonjmis: Sclerotium paspali Schw. (234) Sphacelia pappali borchet (261) Spern-odia paspali Fr, (73) C_. -pas-pali occurs on FasTsalum leave (261) P. di lata turn (186^ and P. distichum (32) in the United States and Europe. This species was first described by Stevens and Hall, but Brovm' s description of it (32) \vhich is given here, is iriore complete. The sclerotia of C.. pasta-li fall to the ground when the grass sheds its ppikelets and lie on the ground until spring. Such sclerotia when gathered in vanter will germinate about the middle of May and this is usually after the host plants begin to flower. €0 The sclerotia of C. pa spali when roatare are usually globular in shape, 2 to 4 rnm. in dianeter, irregularly roughened, on the surface, and yellowish gray in color; the interior is homogenous in structure and contains a considerahle quantity of oil. Gerrainating sclerotia produce one to several stronata, usually tivo or ttiree, with slender whitish stipes 3 to 15 nan. in length and with spheridia about 1 mm in diameter. The ^eridia are roughened over the surface, owing to projecting perithecial necks, and are at first whitish in color, later becoming rather bright yellow, and finally brownish. A vertical section of a stromatic head shows numerous flasl?;- shaped peritheoia embedded in the outer part of the head. The neck of each perithecium projects a short distance beyond the surface, thus form- ing small piaiple-like projections. The heads are congpletely covered with peritheoia which are o-^ra.1 in shape and measure by 340 by 119|i. Each perithecium contains nuinerous slender, cylindrical asci, 150 to 17C|i in l^igth. At the outer end of each ascus there is a thiable-lilce lsn«» fitting over the end. The wall of the ascus is so thin that it cannot be dis- tinguished clearly. -^The ascospores are filiform and hyaline, being a little less than Ifi in diameter and 70 to 100|i in length. There are pro- bably eijght spores in an ascus, althou^ not more than seven were counted with certainty. Mature spheridia from sclerotia just gathered from the field, vjhen allowed to dry slightly and then moistened, exude asci very freely. Flowers of Pasioalum dilatatum inoculated with ascospores by by rubbing stromatic heads against stigmas and spikelets of the grass heads 61 showed abvoidant evidence of infaction in several days. In the field, in- fected heads are not foimd for several days aftev the sclerotia germinate. They are first noticed about the early part of June, about 24 days after germinating sclerotia are first found. Diseased heads becorce very common during July, especially if June has been rainy. The infecting ftoigus attacks the pistil of the grass flower, and in a few days the ovary is almost entirely destroyed, a mass of fungus tissue filling the space it occupied. On the surface of the fungous growth, there are numerous tufts of hyphae standing at right angles to the central rsass. Each tuft contains a number of hyphae. The digital ends of these hyphae, or certain of them, enlarge and form conidia. The conidia are hyaline but show granules when stained, oblong, about Sp, wide and 15|i long. Th^ are produced in great abundance and are carried from Mxe hyphae on v/hich they were produced by a droplet of Honey dew. The sphacelia stage in which honey dew is esoided lasts but a few days. In some cases within a week after the sphacelia stage reaches its height the young sclerotia 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter are projecting from between the glumes of the spikelets. They continue to grow until some reach a diameter of about 4 mm. The sclerotium of £. nasisali has very marked poisonous properties. £.• tihilipnii Rehm (209) Stronata gregaria, e Sclerotic 2-2 l/2 cm, longo, -3 mm. lat., subcylindrico onata, capitata, subglofeosa, scabra, stipitata, cum Sclerotic nigerrima, Capitula superficie peritheciis immersis exasperata, 0,3-1.0 ma diam. stipite c.l mm. alt., 0.2-0.5 mm, lat, intus albida, firma Peritbeoia iimersa, minima, oculo nonarmato vix perspicua. Asci creberrimi, clylinracei, apice rotundati et incrassati, 120-150|j, Ig., 6tj, lat. 8 spori. Sporidia filiformia, recta, 1 cellularia, subflavidula, parallele posita. 65 c. laOu long, itx aat» Baraj^yses ctesunt.. Mergnl (C^ilt) leg. Th. iTiiiii^i, acL sclerotium intra vaginam folii sessile » caryopsidem infectd«e.« £» gasilla Ces. (37) "GlaviGipili microeephalae et purpurea affinis. differt colore stipitis stramineo et capituli fuscostramineo, dintissime persistente, praecipue vero appendice collariiformi capituli basim am-biente, basigue stipitis glalaerrina; ascis sylindraceis 56 s: e\x; spridjis filiformibus ascum aequantibus. Hab. in caryopside (affecta a Sclerotii Clavi forma) Andropogonis pr. Brescia et Vercilli in Italia boreali. Peritheoia globulosa 1/5 - 1/4 mill, diam., in ostxolum conicum producta, cr. Aapitulxim 1/2-i mill, diam." C.. ranunculoides Mbll. on Setaria sp. (180)- TftiB species has typical Claviceps sclerotium, horny and curved. In the sphAcelia stage the fungus seems to be of an orgnge- red color. The numerous conidia formed here are oval, 7 to 8 by 3 to 4^,. The sclerotia germinate first after nine months. The stromata are slightly yellow at the base, as in C. purpu^SLg- . soma-ifhat thickened, and covered with t^phae. The spheridia havo the form of Ranunculus on which only the upper middle JIBrithecia are developed symmetrically, the others being curved and bent in all directions. The perithecia, though they are free and superficial, yet are partly sunken into the spheridium, viiich extends halfi Tjay up to the semispherical ape:: of the perithecia. The perithecia are from the base to the apex^from 400 to SOOjj, long. Th6 thread-like asci have very flat apices and reach up to 200|j, iv length ancl 4|j, in width. The ascospores are filamentous, lOOp, long with about 30 cross septa. On the day after transfer the ascospores break into segments which germinate 63 separately, the gerin tubeS poniing fro» tihe ends of the segments. Fotir days later there is formed a rich aerial growth of conidia bearing hyjliae, C. Rolfsii Stev. ard Hall (261) on Paspaltun leave and P. dj lata turn. Syn. Sclerotiton paspali Schv/, Sphacelia paspali Bo met Spermadia paspali Fr. As C. Rolfsii and C. msiaali differ only in their ascigerous vfoidi was only recently found, it" is necessary to give here also the synonyms given for C. pas pali, as. their similar sclerotia have been re- ferred to indiscriminately under the same synonyms. Sclerotia yellow to gray, globose, roughened vAien mature, about 3 ran. in diameter; sphairjd itun dull yellow; stipe filiform but thicker than in C . paspali. 1 to 1.5 cm, long; peritiieric few in spheri- dium and mostly upon extreme distal portion} cylindrical, ovate, 816 by ;^: 225\x', asci cylindrical, 375 by S|i; spores filiform, 260 to 275 by 0.5 to l\i. C. sesleriae StSger on Sesleria coerulea dnd possibly on 5. argentea . (225) The Claviceps of Sesleria has been listed as C. parpurea . but St'Sger, vdio made a careful study of the fungus and made a number of in- oculation experiments with it, considers it as a distinct species which he called C^ ses leri ae. It does not pass to any of the typical C_. ■pur-purea hosts and is morphologically somevAiat different from the latter. The conidia of C. purpurea are 7 by 3.5|i, the conidia o f C. microeephala are 7 to 8 by 3 to 5|j,, whereas those of C. sesleriae are 10.5 to 14, by 3.5 to 5.3 to 7^. Besides a cross section of the sclerotium of C. ses- leriae represents a different picture. In the middle of ihe iHhite mass of the sclerotium there is a darker portion in a star-like form. 64 Here is Stager* s diagnosis fcf t. sealeriae . "Stronasive sclerotium fungilli vulgo linearo-obloKgum , obsolete trigonian, restum arena tumve, e parenchymate densissimo duro albido constat, cujus Kedia pars in stellae figuram redacta oTjscura.- Capitula crassa, pritrjum pallida 1-uteolaque, postea purpureoviolacea. Sperraatia ovato-elliptica, 0. nan, Ol05 usque ad mm, 014 circiter longa, mm, 0035 usque ad O mm, CO? lata nonihil in medio con- stricta praetereaque nuceolis duotus oppositis donata." C. setulosa (Qu^l)Sacc. on Poa (26) Syn. Cordyceps setulosa Q,uei.(202) Spheridium 1 mm in diameter, globose, leathery brovoi colored, slightly v;arty, because of the fine papillae; stipe flexuosus slender, 1 cm. long, erect, covered at the base with \';aiite silk- like hyphae, asco- spores straight, filiform, 50|i in length. Ergot on poa in the pastures of Jure;, mountains. Prance, _C tripsaci Stev. and Hall on Tripsacum dactyloides (261). In jtate summer and well into v/inter characteristic fungous grov/ths are often seen protruding from the basal, ovulate, portions of the spLlce, Sometimes nearly every sjilelet is affected. The structures are wliite from 12 to 20 mm. long, and about 2 to 3 mm thick. Toward their tips they may be browned and more shrunken than in regions near their bases. Exsjnination of the affected spikelets show the seed to be absent and their place to be occupied by \Tihite sclerotia approximately the shape of the seed of the host. In general, the appearance is Ihat of a eiaviceps sclerotitun except that it is taiite and soft, the protruding horn being the remnant of the summer stage. Throughout the early part of the season the protruding part bears myriad-S of straight to lunulate spores, showing strong resemblance to the ordinary lunulate Fasarium spore. pa In spring liie sclBllrdUa gisirtoinate* the stipbs forking and producing two or even four heads upon the same stalk. Following is Steven's and Hall's diagnosis of the fungxiBs "Tlie sclerotia of C. triiasaci is smooth, white to dark hrovai or black, nearly conical, 4 to 5 mm. in diameter at base; sjiieridia, gray to grayish-white, stipes thick, white to purplish v^ite, 1 to 1.5 cm. long; perithecia numerous, elliptical in longitudinal section, with a short beak tcvard the surface of the spheridixun, 390 by 151 to 187(i; asci cylindrical, 145 to 175 by 2 to 3^; spores filiform, I^'Om. long; conidia hyaline, continuous, fusoid to lunulate, 17.4 to 37.7 by E.9 to 8.7p,." C wilsoni Cooke (44) on Gl yceria fialtans Synonyms: Barya. aurantiaca P and 'Vils. Claviceips purpurea Tul. var, Wilsoni V/. Smith. Elowright and Wilson (195) described first this species as a pa,rasite on ergot tmder the name Barya aurantica . as they could not get trivial is infection with the gpores on xiSieat, on rye, and on Poa jogfadcgi^ . They fluitans should bAve tried G-. £^aai^iaaa& ^t that time i t v;as considered as an ab-- norrrE-lity of C,, 'ourpurea and \7. Smith described it under the name C. nur- p-urea IPul. variety V/ilsoni. He thought that this variety owed its origin to its peculiapenviromient, so different as it is from the environment of \/lieat, rye and olheL cereals, namely, wet and muddy places in stagnant pools and slaz-runr'ing streams. The sclesctium of C. wilsoni differs from C. purpurea in being whitish or yellov/ish instead of pale pui-ple in color, and in «,the perithecia being almost free on an elongated club-like growth instead of being immersed in a globular head. Many cf the stipes of this species are hair-like, others are attenuated upwards from a thicker base and the spJiaeridia bear no peri- thecia. The v/hole growth is less firm tlian that of C. purpurea . In some instances the base of the stipe is so thick that the Claviceps superficially 66 resembles a parasite upon ergot rather than a true i^t-ulting conditiori of ergot itself. Soiretinies this effused mycelium spreads over the ergot, and several clubs arise from one stratum of mycelium, vAiich may have emerged from one minute hole or crack in the sclerotium. The poles of the grass flower are sometimes attached to tlie sclerotium. The perithecia are superficial, scattered throughout the upper half or tv/o-thiipds of the club-shaped stipe, on the average the same in size and character as those of C. -pur-purea. In cross section they do not differ from C. Tourtsurea . The asci are cylindrical, 200 to 250 by 30|j,. The conidia are elliptico- lanceolate, borne in chains on the end of branching conidiophorous hypJiae, and 10 to 12 by 2 to 3|j.. C. wilsoni has been reported from Great Britian and Switzerland. it is probable, ho\vever, that it occurs in other countries as well but has been overlooked. Claviceps sp . on Spartina stricta Thaxter (248) who first found this fungus, thinks that it is a^ species as different from C. •pur-purea as is C. microceTohala. He concludes this from the fact that its sclerotia germinate first toward the end of June and the beginning of July. No other information concerning this species is available. Claviceps sp . on Zizania a\vuatica and Z. palustris This species of Claviceps which has not been studies in detail has been referred to by several men under the nam e C. nur-purea Tul. Fyles (76) who. studied it and conducted some inoculation experiments, finds that its sclerotia germinate fcvo months after gathering and usually send out numerous stromata. The greatest number he observed v/as forty-eight and the least eleven. Broken pieces of ergots produced 3 to 7 stromata. The spheiidia of the stromata are light buff in color with lavendar stalks, be- 67 coming deeper bro\m and sligihtly reddish with a^, and 2.5 to3.5 cm in diameter. The ostiloles give it an apparance like diminutive spilrod clubs and the stipes reach a length of about 5 cm. At the height of maturity, the p§rithecia measure 250 to 3Z5\i in length and 150 to 160 in vadth. The asci are 2C0 to 215(j. long and 4^ wide, l-he spores are 150 to ISqj. long, tri- ceptated. Tie conidia measure 9 to Igp, in length and 2.5 to 3.5|j, in width. Because of the difference in the measurement of conidia the ascospores of this Claviceps and C. purpurea and the fact that plants readily infected vdth spares of the latter proved immane in his experiments and from some other biological features, Pyles feels justified in considering this ergot a distinct species, the diagnosis and scientific name of which he v/ill give in his forltillicoming paper upon the compile tion of his -.vork. nTKHCTIOW r;:...IERnEFT3 . JTO Sl-ECI-'ilZED R'.CES OF SOME CJ-AVICEPS 3H5CIBS -is is the case with other cereal diseases, it has been suspected for a long time that the Claviceps of cereals and grasses is not one and the Aaxoe species on all of the nimierous plants attacked by it. Stft'ger is the first and only worker who has studied some of the knavn Claviceps species from ihe standpoint of specialized races. He did this work during a period of ovei ten years and contributed much toward the better understanding of t this genus. Valuable as his v/ork is, much more i-S Jieeded and further studies vail, no doubt clear up many points vvhich are not well understood. The results Stager obtainedare convincing as far as they go, but a greater number of inoculations, especially cross inoculations, may give somevdiat different results, or at least eliminate the last doubt as to the correctness of this \7ork. Tlie methods used by Stager in his inoculation work v/ith Claviceps are very simple. The plants to be infected are brought to the greenhouse, or any other room, a v/eek before flo\7ering so as to avoid external infection. The infected plants are kept uncovered in the greenhouse, or xuader jars,' 36 according to the kind or fckds of iixociaitiln used* Stager In most cases used conidia for inoculation, m such cases the "honey dew" is gaCiered carefully in smll bottles from tine inffected plants, corked tightly and kept in the dark until used. Before inoculation the "honey dew- is dilut- ed M«i mter and the heads to he infected are either dipped in the dilu- tion or sprayed with aa atomizer. Ascospores m^ be used in the same v;ay. The plants are inlculated alvays at the time of flowering, never before or ?.fter flowering. This species goes tos Alopecurus pratensis ? Anthaxanthum odor a turn Arrhenatlierum elatius Briza nBdia Bromus sterilis Ca lamag'r st i s arundinacea Dactylis glomerata Festuca pratensis Hierochloa borealis Hordeum murinum Hordeum vulgare Bialaris arundinacea Poa alpina Poa caesia Poa concinna Poa hybrida Poa pratensis Poa sudetica 1. Only very slight infection, results not convincing. 89 It does not go to: Bromas erectus Molinia coeraD.ea Poa annua Poa fer tills 1 Triticiun spelta ^e C. -purpurea from fye attacking the above listed plants is considered Ijy StSger as the typical C. TJorTOrea in distinction from other C . purpurea^ Yiaiich shall bfe considered in the following pages. Ihcoulation ex-periments vvith C. tm-cfurea from Festuca arundinacea (273) Claviceps from Festuca goes to: Anthoxanthum cdoratum Arrhenatherum elatius Daotylis glojnerata Ilelica nutans It does not go to: Bromas erectus Poa alpina Anthoxanthum cdoratum is easily infected in this case hi* no sclerotia or only rudimentary sclerotia are fDrmed. Olhe Claviceps of Festuca arundinacea is typical C_. purpurec .of rye as it goes easily to some of the common hosts of the latter species. It is interesting to note here that Me Ilea nutans is host of tw^o different species of Claviceps, the first being C^, sesleriae . In both cases, however, it can be infected only under artificial conditions. 1 The cause may be the closed flowers or else its ergot is a different specialized race. 70 Infection experitne-nts with p3 - ■p ny-f^^ y'ftfl. conidia frqm Anthoxanthum odoratTO. infected orieinally vd th ascos-pores of C. purpurea from rve . (248) Broimis sterilis Calarnagrostis arundinacea Pestuca pratensis Hordeum morinimi Hordetmi vulgare Poa compressa Poa sudetica It does not go to: Bromus erectus . Grlyceria f liutans Olyceria distans Lolium italicxon iolium perenn© Lolaum temolentum tardus stricta Poa alpina Poa annua Anthoxanthum odoratum is easily infected with. 0, Tmrpuiea of rye, and the conidia produced on it in turn infect the typical hosts of this species, Sclerotia are, however, never or very seldom formed on ■Anthoxanthum odoratum by the typical C. tforpurea of rye. A. special hiologie race of the same, which we shall consider next, produces abundant sclerotia on the host. Claviceps •purr>urea . S&DtsanEitBai forming biologic race on Anthoxanthum odoratum (252) This race goes to: AnthoicanthtuTa odoratian Arrhenatherum elatius Holcus mo lie Poa pratensis Secaie cereale It does not go to; Hordeum vtilgare (single plant in the field) Dactylis glcmera-ta Koeleria valesiaca Lolium perenne 1 Milium eff-asian Sesleria coeralea Morjliologically the sclerotia forming Claviceps of A., o ioratmn is the saire as JC. purt>urea . the only difference heing that this forms ahtindant sclerotia on A. odoratum while the typical jC. ptar-purea from rye which also attacks A. odorat-ugi never, or only very seldom, forms sclerotia on this host, and the sclerotia when formed are very ahnormal and small. ClaviceTJS purxfurea hiologic form from Brachy- •podium silvaticnm (24-8 and 251) It goes to: Brachypodium silvatictun Militim effustan Poa pratensis Poa trivialis It does not go to: 1 In poor condition at time of infection; result xmcertain. 72 caespitosa Aira caasjifeasa Arrhenatherum elatius Holcus ffiollis iolitm italic-um Mollnia coerulea Poa alpina Secale cereale Sesleria coerulea Conidia from liiitm effustm infected \sdth ascospores from B aacliAutXalaxgB silvatictun do not go to : Br&cbypodJBm Aira caespitosa Arrhenatherum elatius Bracbypodivim fiStfdi^spQMstSD pinnattun " " var. caespitosum " silvaticTam Bromus ereotus Glyceria f liutacas Poa cereale " nemo rails " pratensis " trivia lis In oDnnection with this experiment is the interesting fact that Poa trivialis and P. pratensis are slightly infected by ascospores ■From B. ^lO'gBJii.Taum only a very srrall amotmt of honey dew being secreted and no sclerotia foriced. On the other hand they are not at all infected by conidia from the same, as is shown in the case of inoculations vrith conidia. from MiliTMo effusim * it is to be noticed from previous experi- 73 ments that the poa species are infected only temporaXily by various biologio races of Claviceps. It is further interesting to note that Brachypodium s^ly^itic-uffi , the only real host of this form, flowers iriuch later than the fungal ascospores are produced, and that direct infection is impossihle. The fungus has been forced, therefore, to acTaipt itself to another host vihich is found usually in association vdth the first r.nd vAiich flov/ers just about the time of ascospore production. This is ^ili"uin e ffusum. Miliuin effusum is in blossom about the end of May and at the same time the ascospores are discharged from the perithecia. These spores germinate, establish themselves ve.y easily on M. effusum and produce an abundant ?.nd long-period secretion of honey dew. Sclerotia are not formed, however on Milium effusum , or only very seldom, nnd such, when occurring, are only rudimentary. Meanwhile, the B. silvaticum sends out its flavers v>hich can easily be infected with the conidia produced on M. effusum . Then numerous sclerotia are formed. There are necessary, therefore, for the full development of the ftmgus, under normal conditions, two host plants; BrachvT30dium silvaticum and Milium effusum . For this phenomenon v;e find an analogy in Sclerotinia ledi . As is Imown, Woronin described for the first time (1896) an Ascongroetous form with heteroeceous habit ( Sclerotinia ledi. ) At the tiHB of ascospore ripening of this fungus the host Ledum is not yet developed. The spores infect first Vaccinium uliginosum which is in proper stage of development at that time and from the latter the fungus passes to its true host. r 74 Sla viceTjfc of militi a) e ffusa m. 3atce as on R» sHvaticvim (248) It goes to: Bi5»c*»ypodiiOT Gilvatictan Militun efftiSTam It does not go to: Airrhenatherum elatius Psstuca pratensis Holcuis ffiollis Secale cereale This shows that the Claviceps on Mi limn effnsmn is the same as that on BraclivtiCidi'Hm silvaticum and that it is not the same as the C. purpurea from rye hosts. Infection experinsnts with Claviceps of LoKfeaiperenne (248) Claviceps from L. perenne goes to: Brofflus erectus Lolium italicum " perenne " texnaleuttun It does not go to: Aegilops bicornis Alopecurus pratensis Anthoxanthum odoratian Arrhenatherum elatius Br»chypodium silvaticwEi Bromus macros tachys Panicum sanguinale Poa pratensis Secale cereale 75 Morphologically this species does not differ from C, purpurea on rye and is, therefore, a biologic race of the latter Inoculation experipients Claviceps raioroce-phala Tul. from Phragmites communis (248) It goes to: Molinia coerulea Nardis stricta It does not go to Alopecums pratensis Anthoacanthum odoratum Ajrrhenathertan elatius Hordetun Biurin'uni loliTim perenne Poa hybrida Poa nemoralie Poa Slide tica Poa trivial! s Poai'Sponischer Doppelroggen" Conidia from the saise species and "biologic form from Molinia coerulea upon infection gave positive results on: Aira oaespitosa Molinia coerulea Nardus stricta It does not go to: Calanagrostis arundinacea Poa species Sesleria coerulea 76 Aira Couidia froin caespitosa prodnce infection on Molinia coerulea, but do not infect Spanish double-rye. It infects: Poa amna It does not infect: Aira caespitosa Arrhenatherum elatius Bromus e'rectus Hordeum sativum lolium italicum^ " perenne "' rigiduin Panicum miliaceum Poa alpina Poa caesia Poa cenisia These results indicate that the Claviceps of Poa annua has only one host said that it does not pass to the typicail host of C. purpurea ojS rye. Its host is not infected by any of the other Claviceps sp. or by C. •purpurea biologic races as sho^vn in prejrious experiments. In his paper (250) Stager considered this fungus as a dis- tinct biologic race of C. purpu rea of rye, but in his later paper, (252), after careful morphologicaj. study of its ascigerous stage, not irade before he considered it as a biologic race of C. ciicrocephala . o f Fhaamites oonmunis . and called it Clavicer)s microcenhala Tulasne, spez . bioloaica Poae. Infection experiments with CJLaviceTis of Sesleria coerulea from Twaun Switzerland (248) 7? It goes to: Melica nutans " tmiflora Sesleria coerulea It does not go to Anthoxanthttm odoratum Arrlienatheriim elatius Brachypodiuin caespitosum BroKiuis erectus Eactylis glomerata Festuca pseudongrartis Holcus iKOlle " lanatum Hordetun bulboe-um Koeleria valesiaea LoliiaBi perenne Milica ciliata " effustun Poa pratensis Poa alpina Secale cereale In nature Claviceps sclerotia or the conidial stage of same are never found on Melica unifloi-a and M, nutans. Infection takes place only under artificial conditions and here it is only slight, sclerotia being never formed. dSTxGiEgis from the saiEe host and from leuenen infects only Sesleria coerulea, hut does not go to any of the above listed hosts of this * Ci'-iceps. This shows that the clirrate and locality might have some effect upon the adaptability of Claviceps to some hosts. ^tSger considers 78 Clariceps from the same host and. from Xauenen infects only Siesleria cocrulea, TDtit does not go to any of the atove listed hosts of this Claviceps. TMS Shows that the climate and locality might liave some effect iipon the adaptability of Claviceps to some hosts. Stager considers the Claviceps on Sesleria c oeralea not only as a biologic race of the C.. Tiarpurea on rye, but he thinks that it is a distinct species to Tfihich he gave the name C., sesleriae . tindei' ^hidh name it is described in another place in this paper. Infection experiments vdth davioeps from Glyceria fliutans (248) It gnejs only to (Syceria fliutans, but does not go to: Aira flexuosa Ammophila arenaria Anthoxamthum odoratum Arrhenatherum elatius Brachypoditmi sylvaticum Bromus erectus Caiamagrostis arundinacea Cynosurus cri status Dactylis glome rata Festuca pratensis Holcus mollis iolium perenne Nardus stricta Poa annua Poa pratensis Poa sudetica Secaie cereale 79 Stager did not irake detailed tnorpiiological study of this species but he thinks that it is the eswe as Clavicens Wilsoni Cooke. Inoculat ion exp eritnftTi'h vri i-i \ ciavicens from Zizania (76) 5!his species goes to: Zizania aquata Zizania palustris It does not go to: Agropyron tenerum Alopecurus pratensis Arrhenatherum elatius Avena sativa Dactylis gloiterata Elyrcus dsystachys Hordeum vulgar e Poa pratensis Secale cereale Fyles (76) considers this f^ungus as a distinct species, different f rem .Ci. jpurpuiea and from all other known species. irOXICOLCGY History E.S early as Caesar* s and Galen's, (l) times some diseases among nan and beast have been attributed to impurities in the grains. The epidemics reported during the middle ages and Icnovm as "Ignis sacer" were at least partly due to ergot. '.Mille such epidanics have been rare dtiring the last two or three centuries, they were much Dore comiron during the early tir^s. 5aie"Holy Fire" in 922 in Spain and Prance alone is supposed to have taken 40,000 lives. 80 Seme of the most important kaown apidamics presumatly caused by ergot aro those in Silesia in 1588, Saxony in 1648, Cologne in 1590, Frei-burg in 1702, SvTitzerland in 1709, Silioia in 1736 where 300 out of 500 cases resulted in death. In this case, the Icing of Prussia ordered an exchange of sound rye for the affected grain. Hiere ■roas similar trouble in Denmark, Sweeden and Worrvay, 1761; 7estphalia in 1770, and 1771; Lorraine and Burgundy in 1816; Nassau in 1856. In later years epidemics have been more frequent in Russia. In 1854 an epidemic • broke out in Crimea among the soldiers, in 1862 in Finland and in various other provinces in 1866, 1872, 1879, and 1880. In 1884, there were rany cases of ergotism in the province of Poltava, where many people died, lost a hand or foot due to gangrene, or became paralyzed for the rest of their lives. Since that time several severe epidemics have occurred in Russia. Single cases have been reported during the ninteenth century in Berlin, Pomrrem, Braunschweig, Great Britian, Various districts in France, United States and Bulgaria. In 1608, after inundations and heavy fogs there was a general epizootic among the cattle in Germany. In recent years a number of ergotism cases among cattle and horses have been reported from various countries. Ergotism as known now is a disease of bovine s caused by the consumption of considerable quantities of food contaminated by ergot. Equines are apparently less susceptible than bovines, althou^ the hor^^S* have been known to stiff er severely from this disease. Ergotism in men is not an unknown occtirrence at present, and in nearly every instance it has resulted from eating bread nade of ergotized grain. (l) Galen, Claudius. Greek physician and medical writer. A. D. 120 - 200 ? 81 Ergot also causes aTaortion and in some years the loss to stoclntKn from abortion of cows and mares is heavy* This is greater in seasons when there is an unusual aTjundance of ergot on the grasses. It is certain also that the general health of the anitals is impaired by ergot. The properties of ergot to ijjhjbit proper blood circulation and to cause abortion have been laiowti ever since the middle ages, lonicer selected and used ergot as a drug in 1573 and ever since it has been regularly used as a drug in cases of protracted labor and excessive haemorrhage. It is claimed, however, by Bauer (15) that Dr. Stearus, of New York Englahd, \sas J>robably the first vSio used ergot most effectively in such cases about 1622. Ergot composition The exact chemical composition of ergot is not well -under- stood. A nuBiber of compounds have been isolated bjc various workers but just THaa-t they are, their chemical fonnulae, and properties are not well known in all cases. In 1875 Tanret (266) succeeded in isolating a pure substance from ergot which he called " ergot inin". In 1884 Kobert (136) discovered three new bodies in ergot: ergotinic acid, cornutin, and sphacelic acid. These, according to the author, are not chemically pure bodies but only physiologic actions. Ergotinic apid- is a nitrogenous glucocide v/ithout action on the uterus and narcotic in its effects. It is a protoplasmic poison, and when inject- ed intravenously produces inflammation of serous aE4 mucous membranes, disintegration of red-blood cells and widespread ecdhymoses. In sphacelic acid Kobert thought he had discovered the agent causing contraction of the uterus. \^ile he considered coanutin as the agent causing strong convulsions and later paralysis and not the pain^causing constituent of ergot. In his later work (137) he attributed the medical action of ergot to comutin. in This shows that he was working'* the first case with chemically impure substances. Keller, 1896, (131) worlced out a method for the quantitative determination of the alltaloids in ergot and found that the only pure alkaloid present in ergot was identical vith the "Ergotinin Tanret", which was declared earlier by Kobert as inactive. Further Keller, as well as Tanret, claimed that Kobert 's cornutin was partly decomposed ergotinin. In spite of this disputed question, Keller preserved the name cornutin for the pure alkaloid and considered it as the bearer of the ergot properties. Santesson (228) gave & pharmacological test to Keller's original preparation and came to the conclusion that cornutin did not have the properties of causing contraction of the uterus and that it has only a rather weak poisoning property, Jakoby (122) basing his conclusiong primarily upon pharmacological experiments, found that not an alkaloid but a notrogen- free substance of phemol-like nature was the active agent. This active agent, xvhich he called sphacelotoxin, is of a more hsrpothetical nature. Sphacelo toxin acts on bases as well as on acids. Such a compound with an acid is the chrysot02:in and the same with an alkiloid is the secalin- toxin. By purification the secalintoxin loses its action. In pure condition it is called secalin, \>tiich is nothing else but ergotinin. Such was our knowledge of the composition of ergot at the time (1901) vhen Kraft took up the study of this question. He worked for five years on this problem and was able to git)© a somewhat more complete list of the compouzlds found in ergot. 83 According to Kraft, ergot containe: ergotinin (Taor^t); t^vo alSalQlds, crystalized ergotinin (Tanret) and amorphous hydro ergotinin (Kraft); a group of yellow colored lactone acado: secalone acid and its anjorphous relatives; a white independent Acid; and also the otherwise common substances: tatin, cholin, and roannit. The alkaloids are commlsion-and gangrene-producing poisons, but not the agents of the specific action oh the uterus. At the same tiire, Brofessor Va^hlen (282) published his work on clavine, a new crystalized substance vAxidi possesses the specific action of causing contraction on the uterus. This completes the list of known chemical oonrpouods found in regot. Vahlen isolated a pure substajice from ergot called Clavine which stimulates the contraction of the genital organs but lacks entirely the gangrenous and other properties of ergot. The quantity of clavine amounts to several grams per Kilogram of ergot. It has a dull taste and is not colored by the alletloid reagents. On the utuius it has a specific action which it stimulates to more or less r^id con- traction. Up to the present there have been successfully applied doses of 0.02 grams in subcutaneous injections or in tablets. Barger and Dale (12) claim that the amorphous alkaloid isjii(di Kraft called and considered as hydroergotin© is not eaactly hydrolized ergotinin an4 that it should be called ergotexin as Barger and Carr (11) had named it only a month before Kraft* s paper was pub- lished. Contrary to KrS.ft's and Vahlen' s assertion they showed by numerous experiments on various animals that the action of ergot was due to two substances. The alkaloff.d ergot tein ^352^41^5^5 *^^ claim is chemically and physiologically idex.tical v/ith Kreft's hydroergotinin, causing 64 gangrene on the conibs of hens, increasing of the blood pressure a,nd contraction of the uterus. fEhese actions aie caused hy the alkaloids and not as Vahlen supposed by an impurity found m, it. G3iis allsaloid is the specifically active part of preparations like sphacelic acid, sphacelo toxin, etc. In water e;:tracta of this aUsaloid it coihes only in snail quantities. In vsstter extracts which cause a,lso an increase in the blood pressure and contraction of the uterus, the active principle is the Tsatersoluble hase, p-oxypheryl-ethylaciin, HO.CgH CJIJg.CHg.MH^, Tflfaich resemhles aepenalin chemically as v,;eii as physiologically, They showed also that the clavine preparations are a mixture of amino acids and not a pure substance as Vahlen held it to be. The quantitative composition of ergot is even less Isnown than its qualitative composition. It probably varies vdth samples, small ergot is supposed to contain more alkaloids than the larger ones. According to Hartwich, (90+, C I. mic rocephala contains three times as much ergotinin as those of CI. purpurea-. Ergot is supposed to contain (205) about 30 percent fixed oil ( )• Besides this the Spanish ergot contains about 0.3 percent ergotinin, Russian and German alaout 0.2 percent. Others have given siraller percentages of these compounds. Some other substances have been reported as being also present in ergot. Such are: a sugar called irycose, 30 percent a yellowish oil consisting of fats, (30 percent) principally olein and palmetin, glycogen (95). callose (168). The latter is pbobahly identical with fungose, nycosino, etc. 85 gests for ergot Because of the toyio properties of ergot it is absolutely ^y to have some way of detormini^ the presence of ergot in flour an toead. as well as Jn t3ie milling products fed to aninals. There are at present several ways An v^ich this can te done, and there are some differences of opinion as to *ich is the most accurate and practicable. Ergot can "b^ determined in such products by treating a snajl amount witli an allsali or an acid (177). With the first it gives a violet, with the secojad a red color. Absence of color shows that no ergot is present in th« treated sajople. a good irethod is to take two grams of flour, add to this 10 cc. acid alcohol { a solution containing 70 percent alcohol a^jd 15 percent concentrated hydrochloric acid) . It will give a red color even when only 0.2 pejrcent ergot is present (71). Some claim that th^s method is unreliable because there are other impurities in flonr whicb may also give red calor nahile others insist that no other in^^orities give this reaction, ^y heating a portion of the sample with a solution of- caustic potash a characteristic herring or trimethylamine odor shows the presence of ergot. !I!iie follomiig is a microscopical test for ergot in flour. One milogram fif flour is placed in a drop of water on a slide, this is then heated t1^ the boiliag point. The starch streams away inmBsdiately, permitting an undistnrbed observation of the object. The ergot particles are very chairacteristic and by a magnification of ICO to 120 can be distingulshaia from other tissues Tby their density, by their dark violet color at th^ edges, the g?reenish yellow color of their cross walls, and by the part^^cularly indented edges. According to Ilax Gruber (83) this method is •Scact, expedient, eai^ to use and applice.ble for bread and batoed foods. Otfiers have critii^ized the method seTOrely and doubted its usefulBSSS. 86 cclorimetric -"• ■"■'-'^ ^ - ffiechod a sample of flour or bread is first toiled in absolute alcohol, the alcohol is changed, and the boiling continued until no more yello,v r.olor is given off. Then to it is added some Vogel's alcohol and boiled again, the ergot color dissolves rapidly in this alcohol and the ,Rhole mss soon begins to become red in color. YJten to 20, grams of flour is added even 0.1 gram of ergot, the red color is still plainly visible. !the solution is then carefully filtered until perfectly clear and compared in the coloiymeter with a standard solution of ergot. Herrmann (102). v>ho first used this method, found tiaat not all of the ergot present can be determined b^t only tJiree-fourths of it. For this reason he thinks that all methods for determination of ergot based upon this principle are not good for qviantitative determination of erg(i>t. He foxmd, however, that flour containing even 0.5 percent of ergot will show a distinct red color when tested by this method, and this is close enough to make the nBthod useful for practical purposes. E. Hoffmann's method modified somsiwhat by Lauck: (14€j is accoi^ing to the latter, a much better nBthod for ergot deteaniiination than any of those previously described. In this case, to 10 grams of a well nixed sample are added 20cc. (of coarser brans etc. 20 cc.) of ether distilled first over natrium, To the above is then added 1.2 cc. of 5 percent 6f H SO , the vitoole is thoroughly stirred and allowed to stand for six hour's in well closed glass bulbs, ^e w2iiole substance is then ptmred into a double filter noistened with ether and then washed with ether until the filtrate is brought up to 40 cc. The filtrate is placed in a test tube with a round base and to it is now added 1,8 cc of saturated solution of "doppeUcohaensaurennatrium" - After a thorough stirring, part of the liquid separates on the bottom of the test tube v/hich. varies in color, according to the amount of ergot present, from very light to dark violet. 87 Samples with very snaai amoi^ntq of etgot do not sSicv any color when tested by this rcethod. Lauck was able, however, to stim the presence of at least 0.5 per cent of ergot. He established also that ergot loses with time some of tis coloring natter and that no other impurities in flour Of plant origin give the same color or any color at all. Mj"6en (178) has given us the spectorscopical vie-y of ergot determination, but this is so complicated ^and of so little practical value that it will not be worth while to describe it here, Strasburger (263) has given us a test for ergot in the faeses. The faeses are mixed with water, sedimented and tlie sediments obtained further purified and then tested for ergot by the addition of acid which gives a characteristic red brown color to the ergot tissue with its enclosed oil drops. This color is visible upon microscopic examination. Ergot, as is also true of other fungi, because of its chitinous, miembranous nature is very slowly digested so that after taJcing it even in small dosss the ergot will come out with the faeses unchanged. Ergotism Ergot has veiy marked toxic properties and when taken in by animals in considerable qtianfities with infected hay, grain, or in..the jjasture is apt to bring about distinct pathological conditions, depend- ing upon the kind of ergot, amount consumed, and length of time during which ergot has been fed in one or another form, and also upon climatic conditions. Cattle, horses, mfules, sheep, hogs, dogs, cats, and fowls are know:i to snffor from ergotism. Kobert (136), who experimented chiefly vath cattle and fov/ls, found tha* an acute case of the poisoning can be distinguished from a chronic case^also a ga,rgrenous ergotism from a spasmodic. The disease icanifests itself amoag animals chiefly in the chronic form, since 88 a« a rule, the poison is acquired in sffiall attounts, and accumulation taJstog; Jilace slowly. The gastroenteric symptoms of the disease are; an excessive salivation acconrpajaied with redness, blistering inflammation, wasting and gangrenization of the mouth-epithelium. Similar changes also occur on the epithelium of the gut, producing vomiting, colic, diarrliaea, and constipation. These syraptoms a^pe&ar ii.ibath. spasmodic and gangrenous forms of ergotism. In the spasmodic type of the disease, symptoms of over-stimula- tion of the central nervous system appear. There appears also tonic con- tractions of the flexor tendons of the limbs, anasthesia of the extremities muscular trembling, general tetanic spasm, convulsions and delirium. Nervous phenomena, such as insensibility, blindness, and paralysis also appear . Gangrenous ergotism is attributed to prolonged constriction of the arteries and more directly perhaps to degenerative changes in the vessel walls, and the consequent formation of hyaline thrombi. It is characterized by coldness and anaesthesia of the extr^nities, followed ultimately by dry gangrene of tliis part. The effects of this dry gangrene are often very serious and amount to sloughing off of the feet, tips of the ears, tip of the tail, shedding of the hair, teeth, etc. The most frequent lesions are those of loosening of the hoofs so that parts of the sole or wall may shed or slough off. This trouble is found more in cold weather tlian in warm weather, although this is not always the case. The extremities, such as the ears, tail and lower part of the liflflJ?, gradually begin to lose their warmth and sensibility, dry gangrene sets in, the parts harden, become raumnified, and finally drop off vv^ithout pain. Death takes place from exhaustion. With the exception of the gangrene, Tftiich may vary , slightly in severity, there are no lesions of special significance. Degenerative 89 cJ^ianges In the sensory area of the cord, in t;ie vessel walls have heen ohserved in ajiimals slowly poisoned wi«i ergot. The disease saSss its appearance among cattle chiefly in winter and spring seasons and has, at times, been the cause of serious losses throtighotit the central and western states. Consumption of ergotized hay by pregnant animals, especially cows, nay cause abortion. Grass containing ergot is especially daraging to aniaals at the time when the uterus is nearly ready to esrclude its contents. The ergot varies in its character and strength according to the variation of the season and local conditions under \sffiitoh it has been grown, as well as the time or stage at which it is harvested, so that the ergot of one year appears to be comparatively harmless, while that of another year, or season, or locality is very injurious. The fact remains, however, that under given conditions of growth it unquestionably causes ergotism and abortion, and in such cases the abortions are wide- spread in the herd or in different herds in the same district. Cases such as these are easily mifetatoen for contagious abortion though there is in the system of the aborting animal no self-propagating germ vfcich will produce the disease if transferred to another animal. The toxicological effects of ergot have been tested ex- perimentally on dogs, cattle, swine, poultry, guinea pigs by Tsssier, Brown, Eanck, and others. The results obtained are the same as described above . Horses are also subject to ergotism. V/ilcox (295) reports a case where several horses upon eating hay which contained a great number of ergot sclerotia dies within six to: twelve hours. The horses showed the following symptoms: a general depression of the vital ^npefeions, the respiration and pulse being slow and the sense organs being less responsive 90 than us-aal, f[|ii_Q course of the disease vias usually a rapid one and ended in the majority of cases in death vathin from six to twelve hours, the symptoms during the latter stages of the disease heing those of a general and aggressive paralysis of the whole muscular system and muscular incoordination. The aninal would lie down and get up rather frequently but did not show any excitement or pain, and death resulted in a very gradual maimer. A post mortem examination disclosed that the stomach contained considerable quantities of blue joint Vitoich vjas badly infected with ergot. Numerous ergot sclerotia v;ere still undigested. Horses pastxired on land with infected Agropyron, according to Buffum (36), began to lose their hoofs the second year, and in some cases the manes and tails came out. In some cases the horses would not be affected for one dip Itwo months, and in other cases ttiey would show signs in a few days. The symptoms were those of ergot poisoning. Pamrael claims that most of the ergotism in the United States results from the ergot on various species of Eljmius, and in Iowa on Elvmus robustus , v/hich is a common plant almost everyvAiere. The action of ergot depends, according to IToller, on the age of the sclerotia. Pour grams of newly gatliered ergot is enough to cause marked illness in hens. Considerably later ten grams v/ere necessary to cause illness, while five months-old ergot had scarcely any poisoning effect. Remedy for Ergotism There is no effective antidote for ergot poisoning, and the control measures loiown are primarily preventive. The first essential i© the treatment of ergotism is tlie removal of the cause. 91 Tannic acid, the chemical antidote is given to neutralize the unabsorTaed portion of the poison- Chloral is the physiological antidote. In addition to giving the antidote the treatment is entirely symptomatic. Brown and Rank (32) recommend epsom or Glauber salts. In mild cases, such as vrounds on the tail or ears, they should be cleaned with carbolic acid and then treated as axi. ordinary wound. i-s only old sclerotia are poisonais, Brown (32) recom- mends mowing the pastures one or more times during the late summer and autunsn, or as often as young sclerotia become abundant. The grass for hay should be cut vvhile in blossom so as to prevent the fornation of sclerotia. V/illirms (298) claims that good pure water is a very important factor in ergotism. Animals not having sufficient and pure water suffer more from ergot. Lack of proper shelter during cold winter v/eather is favorable to the disease, since the poison affects the circulation of the blood. Stock allowed to begin in winter in poor condition are more liable to be seriously affected. Grain infested with ergot should be cleaned by screening by fanning it from the largest part of the sclerotia before giving it to the stock. According to V/ienzierl (292) 0.1 per cent of ergot by weight in grain is not objectionable. ^'■> 1. Adams, J. 1907. Irish parasitic fiAgi. In The Irish Naturalist, V. 16, 167-169. Description of Claviceps Junci. 2. Aderhold, R. 1903. Ueber das Mutterkorn des Getreides tmd seine Verhiit- ^»ig. Jn Flugbl. Gesundht saint, Berlin, No. 21. 3. 1904. All. Molkereizeitung, Stuttgart, v. 19. p. 59-60. 4. Allgem. lionS5opathische Zeitung, v. 57, N. 24. Exgot caused hy the biting of Ehagonycha melanura. 5. Anderson, P. W. 1889. Brief notes on a few conanon fungi of Montana, to Jour, of Mycology, v. 5, p. 30. Occurrence, distri- bution and hosts of ergot in Montana. 6 _:_: 1869. Supplimentary notes. In Jour, of Mycology, v. 5, p. 83. Reports C. purpurea on Agropyron violaceum and an A. divergens. 7. Appel, 0. 1904. Beispiele gur mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Pflan- zenkrankheiten, Berlin, p. 18-19, fig. 17-18. 8. Bail, Th. 1861. Mykologisch© Studien, etc. In Hova acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Jena, v. 29. First applied the name conidia to the sphacelia spores of "laviceps typihina. 9^ ^97. Traite de botanique medico Je cryptogamique , Paris, p. I2ft-132. Description of Ergot on rye. 10. Bal dinger, B. G-. 1771 Prograumia: Secale cornutian perperaroa nonnullis aib infamia liberari. Jenae. 11. Barger, G. and Carr, P. H. 1906. JJotes on ergot alkaloids. In Chem. News pi 89. Iso- lated an an»rfhous alkaloid - ErgotBJSin. 12. and Dale, H. H. 1906. Die Mutterkomkoloide. In Arch., d. Pharm. v. 244, p. 550. 13. 1909. Ueber liutterkorn. In Arch, f- exper. Patlaolog. u. Pharm. 61, p. 113. 14. Bamas. B. 1909. Bibt es einen Unterschied sweichen die Muttertom- kranMieit-Claviceps ]mrparea !Pul. - der wild vorkoio- menden und dsr toil tivier ten Gramineen. Jto lilath. und Wiss. Berichte aus Ungam v. 24, p. 377. 15. Bauer, F. 1838. Trans. Linn, Soc, London, v. 18, tab. 32-33. Des eription of ergot, its probable cause and control, 16. Bauhin, J. 1623, Pigaclis theatri botanici sive Inden in Theophrasti etc. Basel, p, 23, Called ergot Secale lusurians. 17. Beitrage zur Statistik. Die Steitens der D-aut. Landw. Gessll- 1892 schaft angestellten Erhebung uber das Auftertren des 94 Getreiderostes tmd anderer KranKieiteii im Jalire 1891 In Z'eitsclar. f. pflanzenlcranMi., v. 2, p. 224. 18. Beimecke, A. 1910. Beitrage zur Mutterkornforsch.-Ling, In Sitzungsber. u. Abhandlg. d. naturf. Ges. zu Rostoclc, p. 35 19. Berg, 1857. HandtJiich. der pihariiazetitischen Bot. v. 2. Hiarm I, p. 8. Nature of ergot. 20. Berkeley, J. 15m and Broome, C. E. 1851. Notices of British ftmgi. In Ani).. and Mag. Nat Hifet. 2 ser. V, 7; p 170. 21. Berlese, A. H. 1895. Iparassiti negeiali dells piante coltivate o utili, milano. p. 7 et., p. 176-179. 22. Bessey, C. E. 1884. Ergot, la. Agr. College Bui., p. 120. (hab. sclerot.) Notes on life history of C. purpurea and its harmful effect on cattle. 23. Biffin, R. H. 1912. Studies in the inheritance of disease resistance. In Jour, of Agr. Soc, v. 4, p. 4. 24. Bird, W- 1895-1896. Ergotism in Kansas. In U. S. Dept . Agr., Bur. Aninal Indus. Eepts., p. 317, 318. Description of a case of ergotism in. cattle. 25. Bondarzew, A. S. Pilzische Parasiten der kultivierten ur.d \7ildwachsended j?:;?"ts)as©2i aus der Umgebung Rigas im Sommer 1902. 95 J^ Bui,, Jard. Imp. 3et- St. Pdtersbourg, v. 3, p. 177-200. {Russian with Gerinan resuir^.) 26. Bonorden, H. F. 1858. Beobachtungen uber die Bildung der Spermoadia Clavus. In Bot. Zeitc v. 16, p. 97, tab. 6, fig 3. 27. 1858. Abhandltmgen aus dem Bebiete der Mykologie. .;in Abhandl. d. Nat. Ges., Halle, v. 8, p. 12. Nature of "honey dew". 28 • Bredenann, G. 1912. Ueber den Alcsaloidgehalt desl!utterhoms auf eng- lischem Raygrass (Lolium perenne) - In My col. Cen- tralbl., Jena, v. 1, p. 359-363. 29. Brefeld, 0. and lavel, P. V. t 1891. Ascomyceten II. In Untersuch. aus dem Gesamtgebiet der l^kologie, Mcmster, v. 10, p. 192, tab. 5. fig. 63-67. 30. Bretschneider, A 1907. Das Mutterkom des Getreides, Separate from Oster- reich. Landw. Wachenblatt, 85, 7 abt. and in Mitt. X. k. Pflanzenschutzstation Wien, 20 Flugblatt. 31. ,Briosi, G. Rassegna crittogamica per il secondo semestre d§ll' aano 1907. In. Atti del R. Istit. Botaai. dell' Univers. di Pavia. Ser. II, T. 12, p. 316-327. 32. Brown, H. B. f > 1916. Life history and poisonous properties of (Jlaviceps pasp3,li. In Jour, of Agro Hesearoh, v. 7, p. 4C1-6 no. 27, il. I6i Description of C. paspali. 33. . ., ,, , and Ranck, E. M. 1915i Forage poisoniiig due to C. paspali on Paspali on !Paspal\am. Miss, agr* exp. sta. Tech. Bui. 6, 35 p. 18 Pig. 34» Bucholfe^ F. 1^03. Die Pilzpatasiten des SoimierB 1902 in der Umgcbung von Riga. In 2eitsost'foi^Claviceps. in Mycologia, v. 3, no. 1 p. 37. 38, fig. 1. 83. draber, M. ^ 1895. Die Methoden des Wachweiaes von Mutterkorn in Mehl und Brot. In Arch. f. hyg,, v. 24, no. 3 and 4, p. 228-235. 84- Guitort, HiBt. natur. des drogues simples, ed IV, v. 2, p. 73. 85. Giissow, H. T. 1914. Tri-septate spores in Claviceps. In Hiytopath., V. 4, p. 386. 86. Gutzeit, E. 1906. Die Beschadigungen der landwirtschaft lichen Kult-urge- wachse in Ostpreussen wShrend der Beretationsperiode 1904-05, etc. In Art. der landwirtschaftskarntner fUr die Provinz Ost Preussen, no. 15. 07. Halsted, B. D. 1902. Ergot upon grass. In Yearbook of the N, J. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 437. 88. Hanansek, 7. F. 1895, Zur Mutterkornf rage . In Zeitsch. f. Kahr.-Unter^ sucfaung, Hyg. und Vifeiarenktmde , no. 15, p. 129-130. Gives the amount of ergot in graans. 89. Handbuch zur Heilung der Pflanzenkrankheiten, Xeipzig. Ergot 1796. attributed due to the biting of certain beetles. 90. Hartwich, C. 1895. 2um Nachweis des Mutterlcoms. In Vtochenschr. Pharm. 3>03 V. 51, p, S69-371. Abs. in Chem. Cental. 1B93, v. 2, no, 11, p. 893; Apotheker Zeittigj v. 10, p. 47. 91. 1895. Ueber das Mutterkom von Milinia coerulea Scshweiz Woohenschr. f. Chemie u. Pharm., no. 2, 3 pp.;Bul. Soc. n^rc. France, v, 11, p. 138. 92, 1912. Schweizer Mutterkorn vom Jahre 1911. In Schweizer V/ochenschr. f. Chem. w, Eharm. , v. 1, 3pp. 93. Heald, P. D. and Peters, A. T, 1306. Ergot and ergotism. Neb, Agr. Exp. Sta. Press Bui. 23, p. 1-7, fig, 1-3. 94. 1911. Hotes on new or little-laiovm plant diseases in North. America for the year 1911. In phytopath. v. 2, p. 13. Notes on the occurrence of C, paspali, C. Rolfsii and C. Tripsaci. 95. Heinze, B. 1904. Ueber das VorkOHnmen des GrlykgBias in Pflanzenreiche In Centralbl. Bact,, v. 12, p. 52. 96. Henning, E, 1904. Eed'dgorelse for verksaniheten vid Sveriges UtsSdes- forenings filial vid Ultuna 1903. Separate from Eedogorelse for Ulttma landbrukainstitut 1903, Upsala, p. 22. 97. 1905. Jakagelser ofver kornets blomning. In Botaniska Notiser- lund. 1905, p. 57-68. Relation of mode of 106. 1914. Die Mittel zur Belfeampfttog der Pflari2enlcran}di6iten Berlin, pp. 63. 89, 90, 107, 114, 126, 209, 292. 107. Hotter, E. I9O3, Versuch ulaer die Reinigung des Roggens vom Matter- korn. In Bericht uter die Tatigkeit d. landw. chem. Landes-Versuchs-und Samenkontroll-Station, Graz. 1903, p. 15-16, 108. Issatschenko. B. 1896 Ueber die parasitisdhen Pilze des GouvememKits Olier son. Jn Beitrage zur Pilzflora Busslands, V, 4, St. Petersburg « 109. Von Isttaisffi, G. 1895. Ueber die Rolle des Zellfcerne bei der EntwiclEeltmg der Hlze. In Ber. Deut, Bot.Gdss. v. 13, p. 452-67. 110. iTsanoff, K. S. 1899. Die parasitisdhen Pilze im Gouvemement Tiflis (Kaiilcasien) o In Zeitschr. f. Pf lanzenlcraisiai. , v. f, p. 356. 111. 1900, Parasitische Pilze in der Uicgfeteigg.SDnJlSt.PatcrKboxirs im Soitmer 1898. Jn Tr3,v. de la Soc. Imp. des Naturalist, de St. Petersbourg, v. 30 (Russian); also Zeitschr. f. PflanzenlcranMi. v. 19, p. 97. 112, 1903. Eb-ytopaMiologisches aus TransKaukasien. Jn Zeitschr, f . V. 13. p, 221. 113. Jasp. 0. 1905. Beitrage zur Pilzflora von Mecklenburg. In Annales Mycologici, "7. 5, p. 394. 114. 1907. Beitrage srur pilzflor^ «ier Schweiz. In Amiales Iflycoiogici, V.55, p. ssa, 115. ffaczewslci, A. 1904. Mutterkom tmd seine Belsanrpfung. ListoJc boriby bolean rastenij; St. Petersturg, no. 3, p. 1-4 (Hassian) . Popu3.ar description of ergot and its control ty sedimentation. 116. 1906. Annual reports of diseases and injuries of cultivated and wild growing useful plants in Russia, v. 2, p. 26. Petersburg. (Russian) 117. 116. 119. 120. 1907. Ibid, V. 3, p. 64 1908. Ibid, V. 4, p. 28 1909. Ibid. V. 5, pp. 16, 20, 37, 43, and 44. 1911. §g%§f §|§li| i§f m Russland verbreiteten Pilzkrank- heiten in JahrCre 1911. In Zeitscbr. f. BBSisnzen- Itranldi., v. 23, p. 275. 121. Jakoby. 1864-65. Ueber die Hacliweissung des Mutterlcoms in Rog- genmehl. In Pharnac.Zfiftfeshlm . f. Russland, v.3i p. 25, 122. 1897. Arch. f. Path, u, Pharmakologie, -v. 39, p, 85 On ergot composition. 107 ie06, Mutterlcom abnormitatsn. In Hiarm, Centrallialle V. 47, p. 943-945 124. Jolly, Eh. 1S06. Die Binwirkimg des Mutterkoms auf die Circulation. Ph. D, Diss. (ETdttingen. 125. Jones, L. R. 18S0, Report of Botanist. In vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. 4th Ann. Rept. py 129-144, fig. 1. 126. Jorbi, B. 1905. UeDbE- pflanzliche Feinde der Kultuien, die auf der Rtitti tmd in deren Umgebting aufgefunden wurdem. In Jahresbericht der landw. Schule Rutti pro 1904».05. 127. ^_ F lnckiaer, A. and Bandi, "^I. 1907. Arbeitfen der Auslcimftsstelle f\ir Pflanzenschutz der iandw. Schule Rutti. In Jahresber. der Landw Schule Rutti pro 1906/37, 18 p. 128. Junger, J, R. 1S04. Ueber den klimatisch-biologiscihem Zusanmenhang eSner Relhe Getreidelaran3dieiJ;en isahrend der letzten Jahre. In Zeitschr. f. PflaazenlcranKh., v, 14, p. 340. Dissemination of C. purpurea by wind. 129. Keeler, D. D. Poisoning by ergot. Jn Am. Vet. Rev., v. 38, p. 251-252. Ergotism among horses. 130. Zeintz-Gerloff. 1S02- Keue Studien uber Plasmodesmen. Jn Berl. Deut. Bot. Ges. 1902, p. 102, tqb. 4, fig. 47. Found that there are plasmic connections throughout *-tftfeL 10 <) Claviceps ngrcelitm. 131. Keller. 1896. Sdiweiz. Wochenachr, f. Chem. u. Phaim., p. 65 132. KStch-bach. 1857. Handbtioli, Leipzig, 1857, v. 1, p. 47. 133. Kirchner, 0. 1907. Bericht u"ber dia Tatiglcelt der K, Anstelt fOx Pflan- zenschutz in Hohetiheiin in Jahre 1906. Jta iSOcheiiblatt fUr landwirtBohaft, no. 17. 134. Zirchner-Neppi, 1901. Le li&lattie ©d i guasti delle piante Agrar. p. 571. 135. Kirk, T. W. 1894. Fungous diseases, Jn Hew Zealand Dept. Agr. Sept. p. 53-58, fig. 1 186. Kotert, H. 1885. Ueber die Bestandtheile xind. Wiricungen dea Mutterkoms, In Ehaim. Centrall. , v. 52, p.s.607; Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges., V. 18, III, p. 77; Arch f. exper. Palhol., v. 18, P. 316, 188«. 137. 1886. Centralblatt f. Gynokology, no. 20. Ergot oonipoBition. 138. KShler, P. 1907. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Beproductions imd Regenerations Vorgange bei Pilzen xaai. der Bedingungen des Absterbens flj^celialer Zellen von Aspergillus niger, etc. In Flora Oder Allgem. bot. Zeitg, v. 97, p. 216-262. 139. Kolaczek, E. 1859. lehrbuch der Botanik fur Land und Forstnanner, Wien, p. 430 Insects spreaders of ergot. 109 140. Koearoff , P, 1308, Berioht viber die Zrankheiten imd Be schadigungen der EulturpTBianzeii BTor^itulgariens, wahrend dor Jahre 1906 and 1907. In Arbeiten der Staatlichen landw. Versncbs - ■und Pf lanzenscbutz-Station bei Raatsclmcls: (Bulgarian) , ▼• 1, pt. 1 and 2. 141. Kraft, E. 1806. Tiber das totterkom. In Arch, der Parm. v. 244, p. 326- 359. Study of the chemical composition of ergot. 142*. EranMieiten trosiebhsr Kulturpflanzen. Jn der deutschen 1902. Sdhutzgebieten auf getretene. J^ Zeitadbr. f . Pflaazen V, 12, p. 159, 143. Kranlsheiten tropischer Nutzpflsmzen. In Zextschr. f . 1906. Pflanzenlopamai., v. 16, p. 99. 144. Eiam, J. 1858. KraaMieiten der Eulturgewachse, Berlin, tab. 55, fig. 1-23. 145. 1863. Untersuohungen uber das Jfiutterkorn. In Mitteil, aus dem landw. Institut, Halle a. S. I, 1863, ersch. 1864, p. 1-26; Zeitschr. Gesammt. Uaturwies. Halle, v. 23, p. 64-68. 146. 1865. Ueber die Sntstehimg des 2&itterkoms. In Sttzungsber. Naturforsch. Ges. Halle, 1865, p. 12-14. 147, lafar, P. Handbuch der technischen ifykologie, p. 178 et 212. Description of Sclerotium and of stroma. 148. Lauclc, H. 1894. Bestinmung von Mutterkorn in Mehlen und Kleinen. Jto landw. Vers. Stat., v. 43, no. 3, aaid 4, p. 302-306, fig. 1. -.ft 110 1-^9. Law, J, 1897. Contagious abortion in cows, in W.Y, St. Dept. Agr. Kept. V. 5, I, p. 620-636. B|»got is one of the causes of aljortion in cows. 150. leege, 0. Weitere Uahhtrage zur Flora der Ostfriesichen AWiandl naturwiss Ver. Bremen, v. 21, p. 412-425. 151. le Mauut, E, et Decaisne, J. 1868, Traits general Botanique descriptive ot analytiqua Paris, p. 704, fig. 7. 152. lenz, H. 0. Sohwanane, tab, 1, fig. 5. 153. leunis, J. 1847. Synopsis des Pflanzenkunde. Hsuhn, p. 522. Insects spreaders fif ergot. 154. leveilie , J. H. 1827. Memoire sur I'Efggt, an nouvelles recherches sur la cau^e et les effets de l^Ergot, considSrd sous le triple rapport botanique, agricole et medical. Jn M€m. Soc. Lirm, Paris, v. 5, p. 56.5-579. First noticed the conidial stage of Claviceps but thought it -was a parasite on ergot. 155. 1842, Observations medicales et entmerations de plantes receuilli^s on Tauride, In Demidoff, A. Voyage Russia merid., Pongi, :. tab. 1, fig. 7 156_ 1842. Memoire sur le genre Sclerotium, In Comp. rend v, 14 p. 446-448. ...a 157, , 1847. Siegle orgot^. JK Procc Verb. Soc. Phylom. Paris p. 90-92. i^?s Land, J., Rostrup, S., and Ravn, F. K. 1913. Oversii^tdisrersjland'briigsplantei-Ties Sygdomnie i 1912. InTidsske. for Landbrug. Planteavl., v. 20, part 2, p. 249-280. 159. Lindau in Sngler and Prantl. ?f lanzenfsju. , v. 1, pt. 1, p. 371, fig. 247. 160. Lonicerus, A. 1565, Botanicon planterum historiae cum earundem ad vivum artificiose expressis inonibus, Francofutti. Gave to ergot the name Glavus Silianis, 161. Loverdo, J. 1892. Le Maladies cryptogamique de c^r^ales, Paris, p. 246- 265. A full description of life histoi-y and properties of ergot. 162. Ludwig, F. 1933. Phytopathologischer Bericht der Biologisclien Zen- tralstelle fUr die Furstenttimer Reuss a I,, tmd Reuss j. L. iiber dis Jahr 1913. C-reiz. lOp. 163. _ 1914. Ibid, 1914, lOp. 164. iaarssen. 1879. Handbuch der Systematiscdien Botanik, etc. Leipzig, v. 1, p. 157-163. A, detailed description of 0. purpurea. 165. Lutz, 1. 1904. Notes Mycologiques, Sur l^ergot du Psanana arenaria In Bui. Soc. Mycol. France, v. 20, p. 211-212. '"5b 112 166. Malkoff^ K. 1905. Die schadlichsten Insecteu tmd Pflanzeiifcrarildieiten welche aai den Eulturpflanzen in Bulgarien vjahrend des Jahres 19(53 geshadigt haten. In Zeitschr. f . Pflanzenkrarrhili., v. 15, p. 52. 167. 1908, Erster Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Pilzflora Bulgarians. In Annales Mycologici, v, 6, p. 29-36. 168. Mangin, L. A. 1910. Houvelles observations sxir la callose. In Coinpt. rend., V. 151, p. 279-283. Callose, a constituent of ergot. 169, Ifessee, G, e. 1903. Textbook of Plant Diseases, etc, london, P. 126. 170. McAlpine, D. 1894. Report on rust in i^eat experiments, 1892-1893, 1895 Dept, of Agr. Victoria, 1894-1895. 171. McCarthy, G, 1891, Plant diseases and how to combat them. N. C. Agr, Ex|>. Sta. Bui. 76, p. 20. 172. McNeil, J. H.. and Paxamel, L. H, 1908. 5!he danger from feeding hay that contains ergot. la. Agr. Exp. Sta. Press Bui. Jan., 1908, p. 1-8, 3 fig. 173. Mercier, L. 1911. • Sur le r^le des insects comme agents de propagation de l*ergot des graminees. J^ Conrpt. rend. hebd. Soc. de biol. Paris, v. 70, p. 30Cw.g02. Two ways in xvhich Sciara Thomae L. spreads the spores of ergot. 17§. Ueyen, F. J. B. 1838. Einige Mittheiluiigen uber das matterkom, ^ Muller, ; 113 Aroiiiv., p. 257-360. 175. -— __ 1841, Pflanzenpathologie, Berlin, p. 192. First noticed that Sphacelia is only an earlier form of C, purpurea. 176. Meyer, B. Untersuchungen uber die Entv/ickelung einiger parasitischer Pilze bei saprophytischer EmShrung. In Landw. Jahrb. V. 47, p. 924, 177. Miller, A. 1898. The determination of ergot of v/heat in flour, Jn Rev. Internat. Falsif., v, 11, no, 1, p. 20. 178. Mjoen, J, A. 1896. Zxir wertbestinamng von Secale connuttmi. In Apoth. Zeitg... 1896, p. 366. 179. 1895. Zur spectrosfeopischen Zenntnis der Mutterkora Parb. stoffe. In Forschtmgsber. lebensm. Hyg, v, 2, p. 346. 180. Mailer, A. 1901. Phycomys. land Ascon^'c, p. 199-207, tab. 5, fig. 71-73. 181. Moller, J. 1895, Gutachten in der Mutterkomfrage. In Zeitschr. f. Nahrtcagsmittelunters., Hygiene tmd Waarenkunde, 1895, p. 155-158. 182. Molliard, M. 1895. Reoherches sur les Cecidies florales. In Ann. Soc. nat. 1895, S€r. 7, p. 67, 1 83 . Munchhau sen . 1765. Der Hausvater, Hannover, v. 1, p. 244. First mentions fiTo-nt as a fungus. 184. Hevetb-lenaire, M. 1913. Parasitologie de plant agi-icloes. Paris p. 129-333. 165. Ko-bbe, F, 1904. Ueber Alexander Mailers Verfaliren zur Reinigtmg des Baatroggens von Mtitterkorn dtircli Sedimentation. Jn Xaadw. Versudistat., v. 60, p. 315-019. 186. Norton, J. B. S, 1902. Plant diseases in Maryland in 1902. In Kept. Md. St. Hort, Soc, V. 5, p. 90-99. 187. Pajranel, L. H, 1891. Pongus dieeases of Iowa forage plants. In Montaiy Reviev; Iowa Weather and Crop Service, pp, 33. 188. 1892. Some diseases of plants conanon to lovia cereals. In la, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 18, p. 488-505. 189. I'.'feeins, J. B., lamson-Scribner, P. 1901. 5Ihe grasses of lovsa, la, Geol. Survey, Bui. 1, p. 189-196. 190. 19IL. Manual of Poisonous Plants. 191. Paulet, J. J. 1793. Traitd des champignons, v. 2, p. 39S, tab. 183, 190, 192. A description of ergot under the name Olavaria secalina and Sphaeropus fungorum. 192. Peters, A. T. 1898. Animal diseases. In Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, pp. XVII-XXV. 133.. 1899. Report of the aminal pathologist. Keb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, p. 25-28. 194. Petherbridge, p. R. 1916. E^jngoid and insect pests of the farm. CambrieLge, p. 56-62. 195. Phoebus, Ph. 1836. Deutschlands cryptogamische Giftgewachse, tab, 9, fig. 3-52. 196. Plant disease bulletin. Bur. Plant Indus. 1917, p. 15-16, 1917. 53 and 56. 197. V. Pleni:, j. j. 1795. Physiologie und Pathologie der Pflanzen, vVien, p. 130. Described ergot as a degenerated Kernel, and noted its occurrence on rye and some grasses. 198. Plowright, C. B. and V/ilson, A. S. 1884, On Barye aurantiaca. In. Gard. Chron., v. 21, p. 176. A description of C. V/ilsonii. 199. P6sch, K. Mycopathologisches aus Ungarn. In Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenlcranlth., v. 14, p. 158. 200. Prillieux. Malad. pi. agr. Paris, v. 2, p. 101-1015, fig. 260-265. 201. Quekett. 1841. Observations on the ergot of rye and some other grasses. In Trans, linn. Soc. London, v. 18, p. 455-471, tab. 33 fig. 5. 202. Qiueiet, L. 1876. les changpignones du Jura et des Vosges, v. 33, p. 58 tab. 4, fig. 4. Cordyceps. 116 2CB. Banojevic. N. 1902, Beitrage zur Pilzflora SerMens. In Hedvdgia, v. 41, p. lOS. 204. 1906. I Bericht der Abfteilung tax Pflanzenschutz der kSnigl. sertischen lands. -chemischen Versuchstation zuBelgrad fur die Jahr^ 1903-1905. Jn Zeitschr. f . Pflanzenkranlth., v. 16, p. 209. 205. 1910. Zweiter Beitrag zur Pilzflora Sertiens. In Ann. Hsroologici, v. 8, p. 358, 206. Haspoil, P. V. 1837, Kouvau ssrstem de Ehysiologie vegital et de 'botanique Paris, V. 2, p. 605. Attriliuted ergot due to the presence of a"viT3rion'.' 207. Bavn, P. K. 1907. Oversigt over landlorxigsplantemes Sygdonmce i 1906. landbrubets Pianteavl, v. 14, Ergot more common on low lands . 2Gi8. , 1909. 25 aars jagtagelser over sygdomme hos landbrugsplanteme. Jnaiclsc-cift for landsbrugets planteavl. v. 16, p. 738-758. 209. Behm, H. Bxotische Ascomyceten. . In Hedwigia, v. 28, p. 302, tab, 7. fig. 14. 210. Eichon, C. iaft9- Gataloane chanp. Mame, p. 507. 117 211. Ritzeioa Bos. J. 1S95. Kurze MitteilTzngen" 'titer PflanzenlcraiiKheiten vmA. Be- schSdigungen in den Niederlanden im Jahre 1894. In Zeitschr. f. Pf lanzenkranKh . ; v, 5, p. 290. 212. 1900. Een en ander die vermeende vergifti^eid, van toand-, roest en zwartzwammen. Tijdschrift over Pflantazeikten, V. 6, p. 159. 213. , 1901. Ovorhet ontstaam van giftstoffen in piantendeelen, die door parasitische swanmen zijn aangetast of door andere oozaken zich. niet normal knoden ontwiKkeln. Hygienische Bladen, 1901, no. 1, p. 23. 214. Rostowzev/, S. J. 1902. Beitrage zxir Keimmg des Itotterkorns, CI. purptu-ea Tul. ■und CI. microscphala V/^ll. Berichte des Moskauer Landw. Inst., V. 3, p. 1-16. Mode of ascospore discharging and effect of drying upon viability of ergot sclerotia. 21§. Rostrup, F. G. E. 1893. Oversigt over de i 1892 indlobne Foresporgsler an- qaaende sygdonune hos Kulturplaater samt Meddelelse om Sygdommenes Optraeden hos Markens Avlsplanter over hele Landet no. 9, Sidsskrigt for LandSkonomi Kj'dbenhavn. 216. Rostrup. P- 1894. Oversigt over Landbrugsplanternes SydgonEie i 1893. Sid sskrift for landb. Plant, nol 10. 217. 1895. Ibid. 1894, v. 2, no. 11, p. 40-71. 11®. 218. 1997. Ibid. 1895, v. 3, 1^96, p. 123-150. 219. 1897. IMd. 1896. v. 4, 1897, p. 83-104. 220. 221. 2'2'2. 223. 1898. IMd. 1897, v. 5, 1898, p. 113-137. 1903. IMd. 1902, v. 10, 190^, p. 361-379, 1904. Ibid. 1903, V. 11, 1904, p. 395-421. 1896. Danslc FrBgontrol 1871-96 samt en kort oversigt over Ud lande t s FrO^onti-o 1 , 224. 1897, Mykololiiske Meddelelser. v. 7. Spredly Jagttagelser fra 1895-1896. In Bot. Tadsslcr., v. 21, p. 37-49. 225. Russia, ergots on rye in. In Gard. Chron. London, v. 43, 1908, pV 232:"Piiarin. Jour., v. 29, p. 247. 226 . Saceardo . Sylloge Etmgorum, v. 2, p. 564 and 566. * 227. Salmon, D. S. 1884. Enzootics of ergotism. U, S.Dept. Agr. Rept. 1884, p. 212-252. 228. Santessen. 1902. Sljandinav. Aflteh. f. Physiologie, v. 13. 229. Schleiden. Physiologie der Pflanzen imd Eiere, p. 174. 119 23Q. SchGyen, W. M. tning om skadeinseK 1897. Bere tning om skadeinseKter og Plantesygdoume i 1896. Kristiania. 231. 1899, Ibid. 1099. 232. Scbrarifc, F. P, 1789, Bayerishce Flora. Munchen, v. 2, p. 571. Described ergot under the name Clavaria clavus. 233. Sctamacher, C. F. 1823. Flora Dan. fosc 33, 1823, p. 9. tab/ 1731, fig. 1 (2): Sael 2. 174. Description of stronatal stage of ergot ■under the name Sphaeria entomarhiza. 234. V. Schweinitz, 1. D. 1822. Synopsis Pongorum Carolihae superioris. In Scltrif . d. Naturf. Ges. zu. Leipsig, v. i, p. 30. 235. Smith. E, F. 1889. Prevalence of ergot in 1889. Jour- of Mycology, v. 5, p. 203. 236. Smith, J. 1841. Observations on the cause of ergot. In Trans. Linn. Soc. London, v. 18, p. 449-452. Proceed. Linn. Soc. 1, 1849, B. 1-2, 237. Smith, W. G. 1884. Diseases of. field and garden crops, p. 214-238. £. ;Eurpurea dnd C.. V/ilsonii . 238. Sella, R. F. 1901. Pflanzenkrankheiten in Italien. In Zeitschr. f Pflansenkranlch., v. 11, p. 231 • 13C 239. Soraner, P. 1874, Miitterkom. Hai)dbci.ch der Pf lanzeiikranKh . , p. 361-372. Detailed descrir*i"^ of history and life history of £.. purijurea . 240. 1896. Bericht uber sine mit naterstuzung des Kgl» preuss. 3a.Tid. Ministeriums Unternoinmene Ulnfange tetreffs der im Jahre 1894 durcih KranKheiten und Peinde in Preussen verursachten Entschadigimgen. In Zeitschr. f . Pflanzenfcrarikh., v. 6, p. 223. 241. 1908. Pflanxenlarankheiten, v. 2, tab. 18. 242. Speschneff, N. N. 1896. Materialien fUr das Studitan der Flora lHycologica am Kaulcasus. Arbeit, d. Bot. Gart. zu Tiflis., v. 1, p. 65-78. 243. 1897. Ibid, V. 2, p. 199-266. 244. 1897. Les parasites vegetaux de la Cs^iietie. In Arb. Tiflis bot. Gart., V. 2, p. 115. 245. 9piec5kermann, A. 1908. Bericht der landwirtschaf lichen Versuchfetation MUnster in Westfolen. In Jahresber. d. Station, 1908. 246. Stager, R. 1900. Voraufige Mitteilimg uber Impfversuche mit Grandneen be- \7Dhnenden Claviceps-Arten. In Bo tan. Centralbl. 83, p. 145. 247. ' 1901. Historisciher zur Blologie des Hutterkoms. In Natur und Offenbar. MUnster, 47, p. 334-338 121 248. _^_ 1903. Imfektionsversuche mit Gramineen bewohnenden Claviceps- /urtan. In Botan. Zeitis-. v. 61, p. 111-158. 249. 1904. Mutterkom. In Natur u. Offenbar., v. 50, p. 343-346 250. 1904. Weitere biologische Studien iiber das Matterkorn (Claviceps purpurea). In Natur. u. Offenbar., v. 50, p. 721-735. 251. 1905. Weitere BeitjE&ge zur Biologie des Mutterkorns. In Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. par. 2 Abt., v. 14, p. 25-32. 252. 1907. Ueuer Beitrag zur Biologie des Mutterkorns. In Centralbl. f . Bakt. "u. Par. 2 4bt, 17, p. 773-784, 253. *** 1908. Zur Biologie des Mutterkoms. In Centralbl. f „ Bact. u. Par. 2 Abt., v 20, p. 272-279 254. Beweist fur die Entv/ickelungstheorie aus dem Bereich. der parasitischen Pilze. In Hatur. u. Offenbar. 54, p. 32-39. 255. 1910. Neue Beobachtungen Uber das Mutterkorn. In Centralbl. f , Bakt. u. Par. 2 Abt., v. 27, p. 67-73. 256. 1912. Infectionsversuche mit uberwinterten Claviceps-eonidien, In Mycol. Centralbl., v. 1, p. 198-201. 257. Stalker, M. 1893. Ergotism in cattle. In la. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 17, p.4K5-56. 122 258. atgjadinger . 1632, Isis V. Oken, p. 262. considered ergot as a "Product einer widernaturlicSien G'ahriaig in feucliter Witterung". 259. Startack, K. 1895. Om gajrasitsvampar. Uppsala Sommerslsxirserna i Uppsala 1895, p, 10. 260. Stevens, W. C. 1893, Notes on some diseases of grasses, _In 5Clie Kans, Univer. Quarterly, v, 1, no. 3. 261. Stevens, F. L. and Hall, J. G. Three interesting species of Claviceps. Jn, Bot. Gaz. V. 50, no. 6, p. 460-463, figs. 8; K. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1910, p. 52-55. Description of C. paspoli, C. Rolfsii, and C. Tripsaci. 262. Stormer, K. 1908. Die in der Provinz Sachsen in Sonimor 1908 beobaditeten KrsLnkheiten an Getreide. In lardw. Y/ochenschr. f. d. Provinz Sachsen 1908, no. 35, p. 306. 263. Strasburger, E. 1907. Ueber den Nachvveis von Matterkom in den Faeces Sitzungsber. d. Natiurhistor. Ver. D. Preuss Ehein- lande u. Westfalens. 1906, 2 Halfte, B., p. 54-55 264. Sydow, H and P. 1909. Einige neue resp. benierkensverte Pilze aus Slidafrika. In Ann. Mycologici, v. 7, p. 546, C. purpurea on Pennisetum. 265. Tanner, H. Jour, of Royal Ag». Soc. of England, no. 12. 1215. S66. Tanner t, C. 1875. Ergotinine. In Rep. de Pharm., v. 3, no. 23, p. 708, 267. 1875. Sur la presence d'nn nouvol alcaloide, 1' ergotinine, dans le seigle ergots . In Coinpt. rend., p, 81, p. 896-897; Jour, de Pharm. v. 23, 1876, p. 17-19. 268. 1889. Sur un nouveaa principe immediate de I'Er^ot de seigle, 1' ergosterine. In Con^it. rend, v. 106, p. 98, Jour, de parm. et de chimie, v. 19, p. 225. 269, 1909. Sur ttne "base nouvelle retiee du seigle ergots, 1* ergothioneine. In Jour, de Phann. et de chim. 270. Ihalius, J. 1586. Silvia hereynica, sive catalogus plantarum, etc. Frankofurti, p. 47. Gave to ergot the name Secalis Mater. 271. Tavel, P. 1892. Vergl. Morphologie, p. 83, 3 fig. 272. lode, H. J. 1790. Fungi Mechlen"burgenses selecti. Placed ergot in the genus Sclerotiian, 273. Trussow, N. P. 1912. 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