^^ma mniar i ' ' "' CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY KNGUSH COLLECTION THE GIFT OF JAMES MOKC^N HART PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH /\,X*^HolH The date shews when this volume was taken. To renew this boo^ copy the call No. and give to the librarian. HOMEljSE^ULESr All Books lubjecl to Recall. All books must be returned at end of col- lege year for inspec- tion and repairs. Students must re- turn all books before leaving town. Officers should arrange for the return of books wanted during their absence from town. Books needed by more than one person are held on the reserve list. Volumes of periodi- cals and of pamphlets are held in tihe library as much as possible. For special purposes t^ey are given put for a limited time. Borrowers should not use their library privileges for the bene- fit of other persons. Books of special value and gift books, when the giver wishes it, are not allowed to circulate. Readers are asked to report all cases of books marked or muti- lated. Do not deface books by marks and writing. Cornell University Library arV14211 The original of tliis bool< is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031237278 mDUCTIVE STUDIES ENGLISH GRAMMAR BY WILLIAM R. HARPER, Ph.D. Prbsidbnt op thb UNivBKaiTT OP Chicago AND ISAAC B. BURGESS, A.M. Associate Pbopbssor in the Unitkrsitt or Chicaso Late of thb Boston Latin School NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY " t.v, i 05 Copyright, 1894, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. H. & B. IND. ST. IN ENfi. Ccfnteb bs tHHm. tvison ■Kewffiorli, Ta.S.H. PREFACE. In recent years the conviction has frequently and emphatically been expressed that the grammar school course ought to be both shortened and enriched ; that much now in the course might be taken out, not only without loss, but with positive gain, and that much might be brought in which would make it a far more adequate prepa- ration for the high school. Many, including the authors of this book, believe that, while many pupils in our grammar schools will never be able to enter the high school, yet the principles of a true democ- racy demand that all should be so taught as to render it easy for them to advance in knowledge, if the way should be opened. In all high schools of good grade some foreign language is studied immediately upon entrance, and to many pupils it presents unusual difficulties. It is not too much to say that more than one half of the total number of failures in Latin in our high schools are due, not to any lack of capacity on the part of the pupil, or to any inherent diffi- culty in the language itself, but to a lack of practical mastery of English grammar. This little book is a modest attempt to secure better preparation for the language work of the high school by a scientific and thought- inspiring method of presenting English grammar, by a reduction of the number of facts presented, to the few actually essential, by increased emphasis on certain matters often neglected but essential to any real masteiy of the subject, and by adapting the terminology and method of presentation more closely to that used in German and Latin grammars. These "Inductive Studies" were printed three years ago, and bound for ready reference with the " Inductive Latin Primer '' of the same authors. They have now been very carefully revised, somewhat enlarged, and, by the efficient aid of the editors of the American Book Company, more perfectly adapted to the needs of our common 3 4 PREFACE. schools. It is believed that the book as it now stands, while giving direct and thorough preparation for the language-study of the high school, is equally well adapted to the needs of those whose school life will end with the grammar grade. One of the authors of this book was for several years engaged in teaching English grammar and the rudiments of Latin to the same pupils, and this book is an outgrowth of that somewhat unusual experience. These studies in English grammar require the use of a note-book in recording the results of the pupil's observation. The facts dis- covered by observation should be fixed in mind by constant practice in analyzing and parsing connected English, and in framing English sentences to illustrate grammatical forms or the rules of syntax. The authors do not believe that a pupil's understanding of rules is effectively tested by classified groups of examples, each group being placed under its own rule, and therefore have not swelled the book with such collections of examples. The pupil's knowledge of a prin- ciple will be best tested by requiring him to pick out concrete exam- ples of its application from several pages of connected English. It is suggested that the freedom of arrangement required in poetry makes it somewhat superior to prose as a means of expelling from a pupil's mind the delusion that word-order is a safe guide to grammat- ical construction. The passages in this book taken from Hawthorne's " Golden Touch " are used by permission of, and arrangement with, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. In the preparation of these pages reference has been made to the English (Grammars of Professors Whitney, Meiklejohn, Salmon, and Welsh. ]\lr. Byron Groce, Mr. John K. Richardson, Mr. Henry C. Jones, Mr. Francis De M. Dunn, all of the Boston Latin School, and Mr. Charles F. Kimball, of the Rice Training School, Boston, have rendered very valuable assistance in reading the proofs. Mr. Way- land J. Chase, of the University of Chicago, has aided in the revision by several excellent suggestions. WILLIAM R. HARPER. ISAAC B. BURGESS. University of Chicago, February, 1894. CONTENTS. PRONUNCIATION. A rticle Vowels 1 Consonants 2 Mutes and Liquids 3 Diplithongs 4 Syllables 5 Number of Syllables in a Word . 6 Accent 7 Vowels : How to find the Sound 8 Long and Short Sounds 8 Vowels in Final Syllables end- ing iu a Consonant 8 Vowels before Two Consonants 9 Vowels in Antepenultimate Syllables 10 The Letter u in qu 11 Consonants : The Consonants c, t, s, x . . . . 12 Hard and Soft c and g 13 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Definition 14, 15 Interjections 16 Numberand Grouping of the Parts of Speech 17,18 Use, not Form, determines Parts of Speech 19 Words which do Duty as more than One Part of Speech 20 INFLECTION. A rliclu Case 21 Number and Declension 22 Declension of Nouns 23 Declension of Pronouns 24 Form of Adjectives 25 Comparison of Adjectives 2(1-29 Comparison of Adverbs 30 Inflection of Verbs 31 Participles and Infinitives 32 Summary of Verbal Inflection. . . 33 Conjugation ; the New Conjuga- tion; Principal Parts 34 The Old Conjugation; List of Verbs 35 Irregular Verbs of the New Con- jugation 36 Conjugation of be, have, shall, and will 37 Inflection by Combination 38 Perfect, Imperfect, and Indefinite Action 39 The Passive Voice 40 Conjugation of love and write 41 FORMATION OF WORDS. Nouns 42 Adjectives 43 Adverbs 44 Verbs 45 Letters or Syllables Equivakiit to Separate Words 46 6 CONTENTS. SYNTAX. Analysis of Sentences: Article Subject and Predicate 47 Modifying Words, Phrases, and Clauses 48 Simple, Complex, and Com- pound Sentences 49 Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative Sentences 50 There and it as Expletives . . 51 Tlie Noun Clause 52 Construction of Sentences .... 53 Correlatives 53 Use of Diagrams 54 Rules of Syntax: Nominative as Subject 55 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 56 Object of an Active Verb 56 Predicate Nouns and Adjec- tives 56 Appositive Nouns and Adjec- tives 57 Absolute Construction 58 Verbs of making', asking-, and teaching in Active and Passive 59 Adverbial Objective, or Ac- cusative 60 Use of Prepositions and Prep- ositional Phrases 61 Dative-Objective 62 Genitive or Possessive 63 Adjective 64 Pronoun 65 Agreement of Verb 66 Indirect Discourse 67 Infinitives 68 Temporal, Causal, Purpose, Result, Conditional, and Concessive Clauses 69 Article Modes : Indicative, Impera- tive, Subjunctive 70 Conditional Sentences 70 The Preposition of 71 The Word for 72 The Preposition with 73 Lack of Precision in the Eng- lish Use of Prepositions and Tenses 74 Omission of Words 75 Okdee of Wokds: Position of Certain Kinds of Words, Phrases, and Clauses 76 Variability of Order of Words 76 Meaning of Emphasis 77 How to make a Word Emphatic 77 Climax 77 PUNCTUATION. Selection for the Study of Marks 78 The Exclamation Mark 78 The Interrogation Mark 78 The Period 78 The Semicolon 78 The Comma 79 The Parenthesis 79 The Semicolon and Colon ; their Relation 80 The Dash 81 The Apostrophe 81 Quotation Marks 81 Use of Punctuation 82 Capital Letters 83 THE RELATION OF ENGLISH TO OTHER LANGUAGES. In its History and Vocabulary. . . 84 In its Grammar 85 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. oXKo PRONUNCIATION. 1. Vowels. — The letters a, e, i, o, u, and y when it has the sound of i, are pronounced by a contmuous flow of sound, and can be pronounced when standing alone.^ These letters are called Vowels. Note. — When, as in be-hav'-ior, the letter i is preceded by an accented syllable and followed by another vowel, it is a consonant with the sound of y. 2. Consonants. — The other letters of the alphabet can- not be pronounced without checking the flow of sound by one or more of the vocal organs, nor without the aid of a vowel. Thus, in pronouncing the letter f the sound is checked by the lips and teeth, and the sound of e is inserted before that of f ; what we pronounce is really a combination of two letters, — ef . Such letters are called Consonants. What, then, is the difference between a vowel and a consonant ? 3. Mutes and Liquids. — Those consonants in the pro- nunciation of which the sound is most completely checked, are called Mutes. They are c, k, g, q ; b, p ; d, t. 1 This and the following sections on pronunciation should be vocally illustrated by the teacher. 7 8 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. It will be seen that these consonants are least like the vowels in their pronunciation. Those consonants which are most like the vowels in their pronunciation are called Liquids ; they are l and r. 4. Diphthongs. — Study the sounds of ou and oi in the words oil, join, out, hound. Note that the vowels in ou and oi have practically combined to form a single sound. Such combinations of vowels are called Diphthongs. Note. — Consonants may combine to form a single sound. The letter x is often equivailent in pronunciation to cs or ks. 5. Syllables. — Any letter or combination of letters or sounds which may be completely pronounced by a single movement of the voice may be a Syllablb.i All words consist of one syllable or more ; thus, — no-bod-y my-self a-way Pronounce the following common words carefully, just as you have heard them pronounced by educated people, and then write them, dividing them by hyphens into the syllables which you have pronounced.^ Is each syllable of these words pronounced with the same energy? metal purpose glistening maiden chiefly foolish loved planted ' May a vowel be a syllable, and if so, why ? 2 Care should be taken that each syllable is distinctly pronounced. Remember that there is a clear, though very brief, pause after each syl- lable. Oral spelling, provided each syllable is pronounced immediately after it is spelled, is an excellent means of cultivating the sense for syllables, which, for some reason, very many high-school pupils lack. PRONUNCIATION. 9 6. Number of Syllables in a Word compared with the Number of Vowels. — In the following words compare the number of vowels and diphthongs with the number of syllables : — pos-si-bly gar-den loved chief-ly bet-ter mu-sic choose thought fond-er more be-cause be-hav-ior 1. In which of the above words is the number of vowels and diphthongs the same as the number of syllables ? 2. In which is the number of vowels and diphthongs greater than the number of syllables ? 3. In the latter, are there any silent vowels ? 4. If there were no silent vowels in English, what would be the rule for the number of vowels and diphthongs in a word as compared with the number of syllables ? 7. Accent. — In the pronunciation of all English words of more than one syllable, one syllable is made prominent by a special loudness, distinctness, and energy of utter- ance, called Accent. Accent may be described as a stroke of the voice, and it is indicated in written or printed language by a down- stroke just at the end of the accented syllable ; thus, — syl'-la-ble ex-ceed'-ing-ly To the Teacher. — The pupil should have ample drill in distinct syllabication and definite accentuation. Do not allow any slurring of final syllables in words or sentences. It may be a help to represent syllables and accents graphically ; thus, — ^^^ ex-ceed-ing-ly Note that the lines which represent the syllables do not touch one another. What does this mean ? 10 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS. 8. When we know the pronunciation of a syllable, and wish to find the sound of a single letter or group of letters in that syllable, we do so by gradually taking away the sound of the other letters, until only the letter or group in question remains ; thus, — mate, mat, ma, a. But we must be very careful not to change the sound of the letter in question during the process. 1. Find and contrast the sound of the underlined vowels in the fallowing familiar words : — a. mate Eve fine note use type b. mat end fin not us myth bot-tom feel-ing The sound which we give to the vowels in the first line is called the long sound, and is indicated thus : — mate The sound which we give to the vowels in the second line is called the short sound, and is indicated thus : — mat Let the pupils, singly or in concert, be prepared to give the long and short sounds of the vowels. 2. Judging from the words above, what is the sound of all vowels in final syllables ending in a consonant, count- ing one-syllable words as final syllables? What is the sound of vowels in final syllables ending in e silent? 9. Study the following words, noting particularly the sound of the underlined vowel in each : — PRONUNCIATION. H Mary evil pining fogy flute marry elbow pinning foggy flutter Also election flexile calendar rapture ringing construct 1. Give the meaning of each of the above words. 2. Which of the vowels underlined above are immedi- ately followed by two consonants before another vowel is reached ? 3. Why should the first e in flexile be included in this list ? 4. Wliat is the sound of each of these vowels ? 5. If these words represent the tendency in Englisli pronunciation fairly, in what position may we expect to find short vowels ? ^ 6. Study the following examples for an exception to this rule : — acre fragrant oblige idle 7. Repeat the list of mutes and that of liquids, and then see if you can state this exception. 8. From the definition of a liquid, what reason can you suggest for this exception ? 10. The next to the last syllable is called the Penult. The syllable before the penult is called the Antepenult. Observe the sound and position of the vowel in tlae ante- penultimate syllables of the following words : — nS'-tion-al (of. nation) crgd'-i-ble (cf. cre-dence) vin'-e-gar (of. vine) M5r'-y-gold (cf. Ma-ry) par-tic'-u-lar pr6b'-a-ble vic'-to-ry 1 Note that the word "tendenoy" is used. While there are many exceptions to the tendencies of the language indicated in this and the fol- lowing sections, still it is believed that a knowledge of these tendencies will be very helpful. While English pronunciation is a sore puzzle, it is not quite so lawless as is generally supposed. 12 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. And contrast di'-a-logue vi'-o-let dS'-i-fy Also pa'-tri-ot in-te'-ri-or ma'-ni-ao And also cu'-po-la u'-ni-ty » cu'-cum-ber lu'-bri-cate 1. What, from the above examples, seems to be the rule for the length of vowels before one or more consonants in antepenultimate accented syllables ? 2. What examples show that this rule does not hold when the vowel of the penult is followed immediately by another vowel ? 3. What examples show that the vowel u does not con- form to the rule ? 11. The letter u in qu. — What letter represents the sound of u in the following words ? equity liquid quick queen quantity By what consonant is u preceded in these words ? RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS. 12. Study the sound of c, t, and s, when underlined in the following words : — ar-ti-fi'-cial con-fi-den'-tial na'-tion spe'-cies ex-cur'-sion ap-pre-hen'-sion so'-cial as-so'-ci-a'-tion 1. What sound is added to that of the underlined c or s in the above Avords ? 2. In what respect is the sound of the underlined t similar to that of the underlined c or s ? 3. What kind of a syllable invariably precedes c, s, or t ? PRONUNCIATION. 13 4. What vowel invariably follows ? 5. Why should the x in anxious and noxious follow the same rule ? 13. Note the sound of c and g in the following words : — sagacity center secrecy physic club region surgeon ague acid election physical cod cub edge grave go game gypsy gun cant mug 1. What two sounds has c in the above words ? 2. What two has g ? 3. Pick out the words in which o has its soft sound, or sound of s. 4. Pick out the words in which g has its soft sound, or sound of j. 5. Before what three vowels only does the soft sound of c and g occur ?i 1 Only those principles of English pronunciation have been introduced which seemed most helpful to later study. It is believed that what has here been given will be useful, not only in pronouncmg the mother-tongue, but also as a preparation for the English pronunciation of Latin. The teacher should see to it that these principles are applied to pronouncing English words never before seen by the pupils. Too often pupils pro- nounce their mother-tongue wholly by imitation. THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 14. Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and a king besides, ■vsrhose name -was Midas ; and he had a little daughter whom nobody but myself ever heard of, and -wrhose name I either never knew or have entirely forgotten. So, because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold. Hawthokne : Wonder Book. 1. Are there any things which we know which can- not be known through any of the five senses? Make a list of all the names of persons and things in the above extract.! Such names are called Nouns. 2. What word in the above, containing only one letter, is used instead of the name of the person who is speaking? What advantages are there in using such a word? Can you find any other words which take the place of nouns in the passage ? For what noun does each stand ? Words which are used instead of nouns are called Peo- NOTJNS. Pro, which is the first syllable, means instead of. 3. What words in the passage assert some action ? A word which asserts is called a Verb. Make as many assertions or statements as possible, using only the nouns, pronouns, and verbs which you have col- lected. See if you can make a statement without using a verb. See if you can make a statement without using a noun or pronoun. 1 In answering this and the following questions the teacher may allow the pupil to omit the more difficult instances. 14 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 4. What words in the passage on page 14 are used to describe nouns? Such words are called Adjectives. The pupil will observe that a word which describes a noun also limits the number of objects which that noun can name. Thus the words, rich man, apply to a more lim- ited number than the word man ; the words, little daughter, to a more limited number than daughter ; this king to only one, while the word king may be applied to scores of people. Therefore an adjective is sometimes said to limit as well as describe. Indeed, some adjectives, like this, the, two, some, seem hardly to describe at all, but only to limit. 5. There are also words which describe or limit the action of verbs. Pick them out in the passage. Such words are called Adverbs. The word adverb means near a verb. In the expression, a very rich man, we have an adverb, very, limiting an adjective, rich ; and we might say, Mary- gold loved her father very dearly, where dearly must be an adverb, because it describes loved, and yet is itself lim- ited by the adverb very. Therefore an adverb may limit an adjective or an adverb as well as a verb. 6. Observe in the passage the use of upon, in the expres- sion upon a time ; but, in the expression but myself ; and for, in the expression for little girls. It will be seen that upon connects time with lived, but connects myself with nobody, and for connects girls with names, and that each of these words, upon, but, and for, connects a noun or pronoun with something else, and shows some sort of a relation between the noun or pronoun which follows it and the word with which that noun or pronoun is connected. 16 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. Such words are called Prepositions. 7. Study the statement There lived a very rich man, and he had a little daughter. It is evidently made up of two statements, — There lived a very rich man and The man had a little daughter, united by the word and. In like manner the statement So, because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold, is made up of two statements, — i choose to call the little daughter Marygold, and I love odd names for little girls, con- nected by the word because. Words which, like and and because, connect statements, are called Conjunctions. The conjunction seems many times to connect words used in the same way, as in the sentence He gave all his thoughts and all his time to this one purpose. What two words used in the same way does the con- junction here connect ? Can you show, however, by insert- ing two omitted words, that there are really two complete statements here ? 15. Observe how all the different classes of words in the passage we have been studying are connected. The pro- jiouns take the place of nouns, the verbs when united to nouns or pronouns make assertions, and no assertion can be made with noun or verb alone. The adjectives describe the nouns, the adverbs describe the verbs, the prepositions connect nouns or pronouns to something else, and finally, statements are connected by the conjunction. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 Speech often means the union of words to express ideas. Why then are nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., called Parts OF Speech? In what respects is the statement of an idea like the human body? 16. Interjections. — Study the words Poh, Alas, and Ah in the following sentences : — a. Poh ! my dear little girl, pray don't cry about it. h. Alas ! what had he done ? c. Ah ! so you have made a discovery ? 1. In what respects are the three words just mentioned used in the same way ? 2. Under which of the classes called parts of speech may these three words be classified ? 3. What does the punctuation immediately after each show as to their connection with the rest of the sentence ? Such abrupt expressions of feeling are called Interjec- tions, meaning words thrown into speech without being a part of it. Since these interjections go along with speech, however, they are usually called parts of speech. They seem to bear about the same relation to the statement which they accompany as a ring on the hand bears to the body. NUMBER AND GROUPING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 17. Let us now group the parts of speech in two ways, in order to gain a more perfect understanding of them. First we shall group them as to their use or office in a statement or assertion. 1. What two parts of speech are used as names ? IND. STUD. IN ENG. — 2 18 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 2. What is the asserter in every assertion ? ' 3. What are the two describers or limiters in an asser- tion? 4. What are the two connectors ? 5. Is the interjection properly a part of speech? If not, why not? 6. What reasons are there for classifying it as such ? 7. How may we make out eight parts of speech ? 8. How may we reduce this number to six ? 9. Is there any reason for reducing the number to only four? It is usual to give the number of parts of speech as eight. It seems more correct, however, to call it six. 18. Let us now, in the second place, group the parts of speech in accordance with their relation to the noun and verb. 1. Why are the noun and verb considered the most independent and essential parts of speech ? 2. What is the substitute for the noun ? What is the describer of the noun? What is the connector of the noun? 3. What is the describer of the verb? 4. What is the connector of two assertions ? 19. Use, not Form, determines the Part of Speech. — Let us now return to the study of our passage. We found that in this passage time was a noun, very was an adverb, rich was an adjective, man was a noun, name was a noun, 1 The definition of the verh here given does not provide for interroga- tive and imperative sentences. Indeed, it is probably impossible to define the verb briefly and clearly so as to include such sentences. The inter- rogative and imperative forms, however, may be so easily changed to declarative that this definition -will not be found seriously inadequate. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 but was a preposition. What are these same words in the following statements ? a. You time your speed. h. They man their boats. C. Midas wras the very man. d. The rich are envied. e. They name their daughter Marygold. f. He Twent aiway, but I stayed at home. We find — do we not ? — that exactly the same words have in different statements been quite differently used, and hence have become other parts of speech. Is not the lesson of this fact plain ? It is that the spelling — or, as we would better say, the form — of a word does not show what part of speech it is. This is determined wholly by its use. in a statement. Hence we must not try to tell the part of speech of a word until we see it used in a statement. Very many words, like those in the six sentences we have just compared, are used as different parts of speech in different assertions. To the Teacher. — Too great emphasis can hardly be given to the above lesson. The pupil should have much practice in using one word as different parts of speech. A firm and consistent application of the principle that the part of speech is determined by use, and not by form, will do more than any other one thing to simplify English grammar. Such an expression as " an adjective used as a noun " is a contrar diction in terms. If any word is used as a noun, it is a noun, since use alone determines the part of speech. The expression quoted cer- tainly implies that something else than use determines the part of speech, and the beginner concludes that it is the form of the word. It would be correct to say " a word usually an adjective, but here a noun," though in many cases the use of a word is so various that it is impossible to say which part of speech it usually is. 20 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 20. Words which do Duty as more than One Part of Speech. — Study the words underlined in the following sentences : — a. Raising his head, he looked the lustrous stranger in the face. b. After carefully locking the door, he took a bag of gold. C. If these flo-wers were golden, they -would be -worth the plucking. d. I choose to call her Marygold. e. Once there lived a king whose name was Midas. This king TO^as fonder of gold than of anything else. /. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. g. He had a little daughter, and he called her Marygold. h. He had a little daughter whom he called Marygold. 1. Observe that in a the word raising not only de- scribes the following pronoun he like an adjective, but also expresses action and affects the noun head by its action. Furthermore, it is formed by adding an ending to the verb raise. Although it is like a verb in expressing action, it cannot be one, for it makes no assertion, like the verb looked, for instance, in the same sentence. An adjective which is similar in form and meaning to a verb is called a Verbal Adjective, and some verbal adjec- tives, like raising, are called Participles. 2. In sentences b, c, and d, note that locking, plucking, and to call are the names of actions expressed by the verbs lock, pluck, and call. They are, therefore, verbal nouns. Such verbal nouns as these are called Infinitives. 3. In e, note that this limits the meaning of king, and is therefore an adjective. It refers, however, to King Midas mentioned in the preceding sentence, and has, there- THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 fore, to some extent the use of a pronoun, though it only refers to a noun and does not take its place. We therefore call it a Pkonominal Adjective. Make a sentence in which this will be a pronoun. 4. In sentence /, note that though not only limits the verb Biay like an adverb, but also connects the statement in which it stands with the statement, yet will i trust in him. It is therefore both a conjunction and an adverb, and is sometimes called a Conjunctive Adverb. 5. Note, in g and A, that whom in h takes the place of the conjunction and and the pronoun her in g. A word which thus does the work of a conjunction and a pronoun is called a Relative Pkonoun. 6. From what immediately precedes, it will be seen that many words discharge, to some extent, the office of more than one part of speech. But note further that in at least three of these cases there is no doubt as to how we shall classify the word in question. The verbal adjective or participle is always an adjective and never a verb, because it always describes a noun and never asserts. (See 14, 3.) A verbal noun or infinitive is always a noun and never a verb, because it always names but never asserts ; and a pronominal adjective is always an adjective and never a pronoun, because it always limits and never takes the place of a noun. (See 14, 2.) In the case of the conjunctive adverb and the relative pronoun, however, the single word seems clearly to do the work of two parts of speech. INFLECTION. CASE. 21. Note the connection of each underlined word in the following sentences with the other words in the same state- ment or sentence : — a. The father loves his daughter. h. He loves his daughter. c. The father is loved by his daughter. d. The father's gold will be given to his daughter. e. The daughter gives her father a rose. f. The daughter gives him a rose. g. She loves him . h. Father, may I go ? i. She goes -with him. y. She goes with her father. 1. We note that father in a and e and he in h are the persons made most prominent in these sentences : they are the subjects of discourse, and so are said to be the Subjects of the sentence. In i and j, however, him and father are not the subjects, but are connected to a more important word by the prepo- sition with. It is therefore plain that a noun or pronoun may have different relations to the other words of the sentence in which it stands. The relation in which it stands to the other words of the sentence is called its Case. If a word is the subject of a sentence, it is said to be in 22 INFLECTION. 23 the Nominative Case ; if it is the object i of a preposi- tion, it is in the Objective, or Accusative, Case. The word father is the same in spelling or form in both the nominative and the objective. How is it with the pronoun he ? Cf . (that is, compare) i. 2. There are still other cases or relations of nouns and pronouns. The words father's before gold and his before daughter in d show that the father possesses the gold and a daughter. This relation is therefore called the Possessive, or Gen- itive, Case. How does his differ in form from he ; father's from father ? 3. Again, the words father and him in e and / have the action of the verb exerted indirectly, not directly, upon them. (The direct object in each case is rose.) This relation of indirect object is frequently called the Dative Case, but in English grammar is usually classed under the Objective Case. Does the form of the dative differ from that of the objective or accusative ? Cf . g, i, and j. 4. In h, the word father designates the person who is addressed. When so used, a noun is sometimes said to be in the Vocative Case, though it is usually classed under the nominative. Is the vocative case closely connected with the rest of the sentence ? Compare the vocative father in h with the nominative father in a. Do these cases differ in form ? ^ The meaning of this word when used of prepositions is explained on page 22. 24 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. NUMBER AND DECLENSION. 22. Let us study the underlined words in the following sentences : — a. The fathera love their daughters. h. The fathers' gold will be given to their daughters. C. The daughters give their fathers roses. d. They go with their fathers. e. Fathers, love your daughters. /. They love their daughters. g. Their gold wUl be given to their daughters. ll. The daughters give them roses. i. They go w^ith them. 1. A noun which, like father, names a single person or thing, is in the Singular Number ; a noun which, like fathers, names more than one, is in the Plural Number. In what different cases is the word fathers used in the sentences above ? Pick out each different use. In what different cases is the pronoun of which they is the nominative plural used in the above sentences ? 2. Note that father is changed to father's to show that the father possesses something instead of does something (as in 21, a), and that fathers is changed to fathers' for the same reason. Therefore the form is changed, to in- dicate a difference of relation to the other words of the sentence. In the change from the nominative singular father to the nominative plural fathers, however, there is no difference in relation, but there is a difference of meaning. A change in the form of a word to indicate either a change of relation or a change of meaning is called Inflection. INFLECTION. 25 The complete and orderly inflection of a noun or pro- noun is called its Declension. 3. In declining a noun or pronoun it is customary to write the cases in the following order, — nominative (voca- tive), possessive (genitive), objective (dative, accusative), — and to write the singular before the plural. Decline father and he, selecting the different case-forms from the sentences we have just been studying. Singular Plural ^ 5 Nom. ) father he fathers they (. Voc. > father fathers Poss. ( Gen.) father's his fathers' their ( Dat. } father him fathers them father him fathers them °* {ZJ 4. As to the cases which are alike, the word father is a fair sample of all nouns, and the word he is a fair sample of several pronouns. (1) What cases then are always alike in nouns both in singular and plural ? (2) Answer the same question in regard to the pronoun he. (3) What case differs in form from the nominative both in singular and in plural, and in both nouns and pronouns ? (4) What case, though like the nominative in nouns, is different from the nominative in the pronoun he? (5) What is the exact difference between the possessive singular and possessive plural of father? (6) Fill out the following blanks : — Singular Nom. (Voc), Obj. (Dat, Ace.) father Poss. (Gen.) Singular Nom. he Poss. (Gen.) Obj. (Dat, Ace.) Plural Plural Nom. (Voc), Obj. (Dat, Ace) Poss. (Gen.) Nom. Poss. (Gen.) — — Obj. (Dat, Ace.) 26 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. (7) How many different forms has every English noun ? (8) How many has the pronoun he ? Though there are only two forms of the English noun in each number, there are more than two cases. Usually there are said to be three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective ; but we may add to the number by distin- guishing special uses, and so have the nominative, nomina- tive-vocative, possessive or genitive, dative-objective, and accusative-objective — five in all. 23. Declension of Nouns. — ■ Study the following declen- sions : ^ — Sing. Nominative (Nom., Voc.) box Possessive (Gen.) box's Objective (Dat., Aoc.) box Plur. Nominative (Nom., Voc.) boxes Possessive (Gen.) boxes' Objective (Dat., Ace.) boxes Sing. Nominative (Nom., Voc.) man Possessive (Gen.) man's Objective (Dat,, Ace.) man Plur. Nominative (Nom., Voc.) men Possessive (Gen.) men's Objective (Dat., Ace.) men 1 Many pupils do not Icnow the facts and rules here illustrated. Special attention should be given to the nominative and possessive plural. In parenthesis are given the names of the cases as they are usually desig- nated in German, Latin, and Greek. The great advantage, to the pupil aboiit to begin Latin, of knowing the names and some of the uses of five of the Latin cases will be apparent. Sing. Sing. Sing. lass ox child lass's ox's child's lass ox child Plur. Plur. Plur. lasses oxen children lasses' oxen's children's lasses oxen children Sing. Sing. Sing. mouse boy- day mouse's boy's day's mouse boy day Plur. Plur. Plur. mice boys days mice's boys' days' mice boys days Nominative (Nora., Voc.) Possessive (Gen.) Objective (Dat., Ace.) Nominative (Nom., Voc.) Possessive (Gen.) Objective (Dat., Ace.) INFLECTION. 21 Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. lady pony hoof calf lady's pony's hoof's calf's lady pony hoof calf Plur. Plur. Plur. Plur. ladies ponies hoofs calves ladies' ponies' hoofs' calves' ladies ponies hoofs calves 1. (1) How does the nominative plural of box and lass differ from that of father in ending ? (2) Name other words which add -s to form the nominative plural. (3) Others which add -es. From these words it appears that as a rule we add -es when the nominative singular ends with such a sound that if -s is added, the sound of e is produced in the effort to pronounce this s. 2. What two letters (preceded by •■ in the case of child) are added to ox and child to make the nominative plural ? There are very few words thus declined. 3. (1) What part of the words man and mouse is changed in forming the nominative plural ? (2) Compare them in this respect with the other words declined above. (3) Give other words declined like man and mouse. 4. (1) In what respect are the four words below alike ? boy day lady pony (2) What difference is there in the formation of the nominative plural between the first two and last two? (3) What kind of a letter stands before y in boy and day? (4) What in lady and pony? (5) What then seems to be the rule for the formation of the nomina- tive plural of nouns ending in y ? 28 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 5. (1) What is the likeness of ending between the nouns hoof and calf ? (2) What is the difference in the formation of their nominatives plural ? Some nouns ending with the sound of f form the plural like hoof, some like calf ; but there is no rule regulating the matter, as in the case of nouns ending in y. 6. (1) What difference is there between plurals like oxen children men mice and all the other plurals here given ? (2) What important difference in the possessives plural as compared with the other possessives plural ? 7. It will be seen that while most nouns in English form their nominative plural by simply adding -s, there are sev- eral other ways of forming the plural. In other words, there are several different declensions in English. 24. Declension of Pronouns. — Write eight sentences illustrating the use of the four singular and four plural cases of the pronoun she, just as was done with he in 21 and 22. Now decline she in the singular and in the plural, selecting the proper cases from your sentences. Repeat this process in the case of the pronouns it, I, who, which, that (as in all that glitters is not gold), what, this, that (as in I know that), and in the case of thou, but write teii cases of thou. Why can we write ten cases of thou, but only eight of the other pronouns ? Compare the plurals of he, she, and it. I, thou, he, she, it are called Personal Pronouns ; this and that (when used like this) Demonstratives. Be very careful about the use of the word that. Give sentences in which it will be successively a demonstrative pronoun, a demonstrative adjective, a relative pronoun, and a conjunction. INFLECTION. 29 THE FORM OF ADJECTIVES. 25. Are adjectives inflected i for case and number? Since the adjective is not an independent part of speech, but only describes or limits some noun or pronoun, if in- flected at all, it seems natural that its inflection should correspond or agree with that of the noun which it de- scribes. To see whether people are accustomed to do this, let us use any adjective we may choose, with every case and both numbers, of the word father as used in the sentences for study in 21 and 22. If we use, for instance, the adjective rich, we shall find that we say rich father, with her rich father, rich father's gold, rich fathers, etc., and that no change is made in the form of rich to corre- spond with changes in the form of father. This is so with all adjectives but this and that. What change is made in these adjectives when a change in the case of the noun is made ? What, when the num- ber of the noun is changed ? Why should not the form of all adjectives be varied to correspond with different cases and numbers of the nouns which they describe, just as the form of this varies for singular and plural ? It certainly would not be strange if they did so, and we know that this was formerly the case in English, and is now the case in many other languages.^ ' What is the meaning of this word? See 22, 2. 2 The writer knows a little boy, just learning to talk, who uses such expressions as freights cars, flo-wers gardens. This shows, perhaps, a feeling on his part that the adjective ought to agree with the noun. 30 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 26. Study the adjectives underlined below : — a rich man a richer man the richest man (1) What changes have been made above in the form of rich ? (2) What changes have been made in the mean- ing by the endings? (3) Why should richer be called the comparative ^ degree, and richest the superlative ? (4) Why do we say a rich man, but the richest man ? Rich is said to be in the Positive Degree, and the pro- cess of changing the form of an adjective, as it is done above, is called Comparing. 27. Study the underlined adjectives below : — a beautiful child a beautiiuler child the beautifulest child a more beautiful child the most beautiful child (1) Is there any difference of meaning between beauti- fuier and more beautiful? The latter is preferable. Con- trast the two methods of comparison illustrated above. (2) To what word is the ending -er equivalent in mean- ing? (3) To what, the ending -est? (4) What parts of speech are more and most? Cf. 14, 5, very rich. Long words are usually compared by means of the adverbs more and most, less and least. 1 Let the pupil look up the meaning of these words in the dictionary, if necessary. INFLECTION. 31 28. Study the following adjectives. They show the comparison of all adjectives ending in -e, -y, and in a con- sonant preceded by a short vowel. pure water, purer, purest the early bird, earlier, earliest a sad sight, sadder, saddest (1) Are the above adjectives compared, like rich, by adding -er and -est to the positive ? (2) If not, give the rule for comparing adjectives ending in -e. (3) For those ending in -y. (4) For those ending in a consonant pre- ceded by a short vowel. 29. 1. Several adjectives are irregularly compared ; as, good, better, best many or much, more, most bad or ill, worse, worst near, nearer, nearest or next little, less, least far, farther, farthest 2. Name several adjectives which from the nature of their meaning are used only in the positive. 3. In such colloquial expressions as we had a most agreeable visit, the words a most agreeable do not have the proper superla- tive force of preeminence to all others, as is shown by the use of the article a. instead of the ; they seem to be equiv- alent to a very agreeable. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 30. In the following sentences, pick out the adverbs : — He came soon. He came sooner than was expected. He wrote well. She w^rote best. They crossed the ocean more safely than their friends. (1) Are any adverbs compared? (2) How are those given above compared? 32 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 31. Study the verb-endiugs in the following short sentences : — a. He loves, they love. b. Thou lovest, I love. c. They love, they loved. 1. (1) What is the only difference in the form of the two verbs under a? The only diflEerence in the meaning of he loves and they love is that in the first example the assertion is made of one person, in the second, of more than one. (2) To what, then, is the difference in the form of the verbs owing? (3) Is the verb always in- flected to show a difference in number? Cf. i love and ■we love. 2. In h, however, there is certainly no difference in the number of the subject, and the assertions state that the acts described in each case are in present time. To what, then, is the difference in the form of the verb owing? That difference in the form of the pronoun which shows whether it refers to a person (or persons) speaking, to a person spoken to, or a person spoken of, is called a differ- ence of Person. The person speaking is called the first person ; the one spoken to, the second person ; and the one spoken of, the third person. Name the pronouns of each person. (See 24.) Which person of the verb is used with all nouns ? Let the pupil put several nouns into sentences, and answer from his own observation. Which person of the verb is most used ? 3. In c there is no difference of number or of person, and yet the verbs differ in form. (1) To what is this dif- ference in form owing? INFLECTION. 33 A difference in the form of a verb which shows a differ- ence in the time of the action denoted by the verb is called a difference of Tense. (2) What are the only three possi- ble distinctions or divisions of time which can be made ? (3) What two of these appear in the sentences of c ? The preceding study shows that the verb is inflected in order to show differences in time, or tense, and also be- cause of differences in the number or person of its subject. Name the three inflectional endings which you have just learned, and state very definitely the use of each. 32. Participles and Infinitives. — Study the meaning, use, and form of the underlined words below : — a. A loving daughter. h. A loved daughter. C. He viras loved by all. d. To love ^ God is the duty of man. e. Iioving is better than hating. Note that the underlined words, though evidently formed from the verb love, are not verbs, for they do not assert anything. (See 14, 3.) (1) What part of speech is each ? (See 20, l, 2.) (2) What difference is there in time, or tense, between loving and loved ? (3) What difference in form ? (4) Compare the form of the past tense and that of the past participle. (5) Give several other verbs which form their past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the simple infinitive. 33. Summary of Verbal Inflection. — Study the following verb-forms, comparing those above the horizontal line with those below : — I In the expression he ■wiU love, love is an infinitive. IND. STUD. IN ENG. — 3 34 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. Sing. I love thou lovest he loves Plur. ■we love you love they love Sing. I loved thou lovedst he loved Plur. ■we loved you loved they loved Present Tense. ^ Sing. I call thou callest he calls Plur. V7e call you call they call Sing. I learn thou learnest he learns Plur. -we learn you learn they learn Past Tense. Sing. Sing. I called I learned thou calledst thou learnedst he called he learned Plur. ■we called you called they called Plur. ■we learned you learned they learned or learnt " learntest " learnt or learnt " learnt " learnt Present Tense. Sing. Sing. Sing. I write I sing I dig thou •writest thou singest thou diggest he ■writes he sings he digs Plur. Plur. Plur. ■we ■write ■we sing ■we dig you -write you sing you dig they write they sing Past Tense. they dig Sing. Sing. Sing. I -wrote I sang I dug thou ■wrotest thou sangest thou duggest he ■wrote he sang he dug Plur. Plur. Plur. ■we ■wrote ■we sang -we dug you -wrote you sang you dug they ■wrote they sang they dug ' It seems best to defer the subject of mode until syntax is reached, since the imperative and subjunctive have no forms not found in the indicative, and the modal idea is difficult for beginners. INFLECTION. 35 VERBAL FORMS.l Infinitives. love call learn write sing dig to love to call to learn to ■write to sing to dig loving calling learning iwriting Present Participle. singing digging^ loving calling learning writing Past Participle. singing digging loved called learned vrritten or learnt sung dug 34. The systematic arrangement of all the forms of the verb, as in the preceding article, is called Conjugation. What is the similar arrangement of the forms of the noun and pronoun called ? (See 22, 2, .3.) 1. The verb love represents a large class of verbs ending in -e silent. Note that such verbs add -d in the past tense and past participle instead of -ed, as in called, and -st in second person singular of the present tense instead of -est, as in cailest. Note, however, that the ending of the forms called and loved is the same. 2. Learned and learnt are substantially the same in form, for in learned the e before d is silent, the -ed does not form an additional syllable, and the -d has nearly the sound of t. There is a tendency, at the present time, to write the end- ing -t instead of -ed in such cases. 3. Those verbs which, like love, call, and learn, have the past tense and past participle alike, and regularly form 1 The following forms, though not strictly verbs (see 14, 3, and 32), are usually classed with them. 2 The g is doubled in the middle of the word on the principle illustrated by sad, sadder, in 28. 36 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. both by the addition of -d, -ed, or -t to the infinitive, are said to belong to the New Conjugation, or, as it is some- times called, the regular, or weak conjugation. 4. Bearing in mind the suggestions of 1 and 2, write all the different forms of love, call, and learn, including infini- tives and participles. How many are there ? Write the same forms of write, sing, and dig. Why is there one more of these forms in write and sing than in the other verbs ? Verify from your own observation of the above six verbs the following statements : — (1) The past tense sometimes differs from the past participle. (2) The second person singular of the present tense, the third person singular of the same tense, and the present participle may always be formed by adding -est, -s, and -ing, respectively, to the simple infinitive or to the simple infin- itive less a final silent -e. (3) The second person singular of the past tense is formed by adding -est or -st to the first or third person singular of the same tense. Therefore if the simple infinitive, the third person singu- lar of the past tense, and the past participle are known, all the other inflectional forms of the verb can be formed. From this fact, and from the frequency with which these forms are used, they are called the Principal Paets of the verb. 35. The Old Conjugation. — The three verbs write, sing, and dig belong to what is called the Old Conjugation. At first sight these verbs seem to have nothing in common. They are, however, alike in two or three particulars. Learn thoroughly the following list of very common verbs of the old conjugation, and tell in what respects INFLECTION. 37 they are alike, underlined. Specially important or difficult verbs are Infinitive. Past tense- Past participle. bear, to give birth to bore born bear, to carry ' bore borne beat beat beaten blow blew blown break broke broken bite bit bitten or bit choose chose chosen come came come do didi done draw drew drawn drive drove driven eat ate 2 eaten ^ fall fell fallen fight fought fought fly (cf. flee, 36) flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got, gotten give gave given 62 went 3 gone hold held held know knew known lie (cf. lay, 36) lay lain ride rode ridden ■ The final d is not here -d added to do, but the word did is formed by placing the letters di before the d of do and dropping the o. 2 There is also a past tense and past participle eat, pronounced et. ^ Really the past tense of wend regularly used as the past of go. 38 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. Infinitive. Past tense. Past participle. ring rang rung rise rose risen see saw- seen shake shook « shaken sit (cf. set, 36) sat sat speak spoke spoken stand stood stood steal stole stolen s-wim s-wam s-wum take took taken tear tore torn ■wear ■wore worn T^in ■won ■won 1. From an examination of this list, it appears that the verbs of the old conjugation (1) al-ways change (at least in pronunciation) the vo^wel of the infinitive in either the past tense or past participle, or in both; (2) never add anything to the infinitive to form the past tense (except sometimes a silent final e) ; and (3) if they add anything to form the past participle, add -en or -n. How, then, is the old conjugation distinguished from the new conjugation ? Cf . 34, 3. The old conjugation is some- times called the strong, or irregular, conjugation. 2. Note with care the fact that some of the verbs of the old conjugation have the past tense and past participle alike, while in many they are different. A com- mon mistake is to use the past tense instead of the past participle ; to say, for instance, it is broke, instead of it is broken. INFLECTION. 39 36. Irregular Verbs of the New Conjugation.^ — There are some verbs of the new conjugation which, while regular in having one form for past tense and past participle and in forming it by adding -ed, -d, or -t, are irregular in mak- ing some change in the vowel or vowels within the infini- tive, in suffering some contraction, or in having a past participle like that of the old conjugation. The following are the most common of these. Specially difficult verbs are underlined : — Infinitive. Past tense. Past participle. beseech besought besought bend bent bent bleed bled bled bring brought brought build built built buy bought bought catch caught caught cut cut out creep crept crept dwell dwelt dwelt feed fed fed feel felt felt flee (of. fly, 35) fled fled have had had hurt hurt hurt 1 The teacher can hardly Insist too rigidly upon a mastery of the verb- forms in this and the preceding article, and upon a clear idea of the dis- tinction between conjugations. Many pupils will be found who do not know the parts of many English verbs so as to use them correctly in sentences. Moreover, such a distinction will help toward an understand- ing of conjugation in Latin, and particularly in German. 40 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. Infinitive. Past tense. Past participle. keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt lay (of. Ue, 35) laid laid lead led led leave left left let let let lisht Ut (or Ughted) Ut (or lighted) make made (for maked) made meet met met pay (of. aay) paid paid put put put read (of. lead) read readl rend rent rent say said said seek sought sought send sent sent set (of. sit, 35) set set seU (cf. teU) sold sold shoe shod shod show showed showed or shown shut shut shut 2 BOW sowed sowed or sown sleep slept slept spread spread spread strew strewed strewed or strewn teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought 1 Cf . the pronunciation of past tense and past participle with tliat of infinitive. 2 In what letters do all verbs, having all three parts alike, end ? INFLECTION. 41 37. Conjugation of Be, Have, Shall, and Will. — The con- jugation of these four useful verbs is irregular : — Present Tense. Sing. Sing. Sing. Sing. I am I have I shall I will thou art thou hast thou shalt thou wilt he is he has he shall he will Plur. we are you are they are Plur. we have you have they have Plur. we shall you shall they shall Plur. vre ■will you w^ill they will Sing. I was thou wast he w^as Plur. ■we were you were they were Past Tense. Sing. Sing. I had I should thou hadst thou shouldst he had he should Plur. \re had you had they had Plur. we should you should they should Sing. I w^ould thou wouldst he would Plur. we would you would they w^ould VERBAL FORMS. Infinitives. be, to be, being have, to have, having (wanting) (wanting) Present Participle. being having (wanting) (wanting) Past Participle. been had (wanting) (wanting) 42 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 1. Give the principal parts of these verbs. 2. To what conjugation do have, shall, and will belong? 3. The verbs can, past could, and may, past might, also lack the infinitive and participles, like shall. 38. Inflection by Combination. — Compare the following sentences : — a. I love. c. I shall love. e. He will love. h. I loved. d. Thou wilt love. 1. What is the tense of a? 5 ? c, cZ, and & ? 2. How do we know, from its form, that loved in I loved is past? How do we know, from the form, that will love in he will love is future? Note, then, that the word will in the combination will love expresses time like the letter -d in the word loved. 3. We have seen that a change in the meaning or rela- tion of the verb may be denoted by a change in the letters of which it is composed; now we find that a change in meaning may be effected by combining two words. This process, called Inflection by Combination, is much employed in changing the meaning of verbs. 4. What verb is used to express futurity in the first person? What in the second and third? 39. Perfect, Imperfect, and Indefinite Action. — Study the following sentences : — a. He loves. h. He is loving. c. He has loved. 1. In what time is the action represented in each of these sentences ? 2. What difference is there between h and c as to the completeness of the action represented? The verb in a does not distinctly mark the action as either incomplete INFLECTION. 43 or complete ; it is therefore called the Present Indefi- nite. The combination is loving is called the Present Progkessive or Present Imperfect, and has loved the Present Perfect. It is manifest that in the past and the future also the action may be represented as indefi- nite, imperfect, or perfect. So represent it in the case of the verb love. 3. Do the terms " perfect " and " imperfect " when strictly used apply to the tense or the action of the verb? 40. The Passive Voice. — Compare the three pairs of sen- tences which follow : — a. I love. c. I loved. e. I shall love. b. I am loved. d. I w^as loved. f. I shall be loved. 1. Is there any difference in tense, number, and person between a and h, c and d, e and/? 2. What, then", is the difference of meaning in each case ? This difference lies in the relation of the subject to the verb. The combinations am loved, was loved, and shan be loved, are said to be in the Passive Voice ; the word passive meaning suffering, or enduring. 3. What is it that is suffering or enduring when a pas- sive verb is used, — the verb or its subject ? 41. Conjugation of Love and Write. — The following is the conjugation of love and write in the third person singular, not only by simple inflection, but also by combination.^ (See 33 and 37.) ' It is not claimed that the conjugation here given is exliaustive ; it is nearly complete for the three time divisions and the three possibilities as to completeness or incompleteness of action. Compare it with the Latin indicative, noting the Latin tenses which cover tveo of those here given. 44 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. Indef. he loves Imp. he is loving Pf. he has loved Present Tense. Active Voice. he -writes he is -writing he has -written Passive Voice. Indef. he is loved it^ is -written Imp. he is being loved it is being -written Pf. he has been loved it has been written Indef. he loved Imp. he -was loving Pf he had loved 2 Past Tense. Active Voice. he -wrote he vwas -writing he had -written Passive Voice. Indef. he -was loved it -was -written Imp. he -was being loved it -was being -written Pf. he had been loved it had been -written Future Tense. Active Voice. Indef. he -will love he -will -write Imp. he -will be loving he -will be -writing Pf. he -will have loved he -will have -written Passive Voice. Indef. he -will be loved it -will be -written Imp. (not in use) (not in use) Pf. he -will have been loved it -will have been -written 1 It is important to note that comparatively fe-w verbs have such a meaning as to admit all persons lu both active and passive. Let the pupil illustrate this with a number of verbs. 2 The past perfect is often called the pluperfect tense. INFLECTION. 45 VEEBAL FORMS. Infinitives. Active. Indef. love, to love, loving write, to write, writing Imp. to be loving to be writing Pf. to have loved to have w^ritten Passive. Indef. be loved, to be loved be written, to be ■written Imp. (not in common use) (not in common use) Pf. to have been loved to have been written Participles. Active. Indef. (not in use) (not in use) Imp. loving writing Pf. having loved having written Passive. Indef. loved V7ritten Imp. being loved being written Pf. having been loved having been written 1. (1) What four verbs are combined with love and write to make the compound forms ? — For a verb not given in this article, cf . 38. — (2) What verb enters into every passive combination ? (3) What is the voice of loved and written? (4) What is the exact difference, then, in meaning and in formation between he was loving and he was loved ?^ (5) What participle is invariably used in imperfect tenses ? (6) What participle in passive forms ? 1 This is a question of great importance. If it is thoroughly and clearly comprehended and answered, a most prolific source of error will be at once removed. 46 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 2. A word, letter, or syllable which invariably accom- panies a tense and distinguishes it from other tenses, is called the sign of that tense. (1) What are the signs of the future in both voices ? — Note that the sign differs in different persons. — (2) Of the present perfect ? (3) Of the past perfect or pluperfect? (4) Of an imperfect? (5) Is the verb be a sign of the passive ? Cf . he is writ- ing, he was loving. (6) What is the ending of the past passive participle in the new conjugation ? (7) What in the old, whenever this participle has any ending? 3. In addition to the verb combinations just given, such groups as he has been writing, he had been writing, are not uncommon. What words in these groups show that the action referred to is now complete ? What word shows that it was going on in the past ? The verb do is combined very commonly with other verbs in such phrases as a. Do you skate ? c. I do (skate). b. Do come early. d. He did not come. e. It does move. Note that do is used in questions and answers, in com- mands, in negative and emphatic statements. Cf. 46, and 68, 5. FORMATION OF WORDS. 42. Nouns. — What is the whole difference of meaning between he and she, king and queen, boy and girl, son and daughter ? He, king, boy, and son are said to be of the Masculine Gender, because they designate males ; and she, queen, girl, and daughter of the FEMININE Gender, because they designate females. Most nouns have no gender, since they designate neither males nor females,^ and are sometimes called Neuter, which means neither. The pronoun it is used in referring to nouns which have no gender. 1. Study the words : — act execute actor actress executor executrix found ■ enchant founder foundress enchanter enchantress also god, goddess ; lion, lioness ; prince, princess. (1) What endings are used in the above words to change a masculine into a feminine noun ? (2) What to denote the feminine agent? (3) What to denote the masculine agent ? 1 That is, English distinguishes only two genders, and the gender is based solely on sex. The Latin has the English gender distinction by sex, and in addition to it, but not in conflict with it, the system of gender distinction by endings. Only those nouns which have no gender accord- ing to the English system are divided mto masculine, feminine, and neuter, by endings. 47 48 ITSTDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 2. Study the endings of the following words : — bullock, a little hull. lambkin, a little lamb. brooklet, a little brook. hillock, a little hill. babykin, a little baby. hamlet, a little village. flo'weret, a little flower. cigarette, u little cigar. lancet, a little lance. sermonette, a little sermon. What is the meaning of diminutive? Give five diminu- tive endings. 3. What is the ending, and what is its force in adornment, that which adorns; punishment, that which punishes ; atonement, that which atones f What is the likeness, and what the difference of meaning, in atoner and atonement, punisher and punishment? Cf. 42, 1. Note, however, that this ending in the above words may also name an action, or the result of an action. 4. Study the following endings : — a. He creates — a creation. c. He feels — a feeling. b. He inclines — an inclination, d. He covers — a covering. e. He possesses — a possession. What endings above express the action of the verb? 5. Study the endings and meanings of the following words : — ■ bright, brightness true, truth -wise, -wisdom safe, safety- good, goodness -wide, -width free, freedom frail, frailty (1) What derivative endings name a quality? (2) From what part of speech are the nouns here given de- rived? (3) What likeness in meaning is there between this part of speech and these nouns ? FORMATION OF WORDS. 49 43. Adjectives. — Study the ending s and meanings of the following adjectives : — foolish golden wonderful lustrous (from lustre) Turkish ■wooden beautiful grievous ( " grief) 'whitish royal blamable furious ( " fury) smallish brutal laughable horned manly hearty- helpless despotic turreted lovely misty heartless historic sugared lowly 1. What two adjective endings above mea,n full ofP 2. Which ending means provided or furnished with? 3. Which has the meaning somewhat, to a certain degree ? 4. Which means made of, denoting material? 5. Which means like ? 6. What endings mean simply belonging to ? 7. How would you make an adjective meaning not to he resisted ? 8. What adjectives above are like this? This last end- ing, however, has sometimes the meaning simply like or belonging to. 44. Adverbs. — Note the ending of the adverbs merrily, carefully. Is every word v;-ith this ending an adverb? 1. Learn the following list of very common adverbs, with the exact meaning of each, comparing with the pro- nouns on the left : — Pronouns. Place in which. Place to which. Place from which, h-e h-ere h-ither h-ence th-at th-ere th-ither th-ence ■wh-o wh-ere wh-ither wh-ence 2. What is the first letter of each word on the first line horizontally? What are the two first letters of those on second line ? Of those on third line ? IND. ST0D. IK ENG. - 50 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 3. Give the meaning of each of these adverbs by using a preposition and its case modified by an adjective. 45. Verbs. — Note the endings of the verbs in They blacken their enemies' reputations. They harden their hearts. What is the ending of both these verbs ? What does this ending mean ? 46. Letters or Syllables equivalent to Separate Words. — Compare the letters underlined in the first column with the words underlined in the second column, and cf. 38. lioness she-lion 'Wooden made of 'wood he called i he did call the boy's hat the hat of the boy fonder more fond Note that the letters underlined in the first column have the same meaning as the words underlined in the second. We thus see that in inflection or derivation a letter or a syllable of a word has often the meaning of a whole word, and the latter may be substituted for it. We certainly ought not to be surprised if in other languages we find that only letters or syllables of inflection are used where the English uses separate words. 1 The -ed in the ending of the past tense is only another form of the word did ; of. 68, 5. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES? 47. Subject and Predicate. — As we have already seen, a sentence is simply a statement of some fact or thought. Let us study the following sentence to see how it is made : — Midas paused. 1. We have here the statement of a fact. Here the statement is made about Midas, and it is clear that, if any statement is made, it must be made about some person or thing. That about which the statement is made is called the Subject of the sentence. 2. The word paused asserts or says something about Midas. That which is said about the subject of the sentence is called the Pkbdicate, which means simply the thing said. 3. Of how many words does this sentence consist? Let each pupil make five sentences containing only two words each, and distinguish the subject and predicate in each. 48. Modifying Words, Phrases, and Clauses. — If we turn to any book, we shall find that very few of the sentences consist of but two words. We shall find sentences like the following : — a. The stranger gazed about the room. b. It -was a young man vrith a cheerful face. C. To err is human. 51 52 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. d. He valued his royal crown chiefly because it was com- posed of precious metal. e. Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and he had a little daughter. /. All the beautiful roses that had so many lovely blushes are blighted and spoilt. g. This fabric had been transmuted to what seemed a woven texture of gold. 1. In sentence a, stranger gazed would have been a sen- tence, but we find other words which give us new ideas about stranger and gazed. It was the stranger, and the words about the room tell how he gazed. Any combination of words which does not contain a sub- ject and a predicate is called a Phrase. Since the phrase about the room limits the verb gazed, to what part of speech is it equivalent? In sentence 5, the phrase with a cheerful face evidently describes the noun man. To what part of speech is it, therefore, equivalent ? What part of speech is the phrase to err in c ? 2. In sentence d, the words it was composed of precious metal limit the verb valued, by telling why he vedued the crown. If these words tell us something, they must make a sentence. What is the subject and what the predi- cate of this sentence? By what conjunction is it con- nected with the preceding sentence ? When two or more sentences are thus united, each is called a Clause. To what part of speech is this clause equivalent? 3. What two clauses does the sentence / contain? What word does the clause beginning with that describe ? To what part of speech, then, is this clause equivalent ? SYNTAX. 53 What clause is the object of the preposition to in ^? What part of speech is the object of a preposition ? Then, what part of speech is this clause ? 49. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences. — We have seen that every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate, and that it need contain only two words, though it does usually contain more than this, because both sub- ject and predicate are enlarged, as it is called, by modi- fiers, which may be single words, phrases, or clauses. Again, we have learned that phrases and clauses may be adjectives or adverbs or nouns, just as single words are. Phrases and clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun phrases and clauses, according to their msc. (See 19.) Noun clauses are often called Substantive Clauses. 1. Note now that sentences a, b, and c consist of words and phrases, but contain only one subject and one predi- cate apiece. Such sentences are called Sijiple Sentences. 2. Note that in d the chief statement, He valued his royal crown, is described by the less important statement, it was composed of precious metal, with which it is connected by the conjunction because. Which of these statements should be called principal, which subordinate ? i A combination of a principal and a subordinate clause, or subordinate clauses, is called a Complex Sentence. The subject or predicate without any enlargement is called the Simple Subject or Pjbedicate. 3. Note that sentence e really contains two statements ; namely, Once upon