Hatt QIoUKgc of Agdcultttw At diotneli MninttBxts ffiibrarg Cornell University Library S 499.P57 The gardener's and farmer's reason why; c 3 1924 000 303 549 a Cornell University f Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000303549 THE GARDENER'S AND FARMER'S REASON WHY. WORES BY THE SAME AUTHOH. One Mundred and Thirty-fifth Thousand. Crown 8«0, 2s. Crf., ENQUIEE WITHIN UPON EVERYTHING. Tenth Thousand. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d, THE BIBLICAL KEASON WHY. Tenih Thousand. Crown 8wo, cloth, 2s. 6(f., THE REASON WHY: NATURAL HISTORY. Tmih Thousand. Crorni 8vo, 25. Gd., cloth, THE REASON WHY: ENGLISH HISTORY. Thirty-first Thousand. Crown ivo, 2s. 6rf., cloth, THE REASON WHY: GENERAL SCIENCE. Tenth Thousand. Crown Suo, 2*. Gd., cloth, THE HOUSEWIFE'S REASON WHY: DOMESTIC SCIENCE. Twenty-fifth Thousand. Crown 8»o, 2s. id., cloth, THE INTERVIEW. Fifte&nth Thousand. Crown 8-bo, 2s. Qd., cloth, THE CORNER CUPBOARD. Tenih Thousand. Grown &vo, 2s. 6rf., cloth, NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. Thirteenth Thousand. 1 vol.. Crown 8ro, 2s. 5d., cloth, HOW A PENNY BECAME A THOUSAND POUNDS. LIFE DOUBLED BY THE ECONOiSrY OF TIME. Each of these two Works separately, Is. id., cloth. Tenth Thousand. Crown Svo, Is., cloth, limp, THE USEFUL TEACHER. English Grammar. Geography. History. Twenty-fifth Thousand. Crown Svo, Is. Gd., cloth, THE SHOPKEEPER'S GUIDE. Fifth Thousand, Crown Svo, Is., cloth, gill edges, PHILOSOPHY AND MIRTH, UNITED BY PEN AND PENCIL, Nearly 1,200 illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth, gilt edges, 3t. 6i., THAT'S IT; OH, PLAIN TEACHING. THE GARDENER'S AND FARMER'S REASON WHY CONTAINING KEASONS FOE THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC CULTIVATION APPLICABLE TO GARDENING AND AGEICULTUEE. TEE AUTHOR Of * THE REASON WHY, GENEEAl SCIENCE," " THE HEASON WHT, NATDHAL HI3T0KT," " THE BIBLICAL HEASON WHY," " THE HISTORICAL REASON THY,'* " THE housewife's REASON WHY," ETC., ETC. I\3, '■0 " Man l3 the interpreter of Nature, Science the right interpretation." Dr. Whmell. " The practical man who adopts tliis method of solving aU useful questions, need entertain no dread of acquiring the reputation of a theorist. He may rest assured that by no other means can he solve a single problem. He must first seet after the 'Why,' and the 'Wherefore' will follow as a matter of course,"— iieJij'. LONDON HOULSTON AND WEIGHT 65, PATERNOSTER HOW. HDCCCLX. PKINTED BY BCJIFIELD AND JOSES, WEST HARDING STREET, FETTEK LAKE , PEEFACE. HOTIDENCE exhibits a purpose in all thing s ; and it is the dutj^ of Man to ascertain what that purpose is. Nothing exists without laws to govern its existence. .The high- er the or- ganization of a body, the more multiplex are the laws that operate upon its being. Nothing exists that is not, or may mot, be made useful to Man ; but the power of .using depends Tl PREFACE. upon man's comprehension of the laws that govern the- existence of material things. To no class of people can a knowledge of Nature's laws be more interesting or useful than to the Faemeb and Gaedenek. It is their mission to enrich and beautify the earth. Han cannot make a single grain of wheat ; but he invokes the aid of Nature. Going forth with the plough, he opens the warm breast of the earth, and scatters the simple seed. A few months roll away, and over that earth, which lately was brown and bare, there wave millions of ears of golden corn. Thus man produces, by limited knowledge of certain laws, a rich store of food, of which, unaided by Nature, he could not create a single grain. There are, however, different degrees of knowledge. One man may know that if he makes a furrow in the soil, and places therein a seed, the seed will grow ; and although' it may be apparently dead, and be sealed in its tomb by the frost or snow, still the time will come when the leaf wiU appear above the ground, when the stalk will shoot upward, and the plant continue to grow until it produces fruit. Another man may know how it is that the plant grows. He may know that the seed placed in the soil held within its breast a vital germ, and that heat and moisture called that germ into being. He may know that certain elements in the soil contributed to nourish the germ, and that when the plant put forth its leaves to the air they began to feed upon the atmosphere that played around it in the breezes- of spring. Another man may not only know how the plant grows, but why it has been endowed with certain organs — wl»f PREFACE. VU it has a root, why a stem, why leaves, why flowers, why seeds ; lie may know why a plant has bark and wood and pith ; he may know why air and light and moisture are necessary ; why soils of specific kinds are best suited to particular plants ; and ivhy, when those plants have fed upon such soils, the soils become impoverished, and can no longer yield to the same plants the nourishment they need ; but that, if other plants are placed in the same earth, they will not only thrive, but that during their growth, the soil will become replenished by the elements which had been absorbed by the previous crop. The knowledge of the first man that we have instanced is such as prevailed some fifty years ago, before Sir Humphry Davt called attention to the elements of Agricultural Chemistry. The knowledge of the second man we have instanced, is the knowledge of many of the present day, who are content with general and vague ideas ; but who care not to pursue inquiry far, and therefore leave it off at that very point where it becomes interesting and remunerative. The man who knows the reason why — the third we have instanced — is he who has taken advantage of what Davy and Liebig have taught — who has not been contented to allow philosophers to labour and to write in vain — but who looks at Nature through the light of improved philosophy, and sees in every one of her operations something to delight the eye and charm the understanding. To such a man, the duties of life become a pleasing occupation ; the business of life is no longer a task. In the words of Shakspeare, " The labour we delight in physics pain." via PEErACE. Two hundred and fifty years ago it was conceived that all the products of vegetables were capable of being generated from water ; a hundred and fifty years ago it was believed that the soil supplied all the nourishment df plants, and that by finely dividing it, any number of crops might be raised in succession from the same land. Fifty years ago Sir Humphry Davy immortalized his name by his course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture, in which he explained the compound organizations of plants, and of soils, and the relations of these to each other ; as well as the influence of light, heat, electricity, moisture, and the atmospheric gases, upon the vegetable creation. In later days, the learned Liebig- has taken up the work commenced by Davy, and added to the discoveries of the latter many valuable facts which confirm and enrich the theories of the great founder of Agricultural Chemistry. It is the purpose of this volume to set before the Reader, in the simple form of Question and Answer, many of those important discoveries which come under the denomination of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, especially in relation to Gardening and Agriculture. But who is he that pretends to supply reasons to men whose lives have been spent in the free air of the country, and from whose feet the brown clod has never yet been shaken ? Who is he that, having been fed to maturity by the produce of the plough, ventures now to tell the Agriculturist how he may improve the system of growing wheat, and recompensing the soil for its losses ? A fair question, demanding an explicit ansiver. The EEASONS presented to the Gardener and Agricul- PREFACE. IX turist in the pages of this volume, are not the produce of ONE mind, nor a single experience, but gleanings oi" THE OPINIONS AND EXPEEIENCE OF HUNDREDS OP MEN OP THE HIGHEST EMINENCE, WHOSE TITLE TO BE HEARD AND RESPECTED IS BEYOND ALL QUESTION. Their experience collectively, has been gathered on every soil, in every climate, and their practical deductions have resulted from a careful contemplation of experimental enquiries, extending over at least, a hundred years. The Gardener's and Farmer's Reason Why is in itself a sort of Agricultural and Horticultural Society, where the leading minds in a given pursuit speak for the good of all. First, there is Sir Humphry Davy, who, as long ago as the year 1802, submitted to the Board of Agriculture his views of the influences of chemical laws upon vegetation ; at that time chemistry itself was young, and it had been, therefore, impossible to make an earlier application of its principles to the most important of all economical pursuits. Next, there is Baron Liebig, Professor of Chemistry at Giessen, whose enlarged views of Agricultural Chemistry have been the theme of discussion and experiment since the year 1840, and whose opinions, carefully analyzed, ai-e presented in this work, as expressed by himself so recently as last year (1859), after reviewing the previous twenty years' experience. Then there is Mr. Lawes, of Eothamstead Park, whose papers on Agricultural Chemistry, in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, have created so great an interest, and X PREFACE. whose experiments, conducted upon his own farm, under his immediate superintendence, have proved of great practical value. Although Mk. Lawes differs in his conclusions from the principles laid doivn by Liebig, his theory points equally to the importance of applying scientific principles to the cultivation of plants ; and Liebig aspires to indicate the ONLT TRUE principles. Among many other Authorities whose views and experience are given in this volume, are Dr. Voelcker, Professor of Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ; Dr. Charles Spregnel, Professor of Agriculture in the Caroline College of Brunswicli ; Dr. Daubeny, Professor of Eural Economy in the University of Oxford ; J. F. W. Johnston, Esq., F.R.S., Author of "Lectures, on Agri- culture in Relation to Chemistry and G-eology ; " Dr. S. L. Dana, of Lowell, U.S., Author of " A Muck Manual for Farmers ; " J. T. Way, Esq., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society ; J. C. Nesbit, Esq., Principal of the Agricultural and Chemical College, Kensington ; J. A. Nash, Esq., Instructor of Agriculture in Amherst College, an,^ Member of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ;\. A. D. Ti-iaer, of Celle, in G-ermany, an eminent agi'iculturist and author of important works upon Husbandry ; Henry Stephens, Esq., F.R.S.E., Author of "The Book of the Farm," and " The Book of the Garden;" J. C. Morton, Esq., Author of "A Cyclopsedia of Agriculture, Practical and Scientific," and Editor of " The Agricultural Gazette ;" C. W. Johnson, Esq., Author of the " Farmer's Cyclopsedia ;" Ph. Puset, Esq., late President of the Royal Agricultural Society ; Lord AsHBURTON, President of the Royal Agricultural Society; A. T. Knight, Esq., late President of the Royal Horti- PREFACE. XI cultural Society ; Sm John Sinclair, the great promoter of tte Board of Agriculture, and of numerous practical improvements ; together with many others, including farmers of the " old school," whose names will be found appended as notes to their various opinions, and state- ments of fact. With such an array of Authorities as these, it matters little who the individual may he that has brought into one focus so large an amount of divergent theory and experience upon the important subjects of Agriculture and Gardening. There is only one point, in his own labours, to which the Author of this volume begs to call especial attention. When, in the company of a keeper, he has walked over farm lands in pursuit of game, the practised eye of the latter has been able, in an instant, to recognise the run of a rabbit or hare, or the trail of a pheasant, as indicated by the dog in pursuit; when called upon to "look out," the Author has lost many a shot by not having placed reliance in the premonitions of a practised observer. " There she sits ! " said the Keeper one day ; pointing to something at a distance, upon a fallow field. But the untutored eye of a Novice could see nothing other than clods of earth, where the Countryman plainly descried Puss, serenely squatting upon her form. Doubting the intimation, the Novice sauntered onward, until Puss, springing from close by his feet, started off with a speed accelerated by the report of a shot far in her rear, which raised only a cloud of dust from the scattered mould, while the Countryman doffed his hat, and broke cover with his fingers, to ease his outraged senses. Let it be understood, however, that in latter years this fault has been amended, and that the Novice has profited by experience ! XU , PREFACE. This illustration is intended to enforce a matter in point : ill the setting forth of ideas, as in the marldng down of game, there is a certain degree of sagacity not easily acquired. The Author, is, in this instance, the Keeper ; he has to take the Farmer over the pages of this book, and to point out where anything lies which, being brought to the bag of the understanding, will crown the pursuit. The " run " of any particular idea, which the Farmer is required to follow, is here indicated by italic letters; when the Reader sees these, let him fix his attention to their meaning, follow them closely, and when he comes upon small capitals, he is close upon the game, and must look out, or, like the Author with the hare, he will, through inattention, get only dust in his eyes, where he might have brought something valuable to his hag. It should be stated here, that the treatment of the Anatomy and Physiology of Plants, with explanations of the special uses of peculiar properties and structures, has been reserved for the Botanical and Horticultueal Reason Why, which will follow this in the Series, and be an admirable companion to the present volume. London, 1860. INDEX. The Nuvibers refer to the Paragraphs, Acids, vegetable ... 35 Acids, what are they 70 Actinism, its effects upon vegetation 606 Agricultural chemistry, objects of.., 3 Agricultural chemistry, what are the main points upon which di- verse opinions have been formed 540 Agricultural chemistry, what are the practical deductions therefrom 545 Agricultural practice , 762 Air bubbles, why frequently seen in lumps of ice 681 Air, why is it necessary for the germination of seed 990 Alburaiim, what is it 981 Alkalies, what are they 64 Alkaline bases may be changed ... 86 Alluvial soils, ox'igin of 161 Alluvial soils, how may they be improved ... 164 Alumina, what is it 46 American blight, method of destroy- ing 1120 American blight on apple-trees, method of destroying 1122 Ammonia, chief source of 31 Ammonia, why developed during fermentation 441 Animal manures, why do they differ 428 Animal manures, indications of their qlialities 521 Animals, why does the employment of them influence their excrement 430 Animals, why does their food affect the value of their excrements ... 435 Animals, why docs the water given to, influence their excretions ... 517 Animals, effect of health upon their excretions 519 Animals, effect of seasons upon their, excretions 520 Animala and vegetables, what are the relationa between them ... 1132 Animals, why.havO' some varied less than others under domestication... 1149 Analysis, examples of methods of... 536 Analysis, why should regard be paid to the geological peculiarities of districts.... |k 538 Aphides, method of destrojong ... 1 11 -1 Atmosphere, what is the constitii- tionof the 672 Bark, what are its fimctions ... 967 Barley, effect of improved farmmg upon 900 Bases, what are they 82 Blanching 933 Blight, why are plants most subject to it in early spring 984 Bone compost, method of prepai-ing, without sulphuric acid 382 Bone compost, why in making, should the water be poured upon the bones before the acid 3S5 Bone manure, why are its effects so permanent 395 Bones, why does sulphuric acid improve their qualities as manure 374 Bones, directions for treating with sulphuric acid 377 Bones, why are dry better than fresh 391 Bones, why is manure of boiled, preferred by turnip growers ... 394 Bones, experimental investigations of their effects 396 Brick-dust, why a good manure ... 333 Buds, what is the origin of 1016 Budding, what is the object of ... 1019 Budding, processes of 1021 Bnming clay, why does it improve . 893 Burning explained 14 Burning, land, why does it produce good manure 335 Cabbage leaves, why do they emit a peculiarly offensive odour ... 531 Cabbages, why are there so many varieties of 1075 Calves, wliy should they not be fed exclusively on turnip-tops ... 1141 Cane sugar, analysis of 33 Carbon, what is it 13 Carbon, whence do plants obtain ic 20 Carbonates, what are they 78 Caterpillars and moths, method of destroying 1118 INDEX. Chaff- cutting, wliy beneficial ... 1 137 Chalk, what change does it under- go by hurning 305 Chalky soils, ori'gin of 135 Chalky soils, how may they be iraproTed 138 Charcoal, properties of 15 Charlock, why should it be allowed to grow, with a view to its extermination 862 Chemistry, objects of agricultural 3 Chemicals, which influence the growth of plants 5 Chemists, why are they able to pronounce upon the properties of soils 534 Chlorides, what are they 78 Clay, why does burning improve its qualities 893 Clay soils, why are they best adapted to the growth of cereals 894 Clayey soils, origin of IHO Clayey soils, how may they be Climate, influence upon rotations of crops 897 improved 125 Clouds, what are their various indications ... 177 Clouds, what are they 664 Clouds, in what respects do they affect the growth of plants ... 670 Clover, why is cutting it better than feeding off 842 Clover, why better food when green, than when made into hay 1136 Glover-hay, analysis of 34 Clover -hay, why does steaming im- prove it 1139 Cold produced by evaporation ... 904 Compound bodies explained ... 10 Coping, effect of in protecting trees . 943 Coprolites, what are they 321 Coprolites, why do they supply good manure 322 Crops, why does the rotation of, supersede fallowing 222 Cultivator or scarifier, principles of its application 803 Cuttings, why should they be placed under hand-glasses, or in hot-beds 1056 Cuttings, time and method of taking 1058 Decomposition explained 456 Dew, what is it 711 Dew, why more plentiful in spring and autumn than in summer *... 713 Dew, why do some bodies become wetter than others 715 Dew, why are cloudy nights less dewy than others 717 Dew, why do screens protect plants 720 Dew, why are the upper parts of leaves, generally wettest 725 Dew, why is the grass plot fre- quently wet, while the gravel walk ia di*y 727 Dew, why is a slight movement of the atmosphere favourable to its formation 730 Dew, why is little, formed on wmdy nights 732 Dew, why less copious on hills than on plains V34 Dew, why are the leaves of trees frequently dry, while the grass is wet 736 Dew, why sliould the agriculturist pay attention to the theory of its formation 738 Dibbling, why is it less adapted to. stiff soils than to others 871 Drainage, why does it elevate the temperature of soUs 907 Drainage, proper level of the water- table 910 Drainage, illustrated by a flower-pot 296 Drilling manures 351 Prilling, why is it superior to broad-cast sowing 853 Drilling and broad-cast, experi- ments upon 854 Drilling turnips, in what cases preferable to ridging 859 Drilling, why is tliere iliore under- corn from than from dibbling ... 869 Dung-heaps, why do they emit a pungent odoxir 444 Dung-heaps, why is there com- paratively little smell when the heaps are closed 446 Dang, why is water formed in the fermentation of- 460 Dung of horses, decomposition of ... 463 Dung of horses, why does it injure plants to which it is applied fresh 464 Dung of pigs, why a cold manure ... 465 Eartli-worm, in what respects does it benefit soas 1100 Electricity, what are its effects upon vegetables 657 Element, what is an 9 Elements in inorganic parts of soils 1 97 Elements in organic parts of soils ... 198 Elements of soils, what becomes of them under the operations of agriculture 203 Evaporation, cold produced by ... 904 Evergreens, why do they appear not to change their foliage 998 Excretions of plants 240 Fallowing, why superseded by ro- tation 222 Fallowing, doubts upon the good supposed to result from naked ... 81% Farming, " clean," why the founda- tion of good farming 804 Farm-yard manures, why does the soil never tire of 424 Fences, why are large, prejudicial... 918 Fences, why should white thorns be planted in single rows 919 Flocks, why capable of fertilizing soils 414 Fold-manuring, why beneficial, though fresh manures are irju- rious to crops ..4k 522 INDEX. Fold-manuring, why, if the soil be stiff, should it be loosened before sheep are turned upon it 82S Fold'-manuring, why should sheep droppings be ploughed or har- rowed in, as soon as the sheep are removed 829 Fold-manuring, why is fresh urine from sheep beneficial, while fresh urine is hurtfnl if otherwise ap- plied 830 Fold-manuring, why is it preferable to collecting sheep-dung in the shed 831 Forests, why do they lower the temperature V55 Frost, why does it benefit ploughed lands 743 Frosts, why frequently more severe in valleys than on surrounding eminences 936 IVosts, why do they injure iJie projecting parts of trees 941 Frozen plants, why may they be restored if di*enched witli cold water .' 947 Frost-bitten bloom, why should it be watered before smunse 949 Fruit trees, why should tlie soil applied to tliem be not more than e^hteen inches deep 931 Fruit trees, why are shoots which projected beyond copings, fre- quently injured by frost, &c. ... 941 Fruit, why is there generally an abundance of, after a season of scarcity 1009 Fruit, what is the primary purpose for which it is formed- 1003 Fruit, why do we often see a sicldy one close to a perfect one 1004 Fruit trees, why should they be trained wherever practicable ... 1049 Fruit trees, why should they never be planted in kitchen gardens ... 1065 Fruits and flowers, why has man been able to establi^ so many varieties of 1066 Fruit preserved from birds by cats... 1 123 Gardening practice 920 Garden manures, why should they be dug in fresh 921 Gas-water, instances in wliich it has failed 527 Gas water as a destroyer of insects 1117 Gas-tar, why may it be applied to lands unadulterated 528 Geese, dung of, why less potent than that of pigeons and fowls ... 467 Geese droppings, why do they de- stroy grass 469 Grafting, what is the object of "... 1030 Grafting, methods of 1034 Grain crops, why should they be reaped before quite ripe 887 Grapes, why do those which are tied in black crape ripen better than those tied m white 937 Grass-lands, why does shading with straw, &c., promote the growth ofthegra^ 890 Grass-land, what is the system of inoculating .'' 892 Gravelly soils, origin of 115 Gravelly soils, how may they be improved ... 117 Green crops for manures, why should they be ploughed in while in flower 889 Guano, chief constituents of ... 397 Guano, analysis of 399 Guano, ivhy so valuable a manure 401 Guano, why are its effects more immediate and decided upon some soils than on others ... 405 Guano, why should it be admixed with earthy ingredients 408 Guano, why do Peruvian farmers prefer fresh 410 Guano, why calculated to fertilize a variety of crops 411 Gypsum sprinkled with fold-drop- pings 5L'3 Gum, analysis of 33 Hail, what is it 753 Hay, why should it be cut before it is thoroughly ripe 872 Hay, why should it not be long exposed to the rays of the sun ... 874 Hay-rake, American, described ... 875 Hay, why does s^veating in the stack improve its qualities , 876 Hay, Dutch barns for 878 Hay, stacking of 879 Hay-ricks, why do they sometimes spontaneously ignite ... ... 881 Hay-making, rules for 883 Hawthorn fences, why inferior to hoUy 1095 Heat, its effects upon vegetation ... 603 Heat, what are its principal effects 631 Heat, what are the laws which govern its diffusion 639 Heat, how is it distributed over the face of the earth 654 Hoar frost, what is it 742 Hoeing, why does it promote the gi'owth of plants 844 Hoeing, why is it injurious when late 847 Hoes, various lands of 849 Hoeing, horse, why did the system without manures fail 850 Hoeing turnips, who should the chopping system be avoided ... 678 HoUy fences, why are they superior to hawthorn 1095 Horses, why do their excrements develope ao strong a heat ... 462 Horses, why is their urine less valuable than that of cattle ... 524 Horses, what is the cause of shyness in 1144 Horses, what is the cause of roaring in U46 Horn, why is the condition of its INDEX. base an indication o£ the health of the animal .1148 Hot-houses, why is it necessary to regulate, not only their tempera- ture, hut their humidity 1086 Hydrogen, what is it 17 Hydrogen, whence do plants obtain it. « 27 Inoculating grass land 892 Insects, why is it a common error to suppose that they are destroyed by frosts 109T Insects, why should precautions be taJten against them eai-ly in the season 1105 Insects, best method of destroying ... 1 lOG Insects in wood and walls, method of destroying 1112 Irrigation, benefits of. 915 Knots on trees, what causes them ... 993 Lawes, Jlr., his theory of agricul- ture, as opposed to Liebig 's ... 543 Leaves, why do they turn brown in autumn 935 Leaves, why frequently destroyed by frosts in vaUeys, hut untouched on surrounded eminences 936 Leaves, why are they of primary importance 968 Leaves, why are those of woody plants rougher on the under sur- face than on the upper 975 Leaves, why is their spiral arrange- ment beneficial to vegetation ... 978 Leaves of plants, why do they indicate the kind of tillage the plants require 896 Leaves, why should those of delicate plants be washed occa- sionally 997 LegumiQOUS plants, why do they prefer calcareous soU 895 Liebig, Baron, epitome of his theory of agriculture 560 Life, its influence upon inorganic and organic elements 4 Life in a plant, why does its duration depend upon the power of exten- sion in the roots 999 Light, its effects upon vegetation ... 595 Lime, what is it ... .; 53 Lime plants 55 Lime, why does it act beneficially upon a variety of soils 298 Lime, an agricultural stimulant ... 300 Lime, why a better manure than chalk 302 Lime, the action of 302 Lime, why have farmers entertained prejudices against 309 Lime, why should it not be added to night-soils 318 Liming, why, and in what instance, preferableto paring and burning... 860 Liquid manures, why more econo- mical than dry manures ..., ... 476 Liquid majaures, why best adapted ^ to light soils '^'■'■ Liquid manures, why better than solid 515 Loamy soils, origin of ^°^ Loamy soils, how may they be improved ... ^^^ Magnesia, what is it ^4 Maggots, on thorns or pears, method of destroying - ^^^^ Mangel-wurzel; analysia of 34 Manure, the essential elements to be sought for in 207 Manures, why do they vary in their effects ... "• "• •■• ^^^ Manure, why "should it be placed near the seed 350 Manure of young stock, why less valuable than that of old ... .... 426 Manures, why ought not animal, to be allowed to putrefy in heaps above ground 439 Manures, why do liquid, produce comparatively little benefit on stiff soils 478 Manure, why will the addition of some in a fermentive state pro- mote the decomposition of a heap 453 Manures, why are liquid well "adapted for potted plants ... 927 Manures, general principles for the application of 815 Manuiing garden plants, why should regard be had to the duration of their existence 932 Marshy soils,, origin of 176 Marshy soils, how may they be improved , 177 Meat produced upon a farm, why should it bear a definite proportion to the corngro-\vn 817 Melons, why are British, defective in flavour 1082 Meteorological hiflucnces affecting vegetation 593. Mineral manures, why should they be regarded as among the food of plants 295 Mixtures as distinguished from compounds 12 Moonlight, why supposed to pro- mote putrefaction 722 Moonlight, why said to be cold ... 75S Mountains, why are their slopes hotter than plains 640 Mountainous localities, why more rainy than fiat ones 756 Mushrooms, why do they grow by moonlight 757 Nitrogen,what is it ig Nitrogen, whence do plants obtain it 29 Nitrates, what are they 7s Oats, analysis of ... , 34 Oat-straw, analysis of 34 Oat crops, why do they frequently do weU on heavy land 899 Odours of plants, why do they vary... 996 Organic bodies, why do they under- go decomposition 455 Oxygen, wliat is it ... l-") Oiygen, whence do plants obtain it 25 Palings, hedges, &c., why do they protect vegetation 939 Peas, analysis of 34 Pea-straw, analyse of 34 Peaty soils, origin of 145 Peaty soils, how may they be un- proved 150 Phosphate of lime; whence do plants obtain it 61 Phosphates, what are they 57 Phosphate of lime, what is it ... 58 Pigeon yards, why should they be strewed with mouldy soil 468 Pig dung, why regarded as a cold manure 465 Pig dung, why does it impart a disagreeable flavour to esculents 466 Pigs, why is their urine less valuable than that of cattle ... 525 Pith, what purpose does it serve ... 970 Piping, method of 1064 Plants, why do they grow 1 Plants, whence do they draw their sustenance ... 21 Plants, organic constituents of ... 36 Plants, inorganic constituents of ... 38 Plants, mineral constituents of ... 41 Plants, why when they grow in poor soils, have they large fibrous roots 349 Plants, why are they, and their parts, of different colours ... 628 Plants, how do we know that they possess heat .^ 635 Plants, why called organized bodies 952 Plants, why do their odours vary ... 969 Plants, why should tender, be planted at the back of north or west walls 995 Plants, why are they injured by being watered during sunshine 996 Plants, why is paleness of colour an evidence of weakness 1002 Plants, why cannot those which are inhabitants of shady situation en- dure exposures to the sun 1005 Plants, why are some adapted to flourish upon bare rocks, &c. ... 1010 Ploughing, why should the speed of, hoi'ses be carefully regulated ... 762 Ploughing, should cattle be yoked in pahs or in a line 763 Ploughs, why do wheel, require less force in working than swing ... 772 Ploughs, the best forms of 774 Ploughing, why should it not be done while the land is wet ... 775 Ploughing, why should the direction of the ridges be north and south 776 Ploughing, why is autumnal, most beneficial to adhesive soils ... 777 Ploughing, why are frequent, neces- . sary 778 Ploughing, rules for 779 Ploughing, why is ridging best for some lands, and for others fiat- work V91 Ploughing, why should care be taken not to make the ridges too high ... 793 Ploughing stubbles in autumn, why should it be done with gi-eat care 787 Ploughing, why should the number of horses be as small as possible... 794 . Ploughing in manure from shcep- foldmg, why should it be shallow 798 Ploughing in, why more profitable than feeding off 799 Ploughing in and feeding off, experiments upon 800 Potash, what is it 49 Potash plants 55 Potatoes, analysis of 34 Potatoes, why do early, fail to pro- duce seed ' 1094 Poultry yards, why should they be strewed witii mouldy soil 468 Pruning, implements for 1048 Pruning, what is the object of ... 1043 Radiation of heat 714 Radiation, attempted remedies for... 761 Rain water, why does it posses fertilizing qualities 682 Radiation, as illustrated by various vegetables 944 Rape-dusti why does it constitute a good manure ... .-.. .,. 339 Rape-dust, why not lasting in its effects 340 Rape-dust, why are its effects greatest . upon thin poor soils ... 341 Rape-dust, why most effective when applied to winter-sown wheat ... 342 Rape- dust, why does it succeed upon strong land 644 Rape-dust, why should it not be applied in large quantities at' one time 345 Rape-dust, why is it necessary to supply saluie and earthy matters with 346 Rape-dust, why best applied by the drill 347 Rape-dust, why is there danger in drilling it with seed' 35I Rape-dust, why less efBcacious for turnips than for corn crops ... 362 Roaring in horses, what is its cause 1146 Roots, why should they be permitted to extend in all directions 977 I^oots, why do they extend in pro- portion to the development of the branches 982 Rotation of crops, why does the system supersede fallowing ... 222 Rotations, rules for 253 Rotation of crops, why should rota- tions be determined according to local and climatic infiuences ... 897 Rotation- of crops, why should the system be pursued in gardens as in fields 928 h INDEX, Kje, analysis of ..^ 34 Kye-3traw» analysis of 34 Salts, what are they 74 Salt, whence do plants obtain it ... 92 Salt, why does it act as a fertilizer 324 Salt, why does it improre the action of soot 423 Sands, why are sea heneficial as manure 320 Sandy soils, origin of 106 Sandy soils, how may they be im- proved , ... Ill Sandy soils, why should" they he prepared in autumn for the turnip crop 811 Sap, what is it 005 Sap, what causes the flow of it ... 966 Sap, what is the connection between the supply of the sap and the growth of the plant 967 Sap, what purpose does it fulfil m first ascending,and then descending 966 Sap, why is its quantity dependent upon ttie number of its leaves ... 971 Sap, why are trees filled with it in winter 972 Scale, method of destroying llOd Scarifying stubbles,why should tliis be done immediately after the harvest 802 Screens, why do they protect plants from cold .^. 721 Screens and mats, why should they not come in contact with a plant... 938 Seeds, why do they require the exclusion of hght while tbey , germinate 986' Seeds, why has nature adopted various means for their dispersion 987 Seed-leaves, why should especial care be taken of frost 991 Seeds, why are certain kinds capable of being kept a long time unimpaired ... ... ... ... 1007 Seeds, why do the causes of their germination, under certain cir- cumstances hasten their depth ... 1008 Seeds, germination of 610 Sheep dung, why a more immediate manure than the dung of cattle,.. 470 Shoots, why more readily destroyed when young than when old ... 948 Shyness in horses, what is its cause 1 1 44 Silica, what is it ... 44 Slhca plants 55 Silicates, what are they 78 Slugs, method of destroying 1107 Sn^s destroyed by lime 1121 Snow, why called the poor man's manure 748 Snow, why does it keep the earth warm 752 Soda, what is it 51 Soils, in what respect does nature set the example of preparing ... 96 Soils, why are there various kinds . 99 Soils, why are there two well- defined classes of 199 "Soil, why may its nature be inferred from the plants that grow naturally upon it 212 Soils, why are they allowed to he fallow 221 Soils, principles of manuring ... 260 Soils, their effects upon manures ... 277 Soot, why a valuable manure ... 417 Soot, why variable in quality and effects 420 Soils,why do dark ones become warm sooner than the lighter shades ... 642 Soils, why do dark cool rapidly ... 644 Spiders, method of destroying the red 1108 Spider, method of destroying the red, in hot-houses and green- houses 1111 Spider, another method of destroy- ingthered 1113 Soils, what causes the coldness of retentive 903 SoDs, why are humid little benefited by the heat of summer, 905 Starch, analysis of 33 Stones, why should they be picked from the surface only iu certain cases 907 Stones, why should small, not be picked from sandy soils 902 Strawberries, why should straw be laid upon their beds 1092 Sugar, analysis of 33 Sulphates, what are they CO Sulphates, whence do plants obtain thera 63 Sulphur, why an important element in agriculture 386 Sulphuric acid, why is it superior to muriatic in the preparation of compost 388 Superphosphate of lime, why supe- rior to phosphate 390 Temperatures, varying, why bene- ficial to vegetation 709 Temperature, why is the rise and fall of, a beautiful provision in relation to plants 1012 Tendrils, why do they occur only on the upper parts of vines ... ... 980 Thorn hedges, why should they be carefully trimmed 179 Thrips, method of destroying ... 1108 Transplanting, why shoidd earth be taken away with tlie root 983 Transplanting, what is the object of 1014 Training, why does the manner in which trees are trained, con- siderably affect their produce ... 1050 Trees, why should they be watered on that part of the soil corre- sponding with the ends of their branches lOOl Tull, Jethro, his system of horse- hoeing husbandry g.'SO Turnips, analysis of 34 Turnip seed, why ' should it never be placed in contact with an active manure 364 INDEX. Urine, why one of the most valuable manures when putrid ... » ... 483 Urine, who should it be ft'ee from admixture with solid excrements 484 Urine, why should it be diluted ... 486 Urine of cattle, why has it a yellow colour 487 Urine in siunmer, why better than in winter 488 Urine, why injurious to plants when applied fresh '. 490 Urine, why does it emit a peculiar odour 492 Urine, why does putrefaction modify its e£fects ... - 494 Urine, why does the admixture of water with, increase the quantity of ammoniacal manure 495 Urine, why should it not be left to putrefy for too long a period ... 497 Urine, what are the indications of its fitness for use 499 Urine, strengthened by addition of rape-cake 501 Urine, in what cases may it be used undecomposed 503 Urine, how may its fitness for use be ascertained 506 Urine, \^^hy is it more efficacious on light sandy soils, than on others... 507 Urine, why should it not be laid on soils during a black frost 609 ■Urine of the horse, why less valu- able tlian that of cattle 524 Urine of pigs,- why more caustic than that of cattle 525 Variations in flavour and appearance of fruits, how produced 1069 Varieties of fruits and flowers, how" established 1066 Vegetables, why do they not become green when light is excluded from them 933 Vegetable products, why such a great variety 33 Vegetables struggle for the occupa- tion of the soil 805 Vegetables, what are the relative nutritive qualities of those used as food 1126 Vegetables and animals, what are the relations between them ... 1132 Vegetation, what are the purposes fulflUedby 953 Vines, why do tendrils occur only on their upper parts 980 "Warping, system of 166 Water, why are drops of, frequently found upon the points of leaves ... 973 "Water, why imfit for vegetation when distilled 986 Water of different qualities, ita effect upon animal excretions ... 517 Water, what is the composition of... 674 Water, how does it act as a fertilizer 675 Water, what is meant by the ab- sorption of gaaes by 676 Water, 'why is it an essential food for plants 513 Weeds, enemies to agriculture ... b06 Weeds, what should bo done with them 807 Wlieat, analys's of 34 Wheat-straw, analysis of 34 Wlieat, effect of improved farming upon 900 "Winds, varying, why beneficial to vegetation 708 AVinds, why do dry east, require to be specially guarded against.... ... 994 Wood, analysis of 34 Wood, decomposition of by burning and decay 189 Woollen rags, if capable of fertiliz- ing soils 414 Yoking horses, best method of ... 704 ' So with superior boon may your rich soil, Exuberant, Nature's better blessings pour 0'«r every land, the naked nationa clothe, And be the exhaustless granary of a world."— Thomson. THE GARDENER'S AND FARMER'S REASON WHY. 1^" In a work designed to instruct the Cultivators of the Soil (whose present practical kmwledge must not he despised), and who cannot test new theories without expenditure and risk of labour and capital,— it has ieen deemed advisable to quote the authority for every Theory, Opinion, or Fact. CHEMISTKY OF VEGETATION ; ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES ; VITAL PKOCESSES ; SOILS ; MANURES. 1. W7i;i/ do plants grow?* Because they possess an organization which enables them to incorporate with their own systems ceriBin- elements by which they are surrounded. Air, water, and earth arc obviously elements of nutrition to plants. But " air,'* *^ water," and " earth," are only general terms ; the air consists of gases; water of gases; and earth of various chemicals^ such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, lime, * The reason assigned must always bear relation to ^& principle which the question seeks to illustrate. Thus, if we were demonstrating the power and goodness of the Creator, we should say that plants grow because He has ordained them to beautify the earth, to purify the air, and to serve as food for man and the inferior animals. But, at the point at which we commence, this primary fact is assumed, and we proceed to phow m detail, according to our best knowledge, the means^ by which the Creator works in organic nature. B THE GAEDENER's AND FARMER'S " Clear the troivn pa*h to meet the eoulter's gleam ! Lo! on he comes, behind Ills flmokiag team, With toil's bright dew-drops on his aua-burnt brow. The lord of earth— the Hero of the Plough! sulphur, silica, &c. To comprehend, therefore, " how plants grow,'' we must examine their organization, and study the nature of those substances which constitute their food. 2. Vegefables may be truly said to be limnn systems, in this sense, that they possess the means of converting the elements of common matter into organized structures, botli by assimilation and reproduc- tion ; but we must not suffer ourselves to be deluded by the very extensive application of the word life to conceive, in the life of plants, any power similar to that producing the life of animals. In calling forth the vegetable functions, common physical agents alone seem to operate ; but in the animal system those agents are made subservient to a superior principle. 3. Agricultural chemistry has for its objects all the changes in the arrangements of matter connected with the growth and nourishment of plants; the comparative values of their produce as food; the constitution of soils; the manner in which lands are enriched liy manure, or rendered fertile l>y the different processes of cultivation. Enquiries of such a nature cannot but be interesting and important both to the theoretical agriculturist, a-nd to the practical farmer. To the first, they are necessary in supplying roost of the fundamental principles on which the theory depends. To the second, they are useful in affording simple and easy experiments for directing his labours, and for enabling him to pursue a certain and systematic plan of improvement.* 4. The presence of a growing plant, of the root of a seed, where life is, impresses on the soil, both on the organic and inorganic elements, POWER TO ENTER INTO NEW ARRANGEMENTS. The SOil, then, is not external to the plants ; so far as life is concerned, it is as mttch INTERNAL AS IP THE PiANT HAD A MOUTH AND A STOMACH, TKRODGH, AND INTO WHICH THE SOIL MIGHT BE PED.f 5. What are the principal simple chemicals that influence the growth of vegetables? They are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,. The • Sir Humphry Davy's " Agricultural Chemistry." t T. L. Dana's " Muck Book." KEASON WHY. "First in the field before the reddening sun, Last in the shadow when the day ia done. Line after hne alon;r the burning sod, Marks the hroad acrta where his feet have trod : other substances of plants, it ■will be seen, are compounded of two or more simple elements. 6. There is no reason why the agriculturist should not be as familiar with the names and properties of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, as he is with those of coals, li?nc, and salt. Being familiar with the primary elements, he will the more readily comprehend the functions of vegetailes, and the conditions favourable to their development. Who, without any formal scientific instruction, is not familiar with the names of iron, sulphur, potash, soda, and lime ? No one ; for they are of eveiy-day occurrence. And, who does not know that coal is carbon 1 And who has never heard that oxygen and nitrogen form the air we breathe ; or that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen 1 7. With alumina or alum all are familiar. Silex or silica is but the name of portions of hard stones. Most persons, too, are no strangers to what is called ammonia, which is a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen, is sometimes called sal volatile, and is what gives the sharp smell in the smelling-bottle, or the manure heap. It is the AMMONIA IN MANURE WHICH IS SO EFPICACIOTJS IN AGRICULTURE. And, if the reader is less familiar with the name of chlorine, it is easy to give him some hints of it. This is the substance used in bleaching , cotton goods, and on opening them the smell is very pungent for a long time. And what is still more in point, chlorine united with soda maltes our common salt ; or, if united with ammonia, the product is what is called in the shops sal ammoniac. The circumstance that chlorine is a constituent of common salt, is in itself sufficient to give it an interest in impressing it on the memory of every individual. 8. Chlorine is important also from being used to disinfect the air when impregnated with foul vapours, as in the case of cholera and other diseases. Here, then, is nearly the whole catalogue of these obnoxious terms, save manganese, which is simply a dark-coloured metal, used in the manufacture of glass as well as in agriculture.* 9. Wliat is " an element ? " A body that is constituted of one kind of matter only, is « Rev. J. L. Blalie, D.D. B 2 THE gardener's and farmer's ' still where he trends the stubborn clods divide, Tlie smooth fresh furrows open deep and wide ; Jliitted and dense the tangled turf upheaves, ■ Mellowed and dark the ridgy corn-field cleaves; called an clement. One that is composed of two elements, is a compound. 10. If a body consists of three elements, it is called a ternary compound ; if of four, a quaternary compound. Binary implies two-fold ; ternary, three-fold, and quaternary, four-fold.* 11. Iron, being composed of one kind of matter, is an element; the rust of iron is a compound, being formed of oxygen and iron. Put a little drop of water upon a piece of bright iron ; after a short time, wipe it away, and there will remain a spot of rust. The oxygen of the water, or a part of it, will have combined with portions of the iron, and formed an oxide of iron, a binary compound, or compound of two elements. Water is composed of two elements ; Epsom salts of three ; alum of four, and so on.* 12. We must distinguish between a compound and a mixture. When two substances combine of their own accord, as if self-moved, the result is a compound. If they are only i)ut together by' mechanical force, it is a mixture. In the first case, the properties of the ingredients are entirely changed ; in the last, they remain unaltered. Thus, if you bring chlorine and sodium together, a substance totally unlike either is produced — from two virulent poisons, a wholesome condiment, common salt, is formed : this is a compound. But if you put water with milk, no new substance is formed — the properties of the ingredients remain unaltered ; they are water and milk still, and nothing more : this is a mere 7aixture. 13. What is carbon? Carhon is a chemical element, abounding in. nature, tho * J. a. Kash's " Pro;(rossive Farmer.'* REASON WHY. " Up the steep hill-side, where the labouring train Marks the wide .track that scores the level plain ; Through the moist valley, clogged with oozing clay. The patient-convoy breaks its destined way; most familiar form of which is charcoal. How large a proportion of vegetables consists of this substance may be ascertained by charring a piece of wood. 14. When wood is burnt with a smothered flame, the volatile parts are driven off by heat, and there remains behind a substance exhibiting the exact form, and even the several layers of the original wood. This process is denominated charring , and the substance obtained charcoal. As it is the woody fibre alone which resists the action of heat, while the other parts of the substance are dispersed, it is plain that cliarcoal must be the residuum of woody fibre, and that the quantity of the one, must depend upon the quantity of the other, if they are not to be considered actually the same. Charcoal may be obtained from almost all the parts of plants, whether solid or fluid.* 16. The properties of charcoal are, insolubility in water, of which however, it absorbs a portion when newly made, as also of atmospheric air. It is incapable of putrefaction. It is not altered by the most violent heat that can be applied, if all air and moisture are excluded. But, burnt in air, it combines with the oxygen of the atmosphere forming carbonic acid gasj^ and it is important to bear in mind that this gas is one of the natural constituents of the atmosiihere, by which plants are surrounded. 16. What is oxygen ? Oxygen is an element known only in the state of a gas, or in an air-like condition. It is void of colour, taste, and smell, and therefore cannot be distinguished from common air. It exists in the atmosphere, in water, and in minerals, and is necessary to the life of hoth plants and animals. 17. What is hydrogen? Hydrogen is also known to us only in the state of gas, and when perfectly pure is scarcely distinguishable. from common air, being without colour or taste, and possessing but little * Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture. t D- J. Browne. THE GAEDENEE S AND FAEMEE S "At every turn the loosening chains resonnd, The swinging plough-share glistens in the ground^ Till the wide field one billowy waste appears, And sineAvy hands unbind the panting steers. smell. Although -we can easily obtain it as a gas, it does not usually exist as such) but it combines with all animal and vegetable substances, abounds in water, and is found largely in coal, but is not found in any other of the large mineral masses. 18. What is nitrogen? Nitrogen, also, is known to us only in the form of gas. It is without colour, taste, or smell. It is found most abundantly in the atmosphere; and forpis a part of mant/ animal, and some vegetable substances. 19. Such are the simple elementary bodies of which the organic, or destructible part, of vegetable substances is formed. With one EXCEPTION, they are Tmown to us only in the form of gases ; and yet, out of these gases much of the solid parts of animals and of plants are made up. When alone, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, they form invisible hinds of air ; when united, they constitute those various forms of vegetable matter which it is the aim and end of the art of culture to raise with rapidity, with certainty, and in abundance. ■ How difficult to understand are the intricate processes by which nature works up these i&te materials into her many beautiful productions ; yet hoio interesting it must be to know her ways — hoiD useful even partially to find them out. 20. WJience do plants obtain carbon ? Carbon exists in the atmosphere, in the form of carbonic acid gas ; and in the soil, in the form of humus, or decayed vegetable matter, commonly called vegetable mould. 21. A plant obtains its carbon chiefly from the air, but PAETLY from the " vegetable mould " of the soil. 22. Fitted by nature to draw their sustenance, now from the earth, now from the air, and now from both, according as they can most readily obtain it, plants are capable of living — though rarely a robust REASON WHY. " These are tlie hands whose sturdy labour brings The peasant's food, the golden pomp of kings ; This is the page whose letters shall be seen Changed by the sun to words of living green ; life — at the expense of either. The proportion of food which they actually derive from each source, will depend upon many circumstances ; on the nature of the plant itself; on the period of its growth ; on the soil in which it is planted ; on the abundance of food presented to either extremity; on the warmth and moisture of the climate; on the duration and intensity of the sunshine, and other circumstances of a similar kind ; so that the only general law seems to be, that, like animals, plants have the power of adapting themselves, to a certain extent , to the conditions in which they are placed ; and of supporting life by the aid of such sustenance as may be within their reach.* 23. But it may be affirmed with positive certainty that the carbon of plants is not derived directly from the assimilation of vegetable mould, or humus. The latter acts in the same manner in a. soil permeable to air as in the air itself ; it is a continued source of carbonic acid gas, which it emits very slowly. An atmosphere of this gas suiTounds every particle of decaying humus. The cultivation of land, by tilling and loosening the soil, causes a free and unobstructed access of air. An atmosphere of carbonic acid is therefore contained in every fertile soil, ■ and is the first and most important food for the young plants growing upon it. The carbonic acid gas which surrounds the decaying humus, is absorbed and taken away by the fine fibres of the roots, and by the roots themselves ; this is replaced by atmospheric air, which renews the process of decay, and forms fresh carbonic acid gas. A plant at this time receives its food both by the roots, and by the leaves. ^ 24. The result of numerous experiments establishes, beyond all doubt, the decomposition of carbonic add gas by plants, and the expiration of oxygen. Branches and leaves of various plants were placed under air-tight glasses, in an atmosphere charged with about five or six per cent, of carbonic add. In one case, the jar contained about 600 cubic inches of air, and the plant experimented upon was the common lilac. The first day no great alteration in the air was detected, but on the second day, by eight in the evening, the oxygen had risen to 26'5 per cent. In the morning, it had sunk to 26, but, by two p.m., it had again risen to no less than 29'75, and by sunset it had reached 30 per cent.f * Johnstan's " Lectures on Agricultui-al Chemistry and Geology." t Liabig. t Dr. Daubeny " On the Action of Light upon Plants." 8 THE gardener's AND FAEMEe's *' This ia the scholar whose immortal pen Spells the first lesson hunger taught to men ; These are the lines, Heaven-commanded toil, ^ That mi thy deed— the charter of the soU!"— Dn. Holmes. 25. Whence do plants ohtain oxygen ? The water -which plants imbibe consists in great part of oxygen ; the atmosphere which surrounds them contains twenty-one per cent, of its bulk of oxygen; carhonic acid gas, from which they derive their carbon, consists of seventy-two per cent, by weight of oxygen ; and it enters more or less into the composition of all organic and mineral substances. 26. The amount of oxygen supplied to plants is so large, that it always exists in excess of their toants ; and one of their chief fanctions is to set oxygen free for the use of animals^ in the function of breathing. Ponds and ditches, the bottoms of which are covered with growing plants, o;'teu freeze upon their surface in winter, so that the water is completely excluded from the atmosphere by a clear stratum of ice ; under such circumstances small bubbles of gas are observed to escape continually during the day from points of the leaves and twigs. These bubbles are seen most distinctly when the rays of the sun fall upon the ice ; they are very small at first, but collect under the ice and form larger bubbles. They consist of pure oxygen gas. Neither during the night, nor during the day when the sun does not shine, are they observed to diminish in quantity. The source of the oxygen is the decomposition of carbonie acid gas by the plants beneath the water. They have absorbed the carbon, and appropriated it to their own use, and set the oxygen (or at least a part of it) free.* 27. Whence do plants obtain hydrogen ? Most vegetable structures contain hydrogen in the form of water, which can be separated as such, and replaced by other bodies ; but the hydrogen essential to their constitution caHnot possibly exist in the state of water. All the hydrogen necessary for the formation of an organic compound is supplied to a plant by the decomposition of water. The process, in its most simple form, consists in the extraction of hydrogen from water, in consequence of which, either all or a part of the oxygen, combined with the hydrogen in water, is exhaled.* * Liehig. REASON WHY. " To study God, God's student man was made, To read him as in nature's text conveyed ; And save his miracles, each little flower. And lesser fly, shows his familiar power. "~Sm W. Davenant. 28. This extraction of hydrogen from water may be effected by the leaves^ tissues, and roots of plants. In the form of vapour, water pervades the atmosphere, and plays among the leaves ; while in the liquid state it is diffused through the soil, and is unceasingly drunk in by the roots. In the interior of plants, at least during their growth, this water is continually undergoing decomposition, and it is unquestion- ably the chief source of the hydrogen which enters into the constitution of their several parts. Though there are undoubtedly several other forms of combination in which hydrogen may enter into their circulation, in uncertain quantity, yet all-pervading toater is the main and constant source from which the hydrogen of vegetable substances is derived.'* 29. Whence do plants obtain nitrogen ? Nitrogen forms only a small part of plants ; but it is never entirely absent. It is found in the form of vegetable albumen and gluten, and in the seeds and various juices. There are, therefore, nitrogenised products of plants, and non-nitrogenised. 30. The chief source of the nitrogen of plants is supposed to be ammonia, which is the nitrogen of putrefied animals diffused throughout the atmosphere in the state of a gas. 31. Ammonia, in its gaseous form, is of extreme solubility in water. It cannot, therefore, remain long suspended in the atmosphere, as every shower of rain inust effect its coniJ-cnsation, and convey it to the surface of the earth. Thus, rain-water at ail times contains ammonia, though not always in equal quantity. It must contain more in summer than in spring or in winter, because the intervals of time between the showers in summer and winter are greater ; and, when several wet days occur, the rain of the first must contain more of it than that of the second. The rain of a thunder-storm, after a long-protracted drought, for this reason should contain the greatest quantity conveyed to the earth at any one time. It is worthy of observation that the ammonia contained in rain and snoio toater possesses an offensive smell of perspiration and putre- fying matter ; a fact whiclilbaves no doubt respecting its origin.t This * Johnston. t LieWn. 10 THE gakdeneh's and takmer's "The soil must be renew'd which often washed, Loses its treasure of saluhrioua salts, And disappoints the roots." — Cowpeb. also accounts for the slightly pungent smell of rain water, and especially of vessels in which it has long remained. 31*. The nitrogen which enters into plants has been thought to remain for the greater part within them, and to be gathered in the crop in the form of muscle-producing ingredients. But recent experiments, in the United States of America, by Professor Draper, have shown that plants are constantly giving off nitrogen from their leaves in large quantities into the air ; and it appears probable, that of the nitrogen which enters their roots only u small proportion remains at last in the full-grown plant, compared with what is thus discharged into the atmosphere.* 32. Why is it supposed that plants derive their nitrogen from ammonia ? Because ammonia consists of a loose conbination of nitrogen with hydrogen, and the compound is extremely soluble in water and acids. The facility with which it is resolved into various and opposite forms, seems exactly calculated to enter into the vegetable organization, and to supply the nitrogen which it requires.j 33. Why is there such a great variety of vegetable products ? Because the simple elements of which plants are composed combine in various proportions, foi'ming secretions of different and even opposite properties. Thus : — Starch consists of, Per cent. Carbon 44-0 Hydrogen . 62 Oxygen 498 Gum consists of Per cent. Carbon 46-10 Hydrogen 6'30 Oxygen 48'SO • Johnston. t Dr. Danheny. REASON "WHT. 11 ' The perfumed flowers, with leaflets brighte, The verdaunt grasse, the wavinge come, Doe all returne to that foiil plighte From whence their own sweet Ufc was home. Cane sugar consists of Per cent. Carbon 44-92 Hydrogen 6'11 Oygen • . 48-97 Gluten and vegetable albumen consist of Per cent. Carbon 54-76 Hydrogen 7-06 Oxygen 20-06 Nitrogen 18-12 34. The follo-wlQg Table * shows the proportions of the simple elements, water, and inorganic substances, in various plants : — ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN:— I Name of Plant. % o W 1 1 53 1 Clover-hay . 87-3 3-8 300 2-0 21-0 6-9 Mangel-wurzel S-2 0-8 6-2 0-2 87-8 0-8 Oats .... 40-1 6-1 29-1 1-8 20-8 3-1 Oat-straw 35-7 3-9 27-8 0-3 28-7 3-6 Peas .... 42-5 5-7 36-6 3-8 8-6 2-8 Pea-straw 40-3 4-5 31-4 2-0 11-8 10-1 Potatoes 10-6 1-4 10-8 0-3 75-9 1-0 Kye 39-1 4-8 36-0 1-5 10-6 2-0 Rye-straw . 40-6 4-6 33-0 0-2 18-7 2-9 Turnips .... 3-2 0-4 3-2 0-1 92-5 0-6 Wheat . . . ■ 39-4 5-0 37-1 3-0 14-5 2-0 Wheat-straw . 35-8 3-9 28-8 0-3 26-0 5-2 Wood .... 50-0 5-0 42-0 — ~" 3-0 * Cameron's " Chemistry of Agriculture." •12 THE GAEDENEK'S and rAKilEE'S " The e35ence which -withm them lurkes Doth- helpe another race to be ; Soe ^God in endless circles workes, And thus ordains his alchemic." — Old bis. 35. AH vegetable acids contain carbon, oxtjgen, and hydrogen; and prussic acid contains also a portion of nitrogen. Gallic acid contains the largest proportion of carbon ; and oxalic acid the largest proportion of oxygen. 36. What are the organic constituents of plants? The organic constituents of plants are those which are commonly known as " vegetable substances," or " vegetable productions '' — starch, gum, sugar, gluten, albumen, ^-c. They are the product of plants endowed with life,^ and cannot be produced without the operation of life. This mysterious power influences the elements, and re-combines them in various forms. They are the products of living organs, and therefore termed organic. While they are being formed, the chemical laws affecting them are modified by the living principle ; when that principle ceases — though in some cases it may be retained for a long time, as in the case of a seed — when the plant or seed dies — the substances are operated upon by chemical laws, and undergo various changes. Organic substances are for the most part compounded of four simple elements ; never less than three. The elements which enter so invariably into these organic compounds are called organic elements, as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and the various bodies compounded of these are called organic substances. 37. The old notion — that which prevailed at the close of the. sixteenth century — \^as, that there existed in animals, plants, and soils, one universal, vitalising, and fertilising principle, nanjely, salt; and this miserable and vague theory was upheld by the most learned men of that age. It was thus expressed by the early writers upon agriculture : — " Salt whiteneth all thinges, it preserveth all thinges, it hardeneth all thinges, it giveth savour to all thinges, it is a masticke that gleweth all thinges together, it gathereth and knitteth all minerall matters, and of EEASON WHY. 13 ' Adieu, the city's ceaseless lium, The haunts of sensual life, adieu ; Green fields and silent glens, we come To spend this bright spring day with you." — J. Aidhich. mauie thousand peeces it maketh one masse. This salt giveth sound to all thinges, and without tlie salt no metall will wring his shirle voyce. SaVt maketh men merrie, it whiteneth the flesh, and it giveth beauty to all reasonable creatures, it entertayneth that love and amitie which is between the male and female, through the great vigour and stirring uppe which it provoketh in the engendering members ; it helpeth procreation, it giveth unto creatures their voyce, as also unto metalles. And it is salt that maketh all seedes to flourish and gi-owe, and although the number of men is verie small, which can give any true reason whie dunguo should doe anie good in arable groundes, but are ledde thereto more by custome than anie philosophicall reason, nevertheless it is appaurent that no dungue, which is layde upon barraine groundes, could anie way enrich the same, if it were not for the salt which the straw and hay left behinde them by their putrefaction." * 38. Wliat are the inorganic constituents of plants ? They consist of silica, alumina, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, pJiosphate of lime, common salt, sulphuric acid in tiie form of sulphate of lime, and some other sulphates, &c. Mfvny of the inorganic substances vary according to the soil in wliich the plants grow, but a certain number of them are indispensable to their development. All substances in solution in a soil are absorbed by the roots of plants, exactly as a sponge imbibes a liquid, and all that it contains, without selection. 39. But there are alkaline and earthy phosphates that form invariable constituents of all kinds of grasses, of beans, peas, and lentils.'\ 40. The inorganic substances are generally combinations of TWO elementary bodies. They are wholly mineral ; they are the products ' of the chemical action of the metallic or non-metallic elements of rocks. They existed before plants or animals. * Philp's History of Progress : Art. " Progress of Agriculture." t Liebig. 14 THE gaudenee's ani> faemer's " The work is done, no more to man is ffiven, The grateful farmer trusts the rest to Heaven; Yet oft with anxious heart he looks around And marks the first green hlade that hreaks the ground."— Bloomfield. 41 . When vegetable substances are burnt, there remains behind a portion" commonly called the ash, and this constitutes the inorganic portion of plants. The proportion of ash to the bulk of yegetaWe substance is very small, varying from one to tioelve per cent. The smallness of these proportions has led some persons to the opinion that the mineral or inorganic constituents of plants are merely accidentally present, and are not necessary to their existence. Tliis may be true as far as regards those matters whifth are not always found in plants of the same kind; but when they are invariably present, the smallness of their quantity does not indicate their inutility. The phosphate of lime existing in the animal body does not amount to the fifth part of its weight : yet no one doubts that this salt is necessary for the formation of bones.* 42. It has been generally supposed that these materials act in the vegetable economy in the same manner as condiments or stimulants in the animal economy ; and thus they render the common food more nutritive. It seems, however, a much more probable idea that they are actually a part of the true food ot plants, and that they supply that^ kind of matter to the vegetable fibre which is analogous to the bony matter in animal structures. Thus, those plants which are most benefited by the afiplication of gypsum are those which always afford them upon analysis. Clover, and most of the artificial grasses contain them but they exist in very minute quantity only in barley, wheat, and turnips.f 43. A knowledge of these inorganic constituents, and of the nature and chemical composition of soils, must necessarily regulate the practice of every branch of agi'iculture. Attention must be paid to the kiiid and quality of the crop, and the nature and chemical composition of the soil in which it grows. Are any of the salts of iron present 1 They may be decomposed by lime. Is there an excess of silicious sand ? The system of improvement must depend on the application of clay and calcareous matter. Is there n defect of calcareous matter'! The remedy is obvious. Is an excess of vegetable matter indicated ? It may be removed by liming, paring, and burning. Is there a deficiency of vegetable matter? It is to be supplied by manure.]; • De Saussnre. t Sir H. Davy. REASON WHT. 15 " At th& old farm gate A merry grorap - in high expectance wait — The ha)>'py farmer, and the welcome guest, The city cousin — ^very nicely dressed !" — Batchelder. 44. Wliat is silica ? It is a substance which occurs in nature more frequently and abundantly than any of the other earths. All hard stones -which give out sparks when struck by steel ; the enormous masses- of granite; together with the vast accumulations of sarhd in deserts and in plains, are mainly composed of silica ; and there are few stones that do not contain more or less of this substance. 45. There is scarceh/ a single plant that does not contain it. • Grasses, in particular^ contain large quantities of it ; and it forms the grass-like coating on the straw of wheat. 46. WJiat is alumina ? Alumina is the earth which, next to silica, is found most frequently, and in the greatest abundance in our soils. Clay, into the composition of which alumina always enters, exists in a greater or less degree in every soil, and is also found in extensive strata beneath the surface of the earth. Moreover, alumina forms a constituent part of most stones, and in some it is the principal ingredient. A small quantity of it is found in the ashes of most vegetables. 47. Thi3 earth is of great importance to the agriculturist, in order to enable him duly to appreciate the influence of olay upon his fields, and the improvement or deterioration of the soil which it occasions. Ahirmna appears to have a greater aifflnity for water than any of the other elementary earths. It has a very powerful affinity for the other earths, and in certain cases enters readily into combination with them. It has a very great tendency to unite teith silica. It is in consequence of this affinity that siMca is so often combined with alumina in forming the compound called day. Lime also lias a strong affinity for alumina, which explains the great fusibility of these earths when mixed.* * Thiier's "Principles of Agriculture." 16 THE gardener's AND FAKMEK's "Tis merry, merry in the spring, And merry in the summer time, And merry when the great winds sing. 48. Alumina exercises only an indirect influence on vegetation, by its power of attracting and retaining water and ammonia. It is itself very rarely found in the ashes of plants.* 49. What is potash ? Potash is procured from the ashes of plants, by burning and other processes. The plants which yield the greatest proportion of potash are wormwood and furmitory. Refined potash is called pearlash, and is, in that state, an impure . carbonate of potash, or potash -with carbon. 50. Wood ashes are certainly a valuable manure, and are peculiarly well adapted for gravelly soils and loams. This remark applies to the ashes of almost every description of vegetable land weeds, grasses, peat, and sea weeds. 51. What is soda? Soda is obtained chiefly from two sources, the burning of marine vegetables, such as common sea-weed, which furnishes the alkali called kelp ; and the decomposition of common salt. 52. A material purpose which these carbonates {carbonate of potash and carbonate of soda) are supposed to serve, is that of combining with, and rendering soluble the vegetable matter of the soil, so as to bring it into a state in which it may be readily taken up by the roots. They may in this case be said to prepare the food of plants. This mode of action can be exercised in its fullest extent only where vegetable matter abounds in the soil. They are, therefore, most useful where vegetable matter is plentiful, and ought to be employed more sparingly,' and with some degree of caution, where sueh organic matter is deiiicient. Another mode in which these substances act, more obscurely perhaps, though not less certainly, is by disposing the organic matters contained in the sap of the plant, to form such new combinatidns as may be required for the production of the several parts of the livin" vegetable. t * Liebig. t Johnston's Lectures. KEASON WHY. 17 ' Through Autumn's "woodlands brown — When from the tail trees scatter down Eipe acorns fringed Tvith rime. 53. What is lime? Lime is one of the most abundant substances in nature ; it forms whole mountain chains, and together with other earths and metallic compounds, constitutes a great number of minerals. Il forms a constituent part of all vegetables ; and in animals it forms the principal ingredient of shells and bones. In its chemical constitution, lime is composed of a peculiar metal called calcium, and oxygen. 54. What is magnesia? Magnesia is an earth less abundant than lime. It is never met with pure, but always mixed with other earths, and com- bined with acids. Several minerals contain proportions of it; springs, rivers, the sea, and salt water also contain it. The ashes of most vegetables contain it ; it sometimes forms a very considerable constituent part of the layer of vegetable mould, and of that marl which is best adapted for the purpose of manure. The bran of flour contains a large quantity of ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia. This salt forms large crystalline concretions, often amounting to several pounds in weight, in the cmcum of horses belonging to millers ; and when ammonia is mixed with beer, the same salt separates as a white precipitate. 55. Liebig makes an important division of plants, according to their proportions of these inorganic substances. Thus: potash' plants he defines to be those the ashes of which contain more than half their weight of soluble alkaline salts. Ltme plants, and silica plants, are those in which lime and silica respectively predominate. The ingredients thus indicated, are those which form the distinguishing characteristics of the plants which require an abundant supply of them for their grow*h. i 56. The potash plants include the beet, mangel-wurzel, turnip, maize, &c. The lime plants comprehend clover, beans, peas, tobacco, &c. 18 THE gaedenek's ahd faemee's ' And in the winter ■wild and cold, 'Ti3 merry, merry too ; Tlicn man an^ boy are blitlie and bold; The silica plants indude wheat, oats, rye, and iarUy. The potatoe belongs to the lime plants, as far as regards the ingredients of its leaves, but its tubers (which contain only traces' of lime) belong to the class of potash plants. 57. liVhat are phosphates ? They are salts formed by a, combination of phosphoric acid, with a sabstance or hose, capable of uniting with an acid and forming a neutral salt. The phosphates of principal importance to agriculture are, the phosphates of lijne, of magnesia, potash, soda, alumina, &c. Their composition may generally be illustrated by the phosphate of lime, the difference between it and the others depending upon the base, with which the phosphoric acid combines. 58. What is phosphate of lime ? It is a salt formed by a combination of phosphoric acid, with lime as a base. Phosphoric acid consists of phosphorus and oxygen in a state oi solution ; and aphosphate is phosphoric acid in a state of combination, with a base, forming what is termed a salt. Phosphate of lime constitutes the base of bones of animals, and is therefore an important ingredient in vegetables employed as food. 59. The bones of man, and of animals in general, have their origin from phosphate of lime, which is never absent from fertile land. The bone earth passes from the soil into hay, straw, and other Idnds of food, which are afterwards consumed by animals. Bight pounds of bones contain as much phosphate of lime as one thousand pounds of hay, or of wheat-straw, and twenty pounds of bones, as much phosphoric acid as one thousand pounds of the grain of wheat or oats.* 60. What are sulphates ? Sulphates are salts formed by sulphuric acid in combination • Liebiff. REASON WI-IT. 19 " Then ring* the skate upon the ice ; Then comes the hoar-fi-ost in a trice And evei-ything is new. ■with any hose, as sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda, sulphate of alumina, potash, gypsum, magnesia, &c. Sulphuric acid consists of sulphur and oxygen only, and is known as the oil of vitriol of commerce. In its pure state, it is an exceedingly sour and corrosive liquid, destroying both animal and vegetable structures ; but, combined -with potash, soda, lime, magnesia, &c., it contributes in certain instances to the fertility of the soil. It is rarely me,t with in nature in an uncombined state. 61. Whence do plants obtain phosphate of lime ? Phosphate of lime is found in natural soils, as are other phosphates, such as the phosphate of alumina, ammonia, magnesia, &c. The phosphate of lime is added to soils by the decay of vegetable and animal matter, and especially by bones and shells. 62. When alkaline or earthy phosphates are wanting in the soil, or when they are not introduced in the form of manure, the seeds are not developed. We may draw this conclusion, that the development of plants, and the amount of the constituents of the blood they contain, are directly proportionate to the quantity of phosphates supplied to and taken up by them. Phosphates, so necessary to the formation of the blood, and to all animal life, are no less essential to the existence and to the propagation of all vegetable beings.* 63. Whence do plants obtain sulphates ? As far as our present knowledge extends, they receive their sulphur from the sulphates dissolved in the water absorbed by their roots from the soil. The water of springs is entirely • Liehig. 20 THE gardener's AND PARMER'S * When first leaves cluster on the trees, And spring flowers star the ground ; And birds come o'er the Southern seas, derived from the ram which falls upon the surface of the earth ; the water, percolating through the earth, dissolves all soluhle materials which it may meet in its course. The substances thus dissolved communicate to the water properties which are not possessed ly pure water. Thus rain precipitates the ammonia suspended in the air, and presents it to the roots of plants ; at the same time that it presents sulphur, in some comhined form, which it has met with in percolating the earth. 64. What are alkalies ? " Alkali " is a general term. It includes all those substances which have an action like the ley of wood ashes, which is used for soap making. If this ley is boiled down dry, it forms potash, as all know. Now lime, fresh slaked, has the alkaline properties of potash, but weaker, and so has the calcined magnesia of the shops, but in a less degree than lime. Here we have two substances, earthy in their look, having alkaline properties. They are called, therefore, ALKALINE EARTHS. 65. But what we understand chiefly by the term alkalies, means potash, soda, and ammonia. Potash is the alkali of land plants ; soda is the alkali of sea plants ; and AMMONIA is the alkali of animal substances. 66. Potash and soda are Jixed ; that is, not easily raised in, vapour by fire. Ammonia always exists as vapoui; unless fixed by something else. Hence there is a distinction among alkalies which is easily remembered. 67. This distinction is founded on the source from which they are procured, and upon their nature when heated. Potash is a VEGETABLE alkali, derived from land plants ; soda is a REASON WHY. 21 ' And build their nests, and sing aloud ; And insects, a fiay and shining crowd, Glitter, and hum around. VEGETABLE alkali, derived from sea plants ; ammonia is animal alkali, derived from animal substances. Potash and soda are fixed alkalies ; ammonia is a volatile alkali. 68. Potash makes soft soap, witli grease, and soda forms hard soap. Ammonia forms neither hard nor soft ; it makes, with oil, a Icind of ointment, used to rub a sore throat with, under the name of volatile liniment. But though there be three alkalies, and two alkaline earths, it should on no account bo forgotten, that they all have common properties, called alkaline, and which will enable a person to understand their action, without anything being said about their chemistiy.* 69. The ■property of alkalies to he especially home in mind ill connection with agriculture is — i^* their great tendency to combine with acids, and form, hy that cdmhination, what are called neutral salts. 70. WJiat are acids ? Acids constitute, a numerous class of chemical bodies. They occur in all the kingdoms of nature. Phosphoric acid, found in bones, is of animal origin ; citric (lemon) acid and oxalic (sorrel) acid are of vegetable origin ; carbonic acid and sulphuric acid are very common in mineral bodies, and are produced by breathing, burning, decomposition, &c. 71. As the word acid is, in common language, almost synonymous with sour, it might be supposed that the taste of a substance would determine whether it was included among the acids. The term has, however, been much extended by chemists beyond its original meaning, and includes bodies which are nearly, or quite, devoid' of sourness, but are classed as acids because they agree with them in some other qualities. The acids are generally sour, but not universally. t^ * Rev. J. Blake, D.D. t Penny Encyclopajdia. 22 THE gaedenee's and farmee's ' When Winter comes, and lieasts and men Retreatiog from the field, Seek fire-lit house and winter den ; 73. We have said that acids, as well as being found in the bodies of animals and plants, by living processes, are produced by burning, &c. Let us illustrate their production by burning, because this wiU, to a great extent, assist the explanation of the other operations. Take a lucifer match, and ignite it by friction ; this sets the sulphur burning. Now, the gas arising from the burning consists of the sulphur and phosphorus united to the oxygen of the air. This compound forms two acids, sulphuric and phosphoric. Then the wood burns, and its carbon, uniting also with oxygen from the air, forms carbonic acid. Thus no less than three acids, of peculiar, distinct, and important properties, are formed while burning a lucifer match.* 73. The fact to be especially remembered with regard to acids, is the converse of that with regard to alkalies. — i^ All acids unite or combine with the alkalies and alkaline earths, forming neutral salts ; and acids also combine with the metals. Thus they are actively and constantly engaged in the vegetative processes, and possess great powers of combination. 74. What are salts ? Salts are all combinations of acids with alkalies, or, as they are called, alkaline bases. In their properties salts differ as widely as possible ; some are crystaUizable, others not so ; some are colourless, others of various colours ; some excite taste, others are insipid ; some are soluble, others insoluble ; some are volatUe, others fixed. 75. The term salt is of wide and various application. But, in relation to the subject under consideration, the common salt, used as a seasoner and preserver of food, is a good example. This is the chloride of sodium, formed when chlorine and sodium, or hydrochloric acid and soda, come together. 76. Sodium is a soft metal of a silver-white colour, and light enough * Key. J. Blake, D.D. KEASON ^Y■SY. 23 " In town or country stOl the same, God's love all living things proclaim, Their good all seasons yield. to float upon water. In the metallic state it is not known to occur in nature, and, therefore, does not directly act upon vegetation. With chlorine, it forms the chloride of sodium (common salt), and in this form it is more or less beneficial to vegetation. With oxygen it forms soda ; with sulphur, the sulphuret of sodium ; and these salts are likewise variously beneficial to plants.* 77. Saltpetre is a salt. It is potash united to aquafortis. These have united, and their characters are neutralized by each other, so that in saltpetre one will not perceive either potash or aquafortis. They have formed a neutral salt.t 78. What are " carbonates," " Morides," " nitrates," " silicates," ^c, frequently named in agriculture ? These are some of the salts formed by the mutual action of ACIDS and ALKALIES, or, in spme cases, metals, already described. 79. Thus : the carbonates (carbonic acid) of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, manganese. Chlorides (chloric acid) o? potash, soda, lime, manganese, silver, zinc, &c. Citrates (citric acid) of potash and lime. HuMATES (the humic acid of soils) of lime, &c. Nitrates (nitric acid) of potash, soda, lime, ammonia, viagnesia, &c. Phosphates (acid of phosphorus) of alumina, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, &c. Silicates (acid of silica) of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, &c. Sulphates (sulphuric acid) of ammonia, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, iron, copper, manganese, &c. » Johnston's Lectures. t Rev. J. Blake, D.D. 24 THE gardener's akd parmek's '• Therefofe, for us let seasons change ; Let the Sim shine, or tempests rage ; Through street or forest still we'll range, 80. Thus it will be seen that the same acid with AJTOTHER BASE formS a DIFFERENT KIND of SALT. 81. 1^ Many of these acids, alkalies, and salts, form essential constituents of animal and vegetable bodies, soils, and manures ; and the changes and combinations which they undergo are intimately connected with the development of animal and vegetable life, and the growth of animal and vegetable forms. 82. WJiat are bases. The term base implies the leading constituent of a compound. Thus, in the compound " carbonate of lime," the latter is the alkaline earthy base. 83. Every one is acquainted witli the general properties of that group of substances which bears the name of acids. The term base is perhaps, not so universally .understood. We designate compounds possessing the power of combining mth acids and neutralizing their acid properties, by the word bases. A compound of an acid mth a bcise is denominated a salt (this name has no referehce to the taste). Now, in these compounds — in salts — one base may be made to replace another base, one acid another acid.* 84. Carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and sulphates, are necessary for the existence of plants, because they contain the elements of which their organs are formed. But, other substances are requisite for the formation of certain organs destined for special functions peculiar to each family of plants. 85. Most plants, perhaps all of them, contain organic acids of very different composition and properties, all of which are in combination with bases, such as potash, soda, lime, or magnesia ; plants containing free organic acids are few in number. The bases evidently regulate the formation of the acids for the diminution of the one is followed by a decrease of the other : thus in the grape, for example, the quantity of acid contained in its juice is less when it is ripe, than when unripe ■ and the bases, under the same circumstances, are found to vary in a * Liebig. REASON WHY. 25 "And find Ood present in each spot; His guiding hand in, every lot; His grace from age to age!" — "W. Howitt, similar manner. Such constituents exist in the smallest quantity in those parts of a plant in which the process of assimilation is most active, as in the mass of woody fibre; and their quantity is greatest in those organs wliose office it is to prepare substances conveyed to them for assimilation by other parts. The leaves contain more inorganic matters than the stem.* 86. It is most important to bear in mind that any ONE of the many alkaline BASES MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER, THE ACTION OP ALL BEING THE SAME. 87. The law that one base may be substituted for another is of the highest practical value. This will be perceived, when it is considered, that if a soil, containing originally all the elements essential to a crop, becomes exhausted of one, yet another may be substituted; which, combining with the organic acid of the plant, enables it to perform and perfect all its functions; potash, soda, magnesia, &c., may, in certain circumstances, supply the place of lime.* When roots find their more appropriate base in sufiicient quantity, they will take up less of another. t 88. The hase of all salts acts ever the same in agriculture. Peculiarity of action depends upon the acid of the salt. This is the great practical principle of agricultural chemistry. It opens veins, rich in results, more precious than mines of gold.f 89. It is NOT EsrowN in what porm manganese and oxide of iron, are contained in plants ; but we are certain that potash, soda, and magnesia can be extracted, by means of water, from all parts of their structure, in the form of salts and organic acids. The same is the case with lime, in many instances. The existence of vegetable alkalies, in combination with organic acids, gives great weight to the opinion that alkaline bases in general are connected with the development of plants. 90. The ashes of the toiacco plant, of the vine, oipeag, and of clover contain a large quantity of lime. Such plants do not flourish on soils » LieWg. t Dr. S L. Dana. 26 THE GAEDENEE'S AND TAEMEE S *• Welcome, ye plump green meads, Ye streams ancl sighing reeds; Welcome, ye corn-flelds, waving lite a sea !"— Charles Mackat. devoid of lime. By the addition of salts of lime to such soils, they become fitted for the growth of these plants ; for we have every reason to beliere that their development especially depends xcpon the presence of lime. The presence of magnesia is equally essential, there being many plants, such as the different varieties of leet and potatoes, from which it is kever absent.* 91. The -whole argument suggests, that by the analysis of plants we may arrive at a knowledge of their peculiar wants, and by the chemical examination of soils and manures, we may take care that those wants are supplied. 92. Whence do plants obtain their principal salt? It has been proved, that with the evaporation of salt water, salt becomes volatilized and dispersed. When sea storms occur, the leaves of plants in the direction of the wind are covered with crystals of salt, even to a distance inland of from twenty to thirty miles. 93'. But it does not require a stoiin to cause the volatilization of the salt, for the air hanging over the sea always contains this substance, and every breeze must carry it away. Now as thousands (millions) of tons of sea water annually evaporate into the atmosphere, a corresponding quantity of the salts dissolved in it, viz., common salt, chloride of potassium, magnesia, and the remaining constituents of sea water, will be conveyed by the wind to the land. 94. By the continual evaporation of the sea, its salts are spread over the whole surface of the earth ; and being subsequently carried down by the rain, furnish to vegetation those salts necessary to its existence. This is the origin of the salts found in the ashes of plants, in those cases ivhere the soil could not have yielded it to them.* * Liebig. EKASOIT WHT. 27 ' Thus shines the present, safe from war's alarms — You till in peace your old ancestral farms 5 Blithe with the spring the busy task begin, And feast at autumn, when the harvest's in."— Batchelder. 96. By the foregoing explanations, the substances to be found in plants — which is the same to be found in manures and soils on which plants grow — are reduced from things not known, to things that are known. In this way, persons may feel familiarised with them without a deep acquaintance with chemieal science. And it will be seen that in a multitude of cases the practical cultivators of the soil may understand the PKiNCiPLES of the science, although ignorant of the precise terms which represent and explain these principles. Thus the housewife proceeds in making bread on scientific principles, although she never saw a booh on chemistry, or learned the meaning of a scientific term.* 96. In what respects does nature present to man the example of preparing soils ? • By the gradual processes by whicli she herself prepares the, surface of the earth, in certain instances, for the reception of the higher orders of plants. 97. What is the common action of nature upon a bare rock which is protruded in any way ? You first have some lichens growing over the surface of the rock. These plants have the power, without the aid of anything jroin the soil except the mineral ingredients, of attracting substances from the air. After generations of these have grown and died, mosses take their place, and grow upon the remains of a Mnd of mould which has been made by the decay of the lichens. After the 7noss has grown for some years, you will find different kinds of natural grasses. These are succeeded by- others, until at last you have upon what was originally a bare rock, a soil formed naturally, in which trees can and do grow, from seeds naturally sown in it. 98. Take, for example, the lavas ejected from Vesuvius, iEtna, and other volcanoes. These lavas, which have been molten and red hot, of course contain no vegetable matter. They have not been long cooled before the wild fig-tree and other plants, sending their rootlets into the interstices, spring up and produce abundance of woody matter, which must evidently have been obtained from the air, as it did not exist in the soil. It is clear, then, that there is something in the air which • Rev. J. Blake, D.D. 28 THE gaedenee's and faemek's " Where vetches, pulse and tares, have stood, And stalks of lupine grew (a stubborn wood), The ensuing season in return may bear The bearded product of the golden year."— Dbtden's Vihgii.. these plants have the power of obtaining ; and it is this which enables nature to clothe the surf ace of different roclis, with plants of various kinds, so as to present, even when man does not come on the stage at all, a fine scene of foliage wherever moistur» and water, and other elements of vegetation can be found.* 99. Whi/ are there various hinds of soils, possessirig different degrees of productiveness ? The differences- of soils are, to a very great extent, explained by the geological characteristics of the localities ill which they exist. Any one who has observed the appearance of large rocky masses, the clefts and crevices they present, the bare surface of their smoother and harder parts ; the growth of mosses and smaller plants on the more softened portions ; the accumulations of gravel, smaller fragments of' minerals, and fine mud, with their luxuriant vegetation at the foot of these rocks, and in the valleys of mountainous districts, must be aware of the importance of 'these ever-continuing operations in nature. 100. Thus, soils oi-iginate in the disintegration and decomposition of solid rocks in their immediate neigh- bourhood, especially of those which occupy the eminences. But as rocks differ much in their composition, the soils which are formed on their degradation must necessarily present, in many cases, great differences equally with the rocks themselves. 101. But, in other instances, the nature of the soils in a given locality, partakes nothing of the character of the rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, nor even of those upon which they rest. The first class of soils to which we have referred, are those which may be said to arise from • Hcsbit'3 "Agricultural Chemistry." REASON WHY. * All things have aomethinff more than barren use : There is a scent upon the briar A tremulous splendour in the autumn dews. Cold morns are fringed with fire." — Alex. SinxH, " mecJianical causes;" the others, the origin of which is more difficult of explanation, arise from " chemical causes," and in the production of others, both tliese causes ai-e combined.* 102. Among the mechanical causes which operate iu the disintegra- tion of rocks may be mentioned the action of winds, rains, streams of water, and the tendency of all bodies when moved in elevated situations to gravitate towards the centre of the earth. 103. Among the chemical causes, are the action of the gases of the atmosphere upon mineral surfaces; the action of the sun's rays; and of tlie fermentive processes wherever accumulations of organic substances take place. To these causes may be added the action of living beings upon all classes of substances. 104. All rocks, and indeed almost all mineral substances, have a greater or less tendency to combine with the oxygen of the atmosphere, especially when under favourable circumstances of heat and moisture, and probably also of electricity and light. Carbonic acid and water, also, are absorbed by rocks in considerable quantity ; and the effect of —.SB combinations, whether chemical or mechanical, is to loosen the cohesion between the parllcles of stone, and induce u tendency to disintegration. This separation of the parts is very much accelerated by those sudden expansions and contractions which are occasioned by changes of temperature, and especially during frost, when the imbibed moisture is converted into ice. This slow and silent work of waste is unremittingly going on wherever rocks are exposed to the weather. No i-pecics of stone is exempt ; and even granite, which in general is so little subject to change as to be proverbially a symbol of endurance, and is selected for our bridges and other great works of architecture, under peculiar circumstances of constitution and exposure, is remarkably disposed to this process of crumbling. The granite of some parts of Finland is so liable to decomposition, that masses of it may be cut down and shaped in the same manner as a hay-rick. 105. To devise an arrangement of soils, at once comprehensive and distinct, is no easy task. The distinctions ought to be simple and nbvious, without regard to minute differences, which may be of no * Iforcton's "Cyclopaadia oi Acriculture." 30 THE CAEDEKEEfS AND FAEMEE's ' The grist-mill stands beside the stream, "With bending roof and leaning wall; So old, that when the winds are wild, The miller trembles lest it fall."— Stodhaed. material importance. For practicai. purposes, soils may be classed under the following general heads: — Sand, Grayel, Clay, Chalk, Peat, Alluvial, Marsh, and Loam, or that species of artificial soil into which the others are generally brought by the effects of manure, and of earthy applications in the course of cultivation.* 106. What is the origin of sandy soils ? Most sands, whether on the surface of the ground, or in strata at a certain depth ; whether forming the beds of rivers, or the shores of the sea, are the fragments of disintegrated rocks, and are red, white, grey, or black, according to the rocks from which they were derived. The grains of sand are, for the most part, composed of silica, and soils containing it are called silicious. 107. Sand is probably formed for the most part of quartz, as it does not differ materially from that mineral in its chemical composition. Immense floods of water, the action of the atmosphere, and probably also that of fire and other agents, have reduced quartz to fragments which hare subsequently acquired a rounded form by rubbing against each other, in consequence of the motion communicated to them by air and water. 108. River sand is deposited by the waters of springs and rivers. 109. Pearl sand, having lain imprisoned in the earth, is larger than ordinary sand ; it is frequently found below the surface, and is sometimes washed up, and deposited by springs of water. 110. Bloving sand — which is frequently heaped up in valleys by currents of air and water — is generally mixed with various hetero- geneous matters, with which it becomes associated by shifting j it generally carries with it alumina, lime, ^c. 111. How may sandy soils he improved? By a mixture of clay, marl, or warp (the sediment' of navigable rivers), sea-ooze, sea-shells, peat, or vegetable earth. It frequently happens, that under the sand itself, or in * Sir John Sinclair's " Code of Agricultnre." EEASON ^YB.Y. 31 ' From the moist meadow to the wethered hill, Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs- And swells, and deepens to tile cherislied eye.'* — Thomson. its immediate neighbourhood, the materials may he found which are requisite for its improvement. Even light sandy soils may- be rendered retentive of moisture and manure, when mixed with the subsoil, or ameliorated by admixture with other soils. 112. In the management of sandy soils, three rules are to be observed : — 1. Never to pick off any small stones that may be found in them, as they answer many valuable purposes : they shelter the young plant in bad weather ; they preserve moisture, and prevent the crops from being burnt up by scorching heats; they hinder the evaporation of the enriching juices ; and, by these means, greatly assist the progress of vegetation. 2. Frequently to renovate the strength of such soils, by laying them down with grass-seeds, and pasturing them for a few years, as they are apt to be exhausted by ploughing, if corn crops are too frequently repeated ; and — 3. Wien farm-yard dung is applied to this description of soil, always to give it in a state of compost, with a viev/ of adding to the tenacity of the soil, and of preventing the manure from being dissipated in a dry season, or washed down by rain.* 113. Example of Improvement. — The north and west of the county of Norfolk forms an immense sandy plain of 750,0P0 acres, where there is no obstacle to large property and large farming, and where every- thing favours horse-tillage, cultivation of roots, the use of machines — in one word, the four-course rotation. By means of this, system, steadily pursued for sixty years, these inferior lands, producing scarcely Ss. per acre in 1780, now return on an average 25s. per acre, or five times their former net production, and the gross production has risen in at least an equal proportion. 114. A large part of the credit due to this wonderful transformation, belongs to an extensive proprietor in the county, Mr. Coke, who, in acknowledgment of his services to agricultm'6, was created Earl of Leicester. He died a few years ago, at an age not far short of a hundred. Mr. Coke had a large property in the west of the county, called Holkham, containing about thirty thousand acres. This immense estate, which is now worth at least £1,200,000, was worth at most £300,000 in 1776, when Mr. Coke inherited it. It was then in the * Sir John Sinclair. 32 THE gabdenek's and taemee's " Each morning now the weedera meet To cut the thistle from the wheat, Ajid ruin in the sunny hours Full many a wild weed with its flowers." — Clake. occupation of a great number of small farmers, who paid their rents with difficulty, although these were very low ; and ultimately a great many of them abandoned their farms altogether, because they could not make a living out of them. It was then that Mr. Coke decided upon farming a portion of these sandy wastes himself; the rest he put into yery large farms, and, by offering leases of twenty-one years, held out an inducement to farmers of intelligence and capital to take them. The farm which Lord Leicester personally directed lies in the park belonging to the mansion. Its extent is 1800 acres, 500 of which are permanent pasture ; the rest is arable, laid out exactly for the four-course rotation. The farm maintains 250 large cattle, 2,500 sheep, and 150 pigs.* 115. What is the origm of gravelly soils? Gravel is a description of sand, but consisting of larger particles of disintegrated rocks, distributed over the face of tlie earth, chiefly by the action of water. Gravel, having been dispersed by a more powerful agency than that which caused the distribution of sand, differs more widely in Il_ qualities, because of its fi-equent admixture with various substances, organic remains in a fossil state, and especially clay, loam, Jlints, iron-stones, &c. Hence there are rich gravels, poor gravels, hungry gravels, sharp gravels, ^e. 116. Sands will frequently be found to be the production of flat countries, gravels of the mountainous and rocky. The characteristic of gravelly soils, is the quantity of loose stones which they contain. These stones will be found to consist of those varieties of rocks which the mountains of the country afford ; and the nature of those rocks will frequently indicate the characters of the soil ; thus, soils of which the stony matter is silicious, are generally found to be barren, while those of which it is calcai-eous, are found to be fertile.f » Laverme's "Rural Economy of England." \ Lowe's " Practical Agriculture." REASON WHY. 33 ' Seed well prepar'd and warm'd with glowing lime, 'Gainst earth-bred grubs, and cold, and lapse of time ; For searching frost and Tarious ills invade, "Whilst wintry months depress the springing blade." — Bloomfield. 117. How may gravelly soils be improved P By draining, if they are troubled with springs, which is frequently the case ; by ploughing rather deep ; by mixing them with large quantities of clay, chalk, marl, peat, or other earth ; by fi-equent returns of grass crops ; by repeated applications of manure ; and by irrigation, more especially if the water be full of sediment and judiciously applied.* 118. The materials to be added to gravelly soils of a. calcareous nature, to increase their fertility, are clay and clay loam. A mixture of carbonate of lime or chalk with clay, has also appeared beneficial to such soils. Chalk is particularly recommended for those kinds of gravelly soil which contiguity to springs is apt to render moist in the winter season. The application of chalk is stated as having a powerful effect, not only in counteracting the redundant moisture, but in correcting the tendency to become parched in the summer — an evil to which most gravels are in some degree liable, and which is often so injurious to the crop. 119. The defect of vegetable and animal matters is to be supplied by means of dung from the farm, in its reduced state ; and much benefit is derived from other animal matters, prepared in the form of composts, with good loamy mould, ashes, clay, depositions of rivers and ponds, with other substances of a similar nature. The proper alternation of green vegetable, and other crops, also contributes greatly to improve the fertility of such lands. t 120. WTiat is the origin of clayey soils ? Clay is a mixed natural earth, very widely distributed. It consists of a large proportion of alumina, united to silica, of various degrees of fineness, and frequently also a portion of carbonate of lime. 121. The formation of clay deposits took place, according to geological theory, in consequence of the degradation ai)d * Sir John Sinclair. t Encyclop. Edinensis : Art. " Agricttlture." C 34 THE gardener's AJfD FAEJIEe's * Hotir after faour^ and day to day aucceeds; Till every clod and deep-darawn farrow spreads To crumbling mould, a levelled surface clear, And s*rew'd with com to crown the rising year.' ■waste of certain portions of the globe, followed by a removal of. the materials to localities of comparative tranquillity. In the formation of clayey deposits both chemical and mechanical agencies were exerted. 122. Th« Tmchanical agency operated in the disintegration of solid parts, and the removal of the fragments ; and the chemical agency operated in the uniting of alumina, silica, &c., into a compact earth. 123. A clay soil is distinguished above every other for its tenacity. It is principally composed of particles of matter, many of them so small, that when separated from each other, they are imperceptible to the touch, and will easily float in water ; yet these minute jDarticles form, a soil, that is far more tenacious than any other species of earth. 124. Clay always contains iron, in a higher or lower degree of oxidation ; and it is probable that this metal constitutes an essential part of it. 125. Sow may clayey soils be improved ? By a suitable admixture of other soils to ameliorate its texture, such as common sand, sea sand, and above aR'lime- stone gravel. Peat moss, which has for some time been dug up and exposed to the action of the atmosphere, may be used with advantage. It is likewise necessary, in the course of its cultivation, to enrich it with putrid and calcareous manures ; and it may be much improved by having a considerable quantity of ashes mixed with its putrescent manures. Burning part of the clay, to be afterwards incorporated with the soil, to render it more friable, has likewise been attended, in some instances; with advantage, more especially if there is any marf in its composition. KEASON WHY. 35 '• Ye happy ilelds, unknown to noise nncl stiife, The kind rewarders of industrious life."— Gay. 126. Example of Improvement. — Were I to fix on the land which, in my opinion, "would be most benefited by the plough, and which, under a, jiroper cultivation, would probably produce almost as good crops of wheat as the very best laud, it would be a cold soil on stiiF blue clay. Land of this quality, while under grass, is never of much value, either to the owner or the occupier, and is of little or no use to the community, as the food produced on it is very inconsiderable indeed. On breaking it up and managing it in a husband-like manner, a new order of things arises j from being the abode of poverty, it becomes the source of plenty, and repays the cultivator tenfold for his expense and trouble. 127. Having, some years since, entered upon a farm of this nature, which I flatter myself is considerably improved, I shall presume to submit my mode of management. 128. As the land was extremely poor and wet, my first object was to lay it dry ; and having ascertained the cause, I drained it, either by tapping, or by hollow draining it up each furrow, at the distance of from seven to ten yards, as the nature of the case required ; but it must not be concealed that hollow draining in soils of this nature is generally the most requisite. \ 129. Draining I consider to be absolutely necessary, if any permanent improvement is intended, as nothing so amply repays the expense ; for it not only prevents the rot in sheep when fed, but the manure lasts longer, it requires less seed, bears considerably better craps, which are ripe by more than a fortnight sooner than those which grow on lands not drained ; and, as a still greater advantage, two horses will be sufficient to work it, where three were before required. 130. The land being thus prepared at my own charge, I broke up a part of it, and sowed it with oats ; the remainder 1 floated and burnt. In doing this, I took particular care to pare as thin as possible ; and as black ashes are highly advantageous, from the quantity of salts they contain, I took particular care to burn the turf in very gentle fires, in order that tlie salts might not evaporate, which would have happened, had the turf been burnt to a brickish red. These ashes I spread upon the land, and then ploughed it and sowed it with turnips : I was, however, cautious to plough thin, in order that the turnips might have the benefit of the ashes. C 2 36 HIE gardener's and farmer's " Ye generoifs Britons, venerate the plough, And o'er your hills and long withdrawing vales Let Autumn spread his treasures to the sun, Luxuriant and unbounded!" — Thomson, 131. This plan, I believe, is not common, for it is usual after burning to sow with wheat, but I give the preference to a turnip crop, from the great improveraentwhich the land receives by eating them off with sheep. And here I must remark, that having hollow-drained the land, I found it as well adapted for feeding sheep as the lightest soil, and have no doubt but that clay land, if drained, would invariably be well adapted for the purpose. 132. My next crop was barley laid down with clover, fourteen pounds per acre ; this I fed the summer following with sheep, which should always be done, for mowing the clover certainly tends to impoverish the ground. In the autumn I again broke up the land, ploughing in a good quantity of clover, and sowed it with wheat. When this was harvested, and Candlemas arrived, I fallowed the land ; and as soon as the spring seed time was over, I spread irom seventeen to twenty tons of manure a year old, (for I find new manure to retain the wet so much, that it is disadvantageous to wet soils) per acre ; I then ploughed it in, used a scuffle, and worked the land ,till quite clean — being of opinion that a scuffle, from its mixing the manure with the soil, as well as from its increasing the quantity of soil, is better adapted at this period for the purpose than a plough. I afterwards, at >• proper time, ploughed and sowed with turnips, and eat them off with sheep as before, m^aking it a point to clear the land before Candlemas, which gives the soil an opportunity to be lightened by the frosts, and produces a better crop of corn afterwards. 133. Having now brought the land into such a state, that it is either fit to be continued under the plough, or to be laid down considerably improved ; if the former is resolved on, I sow with barley and clover, and follow with wheat and turnips, as before described ; but if I wish to lay it down, I sow it with barley and the following seeds : nine pounds of white clover ; five pounds of red clover ; three pounds of trefoil; one gallon of rye grass; and on every account recommend the land to be fed for some time with sheep before it is mown. 134. Having thus stated my course of husbandry, I must add, that at the time I entered upon the land, it was not worth more than 10s. per acre ; whereas, I now pay £1 for it, notwithstanding I have been at the ■ sole expense of improving it ; and that as grazing land, it did not produce per acre, at most, more than fifty pounds of human food ; REASON WHY. 37 " Go mark the matchless working of the Power That sluits within the seed tlie future flower, Bids these in elegance of form excel; In colour these ; and those delight the smell." — Coi^ter. whereas, it now produces five hundred pounds of solid food, deducting five hundred pounds as offal, on an average of four years, per acre.* 135. What is the origin of chalky soils? Chalky soils, like those of clay, are referrible to geological agencies in the early history of the earth. Lime, magnesia, &c., being dissolved, or disintegrated by, the action of water, were spread over vast surfaces, and afterwards precipitated, forming chalky strata. 136. We find similar processes in operation at the present time, in the production of chalky marls, and irregular accumulations of limestone in lakes, and at the mouths of some rivers. f 137. The chalk foimation extends over the south-eastern and eastern counties of England, the north of France, Germany, and the north of Europe. The chalk strata vary from a thousand feet in depth to a few feet only. Chalk is characterized by containing certain fossils, and especially by containing flints. 138. How may chalky soils he improved? Either by the application of clayey and sandy loams, or pure clay marl, the use of great quantities of peat, or of water-fed earth. A chalk stratum probably will be found to lie upon a thick bed of blue or tenacious marl, of a rich quality, which ought to be dug up and mixed with the chalk, to cure its defects as well as to enrich it. 189. A chalky soil that has been in tillage, permits water to pass through it so freely in winter, and is so pervious to the sun's rays in * Gommunication by Mr. John Bourdon, of Eotherhy, Leicestershire, to the Board of Agriculture. t See the "Geological Reason Why." 38 ^ THE gaedenee's and faemer's " Earth fiUa her lap with pleasures of her own, Yearninga she hath in lier own natural Idnd, And even sometliing of a mother's mind." — Woiidsworth. summer, that it is the work of an age to make it a good pasture of natural grasses, more especially when the chalk lies near the surfeee. Hence, in certain Instances, several thousands of acres of this soil, though not ploughed for thirty years, have scarcely any grass of tolerahle quality upon them, and are literally worth nothing. Such soils ought to be cultivated, as a preparation for sainfoin, in the following manner : 1st year. Pare and burn for turnips, to be eaten on the land by sheep, with the aid of some fodder ; 2nd, Barley to be sown very early with doverseedi 8rd, Clover, eaten oif by sheep ; 4th, Wheat; 5th, Turnips, with manure; and 6th, Barley, with sainfoin. The corn crops must be carefully weeded, and in particular, cleared of charlock.* 140. Example of Improvement. — To convert grass land on chalk soil into tillage, is one of the most advantageous improvements in agriculture, if properly conducted. Old downs, that are frequently unproductive of any valuable herbage, may, in a very short space of time, and at little expense, bo brought to yield the most abundant crops of corn ; — of barley, no land whatever produces better crops, nor finer samples, and when put under a proper system of tillage, good wheat may also be obtained. 141. The method is to pare and burn, in the first instance, a turf as thick as can be cut to burn well ; let the burning be finished as soon as possible in the spring, the ashes spread, and the land ploughed three or four inches deep ; harrowing and rolling it down smooth immediately after the i^lough, to keep in the moisture. In the last week in June, let it be cross-ploughed about five inches deep, to mix the ashes intimately with the mould ; then sow the land with turnips, if a dry season, by drilling, as that mode lets the seed down among the moist earth ; but if the season be rainy, sowing broad-cast will answer the purpose of a quick vegetation equally well. The drill system is, however, the best, as it gives a better opportunity of eradicating by the hoe, the seedling weeds, that on these old downs are generally found ; particularly charlock, than which nothing is more pernicious. Every plant, that is left and seen in bloom among the turnips in the autumn, must be drawn out carefully by hand, as otherwise a little fine weather, in the early part of the winter, will ripen the seed, and a few frosty days after will shake it out on the land, where it will remain * Sir John Sinclair. REASON WHY. 39 ' Tlie plough moves heavily, antl strong the soil, And clogKing harrows with augmenled toil Dive deep : tind clinging, mixes with the' mould A fattening treasure from the nightly fold." — Bloomfield. to vegetate in fature, a. plague f» the ftirmer, and destructiGn to Ms crops. The turnips must be eaten off by sheep living upon the land night and day, having a quantity set out with hurdles, ii'esh for them as occasion may require, with a. daily allowance of podware or trefoil-straw for lean, and hay for fattening, sheep. Some fodder is absolutely necessary, as turnips alone, especially in wet weather, are very unwholesome. To fatten sheep on turnips with oil-calte is the greatest improvement, and, however the farmer may be, in some respects, a loser by feeding sheep in this way, his loss will certainly be repaid ten-fold in his future crops of corn. 142. Instances can be brought in proof, if thought necessary, of crops of corn being raised by this means to be worth sixty times the annual rent of the land. After the turnips are consumed, the land should be ploughed about four inches deep as speedily as possible, and sown with barley, and clover-seed ; the sooner, in the spring, provided the land be not very wet at the time of sowing-, the more valuable in general will be the produce. Every weed that is seen among the barley must be taken out by hand; and if the cultivator has any reason to suppose, that there is a great abundance of the seeds of weeds remaining in the soil after the first crop of turnips, a second should be raised the following summer, in- order to get the land completely clean before he ventures upon crops of corn. 143. The crops of clover should be eaten off by sheep lying upon the land, and, if it can be accomplished, ine lay may be folded in the. end of summer, ploughing it afterwards five inches deep, to be sown with wheat in the month of October, or early in November. Every weed found among the wheat in the mouth of June, and early in July, should be carefully taken out by hand; and, as soon as convenient after harvest, the land should he ploughed about five or six inches deep. The land, having by this rotation produced two stout crops of com, is entitled to a portion of manure equal to what has arisen from it, which, mixed with mould as before directed, will aiTord a tolerable covering for another crop of turnips. These being eaten in the field as before, the land is left in fine order to accomplish the object required, viz. : — *' returning to grass without injury ,-" indeed, so far irom injury, these soils will, on the contrary, be highly improved for every kind of grass, but more particularly for sainfoin ; abundant crops of 40 THE gakdener's and farmer's ' Nor is the profit small the peasant makes Who smooths with harrows, or who pounds with rakes, The crumbling clods." — Dktden's Virgil. which have frequently been raised under this management, on lands of this description, by the writer of this essay.* 144. Salisbury Plain presents to the eye the appearance of a deserted country, where a few farms, at great distances from each other, are hid fi'om view in the hollows, and where fields of corn, without a tree or a fence, extend as far as the eye can reach. These immense tracts were formerly used only for sheep pastures.'! The visitors to Salisbury Plain at the Agricultural Show of 1857, were surprised to find a large part of it converted into productive corn-land — a change which has been almost entirely effected within the last twenty years. t 145. What is the origin, of peaty soils? Peat consists of an accumulation of vegetable matter, in a state of greater or less decomposition. It is generally found in low, moist situations, where mosses, lichens, and other plants grow, which are with difficulty decomposed ; these become interwoven, and unite with the mud and various substances deposited by the water ; the whole amalgamates, the vegetables putrefy, and gradually lose then- organic texture, and are at length united with the other substances into a compact spongy mass. 146. There is this obvious difference in the origin of peat soils, and tliose of sand, chalk, gravel, clay. Sec. ; the latter have been formed by the geological operations of nature, and generally brought from a distance, and deposited, by the action of water ; but peat soils have been formed wherever they now exist. 147. A soil covered with peat, is a soil covered not only with fuel, but also with manure. It is the excess of manure only which is detrimental ; and it is much more easy to destroy than to create it. To cultivate a bog is a much less difficult task than to improve a sand. If * Mr. Boy's "Essay on the means of converting Grass Land into Tillage." t Layergne's " Kural Economy." } Quarterly Review, 1858. REASON WHY. 41 * Yes, sprinkle sordid ashes all around And load with fattening dung the fallow ground." — Dryden's Vihgil. there is a proper level to admit of draining, the larger the scale of operation, the less the comparative expense must be, because machinery for many purposes takes the place of manual labour.* 148. As peat is formed by the decay of various kinds of plauts, so it will be found to differ in its qualities. Nothing so clearly indicates the quality of peat as the plants xohich it apontaneottsly produces, for the moss soil and its products are nearly the same substance, and the crop of the preceding year is the soil in which the next year's crop vegetates. Again, the moss plants now vegetating indicate the degree of moisture ; for, as soon as a permanent saturation is effected, the sphagnum, Sec, is produced, to the almost total exclusion of the other plants ; but, on the water being drawn off, it dies, and is succeeded by heath and sundry coarse aquatic grasses ; or, if rendered sufficiently dry, bent-grass prevails. If decomposition is by any means effected, then rushes, and also the finer pasture grasses supplant the latter. While moss plants continue to grow, it is evident that the depth of the moss must be still on the increase, and this by means of the antiseptic qualities of its products ; but where, by any means, pasture grasses, or even rushes abound, it is manifest that the proper moss is in a state of decay; decomposition has commenced, and a very different soil is presented, and, of course, a different treatment is called for.t 149. Peat soils include a large proportion of several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. In the Falkland Islands almost every kind" of plant, even the coarse grass which covers the whole of the surface of the islands, becomes converted into this substance. In the Terra del Fuego, nearly every patch of ground is covered by two species of plants, which, by their joint decay, compose a thick bed of elastic peat. % 150. Hou! may peaty soils be improved? The first step of improvement is to acquire command of the water, and obtain an outfall, by digging a ditch, which will take the place of the winding stagnant rivulet, frequently found in bogs. A system of draining must then be pursued, adapted to the extent of the ground, and the levels that can be obtained. The draining completed, paring and burning • Sir Humphry Davy. t Mr. Blackadrter. 42 THE gakdenee's akd farmer's " Thence from its clmlky bed behold convey'd The rich manure tliat arentihing -winter made, Thich irtld near home grows green -with many a weed A promis'd nutriment for Autumn's seed."— Bloomfield . should be followed. When the dry easterly winds of spring set in, the breast-ploughs should be put to work, the surface pared and turned over, and, when dry, piled in heaps, and' burned to ashes. 151. Rape, or seeds being established as the iirst cirop, aftei- the breaking-np, tlie next crop ia nsually oats. They are drilled in upon a very shallow furrow, with plenty of seed, and well pressed with a press-roll, as well before they have come up as afterwards, in order to guard against the wire-worm, the enemy to be feared on such land. This first crop of oats is generally beaten down by the weather, being weak and long in the straw ; and though not a bad crop, looks better than it really is. 152. On land which is not peat, hut peaty, some farmers grow harley_ There is a large crop of straw, and it is, therefore, liable to be laid ; the grain, too, is thin. The advocates of barley, however, assert that a bad sample of barley is better than a bad one of oats, because thin barley may be ground, or may be used for seed, whereas seed oats should be as plump as can be found. 153. The oats or barley are followed by rye-grass, which has beefl sown among them ; but, if these have been laid, as they often are, large .patches of the rye-grass will soon be destroyed. 154. When leheat is sown on ground that is at all peaty, it will almost certainly lose plant in large patches, even though the land has been dunged, and the young wheat has been trodden in by women, as is sometfeies done. This is because there is some principle defective in the soil ; that principle is cohesion, and can only be supplied by clay. The fen farmers of Lincolnshire, accordingly, apply day to peat land, by a process which has been carried on for many years.* 155. Mr. Cuthbert Johnson 'disapproves of the practice of paring and burning, being of opinion that it merely furnishes the soil, by am expensively rapid iprooess, with the fiJeed earths of the peat, which its gradual decomposition would, by other modes, more profitably and * Abridged from a paper " On the Practice of English Tarmers in the Improvement of Peaty Ground," by Ph. Pusey, Esq., SI. P. Journal of the Royal Af^rioultural Society, Vol. n. EEASON WHY. 43 While yet the Spring is young, while earth unbinds Her frozen bosom to the ivestern winds, Even in this caiiy dawning of the year Produce the plough, and yoke the stui-dy steer."— Dimdek's Vikoil. steadily effect. He recommends the breakiug-up as deeply as possible, by the common and the subsoil ploughs, the surface of the peat ; and then, if good well-burnt lime can be, procured, there is no earthy addition so rapid and eo powerful in dissolving and rendering pliable the peat as this. A few ploughings, assisting the combined operations of the atmosphere and the lime, will in a few weeks bring the soil into such a state as to enable it to bear a first crop. The quantity of lime should be about 250 or 300 bushels per acre ; but the quantity, of neeessity, must vary with the readiness with which the lime is procurable; Where it is very expensive, the cultivator is obliged either to reduce tiw quantity, or mix it thoroughly with a proportion of clay or marl, before he spreads it over the surface of the peat. Where limestone is to be obtained in the immediate neighbourhood, and other fuel is not to be readily procured, peat may bo employed in many cases in the process of lime-burning without much difficulty, it chiefly requiring that the peat should bo thoroughly dried previous to its being used. 156. For a flrsrt crop on the thus reclaimed peat soils, I have found no other crop equal to potatoes. These are best planted in ridges ; the korse hoe-plough can then be easily kept at work, which not only considerably promotes the decomposition of the peat, by facilitating the introduction of the moisture and gases of the atmosphere ; but this operation adds very materially to the vigour and produce of this valuable root, than which no plant more delights in fresh soils, such as that produced by well-drained fresh earth-dressed peaty lauds: 157. It is well to avoid for a year or two all attempts to produce corn crops on land like that now described. The course of cropping which the farmer will almost always find the most profitable, is to follow the potatoes with peas, then turnips, oats, grass-seeds, peas, wheat. In all cases, too, he must remember in what small proportions some of the essential ingredients of his crops are at first existing in this peaty soil, and how valuable even a slight dressing of clay or marl will be found in supplying such deficiencies.* 15&. MxaimpU of Improvement. — The fens of Lincolnshire have been increased in productiveness at least 100 per cent., merely by * Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. 44 THE gardener's xst> farmer's * Our guarded fields a sense of danger show ■Where garden crops witli corn and clover grow, Fences are thickly fonn'd and plac'd around (With tenters tipp'd) — a strong repulsive hound." — Crabbe. applying to the surface of the peat, the clay which is found at depths varying from two to five feet below it. 159. This application is made thus : — Ti'enches, parallel to one another, are made, H yards apart and 3 feet wide, down to the clay; and then 2 feet in depth of the clay is thrown out, one-half on each side. The effect of this, after the second year, is gi-eatly to increase the productiveness of the soil — in many" cases to double it. 160. This mode of improving peaty soils extends over a very large district; indeed it is equal in extent to the extent of the fens, for, although the whole of the fen-land in Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Huntingdonshire, and Cambridgeshire, has not been so treated, yet there is scarcely » farmer but has begun and is now proceeding with this important improvement.* 161. WTiat is the origin of alluvial soils? Alluvial soils are formed by those accumulations of sand, earth, and loose stones or gravel, brought down by rivers, which, when spread out to any extent, form what is called alluvial land. The word is derived from the Latin verb alluere, signifying "to wash upon," as the sea does upon the coasts. 162. The richest alluvial soils are to be found near the junction of large sluggish rivers with the sea, or where they meet in the valleys through which they pass ; and the soil is most varied and heterogeneous in the composition of its parts, when these are in minute divisions, and intimately blended together. The finest natural soils are thus formed of numberless thin layers of mud by the overflowing of rivers, and left to dry tiU the next overflowing brings a fresh supply. I 163. Alluvial soils partake of the nature of the earth from which the waters descend, or over which they spread. They may be formed of a • Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. t Jlorton on Soila. REASON WHY. 45 " Imperial Rome, in the full height Of elegance and taste, by Greece refln'd, In aneient times, the sacred plough employ'd The kings and awful fattiera of mankind:" — Thompson. clay mud, or of 2 fine sand or silt, or of a mixture of both, and the layers of these two may alternate according as winds vary and sea currents set in. Clay is more easily disintegrated than any other mineral, and, therefore, always occurs abundantly in every alluvial soil. Marly, and all the newer calcareous rocks, as the oolites and chalk, are easily washed down by the rains and carried off by rivers. Sandstone and trap-rock, containing clay and lime ; those granites, also, whose felspar contains tl^e alkaline silicates ]n abundance, are easily decomposed by the rain-water and other atmospheric agents, and all their finer ingredients are carried by the streams and rivers to the great deposits near the sea. Alluvial soils thus necessarily consist of minute or impalpable particles of a great variety of minerals ; for though the predominating earth may in some be clay, in others lime, and in some sand, yet, derived as they are from all the geological formations which the river and its tributaries have traversed, they cannot fail of containing in due proportion every ordinary ingredieut.* 164. How may alluvial soils be improved? Alluvial soils ai-e the most fertile of all natural deposits, and require a treatment by which their fertility may be diminished, rather than increased, together with protection from floods, to which they are naturally liable. The treatment of them must also be modified according to theii" nature.. Alluvial soils are of two kinds, one derived fi'om the sediment of fresh, the other of salt water^ They will generally bear crop after crop with little or no addition of manure, and with a vefy slight cultivation. 165. It is in the alluvial soils principally that an accurate analysis is useful, because the proportion of their constituent parts varies in innumerable degrees. It may be laid down as a general rule that the most fertile of these soils are those in which the primitive earths are nearly in equal proportions, silica being the most abundant, with about 10 per cent, of organic matter; a greater proportion of the latter would form too loose and spongy a soil to bear good crops of corn, especially of * Morton's Cyclopadia. 46 THE gaedenee's and faejieb's " Tlie Farmer's life displays in every part A moral lesson to the sensual heart. Though in the lap of plenty, thoughtful still. He looks beyond the present good or ill ;"— Bloomfikld, ■wheai. But 4 per cent, of humils, -with a good mixture of earths, and some phosphate of lime from the decomposition of bones and marine shells, produce a very good cheap soil. The rich warp-lands along the Hnmber are artificial alluvial soils, and although they contain but a small proportion of humus, are highly fertile after their first deposition ; bnt it is observed that they gradually become more tenacious and diffienlt of culture as this humus is carried off by the crops, and that it is soon necessary to add anjmal and vegetable manures to supply the defieiency. 166. Lands possessing alluvial soils may be protected from flooding by embanking and draining ; and low lands of a sterile nature lying in the neighbourhood of the sea, and of muddy rivers, may be rendered more or less fertile by a system of periodical irrigation, called " TVARPING." Warp, or sea-ooze, abounds at the mouths of friths, estuaries, or arms of the sea. It is of a most enriching nature, and adds to the staple of the soQ. It is used as a top-dressing in spring for crops both of grain and grass, more especially for the latter. It is an excellent material for composts, particularly for their soils. It promotes the improvement of garden soils in a manner hardly to be credited ; and wheat or oats manured with sea-ooze are little subject to rust, mildew, or any other disorder.* 167. It takes some time before any corn wiU grow on the new warp. At first it looks like barren mud ; but it soon dries to a better texture, and ultimately produces very extraordinary crops. If its fertility decrease, and its surface is stiU below the level of high water, a slight warping, like the inundations of the Nile, immediately restores the fertility. What is curious, is the almost total absence of organic matter in the warp-soils, or, rather, jts intimate combination with the earths, so that it cannot he readily separated from them. It is like neither clay, nor sand, but something between the two, soft to the touchy but not hardening into lumps when dry; neither very porous, nor very retentive of moisture. The principal earth is silica, in a very fine state. It generally contains a portion of calcareous matter, probably from shells. It produces beans, oats, potatoes, and wheat in abundance without any manure. It is admirably adapted to the growth of flax especially when the warp is of good depth. * Sir John Sinclair, REASON WHY. 47 ' Tlie pasture, and the food of plants, First let the young a^ricolist be taught : Then how to sow, and raise the embryo seeds Of every diiferejjt spEcies." — DooasLET. 163. The fertility of warped land matui^ally leads to the conclusion that silica, in a very conaminnted state, becomes best adapted for the roots of plants to shoot in, and to supply them regularly with the moisture necessary to their vegetation, that their chief nourishinent is derived from the atmosphere, since very little organic matter can be detected in warp, and few mineral substances besides earths.* 169. Undertakings of this nature are generally of considerable magnitude, and require large capital. The land to be warped must be banked round against the river. The banks are made of the earth taken on the spot from the land : they must slope six feet, that is, three feet on each side of the top or crown of the bank, for every foot perpendicular of rise: their top or crown is broader or narrower, according to the impetuosity of the tide and the weight and quantity of water ; and it extends from two to twelve feet : their height is regulated by the height to which the spring tides flow, so as to exclude or let them in at pleasure. In these banks there are more or fewer openings, according to the size of the ground to be warped, and to the choice of the occupier ; but in general they have only two sluices, one called the flood-gate, to admit ; the other called the clough, to let off the water gently ; these are enough for ten or fifteen acres. When the spring tide begins to ebb, the flood-gate is opened to admit the tide, the clough having been previously shut by the weight of the water brought up the river by the flow of the tide.' As the tide ebbs down the river, the weight or pressure of water being taken from the outside of the clough next the river, the tide water that has been previously admitted by the flood-gate opens the clqugh again, and discharges itself slowly but completely through it. The doughs are walled on each side, and so constructed as to let the water run off, between the ebb of the tide admitted and the iiow of the next ; and to this point particular attention is paid. The flood-gates are placed so high as only to let in the spring tides when opened. They are placed above the level of the common tides. 170. Willows are also occasionally planted on the fronts of the banks, to break the force of the tides, and defend the banks by raising the front of them with warp thus collected and accumulated; but these willows must never be planted on the banks, as they would destroy them by giving the winds power to shake them.t * Penny Cyolopffidia: Art. "Warping." t Lord Hawke. 48 THE gardener's and farmer's " Ye fostering breezes, blow ! Ye softening dews, ye tender showers, descend ! *And temper all, thou world-reviving Sun, Into the perfect year ! " — Thomson. 171. Warp leaves one-eighth of an inch every tide on an average j and these layers do not mix in an uniform mass, but remain In distinct layers. 172. If only one sluice, then only every other tide can be used, as the water must run perfectly off, that the surface may incrust ; and if the canal be not empty, the tide has not the effect. 173. As a new soil is created by this practice, it is of little consequence what the original nature of the land may be, almost all kinds being improved by it. But at the same time it may be the most beneficial in such light soils as are very open and porous, and such stiff ones as are defective in calcareous matter, and which require substances of this kind to render them less tenacious. Laud, when once well warped, will continue for a vast length of time in a good state of fertility ; but still, it is suggested by some experienced warpers as a better practice, to apply a small portion of warp whenever the land is in a state of fallow, which will be about every five or six years, as by this means the farmer will be more secure of having good crops. The depth to which the lands are covered by the tides must be- regulated according to their levels, and the height of the tides in the rivers from which they proceed. It may be admitted to the height of three or four, or more feet ; but the deposit of sediment is in some measure proportionate to the height of the water, though the same effects may be obtained from much smaller quantities of water by continuing the process a great number of tides.* 174. Example of Improvement of an Alluvial Soil. — The late Lord Kames, on becoming proprietor of the estate of Blair Drummond, in the county of Perth, began the improvement of a large tract of worthless land. In this case, a good alluvial clay soil had become completely overgrown with moss. Instead, therefore, of attempting to improve the moss surface, it was floated off piecemeal into the neighbouring sea, the supply of water required for this purpose being obtained from an adjacent river. The water being conveyed through the moss in channels, successive layers of peat were dug, thrown in, and washed away. The channels were shifted, as occasion required, until the whole inert mass was removed. A thin stratum next the clay was then burnt, and the ashes used as manure. An immense extent * Johnson's " Farmer's EncyclopsKdio." EEASON WJir. 49 " Better for Man, Were he and Natnre more familiar friends."- -Axtx. Smith. of moss was got rid of, and an extensive tract of country, where formerly only a few snipes and muir-fowl could find subsistence, was converted into a rich and fertile course of alluvial soil, worth from £3 to £5 an acre — 15 to 25 dollars. 175. Example of Improvement by Wa7-ping.— In 1821, Mr. Ralphe Creyke undertook to reclaim a large area of peat-moss in Yorkshire, by the system of warping. He resolved to warp from the river Ouse some 1,600 acres. The undertaking was commenced in the latter part of J 821, and in the following season, 429 out of the 1,600 acres were covered with a deposited soil to the depth of 3 feet. In 1823, this land was sown with oats and grain seeds, and on the fourth year bore an excellent crop of wheat. By this time the other two compartments, respectively consisting of 500 and 671 acres, were completed, and in a state of preparation for their first crop of oats, &c. In this case, so great was the improvement, that the land, which before warping was entirely unproductive and yielded no rent whatever, in the cour.se of four years produced abundant crops, and readily let for 35s. per acre.* 176. What is the origin of marshy soils ? Marshy soils result from the low situation of lands, causing them to receive and retain water from the surrounding country ; or from the presence of internal springs, without any suitable channels of escape. The lowest for the most part in the scale of fertility, of these wet grounds, and yet of great importance in the elevated districts where they abound, are those which consist of a thick bed of peaty matter. These are usually termed bogs, and the produce consists chiefly of rushes, as the sharp-flowered jointed rush, and others. 177. Sow may marshy soils be improved? If the humidity of the soil is caused by the stagnation of water from the surrounding hills, the first thing to be * Journal of the Royal Ajricultm-al Soeiety. 50 THE gaedenek's and taemek's " Thy weedy fallows let the plough pervacle, Till on the top the inverted roots are laid, There left to wither in the noontide ray, Or hy the spiky harrow cleared away." — Scott. ascertained is w^hether or not a canal, tiie bottom of wliich sliall be on a level with the marsh, can be dug on the declivity of the hill, to prevent the water from over-running the soil. 178. If the marsh is surrounded with hills, the remedy consists in finding an gutlet for the water through one of the inferior strata of the soil; but success in this will depend upon whether the marsh is above the level of the nearest river or pond. 179. If the dampness arises from- springs, the essential point is to discover the level or height at which these break out. Sometimes they show themselves at the edge of the marsh, in a position rather higher than the spongy earth. When in this position, they may be carried ofi^ by a drain, or by holes bored in the soil with an auger, and the marsh thus dried without the necessity of cutting through its whole extent. But in genei'al the only way of conveying the water to some brook or reservoir is by excavating a canal of some size along the bottom of the marsh. 180. If the springs rise from the bottom of the marsh, there is nothing that can be done but to form a large drain or canal for carrying off the water across the marsh. 181. If the humidity is caused hy some reservoir of water, either in the vicinity or some distance ofi", the water finding its way through the permeable soil, or by means of the veins of the strata, the point to be ascertained is whether or not it is practicable to carry off the water through some drain, that shall intercept the communication between the morass and the reservoir.* * Thaer's "Principles of Agriculture." SEASON WHY. 51 " The land with daily care Is exercised, and with an iron war Of rakes and harrows the proud foe's expelled And birds mth clamours frightened from the field." — Dutden. 182. The draining of marslies, fens, bogs, &c., usually requires operations upon a large scale, ■which cannot be conducted -without the aid of engineering skill. 183. Example of Improvement. — I have been several years in the occupation of 300 acres of marsh land, in the county of Kent, more or less subject to a coarse grass we call sword grass, with the ditch bank 2^ feet above the level of the land, and 3 feet above the water. To improve this grass, or get stock to eat it, I have tried salt, lime, and chalk ; but, as none of these answered to my satisfaction, in the year 1831 I commenced, on a marsh of 4 acres, by first cutting the ant-hills, and then setting a number of men to harrow the ditch-bank into the middle of the marsh, finding I had sufficient mould to cover it all over about 1\ inches thick. I then sowed it with Tartarian oats, about 5 bushels per acre, in the month of February, well harrowing the gi-ound with an ox-harrow, having the large lumps chopped ; then, as early as possible after the oats were up, rolling them twice or three times, and letting the oats and grass grow up together till harvest. They were ready to cut at least a week before the up-land corn. I have them reaped sufficiently low to collect the corn ; then set the scythe to cut, between the shocks, the grass and stubble, which is nearly knee high. The latter I cart Into a stack as soon as I can get it dry, adding some salt to every load. The oats I fi'equently bring home to a meadow to harvest, as it not only clears the mai'sh for stock, but finds advantageous work for my horses. In stacking the oats, 1 have a mawn basket drawn up the middle ; they being nearly all corn, with so little straw, az'e apt to heat. After I had finished a second marsh of 8 acres, in 1832, I requested my worthy landlord's attention to this improvement of his estate ; he immediately agreed to pay half the manual labour during my lease, if I harrowed at least 240 rods per annum. This formed part of my new lease then ; and I stood under agTeement to finish those that had not been done. The result was as follows: — 184. In 1831 I covered the before-stated 4 acres, cleared 322 quarters of oats, and cut at least a load of brushings ; 1832, 8 acres; 1833, 14 acres (this marsh I chalked about three years before); 1835. 19 acres (in this niarsh I lined 120 rods of bark during the summer with unslacked lime, and in the winter it might have been moved with a barn scuppet ; nothing extra good in this crop ; but I feel assured 52 THE gakdenee's and farmer's ' faithful Nature, dictator of tlie laws "Which govern and support the mighty frame Of universal heing." — Axenside. the marsh is improved more in proportion than those without lime). In 1836, 22 acres; 1837, 16 acres; 1838, 14 acres; 1839, 15 acres, earthed, but not sown with oats. I do not think the marsh covered itself so soon with grass, there being no oats to keep the sun off, or seeds to shatter. In 1840, 16 acres ; 1841, 17 acres, with more than 10 quarters of oats per acre. In 1842, 22 acres; and I have now a crop growing with at least 9 quarters per acre. I use about 60 acres of marsh land belonging to an adjoining estate. None of these banks were removed ; and one year, after lambing^ I lost more stock on these 60 acres than on all those that had the banks removed. 185. Those marshes that have been thus treated a few years, I consider very much improved ; they keep more stock, and yield grass of a much better quality, much less sword grass, no drinkings required fop the stock, and if a lamb falls in, it can walk out on either side. As to appearance, it is beyond me to describe the improvement.* 186. What is the origin of loamy soils ? Loamy soils are produced by similar causes to those of clay ; but they are more fertile, because they contain decomposed vegetable matter, or humus. Loam consists chiefly of woody fibre in a state of decay, v?hich, as it progresses, acquires a black-brown colour, and then becomes mould. 187. Loam is a native clay, mixed with quartz, sand, and occasionally with some carbonate of lime, or a soil compounded of various earths, of which the chief are silicious sand, clay, and carbonate of lime, or chalk, the clay predominating. With these substances the decomposed vegetable matter is Lnter\nixed. 188. Woody fibre in a state of decay is the substance called humus. Transformations of existing compounds are constantly taking place during the whole life of a plant, in consequence of which, and as the result of these transformations, there are produced gaseous matters wifich are excreted by the. leaves and blossoms ; solid excrements deposited in the bark, and fluid soluble substances, which are eliminated * .Tohn .^inrton, Cooling Castle, Kent. REASON WHr. 53 ' Plant behind, plant aspiring, in tlie van The dwarfish in the rear retired, but still Sublime above the rest, tlie statelier stand.' by the roots. Such secretions are most abundant immediately before the formation and during the continuance of the blossoms ; they diminish after the development of the fruit. Substances containing a large proportion of carbon are excreted by the roots, and absorbed by the soil. The soluble matter thus acquired by the soil is still capable of decay and putrefaction ; and by undergoing these processes furnishes renewed sources of nutrition to another generation of plants, and it becomes humus. The leaves of trees which fall in the forest in autumn, and the old roots of grass in the meadow, are likewise converted into humus by the same influence ; a soil receives more carbon in this form than its decaying humus had lost as carbonic acid. Humus does not nourish the plants by being taken up and assimilated in its unalteted state, but by presenting a slow and lasting source of carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the roots, and is the principal nutriment of young plants at a time when, being destitute of leaves, they are unable to extract food from the atmosphere.* 1 89. The decomposition of woody matter by burning and decay, and the similarity of the result under each process, may be thus illustrated. As wood, which is only partially consumed, can be consumed still further, so also humus is gradually further decayed or decomposed ; and in most cases, after complete combustion or decay, there is finally left only a small quantity of the ashes, which the wood has absorbed from the earth during its growtli. The result is thus : — From Burning. From the wood In the first in^ stance ■I Water (much), carbonic acid gas, h a 1 f - ( burnt wood. From the half- I burnt \voo&,ia the second in- i stance . . . [ Water (little), I carbonic acid There remain — ashes. From Decay. From the wood in 1 Water(much) the first in J carbonic acid J gas, humus, { or mould. stance From the humus, 1 Water (little), _in the second in- < carbonic acid stance ... I gas ; There remain — ashes. 190. The oxygen and hydrogen of the wood or humus unite to form ioater.] * Liebig. t Stockhardt's "Chemistry." 54 ' THE gardener's and faemek's " For even' leaf tliat twirls, the breeze, May useful hints and lessons give ; The falling leaves and fading trees Will teach and caution us to live."— Clatie. 191. Sow may loamy soils be improved? The treatment of loamy soils depends materially upon their nature ; whether they are sandy, graveUy, clayey, calcareous, peaty, or mixed in those proportions which are best for fertilization, as in the hazel, or brown loam. 192. In the climate of England, the soil which is generally preferred for coltivaaon is a loam, rather light than heavy ; at least half of which is siliciaus sand, one-third clap, and the rest chalk. Such a soil is called a good loam ; it is land which will produce almost eveiything which is usually cultivated on sands or clays ; it is not too stiff tor carrots and turnips, and not too loose for wheat and beans. It is of most easy cultivation at all times of the year, provided the subsoil he sound, and not too retentive of water. It requires only to be occasionally recruited with manure, to restore to it the humus which vegetation has consumed, and to be kept free from the weeds which naturally spring up in all fertile soils. 193. All attempts to improve the nature of a soil should have for their object the bringing it to a state of loam, by the addition of those substances which are deficient. If there is too much clay, chalk and sand may be added, or a portion of the clay may be calcined by burning, in order to destroy its attraction for water, and thus act the part of sand in forming the loam. Limestone, or calcareous sand and gravel, are still more efficacious fov this purpose j they not only correct too great porosity, or too great tenacity, but also act chemically on the organic matter in the soil, rendering the hmnus soluble, and fit to be taken up by the roots of plants. If there is too much sand, marl composed of clay and chalk is the remedy. Good loams require much less tillage than stiffer soils, and will bear more stirring to clean them tham sands. Hence they are cultivated more economically, and more easily kept free from useless weeds ; while the produce is more certain and abundant. They can be impregnated to a higher degree with enriching manures, without danger of root-fallen crops, or of too ifreat an abundance of straw at the expense of the grain. For artificial meadows thev are eminently proper : all the grasses grow well in good loams, when they are on a dry or well-drained subsoil, which is an indispensable condition in all good land. Sheep and cattle can be depastured on them during EEASOISf WHY. " Joyous, the impatient husbandman perceives Relenting Nature, and his lusty steers Drives from their stalls, to where the ■well-used plough Lies in the furrow, loosen'd from the frost." — Thomson. the whole year, except when there is snow on the gi-ound. If there should be means of irrigation, no soil is better suited to it than a light loam on a bed of gravel ; or even if the subsoil is clay, provided sufficient under-drainiug prevent the water from stagnating between the soil and subsoil, which, as practical men very properly express it, would poison any land. 194. A loamy soil requires less dung to Iteep it in heart than either clay or sand ; for while it is favourable to the process by which organic matter buried deep in the soil is converted into insoluble humus, it also permits that pai't of it which is nearer to the surface to attract oxygen from the air, and thus it is converted into a soluble extract, icMch is to the roots of plants lohat the mille of animals is to their young — a ready-prepared food easily converted into vegetable juices. 195. Wliy are there two distinct well-defined classes of substances in "oils ? Because every soil consists of two grand divisions of elements : the organic and the iNOEGAJsriC. The inorganic are TiirHOLLT mineral, they are the products of chemical and mechanical action upon the metallic and mineral elements of rocks. They existed, and have been geographically diffused, independently of plants or animals. Life has not created them out of simple elements. 196. The organic are the product of substances once ENDOWED ■WITH LIFE. This power influences the elements, recombines them in forms, so essentially connected witli life, that they are, with few exceptions, produced only by a living process. They are the produce of living organs, hence termed organic. 197. The number of elements in the inorganic parts of soil is TWELVE : oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silica ; and * Penny Cyclopaedia : Art. " Loam." 56 THE GAEDENEE'S and PARMER S " In Rome's poor age, When both her Kings and Consuls held the plough."— Jonson. the metals, potash, sodia, calcium, alumina, magnesia, iron, and manganese. 198. The number of elements in the organic parts of soil, does not exceed fotie ; oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. 199. The mineral elements of soil become part of plants. Under the influence of the mysterious principle of life, they no longer obey the merely chemical laws, but become parts of a living structure. Life modifies chemical laws, and converts inorganic matter into organic. 200. Every plant does not, nor does every part of the same plant contain the same elements ; but every part of the same plant, at the same age, probably contains the same elements, united in definite pro- portions. Whenever plants die, their elements are again subject to the laws of change, and during the decay of vegetables, they return to the earth, not only those substances which the plants had taken from the soil, but also those which have been elaborated by their living structures, under the influence of life. The former are silicates and salts, or the inorganic elements ; the latter are the organic parts of the soils. 201. The GREAT DIFFEKENCE betjn'cen these two divisions of the elements of soils, is this, that while the inorganic are^ simple eombinations of two elevcentary substances, the organic are combinations of three or four elements, but never eess than THREE. These are variously combined. They form the great body of vegetable products ; the mere abstraction of a part of one of their elements forms a new product.* 202. The fertility of a soil is dependent on other things besides its chemical composition. We must consider that the office it performs is twofold, namely, to retain the plant firmly in the position most favourable to its groioth, and to supply a certain amount of food: hence mechanical texture becomes a matter of great importance ; it » Dr. S. L. Dana. REASON WHY. 57 ' The crowded roots demand enlargement now, And transplantation in an ampler space: Indulged in what they wish, they soon supply Large foliage." — Cowper. must be firm enough to afford the proper degree of support, and at the same time loose enough to allow the delicate fibres of the rootlets to extend themselves, and also access of air to take place, without which the plant cannot live ; it must be of such a texture as to retain for a considerable period the water which falls on it, and at the same time porous enough to suffer the excess to drain away, otherwise the roots of the plant will rot. It is for these reasons that the nature of the solid substratum at some depth beneath the soil must be borne in mind; these, and many other things, such, for example, as the condition of the surface with respect to its absorbent power for lieat, all tend greatly to complicate the subject, and rehder decisions concerning the comparative value of different lands founded on merely chemical evidence exceedingly prone to error.* 203. What becomes of the elements of soil under the operations of agriculture ? The course of transmutation may be thus illustrated with tolerable accuracy. Alumina stops in the soil ; silica, except in exceedingly minute quantities, goes with the plant ; the other ten pass from the soil into the plant; then from the plant into the animal ; and finally back into the soil. From this it will be seen that when we expend crops on the farm, we return to the soil all we took from it, and as much^more as the growing plants draw from the air, which is nearly all their organic matter. 204. In this way a farm should be constantly gaining in FEETlLiir ; for, on the supposition that we sell nothing from the farm, we keep all the inorganic parts of the soil at home, and by means of growing plants we are all the while gathering inorganic matter from the air, and incorporating it with the soil ; so that the soil, treated thus, would remain equally rich in the organic (mineral) parts, and be growing every year richer in the organic parts. * Dr. Fownes. •58 THE gardener's and farmer's " The changeful year In all its due successions to my sight Presents but varied beauties." — SonTHET. 205. It -will be seen, also, that if we sell off crops, or anything that is made from crops, as heef, pork, hutter, cheese, the soil must he from that time hecoming poorer in the inorganic ingredients, unless we procure fertilizers from off the farm and substitute them for those which we send away ; for when we sell any product of the farm, we sell a part op the SOIL ; not enough in a single pound of butter to diminish sensibly the quantity left, hut enough in a century, in all THE butter that may be sold from cows fed on a single pasture, to leave that pasture entirely destitute op ' certain ingredients, without which good butter cannot be made. 206. So, if the hay from a mowing was to be sold off for many years, and nothing returned, certain ingredients of the soil would become so exhausted, that little or no more hay could be grown on that soil ; or if the com, wjieat, or rye were to be sold from a soil, the result would he the same. If a soil were eminently good, it would resist bad treatment a long time, but sooner or later it would be exhausted. The PARMER WHO SHOULD HAVE SOLD ALL HIS CROPS POR A LONG TIME, AND PUT NOTHING BACK, WOULD PIND THAT HE HAD SOLD HIS PARM ALSO SOLD IT PIECEMEAL.* 207. What is the great essential principle to be sought for in manure ? It may be regarded, as a great law of nature, that substances strengthen vegetation mainly by their contents of nitrogen. This law sheds at once an harmonious light over the scattered facts which the tinlettered husbandman has learned while still groping in the darkness of practice. * J. A. Nash. EEASON -WHY. 59 " Fah'-handefl Spring unbosoms every grace ; Throws out tile snowdrop and the" crocus first, The daisy, primrose, violet darkly blue."-— Thomson. 208. If we look at the practice of manuring only, we find the most dissimilar substances applied to the soil — sprats or stichlebachs here ; woollen rags, or shoddy, or hom-shavinijs there ; sea-iueed in another place ; rape-cake elsewhere. All these matters, however, agree in containing undeveloped NITROGEN. 209. Again, lupines, sown for the purpose, are in some countries ploughed in as manure, as are the remains of the clover crop, both also containing nitrogen undeveloped. 210. In dung, and in liquid manure, the ■ nitrogenous matter is partly combined with hydrogen, and has thus become ammonia. In other manures, as soot and gas-water, the pungent smell shows the full development of ammonia. 211. Again, nitrogen may combine not only witli hydrogen to form an alkali, ammonia, but with oxygen, also, to form an add. That acid, ill whatever combination, whether with potash, soda, or lime, is equally active ; nay, the consuming liquid itself is able to nourish the tender herbage of the green lawn. This same law explains, moreover, not fertilizing substances alone, but the fertility of the soil itself, throughout many wide ti-acts. Not only are the plains of Hindostan made fruitful by their native saltpetre, but the famous Tchomoi Zem, or black earth, which, over wide tracts around Tamboff bears wheat crops in endless succession, and will not endure to be drained with dung, has been'found by late analysis to be charged with nitrogenous matter, the remains of living organisms. Nay, when poets tell us that battle-fields are rendered fertile for ages by patriot blood, we now understand scientifically this mournful memorial of human slaughter. » * * The general law is established as to nitrogenous matters : but whether they act upon plants in two forms, ammonia and NITRIC ACID, or zohether, by some secret of nature, either of these forms is transmuted into the other before it serves the purpose of vegetable nutrition, is u, question reserved for the future decision of agricultural chemists. * Lord Ashbui'ton, President of the Royal Agricultural Society. 60 THE GARDENERS AND FARMERS ' The seed selected wisely, plump and smooth And glossy, he commits to pots of size Diminutive, well filled, with well prepared And fruitful soil." — Cowpek. 212. Wliy may the nature of a soil he generally inferred from the plants that grow spontaneously upon it ? Because plants have different hahits, and their presence, or the degree in which they thrive in any particular locality, indicates the abundance or scarcity of the subsistence upon which they depend. The plentiful growth of the com or field iAzsfZe indicates a rich and productive soil ; the butter-bur a clayey soil ; the colt's foot, black m^dick, and the bramble, a marly soil; the chickweed, sow thistle, charlock, &c., grow on ■ soft tenacious lands ; while the wild radish grows on dry and poor lands* 213. The best natural soils are those of which the materials hare been derived from different strata, or layers of earth, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together : and, in improving soils artificially, the farmer cannot DO BETTER THAN IMITATE THE PROCESSES OF NATURE : the materials necessary for the purpose are seldom far distant. Coarse sand is often found ijnmediately on chalk; and beds of sand and gravel are common ielow clay. The labour of improving the texture or constitution of the soil is repaid by a great permanent advantage ; LESS MANURE IS REQUIRED AND FERTILITY INSURED : and CAPITAL laid out in this way secures for ever the productiveness OF THE LAND. 214. In ascertaining the composition of sterile soils with a view to their improvement, any particular ingredient which is the cause of their unproductiveness, should be carefully attended to ; if possible, they should he compared with fertile soils in tlie same neighbourhood, and in similar situations, as the difference in composition may, in many cases, indicate the most proper methods op IMPROVEMENT. 215. If on washing a sterile soil it is found to contain the salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by the application of quid lime. * ThSer's Agriculture. KEASON WHY. 61 " Disposed into congenial soils Stands each attractive plant, and suclcs and swells The juicy tide— a twining mess of tubes." — Thomson. 216. If there be an excess of chalky matter in the soil, it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. 217. Soils too abundant in sand, may be benefited by the use of clay, or marl, or vegetable matter. 218. A deficiency of animal or vegetable matter must be supplied by manure. An excess of vegetable matter is to be removed by burning, or to be remedied by the application of earthy materials. 219. The improvement of peats, bogs, or marsh lands, must be preceded by draining; stagnant water being injurious to all the nutritive classes of plants. Soft black peats, when drained, are often made productive by the mere application of sand or clay as a top 230. When peats are acid, or contain salts of iron, lime, or chalky matter is absolutely necessary to bring them into cultivation. When they abound in the branches and the roots of trees, or when their surface consists of living vegetables, the wood or the vegetables must either be carried off, or be destroyed by burning. In the last case, their ashes afford earthy ingredients fitted to improve the texture of the peat.* 221. Wilt/ are soils allowed to lie fallow ? Because, by fallowing, the poorer soil is exposed to the actipn of the air ; and there is then absorbed by tlie soil, a considerable portion of ammonia, carbonic acid, &c., and fi'om water the soil has gathered sulphates and other materials essential for the growth of plants. When the crop follows, the plants are not only enabled to feed, themselves by their LEAVES, but are able to absorb by their roots the nutritive matter which has been accumulating for them. The process of fallowing is neither more nor less than one of those practical plans by which you place in the soil an additional quantity of the materials which are required for an increased groivth * Sir Humphry Davy, 62 THE gaedenee's and faejiek's ' Yes, lovely flower, I find in tliec Wild sweetness which no words express. And charms in thy simplicity That dwell not in the pride of dress." — Langhorne. of vegetables. It is, in fact, a system of majtueing feom THE AIE.* 222. Why does the " rotation of crops " supersede the necessity for "fallowing ? " Because different plants operate in various ways upon the soil. It is owing to the difference of the food necessary for the growth of plants, and which must be furnished by the soil, that different kinds of plants exert mutual injury when growing together, and that others, on the contrary, grow together with great luxuriance. 223. Two plants of the same hind growing in close vicinity must prove prejudicial to each other, when they find in the soil, or in the atmosphere surrounding them, less of the means of nourishment than they require for their perfect development. There is no plant more injurious to wheat, than wheat itself; none more hurtful to the potatoe than another potatoe. Hence we find that the cultivated plants on the borders of a field are much more luxuriant, -nol only in strength, but in the number and richness of their seeds or fibres, than plants growing in the middle of the same field.f 224. We also find that a plant which accidentally finds its way among a crop of a different or an opposite nature grows with n remarkable luxuriance, its own pecnhar food being abundant. 225. The food of plants derived from the air being more abundant than that in the soil, the necessity for kotation is chiefly dictated by the exhaustion of the essential elements of soils. 226. The principles upon which the eotation system ' is based are as follow : — 227. First. — Every plant removes from the soil a certain quantity of soluble materials. • Nesbit'3 " Agricultural Chemistry." t Liebig. REASON WHY. 63 ' Then spring the Uvinff herbs profusely wild, O'er all the deep green earth, Ijeyond the power Of botanist to number" up their tribes." — Thomson. 228. Second. — All varieties of plants do not take from the soil the same quantity of materials. 229. Third. — All varieties of plants do not extract from the soil the same Mnd of materials. 230. Fourth. — Each kind of plant differently affects the growth of weeds.* 231. If a grain of wheat and a pea be grown in the same soil, the former will obtain for itself all the silex, or flinty matter, which the water can dissolve ; and it is the deposition of this ia the stem which gives to all the grasses so iiluch firmness. On the other hand, the pea icill reject this, and will take up whatever compounds of lime the water of the soil contains, these being rejected by the wheat. + 232. The inferences are : — 233. I. — That plants which require chiefly the same Idud of materials for their support, should not be grown in succession. 234. II. — That as the effects which different crops produce upon the fertility of the soil are influenced by the purpose for wliicli they are gro^vn, — ^plants alternated for the sake of their seeds, as wheat, barley, oats, flax, &c„' should be made to alternate with those which are cultivated for their hoots, foliage, or fibre, as turnips, clover, beet, &c., and also hemp 3.nd flax, whem the seeds are not allowed to ripen. 235. III. — That the greatest possible interval should be inti'o- duoed in the rotation between plants of the same Idnd, by the growth of as great a variety of crops as the climate of the country loill allow, thus, instead of the farmer confining himself to wheat, barley, oats, turnips, potatoes, and clover, he should cultivate beans, peas, vetches, mangel lourzel, carrots, parsnips, beet, flax, hemp, Sicc, and should make himself acquainted with the best order of succession in xehich these may be groion.t 236. The problem as to the best succession of crops is diificult of solution, because experience affords so many contradictory answers, which, without doubt, arise from the variations which exist in soils and climates of different localities and countries. * Cameron's "Chemistry of Agriculture." t Dr. Carpenter's "Vegetable Physiology." t Professor Hodges. 64 THE gardener's and farmer's " Thfough hedge-row leaves in drifted heaps Left by the stormy blast. The little hopeful blossom peeps. And tells of winter past." — Clabe. 237. It is contended by some that each plant does not require peculiar elements for its nutrition, but that its own organs digest and assimilate to it those juices which they extract from all those component pai'ts, of the soil which are destined for the nutrition of plants in general. Vegetables whose properties are the most opposite — plants the most corrosive and venomous, as well as those which are most beautiful and useful — those the most opposite in variety and contra- dictory in nature — ^will be found growing on the same soil and flourishing together. The constituent parts of all organic substances are carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, with a small portion of nitrogen. These parts are to be met with in every ftrtile soil, even if they are not imbibed directly fi'om the atmosphere. 238. But theory aloae is quite sufficient clearly to demonstrate the necessity of rotation under either hypothesis; because, although plants subsist upon similar elements, they combine these substances in very different degrees. It is possible that the roots or suckers of aU kinds of plants possess a sensibility and u power of choice, which enables theni to imbibe and appropriate to themselves the exact proportion of each of these substances which nature leads them to require for their support. But in order that they may succeed in accomplishing this purpose, it is necessary that they should be enabled to meet ^with the proper proportions and combinations of these substances within their own immediate sphere. If the proportion does not exist, or if some of these substances are present, but not in sufficient quantity, or in that degree of combination which the plant requires, then its growth will be slower, and it will not thrive so well. In a soil which, although not entirely without some of these substances, yet does not contain a sufficient quantity of it, the plant must put forth its roots in every direction to seek and absorb that which is absolutely necessary for its nourishment. It is not improbable that the soil may contain too great a proportion of some one of these necessary substances, and that the plant, bmng suffocated by the superabundance of it, and the scarcity or total absence of all the others, may not thrive.* 239. The following list of vegetable products, of each class of which there are many kinds and qualities, will serve to show the necessity of studying the nature of plants and the soil employed in their production. » Thaer's "Principles of Agriculture." EEASON WHY. 65 ' How West delicious scene ! the eye that greets Tliy open beauties, oi* tliy lone retreats, Beholds the unwearied sweep of wood that scales Thy cliffs !" — Wokdswokth. They are : — gums, sugar, starch, gluten, albmnen, fibrin, tannin, colouring matter, bitters, narcotics, oils, tallow, wax, resins, gum- ^ resins, balsams, camphor, caoutchouc, corlt, sap, fermentive juices, acids, alkalies, phosphates, carbonates, wood, earths, and metallic oxides. 240. But rotation is not rendered essential inerely on account of tile exhausting effects whicli particular plants have upon the soil. Every plant gives out more or less excretory matter. The excretion of every organic body Is prejudicial to the health of that body, but may he the means of subsistence to organizations of a different nature. As each plant has peculiar excretory matters, which it constantly deposits in the soil — and as these matters are found to be particulai-ly noxious to other plants of the same species — ^it'is obvious that imtil such excretory matters are removed from the earth by other plants, or by the gradual effects of decomposition, the same crop cannot prosper ■in the soil. In support of tliis doctrine is adduced the ■vvell-lcnovfn fact, 1 kat the excretory matters deposited or diffused through the water in which bulbs or other roots have been cultivated, will not well support other bulbs ; yet such impure water is found to be more grateful than clean water to vegetables of another species.* 241. This theory of excretion, and the deteHoration of soils thereby, was upheld by De CandoUe, who asserted that the roots of all plants give out, or excrete, certain substances peculiar to themselves. 242. These substances are unfavourable to the growth of the plants from the roots of which they are thrown off, but are capable of promj)ting the growth of plants of other species ; thus the excretions of one species are poisonous to all the members of that species, but nutritive to other li:inds.\ 243. Dr. Daubeny instituted a series of experiments to ascertain whether the same crops grown permanently on ,a given soil, fail in consequence of noxious excretions, or from the exhaustion of the soil. He neither confirmed nor refuted the theory of De Candolle, but left tlie problem for further investigation. He did, however, establish the * Johnson's "Farmer's Encyclopsedia." I De CandoUe'a "Vegetable Organography."— See the "Botanical Reason Why." D 66 THE gaedewek's and faemeh's " How strange a scene has come to pass, &ince Summer 'gan to reign, Sprinij flowers are buried in the grass. To sleep till Spring again." — Clake, fact of the exhaustion of soils, both as regards their organic and inotganic constituents. He showed that the falling off of the crop is dependent upon a deficiency of organic matter proper to promote' the nutrition of the plants, as well as upon the failure of its inorganic principles ; not, indeed, that the organic matter tnters, as such, into the constitution of the vegetablej but that by its decomposition it furnishes it with a more abundant supply of carbonic acid and ammonia, which supply accelerates the dcTelopment of its parts, and thus at once enables it to extiact more inorganic matter fi'om the soil, and enables the soil to supply it copiously with the principles it requires. He further showed that it by no means follows, because a soil is benefited by manuring, even though that manure may, as in the case of bones, guano, &c., derive its efficacy from the phosphates it supplies, that the soil is, therefore, destitute of the ingredient in question, since ii may happen that the soil possesses abundance of it in a dormant, though not in an immediately available condition.* ■244. Professor Johnston, in his " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," does not entirely espouse the interesting theory of De Candolle's. He says : — Though there seems reason enough for believing that the' roots of plants reaZZy rfo give out certain substances into the soil, there is no evidence that these excretions take place to the extent which the theory of De Candolle would imply — none of a satisfactory hind that they are noxious to the plants from which they are excreted'— [Why, then, excreted ?] — and none, that they are especially nutritive to the plants of other species. •245. The true general reason why (Prof Johnston continues) a second or third crop of the same kind will not grow well, is, not that the soil contains too much of any, but that it contains too little of one nr more kinds of matter. If, after manuring, turnips grow luxuriantly, it is because the soil has been enriched by all that the crop requires. If a healthy barley crop follow the turnips, it is because the soil contains all the food of this new plant. If clover thrive after this, it is because it naturally requires certain other kinds of nou7-ishment which neither of the former crops had exhausted. If, again, luxuriant wheat succeeds, it is because the soil abounds still in all that the wheat crop needs — the failing vegetable and other matters of the » PhilosophiclK Transactions. Vol. 133. EEASON WHY. 67 I I ' Daisies are white upon the churchyard sod ; Sweet tears the clouds lean down and give. This world is very lovely. my God, I thank Thee that I live." — Alex. Smith. siu'face being increased and renewed hy the enriching roots of the preceding clover. And if now, turnips refuse to again give a fair return, it is because you have not added to the soil a fresh supply of that manure without which they cannot thrive. Add the mantiee, AKD THE SAME BOTATIOM OF CROPS MAY AGAIN ENSTJE. 246. These various theories, howoTsr, equally support the system of eotatios", while the practice of that system confirms the theories. 247. In a work designed for circulation in wide geographical latitudes, it is impracticable to submit courses of rotation; but the principles upon ivhich they should he adopted, may be distinctly enforced. The propriety of following any particular system of cropping, will be considerably influenced by the following circumstances : — 248. The climate, whether it be wet or dry, warm or cold ; and the situation, whether high or low. Wet climates, and higli situations, for instance, are rather favourable to the growth of oats; dry climates, and low situations to that of barley. 249. The soil, for sand, gravel, clay, chalk, peat, alluvia, and loam, have various crops calculated for each respectively ; and the subsoil, on the quality of which the croj^s to be raised must gi'eatly depend". 250. 3'Afi means of improvement by extra manure, as lime, marl, sea-iveed, toion dung, guano, and the artificial manures, at reasonable rates ; for the rotation of crops should not be regulated by the nature of the soil alone, but conjoined with the specific manures that can be obtained at u, moderate expense. 251 . The state and condition of the soil, whether it be old cultivated land, or recently improved; whether it be land that has been cropped judiciously, or under an exhausting system of management ; whether it be in good heart, or the reverse ; whether it be foul or clean ; and lastly, 252. The situation of a farm in regard to marltets, whether they are near or at a considerable distance ; and whether they are adapted to the sale of some articles of 'produce more than others. D 2 68 THE gardener's and farmer's " Oh 1 while my eye .the landscape views What countless beauties are displayed, What varied tints of nameless hues, Shades endless melting into shade." — Clare. 253. The following important rules in regard to ROTATIONS are of universal application : — 254. — 1. When any farm or district begins to be improved, it is necessary to commence with such crops as arc the most likely to produce manure. Hence barley ought to be avoided, as it yields, when compared to other crops, the smallest quantity of straw. 265. — 2. Two exhausting crops should never be attempted in succession, if the soil has not acquired a considerable degree of fertility, or does not naturally possess it, as in the c.ise of alluvial lands. 256. — 3. Green crops are greatly to be preferred, as, from their superior bulk, they are more productive of manure, and go further in supporting live stocTi. In similar soils and situations, green crops will furnish at least one-fourth, and in many eases one-third more putrescent manure, than can be obtained from the straw of corn cropSf grown on the same land. After green crops, also, the weight and quality of the next crop of com are greatly improved, and it fetches a higher price in the market. 257.-4. The crops should be so arranged that the labour of ploughing for each, and of sowing, weeding, reaping, &c., may proceed in a regular succession, by which the labour of cultivation is not too much . crowded on the farmer, at any one season of the year, nor any number of extra stoch rendered necessary. All the crops produced on the farm, may thus be cultivated by the same labourers (with the exception of hand-hoers in spring and summer, and assistants during the harvest), and with the same cattle. 258. — 5. All forcing crops, or frequent repetitions of the same species should be avoided, as a diminution both in the quantity and the quality of the produce (except in rare instances) is the consequence. Indeed, in soils of moderate fertility, as they are commonly cultivated, the GREATER DISTANCE at which THE REPETITION of any sort of crop can be kept, the better it is likely to prove. 259. — 6. Those crops should be raised tvhich are the best calculated to exterminate the insects and weeds attendant upon the previoiu crops. By these means A constant succession op large PRODUCTS MAY BE OBTAINED.* * Sir John Sinclair. EEASON WHY. 69 " Swelling downs, where sweet air stirs Blue hair-bells lightly, and where prickly furze buds Lavish gold." — Keats. 260. Why should the nature of the soil determine the state and manner in, which m,anure should be applied ? Because soils being of very opposite natures act upon, and are acted upon by manures in very varying degrees. Organic matter decays very slowly in stiff clay soils, because of the imperfect admission of the air. Straw ploughed in acts very beneficially in such soils by increasing their porosity, the air admitted causing decay both of the straw and organic matter previously existing in them. Accordingly it will be found that the cases where dry straw had been beneficially employed were on stif soils, and the immediate effect was not required or looked for. 261. On porous soils, the use of dry straw is calculated to increase an existing evil, because such soils have less organic matter in them, and are therefore more dependent on large supplies of rapidly acting manure. 262. If immediate and powerful action is required, fermented clay is to be preferred. In this case, in virtue of the moisture and azotized matters contained in the urine and excrements of cattle, fermentation is set up, and carried on so far that distribution in the soil does not check it, and thus nutritious matter is supplied abundantly upon growing crops. If, on the other hand, a smaller and longer-continued supply of nourishment is required, the straw may in some cases be ploughed in, and will, during its gradual decay, minister to growing crops.* 263. Why do the same mamires produce different results upon apparently similar soils ? Because soils, in certain instances, act chemically upon the manures, and differ materially in their absorbing power. Experiments of a very interesting nature have been made by Mr. Thompson, Mr. Spence, Mr. Huxtable, Mr. Way, * J. Shier, A.M., Fordyoe Lecturer on Agriculture, University of Aberdeen, THE gardener's AND FARMER'S " "Wliat different shapes in leaves are seen, Tliat o'er my head embower, Clad in as many shades of green As colours in the flower." — Clare. Dr. Voelcker, and others, for the purpose of ascertaining the changes which liquid manures undergo, when filtered through different soils. 264. Mr. Huxtable made an experiment in the filtration of the liquid manure of his tanks through a bed of an ordinary loamy soil ; and found that after its passage through the filter-bed, the urine was deprived of colour and smeU— in fact, that it went in manure, and came out water. This implied the power of the soil to separate from solution those organic substances which give colour and smell to the liquid. 265. The experiments that have been made for the purpose of ascertaining the power of soils to absorb manure, place beyond dispute the fact that soils are gifted with a remarkable power of separating from solution and retaining the salts of manures until required BY TEGETATioN. But the precise circumstances and conditions in which that power is exerted, have not yet been ascertained. 266. It has been shown, however, that ordinary soils possess the power of separating and retaining the bases of the different alkaline salts, and certain animal and vegetable substances, and that this power extends to all those substances to lohich we attach the chief value as manure. 267. The newly-discovered property of soils explains and confirms the variations in manuring operations, which are made to suit the nature of the soil. Clay has been shown to be the active substance in retaining manure, and sandy and gravelly soils, not possessing a sufficiency of clay, will be expected to be less retentive of manure. Such is the fact, and soils of this description are said not to " hold manure." On such soils, manure must be applied more frequently, smd in smaller quantities, than in stiffer soils, where, owing to the retentive power of the clay, the manure for several crops may be safely deposited. 268. If these inferences be correct, the only way of permanently' improving a sandy soil is to CLAY it ; and it is notorious that the EEASON wuy. 71 ' ' Tour, voiceless lips, oh flowers, are loving preachers. Each cup a pulpit, cv'ry leaf a book, Supplying to my fancy numerous teachei'S, ' From loneliest nook." — H. Ssiiin. light sands of some parts of Norfolk are made to bear crops only by copious dressings of clay. Marl ivill not do, as it has none of the chemical properties of comhining with manure, which clay possesses. 269. The property of the soil to aiTcst putrefaction, and to combine with organic effluvia, is matter of common observation ; the practice of leaving a knife in the ground to remove the smell of onions, which nothing else will do so well, is one instance of this property. 270. 2'he dog buries the hone which he cannot consiune at one thne, in the soil, and returns, for it at leisure. The /o.r, in his wholesale - depredations, is known to secrete his booty in the earth, laying up stores in various places for his future use. In the same way, venison Is placed in the ground to keep it sioeet whilst it mellows. Everj' one has remarked that a country churchyard, where the' bodies arc not over-crowded, and the soil is sufficient for the absorption of the products of decay, betriiys to the senses no indication of the changes going on beneath the siirface. The North American Indians, having taken a "skunk," a species of polecat which stinks intolerably, in order to sweeten and renucv it fit for food, bury the sh'uuird carrnss la the soil, jchere it speedily loses its offeyisivcness. 271. But it may be asked, in such a case, why docs decay joroceed at all, if the soil has a tendency to arrest it ? The answer is simply this — a LARGE MASS of animal matter, such as the body of a dog, buried in the earth, is only very imperfectly brought into contact with the soil, and, consequently, decomposition takes place, tciih an absorption of the products by the surrounding earth. The true influence of the soil must be looked for in the case of liquid akimal PRODUCTS, where perfect contact of the two is attained." 272. The practical inferences that I drew from my inquiries on the absorbent power of soils, were these : — 273. — 1. That clay soils might be manured a considerable time before sowing, ■without loss. 274. — 2. That light shallow soils should not be manured long before sowing ; should not be heavily manured at one time; and the manure should be kept as near the surface as practicable, without leaving it uncovered. * Dr. Voelcker. 72 THE gaedener's and eakmer's *' Dear is the forest fro^vning over-head, And dear the velvet greensward to the tread."— WoRDSwoBTn. 275. — 3. That it is desirable to deepen tlie uncultivated soil of all LIGHT LAND, as it thus acquires a greater power of holding MANURE.* 276. We have, as the result of these investigations, an interesting illustration of the fact that the soil is the GEEAT WORKSHOP IN VTHICH FOOD IS PREPARED FOR PLANTS, and that we can hope to attain unto a more perfect knowledge of the -nuti'ition of plants, and the best means of administering to then- special wants, only when we shall have studied in all their details the remarkable changes which take place in soils when manuring substances are brought into contact with them.'f 277. The following are the practical conclusions which may be gathered from mj experiments upon soils and manures : — 278. — 1. Liquid manure, in contact with soil, undergoes a number of chemical changes. 279. — 2. These changes are greater in the case of clay and calcareous soils than in the case of sandy soils. 280. — 3. Passed through clay, loamy, and calcareous soils, liquid manure leaves a considerable quantity of ammonia in the soil. 281. — 4. Under the same circumstances, liquid manure parts likewise with potash and phosphoric acid. 282. — 5. Sandy soils remove from liquid manure but little ammonia and not much potash, 283. — 6. With the exception of purely sandy soils, liquid manure, as used in practice, leaves the greater portion of all the most valuable fertilizing matters in the generality of soils. 284.-7. The comparative power of different soils to remove ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid from liquid manure dipfeks gkeatlt. » H. S. Thompson. t Dr. Voelcker. REASON WHY. 73 * What rapture swells with every sound Of morning's maiden hours, What healthful feelings breathe around, What freshness opes the flowers." — Claee. 285. — 8. Liquid maTiiire passed through sandy soils rich in soluble silica TAKES UP soluble silica. 286. — 9. Soils that absorbed much ammonia also absorbed much ■potash, and the soils -which absorbed little ammonia also absorbed little potash. 287. — 10. Soda-salts (common salt) are either not at all removed from liquid manure or only to a small extent. 288. — 11. Chlorine, and generally sulphuric acid, remain unaltered in quantity in liquid manure passed through different soils. 289. — 12. In most cases, liquid manure left in contact with different soils becomes richer in lime. 290. — 13. The proportion of lime which liquid manure takes up from the soils with which it is brought in contact does not altogether . correspond with the relative proportions of lime in different soils. 291 . — 14. Liquid manure, passed through a sandy soil greatly deficient in lime, became poorer in lime : showing that the property op SOILS OP storing up food por plants is not confined to ammonia, potash, or phosphoric acid ; but that it is a property mhich manifests itself in a variety qf ways. Thus, soils rich in lime yield this substance to liquid manure ; soils in which lime is deficient may abstract it from liquid manure. Again, potash usually is removed from liquid manure left in contact with soil ; but, in particular cases, liquid manure may even become richer in potash after filtration through soil. 292. — 15. Very soluble saline fertilizing compounds are probably injurious to vegetation when supplied too abzmdantly to the land. 293. — 16. All Tnoderately fertile soils have the power of rendering the more important soluble fertilizing matters much less soluble j but in none of the experiments were ammonia, potash, phosphoric acid, and other compounds that enter into the composition of the ashes of our cultivated crops, rendered perfectly insoluble. 294. — 17. It does not appear probable that plants take up mineral food from the soil in the shape of totally insoluble combinations.* * Dr. Voelckcr. "4 THE GAEDENER'S AND PAEMEE'S '*The groves were God's first temples. Ere man leai-ned, To hew the shaft, and lay the architrave, And spread the roof above them."— Betant. 295. Why should the farmer regard mineral .manures as among the '^food " of j}lants ? Because, whatever may be the refined speculations of chemists and physiologists, as to the manner in which minerals act upon vegetable organizations, it is obvious that, so far as the farmer is concerned, that which increases the growth, without deteriorating the quality of any crop, must economically be considered as a proper food of that trap. 296. There is an erroneous impression, entertained by some practical men, in regard to the way in which mineral substances act when applied to the soil. By the term manure they generally designate such substances as they believe to be capable of feeding the plant, and hence reject inineral substances, such as gypsum, nitrate of soda, and generally lime, from the list of manures, properly so called. And as the influence of these substances on vegetation is undispated,_ they are not unfrequently considered as stimulants only. 297. The use of a wrong term is often connected with the prevalence of a wrong opinimt, and may lead to grave errors in practice. I may, therefore, be permitted to say that it is almost demonstrated that plants DO feed upon dead unorganized mineral matter; and that you really manure the soil, as well as permanently improve it, by adding to it such' substances of this kind as are found by experience to promote the growth of the crops.* 298. Why does lime act beneficially upon a variety of soils ? Soils and subsoils, far below the reach of ordinai-y farm operations, always contain a very sensible quantity of AMMONTA. 299. The action of lime, in the presence of water, is to set free from the soil as nearly as possible one-half of the ammonia. It is probable that in the soils improved by * Professor Johnston. EEASON WHY. " High climb tlie pulso iii many an even row, Deep strike the ponderous roots in soiL helow, And herbs of potent smeU and pungent taste." — Cbabbe, lime, the ammonia of the soil is too tightly locked tip. Thus, lime may be the remedy at the command of the farmer, rendering immediately available stores of wealth, "which can otherwise only slowly be brought into use. 300. In this view, lime would well deserve the somewhat vague character that has been given to it, namely, that of a STIMULANT, for its application would he in some sort an application of ammoaia, whilst its excessive application, by di-iving oif ammonia, would lead to disastrous effects. If thei'e be any truth in these deductions, it points Out the importance of employing lime in small quantities at short intervals, rather than in large doses once in many 301. Tke chemical action of lime, and the effect which it produces us a manure, appear to be of two kinds. On one hand, it acts upon vegetable mould by accelerating its decomixrsition, and rendering it soluble, and then fits it to enter the roots of plants. This is the reason that a mixture composed of lime i& the more efficacious, the richer the soil is in mould, and that its action i.3 tlie more sensible, in propartion as the vegetable matter is of an insoluble nature. Lime deprives some mould of its acidity, and renders it fertilizing. But, on the other hand, there is every probability that by means of its carbonic acid, lime also produces some other effect, and furmiihes the plants with some nutritive mutter. The roots of certain vegetables appear to have the faculty of depriving lime of its carbonic acid, which it immediately re-absorbs in equal proportion from the atmosphere. Every one must be aware that lime communicates a peculiar degree of vigour to some plants, and that the roots of these can even penetrate through rough Vmiestone, and in a manner decompose it. This remark is particularly applicable to sainfoin, the tap-root of which penetrates from ten to twenty feet deep into calcareous stones, and there puts forth clusters of lateral roots which render the stones loose and friable till round them.\ * J. T. Way. + Thaer's "Principles of Agriculture." 76 THE gardener's and farmer's " how can3t thou renounce the boundless store Of charms wiiieh Nature to her votary yields. The warbling woodland, the resounding shore, The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields." — Beattie. 302. Why is lime more beneficial as a manure than chalk ? Because chalk acts merely ly formiivj an earthy ingredient of the soil, and its efficacy is proportionate to the deficiency of calcareous matter, which, in larger or smaller quantities, seems to be an essential ingredient of all fertile soils ; necessary, perhaps, to their proper texture, and as an ingredient in the organs of plants. 303. Burnt lime, possessing active properties, operates as a decomposing agent upon animal and vegetable matter, and seems to bring it into a state on which it becomes more rapidly a vegetable nourishment ; gradually, however, the lime is neutralized by carbonic acid, and converted into a substance resembling chalk ; but in this case it more perfectly mixes with the other ingredients of the soil, is more generally diffused and freely divided ; and it is probably more useful to land than any calcareous substance in its natural state.* 304. It follows, therefore, that when lime is conveyed from the kiln to the -field, the sooner it is dispej-sed the better ; otherwise it will be restored to the state of chalk, and lose some of its fertilizing properties. 305. Wliat change does chalk undergo by burning ? Chalk is a carbonate of lime, or lime united with carbonic acid, and also water. When burnt, the heat drives off the carbonic acid, in the form of carbonic acid gas, volumes of which may be observed ascending from the kilns, and the waler is dispersed in the form of vapour. » Sir H. Davy. REASON "WHY. 77 ' O'er every field and golden prospect found, That glads the Ploughman's Sunday morning's round, When, on some emmence he takes his stand. To judge the smiling produce of the land." — Bloompield. 306. The farmer must not fall into the very common error of supposing that anything is added to lime by the action of fire ; on the contrary, it loses very materially in weight, by being deprived of its carbonic acid gas — a loss, however, which it soon recovers by exposure to the atmosphere, having a strong tendency to aborbs that gas. 307. A knowledge of these facts is of considerable value to the farmer, even on the score of (carriage, independently of the greater value of lime as a manure ; for, in some cases, the object of the needless weight of water and carbonic acid in chalk is very material, as will be seen by the following analysis of the chalk of Kent : — Parts. Water 24-0 Carbonic ajid 34-2 Lime 41-8 100 With some minute proportions of oxide of iron and silica. 308. So that, %ohen the farmer carts forty-one tons of fresh limey he conveys as much real manure to his soil as if he carried ONE HUNDRED tons of cholk.* EvBu should the water and carbonic acid be essential to the manure, the lime mil absori its original proportions of these from the atmosphere, within a few days after being laid down. 309. WTiy have prejudices existed in some cases against the use of lime ? Because of the different qualities of limestones. There is a very considerable quantity of lime made from the magnesian limestones, called by farmers " hot lime." This differs from common limestones, by containing magnesian earth, and in some cases it has proved highly injurious to vegetation, when applied in large quantities in its caustic state. 310. When lime is known to be of this nature, it should only be applied in limited quantities, for the calcined magnesia of the * Johnson's " Farmer's Encyclopsedia." \ 78 .THE gaedexeb's ai fabmer's "The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food. And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood." — Pope. 364. Will/ should turnip seed never be placed in contact with manure of active fermentive qualities ? Because the seed of the turnip is so small, and Hat budding germ so tender, that the seed itself, its vital principle being destroyed by too powerful a chemical action, becomes decomposed — a result peculiarly liable to occur where rape-dust or guano is employed. 365. The following practical concldsions may he deduced with regard to the tise of rape-dust : — 366. — 1st. That rape-dust, being beneficial to the growth of grain in general, i.s most marked in its effects upon thin, poor soils. 367. — 2d. That it does not operate so well in a dry season, as in a moist one. 368. — 3d. That it is most certain in its effects upon the winter-sown wheat-crops ; but, in favourable seasons, most remunerative on the spring crops. 369.— 4th. That it answers best on strong soils for the wheat crop. 370. — 5th. That it is not judicious to apply large quantities at one time. 371.- — 6th. That it is necessary, after using rape-dust for several rotations, to apply dressing of saline and earthy matters. 372.^ — 7th. That rape-dust should not be drilled with turnip seed. And that it is less advantageous to turnip crops than to grain.* '373. Why, in favourable seasons, is the return upon rape-dust most remunerative upon spring crops ? Because when the germinating seed is supplied with moisture, there is no cessation of vegetation after the plant appears, the nutritive gases being assimilated as fast as they are given off. And as there is no waste of these, as in wheat during winter, when the plant cannot appropriate * J. Hannam. KBAgorr wht: 93 '* Te swains, invoke the powers who rule the sky, For a moist summer, and a winter dry ; For winter drought rewards the peasant's pain, And broods indulgent on the buried grain." — Drydew. the nourishment, less tillage has an equal effect — equal tillage a greater* 374. Wliy does the treatment of hones with sulphuric acid improve their qualities as manure ? Bones may be roughly stated to consist of fat, jellij, and an earthy matter called phosphate of lime. When they were first employed as manure, it was doubtful, of course, to which of these substances they owed their beneficial effect ; and many persons were unwilling to purchase bones which had been boiled, and had lost their grease. 375. It was soon found, however, that boiled bones were as good manure as those that were unboiled. There still remained two substances, either of which might be their active principle. Burnt bones were also found to retain their fertilizing properties. 376. Now, as fire drives out of the bone the jelly, which holds it together, there remains only the earthy matter behind, thus proved to be the manuring substance. This being phosphate of lime, chemistry suggested that since the lime was in so small a quantity, the phosphoric acid united with it must be the true manure contained in the bones, and that if the lime were taken from it by sulphuric acid, the phosphoric acid thus set free would be greatly strengthened in its immediate activity. Experiments have wonderfully corroborated the predictions of chemical science.^ 377. The following are plain Directions for treating hones with sulphuric acid : — Calcined bones are to be reduced by grinding to a very fine powder, and placed in an iron pan with an equal weight of water (a cast-iron trough, such as are sold for holding water for cattle, will do) ; a man with a spade must mix the bone with the water until * J, Hannam. t Ph. Pusey, Esq. 94 THE garhenee's and -faemer's " In this order the whole Tvas tilled, and the harvest or product laid up in several granaries, out of whidi it was distributed by officers for that purpose." — Sm \Y. T£3IPLE. every portion is wet ; -nliile the man is stirring, an assistant empties at once into the pan sulphuric acid, '60 parts by weight to every 100 parts of bone ; the acid is poured in at once, and not in a thin stream as commonly recommended ; the stirring is continued for about three minutes, and the material is then thrown out. With four common farm-labourers and two pans, I have mixecl two tons in one day. The ■ larger the heap that is made, the more perfect the decomposition, as the heap remains intensely hot for a long time. It is necessary to spread the superphosphate out to the air for a few days, that it may become dry.* 378. Fow biishels of bones may be considered a fair allowance of an acre, and these in a fine state of bone dust will weigh about ISOlbs. This quantity contains about ISJlbs. of carbonate of lime, consisting of carbonic acid 54 parts, and lime 7 parts; which will require lOlbs. of sulphuric acid to convert it into sulphate of lime or gypsum. This is the first result of the mixture, and is the cause of the very unpleasant fumes which are given off, and which consist in fact principally of carbonic -acid disengaged* from the carbonate of lime in consequence of the superior affinity which lime has for sulphuric acid. '5'his result takes place before the acid acts on the phosphates of the bones, and thus it is that when u small quantity of acid has been sprinJtled over bone-dust, the good effect has been but moderate; the carbonate of lime alone has been acted upon, and the phosphate of lime, the essential part, has remained undecomposed. 379. The quantity of phosphate of livie existing in the four bushels of bones is about 1061bs., containing 471bs. of lime and 591bs. of phosphoric acid. If we consider superphosphate of lime to contain a double portion of acid — a fact, however, not quite decided, then 331bs. of sulphuric acid will be required, which, by uniting with half the lime, or as^lbs., forms gypsum, and leaves the other moiety of lime united with a do^uble portion of phosphoric acid in the state of a superphosphate. Thus 43Ibs. of acid will be required to efiect these changes, leavin? uny additional quantity for other purposes.! 380. A very convenient and cheap vessel for manufacturing the mixture is a sugar-hogshead, having its holes stopped with plaster of- * Mr. Lawes, of St. -(Vlbans. -f w. C. Spooner, REASON WHY. 93 " But til' earth hei-sclf, of her owne motion, Out of her fruitfull bosome made to growc Most dantie trees, that, sliooting up anon. Did seem to bow their blossoming heads full lowe.' Paris. It is very desirable to aToid if possible any measuring or weigMng of the acid, as it is so .very dangerous a substance to handle. Many serious accidents occurred to my knowledge during the last year, and it is very difficult to impress farm servants with a sufficient degree of caution, or even to convince them that a liquid which appears so colourless will burn their skin and clothes. In emptying a carboy of acid, even into a tub, it is difficult to prevent a little slopping about and damaging the clothes of the attendants, as well as the basket, &c., which contains the carboy. To prevent these unpleasant consequences I have adopted the following plan : — The cai'boy is placed on a stage or cask the same height as the sugar-hogshead, into which is put the precise quantity of bone-dust we intend mixing with the carboy of acid. The water is now added with a watering-pot having a rose at the end, so as to disperse it thoroughly, and the carboy of acid is then emptied by means of a syphon. This syphon is formed of a piece of block-tin pipe, which can be bent into any form, about throe-quai'ters of an inch in calibre and four feet in length. A brass cook is soldered to the long end of the syphon, on which the rose of a watering-pot may be placed. The syphon is now filled with water, and its long end closed with the cock, and the small end with the hand or linger. The latter is then quickly inserted into the mouth of the carboy, the cock turned ou, and the acid will continue to flow till the vessel is nearly empty, without any assistance, so that the attendant has no occasion to expose himself to the injurious and offensive fumes which almost immediately begin to escape. He may, however, approach the windward side of the tub, and give the mixture a little stirring, which should be continued for some little time afterwards, so that the mixture may be complete. A convenient utensil for this purpose is a fork with two prongs, long in the prong, bent at some distance from the prongs nearly at right angles, and fixed in a wooden handle. On the same day a fresh lot of bones may be added, and the process repeated until the hogshead is nearly full. In two days afterwards the mixture may be shovelled into a heap, and either' remain till wanted or mixed at once with a certain portion of ashes. It should be shovelled over several times and ashes added at each time of turning, which will thus render the mixture fine and di'y enough to pass through an ordinary drill.* • W. C. Spooner. 96 THE gardener's and farmer's " Young kid3' light skipping, and the timorous fawns Brush through the copse, and bound along the lawns; While in fresh pastures, or on fallows gray. Lambs nimble in the wantonness of play."— Fawkes. 381 . When persons are accidentally Immt by vitriol, they should lay on the burn with a feather, the white of eggs mixed with powdered chalk ; or the powder of white-wash, scraped from the wall, will do. 382. A new method of preparing bone compost, without sulphuric add, is stated to have been successful. The experimenter, a high authority, says : — I procured three cart-loads of crushed bones, and, having wetted them, mixed one cart-load with two loads of peat ashes, another with two loads of coal ashes, and the third load with two loads of sterile white sand, dug -from some depth, and quite unfit in itself to support vegetation. The three heaps were made up as compactly as possible side by side. In a few days th^y all heated equally, becoming , too hot in the middle to be borne by the naked hand ; in a few more the bones had disappeared in each heap equally, being reduced in genoral to a blue mouldy substance. Some cori'oded fragments, indeed, remained in the centres; and the outsides, to the depth of five or six inches, were unchanged, because there the heat was insufficient. 383. The experiment having so far succeeded, the next step, of course, was to try the effects of the dissolved bones on the land, and in May, 1846, they were used upon half-acre lots of early turnips in equal proportions ; the crops produced by each mixture were equally good. But as a single experiment does not justify one in putting forth the recommendation of a new practice, I waited for the result of another year's trial. 384. The result of the whole seems to recommend decidedly the mode of preparing bones which I propose, and, but for the mistake of my men in mixing so small a proportion of sand, I believe the effect would have been stronger. Practically, I think that the manuring virtue of bones is increased from three to four-fold by this simple process, which cannot be said to cost anything. It is within the reach of every one to practise on a large scale and at a few days notice. Though I mixed barren sand with the bones for the sake of experiment, any light loam would no doubt answer as well or better — the soE itself, in fact, of any farm where bones themselves are likely to answer; and the labour is so trifling, that it is not worth speaking of.* * Jlr. Pusey ; Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society. REASON WHY. 97 " For them his plough turns up the destined lands, "Whence stormy winter draws its full demands; For this the seed minutely small he sows, Whence sound and sweet the hardy turnip grows." 385. Wliy, in making the hone compost, should the water be poured upon the bones Jirst ? Because the bones then become partially saturated, and the acid, fi'om its great affinity for water, rushes as it were into the pores of the hones to get at the water, and thus the bones become more rapidly and perfectly mixed with and acted upon by the acid. When no water is employed, and the bones are not entirely in the state of fine dust, as they never are, unless purposely sifted, the surfaces of the small pieces of bones become acted on by the acid, and a coat forms around them which seals up the interstices of the bones, and prevents the acid from penetrating.* 386. Why is sulphur an important element in agriculture ? Because it enters largely into the composition of animal and vegetable substances. Of the hair on cattle, and wool on sheep, five per cent, consists of sulphur, which is derived from their food ; and no albuminous compounds can exist without it. 387. Sulphur in the state of sulphuric acid has also a high value of an indirect kind. It unites with and retains the volatile and valuable ammonia, and yet, whUe fixing it, in no degree diminishes its solubility. It also unites with various other bases, and forms salts of great agricultural importance.! 388. Why is sulphuric acid inferior to muriatic in the preparation of bone-compost for turnips ? Because it is stronger, cheaper, has greater specific gravity, and contains much less water. On mixing it with water, fc * W. 0. Spooner. t Eot. W. E. Bowditch. E 98 THE gakdknek's and paemee's " Vale vetches woiild you sow, or lentils lean, The growth of ]^ypt, or the kidney bean? Begin when the slow waggoner descends. Nor cease your sowing till mid-winter ends."— Drtden. much higher temperature is attained, which conduces to the dissolving process, particularly of the organic part of the bones. 389. In addition to these reasons, — in the trials that have been made, muriatic acid has been found somewhat inferior. The muriate of lime formed by muriatic acid and bones, has, however, a great attraction for moisture, and may prove advantageous in a dry season. And it is not improbable that an equal quantity of bones, prepared separately with the two acids, and afterwards mixed together, might be more productive than bones prepared with either acid alone.* 390. Why is superphosphate of lime superior to phosphate of lime? Because phosphate of lime, which is derived from bones in their natural state, is very difficttlt of solution, and in a very diy season produces, in consequence, -but very slight and imperfect effects. Superphosphate of lime, on the other hand, is extremely soluble, so much so that the vitriolized bones can be entirely dissolved, or suspended in water, and thus applied.* 391. Why are dry hones more advantageous to vegetation than fresh ? It is assumed that the removal of the fat and gelatine facilitates the assimilation of the phosphate of the hone byJhe plant. Nothing can afford a shadow of reason for saying that the animal matter of the bone is of no use to vegetation. On the contrary, we know that fat and oil, if extricated from boneSj and applied to soil, act as potent manures, and »W. C. Spooner. SEASON WHT. 99 ' He -whets the rusty coulter now, He binds his oxen to the plough And wide his future harvest throws." — Aeesside. that the gelatine is, in composition and effect, analogous to skin, wool, horn, &c., — substances which contain a greater supply of nitrogen, which they afford the plant in the shape of ammonia, than any other animal manures with which we are acquainted. 392. At the same time it is possible that, by being applied together, the fat may retard the decomposition of the gelatine, and render the phosphates less soluble, and thus, in some cases, injure the efficacy of the application for the turnip-crop — which is of a quick growth, and requires a ready food in its early stages.* 393. It has been clearly proved that fresh bones wJien ground are superior to boiled ones, from which Vasfat has been extracted, and the latter superior to burnt bones, from which the gelatine has been also removed. 394. Why is manure of boiled bones preferred by turnip growers ? Because they are fi-eed from the fat which retards the decomposition of fresh bones ; at the same time they still retain the gelatine, which is so powerful an animal manure. So that — while their phosphates are rendered accessible to the plant by the fat being extracted (for boiled bones absorb water, and speedily decompose) they have in the gelatine an immediate supply of ammonia, and other organic food.* •395. Why is the effect of bone manure so permanent? Because the bone-earth (phosphate of lime) is withdrawn from the soil by the crops in small quantity only, and continues to exercise a beneficial influence on the fertility of * J. Hannam. E 2 100 THE GAEDENEE's AND FAEMER'S " But formed elastic, Tvith inclinmg shade. Their yielding stems each stormy gust evade So forest pines the aspiring mountain clothe, And self-erected towers the stately growth." — Brooke. the field to which it is applied for a considerable time: But the animal matter in bone-dust decomposes and disappears in great measure from the soil in one or two seasons.* 396. What has been the result of experimental investigation of the effect of bones applied in various forms to turnips ? The result of a series of careful experiments upon the actual growth of turnips, under the influence of bone manures in various forms, proves that both the organic and inorganic parts of bones are fertilizers ; that the total action of the inorganic is gkeatee than that of the organic j that when applied in conjunction, the latter has a tendency to RETARD the action of the former ; that this tendency may be counteracted by pulverizing the bones; that it may be most effectually accomplished by dissolving the bones in a diluted acid ; that sulphuric acid is best ; and that the fertilizing influence of the bones thus treated wiU be quadrupled.^ Thus producing the most important SAVING WHICH was ever HELD OUT IN THE USE OP MANURE 4 397. What are the chief constituents of guano ? The chief mineral constituents of plants — lime, magnesia, potash, soda, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid (the latter the most important), are pound in guano. Nitrogen, the most valuable constituent of manures, is found in guano in great abundance, and in a condition adapted for vegetation. § 398. Guano is the excrement of sea-fowl, and was used as manure probably for ages before Peru was Tisited by .the Spaniards. Along' * Professor Johnston. t J. Hannam. J Mr. Pusey. § Nesbit "On Agrieultnral Chemistry." KEASOSr WHT. 101 ' For casual as for certain wants prepares, And round his yard the reeking hay-stack rears, Or clover blossomed lovely to the sight, His team's rich store thro' many a wintiy night." — Blooufield. almost the whole coast of Peru, this excrementitious matter covers the small islands and cliffs n-ear the coast, and on some spots lies in such enormous beds as could only be produced by the accumulation of ages. There is a small island on the western coast of South America, on which guano was found a few years ago in a solid mass two hundred feet in depth. The surface is coated over with a thick incrustation of pure muriate of ammonia; and when the bulk is disturbed, the ammonia given out is so strong as to affect breathing, and to cause an unpleasant sensation in the eyes. It has been supposed that the excrement of the sea-fowl which swarm on some of the coasts of Great Britain might be used as a fertilizer with the same results as Peruvian, or African guano ; but the quantity which could be collected is comparatively small, as the annual accumulation is in most cases washed away by the rains, and the valuable properties of that which remains are dissipated by the changeable nature of our climate. In South America and in Africa, the dryness of the climate allows the~ guano deposits of successive years to accumulate, and the heat of the sun produces a coating of the surface which preserves its virtue as a manure. 399. The vilue of guano is to be estimated according to the proportions which it contains of — 1. Ammonia; 2. Phosphates; 3. Organic matter. The result of a number of analyses of Peruvian and African guano show the following variations in their composition : — • Peruvian. African. Water 12 to 15 25 to 30 Organic matter . . 50 to 60 25 to 30 f 12 to 15 5 to 9 ' ' "' I Parts of ammonia. Parts of ammonia. Phosphate of lime . 15 to 25 25 to 30 Fixed salts . . . 8 to 10 400. African guano has the largest proportion of soluble matter, and that from Peru is remarkable for the quantity of uric acid that it contains, an element which dissolves very slowly. African guano may therefore act with greater rapidity, but the effect of Peruvian guano is felt for a longer period.* » Penny CyclopsBdia, Supplement: Art. "Guano." 102 THE gakdekek's aud faesiee's ' Shall fields be tilled -nitb annual care, And minds lie fallow er'ry year? O, since the crop depends on >'oa. Seek thou the culture -which is due.**- 401. Why is guano so very valuable as a manure? Its peculiar nature appears to find explanation in the opinion of many of our first practical chemists, to the ejBTect that the value of different manures vai'ies xeaklt in PKOPOETIOK TO THE AMOTUTT OP NITROGEN THET CONTAIN. 402. There may be cases to which this rule is not exactly applicable ; but in many natural manures, an increase of nitrogen is accompanied by an increase of phosphate of lime, and every other valuable element. 403. If we take the per centage of nitrogen, as a correct indication of manuring value, we shaU find that one ton of ordinary Peruvian guano is equal to : ^^ ^^W"* ^i *°°^ °^ ferm-yard dung. ^^^^p^ 21 tons of horse dung. 38J tons of cow dung. 22^ tons of pig dung, and 14J tons of mixed human excrements. 404. Let those who faem in htllt countbies, and other places where carriage is expensive, ponder well the above facts.* 405. Why are the effects of guano more immediate and decided upon some soils than on others ? Because soils difier both in chemical composition and mechanical properties. The heavier in general contain more alumina and oxide of iron than the lighter ones. They are also less porous, even when drained ; their particles are finer, and their absorptive power is greater. The want of great porosity prevents the too rapid action of the atmosphere on the manures they may contain, and their absorptive » J. C. Nesbit, — See, however, Uebig's latest opinions. REASON WHT. 103 * He that by the plough would tlirive, Himself must either hold or drive." — Franklin. power enables them to retain, to a considerable extent, the liquid and volatile elements of the manure, and at the same time to obtain a certain quantity at the expense of the atmosphere. 406. The case is, however, different with gravels, sands, and the lighter soils, upon which, in consequence of their greater porosity, the atmosphere acts freely, and to a considerable depth. 407. When manure is applied to them, it is rapidly decomposed, and, unless there be a growing crop ready to absorb the fertilizing particles as they become soluble, they will be washed away ; or, if they become volatile, will, to some extent, be absorbed by the atmosphere. These soils, therefore, require different treatment. We may apply to heavier lands a strong dressing of manure at once, and little loss will ensue, for some time at least, from any other source than the action of the growing crops. On the lighter soils we must use, even of farm-yard dung, a less amount at a time; but it m-ust be applied more frequently. We thus see that light lands have the advantage of more rapidly decomposing the dung, and, consequently, of preparing it more quickly for the use of the plant. For this reason, among others, light soils are preferred by the market gardeners, who, by their repeated manurings, and frequent croppings, practically show how these soils may be most efficiently managed.* 408. WTiT/, when applied as a manure, should guano be diluted by admixture with earthy ingredients ? Because, like rape-cahe, its action is over -stimulating to vegetable germination, and if it comes in contact with the seeds, destroys their vitality. It should, therefore, be finely pulverized, and mixed with five or six times its weight of coal ashes, turf, mould, or fine soil. 409. In an experiment made by Mr. Pusey, soon after the introduction of guano, it was applied to half an acre of ridged Swedes, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the acre, drilled trader the seed. The first action of tjie guano « J. C. NesWt. 104 THE gardener's and farmer's " Shot up from broad rank blades that droop below. The nodding wheat-ear forms a graceful bow, With milky kernels starting full weighed down, Ere yet the sun hath tinged its head with brown." — Bloompield. was discouraging ; for, on one-half of the gi'ound di-essed with it, no plant came up. On transplanting into the blank spaces, the seed was found encrusted with the guano, without any signs of vegetation. 410. Why do the Peruvian farmers prefer "fresh " guano ? Because, next to the fertilizing effect of ammonia, or perhaps equal to it in value, is the uric acid which guano coHtains. The fresh guano is more valuable, chiefly because it contains more of this acid in an undecomposed state.* 411. Why is guano calculated to fertilize a great variety of crops ? Because it contains a quantity of phosphoric acid, in combination with ammonia, soda, and chiefly with lime. Now all plants require for their healthy growth a portion of this acid in combination with lime. The presence of these substances, therefore, enables the guano to minister to a greater number of the wants of living vegetables than it could do were it entirely composed of uric acid, or of ammonia. These latter compounds may abound about the roots and leaves of plants, and yet, if the phosphates be wholly absent, the plant which sprung up of a bright green, and shot forth with vigour, will never attain to a healthy maturity, or produce an adequate return of nourishing food. 412. The important influence of guano on the vegetation, equally of America and England, seems to . depend upon two circumstances : — 1st, on its containing a well-tempered mixture of a great number of those substances which the plant requires for its perfect growth or development; and, 2d, on this admixture including a considerable proportion of ammonia, which in a remarkable degree hastens the growth of the young plant, as well as phosphate of lime, which is necessary to its healthy and. perfect maturity.* • Professor Johnston, REASON WHT. 105 ' A field deep furrowed next, the god designed, The third time laboured, by the sweating hind ; The shining shares full many ploughmen guide. And turn their croolsed yokes on every side." — Pope. 413. The general conclusion that may be deduced from the Tarious experiments and tests to which guano has been subjected, is, that good guano will, under judicious application, increase crops of grass about THIRTY-THREE PER CENT., at a cost Considerably under the average cost of all other manures, whether farm-yard dung and composts, or artificial compounds. Guano Is, moreover, peculiarly adapted to horticultural and floricultural improvement, by its relative cleanliness and facility of application.* 414. Why are woollen rags and flocks capable of fertilizing soils ? Because they contain ammonia; in which respect they are nearly thirty-four times stronger than fresh cow dung. 415. Connected with flocks and wool, there is a very valuable product, rich in all the elements of manure, which is often lost, or not used, for agricultural purposes, namely, the sweat, or natural soap of wool. Fresh-dipped wool loses from 35 to 45 per cent, of its weight by washing. This is due to a peculiar matter exuded from the wool, and which consists chiefly of potash, lime, and magnesia, united to a peculiar animal oil, forming an imperfect soap. It is remarkable that this soap of lime, in all other cases insoluble, is here soluble in water. The experience of the best French agriculturists, is full of testimony to the good eifects of this wool sweat. It has been calculated that the washings from wool, annually consumed in France, are equal to manuring 370,000 acres of land.t 416. For agricultural purposes, all animal and vegetable prodncts may be divided into two classes : 1. That which does contain nitrogen. 2. That which does not. The action of these is very distinct, as the elements of soil, and as manures. The first class putrefies, the second dobs hot. The first class forms alkalies, the second forms acids. The action of the first depends on nitrogen, that of the second on carbon. The first class contains flesh in all its varieties, blood, sMn, sinew, gristle, cartilage, tendons, hair, feathers, wool, • hoofs, horns, nails, scales, and nearly one-third of hones and teeth. The second class contains fats and oils, in all their variety. * Dr. Ure. t Dr. S. L. Dana. 106 THE gasdener's and farmer's " While he broke up new ground, and tired liis plongh In grassy furrows, the torn earth disclosed Helmets and swords (bright -famiture of war Sleeping in rnst) and heaps of mighty bones." — Watts. 417. Why does soot form a valuable manure ? Because it contains several fertilizing elements, such as charcoal, ammonia, muriatic acid, lime, magnesia, and other substances. The chief matters contaiued in soot are the produce of vegetation, and are also the natural food of plants ; the carlon gradually combines with the oxygen of thel atmosphere, and is converted into carbonic acid gas, v?^hich is readily absorbed by the roots and leaves of plants.* 418. The effects of soot, when spread upon the surface, ai'e discovered immediately after the first rain. It is Uliewise of use, from the saline matter "which it contains, in promoting the destruction of slugs.\ 419. Soot forms a capital liquid manure for the floriculturist. Mixed with water, in the proportion of six quarts of soot to one hogshead, it has been found to be a most efficacious liquid, with which to water green-house plants; and being not only an available hut a comely preparation, it may recommend itself to the cultivators of flowers, by these desirable qualities.^ 420. Why is the soot from chimneys, where the heat and draught are great, comparatively worthless, while that from ordinary chimneys is very valuable ? Because the greater heat and draught disperse the marc volatile -elements of the soot, leaving the deposit more in the nature of dry ashes; the same causes prevent the absorption from the air of those gaseous matters by which the properties of soot are improved. 421. Good soot holds ammonia, charcoal, and other important fertilizers, and is used at the rate of 50 to 200 bushels per acre. Soot produces its greatest effects in moist tveather, and in djij seasons it has sometimes proved ir\}urious. It may be sown broad-cast over the ■field, and harrowed in, or mixed with such other manures in the * Johnson's "Farmer's Encyclopedia." f Sir John Sinclair, t Dr. S. L. Dana. REASON WHY. 107 " His lamp, his bow and quiver, laid aside, A rustic wallet o'er his shoulders tied, Sly Cupid, always on new mischief bent. To the rich field and furrowed tillage went." — Fbior. muck-heaps, as are intended for use. The ammonia has a great tendency to escape, which can only be prevented by adequate absorbents, such as peat, muck, rich turf, tan bark, or other vegetable remains. Many experiments made with it have proved contradictor^/, probably on account of differences of quality resulting from the Mncl of coal fi'om which it was produced, the dimensions of the chimnies, and the intensity of the draught and heat. In some experiments it has been shown to be useless for clovers, while it has proved of groat service to several of the grasses. It is more beneficial to potatoes than to turnips; and to grain than to grasses and clover, and other leguminous plants. Salt, when mixed with it, enhances its good effects. In an experiment made in England with potatoes, on three separate acres of land of equal quality, one with manure gave 160 bushels ; one manured with 30 bushels of soot yielded 196; and the third which received the same quantity of soot, and seven bushels of salt, yielded 236.* 422. Soot is pretty extensively used as a manure, especially on farms overrun with game. It is believed to protect the crop in a considerable degree, by rendering it distasteful to the game. On asking a farmer the present price of soot, he said it was rather scarce in the neighbour- hood, on account of a large demand from his landlord, who required it for application to a farm overrun by game.i 423. WTiy does salt improve the action of soot ? Because it absorbs moisture from tbe atmosphere, which moisture assists the decomposition of the soot. The great basis of soot is charcoal or carbon, which is capable of being rendered soluble hy the action of oxygen and water.% 424. Wliy is it commonly said that " the land never tires of farm-yard manures?" Because farm dung contains within itself, not one alone, but ALL the ingredients which plants require for their nutrition, and what is perhaps of equal importance, existing * E. L. Allen ; J. Sheir. . f Caird's Agriculture. t Sir H. Davy. 108 THE GAEDENEE's AND FAEMER's ' With all the ashes all thy coppers yield, "With weeds, mould, dung, and stall, a compost form, Of force to fertilize the poorest soil."— Granger. in that state in which they are most readily taken in and ■assimilated ly the vegetable organs* 425. Farm-yard dung contains all the principles with- drawn from, the soil ly the growth of plants : the decomposed straw furnistes silica in a minute state of division still taving with it a little potash and various saline substances ; the solid animal excrements contain abundance of earthy phosphates ; whUe the urine gives up by its putrefaction at once carbonate of ammonia and more phosphate, besides smaller proportions of other principles. The only thing at all defective is potash, and that ft-equently exists plentifully in the soil, and is gradually liberated by disintegration.'f 426. Why is manure produced hy young stock less valuable than that obtained from old ? Because young animals requu'e phosphoric acid, lime, and nitrogen, for the formation of bone, and it can only be from the food that they obtain them. The excrements of a young beast, therefore, cannot contain so much of these materials as those of a full-grown one — a deficiency which one would suppose must be felt when they are applied to crops such as wheat, barley, beans, clover, and turnips, which require much phosphoric acid, lime, and nitrogen, for their perfect development. 427. For the formation, too, of the bodies of young animals, besides these three substances, there is much carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, chlorine, and soda, required : and as the whole of these elements are abstracted from the food by the digestive fiinctions, it is easy to be conceived, that since they are all requisite for the nourishment of plants, • Dr. Daubei^. t Dr. Fownes. — See also Liebig*a views, at the close of this Section. REASON WHY. 109 " Here is my space ; Kinf^doms are clay; our dungy earth alike Feeds beast and man." — Shakspeajke. especially for nutritious plants, the excrement of young animals can never have so great a value as that of full-grown stock, as the latter retain so mucli only of the substances in question as is necessary to repair waste and expulsion.* 428. Why do the qualities of animal manures differ ? Because tlie Mnd — the organization — of the animal, affects the value of the excrement, inasmuch as some of them seize upon or reject this or that particular element of the food, and retain it in the body, or excrete it. 429. Cows, for instance, require, for the chemical constitution of their bodies, or for the formation of milk, more nitrogen and phosphate of lime, Sec, than sheep ; and the latter require again more sulphur, common salt, &c., for the formation of their wool ; the excrements of oxen, consequently, cannot contain so much nitrogen as those of sheep, while they are more abundant in salt and sulphur. Partly, however, the value of the excrements of different kinds of animals depends on their digestive organs, as well as on the finer attrition of the food in the process of chewing. Sheep, having stronger digestive organs than cows, on that account exhaust their food more completely, and they are also able to abstract from it more nutriment, in consequence of the finer state to which they reduce it in chewing. With food, therefore, of the same Mnd, the excrements of sheep cannot te of so much value as those of oxen ; if they act more quickly, this arises from their being sooner decomposed, in consequence of being more finely divided. Experience, indeed, teaches us that sheep manure produces its effects more speedily, but by no means so permanently as the manure of oxen.* 430. Why does the mode of employment of animals influence the nature of their excrements ? Because it affects the different secretions of their bodies, • Translated from Professor Spregnel'a " Theory of Agriculture," and founded by the author upon ten years' practical researches.— Journal of Koyal Agricultural Society, Vol. I. 110 THE gakdenee's aud faemee's ' Dry fern, or littered hay, that may imbifce Th' ascending dampa ; then leisurely impose^ And lightly, shaking it with agile hand From the full fork, the saturated straw," — Cowpek. causing the extraction from their food of more or less of the elements expended by the modes in which they are employed. 431. Cows which are mUhed cannot furnish excrements of so good a quality as cows which are not either in mint or in calf, for substances must be supplied for the prodiiction of the milk and for the growth of the young in the body of the mother, which the food has yielded, and these are the very substances which are the most powerful as manures, namely, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, and soda. 432. Draught-oxen (in Germany) which remain quiet in the stall during the winter, when fed in the same manner as cows, always give better dung than the latter, provided they are not improving in condition; for if they are improving, then the food helps to form flesh, which contains almost the same substances as the milh does. 433. Wethers, under similar circumstances, give better manure than ewes, for the former produce only wool, while the latter furnish also milk, or nourishment for the lamb, for which the food has yielded the materials. 434. Since the materials of the food, therefore, are differently appropriated in the formation of wool, flesh, fat, bones, and milk, and since the excrements result from the food, it is very natural to suppose that the different employment made of the animals, must have a considerable influence on the value of their excrement.* 435. Why does the Icind of food given, to animals influence the value of their excretions? Because, when animals are so badly kept -that they daily lose flesh, their excrements also become lowered in quality in the same proportion, since the body, in such case, not only expels fewer of its own worn-out particles, but the food itself becomes more exhausted by the digestive organs. If, on the contrary, the animals are kept on abundant and nourishing food, their excrements are very strong in quality, for these * Professor Spregnel. REASON WHY. Ill ' All ! Gaffer Pestel, what brave days were those When higher than our house our muck-hill rose."— JAQO. will not only contain much refuse animal matter, but the food itself also is less exhausted. 436. Hence the manure of fattening stock is the best. Animals immoderately fed give most powerful manure, with the disadvantage, however, that the food Jias not undergone a proper change. Accordingly, the more nutritious in general the food is, the better are tlie excrements resulting from it, supposing the animals to obtain so much of it, as to gain instead of losing ilesh, and fat; for the excrements resulting under these circumstances are abundant in phosphorus, sulphur, soda, potash, chlorine, lime, magnesia, and nitrogen. 437. Fattening stock, as we learn by experience, yield very strong manure rchen they are allowed the free use of salt ; and this is natural, for, by the addition of the salt, the manuring substances are increased. It is likewise maintained that the excrements of oxen fed on scalded fodder are of superior quality to those of stock fed in the ordinary manner : this, however, is scarcely possible ; they must, on the contrary, with equal quantity and quality of food, be inferior, for, by the process of scalding, the materials are so prepared for the digestive organs as more easily to yield their best portions to them. 438. For this reason, we give cows a less quantity of the scalded fodder than of that wliich has not been so prepared. The excrements of Gxen fed on scalded food come sooner into effective operation, since the woody fibre and the hardened ■ vegetable portions of the food are softened by the process of scalding, and, consequently, when in a state of excrement, are decomposed more rapidly. On account of this guicher effect, the excrement of cattle fed on scalded food is supposed to be the best, though it is not reallt so.* 439. Why ought not solid animal manures to he allowed to putrefy in heaps above ground ? Because a, great proportion of the manuring matter, in that case, assumes the state of gas, and is wasted. Professor Gjizzeri, of Florence, found from experiments on a small * Professor Spregnel. 112 THE gardener's and farmer's " Koney is like muck, not good except it be spread." — Bacon. scale, made expressly to ascertain this fact, that so\id excrements of cattle, undergoing putrefaction in the open air, lost 5 per cent, of their substance in forty days. 440. Now, although in this respect the ease of excrements which lie in manure pits is somewhat different, as the oxygen of the air has less free access under these circumstances, there was in Gazzeri's experiment a waste sufSciently great to show that it is not profitable either to allow the excrements to lie long in manure pits, or to employ them as u, top-dressing. They are, however, seldom made use of alone, but generally mixed up with straw and urine into common yard- dung, and in that state applied to the field.* 441. Why does ammonia iecome developed during the process of fermentation? In the heap, previous to fermentation, the nitrogen, the essential element of ammonia, and of supreme value to the farmer, is variously combined with carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; but v^hen it leaves its former arrangement, in obedience to the action of the decaying bodies, it uniformly adopts one, and only one new one. Every nitrogenous compound exposed to air and moisture liberates its nitrogen to unite with free hydrogen and form ammonia. This is a principle of fermentation which admits of no exception. 442. We are acquainted with no instance in which the nitrogen of organic compounds, fermenting under those conditions, combines with oxygen , until it have first formed AMMONIA with hydrogen ; but after the formation of ammonia, oxides of nitrogen are formed with facility. 443. This is a well-known cause of difficulty in nitrogen determinations in organic analysis ; and it brings before us the important fact that before the farmer can obtain any * Professor Spregnel. REASON WHY. 113 ' He marks the tounds, whicTi Winter may not pass, And blunts his pointed fury ; in its case Kusset and rude, folds up the tender germ, Uninjured, with inimitable art." — Cowpeh. Titrates for his crops, he must incur risk of loss bi/ the fo-mation of volatile ammonia. Does it not also press upon him the wisdom, of taking all possible precaution to conserve the latter, that by its oxidation in the presence of lime and other alkaline bases, his fields may be supplied with abundance of the former ?* 444. Why do dung-heaps emit a peculiarly pungent odour ? It is a prevailing opinion among farmers that the peculiar smell which emanates from dung heaps is caused by the escape of ammonia. But the very powerful smell is due to the escape of peculiar volatile organic combinations — to sulphuretted and phosphoretted hydrogen, and a great variety of gaseous matters, among which there is ammonia in minute quantities. 445. From these products of putrefaction, ammonia can be completely separated without in the least destroying the peculiarly offensive smell which emanates from organic matter in decomposition. If, for instance, dilute sidphuric acid is added to farm-yard manure, or liquid manure, the smell of these substances, instead of becoming neutralized, becomes more offensive. Any free ammonia would, by this treatment, be fixed as sulphate of ammonia ; but the smell continues, and it arises in a great measure from the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.'^ 446. Why is there comparatively little smell when dung- heaps are closed? Because the gases generated by fermentation in the middle of the heap, are cooled, condensed, and absorbed by the * Rev. W. E. Bowditch. t Dr. Voelcker. iJ-4 THE gaedenee's and faemee's / — , " Hie chalky cliffs salnte their longing eyes ; / Each to his breast, where floods of rapture roll, / Embracing strains the mistress of his soul." — Falcosek. external layer?, and become fixed in the heap, provided tie rain is prevented from removing the soluble matters, a|id with them, the ammoniacal salts. ( 447. In relation to the amount of ammonia, farm-yard mankre always contains a great excess of these Immus acids, iy which it ii fixed; hence the free ammonia, proceeding from the interior portions of dung-heaps, which are in a state of fermentation, is arrested by the humus substances contained in the cold external layers of the heaps. In contact with air, any undecomposed straw is gradually changed into these excellent fixers of ammonia, and thus a natui'al provision is made to prevent the loss of that element. 448. Nobody can deny that farm-yard manure is seldom, kept in the most efficient manner. In many places in England, especially in Devonshire, and in parts of Gloucestershire, it is a common practice to place manure-heaps by the roadside, often on sloping ground, and to keep these loosely-erected heaps for a considerable length of time before carting the dung on the field. On other farms, the manure is allowed to remain loosely scattered about in uncovered yards for months before it is removed. Heavy showers of rain falling on manure kept in such a manner, by washing out tlie soluble fertilizing constituents of dung, necessarily greatly deteriorate its value. It is well linown that the more or less dark-coloured liquids which flow fi'om badly-kept dung-heaps in rainy weather, possess high fertilizing properties. According to the rain which falls at the time of collecting these drainings, according to the character of the manure, and similar modifying circumstances, the composition of the drainings irom dung-heaps is necessarily subject to gi-eat variations.* 449. For thepreparation of farm-yard manures, it is highly important to understand the indication of their fermenting condition, li the fermentation which has occurred through the depth of the manure has sufficiently broken its fibre, so that it could be at once ploughed in; if its temperature be below 100" ; if there be a smell of ammoniM when it is lifted by the prong ; or, as a chemical test, if reddened litmus- paver, when held for a few minutes over it, becomes blue, and, after being gently heated, the blue tint disappear : in neither of tliese cases * Dr. Voelcker. EEASON WHY. 115 " Conversation, in its better part, May be esteemed a gift, and not an art ; Yet much depends, as in the tiller's toil On culture, and the sowing of the soil." — Cowper. sJimld the manure on any account he moved or turned up ohe MOMENT before it is carted to the field for the purpose of being at once ploughed in. i50. If the animals from which the manure has been chiefly derived have been fattening, and a fair amount of litter has been used by those loose in the yards, the state described above will usually be found to exist about the latter end of April or May, supposing the manure to have accumulated since December. If no cattle have been loose in the yard, the decay will have been much more rapid, and an important loss, both of bulk and matter, will be the consequence, unless artificial iheans, such as pressure, the mixing of smodust, earth, or ashes are used to prevent it. 451. When, however, on its condition being tested, the straw is found to retain nearly its original texture, and to be merely saturated with water ; when no ammoniacal vapours arise from it, and when, on exposure to the air for a short time, it resumes its original strawy character, with the exception of limpness and loss of colour, then it is necessary that it should be at once^ thrown up into heaps of a. convenient size, as lightly as possible, that it may .be stimulated to ferment. If this operation should be found not to proceed fast enough, the addition of a little water will hasten the decomposition ; or, if it should proceed too fast, compression and covering with earth. Sec, will tend materially to postpone it.* 452. The ' true economy of farm-yard manures may be thus indicated : — nothing must be allowed to run away in the form of a fluid, or to fly away in the disguise of a smell. * • « Mark out a piece of ground on which the dunghill is to be made, on a good slope, if possible, and close by a pond. Cut a gutter all round, and puddle it with clay, so as to make it water-tight. Then, at the lowest part, outside the place where the duughiU is to lie, dig a sink-hole eighteen or twenty inches deep; let this be well puddled, and connected with the gutter already spoken of. Things being thus prepared, throw down a layer of manuring substances, about a foot deep ; tread them well down, and scatter some fixer over it ; — finally, water it well. In this 'manner go on, with layer after layer, till the heap is tlje desired height. * » « During the operation of making * E. 0. Squarey, Odstock Farm, Salisbury. 116 THE gaedenee's ajsd faemee's " Each grain and seed, consumed in earth, BaLses its store, and multiplies its birth. And from the handful, which the tiller sows, The labour'd fields rejoice, and fut'ure harvest flows." — Prioe. the heap, some water will have drained away ; in that case, it will hive run into the gutter, and been collected in the sink-hole. Scuppet the water out, as the work proceeds, and throw it back on the dungllill. If the hole is not large enough, another can be made near it. None of the drainings must on any account be lost. It should have, at least once a week, for a month, a good quantity of fluid thro\vn upon it. Pot-boUings, and soap suds, are much better than common water; but la-ine is preferable to both. • » » ■. By these contrivances nothing is allowed to leak, but the dunghill becomes a soft mass, holding fast all that belongs to it, except what flies away. To catch the latter is the purpose of the fixer. There are many kinds of fixers,^-oil of vitriol, green vitriol, blue vitriol, salt and lime (not either salt or lime by themselves, on any account,) gypsum, &c., may be used ; but some of them at all times, and in some cases all of them, have the fault of costing money. A substitute which costs nothing except labour is, therefore, to be sought for. Such exists in cinder- siftings, charcoal dust, good blach earth, peat or bog mould, rotten sawdust, leaf mould, black mud from ponds, bottoms of wood stachs, soot, brichdust, burnt clay, &c. Some or all of these may be had in most places.* 453. Why will the admixture of manure in a state of fermentation facilitate the decomposition of fresh manure ? It is to be borne in mind that the substances to be changed are composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, of which the last element is the most prone to decomposition — that is, to enter into new combinations. Wherefore, as soon as one decomposing nitrogenized substance communicates to a sound one the state of change in which its own elements are placed, the elements of that other body, partaking of the disturbance, begin to be liberated, and the freed hydrogen seizes with avidity upon any oxygen in its neighbourhood, and forms water. The liberation of one element is the liberation of others, and the carbon now seeks oxygen, whereto it may be allied in the form of carbonic acid. » Dr. Lindley, in the " Gardener's Chromcle." REASON WHY. 117 *' The grassy lane, the wood-surrounded field. The rude stone fence with fragrant wall-flowers gay, The clay-built cot, to me more pleasure yield Than all the pomp imperial domes display." — Scott. 454. When a rotten apple is mixed with a quantity of sound ones, the parts of the latter which are in contact with the former, are altered in condition, and begin to decay. This well-known fact creates a necessity for constantly examining kept fruits, and removing those which show any symptoms of rottenness. It is further known, that when once an apple is affected, the entire substance soon undergoes decomposition. Thus the putrefaction of manure is begun and propagated. Substances which are in themselves in a state of putrefaction are brought into contact with others which are not, and communicate by contact their own state of change, and hence the action is propagated from one particle to another throughout the heap.* 455. Why do organic bodies undergo decomposition? Because the elements of which they ai-e composed, being no longer held together by vital influence, become affected by CHEMICAL agencies, and sepabating from their present UNION, enter into new forms and combinations. These sepai'atioas and re-combinations occur in all the processes of " rotting," " heating," " sweating," "fermenting," " steaming," " charring," " moulding," " decaying," "putrefying," " stinking," &c., with which the farmer is familiar. \ 456. The process of decomposition, or the separation of two substances chemically combined, is a very interesting and important chemical operation. It is by decomposition that wood or coals, when they are burnt, are separated into a light, transparent gas, which flies away, and the gray or white ashes which remain; it is by decomposition that dead vegetables are separated into a light airy matter, ^nd a Mach powder or charcoal, which remains in the soil, and gives the very dark or black appearance to soils which contain much peat or turf ; and it is the decomposition of such dead vegetables that, in a manner, grinds them down, * Kev. W. E. Bowditch. 118 THE GAKDENEe's AND FAEMEE'S * 'Midst thy paternal acres. Farmer, say Haa gracious heaven bestowed one field that basks Its loamy blossom in the mid-day sun: There slialt thou plant' the hop."— Smaet. SO as to be in a fit state for affording nutriment to new generations of plants. 457. This separation of substances which are combined is effeetecjl, either by bringing in contact mth them a substance which has a tebtt GREAT ATTRACTION for OHH of them Or sometimes by simply HEATiNS them ; is taken adTantage of in a thousand different ways in the arts and manufactures ; and is the leading feature in many natural processes going on at tlie surface of the globe. 4.58. The grand agent in bringing about all these changes, is chemical attraction ; and the operation of this power gives rise to two kindi of action, decomposition and recombination; in these two changes almost all chemistry consists. 459. When it is tjndekstood that there are different kinds op substances on the earth, that these different bodies hate a disiosition to unite ■with each other and form new varieties, and that they have not all an equally strong attraction for each other, but that one substance WILL sometimes leave a body with which it is united, AUD unite with another in preference ; when these pacts are borne in mind, we have a clue to the whole phenomena op chemistry.* 460. Why, in the fermentation of dung, is a large quantity of water formed? Because of the strong afiinity of hydrogen for oxygen — these two elements uniting form water. A large quantity of ready-formed water is thus added to the solid excrements of animals, and the sum of this existing and generated moisture is increased by the rain-fall. Yet we see every heap, made of horse-dung alone, burnt, and often those of an iU-managed farm-yard are in the same condition. What renders this case more noticeable, is, that the burning is the worse when the evaporation is the greatest, and no * Keid's " Chemistry of Niiture." REASON -WHY. , 119 ' If thy strong loam superfluoua wet retain, Lead through thy fields the subterraneous drain. And o'er the surface mellowing stores expand Of flery lime, or incoherent sand." — Scott, spectacle is more familiar to an observer of the fermentation of manure than a cltmd of white vapour, which completely conceals the workmen who are removing a heap of "fire- fanged" horse dung. 461. Every particle of tjiat exhaling moisture teas designed by a beneficent Providence to be condensed into a liquid, charged toith the precious burden which it is noiv bearing away on the icings of the ■wind. Elements of corn and cattle akb volatilizing with EVERY GLOBULE OF THE STEAM, and (in towns) aro becoming sottrces of disease and death to those whom, if differently managed, they might feed ! And why ? Simply because man will defeat Nature. Nature designed putrefaction to be slow, and to tliat end required all decomposing refuse to be buried, in which case its slow but useful conversion was certain. Man, on the other hand, places the waste substances so that decomposition may be rapid. He employs the light porous material — sti'aw — to mix with urinal excreta, and places the whole so as to ensure a free passage of oxygen among the putrefying mass. The rapid burning of sticks is ensured by their being laid lightly across each other, so as to afford the readiest access to the atmospheric oxygen ; and this is a close approximation to the state of dung thrown lightly into a pit. The heat generated during its combustion converts the water of the burning wood into steam, which passes freely and rapidly up the chimney, and that of dung may bo seen, on a still, dewy morning, forming a column of some twenty feet in height above its source.* 462. Why do the excrements of horses develope so great a heat, and give off such a pungent odour? Because, being generally fed ivith corn, their solid excrements contain many substances having nitrogen as an element, and this circumstance explains their rapid and perfect fermentation. This, and the smaller amount of water contained in them than in the excrements of cattle, is the » EeT. W. E. Bowditoh. 120 TUE gaedenek's and eaemer's " For man of soule^ reasonable Is to an angell resemblable, And like to beast he bath felyng, And like to trees he hath growing/'— Goweb, combined cause of the great heat, and the escape of a large quantity of ammonia, in the shape of gas. 463. When horse dang lies in large heaps, it undergoes a very quick decomposition, becomes heated, steams, and developes much ammonia, carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, and, when the heat increases, also carbonic oxide, finally passing into a half-carbonized state, and becoming mouldy ; in consequence of which, a great loss of manuring matter — equal to 94 per cent, of the solid mass in the course of two months — takes place, whence it is evident how injudiciously we act when we allow horse manure to lie for a long time in heaps at the stable door.* 464. Why, if we manure afield of growing plants with fresh horse dung, do the plants turn hlack, and appear chari-ed ? This, which frequently happens, arises from that portion of the ammonia produced from the dung which has not been neutralized. This blackening of plants is erroneously regarded as the effect of smut ; it is most likely to happen when a soil very deficient in humus has been manured with Iiorse dung. In order, therefore, that none of the ammonia may be lost in the form of gas, it will always be found the most advisable to apply fresh horse manure where the soil is richest in humus; for the manure has, in that case, a beneficial eifect on the component parts of the soil in rendering the humic acid more soluble.* 465. Why is pig dung regarded by farmers as a " cold " manure ? Because it contains a large proportion of water, and but little nitrogen, and therefore is slowest to undergo decom- position. This arises from the miscellaneous nature of their food, and the fact that their digestive organs being very • Professor Sprcgnel. REASON -vvHr. 121 ' And here I draw my heaps of finest mould, Mixing half quantity of dung that's old, — Esteem'd by husbandmen like hoards of gold."— Laweenxe. powerful, they exhaust the substances upon which they are fed. Only when they are very highly fed, for purposes of fatting, does their manure become of any value. Pig dung developes very little heat while undergoing putrefaction, and yields but little ammonia.* 466. Wliy do esculents, when manured with pig dung, acquire a very disagreeable flavour ? This arises from a substance, peculiar to the excrements of the pig, — a volatile excrement — at present imperfectly known.* 467. Wliy are the excrements of pigeons and fowls more potent as manure than those of geese ? Because the former live chiefly upon grain, insects, and worms, while geese eat largely of grass. 468. WJiy should the yards and houses where pigeons and poultry are kept, be strewed with some soil abundant in vegetable mould ? Because their excrements are very rich in ammonia, which has a tendency to escape. The humus of the soil, however, would absorb and fix it. Strewing the ground with sand and sawdust, as commonly practised, is of no use whatever.* 469. Wliy do the droppings of geese, which come in contact with grass, destroy it in a short time ? Because the uric acid and ammonia which the droppings contain are highly caustic. Wlien-rain happens to fall, these * Professor Spregnel. 122 THE gardener's ajto farmer's " There Honour conies, a pilgi-im gray, To bless the tnrf that wraps their clay. And freedom shall awhile repair. To dwell a weeping hermit there!" — Collins. caustic subtances are diluted, and the grass grows best in places where the excrements lie, as may be seen in any goose pasture. 470. Why does sheep dung come into more immediate action as a manure, than the dung of cattle ? Because sheep dung consists of more finely divided parts. It also contains more of the easily decomposable substances containing nitrogen ; for while the solid excrement of cattle, in 1000 parts of weight, contains only from 105 to 112 of substances that are quickly decomposed, that of sheep contains no less than 180 such parts. 471. If we consider that sheep dung consists of very finely divided parts, in consequence of the minuteness to which sheep chew their food, we shall easily understand how it happens that it comes sooner into action thdn the dung of cattle, and whence it arises that when lying in heaps, it becomes so much heated. 472. The excremeiits of the coio, when fed on green spurry, contain 15 or 16 per cent, of vegetable fibre, while the excrements of sheep fed on hay contain only 14 per cent, of that substance ; now, as the amount of water in cattle dung is about 4 per cent, greater than in that of sheep, and since the proportion, therefore, of vegetable fibre ought to be the largest in sheep dung, we may draw the conclusion, as before, that sheep digest u portion of the vegetable fibre itself. 473. From the pulpy nature of cattle dung, and the firmer character of sheep dung, we might, indeed, conclude that the difference in the proportion of water they each contained would be greater than 4 or 6 per cent. ; but the vegetable fibre being in a finer state in sheep than in cattle dung, it is capable of retaining more water within its interstices without such additional water being obvious. Now, although the excrements of the sheep undergo a quicker decomposition than those of cattle, this does not take place In the ordinary mods in which the sheep EEASON WHY. 123 ' He pores in wonder on the mighty change, "Which suns anfl showers perform, and thinks it strange; Arid though no philosophic reasoning draws, His musing marvels turn to nature's cause." — Clare, manure is obtained, there being a deficiency in the moisture requisite, and tlie dung so firmly trodden down by the sheep, which is not tied up like the ox, that oxygen, whicli is essential in every case of quick decomposition, can gain no entrance : accordingly, in sheep manure ■which has lain perhaps a year or more in the sheep-house, we always find solid excrements in which scarcely any change is perceptible. 474. All the products which arise from the putrefaction of the solid excrements of cattle appear also on the putrefaction of sheep dungj the latter, however, also yields much ammonia ; hence it is obvious that sheep dung must contain more substances with nitrogen for an element than cow dung does ; and this is exactly the reason why sheep dung go quickly passes into decomposition. 475. In cattle, the substances containing nitrogen, which are secreted from the body of the animal, occur more in the urine ; but we might almost imagine that, with the same food, the fluid and solid excrements of the sheep, taken together, would possess more substances containing nitrogen than are contained in the whole of the excrements of cattle, since the former develope, as it appears, a rather larger quantity of ammonia than the latter.* 476. Why are liquid manures, in some material points, more economical than dry manures? Because, if manures are kept in a suificient quantity of water, so as to become thoroughly amalgamated with it hy fermentation, the whole process of decomposition is accom- plished before the manure is placed in the ground; and, provided ordinary care be taken to prevent loss by evaporation, EVERT PORTION OP THE MAH^URE IS SECURELY CONFIDED TO THE SOIL. In the solid form, on the contrary, the act of decomposition takes place, partly in heaps in the farm- yard, but chiefly in or upon the ground, and unless immediately succeeded by heavy rain, or completely covered with soil, A CONSIDERABLE WASTE OP VOLATILE SALTS MUST ENSUE. * Professor Spregnel, 124 THE gaedener's and faemek's * Digested heaps of miscellaneous mould, Exposed to summer's heat, and winter's cold, Enrich the native earth, and make it light. And all its fermentations expedite." — Lawrence. 477. It is another important desideratum that the plant should find in the soil a regular supply of food during the tvhole period of its growth, and that it should not be over-fed at one stage of its existence, and starved at another. Hence the necessity of providing that the soil about the roots should contain a fund of manure, or manure-producing substances, in such a condition as to maintain a regular and even supply, until the plant has reached maturity, or a further quantity can be placed in the soil. It is essential to the perfect action of the manure that the process of decomposition of the undissolved particles should CONTINUE IN ACTION, and the storage of dissolved manure be maintained, at least as long as the crop to be fed remains in the ground. It has been thought by some that this is not the case with liquid manure, and the conjecture is sometimes correct in the case of a light SOIL dressed with urine; but practice, as well as the valuable experiments of Professor Way, declare that an application of liquid, or liquejied manure, deserves a higher character for permanence of effect, especially on clay soils, than has usually teen accorded to it.* ■ 478. Why does comparatively little henefit result from the application of liquid manures to stiff soils ? Because such soils generally abound in all the mineral matters which are required by cultivated plants, and also contain an appreciable quantity of nitrogenized organic matters, in comparison -with whicli the fertilizing constituents of liquid manures are altogether insignificant. Such soils, moreover, possess in a high degree the power of absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, and retaining it ; and, in addition to this ammonia, under good cultivation, the vegetable remains left in the soils in the shape of roots and, leaves from the former corps, yield plenty of organic food for plants. 479. It is true that stiff soils are not always very productive ; but, generally speaking, they contain within • II. Dymond. REASON WHY. 125 * The foe. the victim, and the fond ally Tliat fights for all, but never fights in vain, Are met— as if at home they could not die — And fertilize th£ ileld they each pretend to gain."— Byron. themselves all the elements of fertility, and it is only for want of proper cultivation that their productive powers ai s n-ot fully developed. 480. Moreover, all clay soils are generally more than efficiently wet during the early part of the year ; the additioual quantity of water supplied in liquid manure, renders them wetter still ; and as much heat is absorbed during the evaporation of water, the injury done to the land by the resulting cold would not, I amagine, be counterbalanced by the small proportion of fertilizing matters supplied. 481. Again, clay soils, whetlier fertile or barren, and all land that is moderately stiff, like the majority of soils in England, must, by a heavy dose of liquid manure be rendered closer. Such soils certainly would not be improved in their physical character by an excess of water. The use of liquid manure, at a time when such land is more than sufficiently wet, is therefore objectionable. It is equally objectionable when stiff soils get too dry. In summer, soils of that description crack in all directions, and the liquid manure then runs through the cracTis instead of passing through the soil, or it moistens the soil but very, imperfectly. Much of the liquid manure is thus lost, and, moreover, injury is done by the insufficient proportion of manure that is absorbed by a thin layer of the surface soil, for it causes at first a. more rapid! development of the young plants, which receive a sudden check as soon as the small quantity of moisture is all evaporated.* 482. It will be observed that there is a difference of opinion between Dr. Voelcker and Mr. Dymond, — both very respectable authorities, — upon the adaptability of liquid manures for stiff soils. Probably the question at issue depends more upon the chemistry of the soil, than upon the tenacity, upon which Dr. Voelcker lays so much stress. 483. Why is putrid urine one of the most-valuable manures? Fresh urine contains some three per cent, of a white, Boluble, crystalizable substance, called "urea," which, on contact with water and the mucous matter contained in the * Dr. Voelcker. ' 126 THE gardener's and farmer's ' Meao is the taste of all enjoyments here Where reason does not act as arbiter." — Lawbence. urine, imdergoes, under tlie influence of this means (which acts towards it, in all probability, in the same manner as yeast does towards sugar), a peculiar change, or fermentation, whereby it becomes converted into carbonate of ammonia, and in that state is taken up and assimilated by the plant. It furnishes, in short, the same substance as the atmosphere, — the food of plants provided by nature herself. Moreover, urine contains a large quantity of phosphates, bodies indispensable to vegetable life.* 484. Why, in manuring growing plants with urine, should we take care that it is free from admixture with solid excrements ? Because they occasion on the leaves an incrustation which injures their growth ; with this further evil, that the plants are thus rendered loathsome to cattle. |485. One of the uses of manuring with urine, whicli has hitherto been little regarded, consists in this, that earth-worms and the larva, or grubs, of various insects, which, in many countries, do such extra- ordinary injury to the young rye, are destroyed by it; this effect is produced, as my own experiments, made expressly on this point, have shown, by the ammonia of the urine ; for, if we water a field much infested with earth-worms, with a solution of carbonate or caustic ammonia, the worms come immediately to the surface, writhe for some time, and then die. Probably, also, the cockchafer grub, when not too deep in the ground, might be destroyed in the same manner; a fact that would be of great importance to many districts.t 486. Why should urine he diluted hefore being applied as a manure ? Because it has been found that the diluted liquid contains * Dr. Fownes, " On the Food of Plants."— Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. t Professor Spregnel. REASON WHY.. 127 " The fields, whicll answered well the ancient's plough, Spent and out-worn, return no harvest now ; In barren age, ^vild and unglorious lie. And boast of past fertility." — Cowlet. nearly four times as much ammonia as urine left to putrify in its natural state, though it retained only 0'4 less of urea.* 487. Why has the fresh urine of cattle a yellow colour ? This is due to the presence of a resinous matter, secreted hy the kidneys of the animals. On standing a long time 5s;posed to the air, the urine assumes a brown, and, at last, a black colour. These changes may be ascribed to the formation of humic acid from the organic bodies which are passing into decomposition, f 488. Why is the urine derived from cattle in summer, a better manure than that which they yield in winter ? Because, in summer, fresh urine of cattle always contains ammonia ; ■while, in winter, it does not contain' a trace of it. In hot weather the urea, which is the principal source of ammonia, undergoes decomposition while remaining in the animal body. 489. Urine, which has been exposed for a year and a half in contact with the air, no longer contains any organic remains, but salts only, or mineral bodies dissolved in water ; and as it is still endued, nevertheless, with strong manuring properties, this proves that we must ' reckon minerals among the real means of food for plants ?'\ 490. Why, when fresh urine is applied to plants, does it cause in them a sickly condition ? Because of the excess of caustic ammonia which the fluid contains, the urea, too, ought \o bear a part of the blame, since it is very difficult for plants to assimilate organic matters unless- such matters he dissolved in a large quantity of * R. Dymond. • f Professor Spregnel. 128 THE gakdekee's and taemer s " The coarse lean gravel on the mountain sides. Scarce dewy beverage for the bees provides."— Dbtden. water. For this reason we allow the urine to become putrid before making use of it, in order that the urea may be decomposed, and the caustic ammonia converted into the state of cai'bonate, muriate, or acetate of ammonia. 491. The caustic ammonia arising in every case from the decom- position of urea and the other organic bodies of urine which contain nitrogen, remains partly dissolved in water, and is the substance through which urine, not properly putrefied, is so apt to injure plants. 492. Why does putrefying urine emit a peculiarly pungent odour ? 493. Because in summer the urea, mucus, and albumen, held in solution in the urine, pass very quickly into a state of putrefaction, and much ammonia is developed in the form of gas; likewise carlonia acid, and a portion of sulphuretted hydrogen, which likewise partly assume the gaseous state. The last two gases are the chief cause of the peculiar odour.* 494. Why does the putrefaction of urine modify and improve its effects ? Because, when the urine remains a long time exposed to the air, the caustic ammonia absorbs from it carbonic acid, BECOMES MILD, and is then adapted as a manure for vegetation. Urine which has been putrefying for a month contains more than as much again of ammonia as urine in its fresh state, and the ammonia is then chiefly in a combined and mild state.* 495. Why does the admixture of water with urine which is left to putrify, give an increased quantity of ammoniacal manure ? Because the ammoniacal gas has a strong tendency to escape • Professor Spregnel. REASON WHT. 129 " The richest soil is most to weeds inclined, And plants delicious thus are undermined; Strangers— we know not who, nor whence they come, Insult the natives in their proper Lome." — Lawkence. during the putrefactive process. 'Now, water absorbs this gas ; if, therefore, the urine is mixed with an equal quantity of water, it is enabled to absorb more than as much again of ammoniacal gas, and no fuethee escape op gas takes PLACE, at least in no considerable degree, provided the liquid be kept in a cool place. Thus double the quantity of ammoniacal liquor is obtained. 496. There is another advantage : the larger quantity of liquid is now able to retain more of the carbonic acid developed within it, and even to attract some from the atmosphere, and this acid, becoming chemically combined with the aviTnonia, renders it mild, and ventilates it. Lastly, the greater bulk of the liquid enables it to absorb a greater quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and on this account urine, diluted with water, contains more sulphuretted hydrogen than unmixed urine does.* 497. Why should cattle urine not be left to putrefy for too long a period? Because, when it is kept for three months, or longer, in the tank, a considerable portion of the carbonate of ammonia formed in it is lost, for the carbonate evaporates, as well as the caustic ammonia, though more slowly. A small quantity of carbonate of ammonia is also continually evaporating from urine, even wlien mixed with water, and therefore when the caustic ammonia has been rendere'd mild by its conversion into cai'bonate, no time should be lost in applying it as a manure to groiving plants. 498. The escape of the volatile ammonia is, however, prevented most completely when the urine is mixed with humus (motild), and then either left to putrefy, or laid on the field and immediately ploughed in. Urine five or six months old, contains not a trace of its original urea, mucus, and albumen ; on the other hand, there are found in it carbonate, sulphate, and humate of ammonia, humate of lime, and • Professor Spregnel. 130 THE GAEDENEE's AND FAEMEE'S " Nor thou disdain To check the lawless riot of the trees, To plant the grove, or. turn the barren mould." magnesia, common salt, and also some combined fonns of ammonia. The acide belonging to the class of organic bodies, which still remain, do not injure vegetation, being united to ammonia, and therefore in some measure incorporated as inorganic manures.* 499. Why, when a scum, with froth and bubbles, accu- mulate ore the surface of putrefied urine, are they indications that the liquid is fit for use ? fiecause these ai'e indications that the fermentation of the urine is completed, and that it may NOW be applie'd without injury to growing vegetables ; for the scum and bubbles are occasioned by the carbonic acid, which cannot even begin to escape until it has saturated all the ammonia present. 500. A scum is also formed on the surface of the urine at the commencement of the putrefaction, but this immediately ceases when the urea passes into decomposition ; ammonia being thus produced, which will combine chemically with the carbonic acid. 501. In Belgium it is the practice, in order to strengthen the manuring property of urine mixed with water, to add rape-cake to the liquid, and allow them, to putrefy together in the tank. The rape-cake contains many substances (of the nature of vegetable albumen) having nitrogen as one of their elements, which dOTelope accordingly much ammonia on their decomposition; also a considerable quantity of carionic acid, which immediately -combines with the ammonia of the urea, as well as with that of the rape-cake, and renders it less volatile. This acid likewise neutralizes the caustic qualities of the ammonia, converting it into a beneficial manure. 502. The addition of rape-cake to putrefying urine diluted with water deserves, on account of these advantages, to be practised in other countries. Some indeed think that the water, because it becomes putrid, is a manure ; but tliis is not the case, for it is not the water that putrefies, but only the organic matters held by it in * Professor Spregnel. REASON WHY. 131 ' In ripening SiJminer the full laden vales Give prospect of, employment for tlie flails; Eacli Ijreath of wind tlie Ijearded groves makes bend "VVliich seems the fated sickle to portend." — Thomson. solution ; the bulk, however, of the liquid serving the purpose, as we have seen, of absorbing and retaining the gases developed during putrefaction. Instead of the rape-cake, we might, indeed, add to the tank many other vegetable substances yielding much carbonic acid on decomposition, particularly such as . are in a green state, as weeds from the garden and fields.* 503. Why should undecomposed urine he applied to the soil in those cases where it is admissible ? Because of the loss of fertilizing power -whicli necessarily occurs in the course of fermentation, Although urine whioh froths and scums no longer contains caustic ammonia, and consequently is no longer injurious to vegetable life— ' how much ammonia, up to the moment when this is the case, has escaped in the form of gas, and how much of the choicest manuring element has been, up to that point, lost by the urine? 504. On this consideration, we should at once hasten to convey the urine as fresh as possible to the field : but to a field which has NO ckop ON it. In fact, -whoever is obliged, for want of straw, to collect the urine separately, — whoever, if he be compelled to do this, mixes no water with it, or who fails also to employ some neutralizing substance to combine with the ammonia which is produced in so great a degree during the summer, suffers a loss of manure which exceeds all belief. 505. It is, indeed, only a gaseous substance, and not a solid material visible to the eye, which thus escapes and is lost ; but, for all that, it is of greater importance to the nourishment of plants, than perhaps any other portion of the excrements. 506. It is a common supposition that urine, in order to lose its caustic qualities, should putrefy in summer for five or six weeks, and in winter (provided the tank be well covered in) for eight or nlna * Professor Spregnel. F 2 132 THE <}AIlDEIfER's AND FARMEK'S " From their tenements, Pleased and refreshed, proceeds the caravan Tlirough lively spreading cultures, pastures green, And yellow tillages in opening woods." — ^Dtee. weeks; but no fixed rules can be laid down on this point, as the quicker or slower rate of putrefaction depends upon the temperature of the air. The ripeness of the urine for manuring crops has arriyed when it contains neither caustic ammonia, nor urea; a circumstance, however, which can only be ascertained with certainty by chemical investigation. If we add, for example, a small quantity of sulphuric acid to the urine, and there should arise, after a few moments, a gentle eifervescence, we may assume that all the ammonia is saturated with carbonic acid: should, however, the effervescence ensue only after the addition of a further quantity of sulphuric acid, we may hence conclude that the urine still contains caustic ammonia. From the quantity of sulphuric acid required to effect this effervescence, or disengagement of carbonic acid, we may further draw an inference of the amount of ammonia still remaining in the urine uncombined with carbonic acid, as the sulphuric acid in the first instance saturates the free ammonia, before acting on that which is combined with carbonic acid. By means of a strip of blue litmus paper we may ascertain whether the whole of the carbonate of ammonia has been seized upon by the sulphuric acid ; for when the paper is turned permanently red, the sulphuric acid has not only taken the whole of the ammonia into combination, but an excess of the acid is then present.* 507. Why is urine more efficacious on light sandy soils than on clays and strong loams ? 508. Because the urine takes a longer period to penetrate clays, so that much of its carbonate of ammonia, which should be imparted to vegetation, escapes as gas. Urine has another advantage on light sandy soils, namely, its binding them, in some degree, into a more consistent state ; while imperfectly decomposed dung, on the contrary, only renders them still lighter.* 509. Why is it unprofitable to lay urine on soils during a black frost ? Because, when it becomes frozen before being absorbed • Professor Spregnel. REASON WHY. 133 " Shot up from broad rank blades that droop below. The nodding wheat-ear forms a graceful bow, With milky kernels starting full, weigh'd down. Ere yet the sun hath tinged its head with brown."— Bloomfield. by the earth, the greater part of the carbonate of ammonia escapes in the course of a few days. Thus, the very essence of the manure is lost. 510. When the ground is covered with snow, on the contrary, it can be more easily applied ; but it is always better to wait until the ground is again open ; for the urine is rapidly absorbed by the soil, and the whole of the ammonia generally meets with so much humic acid that it becomes at once neutralized and fixed in the resulting Uumate of ammonia. If we would see the rapidity with which even the solid carbonate of ammonia volatilizes in winter, we have only to lay a weighed portion of it in the open air, and weigh it again a few days afterwards.* 511. Why is a thin liquid manure generally best adapted to sandy soils ? Because there ai'e many such soils in which, like magnesia, phosphoric acid and other minerals occur, but, m very small quantities. If such soils are manured with a too concentrated liquid or other manure, there will not be a sufficient quantity of mineral food in the soil and the manure, to counterbalance the injurious effect which an over-dose of purely nitrogenous food is well known to produce. Grass land, under such circumstances, will produce produce abundant, but rank, innutritions, bad-keeping hay; wheat will give abundance of straw, but little and inferior corn ; Swedes, turnips, and other root-crops, will make rapid progress, and then become attacked by disease. 512. We should therefore dilute liquid manure largely, if we wish to put it on poor sandy soils. Diluted with much water, it penetrates a larger mass of soil, and, so to speak, becomes more saturated with the mineral fertilizing matters that are wanted by the plant, and are so sparingly distributed throughout the soil. Liquid manure is particulary well adapted for porous sandy soils, because it penetrates them when properly diluted, deeply and uniformly, which is a great -* Professor Spregnc!. v 134 THE gabdenee's and faemek's " The statile yields a stercoraceous heap, Impregnated with qnicfc fermenting salts, And potent to resist the freezing Wast." — Cowper. advantage, since the porous nature of sand allows the roots of plants to penetrate the soil to a greater depth, in search of food. In other words, sandy soils are excellent yehicles for holding a diluted liquid manure, in which the different constituents occur in an immediately available, or cooked condition.* 513. Wh7j is water an essential constituent of the food of plants ? One reason is, because plants derive their nourishment from the soil by means of spongioles, those soft, succulent extremities of the fibres which spread forth in every direction from the roots, and whose function it is to imbibe the food of the plant. This food consists of carbonic acid, ammonia, and various mineral matters, which must pass in a state of solution, by means of the spongioles, to the roots, and, rising thence to the stem, become converted, by a digestive process, into those substances which compose the structure of the plant. Water, therefore, is an indispensable constituent of plant-food, and no manure can enter the plant, until brought into a state of solution by this essential element. 514. The universal presence of water in manure is a fact that thrusts itself into notice in every dealing with the subject. Chemistry declares that it enters largely into the composition of even the solid forms of manure. Every ton of rich stable-dung contains 168 gallons of water j whilst even guano, dry as it is in appearance, contains from 12 to 17 per cent, of the same element of solution. By adding yet more water, until what was solid becomes liquid manure, we add no new constituent to the mass, but simply increase the proportion of one that it before contained, t * Dr. Voelcker. t E. Dymond "On Liquid Mannre."— Bath and West of England Society's Agricultural Journal. REASON WHY. 135 • Soon as tlie morning trembles o'er the sky, And, unperceived, unfolds the spreading day ; Before the ripened field the Reapers stand. In fair array." — Thomson. 515. Why are liquid manures better adapted than solid for fertilizing purposes ? It is obvious that the more manure is disintegrated before It is committed to the soil, the more evenly it will be diffused. Without this disintegration, it will necessarily occur that one root, by its close neighbourhood to a lump of manure, will be surfeited, and perhaps poisoned, whilst another can find no source of nourishment within its reach. 516. That liquid manure is better adapted than solid for securing this desideratum, it needs no laboured argument to prove. The particles held in mechanical suspension are left in the soil by the simple process of mechanical filtration, whilst the water, which floated them to their destination, is evaporated or passed through the soil to a porous substratum, or is carried off through artificial drains. This separation of manure from the water is not only complete as regards the suspended particles, but as to the soluble portions also. Soils, and especially day soils, operate chemically in wresting every portion of the manure from the water which had been its vehicle. The water, in passing through the soil, hands over to its keeping that portion of the manure which is absolutely dissolved, whilst, at the same time, it deposits, in a state of minute division, those other portions which it held in suspension, and which will also, by the process of decomposition, become, in due time, the food of plants.* 517. Why does the water given to animals influence their excretions ? Because water differs materially in quality, according to the sources from which it is derived : whether it is simply rain water, collected in tanks ; or spring or river water, impregnated with mineral ingredients. 518. As a single ox drinks daily eighty and more pounds of water and there exists frequently in this quantity from half an ounce to an ounce of saline matters, consisting of gypsum, common salt, phosphate * E. Dymond. 136 THE gaedener's and FAEjVIEE's *' And all day long the winnowed chaff Floats round him on the sultry breeze, And shineth like a settling swarm Of golden-winged and belted bees."— Stdddakd. of lime (dissolved in carbonic acid), carbonate of potash, carbonate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia, it results, if we reckon a cow in the course of a year to furnish manure for about one English acre, that sixteen pounds per acre of these salts will be supplied by the water taken as drink, and, although it must be allowed that this is not much, it deserves at the same time to be taken into account. 519. It has been also maintained that the state of health of the animal may have a considerable influence on the goodness of the excrements, and that they will be so much the better the healthier the animal may be; no suflicient reason is, however, advanced for this assertion, for the stronger and healthier the animals are, the more do they exhaust the food given to them of those materials which ai'e the best manures, as nitrogen, stdphur, phosphorus, chlorine, S;c. 520. There does, indeed, exist a difference between the excrements of cattle in summer and winter : when the summer is very hot the process of digestion proceeds unfavourably, and as a natural consequence the food is less exhausted ; on the other hand, when the weather is cold, the animals have a better digestion, and on that account abstract from the food more of its nourishment, or (what amounts tp the same thing) more of its manuring elements. 521. It may always be regarded as an indication that the excrements of animals contain many powerfully manuring substances when they pass quickly into the putrefactive state, and develope a large quantity of the offensive gases and ammonia ; for in such cases they contain, jiot only much sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen, but an abundance also of chlorine, soda, potash, lime, and magnesia; the whole of which, as we already know, are so much the more important in vegetation, as the soil manured with the excrements is deficient in these particular substances.* 522. Why, although fresh urine and solid excrements are in general hurtful when applied to growing crops, does fold-manuring prove beneficial ? Because the urine of sheep contains a larger proportion of water than that of cattle ; and also, even with the strongest • Trofessor Spregnel. REASON WHY. 137 " Hark I where the sweeping scythe now rips along, Each sturdy Mower, emulous and strong, Whose writhing form meridian heat defies, Bends o'er his worlc, and every sinew tries." — Bloomfield, fold-manuring the ground receives only a proportionately small quantity of droppings. Thus, growing plants suffer no injury from the fresh manure in folding, for they are able to digest sufficiently the small quantity which they absorb. 523. It has been a practice of late years to sprinkle the droppings of the fold with gypsum powder before ploughing in, and, it is said, with good effect. It is possible that the gypsum .undergoes decom- position by the carbonate of ammonia produced from the droppings, carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia being formed ; and as the latter salt is more soluble in water than gypsum, it must, of course, come sooner into action. Gypsum requires 450 times its weight of water to dissolve it, while sulphate of ammonia is soluble in four or five times its weight. If this explanation, therefore, be correct, the operation cannot fail to be of use, especially in very dry seasons, when gypsum alone will not act.* 524. Why is the urine of the horse less valuable than that of cattle as a manure ? Because the nitrogen derived from the food is partly lost by evaporation through the skin, combined with hydrogen; the perspiration of the horse always having, from this cause, an ammoniacal odour. Horse urine is never worth the trouble of being collected ajid employed by itself, but is brought to the soil in mixture with solid excrement and litter.* 525. Why is pig urine more caustic in its fresh state thari that of cattle? Because it contains 1| per cent, more of urea, out of which a greater supply of ammonia is created. Accordingly, before pig urine can be applied to plants, it should have undergone putrefaction. The ill effects of pig urine, not properly * Troressor Sprci;nel. 138 THE gardener's and farmer's " Sleep not at noon, ye Threshers, from the com When in hrisk eddies the hght chaff is borne; Rise, Reapers, with the lark (yet seek the shed At noon) and with the lark retire to hed." — Theoceitus. putrefied, are coimnonly ascribed to the presence of a peculiar acidity ; but tket/ arise Jrom no other cause than the caustic ammonia. 526. It is asserted that when the urine of the pig gets into a pond containing fish, it Mils them. Should this be actually the case, the effect would probably be occasioned by sulphuretted hydrogen, resulting from, the decomposition of gypsum, or gaseous poison, to the action of which fishes are very sensitive, and of which a very small quantity kills them instantly.* 527. Why has the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works been found to fail as a fertilizer, in certain cases? This liquor owes its chief fertilizing value to the ammonia, which exists in it almost altogether as a carbonate, and contains nothing detrimental to vegetable life ; but, like oxygen, which is so essential for animal life, carbonate of ammonia must be considerably diluted, in order that it may produce a beneficial efiect. In the instances where it has failed, it has been applied in an undiluted form, and being too powerful, has burnt up the vegetation it was designed to stimulate.'f 528. Why may gas tar be applied to lands undiluted? Because, though seemingly stronger than the ammoniacal liquor, it contains but little of the carbonate of ammonia, and for this reason may be applied undiluted, without danger of burning up the young plants. 529. As far as the tar itself is concerned, I am inclined to ascribe to it an injurious effect as a fertilizer ; for it must retard the decomposition of organic remains in the soil, or in the compost heap to which it is added, and must thus delay the necessary preparation to which most organic refuse matters must be submitted before they can • Professor Spregnel. t Dr. Voelcker. REASON WHT. 139 " Before the ripened field the Heapers stand, At once they stoop and swell the lusty sheaves ; Behind the master walks; builds up the shocks." — Thouson. be assimilated by the growing plants. If, notwithstanding, ga^-tar produces a good effect, it is only on account of the ammonia contained in ammoniacal liquor with which it is mechanically mixed. 530. There cannot remain, however, a shadow of a. doubt, that the ammoniacal liquor is a far more powerful, and at the same time economical manure, which will produce no injurious, and just as beneficial effects as gas-tar, when properly diluted with water. And, as ammoniacal liquor is cheaper ^than gas-tar, and as a fertilizer goes at least ten times as far as the tar, the utility of knowing on what principle the fertilizing effects of both refuse manures depend, will become at once apparent.* 531. Whi/ do decaying callage leaves emit a peculiarly offensive sulphureous odour? Because a part of the ' sulphur contained in the leaves unites with the hydrogen, either of water, or of the decomposing vegetable texture, and escapes as sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 532. Whoever has experienced the horrible smell of sulphuretted hydrogen given off by a large heap of fermenting broccoli or cabbage- leaves, will be ready to think that a very large part of the sulphur contained in the brassica tribe is unoxidized, and in the process of decomposition unites with hydrogen and becomes volatile, in preference to taking oxygen and remaining fixed. I have several times had an opportunity of testing this upon a neighbouring farm, where vegetables were largely grown. Fi-om twenty to thirty cart-loads of refuse broccoli leaves was no uncommon accumulation in the spring, and the odour given off would have convinced the most sceptical of the position here taken, without any attempt at chemical investigation. I once noticed the same phenomenon in an open field of broccoli belonging to the same farmer. The plants were planted about eighteen inches apart, and most of the lower leaves fell off and decayed where they fell. The smell was so offensive as to be a general subject of complaint, and several persons attempted to obtain a mitigation of the nuisance through the authorities. ' * Dr. Voclcker. 140 THE gaedenek's and farmer's " Hour after lioiir, and day to day succeeds ; Till every clod and deep-drawn ftirrow spreads To crumbling mould ; a level surface clear. And strewed with corn to cro^vn the rising year." — Bloomfield. 533. Putrefying nightsoil is well known to give off a large part of its sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen, and hydrosulphate of ammonia, and that the same thing occurs to every manure-heap may be proved by any one who -will take the pains to collect and condense the fumes which arise, and to analyse the product so obtained. I believe that all the unoxidized sulphur takes hydrogen in preference to oxygen in a manure heap, but am far from supposing that the loss of sulphur from the formation and volatilization of sulphuretted hydrogen is limited to that; for I believe that sulphates are constantly decomposed by the agency of hydrogen, which combines with their oxygen to form water, and then with their sulphur as sulphuretted hydrogen. That this is quite possible, any farmer may easily satisfy himself.* 534. Why is the practical chemist able to determine the component parts of plants, soils, or manures, and to declare their properties and value ? Because, by extensive chemical knowledge of elementary and compound substances, and the manner in which they are affected by water, and other solvents, he is able to separate the component parts of soils, and ascertain their peculiar properties. In doing so, he takes care to draw forth the several components as they naturally exist IN THE SOIL, and NOT to produce other compounds ,/>ohi them hy disturbing their original arrangements. 535. Take an example of a very simple process of analysis, which may indicate in some degree how the cliemist proceeds in matters of greater difficulty : Mix common salt and sand. It would be almost impossible to separate them perfectly by picking out their individual grains, even if aided by a fine forceps, and n. powerful magnifier; therefore, as such mechanical means fail in effecting the desired analysis, chemical means must be tried. 536. Experience teaches that water will dissolve salt, and that it will NOT dissolve sand : this simple fact affords a clue to the method of effecting their separation. Agitate the mixture with water, then allow • liev. W. E. Bowditch. REASON WHT. 141 ' And mirth and music ctieer the toil ; While sheaves that stud the russet soil, And sickles gleaming in the sun Tell jocund harvest is begun."— Pringle. it to rest ; the sand will rapidly sinTi to the bottom of the glass, and leave the water perfectly clear, yet containing nearly the whole of the salt in solution. Decant this from the sand, into a shallow basin, place it in a ivarm even, that the chemical agency of heat may dry AVAY THE WATER, and then the solid salt will remain, 537. Take another example : Mix equal heaps of salt, sand and sawdust. Suppose them to represent three distinct components of a SOIL, and that their separation will be required. Agitate with water, as before, then allow it to rest : the sand will sinh, the salt will dissolve} and the sawdust will float : then decant the solution into a fine sieve ; the sawdust will be caught by the sieve ; the sand will remain in the vessel from which the solution is decanted; and the solution of salt may then be evaporated to dryness.* 538. Why, in submitting soils to analysis, should due regard he paid to the geological characteristics of the lands from whicji the samples are taken ? Because the earth frequently contains a number of veins or strata in the same formation ; and rnany of these strata often crop out, or come to the surface of the earth in the space of a hundred yards ; also, each of these strata is composed of very different matter, as respects colour as well as substance ; therefore, soil taken from either of those strata and analysed, cannot give the contents of any one of the others. 539. It is true, that on arable land, the different strata become mixed in a degree by the action of the plough and harrow, but not enough to make the soil of the whole field alike. I have observed, in the spring of the year, in dry weather, iliia,t scarcely any piece of arable Idnd is of the same colour all over ; some of several different shades in the space of eight or ten acres ; and I have come to the conclusion that the difference in colour is caused by the different strata coming up to the surface. » » • j apprehend it will be necessary, before chemistry can decide the relative fertility or barrenness of a whole farm, or parish, or district of country, or even a single » Professor Griffith's "Chemistry of the Four Seasons." 142 THE gaedener's and farmer's " The harvest treasures all Kow gathered in beyond the rage of storms Sure to the swain ; the circling fence shut up, And instant Winter's utmost rage defied."— Thomsok. district, or field, to examine eveJy stratum tliat crops out in sncli a field, and the subsoil immediately under it ; also its colour, consistencv, and the vegetation thereon.* 540. What are the main points of agricultural chemistry vpon which cor^icting opinions have been formed ? They are those represented by the discussion between Baron Liebig and Mr. Lawes. In the year 1840, Baron Liebig first published in England his great work on agricultural chemistry. In that work the leading principle advanced was, that in order permanently to maintain the fertility of cultivated land, it was necessary to restore to it ALL the substances contained in the various crops exported from the farm. 541 . But however perfect the theory in the case of normal vegetation, such as that of our natural woods and plains, or when applied to the reclamation of a virgin gravel-pit, it was soon found that the teaching of Baron Liebig's work, though invaluable in its suggestive capacity, was yet not sufiiciently matured to be of use to the practical agriculturist; and the entire failure of the numerous special or UNIVERSAL manures which appeared in rapid succession, not even excepting the one which received the sanction of the great philosopher himself, plainly proved that his various conclusions required important modifications before they could be made applicable to the artificial wants of improved agriculture. These modifications have been supplied by Baron Liebig firom time to time in his later works, after personally inspecting the existing condition of practical agriculture in Great Britain. Suggestions of a totally opposite kind have been advocated by Mr. Lawes ; and it is on the comparative merits of these respective adjustments that British agriculturists are now called on to decide.t 542. About the time of the appearance of Baron Liebig's first work, Mr. J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., of Rothamsted, Herts, assisted by Dr. J. H. Gilbert, were conducting a • J. Arkell, "On the Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils."— Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society. t Ibid., Vol. XII. EEASON WHY. 143 " Unassisted through each toilsome day, "With smiling brow the ploughman cleaves his way, Draws his ft-esh parallels, and, widening still. Treads slow the .heavy dale, or climbs the hill."— Bloompield. course of scientific experiments, on the application of special manures to various crops. In the mean time, in later editions of Baron Liebig's works, and in other publications, Baron Liebig treated the mineral ingredients of manure as of paramount importance, and intimated that, if these latter were present in sufficient quantity, and in available form, the requisite nitrogen and carbon would be obtained solely from atmospheric sources. The practical deduction to be drawn from these opinions is, that the first step to be taken to improve the fertility of land is to employ a manure containing an ample supply of the mineral constituents of the crops to he grown. Professor Liebig's words were : — " The crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed, to it in manure." 543. In opposition to this, Mr. Lawes' experiments convinced him that, in the ordinary cultivation of land, the NITROGEN, and NOT THE MINERALS, would generally be found deficient, and that the first step towards improvement must therefore be, to employ a highly nitrogenous manure, especially where the growth of com was the principal object.* 544. Hence it appears that the point ij dispute, ihtolves a PUNDAMENTAL nPFERENCE, as it would, when carried out iu practice, cause an improving farmer to lay out liis money in the purchase of manures of totally different characters and effects, accordingly as he adopted the views of one or other of the opposing sentiments. The facts and arguments contifiued in the accounts of .Mr. Lawes' experiments, were considered so conclusive by practical agriculturists, that for some years past his recommendations have • For an elaborate statement of these experiments, and their results, see the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. XII. For Baron Liebig's Reply, see his " Principles of Agricultural Chemistry, with Special References to the late' Researches made in England." And for Mr. Lawes' Rejoinder, and a further series of Experiments, see the " Royal Agricultural Society's Journal," Vol. XVI. 144 THE gardener's and farmer's " From mom till night, in autumn time, When yellow harvests load the ph-iiiis, Up drive the farmers to the mill, ' And back, anon, \vilh' loaded wains," — Stoddard. been yery generally acted upon, and such excellent results obtained as to produce a deep conviction of the soundness of the views on which they were founded. In fact, the scientific creed of the British farmer of the present day might almost he said to begin and end with the tioo axioms that nitrogen is the principal detideratum in a manure for CORN, and phosphorus, in a manure for turnips.* 545. What are the practical deductions from scientific theories of agriculture, as at present accepted ? Many important problems remain yet to be solved ; and a wide field remains open for observation and experiment. In the present state of agricultural knowledge in connection with chemistry and geology, it may be assumed : — 546. — 1. That substances rich in nitrogen increase the verdure, lengthen the straw, and generally promote and prolong the growth of plants. 547. — 2. That lime, in its more common forms, generally shortens the period of growth, strengthens the stem, and hastens the time of ripenmg, both of corn and root crops. 548. — 3. That certain saline substances, applied alone, and even in comparatively minute quantity, produce a remarkable — what may almost be called a marvellous— eifect upon certain crops on certain soils. 549. — 4. But change the crop or the soil, or the season, or apply them in the same circumstances A second or A third time, and frequently no sensible eppect will follow. [This is very ably explained by Liebig's theory stated hereafter.] 550. 5. That where one substance applied alone refuses to produce a visible effect, a mixture of two or more may give rise to striking differences. 551. 6. That phosphoric acid, lime, and certain forms of organic matter are essential constituents of such a mixture as shall everywhere, and in all circumstances, produce a marked and beneficial effect on old cultivated land, to which no other manure is applied. • Journal of the Royal Agricultu/ral Society, Vol. XVI. EEASOK WHY. 145 * Tlien say, ye swains, whom weaUli and fame inspire. Might not the plough, that rolls on rapid wheels, . Save no small labour to tlie Iioe-armed gang ? " — Graing rr. 552. Such general deductions as these are important bases for future practical researches, and, perhaps, to have attained a degree of certainty in regard to them alone is worth all the expenditure the experiments have cost. We have, indeed, other more special conclusions vrhich may he regarded as probable ; for instance : — 653. — 1. That the so-called soluble saline substances — the salts of potash, soda, inagnesia, &c., are grateful to our root crops, in ■which they largely exist. 554. — 2. That those which contain sulphuric acid, have a specially beneficial action upon leguminous plants. 555. — 3. TJiat the use of common salt adds weight to the grain. ' 556. — i. That on mossy land the use of iones tends to fill the ear. 557. — 5. That lime and salt are better than lime alone on some soils, in giving strength to the straw. 558. — 6. That mineral manures, applied alone, act like lime in shortening the period of growth, 559. Such probable deductions are not without an actual money value as guides to the practical man ; hut they are almost beyond price to an advancing science, as they point the way to new experimental researches, by which the domain of ascertained truth will be enlarged.* 560. What are the views of Liebig, expressed in his latest work, after reviewing the discussions and experience of the past sixteen years ? They are set forth in his new work,f and are expressed in the following brief epitome : — 561. We have hitherto believed that plants received their food from * Professor Johnston, " On the Present State of Agriculture in its Relations to Chemistry and Geology ; " Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, Vol. IX. t Letters on Modern Agriculture, by Baron Von Liebig. Edited by John Blyth, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Queen's College, Cork. London': Walton Maberly, 1359. 146 THE gaedenee's and farmer's ' She learned the churlish axe and twybill to prepare, To steel the coulter^s edge, and sharp the furrowing share.' a SOLUTION, and that the rapidity of its effect was in direct proportion to its solubility. 562. JBut this has been u, great mistake. We have inferred from the effect of water and carbonic acid on rocks, a similarity of action on soils ; tut this conclusion is false. 563. By the simplest experiment, any one may satisfy himself tlmt rain water filtered through field or garden soil does not dissolve out a trace of potash, Hlidc acid, ammonia, or phosphoric acid. The soil does not give up to the water one particle of the food of plants which it contains. [It must be borne in mind, howerer, that in this " simple experiment," no vital action takes pari. The agencies are simply mechanical and chemical : can the result of an experiment in which these alone engage, satisfactorily determine what may occur, when life takes part in the operation ?] On the other hand, if rain and other watra:, holding- in solution ammonia, potash, phosphoric and silicic acids, be brought into contact viith the soil, these substauces disappear almost immediately from the solution ; the soil withdraws them from the water. Only such substances are zoithdrawn from the xoater by the soil as are indispensable ARTICLES OP POOD FOB PLANTS J aU Others remain wholly or in part in solution. 564. From the action just described of soil on potash, ammonia, and phosphoric acid, there can be no doubt that the mqjority of our cultivated plants cannot rec^ve out of a solution from, the soil their essential mineral constituents. 565. It is more than probable that it is assigned to the majority of our cultivated plants to receive their nourishment directly from those portions of the soil which are in immediate contact with their rootlets, and that they die when their food is presented to them in solution. The action of concentrated manures, which are said by agriculturists to bum the young plants, appears to stand in some connection with tliis supposition. 566. From the action of soils just described, it follows that plants must themselves play some peculiar part in the absorption of their food. 567. With the chemical property of soils there is associated a REASON 'WHY. 147 'Ti3 sweet to meet the morning breeze, Or list the gurgling of the brook ; Or, stretch'd beneath the shade of trees, Peruse and pause on Nature's book." — Claee, physical quality, not less remarkable : the power which they possess of attracting moisture from tJie air, and condensing it in their pores. A second source from which the dry soil derives moisture by absorption is presented by the deeper-lying moist strata. From these a constant distillation of water is taking; place towards the surface, accomx^anied by a corresponding evolution of heat. This vapour supplies the wants of plants, and at the same time raises the temperature of the ground. 568. This is one of the most remarkable natural laws : the OUTERMOST CKUST OP THE BAHTH IS DESTINED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OP ORGANIC LIPE, AND ITS BROKEN PARTICLES ARE ENDOWED WITH THE POWER OP COLLECTING AND RETAINfNG ALL THE ELEMENTS OP POOD WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL POR THE PURPOSE. 569. We have noio obtained more exact information on the part played by humus in vegetation, and can predict in what cases its presence will be beneiicial"or hurtful. We know that it is useful onZy when the soil contains in sufficient quantity the fixed mineral constituents serviceable to plants. By its decomposition in the SOIL, humus forms a source op carbonic acid, by which THE FIXED ELEMENTS OP FOOD ARE RENDERED SOLUBLE, AND CAPABLE OP BEING DISTRIBUTED IN ALL DIRECTIONS. 570. We hnow of no other way in which the earthy phosphates are dispersed through the soil, than by means of carbonic acid water. If it is true that one of the chief effedts of humus, on the decaying remains of plants in soils or in manures, consists in its forming a source of carbonic acid, with which the air and water in the ground are enriched ; if it is also true that this carbonic acid water renders the earthy phosphates soluble, then there can be no doubt that the salts OF AMMONIA, which possess the same solvent property, can in this respect replace the organic matters, and thus exert an equsilly favourable influence on the growth of plants. 571. As our cultivated plants undoubtedly absorb through the leaves as much nitrogenized food in the form of ammonia, and nitric acid from the air, as well as dissolved in rain and dew, as uncultivated plants, which receive no nitrogenized manure from the hands of man ; we can therefore conceive that the agriculturist mill seldom have to seek the reason of his poor crops in a deficiency of ammonia or 148 THE gardener's and farmer's " It3 dark green hue, its sicklier tints all fail, And ripening Harvest rustles in the gale j A glorious sight if -glory dwells below, Where Heaven's munificence makes all the show." — Bloompield. mtrogenized food aloue, and that he must first of all direct his- attention to certain other conditions, in order to improve his harvest. 572. The proximate cause of the powerful action of guano must be sought for in those matters which in it accompany the ammonia. 573. In every case the produce of a field, and the duration of its fertility, bear a fixed relation to the sum of the mineral substances in the soil. The abundance of the crop is jiroportional to the rapidity of the action of the mineral matters in a given time, By the use of tillage, the total produce of a field over a given time is not increased, but only the quantity obtained in a. given time. If a field can yield in 100 years exactly 100 remunerative wheat crops, it may, by mechanical and chemical means, be made to yield in 50 years as much as it loould have done in the 100 loithout these ineans, and in half the time, it would be exhausted in the cultivation op wheat.* 574. If one plant possesses twice the extent of surface of leaves which exists in another, it will, during the same period of vegetation, extract double the quantity of nitrogen from the air. 675. By manuring his fields with nitrogenous substances, the agriculturist exercises an immediate influence on the produce; and the effect of- these manures, through the nitrogen they contain, is in inverse proportion to the absorbing leaf and root surface, and to the length of the time the crop requires to vegetate. 576. Ammonia is necessary as food to all plants ; but a supply of it in manure is, in the agricultural sense, not useful to all cultivated plants. As a rule, the agriculturist does not manure his clover field • Tlie deduction is that agriculture, as at present pursued, tends to a present quickening and increase of produce at Uie cost of the future exhaustion of soils. Thus Liebig'says:— "The prevailmg system of agriculture fol half a century has been one of spoliation; and that, if persisted in, the inevitable result will be, at no distant date, the ruin of the fields of agriculturists, and the impoverishment of their children and posterity." Again : " The apparently remunerative employment of these means on many fields may last for a long time, ere the .agriculturist becomes aware of the injury he is douig himself by neglecting to return the mineral substances removed by his crops; but the longer lie continues by them to obtain large crops^ he is approaching nearer and nearer the limits at which they must cease.^'' KEASON \ruY. 149 ' Howe'er reluctant, let the hoe uproot The infected cane piece ; and with eager flames. The hostile myriads then to embers turn." — Gkaingee. with nitrogenous matter, because the crop of clover is generally not thereby visibly increased, or only very slightly; whilst he reaps a decided advantage in the increase of his produce by applying these matters to his com fields. The agriculturist, therefore, makes use of green crops as a means of increasing the productiveness of corn crops. 577. Green crops which thrive without nitrogenous manures, collect from the soil and condense from the atmosphere, in the form of blood and flesh constituents, the ammonia supplied from these sources. When the agriculturist feeds his cattle, sheep, and horses, with these green crops, he 'obtains in their solid and liquid excrements the nitrogen of the fodder in the form of ammonia, and highly nitrogenized products, and thereby a supply of manure for his com fields. ' 578. The agriculturist furnishes to certain plants, having » scanty supply of leaves and roots and a short existence, in quantity as manure, the nitrogen which they have not time to absorb from natural sources. » 579. The roots of plants extract their food from those portions of the soil, penetrated with water, which are in direct contact with their absorbent surfaces, and such portions of soil must contain the whole quantity necessary for the complete development of the plant, since the roots can receive none of them, except from the particles of earth ■with which they are directly in contact. 580. The exhaustion of a soil inevitably happens, even when there has been withdrawn from the soil by a course of crops only one of all the different mineral substances necessary for the nourishment of plants J fqr the one which is wanting, or exists only in deficient quantity, renders all the others inefficient, or deprives them of their activity. 581 . The quantity of food which a jilant obtains from one and the same soil is in proportion to its absorbent root surface. Of two species of plants, which require the same quantity, and a similar relation of mineral food, the one with double extent of root surface takes up double the quantity of food." * Thus it is manifested that root spreading plants are soil-feeders; that leaf- spreading plants are air-feeders -y that is, they chiefly feed upon the air and soil respectively. 150 THE gaedener's and i-aemer's " Hail, rural views ! life's pure unmingled sweets ; Long-winding walks, and ever-calm retreats! Where still succeeding charms of various kind Infuse a balmy temperance of mind."— Boyse. 582. A field is not exhausted for corn, clover, tobacco, and turnips, so long as it still yields remuiierative crops without requiring restoration of the minerals which are removed. It is exhausted at the moment when the hand of man is needed to restore to it the failing conditions of its fertility. The great majority of our cultivated fields are, in this sense, exhausted. 583. The presence of decaying organic matter in a soil does not in the slightest degree retard or arrest its exhaustion by cultivation ; it is therefore Impossible that an increase of these substances can restore the lost capacity for production.* 584. The incombustible elements of cultivated plants do not of themselves return to the soil like the combustible, or the atmosphere from which they are derived. By the hand of man alone are these essentials of the life of plants given bach to the soil. By FARM-YARD MAN TIRE, in wWch thcsc Conditions are fulfilled, the agriculturist, as if by a law of nature, restores to his field its lost powers of production. 585. Farm-yard manure restores thoroughly the power of producing the same series of crops, u, second, third, or a hundred times. It arrests fully, according to the quantity employed, the state of exhaustion ; its application may render a field more fertile, in many cases more so than ever it has been. The action of farm- yard manure depends most undoubtedly on the amount of the incombustible ash-constituents of plants in it, and is determined by these. Dung, in itself, has an agricultural value only in so far as it contains the conditions necessary for the growth of the saleable produce ; the mere size or extent of a dung-heap does not constitute its richness. 586. Were it possible for a plant to grow, flower, and bear seed vnthout the co-operation of mineral matters, it would be titterlt USELESS to man AND ANIMALS, A dog Will die of hunger in * Tlie meaning is, that restoring organic matters alone to the soil, will not prevent its becoming exhausted of mineral corutituentSt necessary to vegetable life. The addition of organic manure may stiTmilate the growth of a heavy crop of a particular plant on a given soil ; but the next crop, of the same plants upon the same soil, mat fail, though treated with the like manures, because the restoration of the mineral elemmts of the plants to the soil, has not been attended to. EBASON WHY. 151 ' Oft did the harvest to their aiclde yield ; Their furrow oft tlie stubborn glebe has brolce ; How jocund did they drive their team afield ; How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke!" — Ghat. presence of a dishful of raw or boiled white and yolk of eggs, in which is wanting one of the substances most important for the formation of blood. The first trial teaches him that such food is as inetficient as a stone for purposes of nutrition. 587. Liebig thus indicates the opinions of those who oppose his views: — Teachers of practical agriculture, universally recognised to be the most distinguished and skilful, have for sixteen years, and up , to a recent period, endeavoured to prove that these laws have' no value in connection with fertile soils; that the increase of the fertility of a field by falloio and by mechanical operations, and the removal of the mineral matters of the soil in the crops, do not diminish the duration of this fertility ; that the ground m,ay retain continuously its fertility, even when its cultivators neglect to supply the minerals which have been withdrawn, that is, to restore the original composition of the soil. They teach that a fertile field contains an inexhaustible amount of the ash-constituents of plants, and that consequently, deficiency of these can uevek occur in it; that the fertility of a soil is in exact proportion to the quantity of combustible matters, of humus, and nitrogen in it ; and that the want of fertility is owing to the want of nitrogen, and the exhaustion of the land depends on the withdrawal of the latter. Manure, they assert, does not produce its beneficial effects by returning to the ground those elements which have been withdrawn from it in com, clover, turnips," tobacco, flax, hemp, madder, wine, &c., but it is in proportion to the amount of. nitrogen it contains. Its incombustible elements only quietly look on. 588. The view held by Liebig is this, in brief: that oksanic MATTERS COME NATURALLY TO THE PLANT, IN ABUNDANCE, AND THAT THE CARE OF MAN IS REQUIRED TO RESTORE THE MINERAL CONSTITUENTS WHICH PLANTS TAKE UP PROM THE SOIL. 589. The view of those who oppose that opinion is : that the MINERAL constituents of plants exist abundantly in fertile soils, and that man is required to supply organic substances that THE plant may BE STIMULATED TO ACT UPON THE SOIL. 590. It is a matter of great importance and interest that the minds of scientific and practical men are now 152 THE gardener's AND FARMER'S " In those low paths which poverty surrounds. The I'ough rude ploughman, on his fallow-grounds. Will often stoop inquisitive to trace The opening heauties of a daisy's face."— Clare. directed to these questions. We have already given the crude theory of agriculture which prevailed in the seventeenth century, and v^liioh was followed by a " new theory" towards the commencement of the eighteenth century, which ran as follows : — 591. "Although the spirit of mercury be that active and moving part that principally appears in the generation or conception of any vegetable or animal, and is also the first that flies in the separation or dissolution of bodies; yet it is imbecile and defective without that most excellent, rich, and sulphureous principle, which is of a little thicker consistence than the spirit, and next unto it the most active ; for when any mixtui'e or compound is separated, the spirits first fly, then follow after the sulphureous particles, the temperature of every- thing so far as to the heat, consistence, and curious texture thereof doth principally depend on sulphur, from hence every plant, fruit, and flower received those infinite varieties of forms, colours, gusts, odours, signatures, and vertues ; it is that which is the proper medium to unite the more volatile mercury or spirit to the more fixed salt. This sulphur or oyly part, is easily separated and distiuguish'd in. vegetables by the more curious ; it ariseth out of the earth with the aforesaid mercury or aqueous spirit, though not at the first discernable, yet in every plant more and more matured and augmented by the sun's influence, as the seed or matrix is more or less inclined to this principle. This is also that which gives to our hot and stinking dungs, soils, or manures, the oleaginous pinguidity and fertility, aiid which begets that fiery heat which is in vegetables, hay, corn, &c., laid on heaps not thoroughly dry." * 592. The most unscientific reader will at once discover the great advances that have been made, and be encouraged to place reliance in the investigations, which are now being eagerly pursued. * Philp'a History of Progress in Great Britain, Art. : " Progress of Agriculture." REASON "WHY. 153 " Nor does tlie faithful voice Of Nature cense to prompt their eager steps !Aright; nor is tlie care of Heaven withheld From granting to the task proportioned nid." — Aicenside. II. METEOROLOGICAL INFLUEXCES AEFECTING VEGETATION ~ LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRICITY ; CLOUDS, RAIN, DEW, FROST HAIL, SNOW ; WINDS, ETC. 593. In the earliest ages, as far back as history enables us to trace the operation of thf human intellect, we find mankind interested about meteorological phenomena. A circumstance by no means astonishing, w/ien we consider the vast importance of this science to the shepherd and the agriculturist, and the interest the study of it affords, as a means of enabling men, by anticipating the event of terrible atmospheric commotions, to provide in some measure against their effects. The beauty, also, of many atmospheric phenomena, and the interesting variety of scenery which they produce for the spectator ; together with tlie natural curiosity excited about their causes, which man is organized to feel, have contributed in a great measure to Interest people in this science.* 594. As an instance of the degree of skill that may be attained in meteorological obseiTations, without absolute scientific knowledge, we may quote Saussure'a remark, that it is humiliating to those who have been much occupied in cultivating the science of meteorology, to see an agriculturist or a waterman, who has neither instrumente nor theorj', foretell the future changes of the weather many days before they happen, with a precision which the philosopher, aided by all the resources of science, would be unable to attain. t 595. What are the effects of light upon vegetation ? That which is familiarly named light, has been found to consist of three elements or properties : 1st, luminosity, or that which is commonly called light ; 2nd, heat, or that which is frequently termed the ^^ warmth of sunshine ;'' 3rd, a chemical property, manifested only from its effects, to which the name of actinism has been given. 596. Without light it is well known that no plant can thrive ; and if it do grow at all in the dark, it "is always white, and is, in all other ■• Forstcr "On Atmospheric Phenomena." t Essais sur V Hygromitrie. 154 THE gaedenek's and faemek's " The Tillage poura Her nseM sons abroad to rarious toil : The labourer here, with every instrwment Of future plenty armed." — Mallet. respects, in a weak and sickly state. Healthy plants are, probably, in a state similar to sleep in the absence of light, and do not resume their proper functions but by the influence of light, and especially the action of the rays of the sun.* 597. How necessary light is to the health of plants, may be inferred from the eagerness Tvith which they appear to long for it. How intensely does the sun-flower watch the daily course of the sun ! How do the countless blossoms nightly droop when he retires, and the blanched plant strive to reach an open chink through which his light, may reach it ! Thus a potatoe has been observed to grow up in quest of light from the bottom of a well ten feet deep ; and in a dark cellar a shoot of twenty feet in length has been met toith, the extremity of which had reached and rested at an open windowA 598. What is the immediate effect, upon vegetation of the luminous rays of the sun? The luminous rays excite and quicken the vital action of growing plants by whiclx they decompose carbonic acid gas, and extend their' growth by assimilating carbon with their systems in the form of woody fibre, and other parts of their solid structures. 599. The conclusions I am compelled to draw are — that the luminous principle of the sun's rays is essential to enable plants to effect the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and form their woody structure ; that some plants require more light than others to effect this decomposition ; as, for instance, we find the sage and ten~ week stocks decomposing carbonic acid with much less light than ths cabbage or the mini. We may also infer from numerous observations that the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants is not a simple chemical operation, but the result of the vital principle of the growing plant, which requires the external stimulus of light to call it into action, t 600. The influence of light upon vegetable substances is demonstrated » Dr. Priestley. t J. Browne. X Professor Hunt's "Researches on Light." BBASON WHY. 155 ' "What once were kernels from his hopper sown, Now browning wheat-ears and oat-bunches gro'vra ; And pea-pods swelled, by blossoms long forsook, And nearly ready for the scythe and hoolc." — Clahe. by the fSlIowing facts, which are a few only out of a large number that might be cited. Bemarkable changes take place in the colours of many vegetable, powders, such as the powdered leaves of the fox-glove, the hemlock, the henbane, the aconite, &e., which are used for chemical and medical purposes. It is found that these powders do not merely lose colour, passing from a green into a slaty gray, and, ultimately, into a dirty yellow ; but they undergo some decomposition, by which, at the same time, they lose much of their medicinal activity, and, after a time, lose their properties. The powders of Cascarilla bark, of the valerian root, a^d some others, are found to adhere with considerable firmness to the sides of the bottles turned to the light, whereas the sides in shadow are kept clear.* 601. During the hours of darkness, the flat-leaved calcalia (native of the Cape of Good Hope), assimilates large quantities of oxygen, and in the morning is as sour to the taste as sorrel. By the influence of the morning light it loses this oxygen, and at noon it is tasteless, and, by the continued action of light, still more is abstracted, and the plant is positively bitter in the evening.* 602. The leaves of plants placed in a cellar became green on exposure to a strong light from lamps, and iheiv flowers even reversed their natural periods of opening, when the cellar was illuminated by night, and kept darh by day A 603. What are the effects of solar heat ? Heat influences vegetation from the shooting of the germ, to the perfection of the fruit ; but its maximum influence appears to be exerted at the time when the flower is developed, and the seed perfected. 604. At this season the effect of solar heat is to facilitate the assimilation of oxygen by the flowers and fruit. It has been shown by Priestley, Scheele, &c., that flowers consume much more oxygen than any other part of the growing plant. Saussure has shown that flowers luill not he developed without * Professor Hunt. t I^e CandoUe. 156 THE GAEDENERS AND FARMER'S " The sharpened share shall vex the soil no more, But earth unbidden shall produce her store ; The Land shall laugh, the, circling Ocean smile, And Heaven's indulgence hless the holy isle." — Drtden. oxygen ; that, so far from giving out oxygen when exposed to ^sunshine in larger quantities, as leaves do, they consume even more oxygen than before. 605. Here we find the process which has brought the plant to this stage of growth, is reversed, and in place of the decomposition which is effected by light and actinism, we have a process of re-oxidation, under the influence of heat, which facilitates the flowering of plants, and the perfecting of their reproductive principles. 606. What is the effect of actinism ? Actinism, or the chemical property of light, qidchens germination. Seeds do not germinate well in light, but when buried in the earth, they are reached and influenced by tJse chemical rays, while the luminous ones are cut off". Wher^ however, the germ has put forth its root-leaves, these rise above the surface, and then the luminous rays stimulate those vital functions upon which the growth of the plant depends. 607. The most casual observer could not fail to remark the peculiar influences of the solar agencies, at different seasons of the year. In spring a fresh and lively green pervades the field and forest, and at this season I find the actinic principle the most active, and, as compared with light and heat, in very considerable excess. 608. In the summer, vegetation assumes a darker hue, and, as the season advances, the quantity of light and heat increases relatively to the actinic principle, in a very great degree. 609. The autumn foliage assumes a russet browTi, and at this season light and actinism both diminish, and the heat rays are relatively to them, by far the most extensive. 610. The influence of actinism in the germination of seeds, has been demonstrated by some very conclusive experiments. In Professor Hunt's work " On the Physical Phenomena of Nature," he explains that If seeds are placed under all the necessary conditions of warmth EEASON WHY. 157 ' Fair morn ascends : soft zephyr's wing O'er liill and vale renews the spring ; Where, sown profusely, herb and flower, Of balmy smell, of healing power."— Mallet. and moisture, but exposed to a strong light, they will not germinate ; but if we obstruct the luminous rays, allowing the chemical power to act, which may be done by the interposition of blue glass, the birth of the young plant proceeds without any interruption. The seed is buried in the soil, when the genial showers of spring, and the increasing temperature of the earth, furnish the required conditions for this chemistry of life, and the plant eventually springs into sunshine. If, however, we place above the soil a yellow glass, which possesses the property of separating light from actinism or chemical power, and thus consequently ensure the operation only of light and heat upon the soil, KO SEEDS WILL GERMINATE. If, On the Contrary, a blue medium is employed by which actinic power, freed from the interference of light, is rendered mare active, germination takes place more readily than usual. Thus we obtain evidence that even through some depth of soil this peculiar solar power is efficient, and that under its influenco the first spring of life in the germ is eflTected.* I 611. Some time subsequently to the publication of this theory, the following letter was addressed to Professor Hunt, by Mr. Charles Lawson, of Edinburgh, a gentleman largely connected with the seed trade : — " Edinburgh, 1, George the Fourth's Bridge, '- Sept. 8, 1853. " My dear Sir, — I am favoured with yours of the 5th, relative to ray practical experience in the efiect of the chemical agency of colom'ed media on the germination of seeds, and the growth of plants. " I must first explain that it is our practice to test the germinating powers of seeds which come to our warehouses before we send them out for sale; and, of course, it is an object to discover, with as little delay as possible, the extent to which the vital principle is active, as the value comes to be depreciated, in the ratio in which it is dormant. For instance, if we sow 100 seeds of any sort, and the whole germinate, the seed will be of the highest current value; but if only 90 germinate, its value is 10 per cent, less ; if 80, then its value falls 20 per cent. " I merely give this detail to show the practical value of this test, and the influence it exerts on the fluctuation of prices. " Our usual plan formerly was to sow the seeds to be tested in a * rrofossor I-lLiut. i58 THE gardener's and farmer's " The freshen'd landscapes roand his routs unfarled. The fine-tinged clouds above, the woods below. Each met his eye — a new-revealing world, Delighting more, as more he learned to know." — Clabe. hotbed or frame, and then watch the progress, and note the results. It was usually from eight to fourteen days before we were in a condition to decide on the commercial value of the seed under trial. " My attention was, however, directed to your excellent work, "On the Physical Phenomena of Nature," and I resolved to put your theory to a practical test. I accordingly had a case made, the sides of which were formed of glass coloured blue, or indigo, which case I attached to a small gas-stove for engendering heat ; in the case shelves were fixed in the inside, on which were placed small pots wherein the seeds to bo tested were sown. " The results were all that could be looked for : the seeds germinated in from two to Jive days only, instead of from eight to fourteen days as before. " I have not carried our experiments beyond the germination of seeds, so that I cannot afford practical information as to the effect of other rays on the after-culture of plants. " I have, however, made some trials mththe yellow ray in preventing the germination of seeds, which have been successful; and I have always found the violet ray prejudicial to the growth of the plant, after germination. I remain, " My dear Sir, " Very faithfully yours, " To Hobt. Hunt, Esq." " Charles Lawson." 612. The Author of "The Reason Why" series, had the gratification of walking over the " trial grounds " of the firm of Messrs. Fraser, Richardson, and Goad, seedsmen and florists, 83, Bishopsgate Street, and was struck with the great care taken in testing every kind of seed, for the purpose of ascertaining its germinating quality, and consequent value. Thousands of little plots of seed, varying from one to four yards square, consisting of every variety of soil, were numbered, and a journal of all particulars — date when sown, state of the weather, time required to germinate, proportion per cent, vitalized, &c., precisely registered. 613. Mr. Fraser expressed the opinion that, however interesting it might be as a scientific experiment to stimulate the germination of seeds by actinic rays, yet, for the purposes of the cultivator of agricultural crops, nothing could be so satisfactory as an out-of- EBASON WHY. 159 ' 0, Thou, who in eternal light, unseen, Surveyest, distinct, the universal scene ! Whose power, imiparted, animates the whole With vegetation, motion, life, and soul."— BoysE. door trial, with all the natural elements in free operation. The following interesting particulars respecting the growth of seeds, and the duration of their vitality, are from Mr. Fraser'a observations: — 614. The Srassica tribe, as cabbage, hale, cauliflower, turnip, rape, &c. : all these are similar in appearance of seed, and germinating qualities, and, if well ripened and harvested, will retain a growth of 90 to 100 per cent, unimpaired for from four to six years ; then for a year or two diminish from 10 to 20 per cent, per annum ; and generally speaking at the end of 10 or 12 years the vital power is almost exhausted. 615. Carrot and parsnip seed is much affected by season, and scarcely ever grows more than 70 or 80 per cent., and this only for one or two years at most. Three-year-old seed will rarely gi'ow more than 10 or 20 per cent. 616. Cucumber, melon, gourd: well ripened plump seeds of these will germinate (though proportionately slower according to age,) at the end of 10 or 15 years. Many gardeners prefer old seed, the plants from them producing more fruit than from new seed. 617. Lettuce seldom grows more than 80 per cent., it being impossible to separate the imperfect seeds, they being in appearance equal to the very best. Its vegetative power is unimpaired for three or four years, and then diminishes in about same ratio as the brassica tribe. 618. Peas (garden), before vending, are all hand-picked by women, and should grow 100 per cent. They will grow equally well a second or even third year, the only effect being a proportionately slower germination. After the third year, they will not grow sufficiently for purposes of seed. 619. Beans : all the varieties will grow as well as peas, if of good samples ; this a practical man can determine. After the first year they are comparatively useless for purposes of seed — changing colour and, with scarcely an exception, the germinating power diminished to the extent of near 50 per cent. 620. Beet and Mangel Wurzel. — There is no apparent variation in the germinating power of these seeds, whether one or seven years old ; they have been known to grow well 10 years. Each seed contains 160 THE gardener's and faemeb's " Thy weedy fallows let the plough pervade, Till on the top the inverted roots are laid ; There left to wither in the noon-tide ray, Or hy the spiky harrow cleared away."— Scott. from two to four kernels, protected ty a hard, rough, woody-like coating ; each kernel, if perfect, will produce a plant. Thus from 100 seeds it is common to have a growth of from 200 to 300 per cent. 621. Onion and Leek, from cause stated in lettuce, grow but from 80 to 90 per cent., and this only for one year ; the second thoy lose 10 to 15 per cent.; the third, still more; and at end of fourth year scarcely germinate. 622. Radish, when new, should grow 90 per cent.; it is a troublesome seed to keep, requiring constant attention to free it from mites; its germinating power diminishes 10 to 20 per cent, first year ; second, still more ; and at end of five or six years almost dies out. 623. Parsley, precisely similar to lettuce, onion, and leeh. 624. Clover, White, also the same. 625. Clover, Med, grows rather better than white, and retains vitality a year or two longer. 626. Grass seeds being mostly light are seldom tested at per cent., and, excepting rye-grass, will scarcely vegetate a second year. 627. How do we know that white light consists of a number of combined rays, of different colours and properties ? Because white light may be decomposed, or separated into its elementary colours by refraction. The act of such separation is called the dispersion of the coloured rays. Each elementary ray, once separated from the rest, is incapable of further decomposition by the same means. The •white light is restored, directly the coloured rays are re-combined. 628. Why are grasses, leaves, flowers, and other bodies of different colours ? The colours of natural bodies are not inherent in the bodies themselves, but are consequences of that peculiar KEASON WHY. 161 " The same power that bids the mite to crawl, That hrowns the -wheat-lands in their summer-stain ; .That Power which fonjietl the simple flower withal, !Porme(l all that hves and grows upon this earthly ball.'' — Clabe. disposition of the particles of eaeli body, by ■whicli it is enabled more copiously to reflect the rays of one particular colour, and to transmit to the eye, or absorb into its own substance, the others. 629. The direct action of solar liglit, or possibly of its heat also, produces various chemical effects, all ihdicative of powei-s resident in this wonderful agent, of which we have but a very imperfect notion at present. The green colour of plants, and the brilliant hues of flowers, , depend entirely upon it. Tansies, which had grown in a coal-pit, were, found totally destitute either of colour, or of their peculiar and powerful flavour j and the bleaching and sweetening of celery by the exclusion of light is another familiar instance of the same cause.* 630. If a mixture of equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen gases he kept in the dark, no combination takes place between them ; but in the light of day they unite slowly, and form hydrochloric gas, while, if exposed to the direct solar rays, the combination occurs instantaneously and with a loud explosion. In the same way, chlorine gas and oadde of carbon, when mixed, unite by the direct action of the sun's rays ; but this efiect is not produced by the agency of heat. The action of light on the chloride of silver is very remarkable, and it occurs very quickly. As long as this substance is kept from light, even though it be exposed to heatj remains perfectly colourless, but the sun's rays, and even diffused daylight, blachen it speedily. This effect is most strongly .produced by the chemical rays, which impart neither light nor heat.^ 631. What are the principal effects of heat? By the effects of heat, a very considerable number of bodies, both solid and liquid, may be converted into the form of gaseous matter; and as long as that elevation of temperature continues, the form of an elastic fluid is retained. But in all such cases, a depression of temperature causes the elastic fluid again to assume the liquid or solid form from which it originally set out. • Hersche'.. f Penny CyclopiaJia. 162 THE gaedenee's and jfarmek's " The Garden trees are hung with the shower That fell ere sunset, now methinks they talk Lowly and sweetly as befits the hour One to another down the grassy walk." — A. H. Hallak. 632. There is every reason to conclude that every solid in nature might be "melted by fervent heat," and by a high temperature, pass into the state of an elastic fluid. Heat has great power in modifying as well as causing chemical action, and different degrees of it produce very opposite effects, in some cases. 633. The essential distinction between gas and vapour may be thu stated : A gas is not reducible to the liquid state by any mechanical pressure alone, but must be operated upon by chemical agency also. A vapour of a given substance can contain only some definite quantity of that substance within -a given volume, which quantity varies with the temperature.* 634. There are three forms in which a body may exist : the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid. A l)ody that is elastic, like air, is called a gas ; one that is inelastic, like water, a liquid ; and one in which the particles do not readily move among each other, such as iron, wood, straw, feathers, a solid. Some bodies are capable of assuming all these forms at different temperatures, as water, for instance, is GASEOUS above 212°, liquid from that down to 32°, and solid helow that point.'; 635. Why do we Icnow that plants possess heat? It is understood that heat resides, in a greater or less degiee, in all substances. Even in ice there is a certain amount of it, though quite imperceptible by the ordinary exercise of our senses. 636. But we know that plants possess heat, by various matters of observation. Snow melts at the foot of a tree sooner than at a distance from it. 637. Plants have the power of resisting cold in winter ; and are protected from extreme cold by having straw heaped against their trunks. During every season of the year, * Encyclopsetlia Metropohtana. t J- A. Nash. REASON WHY. 163 ' Tlieir souls in fragrant dews exhale, And breathe ft-esli life in every gale, Here, spreads a green expanse of plains, ■\Vhere, sweetly pensive. Silence reignsi — Mallet. trees absorb water from the earth ; water, when absorbed, parts with its heat verj slowly through the carbonated matter of the trunk. In winter, the temperature of the earth, which determines that of the water it contains, is uniformly higher than that of the atmosphere, and consequently, the temperature of the interior of a tree is also higher, in proportion to the difference of the heat of the soil, and that of the air. In the spring and summer, on the contrary, the earth is cooler thaiji the air, and the temperature of vegetables is cooler also. 638. Independently of this source of heat in trees, there is another that deserves attention. Whenever oxygen conMnas with carbon to form carbonic acid, an extrication of heat takes place, IiDwever minute the amount j such a combination occurs much more extensively during the germination of seeds, and the impregnation of flowers, than at any other time. At the first of these periods, extraction of heat takes place to a considerable amount, as is remarked in the germination of barley heaped in rooms previously to being manufactured into malt ; in the latter it also occurs, but in consequence of flowers not being confined in close cases, it is lost as soon as it is disengaged. 639. What are the laivs that affect the diffusion of heat ? Those laws of heat which more particularly relate to agriculture and horticulture are : — 1. Its radiation, which is the free motion of heat, exerted by it under all circumstances. 2. Its reflection, which, is the turning back of rays of' heat (in accordance with the law which governs the reflection of light), by surfaces' upon which it falls. 3. Its absorption, or the power which substances possess G 2 164 THE gardener's and farmer's " Oft, notwithstanding all thy- care, To help thy plants, when the small frnitery seems Exempt fl:om ills, an'oriental blast, Disastrous flies." — J. Philips. of receiving and retaining the ^eating rays which impinge upon them, thereby acquiring an elevation of temperature.* 640. Why are the slopes of mountains frequently hotter than the surfaces of plains ? Because the sun's heat rays are most powerful when they fall vertically on any body. When the sun is at an elevation of 60° above the horizon, as is more or less the case toward noon in the middle of summer, the sun's rays frequently fall on them under a right angle, in cases where the slopes are yet larger. 641. If the actual increase of temperature produced by the perpendicular rays of the sun beyond the temperature in the shade be 45° and 63°, as is often the case in clear summer days, this increase would only be half as great, if the same light spread itself in a more slanting direction^ over a surface twice as large. 642. Why do dark soils become warm sooner than those of lighter shades ? Because the colours of bodies exert a considerable influence upon the amount of heat they absorb. The darker coloured soils, such as the black and brown and darJc reds, absorb more heat than the grays and yellows ; and all dark-coloured soils reflect the least, whilst light coloured ones reflect the most caloriflc rays. 643. According to Schiibler, while the thermometer was 77° in the shade in August, sand of a natural colour indicated a temperature of 112-|°, black sand 123-|°, and white sand 110°, exhibiting a difference of 13° of warmth, in favour of the black colour.^ • * EncycIopECdia Metropolltana. t Stephens' Book of the Farm. REASON "WHY. 165 ' O'er pathless plains at early hours, The sleepy rustic slowly goes ; The dews, brushed off from grass and flowers, Eemoistening, sop his hardened shoes." — Clare. 644. Why do dark soils, when heated, cool more rapidly than the other shades ? Because dark colours radiate their heat more rapidly than light shades. Thus, sand will cool more slowly than clay, and the latter sooner than a soil containing much humus. 645. According to Schiibler, a peat soil will cool as much in 1 hour and 43 minutes, as a pure clay in 2 hours and 10 minutes, and as a sand in 3 hours and 30 minutes. The practical effect of this difference is, that while the sand will retain its heat for three hours after the sun has gone down, and the clay two hours, the vegetable soil will only retain it for one hour ; but then, the vegetable soil will all the sooner legin to absorb the dew which falls, and in a dry season, it may in consequence sustain its crops in a healthy state of vegetation, while those in the sandy soil may be languishing for want of moisture.* 646. Pedestrians are well aware of the difference felt in a very hot sunshine in walking over a white or darlt soil. In the first case the rays are reflected, and strike upon the body with uncomfortable force ; in the second they are absorbed, and the ground, or rather air, appears to be cool and reireshing. The darker a soil, the greater its absorbing power ; but, to compensate in some measure for this, the light-coloured soil retains heat longest.! 647. The reflection from a green field, perhaps, exceeds not the twentieth part of the whole incidence ; but it increases considerably as the colour inclines to whiteness. From a smooth sandy beach, the reflected light will amount to the third part ai what is received from the sky ; and from a wide surface of snow, it will reach to five-sixths of the direct impression; the numerous facets of the bright snowy- flakes which are presented in every possible position, detaining only * Stephens's "Book of the Farm." t Coleman's Prize Essay " On the Causes of Fertility and Barrenness of Soils." Journal of tlie Royal Agricultural Society. 166 THE GAEDENEK's and rAEMEE'S " The vernal sun awakes The torpid sap, detruded to the root By wintry winds, that now in fluent dance, And lively fermentation mounting spreads." — Thomson. 1 ' long series of years, — electricity is produced. Further, the mere evaporation of water fi-om the surface of the leaves will do the same ; and thus a constant series of changes in the electric state of plants will occur, which will communicate themselves to the atmosphere.* 660. There is, however, an indirect way in which electricity proves highly beneficial to vegetation. The distinguished chemist. Cavendish, showed in 1781, that the electric flash might produce nitric acid in the atmosphere. Liebig has since ascertained the actual existence therein of ammonia. Monsieur Barrat, having examined the rain- water collected at Paris, has found in every shower an amount of each substance, reaching, in the course of a year, the following quantities severally per English acre : — Ammonia Nitric acid lbs. Nitrogen, lbs. 12-29 = 10-69 41-24 = 10-12 661. Still this large amount of manuring substance might be derived by the atmosphere of Paris from the gmoke and the foetid exhalations which float above every great capital, and much doubt was accordingly felt by continental chemists on the whole result of the investigation. It seemed desirable, therefore, to repeat the experiment in PURE COUNTRT AIK. Accordingly rain-water was collected by mo last October at Pusey, which is remote from any large town, except Oxford, from which the wind did not blow while the showers took place. It was analysed by Professor Way ; and, supposing our annual * Dr. Carpenter's ".Vegetable Pliysiolog}'." SEASON WHY. 169 " The various vegetative tribes Wrapt in a filmy net, and clad -with leaves, Draw the live ether and Imbibe the dew." — Thojison. fall of rain to be 28 inches, the amount of manure yearly poured down from the clouds on British soil would be larger than even at Paris. It would stand thus : — ,T..„„x„ Gnano Nitrogen. „, 5°,„ without of Soda, puosphates. lbs. lbs. lbs., lbs. Ammonia . . . 28-59 = 23-54 = 159^], = 164 Nitric acid . . • . 68-91 = 17-88 = 121 = 124(1, Annual downfall of manitke PER ACKE I 41-42 = 280^1, = 288^1 662. Thus it appears that in a year of ordinary rain the SKIES GITE us AMM0NI.4. AND NITRIC ACID EIJUAL TO A PULL DRESSING OP SALTPETRE OR GUANO. 663. Much of each, especially the ammonia, is lost, perhaps, by exhalation from the surface of plants, or of the land, after -slight showers. Enough, however, of both must remain to account for the luxuriant growth which sometimes folloios a thunderstorm, and also to illustrate the Psalmist's expression that "the clouds drop fatness." * 664. What are clotids ? They are accumulations of luatery vapour in the atmosphere, caused by evaporation from the surface of the ocean, from wet and moist places on the surface of the land, from the respiration and perspiration of animals, from the transpiration of watery fluids by plants, and some other natural operations. 665. Their manifold forms are the result of variations of temperature, movements of air, changes in the electrical condition of the air, the degree of humidity which prevails in the atmosphere, the height at which they fly, and the situation they occupy, in relation to the holder. * Lord Ashburton, President of the Royal Agricultural Society. 170 THE gakdener's and faemee's "Wide o'er the fields, in rising moisture strong, Slioots up the simple flower, or creeps along The mellowed soil." — Bloomfield, 666. The surface of the earth, -with its plants and animals, on the one hand, and the atmosphere on the other, form a kind of distilling apparatus. Watery vapours rise unceasingly from oceans, lakes,' rivers, morasses, plants, and animals; they accumulate into clouds in the air, subsequently become transformed into drops, and descend again to the surface of the earth as rain. On dry laud the water penetrates into the earth, and comes to light again in springs, which collect into running streams ; ^these give off vapour to a certain extent, and empty themselves into the ocean, whence the water is again evaporated ;■ besides this, water is taken up by plants and anim'als, which likewise give off watery vapours to the atmosphere. In these ways u, continual circulation of water is Ttept up lietioean the Garth^s surface and the atmosphere,^ 667. It is a mistaken idea that water evaporates only when WAUM, or tchen acted upon by loarmth, . It is a most important law of nature, now absolutely demonstrated, that water has a tendency to assume the elastic form of vapour, at all temperatures, however low. Our ordinary experience, indeed, must tend to com^nce us of ■its truth, since the product of every shower soon disappears, and ice and snow are wasted by imperceptible degrees. The sea perforilis its part on a magnificent scale. Millions of tons of water are raised by its agency every day, and a copious evaporation is absolutely necessary to diminish the enormous accession of water which the ocean continually receives. The silent and tmobserved process by which water is compelled to evaporate spontaneously at aU temperatures, is one of the most interesting and important in the whole economy of nature. The growth of plants, and the existence of every living creatm'e, depends u|)on it.t 668. Clouds constitute a sort of intermediate state of existence between vapour and water, by which sudden depositions of water are prevented. If aU the water separated from the atmosphere fell at ONCE to the earth, in the state of water, we should be constantly liable to deluges, and other inconveniences, the whole of which are obvaited by the present beautiful arrangement. Again, clouds are one great means by which water is transported from seas and oceans to be deposited far inland, where water otherwise would never reach. * Schow's "Earth, Plants, and Man." t Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. REASON WHY. 171 ' In March is good grafflng the slcilful do know, So long as the wind in the East do not blow ; From moon heing changed, 'till past be the prime, For grafflng and cropping is very good time."— Tcsser. Clouds also greatly mitigate the extremes of temperature. By day, they shield vegetation from the scorching solar heat, and produce all the agreeable vicissitudes of shade and sunshine. By night, the earth, wrapped in its mantle of clouds, is enabled to retain that heat which would otherioise radiate into space, and is thus protected from the opposite influence of nocturnal cold. Whether we contemplate clouds with respect to their form, their colour, their numerous modifications, or, more than all, their incessant state of change, clouds prove a source of never-failing interest, and may be classed among the most beautiful objects in nature.* t 669. The most important peculiarity of the evaporation of icater, so far as we know, is not at all affected by the loater heing frozen. Howard, who experimented upon the subject, mentions an instance in the month January in a certain year, when the vapour form u circular area of snow five inches in diameter, amounted to 150 grains between sunset and sunrise ; and before the next evening 50 grains more were added to the amount. Under like circumstances, a smart breeze operating at the time, an acre of snoto would, in the course of twenty- four hours, evaporate the enormous quantitTj of 64,000,000 grains of moisture ! Even by evaporation during the night only, a thousand gallons of water would be raised from a acre of snow. It may thus be easily understood, how a moderate fall of snow may entirely vanish during a succeeding northerly gale, loithout the slightest perceptible liquefaction on the surface. This will satisfy the reader of the fact, that evaporation is constantly going on, whether from water, srtow, or ice ; indeed there is every reason to believe, as before stated, that the quantity of vapour formed from snow and ice, is precisely equal to wJiat would be evaporated from water itself, provided water could exist as a fluid below the temperature at which it is congealed.} 670. In wliat respects do clouds affect the growth of plants ? Chiefly by the dispersion of water in the form of rain. But also — and in a very material manner — ^by the radiation, or reflection, of heat which escapes from the earth when the * Dr. Front. t See " The Reason Why : Fhj'sical Goograplly," X Front's " 13ri(lgcwater Treatise." 172 "THE gaedenek's and fabmek's " And where the humid night's restoring dew Dropt on the ground the Waded herbage grew, As fast as cattle the long summer's day Had crept the grassy sustenance away." — Fawkes. air becomes cool. They act as a sort of screen, shutting off the cold air, and returning radiated heat. They also affect the quality of the light which passes through them ; but the nature of this last effect is not clearly understood. 671. The benefit resulting from rain depends not merely upon *7ie fimpunt that falls annually, but upon the proportions in which the fall is distiibiited through the seasons. It of course makes a great difference whether the same quantity of rain is distributed pretty equally through the seasons, or is accumulated into one season — the rainy season, in contrast to tlie remainder of the year, the dry season. The frequency of the fall of rain is another important point in the examination of the condition of the rains of a disti'ict or region. For it makes great difference in the climate whether the same amount of rain falls in many small, showers, or a, pew great rain STORMS. Cayenne, in South America, has given an instance of as much rain falling in half a day as, on an average, falls in half a year in Copenhagen. 672. What is the constitution of the atmosphere ? It consists of nitrogen gas, oxygen gas, and carbonic acid gas; but with these are always combined matters which do not properly belong to the atmospheric compound, and which consequently vary in kind and quantity, such as watery vapour, ammonia, carbonic acid gas, and the other elements of evaporation, fermentation, and decay. The standard atmospheric substances and proportions may be thus given : — Nitrogen gas Oxygen gas .... Carbonic acid gas Watery vapour 673. By atmospheric watery vapour, we are to understand a very rare, light, expansible body, capable, like aii', of a reduction of volume * Schow's "Earth, Plants, and Man." measure. By weight, 77-5 . 76-55 21-0 . 23-32 0-80 0-10 1-42 . 1-03 REASON WHY. , 173 ' Parched meads and stuljble mow by Phoabe's light Which both require the coolness of the night." — Dbxden. by external pressure, and also of resisting any force which may tend to compress it. This vapour exists in every climate, and under every variety of temperature; in the frigid atmosphere of the polar zones, as well as in the burning regions of the equatoy ; nor is there a particle of air uninfluenced by its presence, at least in the lower atmosphere, unless it be relieved from its agency by artificial means. This moisture, extensively as it is diffused, owes its origin to the waters which cover so large a portion of the globe, and which penetrating by a thousand channels, communicate some of their humidity to the earthy soil; and it is to the active agency of heat, that the rising moisture, the result of evaporation, is compelled to distribute itself throughout the different regions of the great aerial volume.* 674. Wliat is the ' composition of water ? Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of two volumes of the latter gas, to one of the former. It is capable of existing in three different states : the liquid, the aeriform, or solid — as water, vapour, or ice. When water contains nothing hut oxygen and hydrogen, in their proper proportions, it is called pure. But it is never found pure in nature ; it is always combined with small portions of some other matters, which it has dissolved or taken up, in consequence of coming in contact with a great variety of soluble bodies. The different kinds of water receive names taken from the source from which they are derived." Thus we have sea water, atmospheric water, river water, spring water, well water, &c.| 675. How does water act as a fertiliger ? Pure water acts only by its air. Bain water, however, acts in a double way, both by its purity and impurity. All water exposed to air, absorbs various proportions of oxygen and nitrogen. This is a very slow process. It is found that * Encyclopsedia Metropolitana. t Hugo Reid. 174 THE gakdenee's and taemek's ' Wide flush the fields ; the softenmg air is balm ; Echo the mountains round ; the forest smiles ; And every sense, and every heai-t is joy." — Thomson. most natural waters, give out bj boiling, from every 100 cubic inches of water, 3^ inches of air. This air contains eight or nine per cent, more oxygen, than an equal bulk of common air. . Water is generally '^ZZec? or saturated ivith air ; when this is the case, it will take up no more by a month's exposure. If this water is boiled, and again exposed to air, it will absorb in twenty-four hours, as follows : — ^Let there be taken any number of measures of air, which are composed of 20 of oxygen, and 80 of nitrogen. If 100 measures are absorbed by water, it is in this proportion. Of nitrogen 46-43 Of oxygen 53'57 So that oxygen is three times more absorbable than nitrogen. 676. What is meant hy the absorption of gases by wafer ? It means this : that water can and does dissolve or absorb gases, as it does also solid bodies. In fact it dissolves or combines with a little of every gas or air with which it comes in contact. This is a material fact fok THE agkicultueist : that wafer constantly absorbs gases, and as constantly yields those gases, under certain conditions, to become the food of plants. 677. All common water contains air ; being in every situation much in contact with air, it dissolves part of it, causing it to assume the liquid forni. In speaking of gases absorbed by, or in solution in water, the term "gas" expresses some substance which, when unoombined, exists in the gaseous form, though in the liquid state when in union with the water. When a glass of cold water from the spring is brought into a warm room, the inner surface of the glass is observed to be soon covered with a multitude of small globules of air, adhering to the sides and gradually rising to the surface. This KEASON TVHT. 175 ' As the gay hours advance, the blossoms shoot, The knitting blossoms harden into fruit ; And as tlie Autumn by degrees ensues. The mellowing fruits display their streaky hues."— Bboome. is the air which existed dissolved in the toater, and was previously in the liquid state, being enabled to preserve this state by virtue of the attraction between water and air. But when warmed by the heat of the room, the elasticity of the air thus absorbed is increased, and disposes it to assume the gaseous condition, and, as the chemical attraction subsisting between the air and the water is not very great, it is overcome, and the air gradually separates from the water in small globules.* ■ 678'. We may imagine from this what takes place after a shower of rain, or subsequently to the irrigation of land with water, or liquid manures. The tvater, warmed hy -the earth's • temperature, and hy free exposure to the sun, presents millions of little glohules of gas to the absorbent organs of the roots lohich take up the nourishment thus supplied. 679. All tlie foods of planta enter them, either as invisible gases through the leaves, or in a state of perfectly livipid solutions, tlirough the roots. Now water will dissolve itself and hold in solution SJ times Hi hnYkoi oxygen, IJ its bulk of nitrogen, IJ its \>\A^ oi hydrogen once its bulk of carbonic acid, and many times its bulk of ammonia. In this way it conveys these and other nutritious gases as food into the plant. 680. Water also dissolves solid substances, some more and others less, and thus carries them in the form of transparent solutions into the plant, as food. This office will appear the more important, when we consider that all growing plants perspire largely. They take up large quantities of water from the soil, appropriate to their own growth the nutritive matter dissolved in it, and then throw it off from their leaves by insensible perspiration. t 681. Why are air bubbles frequently seen in lumps of ice? Because, wten -water is frozen, any gas which it contains, separates from its chemical union with the water. A great proportion of this escapes into the air during * Hugo Reid. t J- A. Nash. 176 THE gakdenee's AjfD farmer's " Now let me tread the meadow paths, "Wliile glittering dew the ground illumes, , As, sprinkled o'er the withering swaths, Their moisture shrinks in sweet perfumes."— Clare. the freezing process ; but when this is rapid, some of the gas becomes imprisoned in the ice. Hence the globules of gaseous matter which are frequently seen in blocks of ice.* 682. Why does rain water possess highly fertilizing qualities ? It is an ascertained fact that a quantity of ammonia and nitric acid, equal, perhaps, to at least the manuring power of a hundred-weight of guano, is annually brought down to the soil by rain, for the benefit of vegetation. 683. Let not, however, the cultivator deceive himself, and suppose that the duty of manuring his soils is lessened from this circumstance. The fall of manure — so to speak — it is out of his power to control j and to it is attributable, at least in part, the natural fertility of any given soil : his art lies in increasing this natural produce ■ to a point at which the crops will repay the cost of their production. But he may profit by this newly-discovered bounty of nature, if he will take full advantage of the atmospheric manure by means of drainage, which promotes the equal flow of water through instead of over his soil ; by deep cultivation' and thorough pulveri- zation of the land, which brings every part of it into contact with the air. The atmosphere is to the farmer like the sea to the fisherman — he who spreads his nets the widest wili. CATCH the MOST.t 684, If a pound of rain water contains only one quarter of a grain of ammonia, then a field of 26,910 square feet must receive annually upwards of eighty pounds of ammonia, or sixty-five' pounds of nitrogen; for, by the observations of Schiibler, the fall of rain over that area must be about 2,520,000 in a. year. This is much more nitrogen than is contained in the form of vegetable albumen and gluten, in 2,6501bs. of wood, 2,5001bs. of hay, or 200cwt of beet-root, which ai-e the yearly produce of such a field; but it is less than the straw, roots, and grain of corn, which might grow on the same surface, would contain, t • Hugo Eeid. t J. T. Way. } LIcliig. EEASON WHY. 177 " Beauty destined to endure "White, radiant, spotless, exquisitely pure Through all 'vicissitudes, till genial Spring Has filled the laughing vale with \relcomQ flowers." — ^WonDswonTH. (85. What are the weather indications of "mare's tail" clmds ? yhen their elevation is very great ; when their forms are "smikl, well defined, and thread-like, they indicate wind. THE BIARE'S TAIL, 686. When they become lower and denser, losing their curl-like form, and spread into long and dark streaks, r becoming wane clouds, they indicate wind and rain, the near or distant approach of which may sometimes be estimated from their greater or less abundance and permanence. 687. Mare's tail clouds are generally first indicated by a few- threads, pencilled as it were on the sky. These increase in length, and new ones are added to their sides. Often the first formed threads serve as stems which seem to support numerous branches, which in their turn give rise to others. They are the earliest clouds that appear- after severe weather. Their duration is uncertain, varying from a few minutes after the first appearance to an extent of many hours. They are long when they appear alone, and at great heights, and shorter when they are formed lower, and in the vicinity of other 178 THE gakdb'neb's and paemer's " If men would not exhale, vapours to cloud tmd darken the clearest truthS; no man could miss his way to heaven for want of light." — Decay of Piety. clouds. In fair weather, with light variahle breezes, the skj is seldom quite clear of small groups of oblique curl clouds, 'wlich frequently come on, from the leeward, and the direction of tieir increase is to windward. Continued wet weather is attended vith horizontal sheets of this cloud, which subside quickly and jass into wane clouds. Before storms they usually gather in the quarter opposite to that from which the storm arises. Steady high wjids are also preceded and attended by streaks running quite across the sky.* 688. Wliat are the indications of the pile cloud ? These clouds are commonly of the most dense structure ; they are formed in the lower atmosphere, and move along with the current which is next the earth. PILE CLom). 689. The formation of large pile clouds to leeward in a strong wind, indicates the approach of a calm with rain. When they increase rapidly, and appear lower in the atmosphere, with their surfaces full of loose fleeces, they * Howard's *' Modifications of Clouds." REASON "WHZ. 179 ' Nature, attend ! join every living soul, Beneatli the spacious temple of the sky, In adoration join ; and, ardent, raise One general song ! " — Thomson. indicate rain. When they do not disappear or subside about sunset, but continue to rise, thunder is to be expected. 6S 0. The pile cloud generally appears at first as a small iiTegular spot which is the nucleus on which they inci-ease. The lower surface contnues irregularly plane, while the upper rises into conical or hem spherical heaps; which may afterwards continue long -nearly of the same bulk, or rapidly rise to mountains. In the former case, they are i sually numerous and near together, in the latter few and distant ; hut Wiether there are few or many, their bases always lie in one horizontal plane, and their increase upward is somewhat proportionate to the extent of base, and nearly alike in many that appear at once. Their! appearance, increase, and decrease, in fair weather, are often periodical, and keep pace with the temperature of the day. Thus they will begin to form some hours after sun-rise, arrive at their maximum in the 'hottest part of the afternoon, then go on diminishing, and totally disperse about sunset. But in changeable weather, they partake of the ■vicissitudes of the atmosphere ; sometimes evaporating almost as soon as formed, at others, suddenly forming and as quickly passing to the compound modifications. Independently of the beauty and magnificence of these clouds, they servo to screen the earth from the direct rays of the sun, and to convey the products of evaporation to a distance from the place of their origin.* 691. What are the indications of the sheet cloud, or creeping' mist? The sheet cloud is the lowest of the clouds, its inferior surface commonly resting on the earth or water. 692. The sheet cloud has long been regarded as a prognostic of fine weather, and it is generally indicative of calmness. 693. Contrary to the pile cloud, which may be considered as belonging to the day, the sheet cloud is properly the cloud of night ; the time of its first appearance being about sunset. It comprehends all those * Howard. 180 THE GABDENEE'S and FAEMEE'S ' The dull-eyed Evening his moist vapours threw ? Strewing the still earth with sweet showers of dew." — Deayton. creeping mists which in cold evenings ascend and spread in sheets (like an inundation of water) from the bottom of valleys, and the surface of lakes, or rivers, &c. Its duration is frequently through the night. On SHEET CLODS, Olt CBEEPING MIST, the return of the sun, the upper surface of this cloud begins to put on the appearance of the pile cloud, the whole at'the same time separating from the ground. Tlio continuity is next destroyed, and the cloud ascends and evaporates, or passes off with the appearance of small pile clouds. 694. What are the indications of the wane cloud? Wane clouds appear to arise from the subsidence of mare's tails to a horizontal position ; but curl clouds do not always precede them. They are always thickest at one extremity, or in the middle. Their form and relative Howard. SEASON WHY. 181 ' What art thou first, and whence are thy keen stores ; Is not thy potent energy unseen? Myriads of little salts, or hoolted, or shaped Like double wedges, and diffused."— Thomson. positions, when seen in the distance, frequently give the idea i of a shoal of fish. A LIGUT AND A DARK WANE CLOUD. 695. At other times they appear like pai'allel bars, or interwoven streaks, like the grain of polished wood. They precede ivind and rain. They are almost always to be seen in the intervals of storms. 696. Sometimes loane clouds a.nd sonder clouds (next to be described) appear in the same sky, and even alternate with each other as parts of the same cloud, when the different evolutions which ensue afford a, curious spectacle, and a judgment may be formed of the weather likely to ensue, by observing which modlficatiorl jjrevails at last.* 697. What are the indications of the sonder cloud? Sonder clouds are usually formed by curl clouds collapsing, as it were, and passing into small roundish masses, in which the thread-like texture of the curl is no longer discernible. 182 THE GAEDENEE's AND FARMER'S " Religion wards tlie blow, or stills the smart, Disarms affliction, or repels its dart ; Within the breast bids pnrest rapture rise ; Bids smiling conscience spread her cloudless s'cies." — Cotton'. 698. These clouds are very frequent in summer, and SONDEIt CLOUD. attendant on tvarm and dry weather. They are occasionally seen in the intervals of showers, and in winter. 699. Sender clouds form a very beautiful sky, sometimes exhibitin numerous distinct beds of small clouds, floating at different altitudes. The following passage is beautifully descriptive of their appearance by moonlight : — For yet above these wafted clouds are seen (In a remoter sky, still more serene) Others, detached in ranges through the air. Spotless as snow, and countless as they're fair ; Scattered immensely wide from east to west. The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest. These to the raptured mind aloud proclaim Their mighty Shepherd's everlasting name.* 700. Wliat are tlie indications of the twain cloud? The different forms of clouds which have just be^u * Bloomficld's "Fanner's Boy." REASON WHY. 183 ' I did not err, there does a sable cloud Turn forth her silYcr Iming on the night, And casts a gleam oyer this tlifted grove."— Milton. described frequently give way to each otlier, at other times two or more appear in the same sky ; and in this case the clouds which most resemble each other lie mostly in the 'f'^^'^%^ ' . 7 -1-v 3IIKED AND DISTINCT TWAIN CLOUDS same place of elevati9n, those which are more elevated appearing through the o'penings of the lower, or the latter showing dark against the lighter ones above them. When the pile cloud increases rapidly, ivane clouds are frequently seen to form around its summit, reposing, thereon as upon a mountain. This state continues but a short time. The wane clouds speedily become dense and spread, while the superior part of fhepile cloud extends itself and unites with the wane clouds, the base continuing as before, and the convex protuberances changing, their position till they present themselves sideways and downwards. 701. Thus a large lofty dense cloud is formed, which may be compared to a mushrooija, with a very thick short stem. But when a whole sky is crowded with this form, 184 THE gardener's AND FARMER'S ' Be calm, my soul, and cease repining. Behind the clond is the sun still shining."— Lonofeixot. the appearances are never indistinct. The pile cloud rises through the interstices of the superior clouds, and the whole, seen as it passes off in the distant horizon, presents to the view fairy mountains covered with snow, intersected with darker ridges and lakes of water, rocks and towers, &c. 702. Tho distinct twain-cloud is formed in the interval between the first appearance of the fleecy pile cloud, and the commencement of rain, while the lower atmosphere is yet too dry ; also during the approach of thunder-storms. The indistinct appearance of it is chiefly in the longer or shorter intervals of showers of rain, snow, or hail* 703. What are the indications of nimbus clouds ? Nimbus clouds are attended by, or productive of, NIMBUS, OR ST0E3I CLOUD. heavij showers, accompanied by lightning and storm. REASON Wl-IY. 185 ' Then with upUfted hands, and eyes devout, Grateful to Heaven, over his head teliolds A dewy cloud, and in tlie cloud a Ijow, Conspicuous witli three Usted colours gay." — MILT0^J. 704. The nimbus generally spreads a sudden and almost impenetrable gloom over the horizon, in the direction from which the storm approaches. Although it is one of the least beautiful of the clouds, it is frequently superbly decorated with its attendant the rainbow, which can only be seen in perfection when backed by the widely-extended gloom of the storm' cloud. The nimbus is known to be formed of two two sheets of cloud, in different electrical states, and hence it is so commonly attended with lightning and thunder.* 705. Clouds in any one of tlie i^receding forms may increase so as to completely objcure the sky, and at times put on an appearance of density which, to the inexperienced observer, indicates the speedy commencement of rain. But, before rainfalls, the clouds are generally aeen to undergo a change* These appearances, when^the rain happens over our heads, are but imperfectly seen. We can then only observe, before the arrival of the denser and lower clouds, or through their interstices, tliat there exists at a greater altitude a thin light veil, or at least a turbid haziness. When this has considerably increased, we see the lower clouds spread themselves till they unite in all points, and form one uniform sheet. The rain then commences, and the lower clouds arriving from the windward, move under this sheet, and are successively lost in it. When the latter cease to arrive, or when the sheet breaks, every one's experience teaches him to expect an abatement or cessation of rain. We see the nature of these processes most perfectly when viewing a, distant shower in profile. t 706. As the masses of cloud are always blended, and their ai-range - ment destroyed, hefore rain comes on, so the re-appearance of these is the signal for its cessation. The thin sheets of cloud, which pass over during a wet day, certainly receive from the humid atmosphere a supply proportionate to their consumption, while the latter prevents ■ their increase in bulk. Hence it will sometimes rain for a long time without any apparent alteration iu the state of the clouds. And here * For an explanation of electrical phenomena, see "The Reason "Why: Oeneral Science." t Howard. 186 THE gardener's and farmer's " As the word's sun doth effects teget Different in divers places every day ; Here Autumn's temperature, there Summer's heat, Here flowery Spring-tide, and there Winter gray."— Davies. we find cause for reflection on the purpose answered by clouds in the economy of nature. Since rain may be produced by, and continue to fell from, the slightest obscuration of the sky by the nimbus (that is, by tico sheets in different states), while the pile and twain clouds, with the most dark and threatening aspect, shall pass over without letting a drop fall, until their change of state commences, it should seem that the latter are reservoirs in which the water is collected from a large space of atmosphere for occasional and local irritation in dry seasons, space of atmosphere for occasional and local irrigation in dry seasons, and by means of which it is also arrested at times in its descent in the midst' of wet ones, in which so evident provision for the sustenance of all animal and vegetable life, as well as for the success of mankind in that pursuit so essential to their welfare, in temperate climates, of cultivating the earth, we may discover the wisdom and goodness of the Creator and Preserver of all things.* 707. Chemistry can offer no satisfactory explanation regarding the formation of clouds ; but, so far as researches have been carried, they tend to the conclusion that clouds do not consist of actual drops of water, but of myriads of minute and thin vesicles of water — - like bubbles — thus they are enabled to hover at a small elevation for hours, and to transport their aqueous store far into the level of the country, or to the the tops of mountains, when the vesicles, suddenly breaking, and their watery films collapsing into drops, which the air cannot support, they fall in refreshing showers upon the earth.t 708. Why do varying winds, and temperatures prove beneficial to vegetation? Because thpy contribute to the movement of that watery vapour of the air, which is so intimately connected with Yegetable and animal life.J 709. It is commuted that if the atmosphere as it exists at the equator were to discharge its whole watery store, the * Howard. ; i t Professor Griffiths. t The ijidicatiaiKtvflf .'phanges in the weather, including Italocs, mUls, fogs, rainbowSt morning ^arau evening s^es, movements and cvics of ammah, flight of birds and iruecU, weather proverbs, &c., ^c., arc all fally explained in " The Eeaacn IVliy : General Science." EEASON WHY. 187 ' Now sliding? streams the thirsty plants renew, And feed their fibres witli reviving dew." — Pope. moisture precipitated would cover tlie surface of the earth, only to the small depth of 7-^ inches, and in the middle parallel, between the equator and the poles, only about 3|- inches. Supposing the whole atmosphere, from a state of absolute dampness, were to discharge its entire watery store, it would only forin an uniform sheet of about 4^ inches in depth. 710. To furnish a sufficient supply of rain, therefore, it is necessary that the air should undergo very frequent changes from di'yness to humidity in the course of a year.* 711. What is deic? DeAV is atmospheric moisture, which becomes condensed hy tJie cooling of the bodies upon which it rests. It must be remembered that the air is constantly impregnated with watery vapour, and that this vapour becomes, rarified hy heat or condensed hy cold. 712. As soon as the sun begins to sink, the earth, whieli has become heated by his direct rays, begins to cool. And dew begins to appear upon grass, in places shaded from the sun, during clear and calm weather, soon after the heat of the atmosphere has declined. The grass will frequently be found moist, in dry weather, several hours before sunset. But it is seldom present in such quantity upon grass as to exhibit visible drops before the sun is near the horizon, or very copious, till some time after sunset. It also continues to form in shaded places, after sunrise.* 713. Why is dew more plentiful in spring and autumn than in summer ? Because a greater difference is generally found between the temperatures of the day and the night, in the former seasons of the year than in the latter.* » Leslie. t Dr. Wells " On the Formation of Dew." 188 THE gardener's and farmer's ' I must go seek some dew-drops here, And han? a pearl in every cowslip's ear." — Shakspeaue. 714. What is the movement of heat called, by which bodies become cooled ? The throwing off of heat is called radiation. Imagine an iron ball heated to redness, and suspended by a chain ; it wiU thi-Q-w of rays off heat in every direction. All bodies that are heated to a degree above that of the medium which surrounds them, part with heat in this manner, whether those bodies be leaves, feathers, wool, hair, ivood, stones, or metal.* 715. Why on a dewy mornings are some bodies wetter than others ? Because, although all bodies radiate heat, they do not all do so in the same degree. Some, therefore, become cooler than others, and those -which part with the mast heat condense the greatest amount of moisture from the surrounding air. 716. Difference in the mechanical state of bodies, though all other substances be similar, has likewise an effect on the quantity of dew which they attract. Thus, more dew is formed upon fine shavings of wood, than upon a thicTi piece of the same substance. It is chiefly for a similar reason that fine raw silk, fine unwrought cotton, and flax^ are found to attract more dew than wool, the fibres of which are thicker than those of the substances just mentioned.* 717. Why are cloudy nights less dewy than those that are clear and star-lit ? Because the clouds intercept and cliech the radiation of the earth's heat ; they also themselves radiate heat towards the earth, and prevent the temperature of earthy bodies from falling to a degree below that of the atmosphere which intervenes between the clouds and the earth. They constitute, in fact, an expanded screen, or curtain between the earth and the remote shy. REASON -WHY. 183 ' He, therefore, timely warned, himself supplies Her want of care, screening and keeping warm , The plenteous bloom, that no rough blast may sweep His garlands from the boughs." — Cowper. 718. But when this curtain does not exist — when the shy is clear, and, consequently, the stars may be seen — the radiated heat of the earth passes freely away, and the bodies upon its surface becoming colder than the surrounding atmosphere, condense the moisture which the latter contains, and form dew-drops. 719. The degree of heat radiated from the clouds must in some degree ■depend upon their density and their altitude. Dense clouds, near the earth, must possess the same heat as the lower atmosphere, and will, therefore, send to the earth as much, or nearly as much, heat as they receive from it by radiation. But similarly dense clouds, if very high, though they equally intercept the communication of the earth with the sky, yet being, from their elevated situation, colder than the earth, will radiate to it less heat than they receive from it, and may, consequently, admit of bodies on its surface becoming colder than the air." 720. Wliy do screens of matting, ^c, protect plants from cold ? Because they act as screens preventing tlie escape of radiated heat, and also directing a portion of their own heat radiation towards the object they are designed to protect. 721. If plates of glass, sheets of paper, or pieces of cloth, be laid over grass-beds, as in the engraving, no dew will be deposited on the grast underneath the glass plates, al- though all around the grass will be completely wetted. The ex- planation is, that the glasses, being ' radiators of heat, act in the same manner as the clouds, returning 1 the heat to the bodies underneath I them, and preventing the formation ' of dew thereon. In a similar way is partly to be explained the manner in which a layer of straw » Dr. Wells. 190 THE gaedestee's akd faemek's " Ana that by, certain signs we may presage Of Ueats, and rains, and- ivinds' impetuous rage, Tile Sovereign of the Heavens has set on high The Moon, to maris: the changes of the sliy."— Drtden. preserves vegetable matters in fields from the injurious effects of cold in winter.* 722. • Wliy is it believed in some parts of the world that moonlight promotes putrefaction ? Moonbeams comunicate no sensible heat to the bodies on which they fall, and it seems, therefore, impossible that they can promote putrefaction. But a reason for ascribing to them such a power, may be derived fi'om their being received by animal substances at the very time that a real cause of putrefaction is taking place. 723. The nights on which a steady moonshine occurs, must necessarily be clear ; and nights which are clear are almost always calm. A moonlight night, therefore, is one on which dew forms plentifully ; and it is the moisture of the dew acted upon by the returning ivarmth of day, which produces the putrefaction attributed to moonlight.^ 724. The opinion that moonlight promotes putrefaction is enteittiined in the West Indies, and In Africa, and was probably carried thence by neg.oes to America. It waa entertained by persons of considerable rank and intelligence among tlie ancients — Pliny affiiraing It to be true, and Plutarch admitting it to be well founded. 725. Why are the upper parts of leaves, ^-c, generally covered with dew, while their ' lower portions are free from it ? Because the surfaces which are turned towards the earth maintain an elevated temperature by mutual radiation : such surfaces receive the radia/ted heat of the earth, and give back rays of heat toumrds the earth.. Hence the grass which grows beneath trees with expanding branches, will bo found less wet with dew than the grass which grows away from the influence of the branches. • "The Reason Why; Familiar Science." t Dr. Wells. REASON AYHY. 191 » " He beheld a lield, Part arable and tilth ; ■whereon were sheaves New reaped ; the 'other parts sheep-walks and folds.' 720. It has been observed that sheep that have lain on the grass, during the formation of dew, have thei?' backs completely satm-ated with it, but that underneath the line lohere their bodies turn to the earth, their coats are dry. In the same manner glass gtuooj.-j suspended in the air, on dew- forming nights, will be found loaded with globules of dew upon the top, but there will be no appearance of moisture underneath." 727. Why is the grass plot frequently wet with dew, while the gravel walk, which lies by its side, is free from it ? Because the grass, heing a better radiator than the gravel, falls to a lower temperature and condenses more of the moisture from the surrounding atmosphere. 728. One general fact relative to the situation of bodies, and the amount of dew that they receive is, that whatever diminishes the view af the sky, -as seen from the exposed body, occasions the quantity of dew which is formed upon, it, to be less than ivould have occurred if the exposure to the sky has been complete. 29. All substances which present a great amount of surfacu in proportion totheir matter, are good radiators, the surface offering, as it were, the outlet to the rays of heat. Thus, a solid block of wood radiates heat indifferently, and forms comparatively little dew upon its surface; but the same piec; of wood cut into shavings, would radiate heat freely, and every part of its exposed surface become literally wet with dew. In this we find S beautiful- and\,wise provision oy which dew is formed upon leaves of plants, the petals of flowers, and open and porous soils to which it man be beneficial; while froni stones, solid rooks, and metals, to which, it could be of no use, it is wisely withheld.t ' , » " The Keason Why : Familiar Science." ' t Dr Wells. 192 THE gardener's and eaemee's "iVor Goa alone in the slill calm we find; He mounts the storm, and walks upon the wind." — Denuam. 730. Why is a slight movement of the atmosphere favourable to the formation of dew ? Because fresh volumes of air are thereby brought successively in contact with the cooling sui'faces, and remain long enough in contact with them for some portion of the moisture to be condensed. The cooling surfaces, therefore, receive constant additions of dew. 731. In very calm nights, a portion of air, which comes in contact with cold grass, will not, when the surface is level, immediately quit it, more especially as this air has become specifically heavier than the higher, from a diminution of its heat, but will proceed horizontally, and be applied unceasingly to different parts of the same surface. The air, therefore, which makes this progress, must at length have no moisture to be precipitated, unless the c(jld of the grass which it touches should increase.* 732. Why is little dew formed on windy nights ? Because the air being in rapid motion, does not remain long enough in contact with cooling surfaces to deposit its moisture. Winds, also, are generally drying, and tend to absorb moisture. 733. Bodies exposed in a clear night to the sky, must radiate as much heat during the prevalence of wind, as they would do, if the air were sdtogether still. But in the former ease, little or no dew will be observed upon them, because their degree of cold cannot differ greatly from, that of the atmosphere, as the frequent application of fresh air must constantly tend to equalize the temperature.* 734. Why is dew less copious upon hills than upon plains ? Because the air of high places is much more agitated, or more frequently in the condition of wind. The * Dr. Wells' "Essay on Dew." EEASON ■WHY. 193 " The imprisoned worm is safe Beneath the frozen ciod ; all seeds of herbs Lie covered close and berry-bearing thorns That feed the thrush."— Cowpeb. frequent removal, therefore, from this cause, of the air in contact with the grass on 1;he hiU, wiU prevent it from ever becoming much colder than the general mass of the atmosphere, at the same height. 735. What has been already said, refers only to what occurs on the ■rery summit of the hill. With respect to its sitles, these can only be a little colder than the atmosphere upon a level with them, even in the calmest state. For, in the first place, they do not enjoy the full aspect of the sky ; and, in the second, the air, which is cooled by contact with them, will, from its increased gravity, slide down their declivity, and thus make room for the application of new and luarm volumes to the same surface.* 736. Why do the leaves of trees often remain dry throughout the night, while those of grass are covered with dew ? Because the air in the higher situation is more agitated than on the ground. The air at a little distance from the ground, being nearer to one of its sources of moisture, will, on a calm evening, contain more of it than that which surrounds the leaves of elevated trees. And the declension of the leaves from a horizontal position will occasion the air, which has been cooled by them, to slide quickly away, and be succeeded by warmer particles. 737. The length of the branches of trees, the tenderness of the twigs, and the pliancy of the footstalks of their leares, will cause in the leaves an almost perpetual motion, even in the states of air that may be denominated calm. Hence we frequently hear, during the stillness of night, a rustling noise in trees, while the air below seems without motion. 738. Why should the agriculturist pay considerable regard to the theory of dew ? Because it forcibly impresses him with the fact that • rr. WcUs. H •194 THE gardenee's asd taemer's " When ploughing, is ended, and pasture not great, Then stable thy horsefs, and tend them with meat: Let season he dry, wlien ye take tliem to house. For danger of nits, or for fear of a louse."— Tossee. tlie atmosphere is constantly impregnated with watery vapour, ■which, in its gaseous state, accompanies the air wherever it penetrates, permeates the soil, pervades the leaves and pores of plants, and gains admission into the lungs and general vascular system of all terrestrial animals. From these Eircumstanoea, the practical farmer may derive many 739. He wiU perceive, from the constant presence of ihis vapour, the reason why the air should be allowed to sireulate freely even in the dryest weather, through a well- pulverized and loosened soil, about the roots of all growing crops, gradually administering to their wants by letting in moisture, instead of letting it out, as is sometimes erroneously supposed. 740. It is chiefly when it assumes the form of rain^ snow, hail, and dew, that the benefits arising from a previous conversion of water into vapour are to be particularly appreciated by the husbandman.* 741. Many of the compound earths and stones possess the power of attracting moisture from the air, in a high degree. The absorbent power of earths depends as much on their mechanical condition, as on the species of matter of which they are composed. Whatever tends to harden them, diminishes the measure of effect; and hence apparently, the reason why the action, of fire destroys their drying qualities. Quartz, or silica, which in a blacksmith's forge had suffered ■■: reduction to 19°, after being soaked in water for the space of a' week and again dried, showed an effect equal to 35^, and would probably in time have recovered the whole of its original power. The process by which nature gradually divides, softens, and disposes stony bodies to absorb moisture, is beautifully illustrated in the case of our whin-stonej or trap. A piece of solid trap produced a dryness of 80° ; another piece, decayed and crumbling, gave 86° ; but another * D. J. Browne. REASON WHY. 1'9S' 'Ho sliadsa the woods, the vallsys ha reqtriilns Witb rack7 mirantaias, asd eztoaOs the f\aiaa." —SXaa^iu. piece of the same- roek, already reduced to mould, affi)rded 92°. The ameliorating influence of culture is exemplified in sea-sand : fine sand caused a dryness of 70° ; sand collected from the paths of a sheep-walk near the beach, 78° ; and the same sand, lately brought into cultivation, 85°. Still, these efieots are inferior to that of garden mould, which amounts to 95°, and to which decomposed trap approaches the nearest. Other cultivated soils exert a similar power of absorption, and which appears always proportioned to their respective goodness. Nor are such increased energies to bo ascribed to the amelioration from manure, since this ingredieiit sejmratdy has less hiftuence than the earths themselves. It therefore seems highly probable, that the fertility of soils depends chiefly on theu- disposition to imbibe moisture.* 742. What is hoar frost ? Hoar frost is frozen dew. This beautiful phenomenon appears to result from the condensation of atmospheric vapour into exceedingly minute drops, and the slow congelation of these into crystalline particles more attenuated titan those of snow flakes. These crystalline particles are received by leafless branches, evergreens, blades of grass, roofs, fences, stakes, and other solid objects which act as points of supports.f 743. W/ii/ does frost henejit ploughed lands ? Because soils consist of an aggregation of earthy matter, debris of various rocks, portions of which alw8,ys consist of undecomposed stone. Bodies of this nature exposed to the air and moisture, absorb water, which enters into the interstices and crevices between the atoms of the masses, or into the pores of the raw clots of earth. 744. When frost takes place, the absorbed wfiter • I.csliu. t Professor Grffltha. H 2 196 THE gakdener's and farmer's " Now plough up thy headland, or delve it with spade, Where otherwise profit hut little is made; And cast it up high, upon hillocks to stand. That winter may rot it, to compass thy land.**— Tussee. changes into ice, and in so doing, expands with irresistible force, shivering the substance in which it is lodged into a number of particles. 745. So long as the frost lasts, these particles are all bound together by the enveloping ice, but immediately when thaw comes, they separate and fall apart, then the lump which before showed but one surface to the air, has now a multitude of surfaces, and the atmosphere acts upon it in an infinitely multiplied degree. 746. The property of condensing some important gases within a porous body, is in proportion to the extent of superficies thai the gas can meet toith: the crumbling down of the particles of the soil is therefore, even in this respect alone, an important feature ; the earthy salts of the soil are also thereby more extensively exposed to the action of the atmospheric influences in bringing about beneficial changes in their constitution.* 747. The action of frost is very important, the expansion of the moisture in the soil or rock breaking up the particles, and PiiEPARiNe THE WAT POR THE CHEMICAL FORCES TO ACT; these are chiefly the oxygen of the air, and carbonic acid gas, dissolved in rain-water ; both possess powerful affinities for many mineral substances — oxygen forming oxides, generally more soluble, and looser in nature, than the original minerals; carbonic acid acting upon lime, magnesia, and the alkalies, destroying previous combinations, and forming soluble carbonates.^ 748. Will/ is it said that "snow is the poor man's manure ? " This familiar proverb, like others of its class, rests upon observation, and is confirmed by experiment, which demonstrates the existence of certain fertilizing salts in snow. • T. F. Jamieson, Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. XVII. t John Coleman, Deene, Northamptonshire. REASON WHY. 197 '* Tim is the state of man : to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, And bears his blushing honours thick upon him j The third day comes a frost — a killing frost." — Shaespeakb, 749. In 1751, Margraf, in the neighbourhood of Berlin, after it had snowed several hours, collected in glass vessels as much falling snow as afforded 3,600 ounces of water. This caiefully evaporated, afforded CO gi'ains of calcareous matter, with some grains of muriatic acid, and traces of nitjvus vapour. An equal quantity of rain water, afforded 100 grains calcareous matter, with some muriatic acid; and in both cases the matter was discoloured by an oily substance. 750. A similai' result was obtained long ago in Ireland, by Dr. Rutty, who found in a gallon of snow water, 4 grains, sind in one gallon of rain water, 6 grains of calcareous matter. This is about the proportion found by Margraf, and would give for each inch of snoio water about lOlbs. of salts per acre. From the existence of free acids in this case, it is evident that no carbonate ef ammonia could have been present 751. There are some experiments performed by Dr. . Williams, formerly Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, in Harvard College, U. S., and detailed in the first volume of his history of Vermont, where the experiments were performed. In 1791, 6 gallons of fresh falling snow water, afforded by evaporation, 11 grains calcareous matter, 2 gi'ains of saline matter, 5 grains of a dark- brown oily matter. In Januai-y, 1792, 6 gallons of snow water, iiom snow lying three inches deep on the grass, on an area of 16 square feet, where it had lain 59 days, covered with a depth of 27 inches of snow, afforded the same salts as above, and 106 grains of this oily matter. This is the most remarkable fact, and may afford some weight to the suggestion before made, that organic matter exists gaseous in the air. It must have been drawn up by capillary attraction, or evolved from the surface of the earth. It is there condensed by the snow, and returned to the earth, impregnated with its salts of lime and ammonia.* 752. Why does snow " keep the earth wann ? " Because it is a bad conductor of heat, and prevents the cold air from depriving the earth of its warmth. It prevents the radiation of the earth's heat. When we reflect upov » Dr. S. L. Dana. t98 THE gardenek's and faemek's "Behold the grovea that shioe'Trith silver frost. Their heauty withered, and their Yerdure lost."— Pope. the warmth of snow, and examine the chemical constitution of frost and hail, we must be struck with tlie beauty and truth of that passage of Scripture which says — "Ho giveth snow like woo},: he scattereth the hoar frost like 753. What is hail? Sfiil is the frozen moisture of the clouds. It is probably formed by rain drojjs, which have accumulated in size by addition on their way to the earth, meeting with an exceedingly cold current of air near to the earth, by which "hey become suddenly frozen into hard masses. It is also ;Supposed that the electrical state of the air influences the formation of hail. 754. From the examination of hail-stones, by Girardin, a Fa-ench chemist, it appears that no sensible trace of ammonia was detected during tlie evaporation of tlieir water, but tliere was found a notable quantity of lime and svlphuric acid; and above all, a large proportion of aji organic substance containing nitrogen. Melted hail-stones have tjie appearance of water, containing a drop or two of milk ; by standii^g, the water grows clear, and the flocky matter which settles, burns with the smell of animal matter, and evolves ammonia.* 755. Why dofcirests lower the iemper.ature of the localities in mhich .they exist ? Because they detain and condense the clouds as they pass ; they pour into the atmosphere volumes of water dissolved in vapour. Winds do not penetrate into their recesses ; the direct sun never warms the eai'th they shade ; and tlie soil, being porous, as found in part of the decayed leaves, branches, ^nd stems of trees, and coated over besides by a thick bed of brushwood and moss, is constantly in a state of • Dr. S. L. Dana. REASON WH1-. isa ' How vapours turnert to cloitds obscure the sky, And clouds dissolved, the thirsty ground supply.*' — Hoscomuon. moisture. The hollows in them serve as reservoirs for cold and stagnant waters ; their declivities give rise to numberless brooks and rivulets ; the best wooded countries being those which are watered by the largest rivers.* 756. Why are mountainous localities more rainy than - ^^-i- fiat ones ? Because the mountains attract the clouds ; and because the clouds that are flying low are borne against the sides of the mountains and directed upwards into the cold regions, where, the va- pours becoming condensed by the lower temperature, descend as rain. 757. Why do mushrooms, and other funguses, grow most abundantly in moonlight? Because yellow light is favourable to the growth of these plants. Heat, in the force in which it resides in the solar rays, is unfavourable. The heat of the rays of the moon is very limited, and the amount of chemical action is exceedingly small. We must, therefore, regard the moonbeams as consisting largely of the luminous rays, the other active rays being, in all probability, absorbed by the moon's surface.f 758. Wliy is moonlight said to be cold? Because it occurs in the season of mightly radiation, when * Gffwer's " Scientific Phenomena." t Hunt's " Kesearches on Light." 200 THE gardener's and farmek's " By nature shaped to vaiious figures, those The fruitful rain, and these the hail compose ; The snowy fleece and curious frost-work, these Produce the dew, and those the gentle hreeze." — Blacesiobe, all bodies have a tendency to cool, by throwing off the heat they have absorbed during the day. As this occurs chiefly when the sky is clear and calm, the temperature of the air frequently falls to 40° or 43" Fahr., and at this temperature a plant, radiating into space, readily falls below the point of congelation, and then the hopes of the gardener and farmer are sometimes destroyed. The phenomenon takes place particularly in a bright night, and if the moon happen to be up when it occurs, the influence is ascribed by the uninformed to her light. Were the sky clouded, the principal condition of radiation would be w^pting ; the temperature of objects on the surface of the ground would not fall below that of the surrounding medium, and plants would not freeze unless THE AIR ITSELF fell to 32° Fahr. 759. The observation of gardeners upon the " coldness of moonlight " U not. in itself false, but only incomplete. If the freezing of the soft and delicate parts of vegetables, in cii-cumstances when the air is several degrees above the freezing point, be really due to the escape of heat into planetary space, it must happen that a screen placed above a radiating body, so as to mask a portion of the heavens, will either prevent, or at least diminish, the amount of cooling. And that this tikes place, in fact, appears from the beautiful experiments of B r. Wells. A thermometer, placed upon a plank of a certain thickness, and raised about a yard above the ground, occasionally indicates in clear and calm weather from 6° to 7° or 8° Fahr. less than a second thermometer attached to the lowek surface of the plank. It is in this way, as we have seen, that we can explain the use of mat;; of layers of straw, and all those slight coverings which gardeners are so careful to supply during the night to delicate plants at certain seasons of the year. 760. The screens indicated, as simple as they are effectual in protecting plants in the garden, are rarely applicable in farming, Where the surface to be preserved is always very extensive. Nevertheless, in severe winters, the frost, by jjenetrating the ground, would frequently destroy the fields sown in autumn, were it not that in kbason why. 201 " That screened the fruits of the earth and seats of men. From cold Septentrion blasts."— Milton, high latitudes the snow which covers the surface becomes a powerful obstacle to excessive cooling, by acting at one and the same tiiiLe as a coTEEiNa, and a screen preventing radiation. 761. When ire reflect upon the losses occasioned to farmers and market gardeners by frosts that are entirely due to nocturnal radiation at seasons of the year when vegetation has already made considerable progress, we ask eagerly if there be no possible means of guarding against them ? There is a method successfully followed by the South American agriculturists with this view. The natives of the upper country in Peru, who inhabit the elevated plains of Cusco, are' perhaps more than any other people, accustomed to see their harvest destroyed by the effects of nocturnal radiation. These people appear to have ascertained the conditions under which frost during the night was most to be apprehended. They had observed that it only froze when the night was clear and the air calm ; knowing, consequently, that the presence of clouds prevented frost, they contrived to make artificial clouds to preserve their fields against the cold. When the evening led them to apprehend a frost — that is to say, when the stars shone vAth brilliancy, and the air was still — the Indians set fire to a heap of wet straw or dung, and by this means raised a cloud of smoke, and so destroyed the transparency of the atmosphere from which they had so much to apprehend. It is easy, in fact, to conceive that the transparency of the air can readily be destroyed by raising a smoke in calm weather ; it would be otherwise were there any wind ; but then the precaution itself becomes unnecessary, for, with air in motion, there is no reason to apprehend frost from nocturnal radiation.* * Boussinghault's " Kural Economy." 202 THp gardener's and farmer's " Some useth at first, a good fallow to make, So sow tliereon barley, , the better to take, Next thfit to sow pease, and of that to sow .wheat, Then fallow again, or lie lay for thy neat."- -TUSSEH. ni. -AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE: PLOUGHING, FALLOWING, MANURING, SOTCENG, DRILLING, DIBBLING, HARROWING, WEEDING, HOEING, HAYMAICING, REAPING, STORING, ROTATION, FENCING, DRAINING, &C., &C. 762. Why should the speed of horses at the plough }e carefully and evenly regulated?' Because, when horses are driven beyond their step, they draw very unequally, and, of course, the plough is held unsteadily. In that case, the plough has a tendency to take too much land; to obviate which, the ploughman Zepfas the plough over to the left, in which position it raises a thin broad furrow-slice and lays .it over at too low an angle. 763. On the other hand, when the ploughman allows the ihor&es to move at . too slow a pace, he is apt to forget what he is about, and the furrow slices will then, most probably,- he made too narrow and shallow; and though they may be laid over at the proper angle, and the work appear externally well enough executed, there will be a deficiency of mould in the ploughed soil.* 764. Should cattle be yoked to' a plough in pairs, or in a single line ? There are advantages and disadvantages attending each * Stephen's "Book of the Farm." REASON ^yJIY. 2U3 *' Go plow up 01- delve up, advisM with skill, The lireiuUh of 'abridge, and in length 'as ye will; Whore speedy '<5uicl5set.' for a fence'ye willdraw. To sow in the seed of the brarahle and haw." — Tosser. wm/ ; and the only method of arriving at a just conclusion is to compare these, and apply the deduction to such special circumstances as may exist. 765. A disadvantage of yoking in pairs is, that in ploughing the furrows betwixt the ridges, the land-cattle go upon the ploughed land, and tread it down with their feet ; this, especially if the land is wet, hurts it very much. Another disadvantage is, that when there is but as much of the ridge unploughed as to allow the land-cattle to go upon it with difficulty, they are frequently either going into the opposite furrow, and thereby giving the plough too much land ; or, which is worse, they are justling the jkrrow cattle upon the ploughed land. 766. When cattle are yoked in a line, they go all in a furrow. This makes it necessary to give the plough more land than ordinary. Another disadvantage is, that horses and oxen, like men, love their ease, and are disposed to throw the burden upon their fellows. This they have a better opportunity of doing when yoked in a line before each other than when in pairs. When yoked ina line, each pulls by the traces of the oi?e behind him ; and therefore, though it may be known when the foremost neglects his work, by the slackening of his traces, yet it cannot be known, except by close observation, when any of the rest neglect their work. 767. There is another inconvenience attending the common way of yoking cattle in a line before each other. When the fore-cattle are all yoked to^ the traces of the hindmost, it is obvious, that, as the beam to which the di-aught is fixed, is much lower than his shoulders, by which the rest pull, such a weight must be laid upon his 204 THE gardener's and fakmeks " The dawn is over-cast, the morning lowers. And heavil^r in clouds brings on the day." — Addisoh. back or shoulders as must render him incapable of giving any assistance. When a body is to be moved forward, the nearer the direction of the force applied approaches to the direction of the body, it acts with the greater influence ; and therefore, as the plough moves horizontally, and as the direction of the united draught of a plough with the cattle yoked two abreast is more horizontal than the direction of the draught in a plough with the cattle yoked in a line, the same force applied will have greater influence. 768. But this is easily discovered, when the cattle are yoked in pairs ; for every one of them has then a separate draught. The goadman knows by the position of the yokes or cross-trees, whenever one of them does not draw equally well with his fellow; and the ploughman perceives, by the going of the plough, whenever either of the two pairs does not draw equally with the other ; for if the pair that goes foremost neglect their work, the plough is pulled out of the ground; and if the pair that go hindmost neglect their work the plough is pulled in too deep. 769. When these different ways of yoking cattle in plouglts are considered and compared, it is difficult to determine which ought to be preferred. Each seems preferable to the other in a certain situation. When the land is stiff, and the labour severe, yoking the cattle in pairs seems preferable, as it is the strongest draught ; and when the land is wet and in danger of much hurt by the treading of the cattle, the yoking them in a line confines them to the bottom of the furrow and prevents a great amount of harm.* 770. When horses are yolted in a line, if the traces of the horse next but one to the plough are made very long, and fixed, not to the shoulders of the horse, but to the cross-tree, and the traces of the horse before him, not to his shoulders, but to his traces, where the back rope is fixed, the hindmost horse will be releived from the burden pointed out as a disadvantage.* The traces being long will iocommode the hindmost horse in turning, which may be obviated by * Dickson "On Agriculture." KEASON WHY. 205 ' Fancy, with prophetic glance, Sees the teeming months advance ; The field, the forest, green and gay. The dappled slope, the tedded hay.'* — Wartom. two links fixed to his shoulders, the traces being passed through the links, and the latter long enough to allow the traces to be stretched.* 771. A Scotch ploughman of great experience and judgment expressed to Mr. Pusey the opinion that two horses abreast hane as much j)ower over the plough as three horses in a line, because their "purchase" over it is greater in that proportion. 772. Why does the working of the wheel plough generally require a smaller expenditure of force than that of the swing plough ? It is principally, if not fully, explained by the more uniform horizontal motion communicated to the share and sole of the former, through the regulating medium of the wheels, at the forepart of the beam, which diminish the shocks arising from the continual vibrations of the implement, when balanced between the hand of the ploughman and the back and shoulders of the horse. 773. It is not intended that wheels so situated act the part of lessening the friction between the sole and the soil ; but they keep the rubbing part more truly to its depth, and maintain its horizontal action more correctly ; whereas the horses affect a swing plough at every step by the irregularity of their proper movement, which haa to be counteracted by the effm-t of the man at the opposite end. Thus, conflicting forces are momentai'ily produced, and continual elevations and depressions of the point of the share take place, together with deviations from the flat position of the sole, which should be at right angles to the perpendicular ; and to remedy which, unskilful ploughmen bear unequally on the stilts, which produces a lateral pressure landwards, and, consequently, a gi-eat amount of friction along the whole of the left-side place of the plough. However small may be t-he efforts of the ploughman to hcep his plough " swimming fair," those efforts must 206 THE c.arpenee's and farmeks " Spring's early hopes seem half-resigned, And silenfi for a while remain ; Till sunbeams ^broken clouds can find, And brighten all to life again-"— Clare. be attemled leith increased resistanee, and, consequently, leitk increased exertion to the Jtorses.* 774. The best form of a plough cannot be determined without 'regard to the soil in lohich it is designed to work. The test of perfection in the work of " plough is, that the furrow-slice shall lie, after being turned over, in a perfectly straight line, not only unbroken, but even uncracked. It is by patient attention to this point that Mr. Busby, with the aid of an excellent farmer, Mr. Outhwaite, produced the beautiful mould-boards of his prize ploughs. This unbroken furrow-slice requires some length of mould-board ; and it is urged, on the other hand, in behalf of short mould-boards, that they ■pulverise the soil lohile they turn it over. Practical farmers, however, know that to pulverise is not tlie immediate object of ploughing land ; but as the length of the English mould -boards surprised foreigners, it may not 'be useless to state a further reason for that apparently excessive length. English mnnld-boards were, in fact, made short and. hollow, until at one. of the Boyol Agricultural Society's trials, all the selected ploughs were brought to a stand in attempting to work a strong clay. The cause of the failure was this : the chief resistance to the horses in ploughing proceeds not from the weight of earth moved, which is insignificant, nor, unless the ground be unusually baked, /rom the act of severing the earth, but from two other causes, namely, PRICTION, and, on certain soils, still more from cohesion. Now, if the soil contain sharp sand, there will be no cohesion; it will work fteely off the mould-board, which will be kept bright, and the shorter its surface the less will the friction be. For such soils, therefore, as are common in Scotland, short mould-boards may be the best. But most English soils contain so much clay as will adhere to and fill up the hollow df a short moulfl- board, so that the furrow slice will have to work, not upon an iron surface, but upon the most disadvantageous of all surfaces, one of Tough loam, and the draught may thus be easily doubled by friction and cohesion together. Hence, English mould- boards have been very properly lengthened, the more properly because the same soil will more often have to be worked in a moist state here than in continental Europe. Many of the foreign ploughs, it should be said, behaved, under all disadvantages, exceedingly well, and were, no doubt, well suited for their respective localities.t • Mr. H.inaicj-, M.P. t "Reports of Exhibition Juries, 1851." REASON •WHT. 207 ' Some far fl'om the market, delight not in pease, For that erery .chapman they -seem not to please ; It vent .of the' market^pJaoej serve thee not well, Set hoga up ■ a-fattening, to drover to sell." — Tusser. 775. Wilt/ ihrnild land not be ploughed in a state of wetness 7 Because tenacious lands, -wlien subjected to tlie operation of ploughing in sucli a condition, are apt to run together in lumps, which it is afterwards extremely difficult to reduce, besides being .greatly injured hy the treading of cattle, whose feet makd holes which become filled with putrid water. This observation applies chiefly to marshy fields, which have been recently brought into cultivation, and which, above all others, ought not to be endangered by unseasonable tillage ; but no land, whatever may be its qualities, should be ploughed in a wet state* 776. WJiy shouM the direction of the ridges be north and soutli ? This arrangement is recommended by experienced farmers, so far as the situation of the field will admit of it. Deviations from this rule, fox the purpose of drainage, or on account of the particular form of an enclosure, may be sometimes necessary ; but it seems always advantageous to bring the course of the ridges as near as possible to the line mentioned; for it appears that in tliose which have an east and westerly direction, even when the elevation is not considerable, the crop on the south side has ripened a weeiJc earlier than that on the north.* In the north and south direction, the east and west sides of the ridges divide the sun equally between them, and their produce ripens at the same time. Til. Why is autumnal ploughing most beneficial to ■adhesive soils ? Because frost, acting on the moisture which they 'contasu* * EncycloplEdia Metrnpolitnna. 208 THE gardener's and farmer's " Nature in the prospect yields Humble dales, aad moantains Ijold ; Meadows, woodlands, heaths, and fields. Yellowed o*er with waving gold." — Conningham. renders them more pliable, and fitter for the reception of all kinds of seeds.* 778. Why are frequent plougMngs necessary ? For the purpose of preventing the natural separation of soils and manures. Ploughing should be conducted with careful regard to the following principles : — 779. — 1st. An additional depth should first be gained in autumn, that a successive change of seasons ■ may taie effect in atmospheric influences, before any seed is ventured in the raw stratum brought up. 780. — 2nd. The quality of that stratum should be examined ; it is sometimes sterile by reason of an acid, discoverable by boiling in water, and putting that water to the test of blue infusions. 781. — 3rd. Animal and vegetable matters cannot be buried: at whatever depth they are deposited, their constant tendency is to rise ta the atmosphere. 782. — 4th. Fossil manures are extremely liable to be buried, having a constant tendency downwards. Chalk, marl, and clay, are sufficiently soluble, or so miscible with water as to tnix in a regular mass, and are "sometimes found much below the path of the plough. 783. — 5th. In soils of a poor hungry quality, there should be some proportion observed between the depth of ploughing, and the quantity of manure usually spread ; but this does not hold good upon better soils. 784. — 6th. Soils are rarely found that ought not to be ploughed in common, six inches deep ; many ought to be stirred sight inches, ■and some lEir. 785. — 7th. One deep ploughing, to the full depth, should be given once in twelve, eighteen, or twenty-four months ; if this be secured, shallow tillage, by scaling, scarifying, scuffling, shimming, or broad sharing, is in many cases jjreferable to deep loorking oftener, and especially for wheat, which loves a firm bottom.* • Encyclopsdia Metropolitana. t ** Annnls of Agriculture." REASON WHY, 209 * The land, allowed its losses to repair, Re&eslied, and full in strength, delights to wear A second youth, and to the farmer's eyes, Bids richer crops and double harvests rise.** — Chubchill. 786. Humus, in the state in which it is usually found in the earth, is not soluble in water, and wo might have some difficulty in compre- hending how it enters into the minute vessels of the roots of plants ; but here the admirable provision of nature may be observed. Humus is insoluble and antiseptic; it resists further decomposition in itself, and in other substances in contact with it. It remains for a long time in the earth unimpaired ; but no sooner is it brought into contact with the atmosphere, by the process of cultivation, than an Action begins. Part of its carbon uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere, produces carbonic acid, which the green parts of plants readily absorb, while its hydrogen with the same forms icater, without which plants cannot live ; and, in very warm climates, where this process goes on more rapidly, the moisture thus produced keeps up vegetable life, when rains and dews fail. The residue becomes a soluble extract, and in that state is taken up readily by the fibres of the roots. But the changes still go on, the extract absorbs more oxygen, and becomes once more insoluble, in the form of a film, which Fourcroy calls vegetable albumen, and which contains a small portion of nitrogen. Sy bringing fresh portions of humus to the surface and permitting the access of air to it, more carbonic acid, water, extract, and albumen are formed, and give a regular supply to the plants, which, by their living powers, produce the various substances found in the vegetable kingdom of nature. Hence we see the great importance of frequently stirring the surface of the earth between cabbages and other vegetables.* ■ 787. Why should the autumn ploughing of stuhhles be cpnducted with the greatest possible care ? Because the ploughing of stubbles for the fallow-crop is THE MOST IMPOETANT OPERATION of the wliole rotation, and the succeeding crops will greatly depend upon the way in which it is done. Many farmers conduct their stubble ploughing in a slovenly manner, " because it is ONLY the stubbles.'' But it is ' more than the stubbles — * Penny Cyclopoedia. 210 THE gaedenee's and faemek's " Where barley, ye sow, after rye or else -wlieat, If land be unlusty, 'the crop is not great : So lose ye yoiir cost, to your corsie and smart, And land (QTerburdened) is clean out of heart." — Tusseb. IT IS THE AMELIORATION OF THE SOU. FOE THE SUCCEEDING CEOPS.' 788. We should aim. at quality rather than gua/ntity, 'plow^iing as -deep as the soil will allow, without bringinp; up above an inchor two of the subsoil; holding small furrows, and laying them up at a considerable angle, so that the rain will not remain long on the surface ; laying out the field into convenient .sized lands, higher or lower, larger or smaller, according to the tenacity of the soil; carefully curving out the furrows, and making proper grips to carry off the excess of water consequent upon heavy winter rains. 789. By such means, we ensure the soil receiving all the benefits whioh the changes of weather can produce: the atmosphere wiiH penetrate,, because we have taken precautions to allow of the moisture getting away ; the soil must become pulverized, and will be ready ^to work in the spring much sooner than land untouched, whicli, lying flatter, with no surface drainage, will most likely have remained saturated with moisture all winter, and will turn up raw and stubborn, at the very time tliat the autumn ploughed may be ready to receive a crop.* 790. The object of ploughing in autumn is to smother the surface- weeds, which would grow in mild weather, even in winter, by inverting the surface of the ground, and to expose the earth under the rootr weeds to the frost, by turning up the bottom of the furrow-slice to the air. It is clear, that the more closely the inverted surface can be t)laced, and the more exposed the under part of the furrow-slice can be exhibited to the influence of frost, the better is the chance of smothering the surface-weeds, and of Mlling the roots of the root-weeds. The advantages of ploughing may bo obtained, in the greatest degi'eej by placing the furfow-elice at an angle the production of meat upon a farm bear a definite relation to the amount of grain exported? Because grain crops can be grown at a cheaper rate by THE PEODUCTION OP MEAT, than by the direct action of ABTIPICIAL MANUEES; the propriety of adopting the former course to its full extent becomes, however, a question of capital. It would require five times as much capital to produce the same amount of corn by means of stock as could be produced by artificial manures. It is the same with the manufacturer who employs the high-pressure or a double-cylinder engine ; with the former his capital * Dr. Fowncs. t Dr- Dauheny. 222 THE gaedenek's and faemee's - __^ w^ "The lighlB of Hearen (which are the world's fair eyes) Look down into the world, the world to see \ And as they tnm, or wander in the skiee, Snrvey all things, that on this centre be."— Da^vieu, invested is small, hut the interest paid upon it by the daily consumption of fuel is- very great, -while ■With the latter his invested capital is great, and his daily interest comparatively small.* 818. In feeding stock, but a small proportion of the nitrogen in the food is converted into the substance of the animal ; the greater portion is returned to the soil as manure. The economy of tha production of meat, as a means of obtaining manure, arises. from the greatly increased value of the nitrogen in flesh, as compared with that supplied in the food. Thus 281bs. oi flesh worth '14s., contains lib. of nilzogen; 381bs. of peas, beans, or oii-oake, which contain about the same quantity, are not worth more than 2s. or Ss.* 819. When tiu'nips are plentiful, and stock is dear, fai'mers not unfrequently give their turnips to any person who loill bring stock to consume them. And it is a common practice in some places to feed a quantity of half-starvsd cattle upon straw, for the purpose of converting it into dung. It should, however, be understood that the parage of the straw or turnip through the stomach of the animal, far from adding to the quality of the substance as manure, abstracts a large proportion of their valuable elements. There is no magical property in the black mass called " dung," which did not exist in the strata. Some of the elements may be rendered more rapidly available, but the actual quantity restored to the soil must be considerably reduced.* 820. In the " Gardener's Chronicle," for the year 1844, are given the results of some experiments upon feeding sheep, conducted upon the farm of the Earl of Dueie, by Mr. Morton ; some of these sheep were fed in the field, some under cover. Altogether, 25 sheep were experimented upon, and they increased 6111bs., having consumed 31,5801bs. of swedes, 2,7751bs. Of oats. Calculating the food to have contained 95Ibs. of nitrogen, and the increase of live weight, to represent 211bs. of nitrogen, the one pound of nitrogen produced six and a half pounds of live weight, and for each pound of nitrogen exported in meat, three and a half remain for manure.* • Mr. J B. Lawes. EEASON WHT. 223 ' Thou eye of Nature ! whose extensive ray With endless 'Charms adorns the face of day; Consenting raise the harmonious joyful sound, And bear his praises through the vast profound."— Boyse. 821. In my experimeiits upon wheat, it required' five pounds of ammonia to produce a busliel of corn. To obtain this amount of ammonia by means of stocky there should be an irtcrease in the weight of one thousand pounds. In order to bring an exhausted soil to the highest state of fertility, it will be necessary to produce an amount of meat, by means of imported food, (such as hay and oil-caTie,) equivalent to the increase of grain required. As the green crops increase year by year, the same amount of meat will -be produced, but the importation of artificial food will gradually decrease to the point at which the internal and external resources of the farm are so balanced as to secure the largest amount of produce from the soil.* 82Si. A most important consideration is the quantity of m>eat MADE ON A parm pek ACRE, for, in proportion to this, will be THE quantity OF COHN GKOWN. 823. By asking a few questions of a fanner I can almost immediately arrive at a conclusion as to his position, without visiting his farm. The first question would be " How much meat do you make per acre, over the whole acreage of your farm ?" This question has been solved by Mr. Thomas Dyke Acland, in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, Vol. xi., page 666. There it will be seen that the largest corn- growing farmer in Norfolk, a most successful man, produces 4J score of meat on every, acre of his land. Compare this with the general average of farms in the kingdom, which certainly do not produce one score pounds of meat per acre. The more meat you 7nahe, the more matiure you produce, and the more corn you grow. The common labourer is the best evidence on this point ; with his one-eighth of an acre of ground he knows that unless he keeps a pig to make manure, he cannot expect a crop. Therefore he fats one pig, which consumes three sacks, or 12 bushels of barley-meal, which, at 71bs. of meal to lib. of meat, would be 841bs. of meat, or four score on the one eighth of an acre, or over 32 score per acre. 824. It has often been remarked that, amidst miserable land and wretched farming, the labourer's cottage-garden is like an oasis in the desert; but when I show that inde'pendient of deeper cultivation, it receives in manure 32 times the farmer's quantity,' the qontrast * iilr. J. B.Lawes. — Journal of the RoyaL Agricultural Society. 324 THE gakdenee's and farmer's ' Two crops of a fallow earicbeth the plough, Though t' one he of pease, it is land good enough ; One crop and a fallow, some soil will abide. Where, if ye go further, lay profit aside." — Tdsser. need no longer be a matter of surprise. Of course the farmer who makes the largest quantity of meat obtains a proportionate amount of manure, and of produce. 8SJ5. Some years ago, when good Danish barley could be had for 19s. per quarter, I fattened an immense quantity of pork, and other meat, equal to at least 20 score per acre. The farm has never forgotten it, and as I made so much manure when corn was cheap, I have been enabled to grow large crops during the late high prices ; thus justifying the calculations I made in my celebrated balance- sheet. I seldom make less than 10 to 13 score pounds of meat per acre over the whole farm ; it is the key to good chops. 826. Assuming that Tibs, of beans or oil-cake will mahe lib. of mutton, IT WOULD PAY A FARMER WELL TO SELL HIS BEANS TO HIS SHEEP at 40s. PEE QUARTER, because that price is about one penny per pound, and mutton at seven pence per pound would pay for seven pounds of beans. The beans thus remain on the farm; but, even supposing that you give to your sheep four quarters of beans per acre, and that you lose 10 per cent, by them, or 16s. per acre, I am prepared to prove that in the corn crop that folloios, the increase will be at least £3 per acre beyond the sum that would otherwise be realized. 827. I know a farmer, within a few miles of me, who always allows his 1,500 fattening sheep lib. of beans per diem when feeding in the field ; the consequence is a general and progressive enrichment of the soil, which almost compels him to take an extra corn crop to tama the land. In my own case I generally on one field, annually, which has become saucy, take five or six quarters of rivet wheat per acre after a similar crop of ordinary wheat. The farmer to whom I allude, takes green rye after oats, rye fed off with sheep eating beans, then turnips, put into little mounds, and fed off in February and March with sheep eating beans, then barley with seed, then clover once mowed, and then fed off with sheep eating beans, then wheat followed by oats, which completes the rotation — thus growing three corn crops, one root crop, and two green crops in a course of five years, with an increasing fertility. The fact is, the poverty-stricken principle of a lot of hungry, half-starved sheep growing into money, and exhausting the land, is a miserable and ruinous plan, and the time REASON WHY. 225 " Tongues in trees, books in" the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything."— Shakspease, ■will come when our agricultural friends will fat more at home, rather than supply us. with the heart of their land in the shape of lean stock.* 828. Wliy, in fold-manuring, if the sail he hard or stiff, should it be loosened before turning on the sheep? Because the soil is then enabled both to absorb the perspired gases of the sheep, and also to allow the fluid excrements, -which are the first to undergo decomposition, f ■V7I1T. 227 ' Look well to tliy horaes in stable tliou must, That liay be not foisty, nor chaff full of dust; Nor stone in their provender, feather, nor clots. Nor feed with green pcason, for breeding of bots." — Tusseh. 838. — 7. The sheep, in hot weather, are always more healthy from being in the hurdles at night than in the houses j but in cold and rainy weather, it will be more advisable, especially in the case of fine wooled sheep (merinoes), to take them up at night; and least of all should merinoes be hurdled in wet weather, where the soil is coloured red from the large quantity of iron it contains ; for, in that case, the wool will acquire a very bad condition, and be capable of being washed clean with difficulty, if at all. Sheep which have been shed-fed in snmmer, are, on the other hand, washed clean with far greater ease when hurdled for fourteen days before shearing. 839.-8. By the treading of the sheep, both in and out of the shed, much of the excrement is wasted, whilst little or none of it is lost when it comes immediately on the pasture mthin the hurdles. 840. — 9. In fold-manuring we save much straw, which may be either reserved for the winter, or will serve as litter or fodder for cows fed in the stall. 841. — 10. Lastly — The most important advantage of hurdling consists in this : that a greater quantity of manuring matter is obtained ; for, on the one hand, the best portion of the excrements are not wasted by evaporation, which is always the case when they are collected together in the stall ; and, on the other, the perspired vapours of the sheep, consisting of carbonic acid and ammonia, are absorbed by the soil, if it has been previously ploughed and loosened. In consequence of the excrements not lying together in large heaps, they do not undergo so quick a decomposition as in the stall; and while much ammonia is uselessly evaporated in the shed, none at all is lost in the fold-manuring, for as soon as a little ammonia is produced, it is immediately absmibed hy the soil, and chemically combined with the humic acid it contains.* 842. Will/ is the cutting of clover generally/ better than "feeding it off?" Because every leaflet upwards has a rootlet downwardB, and if a leaflet be taken off, the rootlet will not grow ; so that if ^heep he fed upon the surface, the constant cropping of the leaves diminishes the under-production. In. exact * Professor ^pregnel. I 2 228 THi? gabdener's axx> farmer's *' In threshing out fitches, one point I will shew ; First thresh out for seed of the fitches a few ; Thresh few for thy plough-horse, thresh clean for the cow ; This order in Norfolk good Imshands allow." — Tusseh. proportion to the upper, is the increase of the lower; aud if you are always feeding off the foi'mer with sheep, you will have hut few roots helow, and the small amount of nutriment given in the shape of oil-cake, will produce little or no effect. 843. A friend of mine tried this in Northamptonshire. He had a field of clover, which he divided into two pai'ts. The whole was cut at Midsummer, halfioas left to grow again, and the other fed off. In October, he staked out two pieces as regularly as possible, and had all the roots dug up, and carefully cleaned and weighed. The result was, that where the clover had been cut once and eaten once, there were thirty-five hundredioeight of roots per acre ; and where it had been cut twice, there were seventy-five hundredjveight per acre ; being a difference of two tons of roots per acre. Who will say, then, that two tons of vegetable matter, containing so much nitrogen as these roots do, were not an exceedingly good dressing ? Of course, the result in the wheat crops was perceptible at once ; and you may depend upon it that, loith one exception, namely — ^when the soils are so light that the mechanical treading of the feet of sheep is a prime necessity, you will ahoays get a better crop of wheat after two cuts of clover than by feeding off.* 844. Wilt/ does hoeing promote the growth of plants ? Because the more a soil is pulverized, and the greater the state of division^ in which its parts are, the greater is its absorbent power. The action of the hoe increases the attrac- ■ lion for moisture, encourages the circulation of the at- mospheric and nutritive gases, and thus, be the soil what it may, adds to its fertility. 845. Hoeing also destroys weeds, which, if permitted ta grow, crowd round the root of the plant, and, by robbing the soil of its fertilizing matters, and preventing the free access of air, materially lessen the produce of the corn crops.^i * Neabit'B " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry." t J. Hannam. REASON WHY. 229 " To teach and unteach, in a school is unmeet, To do aod undo, to the purse is unsweet 5 , Then orchard or hop-yard, so trimmfed with cost, Should not, through foliy, he spoilfed and lost."— Tussek. 846. By the mechanical operations of agriculture, we divide and renew -the surface, and endeavour to make every atom of the soil aacessible to the action of the carbonic acid and oxygen of the atmosphere. In this way we distribute the excess of mineral food found at one spot to others in which it fails, and thus enable a new generation of plants to find everywhere the materials which are indispensable to tlieir growth and prosperity.* 847. Why is the system of late hoeing injurious ? Because, by deferring the operation of hoeing, weeds acquire strength, rob the crop of its legitimate food, and at last become so deeply rooted, that the labour of the hoe is greatly increased ; and is attended with danger to the cultivated crop. 848. If you cut off the roots of a tree, it will send out two new roots for every one that is cut off, and the tree may not be injured. Some think it will become more vigorous. But if you cut the roots of corn, after it has silked out, and thus force it into the business of forming new roots, at the very time when it should be maturing its seeds, you commit a fatal mistake. You might just as well bleed your horse half to death, and work him hard in order to fatten him, especially if you would keep him rather short the while, as corn is, of course, kept short, while it has few unmutilated roots to convey its food.t 849. The use of the hoe for any of these purposes requires dry weather. The best hoe, when deep stirring the soil between drilled, crops is performed, is the Spanish hoe, fig. 1, or the Vernon hoe, fig. 2. The flat, or common hoe, is only useful in cutting down weeds; and, as it is used in general, it performs little more. Hoeing between rows of crops is sometimes performed by what ^•V- '• -^S"' ^ is called a hoe-plough, which is a small plough having a share with double fins, drawn by one • Liebig. t J. -A* Nash. 230 TIIK GAEDENEKS AJSTD FARMER S *' At Christmas, good husbands have corn on the ground, In barn and in soller, worth many a pouncV; With plenty of other things, cattle and sheep. All sent tliem (no doubt on) good houses to keep." — Tusseh. man and pushed by another. The Dutch hoe is very useful for this service, and may also be efficiently used for the purpose of cleaning walks, or scraping turf or mud from roads or courtyards.* 850. \Vl)y did the system of horse-lioeing husbandry, ■without manures,, as adopted hy Jethro Tull, fall into disrepute ? Because it was founded upon an extreme opinion, the practice of -which sought to accomplish too much. The important influence of the atmosphere on the soil, and the increased fertility produced by pulverizing and stirring heavy lands, led Jethro Tull to conclude that labour might entirely supersede the necessity for manure: hence the origin of the " horse-hoeing husbandry," which at one time was so highly thought of as to be called, by way of distinction, the neiv husbandry, just as agriculture upon the modern theory is called scientific agriculture. Fallowing and manuring were both discarded as unnecessary ; the seed was sown in rows with wide intervals, which were continually worhed and stirred'. 851. At first the result was highly satisfactory ; all the humus (vegetable mould), by exposure ,to the air, was converted into soluble extract, and taken up by the plants, which throve well as long as the supply lasted ; but in the end it was exhausted ; and the warmest admirers and supporters of TuU's system found in practice that pulverizing axone will not restore fertility. The system of drilling and horse-hoeing, when united with judiciotjs MANURiNft has, however, been found a great JilPHOVEMENT.f '852. The introduction of diill husbandry has been generally ascribed " "Dictionary of Daily Wants." •( Penny Cjelopsedia : Art. "Arable Land." REASON WHT. 231 ' The lands and the riches that here we p&ssess, Be none of our own, if a God we profess ; But lent us of Him, as his talent of gold, Which being demanded, who can it withhold?" — Tusser. to Jethro Tull, who wrote a work upon the subject in 1731. This, however, is incorrect. Sir Hugh Piatt, in the year 1600, in his " New Found Arte of Setting Corn,'' recommended the system of "setting" in preference to "sowing," and described a board with a number of holes therein, which might be worked by two men, directed by a, gardener's line, so as to keep them straight in the course of setting. He spoke, moreover, of this rude method having been previously tried, and of various opinions prevailing respecting it. But in Gabriel Platte's " Discovery," dating more than a hundred years previously to the days of Tull, the description of a drilling machine is most minutely given. He says : — " It is not intended that this work of setting of come, should be generally put in practise at the first ; but in every place a little in the most convenient and apt places, that so the people may be well skilled in it, and fit to follow it more earnestly in time of dearth and scarcitie, wherein so much come may be saved for present releefe and necessitie, that it will be good as a general storehouse for the whole kingdome, for by this invention we doe as it were borrow of natm-e a multitude of quarters of corn for present maintenance of foode till the ensuing harvest."* 853. Why is drilling superior to broad cast sowing ? Because it admits of the regular deposition of the seed at an uniform depth, adapted to the habit of growth of the plant : from this there is a saving of seed, to the extent of at least one-third. It also economises the use of manure, by- sowing the manure in the spot, where it may he available by the seed, and not indiscriminately scattered through the soil. It also causes the plants to strike at regtdar distances, giviug to each its appropriate space in the participation of air, sunshine, and moisture. And it facilitates the cleansing of the soil from weeds, &c., by the system of horse or hand-hoeing. 854. In 1848, Mr. Vernon Harcourt published a series of expbbi- MBHTS showing the difference ietween dkilling and broaboast * Philp's History «f Progress. 232 THE gakdenee's anu faemee's *' In Spring-time we rear, we do sow, and we plant; In Summer get victuals, lest after we want ; In Harvest we cany in corn, and the fruit In Winter to spend, as we need of each suit."— Tusser. sowing ; and the results, though not so decisively in favour of the former as Mr. Ames's previous trials, prove that, where the land was sufficiently uniform in quality to make all the circumstances of cultivation and growth equal, the drilled part gave the greatest produce. The following experiment is that upon which Mr. Harcourt places most reliance : — Grain. Straw. Bushs. Gals. Trusses, lbs. Drilled Wheat per acre ... 40 771 Broadcast per acre . . . . 33 3 66 24 855. This experiment gives an average equivalent to an increase of Jifteen and a half per cent, of grain from drilling, and of rather more than fourteen per cent, of straw. 856. The drilling of oats and barley is much less common than that of wheat. The former of these being usually sown after lea, on one furrow, renders the drilling of the seed less advantageous in most cases. The same object, however, can be attained by press-rolling the furrows, either at the time of ploughing or afterwards. The seed although sown broadcast afterwards, mostly falls into the hollows of the furrows indented by the presser, and comes up in regular rows. On all stony and rocky soils, where a machine for drilling seed cannot be safely or effectively used, the press-roller may bo very advantageously employed in preparing a seed ied either for wheat, oats, or barley. The seed can either be sown broadcast or delivered from a sowing apparatus attached behind the presser.* 857. Mr. John Beasley, an extensive farmer of Chapel Brampton, Northamptonshire, is an advocate for solving wheat thickly, for the following reasons. He does it because, in his opinion, corn ought not to 'be encouraged to " tiller." If the plants are sufficiently thick in the spring, the\ at once send up the stalk ; but, if the roots are thin, they send out lateral shoots, which strike m the earth, and produce • new plants. The first plant is weakened by having to produce auxiliary shoots ; and the plants of the second growth do not come to maturity so early as the original, or parent plant. The quality of the crop is thus injured, as there are always 7iiore light and defective corns in a thin-sown than. in a thick-sown * Morton's " Cyclopnedia of Agriculture." REASON WHY. 233 " Go look to thy bees, if the hive be too light, Set water and honey, with rosemary, dight ; "Which set in a rfiish full of sticks in the hive, From danger of famine ye save them alivo." — Tusser. crop ; besides that, tlisre is less seed to meet the contingencies of loire-worm, grub, or very severe weather.* Mr. Beasley's first sown wheat is drilled at eight inches apart, with 2^ bushels ; the last ■with 3 bushels an acre. The' average crop for the six years preceding 1849 was 34^ bushels an acre. 858. Why is drilling turnips on level preferable to "ridging," in certain instances? Because turnips require moisture, and are liable to be injured by drought, when ridged. The ridges, by the action of the sun upon their sides, sometimes become as dry as if they had been baked in an oven ; and this is especially liable to occur, when the turnips are young, and require moisture, because their leaves are then not large enough to shelter the ridges from the action of rain and wind. 859. For lands of a loet nature, ridging has recommendations which it has not for that which is naturally dry — the spaces betioeen the ridges become a species of surface drainage, and the farm-yard manure loithin them will have a similar tendency, which not only accounts in some dfgree for the ridge being more suitable for wet than for dry soils, but partly explains why longer manure may be used with advantage, on the former, than such as is considered proper for the latter. Again, the spaces also serve as a sort of railway for carts, &c., used in sowing the crops, as well as consuming it, thereby partly preventing the injury which wet land is liable to, fi'om being " poached " in wet weather.t 860. Why is liming preferable to paring and burning ivhere the land is capable of being thoroughly broken and pulverized ? In such cases it is better to lime grass lands immediately before ploughing, not only that the lime may assist in * Caird's Agriculture. t B. Almack, Prize Essay " On the Drill Husbandry of Turnips.*' 234 THE gardener's akd taemee's *' If frost do continue, take tliis for a laiv, The strawberries ioolc to lie covered with straw, Laid overly trim upon crotelies and bows. And after uncovered as weatlier allows." — Tussee. decomposing the vegetable matter in the soil, and thereby turn to manure what -would otherwise to a certain extent be wasted, and reduced by the process of burning ; but that the lime, by becoming incorporated with the soil, may cause the land to work more freely, and thereby mechanically assist in all future operations. 861. For similar reasons lime may be used on corn stubbles, before ploughing for turnips. It is best to lime before plouyhing, especially if the land is foul, or if animal manure is intended to be applied to the turnip crops. Were the lime and the animal manure to follow each other too closely, the former might counteract the beneficial effects of the latter.* 862. Why is it judicious in certain casses to let charlock grow, with a view to its extermination? The opinion has hitherto been entertained very generally — that it is impossible to guard against having charlock in crojjs, in support of which it has been said that, " If you dig the earth 20 feet deep, the soil coming to the surface from that depth would immediately be covered with charlock.'' 863. Now, of course charlock cannot grow where it is entirely out of the reach of the circulation of air ; and the same absence of air which prevents the seed from vegetating, may also preserve the vegetating quality. 864. If the land that is within the influence of the circulation of the air, be so worked as to allow all the seeds that lie latent within that depth to germinate, and when partly grown these are all destroyed, there remains a * B. Alraack. EEASON WHY. 235 " Now lop for thy fuel, old poUinger )?rown, That hinder the corn, or the grass to be moivn ; In lopping and felling, save edder and stake, Thine hedges, as needeth, to mend or to make.' ' — TUSSETl. cleaner soil, which may afterwards be worked without the detriment of over-running charlock. 865. One of the fields I Ijad to sow with turnips had always been much subject to growing charlock, therefore I determined to make the whole of the seed, within the depth of the first ploughing, grow, that the plants might be destroyed. Having, by ploughings and harrowinga, which were expressly intended to encourage the growth of the weeds, got the land thoroughly pulverized, the charlock sprung up so thickly as nearly to cover the whole surface of the land. I allowed it to grow to about two inches in length, and then had the laud again dragged with the drag-harrow as before, the common harrow and roller again following each other as closely as possible j and the field thus prepared for a second crop of charlock. A second crop soon came, but it was a very thin one in comparison with the first, showing that I had caused the greater part of the seed to grow at once. 866. This process was repeated for the third time, the crop of charlock still diminishing ; and when, after the fourth working, I sowed the turnip seed, it sprung up quickly ; and I had the satisfaction to find these weeds were so effectually destroyed, that it would have been difficult to find two within 50 yards of each other ; and it has NEVER GEOWN SINCE, although there have been several charlock years.* 867. Why, in hoeing turnips, should the " chopping " system he avoided, and the hoe he worked ivith a firm steady hand? Because, if the " chopping " system is followed, the soil will in some places be removed too deeply, and probably the manure with it ; and in others, the plants' intended to- be removed, will be imperfectly cut, or taken off above the ground, and after a few days they will so far recover as to * B. Almack. , 236 THE gardener's and farmer's * If frost do continue, this lesspn doth well, For comfort of cattle, the fuel to fell ; From every tree the superfluous houghs. Now prune for thy meat, thereupon to go hrowse." — Tussee. seriously impede tlie growth of those intended to be left single. 868. Where the young turnip plants are very thin in the rows, they may easily and readily be singled by the hoe alone j but, where turnips are very thick in the rows, it is desirable, if not actually necessary, that singlers should be employed. A man, with an active boy or girl, of about ten years of age, singling after him, will do in this case quite as much work in a given time as two men, equal as hoers, where they single their own plants. I have often heard this stated by good turnip-hoers ; and in proof that they believed the advantage of singlers even greater than I have stated, I have seen men take it in turn to single after each other early in the inoi~nin%, before their children arrived in the field, although, from the length of a man's back, he would much rather hoe than single. A child that will attend to proper directions may single turnips quite as well as a person fully grown; and indeed any increase of size tends to disqualify for the work. In all rows of turnips, some of the plants from the first take a decided lead ef the others, and the difference would daily increase. Therefore the hoer must not be too particular about leaving the plants at regulai- distances; but take out those that are decidedly marked as dwarfs, even if he makes a space of two or three inches beyond what would othenvise be desirable, and for the same reason he must, in some cases, leave the plants nearer together, rather than go to the usual distance to leave one much inferior. The same reasoning will apply in singling, and the child should have directions accordingly. Where the hoeing is done by men, with children following them to single the plants, the hoe ought to be rather shorter than when each sets out his own. Therefore, if the average distance required is 10 inches, a hoe of about 8^ inches in length will be sufficient. I think that where this average distance is not adopted, a greater would be more desirable than a less space, especially for swedes.* 869. Wliy is there always more " undercoi-n," or small ears, from drilling than from dibbling 7 Because the seed goes farther into the ground from dibbling • B. Almack. EEASON WHY. 237 " Young broom, or good pasture thy ewes do require, Warm berth, and in safety, their lambs do desire ; Loolc often well to them, for foxes and dogs. For pits, and for brambles, for vermin, and hogs,"— Tusser. than from drilling, the small end of the dibble piercing deeiDer than it appears, while the drill appears deeper than it is. Thus the set is more regular in depth and dibbled wheat stands up better against wind and rain ; the latter is therefore most productive.* 870. The holes where the seed is placed, should be filled up hy a hurdle draivn with thorns, and not with harrows, as is frequently practised. The first will nearly fill up the cavities, while the latter will very much displace the seed.^ 871. Why is dibhling less adapted to stiff soils than to others ? Because, in the event of rain, immediately after dibbling the little earth-cups in which the seeds are placed hecome filled ivith water, which tends to rot the seed. For this reason the ground should be harrowed immediately after dibbling. 872. Why should hay be cut before it is perfectly ripe? Because, in the blades and stems of young grasses, there is much saccharine matter, which, as the grasses grow, is gradually changed, first into starch, and then into WOODY FIBRE ; and the riper the plant becomes, the more completely the latter change is effected, and the less soluble and nourishing are the substances it contains. The change may be illustrated by what takes place in radishes when they are allowed to remain too long in the ground : they become woody and tough. 873. The ripening of grass seeds, not only seriously * Johnson's "Farmer's Encyclopsdia." t Wm. Curtis, Lynn, Norfolk. 238' THE gaedener's akd faemee's " In riddling of pasture, with turfs tliat lie l)y, Fill every hole up as close as a die ; The lahQur is little, the profit is gay, Whatever the loitering labourers say." — Tussek. injures the hay, but takes away a considerable portion of tbe decomposable matters of the soil; the exliausting effect upon poor land being very considerable.* 874. Why should not hay be long exposed to the rays of the sun? Because, if exposed too long, it becomes roasted, first on one side, and .then on the other. It is probable that this excessive drying effects the conversion of starch into ivoody fibre, after the hay is cut. Hence, the more quickly the drying is effected, the less extensiv.ely will changes of this kind take place. Hay should be frequently turned, and eapidlt dried during the " saving."* 875. An effectiTe hay-rake is used in America, from whence it has found its way to England. It consists of a head perfo- rated with 18 transverse teeth, whicli are firmly fixed. These teeth are slightly ta- pering to each end, where they are rounded off to a blunt point, but chiefly upon that side which is to be next the ground. It is drawn by a horse yoked to the draught-frame. In the working of this rake, it lies nearly flat upon the ground; and, when the draught-frame is at its proper height, the connecting rod keeps the hanging frame just within the extremity of the teeth that are then behind, and nearly bearing upon them. The working of this mechanism is, that in the course of its progression the rake collects the hay upon it chiefly in the front part; and when the attendant sees that the rake is filled, he raises the handles, and tilts the rake, leaving the collected mass at the spot where the tilts occur. * Karkeck's " Essay on Fat and Muscle.'* KEASON WHY. 239 ' By brambles and buslies, in pasture too full, Toor sheep be-in danger, and loseth their wool; No-w, therefore, the ewe upon lambing so near, iDesireth in pasture, that all may be clear." — Tusseh. 876. Why does " sweating in the staclc " improve the qualities of hay? Because it lias the eifect of rendering tlie fibres of tlie grasses more tender and changing part of the parenchymous [cellular, or pithy] matter into sugar, on the same principle as is effected in the malting of harley. This sweet taste renders the hay more palatable to horses. 877. Great care is requisite in the stacking of hay; for if not j)ut together in a proper condition, it is liable to an excessive fermentation, from which it may take fire. While forming, the stack should always be covered with rick-cloths supported by poles and ropes, in the manner illustrated. Imme- diately after the stack has been built, a heat will arise in it corresponding with the degree of fermentation the hay is undergoing. While this is proceeding, the stack subsides in bulk, and after the fermentation and subsidence have ceased, the stack should be thatched. But, should fermentation continue so long as to affect the quality of the hay, means should be used to put a stop to it, by shoring up the stack on both sides with stout posts, to admit of the free access of cool air. As a preparatory operation to the thatching, after the removal of the rick-cloth, the sides and ends of the stacks are neatly trimmed from angle to angle, with a small increase of breadth to the eaves. The operation simply consists of pulling out the straggling ends of hay, which give u. rough appearance to the exterior, in order to render it smooth ; and its use is twofold — to preserve the hay pulled out, which , would otherwise be rendered useless by exposure to rain, and to prevent moisture hanging about the stack. The heading or thatching is composed of straw and' straw-ropes ; and these 240 THE GABDENEE'S JUfD FAEMER'S ' Lay dirt upon heaps, Some profit it reaps ; When weatiier is hard, Get muck out of yard." — Tussee. should be prepared beforehand, so as to be ready by the time they are wanted. The thatching should be carried on both sides of the stack simultaneously by two, and begun at the same end. 878. Dutch Barns are in general use in Holland for storing hay. This contrivance, as seen in the annexed engraving, com- prises a floor of a pentagonal form, a roof slenderly built, and covered with thatch, and upright poles so contrived that they may regulate the height of the roof as required. The purpose of this barn is, that hay may be stored in it, in large or small quantities, the roof being raised or lowered, according to the increase or decrease of the supply, by means of a jack, such as is used for lifting waggons when the wheels are taken off.* 879. Why do hay-ricks hecome mow-burnt from excessive fei'mentation ? Sometimes hay is put into the stack while too much of the sap is yet retained ; the fermentation, therefore, becomes too great, and if it should escape being fired, it at least loses much of its fragrant smell, acquires a dark brown colour which increases towards the centre, and thus becomes what is called mow-burnt. Hay in this condition is said to weaken horses, by promoting an excess of urine. * " Dictionary of Dai]y Wants." EEASON Avnr. 241 ' If hop-yard or orchard ye mean for to have, For hop-poles and crotches, in lopping go save ; Which husbandly spared, may serve at a push, And stop, hy so having, two gaps with a bush."— Tusser. 880. It is the custom of many farmers to ventilate the hay stacks by means of funnels in their interior, in order to prevent the hay from becoming mow-burnt, by drawing off the hot vapour occasioned by fermentation ; and various methods are adopted to effect that purpose — such as square troughs bored full of holes, or nailed together with laths, or with sacks full of straw, which are placed upright, and the hay trod round them as the making of the stack proceeds, until the sack is nearly buried, when it is drawn up a little, and the hay laid round it as before. The advantages supposed to be thus gained are, however, counteracted by the parts on every side of such vents becoming mouldy, unless a free thoroughfare be secured for the air underneath ; and in case of a current being thus admitted into the stack, it then greatly increases the risk of iire. It is, therefore, justly reprobated by every skilful haymaker, and should only be resorted to when occasioned by wet weather ; in which case the danger may be partly prevented by mixing the hay with layers of straw.* 881. Why do hay -ricks sometimes spontaneously ignite? Wlien hay is put together in a damp state, it undergoes fermentation ; this involves chemical changes, attended by the development of heat. Among the constituents of hay, is phosphorus, which combining with hydrogen set free from the fermenting hay, forms a gas,' inflammable at the temperature of boiling water. As soon as the necessary degree of heat is developed by fermentation, the gas ignites, and the heated rick, already in a state of slow combustion, is rapidly consumed.| 882. When spontaneous combustion occurs in vegetable substances, in every instance either phosphorus, or one of its coinhinations, or a vegetable , essential oil, with some light fibrous matter, is present. Dr. Henry states that * "Library of Useful Knowledge." t The reader who wishes to study the interesting science of Chemistry should consult the " Chemical Reason Why," in which many chemical processes, moi'e or less aifecting Agriculture, will be fully and familiarly explained. 242 THE GAKDENEE S AND FARMERS " House calf, and ffo suckle it twice in a day, And after a, wliije, set it water and liay; Stalce ragged to rub on — no sucli as ^rill bend ; Tlien wean it, well tended, at fifty days' end." — TossSB. the expressed oils possess the property of inflaming any light vegetable matter or carbon, with which they may may come in contact. Haij, charcoal, rags, dung-hills and pigeorHs dung, with many other substances, have long been reported to be liable to spontaneous combustion.* 883. The following rules will prove of value to the liay-maker : — 884. First. He must remember that the chief point is to preserve the hay from dew or rain ; water washes away the soluble salts and other matters, and, when in the stack, will ca.use fermentation, and that injures the hay by destroying some of its most valuable properties; therefore, bring it into windrows, or make it into footcooks at nightfall, and never open it in the morning until the dew has evaporated. 885. Second. Bear in mind that, if the weather is unfavourable, the less hay is disturbed the better, and the longer will it retain its native powers. Hay has been found to preserve a great amount of its nutritive qualities for many days, nay, eve7i loeeks, when mown wet, or when saturated with the rains whilst lying in the swath ; if, therefore, the weather be unfavourable, it will be better not to tedd the hay at all, nor even turn over the swath. If repeatedly dried and wetted again, it soon becomes valueless; this error of meddling with hay amongst frequent showers must, if possible, be avoided, for it is far better to have it somewhat tainted in tl^e haycock, than thus exhausted of its nutriment, and spoilt, by being repeatedly spread. 886. Third. Take care not to allow it to remain long under the hot beams of the sun without being turned. This will preserve the colour and fragrance of the gTass ; so that, without baking it too much (thus destroying its virtues), it may be so dry that as little heating or fermentation as possible shall occur in the stack, remembering, also, that coarse grass does not require so much " maMng " as fine succulent herbage.^ 887. Why should cereals le reaped before they are fully ripe ? The experiments conducted by Mr. Hannam show a * Partington's Cyclopaadia. t Morton's Cyclopsedia. REASON WHY. 243 ' Ewes, yearly by twinning, ricli masters do make. The iamb of such twinners, for breeders go taiie ; For twinlings be twinners, increase for to brius, Tliough some for their twinning, peccavi may sing.' gain of four per cent in favour of cutting Avheaj; a fortnight before it is actually ripe. In addition to this benefit, as regards the grain, Mr. Hannam alleges the following additional advantages : — 1st. Straw of a better quality. 2nd. A better chance of securing the crop ; and, 3rd. A saving in securing it. And he enforces his views by the following among other arguments : — In all grasses, and succulent plants, the greatest proportion of saccharine matter is present before the flower is dead ripe. So in wheat, when we allow the straw to remain till thoroughly ripe, a portion of the sugar is converted by the action of light, heat, &c., into mucilage, and a great portion of the grass is absorbed by the atmo- sphere, or lost ; and hence there is a great difference between straws or leaves that have been dried after they were cut in a succulent state, and those which ai'e dried tvhile growing. The former retain all their nutriti\e powers, but the latter, if completely 'dry, very little, if any. 888. As a manure, too, th^, straw cut raiv, is superior to the ripe ; for, as it is an agricultural axiom that the better the food of an animal is, the better the manure from it,— -the manure from a stock consuming straw, contg,ining a fair proportion of nutritive matter, must be more valuable than that from stock consuming them, ripe, with scarcely any nutriment in it.* 889. Wliy, when green crops are to be employed for * J. Hannam "On Reaping Wheat." Qnarterly Journal of Agriculture, ISll. 244 THE gaedenek's and faemek's ' Good milch cow, well fed, and that is fair and sound. Is yearly, for profit, as good as a pound ; And yet by the year, have I proved ere now, As good to the purse, is a sow as a cow." — Tusser manure, should they he ploughed in, where practicable, ivhile in flower ? Because it is at this period that they contain the largest quantity of soluble matter, and that their leaves are most active in forming nvitritive matter.* 890. Why does the shading of grass lands with straw, or other fibrous matter, promote the growth of grass ? This may be accounted for on the principle that putrefaction, or solution of vegetable substances in the soil, is more readily promoted by a close or stagnated state of the air, than by a constant supply and addition of oxygen from the pure atmosphere ; or, in other words, that such a covering vrill prevent the excessive exhalation of moisture, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid gases, which accumulate and thereby promote the putrefaction or , decomposition of vegetable matters, and thus enrich the soil.^ 891. Plants growing in the shade contain more water tlian those growing in full sunshine. Hence it is very probable that in those experiments which have been made on the increase of grass crops, by littering the fields with boughs, the increased product of an acre is due principally to water, rather than to any carbonaceous product, and consequently that the increase of the nutritive property is not in the ratio of the increase of weight.l: 892. What is the system of " inoculating" grass land? It is pursued in the following manner : — A small plough is passed along an old pasture, from which it throws out about three inches of turf, returning again, and taking another strip of the turf, but leaving a strip next to the one previously taken, of the same breadth, until the requisite * Sir H. Davy. t D. J. Browne's "Muck Book." t Professor Hunt's "Researches on Light." REASON WHY. 243 " Thy colts for the Baddle, geld young to . be light ; For cart do not so, if thou judgest aright ; Nor geld not, but when they be lusty and fat, For there is a point, to be learned in that ."— TUSSEII. quantity is obtained. A coim drill is then passed over the ground to be inoculated, the coulters of which mark it off in rows at eight inches apart. The sod is then cut into LITTLE PIECES, and laid down in the rows, each two pieces being about four inches apart. Tliis is done by men, who tread the squares of turf into the ground. This being done in the autumn, the following spring the ground is rolled, and a little Dutch clover is sown ; after which the whole is allowed to feed itself, and stock is put on in the succeeding autumn. The object is to obtain at an early period the natural grasses of an old pasture on neiuly laid out land. By this process a fine pasture is vapidly formed, and on that portion from which the strips have been cut, the ground soon covers itself from the adjoining rows of grass.* 893. Why does burning clay improve its fertile qualities ? Before the clay is heated, the silicic acid is so firmly united to the alumina, that they cannot be separated. But they are rendered dissolvable by burning the clay, as are the variable quantities of potash,, soda, and liine, which clays contain. To these alkalies, as well as to the greater porosity of the heated clay, it is to be attributed that a heavy clayey soil, which is impervious to the air, is converted merely by burning into a very fertile arable land, and that slightly burnt Jn'cfo yield a very efficient material for manure. 894. Why are clay soils better adapted to the growth of cereals, ^c, than to that of bulbs or tubers ? Because the roots of cereals being fibrous, are better able to penetrate the close mass of clayey earth. Wheat, barley, &c., * Caird's Agriculture. 246 THE gardener's and farmer's ' Who hath a desire, to have store very large, At Whitsuntide, let him give huswife a charge, To rear of a sow at once only but three ; And one of them also a boar let it be." — Tusser. growing upon long stalis, and bearing weiglity ears, require a strong hold of the Qrmind. Clay is also adapted to such plants as are furnished with tap-roots, such as wheat, heans, red-clover, &c. 895. Why do leguminous plants prefer calcareous soils ? Because lime is an important constituent in their composition : thus in beans, 100 parts of the ashes of the whole plant contain about 35 per cent, of lime ; peas, from 6 to 10 per cent., with large quantities of potash and soda ; sainfoin, about 26 per cent. ; and red-clover from 25 to 30 per cent.* 896. Why may the leaves oj plants be regarded as indicating the kind of tillage they require ? Because the leaves of all plants are the avenues through which they derive a material part of their sustenance, and their sizes and number afford a correct criterion of the amount of nutriment derived from the aerial source. Thus beans, and other pulse obtain more food from the atmosphere than cereal plants ; roots more than the former ; and wheat, from the small size of the leaves, less than any. Thus only can we account for the striking fact that if we give a good supply of inorganic elements only to the turnip crop, we shall very probably have a plentiful crop ; whilst if these be absent, however rich the manure may otherwise be, the crop will be a failure. Not that we must draw the conclusion that the organic manures are of little or no importance to root crops ; they are of value, and particularly to the grain crops which succeed.'\ * J. Coleman, t W, C. Spooner, Journal of the Royal Asricnltural Society, Vol. VII. EEASON -WHY. 247 * Calves likely tliftt come, between Christmas and Lent, Take Imswife to rear, or else after repent Of such as du fall, between change and the prime, No rearing, but sell, or go kill them in time." — Tdsser. 897. Wliy should the rotation of crops he determined according to local and climatic influence? Because there are at least three conditions which affect the interest of the farmer in the jiroduction of crops. These are climate, nature of soil, and local position. Some plants are best adapted to a di~y, some to a moist climate ; one is suitable to a stiff clay soil, another to a loam, and a third to a sand ; the local demand for a particular crop may render its culture, even on a soil not the best adapted for it, remunerative ; while the absence of such a demand, may make the same crop, on the best soil, of little value.* 898. Among many, the golden rule of farming is — tluit no two white crops shall foUow in immediate succession; but the successful practice of a contrary system iu some districts may teach us how vain it is to prescribe the same kules for totally different ciRCtrM- STANOES, — the same husbandry for the land with 20 inches of rain per annum, as for land with 40 inches of rain. The true test of any system is its continued success, and the practice of the best farmers in this di,strict [South Lancashire], and whose farms are iu the highest state of cultivation, producing crops of all kinds, which would astonish some of the wisest sticklers for rotation, combine in attesting the advantage in every point of view of taking a crop 'of cither barley or oats IMMEDIATELY AFTER the wheat crop. The four-course farmer takes his crops in this succession: — 1. clover; 2. wheat; 3. turnips; 4. hurley. The Lancashire farmer prefers it thus: — 1. grass; 2. green crops; 3. wheat; 4. oats or barley; his two green crops folloicing one another, and his two white crops the same, t 899. Why will an oat crop frequently grow well on heavy land ? Because oats seem to like a soil containing large^ * Morton's Cyclopffldia. t Caird's Agriculture. 248 THE gardener's akd farmer's " Ruddy milkmaids weave tlieir garlands pay. Upon the green to crown the earliest cow; When mirth and pleasure wear a joyful hrow ; And join the tumult with unbounded glee The humhle tenants of the pail and plough." — Clake. quantities of vegetable matter in a state of decomj)osition, combined with a sufficient amount of mineral ingredients ; consequently it is almost always the first crop grown on new land — often put in, as soon as the sod is turned. The oat crop requires less mineral than the wheat; the straw is more flaggy, and less strong, and contaiiis a larger proportion of organic matter. Hence it succeeds where wheat would almost certainly fail. The wheat crop requires more silica, phosphoric acid, and alkalies, than either oats or barley, and this may in some measure explain its particular habitat* 900. What has been the observed relative effect of improved farming upon wheat and barley? It is stated as a consequence of improved farming, that the produce per acre of barley does not increase in the grain, so much as in the straw. But, in fact, the highly cultivated BARLEY CROP RUNS TO STRAW, to the INJURY OF THE CORN ; while, on the contrary, the wheat crop increases in YIELD OF GRAIN with the higher cultivation. During fourteen years, on Mr. Thomas's farm, Liddlington, Bedfordshire, the improved cidtivation of wheat and barley, produced an average of 35 bushels of wheat to the acre, and of BARLEY 42^ bushels — the former progressing, the latter stationary. The respective average value of the two crops during the same period was, of Wheat, per acre £13 3 6 Barley, per acre 8 6 Difference in favour of wheat, per acre . £4 17 6t * J. Coleman, t Caird's Agriculture. REASON ■WHY. 249 ' Those dusky foragers, the noisy rooks, Have from their green high city gates rushed out, To rummage furrowy fields and flowery nooks ; On youder branch now stands their glossy scout." — Tuos. Miller. 901. .Why should stones be picked from the surface only in certain cases ? Because tliey exercise a beneficial influence, and in many cases would in time disintegrate and deepen tlie soil. Of course they must be removed where so large as to interfere ' with cultivation ; but the benefit is very doubtful in other cases. The presence of stones scours the plough, as it is termed ; that is, keeps the share and turn-furrow clean.* 902. Small stones should never be picked off from sandy soils, as they answer many valuable purposes : they shelter the young plants in bad weather ; they preserve moisture, and prevent the young crops from being burnt by scorching heats ; they hinder the evaporation of the enriching juices ; and by these means assist the progress of vegetation. If stones are of a porous quality, they absorb moisture when it is redundant, and give it out -svhen deficient. Hence farmers have been known to bring back again to their corn-fields, those very stones they had been induced to carry off.f 903. What is the cause of the coldness of retentive soils ? Coldness is caused chiefly by the removal of the water cf drainage, by evaporation. That the evaporation of water produces cold is well known : it cools wine ; in hot climates it produces ice. 904. To determine the actual degree of cold produced by the evaporation of one pound of water from soil, is rather a complicated, and not a very certain operation ; hut scientific reasons are given for • Coleman's Prize Essay ; Journal of Eoyal Agricultural Society, t Sir John Sinclair's Code. 250 THE gaedhnee's and faemee's " Nor every plant on every soil will grow : The sallow loves the watery ground, .and low ; The marshes, alders ; nature sceras t ordain The rocliy cliff for the wild ash's reign." — Drtden. an approximation to this result — that the evaporation of one pound of water lowers the temperature of lOOlbs. of soil 10°. That is to say, that if the lOOlbs. of soil holding all' the water which it can by- attraction, but containing no water of drainage, is added one pound (or pint) of water which lias no means of discharging except by evaporation, it will, by the time that it has so discharged it, be 10" colder than it would have been if it had the power of discharging this quantity by filtration.* 905. Why are humid -soils little benefited hy summer heats ? Because water, in a quiescent state, is one of the worst conductors of heat with, which we are acquainted. Water warmed at the surface transmits little or no heat down- wards. The small portion warmed expands, becomes lighter than that below, and consequently retains its position upon the surface, and transmits no heat underneath. 906. When water is heated from below, the portion first subjected to the heat rises to the smface, and every portion is successively subjected to the heat and rises, and each, having lost some of its heat at the surface, is in turn displaced. Constant motion is kept up, and a constant approximation to an equal temperature in the whole body.* 907. Why does drainage elevate the temperature of the soil ? Because, by removing the water of drainage, it 2)revents that constant evaporation hy which the surface heat of the earth is lowered. 908. But it also acts in another^way : many experiments have shown that, in retentive soils,' {.the temperature at two or three feet below the surface of the water-table is, at no period of the year, higher than 46° to 48° in * Gishome^s "Essays on Agriculture;" REASON WHY. 251 ' Sinking waters, tlie firm land to drain, Filled the capacious deep, and formed the main." — Eoscomseon. agricultural Britain. Drains placed tT\'o to three feet below tlie water-table, draw out water of tlie temperature of 48°. Every particle of water wliicli they withdraw at this temperature is replaced by an equal bulk of air at a higher, and frequently at a much higher temperature. The warmth of the air is carried down into the earth: The temperature of the soil, to the depth to which the water is removed, is in course of constant assimilation to the temperature of the air at the surface. 909. From this it follows necessarily, that during that period of the year, when the temperature of the air at the surface of the earth is generally below 48", retentive soils which have been drained are colder than those whicli have not. Perhaps this is no disadvantage. In still more artificial cultivation than the usual run of agriculture, gardeners are not insensible to the ad%-antages of a total suspension of vegetation for a short period. In Britain, the land suffers, not from an excess of cold in winter, but from a deficiency of warmth in summer. Grapes and maize, to which sombre skies deny maturity, come to full perfeetioii in many regions whose winters are more severe.* 910. Wliy should the water-table, in drainage operations, lie four feet from the smrface of the land ? It is too commonly regarded as sufficient to sink th.e drains nearly out of the way oj the plough, and of the feet of cattle ; or at most out of the reach of sub-soil implements. But there are reasons, founded upon ascertained facts, and the acknowledged principles of vegetation, why drainage systems should be deeper laid. 911. Every gentleman who, at his morning or evening toilet, will take his well-dried sponge, and dip the tip of it into water, will find that the sponge will "become wet above the point of contact between the sponge and the water, and this wetness will ascend into the sponge, in a diminishing r^tio, to the point where the forces of attraction and • Glsborne's Essays. THE GAEDENEK's AND FAEMER'S " Often at early seasons mild and fair March bids farewell with blossoms in her hair Of hazel tassels, woodbine's brushy sprout And sloe aud wild-plum blossoms peeping out." — Clare. gravitation are equal. This illustration is for gentlemen of the Clubs, of Drawing-rooms, of the Inns of Court, and for others of similar habits. 9T2. For gentlemen who are floriculturists, we have an illustration much more apposite to the point which we are discussing. Take a flower-pot a foot deep, filled with dry soil. Place it in a saucer containing three inches of water. The first efiect will be, that the water will rise through the hole in the bottom of the pot, till the water which fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the water in the saucer. This efiect is. by gravity. The upper surface of this water is our water-table. From it the water will ascend by atti'action through the whole body of soil, till moisture is apparent at the surface. Put in your soil at 60°, a reasonable summer heat for nine inches depth, your water at 47°, the seven inches temperature of an undrained bog; the attracted water will ascend at 47°, and will diligently occupy itself in attempting to reduce the 60° soil to its own temperature. Moreover, no sooner will the soil hold the water of attraction, than evaporation will begin to carry it oS, and will produce cold consequent thereon. This evaporated water will be replaced by water of attraction at 47°, and this double cooling process will go on till all the water in the water-table is exhausted. Supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears, and then the process will be perpetual. The system of saucer watering is reprobated by every intelligent gardener ; it is found by e.^cperience to chill vegetation; besides which, scarcely any cultivated plant can dip its roots into stagnant water with impunity. 913. Exactly the process which we have described in the flower-pot is constantly in operation on an undrained retentive soil : the water- table may not be within nine inches of the surface, but in very many instances it is within a foot or eighteen inches, at which level the cold surplus oozes into some ditch or other superficial outlet. At 18 inches attraction will, on the average of soils, act with considerable power. Here, then, you have two obnoxious principles at work, both producing cold, and the one administering to the other. The obnoxious remedy is to destroy their united action; to break through their line of communication. Remove your water of attraction to such a depth that evaporation cannot act upon it, or hut fe3bly.* • Gisborne's Essays, REASON WHY. 253 * They keep a bulky charger near their lips, "With wliich, in often interrupted sleep, Their frying blood compels to irrigate Their dry furred tongues."— Philips. 914. " Take this flower-pot," said the President of a meeting in France; "ivhat is the meaning of this small hole at the bottom? to renew the water. And lohy renew the icater ? — because it gives life or death : Life, when it is made only to pass through the bed of the earth, for it leaves viith the soil its productive principles, and renders soluble the nuti-itive properties destined to nourish the plant ; DEATH, on the other hand, when it remains in the pot, for it soon becomes putrid, and rots the roots, and also prevents neio and nutritive water from penetrating." The theory op drainage IS EXACTLY DESCRIBED IN THIS FIGURE.* 915. WIi;/ is the irrigation of lands of great importance to agriculture ? Because it affords a means by whiclii the rich organic and other matters diffused througli rivers, which would otkenvise be carried into the sea, may be saved to agrictdture. This is not, tlierefore, a question like that attending most other modes of fertilizing the soil, merely transposing manure from one field or district to another ; but it is the absolute recovery, as it were, from the' ocean, of a mass of finely divided enriching substances constantly draining from the land. It is the effectual division of a stream which is ever steadily impoverishing all cultivated soils, and which unnoticed, and in too many instances deemed worthless, gliding into the ocean, is almost the only draw- hack to the steadily increasing fertility of any country.^ 916. Example of Improvement. — A most notable instance of the benefits of irrigation, is to be found in the famous Craig entwining Meadows, near Edinburgh, where about 300 statute acres are thus irrigated by the stream flowing from the city sewers. The water runs naturally by gravitation over the greater part of the area, but it has to be lifted about 15 feet by steam power, to admit of distribution over a portion of about 60 acres more recently brought * Laveigne's '* Rural Economy." t Johnson's "Farmer's Encyclorajtlia. 2o4 THE gaedesee's and faemek's " And though the thorns withhold the May,' Their shades the violets brinfj; ■\Vhich children stoop for in their play, As tokens of the Spring." — Clake. under this system of cultivation. The oldest part of the tract, containing about 220 acres, is laid out on the catch-meadow prineiplej common in the west of England ; the remainder is artificially levelled and arranged in "panes" of about IJ acres — a plan involving greater first outlay, but which is said to be more efiicient in working. The productiveness is almost entirely dependent on the irrigation, the soil of the old meadows being a hard sterile clay, but another portion, reclaimed from the sea in 1826, consists of sand and shingle, with no soil at all, except what the sewage has created. The average cost of laying out the whole ground was about £15 per acre ; the total capital invested about £5400^ exclusive of the original value of the land, 30 acres of which were worthless, and the rest a heavy uutractable clay. The annual expenses of the irrigation, exclusive of interest, are £256 14s. Gd. The lowest rental obtained is £9 per acre, and the highest £31 ; the average of the whole being more than £20 per acre. From four to five crops of grass are taken off every year, the collective weight in parts being stated at the extraordinary amount of 80 tons th,e imperial acre. The quantity of sewage-water laid on is from 8000 to 9000 tons per acre, but only a small portion of the fertilizing matter, contained in this enormous mass, can enter the ground under the combination of irrigation and manuring: the greater part flows off the land with the water into the sea. Mr. Bryce, the mauagerj- s.tates " that the action of the sewage-water is not a sudden impetus, followed by reaction and exhaustion, hut the land goes on increasing in value, according to the length of time the system has been in operation."* 917. Why should thorn hedges he Icept carefully trimmed? Because the strengtli of the fence is greatly increased by the practice of a wide bottom. When thorns are allowed to grow to unequal heights, the strong plaats are sure to smother the weak ones ; and when the hedge becomes hard at the top, it retains water and snow, to the great injury of the plants. It is an easier business to root up an old hedge and train a new one, than to recover * Bath and West of England Agrlcnltnral Society's Journal. EEASON ■VTHT. 255 " The royal husbandman appeared And ploughed, and sowed, and tilled. The thorns he rooted out, the rubbish cleai-ed, And blessed th' obedient field."— Dryden. a hedge which has been mismanaged, or suffered to get into bad condition, from want of attention to the clearing and cutting processes.* 918. Wliy are large- fences to small enclosures prejudicial to good farming? Because when lands are encumbered with hedges and hedge-row trees, they are utterly incapable of profitable cultivation. In some cases the fields are so small, and the trees are so large, that tJieir roots actually meet from the opposite sides, and pervade the entire surface soil of the area enclosed hy them. When manure is applied to such fields, it is monopolized hy these freebooters, and the crops of grain or hay, such as they are, are so screened from the sun and wind, that there is great risk of their being spoiled in the harvesting. If drains are made in such fields, they are speedily filled up by the rootlets, and thus rendered useless.^ 919. Why shmdd white thorns for hedges be planted in single rows? Because, planted in double or triple rows, the thorns are of stunted growth, and the fence becomes completely choked. The double or triple rows are attended with the inconvenience of not easily admitting either the hand or tools to clear them, after the first year ; the single row is not only more easily cleared, but for the most part advances with greater vigour, and becomes a stronger and a better fence than when more rows are planted,,; although the double or triple rows have usually a more promising appearance for the first year or two. * Brewster's EncyclopEedia. ilncyclopiEdia Britannica. 2o6 THE gardener's and farmer's " Strength may -wield the ponderous spade, May turn the clod, and wheel the compost home; But elegance, chief grace, the garden shows."— Cowpeh. IV. GARDENING PKACTICE : APPLICATION OF THE PRECEDING PKINCIPLES TO GAEDENING ; MANURING ; PLANTING ; TRANSPLANTING ; BUDDING ; GRAPTING ; PRUNING ; TRAINESfG ; RINGING ; HYBRIDIZING ; BLANCHING ; GATHERING ; ETC. 920. We wish to make gardeners thoughtful as to Vie principles on which aU successful operations depend, and thns to take their pursuits as much" as possible out of the domain of chance. Many first-rate minds are constantly occupied in investigating the modes in which vegetable growth proceeds, and the conditions on which its full development depend; but most gardeners neglect altogether this interesting study. As successful practice is aU that is contemplated by the knowledge of the abstract principles of an art, we are not disposed to find fault with those useful men who are satisfied when they can produce fine flowers, and fruits, aild vegetables, by experience only. At the same time we can see no reason why every one who takes pleasure in horticulture should not, while working with his 'hands, exercise his mind at tJte same time on the phenomena presented to him.* 921. Why should vegetable refuse be dug in fresh in garden soils ? Because the vegetable refuse of a garden requires a length of time before it can be decomposed; and in whatever part of the garden or ground the heap may be placed, it has always an unsightly and slovenly appearance. Add to this, that the heaps lose nine parts out of ten, not only of their size and substance, but also of their most valuable qualities, by the continual action of sun, air, and rain upon them. But if the refuse is buried beneath the surface of the ground while fresh and green, it is then of easy solution. The moisture of the earth assists the fermentation * Eev. H. Burgess's "Amateur Gardening." REASON WHY. 257 * 'When the bare and wintry woods we see, What then so cheerful as the holly-tree?"— Soniair. and decomposition; and the juices being preserved in the soils become the nutriment and 'support of succeeding crops. 922. The cabbages, cauliflowers, brocoU, potatoes, peas, beans. Sec. are planted in my garden, as in most others, in straight rows, or fesei~ue the purity of the atmosphere, absorbing the excess of carbonic acid, generated by the respiration of animals, and giving out by the decomposition of carbonic acid and water, a quantity of oxygen to replace that consumed by the animal kingdom. 960. Wliy are plants called organized bodies ? Because they have a structure different from that of inorganic substances ; a structure made up of cells, fibres, tubes, and membranes, which join together to form distinct parts and organs, and are acted upoii by a vital principle. 961. What course does the embryo plant take after the germination of the seed? It lengthens first downwards, next in an upward direction, thus forming a centre or axis,' round which other pai'ts are ultimately formed. 962. The term axis of u plant ought to be understood by every gardener. , The root which strikes downwards in the direction of the earth's centre is called the descending axis ; and the stem which shoots upwards in a contrary direction is the ascending axis. The point between the two is called the crovm or corolla. Besides the stem and root, plants have a third movement, which acts horizontally and forms the medullary system. Thus, when the vital action of either spore, embryo, or bud is excited, the tissue developes in three directions : upxoards, dowmvards, and horizontally. 963. What is sapf «Sap is, originally, water holding in solution gaseous matter, especially carbonic acid, together with certain earths and 270 THE gardenee's and farmer's " And, as the marble floors tliat are ^within. Offend the eye, unless exactly clean ; So walks mthout, if not by labour kept As clean, mowed often, often rolled and swept." — Lawhbnce. salts, but as soon as it enters the stem it mingles with the vegetable mucilage which it finds there, and becomes denser than it was before ; it is further changed by the decomposition of a part of its water, acquires a saccharine character, and rising upwards through the whole mass of wood, and more especially the alburnum, takes up any soluble matter it passes among. Its specific gravity keeps thus increasing till it reaches the summit of the branches ; by degrees, it is wholly distributed among the leaves. In the leaves it is altered by the carbonic acid and nitrogen of the air, and then returned into the general system, moi-e especially into the fruit, and the bark, through which it falls, passing off horizontally through the medullary rays into the interior of the stem, and fixing itself in the interior of the bark, especially of the root, when it undergoes various changes, the results of which are known under th 'name of vegetable secretions. 964. What causes the flow of the sap ? There have been various theories respecting the movement of the sap, but it is now pretty generally established that its flow arises from the attraction of it by the leaves, which continually diminish its quantity; hence the necessity that the sap extracted should be replaced by a further supply sent uji wards from the roots. 965. What is the immediate connection between the supply of sap and the groivth of a plant? As the sap rises it fills the cells, and by supplying them with an excess of nutriment, causes them to produce new cells ; and thus the plant grows, that is, increases in size by the lengthening and widening of its cellular tissue. REASON WHY. 27- " Kence from the busy joy-resounding fields, In cheerful errour, let us tread the maze Of Autumn, unconflned ; and taste, revived. The breath of orchards big with bending fruit.' 966. What purpose does the sap fiilfd in first ascending and then descending? When the sap reaches the leaves, it is deprived by them of the gaseous matter which it contains, of its superabundant c^uantity of vv^ater, and of the substances which have become foreign or useless to nutrition. But while it thus loses part of the principles of which it was previously constituted, it undergoes a particular elaboration, acquires new qualities, and. thus becomes a fit nourishment for other parts of the plant.* 967. Wliat are the functions of the baric ? It serves to protect the younrj ivoodfrom injury, and to act as a filter through which the descending juices of a plant may paiss horizontally into the stem, or downwards to the root. 968. Why are leaves of primary importance ? Because they serve at once for respiration, nutrition, and digestion. If a plant is deprived of its leaves before the fruit has commenced ripening, the fruit will fall off without arriving at maturity ; and a branch deprived of leaves for a whole summer, will either die, or fail to increase in size. 969. Why do the odours of plants vanj, both as regards the quantity and the manner of giving them out ? The odour depends upon volatile oils, which are con- tinually flying off, but in different degrees. Some odours are not perceptible till the plants arc rubbed ; some are most apparent in a recent state, and others in a dried state ; in the latter case, the oil has been combined with too much * Ehind's "Vegetable Kingdom." 272 THE gardener's and fakmee's ' A sylvan scene, and as the ranks ascend Shade above shade, a woody theatre Of stateliest Wew." — Milton. water. In some plants, the oil is so rapidly dispersed in the day-time as to render its odour imperceptible, whUe, during night, it is eminently odoriferous. In general, plants in hot countries are more fragrant than those in cold countries ; but their fragrance is so much dispersed by the heat as to be imperceptible in the day-time. 970. What pui-pose does pith serve? It provides nourishment for the young buds, until they have acquired the power of procuring sustenance for themselves.* 971. Why is the motion of the sap retarded or accelerated according to the scarcity or abundance of leaves ? Because, ordinarily, the sap is carried to the top of trees, and its watery parts are then perspired through the leaves ; but when the surface of the tree is greatly diminished by the loss of leaves, then, also, the perspiration and motion of the sap is proportionally diminished ; and when the tree is abundantly clothed, the motion is accelerated in the same ratio. 972. Why are trees filled with sap during winter, although the sap is not required for immediate nourishment ? Because the" root of a tree, as fast as it absorbs moisture from the earth, propels it into the hollow tubes of the stem ; and as every particle of moisture thus absorbed, drives before it a corresponding volume of moisture previously existing, the tree becomes, in time, filled with sap almost * We enter into a few only of the elementary principles of vegetation in this volume, the whole heing fully considered and illustrated in *' The Botanical and Horticultural Reason Wliy." KEASON WHT. 273 ' Flowers, the sole luxury that nature knew, In Eden's pure and spotless garden grew."— Mrs. Barbauld. to bursting, until spring returns, when leaves begin to form, and gradually empty the tubes of their superabundant supply. 973. Why are limpid drops often observed at sunrise, hanging at the points of leaves of grasses ? Because, when the transpiration is not great, the water transpired by the leaves is absorbed by the air as it forms ; but if the quantity of water increases, and the temperature of the atmosphere is low, the water is seen transpiring in the form of extremely small drops, which often unite together, and then acquire a considerable size. 974. Why do leaves that have drooped during the day, frequently revive at night ? Because transpiration is greatest between the hours of six in the morning and twelve at noon, and is least during the night ; and when transpiration is too abundant, owing to excess of heat and drought, the plant becomes exhausted, and the leaves droop ; but when this cause is removed, the plant revives, and the leaves regain their natural vitality. 975. Why is the under side of the leaves of woody plants rougher than the surface? Because it is by the under side of leaves that tran- spiration takes place, and the light down which is apparent, is favourable to this absorption. While the upper surface, on the contrary, is smoother, and throws off the fluids which are useless for the nutrition of the plant. 976. It is certain that most leaves absorb moisture better by the one surface than the other ; and it is known that some surfaces do naturally repel it, as may be seen on the leaves of the common 274 THE gaedenf.e's axd faemek's " Broad below, Covered with ripening fruits, and swelling fast Into the perfect year, the pregnant earth And all her tnbes rejoice." — Thomson. cabbage, after a faJl of rain or dew, when it lies in globules upon them. 977. Why should roots be permitted to extend in all directions ? Because the elongation of tlie roots by their extremities, enables them to accommodate themselves to the soil, and allows the spongioles to extend, freely without being injured. The lateral extension of roots bear usually/ a relation to the horizontal spreading of the branches, so as to fix the plant more firmly, and to allow fluid nutritive substances to reach the spongioles more easily. By restricting the roots, the growth of the plant is to a certain degree prevented. 978. Why is the spiral arrangement of leaves conducive to vegetation? Because it allows all of them to be equally exposed to the air and light, and thus enables them to carry on their functions with vigour. 979. Although provision is thus made for the regular formation of leaf-buds, there are often great irregularities, in consequence of many being abortive, or remaining in a dormant state. Such buds are called latent, and are capable of being developed in cases where the terminal bud, or any of the branches, have been injured or destroyed. In some instances, as in firs, the latent buds form a regular system of alternation. 980. WJiy do tendrils occur only on the upper part of vines ? Because the lower stem is strong, and needs no additional support ; but the upper branches being soft, require aid to enable them to support the clusters of fruit; they are, therefore, furnished with tendrils, which cling around REASON WHY. ' Frail trees, like mortal men— all once must die ; *Tis fit a younger race their room supply, For wllich ourselves but form the nursery." — Lawrence. Other plants or anything they can meet with, and thus give the support needed. 981. Wliat is alhumum? It is that part of the wood of the tree which is last formed, and is interposed between the bark and the perfectly-formed wood. It is called alburnum from its colourless character, not having yet deposited in it that colouring matter which imparts certain hues to the perfectly-formed wood. 982. Why do the roots of plants and ' trees descend deeper into the earth, in proportion as the stem and branches ascend in the air ? Because the increasing growth of the plant or tree requires a larger amount of nourishment, which the root satisfies by extending its powers of absorption ; at the same time, the root, by descending more deeply, affords a firmer support to the plant or tree emanating from it. 983. Why, ivhen transplanting a root, is it better to carry it away ivith a ball of earth attached to it ? Because this protects the root from external injuries; and also prevents those derangements of the functions of the plant which would inevitably ensue, if it were rudely torn from the earth, and suddenly transplanted to a soil physically and chemically diiferent from that in which it originally germinated and grew : the plant will then continue to dra-w for aliment from its parent clod of earth, until the I'oots are enabled to pierce beyond such limit, and thus to become gradually inured to the change of^nutriment presented by the surrounding soil. 276 THE gakdenee's and faemek's *' If I my friends, says he, should to you show All the delights that in my garden grow, 'Tis likelier much that you would with me stay Than 'tia that you should carry me away." — Cowley, 984. Why are plants most subject to blight dm-ing early spring ? Beeause during that period, when branches and leaves first sprout forth, they are extremely succulent, and part with their water so readily, that during a dry easterly wind this loss by evaporation cannot be supplied with sufficient rapidity by the capillary vessels of the roots. 985. Why do seeds require the exclusion of light while they germinate? Because light exercises a powerful action on the carbonic acid contained in the seed, by which its oxygen is withdrawn too rapidly, carbon fixed, the mass parched, and the possibility of healthful germination precluded. 986. Wliy is distilled water unfitted as nourishment for plants ? Because water when distilled, parts with many substances necessary to vegetation; among which may be reckoned carbonic acid gas, hydrogen gas, humic acid, ammonia, and a small portion of the salts of lime and potass, and these qualities are to be met with in their proper combination in the earth only. 987. Why has nature adopted a variety of contrivances for the dispersion of seeds ? Because if seeds were to fall into the soil merely by dropping from the herb or tree, then the great mass of them, instead of germinating and springing into distinct plants, would either decay, or destroy their own species by overcrowding. 988. Many fruits open when ripe by a sort of sudden spring, KEASON "VVHT. 277 ' Approach, observe this perished gauze-like leaf. Its delicate reticulation scan. Know that each filament's a precious deed. And was of life and heauty once the source." — T. L. Mebritt. ejecting the seed with violence, and throwing it to some considerable distance from the plant. Many seedp are carried to a distance from their place of growth, merely by atiacJiing themselves to the bodies of animals that may accidentally happen to come in contact with the plant in their search after food; the husks or hairs with which the pericarp, or fruit vessel, is often furnished, serving as the medium of attachment, till it is again accidentally displaced, and at last committed to the soil. Cherries, sloes, and other fruits, are often carried off by birds till they meet with some convenient place for devouring the pulpy pericarp, and then let the stone fall into the soil. 989. Some seeds are even taken into the stomachs of the animals, and afterwards deposited in the soil, or in a station favourable to their gennination. Thus the seeds of the mistletoe are first swallowed by the thrush, and then deposited upon the boughs of such trees as it may happen to alight upon. Many seeds, by reason of their extreme minuteness, are calculated to be conveyed to a distance by the loinds ; such as the seeds of mosses and fungi, which evaporate from their cells like steam, and ascend like smoke or dust into the atmosphere, where they are borne about by the winds, till they have acquired a greater specific gravity than the medium in which they float, when they again descend, ready to spring up as plants wherever they may happen to alight, or meet with a suitable soil. Finally, a further means adopted by nature for the dispersion of the seeds of vegetables, is that of the instrumentality of streams, rivers, and currents of the ocean. 990. Wliy is air necessary for the germination of seed ? Because the action df air upon plants, at tlie first period of their development, presents the same circumstances es in the respiration of animals. It is the oxygen of air that, in the act of respiration, is the principal agent in giving blood the qualities which are to render it fitted for the development of the organs ; and the same oxygen aids and facilitates the gennination of plants. Seeds buried too deeply in the ground, and thus withdrawn from the action of atmospheric air, have been often removed for a 278 THE gaedener's and farmer's *' Lo ! in the micldle of the wood, The folded leaf is wooed from out the hud With winds upon the branch, and there Grows green and broad." — Tennyson. very long time without exhibiting any sign of life ; but when, by some cause, they have been brought nearer the surface of the ground, so as to come in contact with the ambient air, their generation has been effected.* 991. Why should especial care be tahen of the first leaves that appear in the seed-bed ? Because these leaves are the sole organs of nourishment of the young plant until it has acquired roots ; therefore, if they be destroyed, or seriously impaired, the young plant must die. 992. What occasions the knots or bunches with which the stems of plants and trees are frequently disfigured ? They are a species of tumour, occasioned by some obstruction in the channels of the sap, by which the vessels become congested, and swell into a lump. 993. Why is an abundant supply of water Tiecessary for transplanted vegetables ? Because, when vegetables are newly transplanted, the transpiration by the leaves is so great in proportion to the supply, as often to exhaust and destroy the plants before the roots have so far recovered their action as ■ to supply the waste. 994. Why do dry east winds require to be specially guarded against? Because they are apt to absorb moisture from the leaves of plants more rapidly than they are prepared to give it REASON WHY. 279 ' These serve for useful ends : when frosts by night. Or cold raw winds the tender blossoms hite ; Or mists by day, of poisonous natux'e, blight." — Lawrence. out, and thereby deprive the plants of that portion of nourishment which it is absolutely necessary for their health and growth to retain. 995. Whi/ are tender plants best planted at the hach of north or west walls ? Because in such situatioijs sudden changes of temperature cannot occur ; and after a frost especially, the natural thawing must of necessity be very gradual, and therefore not destructive. 996. Wliy are plants injured through heing ivatered when a warm dr?/ wind bloivs, or during bright sunshine ? Because an inordinate degree of coldness is caused by the water carrying off the heat as it rises rapidly in the form of vapour into the air. 997. Wilt/ should the leaves of delicate plants be carefully washed occasionally? Because the pores of the leaves, by which moisture and air are transmitted, are exceedingly minute, and liable to be choked by exposure to dust. Under these circumstances the functions of the plant are interrupted, and the plant itself deprived of nourishment. 998. Why do plants ivhich are called evergreen appear never to part with their foliage ? Because, owing to the hardier nature of the plant itself, and the stronger nature of the leaves, the latter ai-e retained longer than the ordinary term, and time is thus allowed for new leaves to form, before the old ones have entirely fallen. 280 THE gardener's and farmer's " There to the porch belike with jasmine bound, Or ■woodbine wreaths, a smoother path is wound." — "Wordswortb. 999. Why does the duration of life in a plant or tree depend mainly on the capability of the fibres of the roots to penetrate and travel through the earth? Because, in process of time, that portion of the soil situated immediately about the root becomes exhausted by tlie incessant demands that are made upon it to feed the plant above. When, therefore, the fibres of the roots penetrate into new soil, they are enabled to furnish a fresh supply of moisture to the root, and vegetation is by this means invigorated and kept alive. 1000. Boots being furnished -with the power of perpetually adding new living matter to their parts, are thus enabled to pierce the solid earth in which they grow, to insinuate themselves between the most minute crevices, and to pass on from place to place as fast as the food in contact with them is consumed. Thus plants, although not locomotive, like animals, do perpetually shift their mouths in search of fresh pasture, although .their bodies remain stationary. 1001. W7iy should a tree be ivatered on that part of the soil corresponding with the end of its branches, and not close to the trunk ? Because, as the growth of the root corresponds with that of the branches, the water being thus applied, will find its way immediately to the absorbing fibres, which are situated at the extremities of the root. 1002. Wliy is paleness of colour in a plant an evidence of weakness ? Because the lightness or depth of the green colour of plants is regulated by the quantity of carbon that mingles with the sap, and as it is to carbon that the vigour of a plant is chiefly indebted, the darlcness or lightness of tlte green shade becomes a test of strength or weakness. REASON WHY. 281 " Come to the woodlands : Summer hath unfurled Her glowing banner to the drowsy wind ; Come where hroad houghs in twining arches meet, And flowers untroubled by the sultry heat, Delay our willing feet." — Westlt Gibson. 1003. What is the primary purpose for which fruit is foi-med ? For the pi'otection and nutrition of the seed and germ, the maturation of which is essential to the jaropagation of tlie races of plants. In most cases, tlie wliole of the fluid^or nutritious part is consumed in eifecting this end ; but in certain instances, especially where it is developed by culture, there is a surplus, which, if unmixed with deleterious secretions, becomes fit for animal food. 1004. Why is there sometimes on the same branch a sickly fruit, close to a perfect one ? Because fruit has the power of attracting food from the surrounding parts, so that those which are more advanced in growth, or accidentally more vigorous, draw to themselves the food flowing to the weaker ones, which therefore deteriorate in proportion as their neighbours advance. 1005. Why cannot those plants which are naturally the inhabitants of shady situations, endure exposure to the sun ? Because the epidermis, or skin in which these plants are enveloped, is of that thin ' and porous nature, that it allows the escape of water too freely by perspiration under the solar stimulus, and thus accelerates the exhaustion of the plant. 1006. It should be borne in mind that the efficiency of leaves is considerably promoted by their being kept clean ; so much is this the case, that if the impurities which plants contract in eities are constantly washed off, they will grow equally well as in country places. This has been proved by the following experiments : — The petals of a peony took up five or six times more moisture, after hoing washed, than they did previously. The leaves of the lilac, lily j>f the valley, ivy, and clematis, about twice as much. It has also been ascertained that soap and water has much more cleansing efif 282 THE gardenee's and tarmbr's " The greenwood, the greenwood, what bosom but allows The gladness of the charm that dwells in thy, pleasant whispering boughs ! How often in this weary world, I pine and long to flee, And lay me down, as I was wont, under the greenwood tree." — "W. HowiTT. than mere water ; thus a fig-leaf, which had been lathered, absorbed 90 parts, while, after a mere water-bath, it took up only half the quantity; and a bramble, after soap and water, appeared to have absorbed 130 parts of water, could only consume 10 parts when cleaned with water alone. The explanation of this is, that plants breathe by the leaves, and, if their surface is clogged, the breathing is impeded or prevented. Plants perspire by their leaves, and dirt obstructs the perspiration; they feed by leaves, and dirt prevents their feeding. 1007. Why are certain Icinds of seeds capable of being hept a long time with their germinating powers unimpaired? Because, when the seed is ripe, it is dry, all the free water being parted with, and the interior occupied by starch or fixed oil, or some other such substance^ together with earthy matters. So long as these secretions remain undecomposed, so long does the vitality of the seed remain, unimpaired. The diiFerence found in the duration of the growing powers of seeds probably depend principally upon differences in their chemical constitution. Oily seeds, which readily decompose, are among the most perishable; starchy seeds, which are least subject to change, are the most tenacious of life. 1008. Why do the same causes that promote the germination of seeds, also hasten their death? Because seeds remain dormant so long as the proportion of carbon peculiar to them is undiminished; water is decomposed by their vital force ; and it is believed that the oxygen, combining with carbon, forms carbonic acid, which is given off. The effect of access of water is, therefore, to deprive seeds of their carbon; and the effect of destroying their carbon, is to deprive them of the principal means which they possess of preserving their vitality. EEASON "WHY. 283 " Paths, there irere m&ny, ■Winding through pahny fern, and rushes fenny And ivy hanks," — Keats. 1009. Why is there generally an abundance of fruit in a season succeeding one of great scarcity ? Because the destruction of fruit, when young, will enable the leaves to deposit against a succeeding season, for the support of future fruit, all the organizable matter which the fruit destroyed would have otherwise consumed. 1010. Why are some plants enabled to vegetate without roots, mi walls, rochs, ^-c. ? Because the structure of their leaves is adapted for absorbing, but not exhaling fluids, and by this means vegetation is carried on independently of roots. 1011. In tropical climates the barest rocks become clothed with lichens ; these, in decaying, afford footing for mosses, and these dying in their turn produce a portion of soil in which more perfect plants can strike out ; and thus, by degrees, situations the most barren become clothed with verdure and flowers. 1012. In what may we recognise a beautiful provision of Nature in respect to plants, in the periodical rise and fall of temperature? In the day when light is strongest, and its evaporating and decomposing powers most energetic, temperature rises, and stimulates the vitality of plants, so as to meet the demand thus made upon them ; then, as light diminishes, and with it the necessity of excessive stimulus, temperature falls and reaches its minimum at night, the time when niere is the least demand upon the vital force of vegetation ; so that plants, like animals, have their diurnal seasons of action and repose. 1013. During the day the system of a plant is to a great extent exhausted of fluid by the watery exhalations which take place under the influence of sun-light j at night, when little or no perspiration 284 THE gakdeneb's and farmer's " To mute and to material things, New life revolving Summer brings ; The genial call dead Nature hears, And in her glory reappears."^ScoTT. occurs, the waste of the day is made good by the attraction of the roots, and by morning the system is again filled tinth liquid matter, ready to Tneet the demand to be made upon it on the ensuing day. No plant wUl remain in a healthy state unless these conditions are fulfilled.* 1014. WTiat is the object of transplanting? It is chiefly to increase hy loosened soil their ramose roots, hj which it is found that the size and succulency of their leaves, flowers, and fruit, are increased. This applies to herbaceous vegetables. The object of transplanting woody plants, is to increase the number of fibrous roots, so as to prepare young subjects for successful removal to their final destination. 1015. At no period can the operation be performed if the plants are groioing. Even if the buds are only "pushing," the process should be avoided, because, immediately after that period, the demand upon the roots is greatest; for, although in consequence of the smallness of the surface of the young leaves, the action of perspiration may seem to be feeble, yet the thinness of the newly-formed tissue will not enable it to resist the drying action of the atmosphere, imless there is a most abundant afflux of sap from the roots. Transplanting from garden-pots, in which the roots are preserved artificially from injury, may be performed equally well at any time if care is taken.t 1016. What is the origin of buds? Various opinions have been entertained upon this interesting subject. Some persons have held them to be formed from the pith, or cellular tissue; others that they arise from pre-organized germs existing in the sap ; others that they are generated from the vessels of 'the inner bark ; but the most recent and probable theory is, that all buds protruded from the surface of a plant, at whatever period of its growth, have been originally formed at the centre of the stem * London's "Encyclopaedia of Gardening." t Dr. Lindley's " Theory of Horticulture." REASON WHY. 285 ' The woodbine trees red berries bear. That clustering hang upon the bower, "Wliile, fondly lingering here and there, Peeps out a dwindling sickly flower."— Clare. or branch on which they appear; that is, on the original annual shoot ; and have been pushed outwards horizontally through every additional layer of alburnum, -while yet in a soft state, though it requires some peculiar excitement to protrude them into shoots, vvhich may not occur till after a period of many years. 1017. The bud is represented as leaving in its progress outwards a pale streak of parenchyma, indicating its path, which is very perceptible in a transverse section of the willow, taken near the protrusion of a young shoot. This theory can only apply to woody plants, which have their diameters augmented by the addition of annual and concentric layers.* 1018. I'he true import of tJie formation of sprouts upon the vegetable stock is that of a subordinate propagation. The cycle of development, given by the sexual propagation (formation of seed) divides again, in the majority of plants, in the most varied manner, into subordinate series of development, which proceed out of one another by the formation of sprouts ; so that what in more highly- individualised beings is completed in the simple individual, is distri- buted in the plant, through the interposition of a subordinate process of propagation, among a society of individuals, a developmental series, and a family circle formed thereby.f 1019. Wliat is the object of budding? The object is almost identical with that of grafting. It consists of taking " an eye " or bud attached to a portion of the bark, of difPrrent sizes and forms, and transporting it to a place in another, on a different ligneous vegetable. It affords a mean's of rendering the barren branches of trees fruitful, by the transfer of buds from trees where they may be too numerous. • Rev. P. Keith, "On the Origin of Buds." Linnxan Transactions, t Dr. A, Braun'3 " Botanical Memoirs." 286 THE GAEDENEK S AND yAEMEK S " All leading pleasantly To a TTide lawn, whence one could only see Sterna thronging all around between the swell Of turf and slapting hranches." — Keats. 1020. Budded trees are generally two yeajs later in producing their fruit than grafted ones ; but the advantage of budding is, that where a tree is rare, a new plant can he got from every three or four eyes. There are also trees Avhioh propagate much more readily by budding than by grafting ; and others, as most of the stone fruits, are apt to throw out gum when grafted. When grafting has been omitted, or has failed in the spring, budding comes in as an auxiliary in the summer.* 1031. The first thing to he done is, to select a young shoot of the current year, from which the bud is to be taken, and a stocic of ons or of several years' growth, into which the bud is to be inserted. The bud is cut out with a portion of the bark and the wood attached above and below the footstalk of a leaf, in the axU of which leaf the bud is situated. To do this a sharp penknife or budding knife is inserted in the shoot, about three-fourths of an inch below the bud, and passed up beneath the bud to about half an inch above it; the bud, with the bark and wood to which it is attached, is then held in the left hand, and with the knife in the right hand the thin film of wood i« quickly picked out, leaving the bud attached— r- technically called the shield. A shield is then formed in the tack of the stock, about a third of an inch in length ; and a transverse cut is made within one-fourth of an inch of the upper part of the longitudinal slit. The bark is opened on both sides of the longitudinal slit by means . of a thin flat piece of bone or ivory; or, in nursery practice, with the end of the handle of the knife, which is made thin on purpose. The bud is now inserted in its natural position, with the bud bearing upwards, and a portion of the upper part of the bark, to which the bud is attached, is * Loudon's "Encyclopedia of Gardening." REASON WHY. 28 " Yes, prattlers, yes. The daisy's flower Again sliall paint your summer bower ; Again tlie liawtliorn sliall supply The garlands you delight to tie." — Scott. cut. across, so as to fit to the transverse cut whicli was formed in the stock. The hud is made fast iu its situation by tying it with a strand or ribbon of bast matting; this being done in summer or autumn, the matting remains on for a month or six weeks, according to circumstances, till the back of the bud shows by its healthy appearance that a vital union has taken place. The matting may then be loosened, and in a week or two altogether removed. 1022. Shield budding reversed is performed by paring the transverse cut at the bottom of the perpendicular slit instead of at the top ; and its most important use is to induce a state of productiveness in fruit trees ; this mode is preferred by those who think that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood — a principle which some are disposed to question. It is, however, generally admitted to be the best method for trees having gummy sap. 1023. Niche budding is when the wood is retained in the bud. In placing the bud on the stock, the principal thing to be attended to is, to bring the horizontal edges of the base of the niche in the stock, and those of the bud, which is to fit into it, into the most perfect contact possible; because the union is pro- duced, not as in common summer budding, by the junction of the soft wood of the stock with the rudiment of the soft wood on the inside of the bark of the bud, but by the junction of soft wood with soft wood. This mode of budding will always succeed best when the niche in the stock is made where there is already a bud, making the hori- zontal cut through the base of the bud. 1024. Annular or ring budding is performed by joining the stock and scion together, as shown iu the engraving, but in either case the top of the stock is not to be interfered with. This is a valu- able mode of propagating trees or shrubs with hard wood and thick bark, or those which, like the walnut, have buds so large as to render it difficult to bud them in the common way. There are many other kinds of budding, but these are the most in use. 288 THE GAKDENEE's AND FARMER'S ' Then comes tlie tulip race, where beauty plays Hfir idle freaks. The exulting florist marks With secret pride the wonder of his hand."— Thomson. 1025. It sometimes happens in the case of roses, that the bud will, produce a. shoot the same season in which it has heen inserted, but it more frequently remains dormant till the following spring ; at this period the stock should be cut three or four inches above the bud; and the shoot, as it grows, should be slightly tied to the portion of the stock left on above the bud, in order to prevent its being injured by high winds. The second year this portion of the stock may be cut off close to /^ the bud. Buds may be inserted in stocks at a few inches from the ground, in which case the plants produced are called dwarfs; or in straight stems at four, five, or six feet from the ground, when the plants produced are called standards. The latter is the most common mode of budding roses and orange trees ; but other shrubs and trees of rare or ornamental kinds are commonly budded within a foot, or a few inches from the gi-ound. Sometimes, buds of several kinds are inserted in the same stock, and sometimes buds are inserted in branches in different parts of the tree, for the sake either of supplying vacant places in the branches, or of producing several kinds on the same tree. In all cases of budding, it is essential that the stock shall not be very different from the bud to be inserted in it. In some cases it is even necessary that the bud and the stock should be of the same species; while, on the other hand, it sometimes happens that a bud may be inserted successfully in any stock which is of the same natural order.* 1026. Why do circumcised, or ringed branches of fruit- trees produce abundant blossom, and early maturity? Because, when the course of the descending sap is intercepted, it accumulates above the ringed space ; whence it is repulsed and carried forwards to where it is expended in an increased production of blossoms and fruit. 1027. The part of the branch which is below the * " Dictionary ot Daily Wants." REASON AVHY. 289 ' Not fairer grows the lilyof the vale, Whose hosom opens to the vernal gale." — Palconbe. decorticated space, is ill supplied with nutriment, and ceases almost to grow ; it in consequence operates less actively in impelling tlie ascending current of sap, whicli must also be impeded in its progress through the decorticated space. The parts which are above it must therefore be less abundantly supplied with moisture ; and drought, in such cases, always operates very powerfully in accelerating maturity. When the branch is small, or the space from which the iarh has been taken off is considerable, it almost always operates in excess ; a morbid state of early maturity is induced, and the fruit is worthless. 1028. If this view of the effects of partial decortication, or ringing, be a just one, it follows that much of the success of the operation must be dependent upon the selection of proper seasons, and upon the mode of performing it being well adapted to the object of the operator. If that be the production of blossoms, or the means of making the blossoms set more freely, the ring of bark should be taken off early in ihe summer preceding the period at which blossoms are required : but if the enlargement, and more early maturity' of the fruit, be the object, the operation should be delayed till the bark will readily part from the alburnum in the spring. The breadth of the decorticated space must be adapted to the size of the branch ; but I have never witnessed any except injurious effects, whenever the experiment has been made upon very small, or very young branches ; for such become debilitated, and sickly, long before the fruit can acquire a proper state of maturity. I have found a tight ligature, applied in the preceding summer, in such cases to answer, in a great measure, all the purposes of ringing, with far less injurious consequences to the tree; and if such were applied to the stems, or principal branches of cherry-trees, which are to be forced very early in the following year, I believe the blossoms would be found to set more freely, and the fruit to attain an early maturity. I have also succeeded in preserving, to a great extent, the health of a ringed branch by instantly covering the exposed surface of the alburnum with a tight bandage of coarse thread coated with beeswax, if the branch were small, or of fine pack-thread, if it were large ; so as wholly to fill the space from which the bark had L 290 THE gaedenee's and faesiee's " What is weak, Distempered, or has lost prolific powers, Impaired hy age, the unrelentiiig hand Dooms to the knife."— Cowper. been taken. By such means the desiccation and consequent death of the external surface of the albuvnnm have been prevented ; and I, consequently, think it not improbable that the operation might be performed with advantage to the cherry-tree, and some other fruit trees, to which it has hitherto been found destructive.* 1029. Ringing is an excellent method for making layers of hard- wooded plants strike root loith greater certainty, and in a smaller space of time than is attained in any other way. Tlie accumulated vegetable matter in the callus, which is formed on the upper edge of the ring, when brought into contact witli the soil, or any material calculated to excite vegetation, readily breaks into fibres and roots. £y this means cuttings may be rendered more tractable for propagation. If a ring be made on the shoot which is to furnish the cutting, a callus will be created, which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken off, will freely emit roots. A ligature would perhaps operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently; it should tightly encircle the shoot destined for a cutting, and the latter should be taken off when an accumulation of sap has apparently been produced. The amputation in the case of a ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must be made below the circles, and the cutting must be so planted as to have the callus covered with earth. t 1030. What is the object of grafiing ? To pi'esei've and multiply varieties and sub-vai'ieties of fruit trees ; endowed accidentally or otherwise with pai'- ticular qualities, which cannot be with certainty transferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would be multiplied too slowly, or ineffectually, by any other mode of propagation. 1031. To accelerate the fructification of trees, barren as well as fruit-bearing : for example, suppose two acorns of a new oak, received from a distant country ; sow both, and after they have grown one or two yeai's, cut one of them over, and graft the part cut off ou a common oak of five or » T. A. Knight, Esq., F.K.S. t Jlr- Hempel. EEASON -WSX. 291 " He held a basket full Of all sweet herbs that searching eye could cull ; "VVild thyme and valley— lilies whiter still Than Leda's love."— Keats. six years' growth : the consequence will be, that the whole nourishment of this young tree of five or six years' growth being directed towards nourishing the young scion of one or two years, it will grow much faster and consequently arrive at perfection much sooner, than its fellow, or its own root left in the ground. 1032. The third use of grafting is, to improve the quality of fruits ; the fourth, to pei'petuate varieties of ornamental trees and shrubs ; and the fifth, to change the sorts of fruit on any. one tree, and renew its fruitfulness.* 1033. The objects of these operations ai'e manifold. Many plants, such as the pear and apple, will bud or graft freely, but are difficult to strihe from cuttings. Species which are naturally delicate become robust when " worked " on robust stocks ; and the consequence is a more abundant production of flowers and fruit : thus the more delicate kinds of vines produce larger and finer grapes when worked upon such coarse robust sorts as the Syrian and Nice. The double yelloio rose, which so seldom opens its flowers, and which will not grow at all in many situations, blossoms abundantly, and grows freely, when worked upon the common China rose. The peculiarities of some plants can only be preserved by working; this is especially the case, with certain kinds of variegated roses, which retain their gay markings when budckd, but become plain if on their own bottom.^ 1034:. The most common application of grafting, is the propagation of valuable orchard fruits, the 'grafts or scions of which are made to grow upon worthless Tarieties. This operation is performed in the spring, just when the sap begins to run. A young healthy branch is selected from the plant to be propagated, and divided into lengths or scions, each of which bears about three or four well-formed buds ; the lower end of the scion is cut in a sloping manner, to the extent of an inch and a half or two inches, and an oblique incision is made in the cut so as to form a "tongue." The plant to be * Loudon's "Encyclopffidia of Gardening." t Dr; Lindley. L 2' 292 THE GARDEXEItS AND FARMER' S *' From the soft wing of yernal breezes shed Anemonies : Auriculas enriched "With shining meal o'er all the velvet leaves, And full Banunculas of glowing red." — Tuomson, operated upon, called the "stock," has next a branch, of the same. I,"^. diameter, if possible, as the scion, cut back to the firm sound wood, and then shaved obliquely upwards, till it presents a face of the same dimensions and form as that of the scion; on that face an incision is made obliquely downwards, to receive the tongue of the scion. The tw» are then fitted together, care being taken that the divided bark of the scion is exactly adapted to the divided bark of the stock; the two are bound firmly together with bark or worsted; the bandage is carefully covered with well- tempered clay, in order to keep the parts damp and ta exclude air from the wound; and the operation is finally left to nature, with this precaution, that any buds fron» the stock below the scion are removed as soon as they begin to sprout. In about six weeks or two months the young scion will have made growth, the union is then effected, and the ligature, as well as the clay, may be removed, care being still taken that the scion is not blown off the stock by the winds. Such is the general nature of the operation in its most common form ; but it may be varied in many ways, of which the following are the chief. 1035. Whip-grafting is the most common mode, and is especially to be recommended when the stock and the scion are of the same size. The head of the stock is pruned off at the desired height, and then a slip of bark and wood removed at the upper portion of the stock, with a. very clean cut, to fit exactly with the corresponding, cut which must be made in the scion. A very small amount of wood must be cut away and the surface made quite smooth. Care must be taken that no dirt lodges upon the cuts. A sloping cut must now be made in the scion corresponding with that on the. stock, and a slit made to fit in a cleft made in the stock when heading it. Care must be taken that the scion fits bark to bark, on one side at least. Where the stock and the scion differ in point of size, of course only one side can touch, and great care should be taken in this part of the operation; and in the case of a young scion on an old tree, some allowance must be made for the ruggedness of the bark. The scion REASON WHY. 203 '* A master's hand disposing well The gay diversities of leaf and flower, Hust lend its aid to illustrate their chArms, And dress the regular yet various scene." — Cowper. being- thus adjusted, the whole is bound close, but not too tightly, with a shred of matting, care being taken that the inner barks coincide. The clay is now applied, in order to keep the parts moist. 1036. Saddle grafting is practised only where the stock is of moderate dimensions. The stock is cut into a wedge-like form, and the scion slit up the middle, so adapted that it shall be seated acrcss or ride upon the former. The advantage of this mode consists offering the largest surface for the junction of the scion and stock, but, as in whip-grafting, the bark must, at least on one side, be neatly fitted to the bark on the other. 1037. Cleft-grafting: in this operation a cleft or division is made in the stock to receive the scion, which is cut like a wedge ; again taking care, in case of irregularity of size, to make one side fit bark to bark. The process of tying and claying, goes on in the usual manner, with this exception, that a small hole is left in the clay opposite the bud of the scion, to allow that bud to develope itself freely. When the scion has grown fourteen or fifteen days, it is then headed back to one bud, which is left to draw up the sap until the union has fairly taken place between the stock and the scion. 1038. Crown grafting is merely a variety of cleft grafting. It is practised upon old trees, either for their total renewal, or upon large amputated branches, to renew by degrees. It is, upon the whole, a better mode than cleft grafting, because the stock, if old, is not subjected to the chance of being split; the scions in this case being placed between the bark and the wood, as in the engraving. In this kind of grafting, great care must be taken that the bark of the stock be not bruised during the process of opening the bark for the reception of the scion, and for this purpose a proper grafting knife should be used. 1039. Shoulder grafting is not frequently resorted to in England, there being little occasion for its practice. 294 THE GARDEXEK'S AND FARMEE'S * There, as in shade and solitude I wander Thro' the green aisles, or, stretched upon the sod Awed hy the silence reverently ponder The ways of God."— H. Smith. When the stock and scion are equal in size, however, it offers an opportunity of gaining the advantage of an extra amount of j^ alburnous union, as explained by the adcompanying illus- tration. 1040. Side grafting is, in general, performed on a stock, the head of which is not cut off, or on a branch without its being shortened. The great utility of this mode is the | facility it offers of supplying branches to parts of trees where f they may have become too thin, or maldng a branch in case of accidents. It is well adapted for the insertion of new kinds of pears, or other fruits, on established trees, in order to increase the collection, or hasten iruit-bearing. It is also usefully employed upon wall or espalier trees that have become naked of fruit-buds towards the centre, while they may have abundance towards their extremities. 1041. Peg grafting is one of the oldest varieties of this mode of propagation, although now seldom used. The stock is cut over horizontally at the desired height, and a hole is drilled in the centre to receive the end of the scion ; this hole must be in proportion to the size of the tree to be operated upon ; if for a small tree or plant, a ^-inch gimlet will be sufficient ; but for one of larger dimensions and spreading head an auger of two or three inches may be used. The depth to which this perforation should be made, must be determined by the size of the scion. The scion should also be of the same diameter with the stock, and so fashioned that a portion of its lower end is reduced, leaving only so much of the centre as will form a peg, to fit exactly into the perforation. When the scion is thus fitted on the top of the stock, the graft or top of the tree is supported firmly in its upright position by props, to secure it against winds, &c. 1042. In the various processes of grafting here explained, the following main principles have a general application, and should be kept steadily in view : 1. Cuttings intended for scions should be taken fi-om the trees before the movement of the sap commences in spring, and put in moderately moist earth or sand, in a shady situation. If the stocks be cut down at the same time it will be REASON WHY. 295 ' A mighty forest : for the moist earth fed So plenteously all weed-hidden roots Into o'er-hanging houghs and precious fruits,' so much the better ; any large limbs of trees which it may be found necessary to graft, should by all means be cut in before vegetation becomes active, otherwise extravasation takes place, and canker is in consequence induced. 2. In bringing together the scion and stock, the bark of one should be united with the greatest nicety to the bark of the other. 3. All the processes should be performed with a very clean and exceedingly sharp knife, taking care that nothing, such as dirt or chips, intrude itself between the scion and the stock. 4. Apply the bandage equally and firmly ; not so tightly as to cut or bruise the bark. The best ligature is formed by broad strips of bast matting. 5. In selecting grafts, be careful in the choice of wood, avoiding, on the one hand, exhausted or badly barked scions, and on the other, the immature watery spray, which frequently springs from the old trunks of exhausted or diseased trees. 1043. WJiat is the object of pruning ? It seeks to render trees more fruitful, to ma,ke them grow higher, and with greater regularity, and to produce larger and letter fi-uit. 1044. If carried to too great an extent, the desired result is not obtained, for every tree requires a certain amount of leaf-surface for the elaboration of its sap ; and, therefore, if this be reduced too much, blossom-buds are produced less abundantly, for leaves are more necessary for the health of the plant ; and, by a wise provision, the parts less requisite for individual vigour are superseded by the parts more needed. On the, other hand, if the branches are left too thick, they over-shadow those beneath them, and so exclude the light as to prevent that elaboration of the sap, without which no blossom-buds are formed, but an excessive production of leaves, in the vain effort to attain by an enlarged surface that elaboration which a smaller surface would effect in a, more intense light. 1045. The season of pruning must be regulated in some degree by the strength of the tree ; for although, as a general rule, the operation should not take place till the fall of the leaf indicates that vegetation has ceased, yet, if the tree be weak, it may often be performed with advantage a little earlier; but still so late in the autumn as to prevent the protrnsion of fresh shoots. 296 THE gardener's AND TAEIIER's ' "Who can, unpitying, see the flowery race, Shed by the morn, their new-flnshed blooms resign Before the parching beam?" — Thomson. 1046. Tfie chief guide in pruning consists in being well acqiiainted with the mode of the bearing of the diiferent sorts of trees, and forming an early judgment of the future events of shoots and branches, and many other circumstances for which some general rules may be given ; but there are particular instances which cannot be judged of but upon the spot, and depend chiefly on practice and observation. Summer l^runlng is a most necessary operation. Young shoots require thinning to preserve the beauty of the trees and to encourage the fruit ; and the sooner it is performed the better. It is, therefore, advisable to begin this work in May, or early in June, removing all superfluous growths and ill-placed shoots, which may be done with considerably more expedition and exactness than when the trees have shot a considerable length, 1047. When a tree is inclined to luxuriance, it is proper to retain as many of the regular shoots as can be commodiously trained in with any regularity, in order to divide and exhaust the too abundant sap. It will be necessary to review the trees occasionally, in order to re-form such branches or shoots as may have started from their places or taken a wrong •'''S'- 2. direction; and, ac- . cording as any fresh irregular shoots pro- trude after the gene- ral dressing may be displaced, or as the already trained ones advance in length, or project from the wall or espalier, they should be trained in close. In the win- ter-pruning, a gene- ral regulation must be observed, both of the mother branches, and the supply of young wood laid in the preceding summer ; and the proper time for this work is any period REASON WHY. ' Who loves a garden, loves a greenhouse too, Unconscious of a less propitious clime ; There hlooms exotic heauty warni and snug." — CcffPEn. during open weather, from November till March ; but the sooner the better. In performing this work, it is proper to un-nail or loosen a chief part of the branches, particularly of peaches, nectarines, apricots, vines, and other trees requiring an annual supply of young wood. The effects of judicious and injudicious pruning are illustrated by the accompanying engravings. Fig, 1 represents a tree of thirty years' gi'owth, which has been regularly and properly pruned. Fig. 2, a tree Pis- 3. of the same age, which has been neglected as to pruning during its early growth, and has now been pruned in a way too frequently practised, namely, by sawing and lopping off the branches after they have attained a large size. Fig. 3 shows the bad conse- quences of neglecting early pruning in the case of a plank cut from an ash tree, which has been pruned by lopping off the large branches for many years before it was felled. The cuts in this case had been made several inches from the bole, and the branches left being very largo, the stumps had become rotten. The enlargement of the trunk had not, however, been stopped, for the new wood had covered over all the haggled parts, in some places to several inches thick. Yet the effects of the previous exposure to the action of the weather, by injudicious pruning, is strikingly marked by the decayed state of the parts connected with branches which had been amputated. From this it will clearly appear that, if pruning is to be practised on' deciduous trees at all, it should be commenced while they are young, and carried on progressively ; and if so, no such blemishes will be found in the timber when cut up. Yet it does sometimes happen that young plantations under twenty years' growth are to be pruned. In such cases, when the ill-placed branches, or those intended to be removed, exceed in diameter two inches, it is better to commence at their extremities and shorten them back yearly. By thus cutting off their supplies, the base of the branch will be lessened more and more of its nourishment; it will become sickly, and ultimately die away altogether. 1048. The implements employed for pruning are various; the following will be found the most useful, and with them every operation of pruning may be advantageously accomplished. Of 298 THE GAEDENER'S AND FAEMEE S ' But God alone when first His active hand Imprints, the secret bias of the soil ; He, mighty parent I wise and just in all, Reveals tlie charms of Nature." — ^Akenside. pruning knives, a small pocket pruner having two blades, the one larger than the other, is to be recommended for general use. Its merits consist in its lightness and small bulk, as well as its being useful for pruning, making cuttings, and cutting flowers. Pruning chisels are nearly as various as pruning knives. The best, however, are in shape of a carpenter's chisel, but with a handle of greater or less length and strength, according to the height and size of the branch to be amputated. They vary in breadth of cutting face from one to three inches, and are wrought by placing the face of the chisel upon the part of the branch where the cut is to be made, and being held there by one man, while another with a wooden mallet, striking upwards, drives the chisel through the branch. Thus, branches of almost any size, from seven to twenty feet from the ground, may be cut off. Branches nearer the ground may be cut off with chisels having shorter handles, as shown in the engraving. Another modification of it is sometimes used in orchard and ornamental tree prnning, differing only from the former in having a guard or plate placed behind the blade, to pre- vent it entering too ia,r into tie trunk from which the branch is to be removed. The advantage of the pr^unlng chisel in all cases over the pruning saw, is its saving the trouble of ascending the tree, and the damage that may be done to the branches by a man going up to cut off the branch. An excellent substitute for all pruning chisels is found in the American or Indian pole-saw, depicted in the annexed figure. This has a blade about four inches broad, and from eighteen inches to two feet in length, fixed to a pole-handle of any required length, so as to reach the branch to be removed. This saw differs from the ordinar implement, in operating by pulling instead of thrusting, so that a person standing on the ground can work the saw to every advantage, while it is sufficiently stiff not to break while passing through the wood. The cuts made by a saw should have the wound smoothed by the knife or small plane, and in |l EEASON WHY. 299 " While Summer laughing comes, and bids the months Crown his prime season "with their choicest stores ; Fresh roses opening to the solar ray, And fruits slow-swelling on the loaded bough." — Mallet, most cases tie painted over with some mild paint to exclude the air and moisture. The pruning -bill is a species of large knife, and in the hands of an expert workman is valuable, in cutting off branches larger than the pruning knife could sever. The stroke should always be gi'ron in an upright direction, and, if possible, one blow should perform the operation. They are very useful in pruning thick and overgrown shrubbery, as they can be wrought with greater effect in thick jungles than almost any other cutting implement. Sometimes they have only one cutting face, and that is in general somewhat crooked towards the point ; at other times they have an axe- like face of several inches in length upon their back, useful in cutting large branches ; and at others they have, instead of a cutting face upon their back, a set of teeth or serratures, by which the operation of sawing may be performed. Pruning shears are of a still greater variety ; one of the smallest of the kind, and particularly useful for pruning off tender shoots is seen in the accompanying figure. It may also be used for cut- ting off leaves, bunches of grapes, flowers, &c., that may not be readily reached by the hand; and while it severs the leaf and stem, still holds the thing severed until it may be taken in hand. The curve passing round the handle and lever in the form o^ a ring, when pulled downwards by the cord, draws the leaves towards the handle, and causes the shear-like faces to meet ; these. Instead of being sharp at their edges, meet in what may be called the half-check form, bruising rather than cutting asunder the footstalk of the flower or leaf, and thus preventing its falling. The stud above the ring prevents it from slipping upwards, and the spring between the lever and handle keeps the shears open until acted upon by the cord.* 1049. Whi/ should fruit-trees he trained, wherever prac- ticable ? Because this system in(Juces a disposition to form * " Diotionaiy of Daily Wants." 300 THE gardener's and farmer's ' Two leaves produced, two rough indented leaves, Cautious he pinches from the second stalk A pimple that portends a future sprout. And interdicts its growth."— Cq-wpeb. Jloioer-huds in rare and tender trees or plants ; it matures and improves the quality of fruits whicli would not otherwise ripen in tlie open air. By the regular spreading of the branches the leaves are more fully exposed to the sun than they can be on any standard, and by the form of training, the motion of the saj} being retarded, induces a preternatural tendency to form buds. Besides these advantages, the trees when placed in favourable situations, are sheltered from cold winds, and receive warmth from the wall, or other support to which they are attached. 1050. Why does the manner in which fndt-trees are trained considerably affect their produce ? Because they dre deprived of the motion which their branches naturally receive from the winds; the form in ' which they are traine(J, therefore, operates powerfully upon their permanent health and vigour. 1051. The rule to be observed in training, should be to expose as large a surface of the leaves as possible to the light, without placing any of them so as to shade others ; the young vrood will thereby acquire the' most perfect maturity, and wiU afford abundant and regular blossom.* 1052. Espaliers are generally formed of upright and cross-bars of wood, but sometimes made of east-iron. The best are of wood, and from foul- to five feet in height. To these the trees are trained as on a wall, with this difference, that instead of being nailed, the branches are usually tied; the fastenings are soft hemp cord or strips of bast, but twigs of willow answer much better. 1053. The situation of espaliers is generally along the side walks; and if the trees be carefully trained, they have a neat effect. Care must be taken that they do not prevent the sun and air from reaching the surrounding vegetation. * T. A. Knight, Esq., F.E,S. REASON "WHY. 301 ' But were not Nature still endowed at largo With all -which life requires, though unadorned With such enchantment ; wherefore, then, her form So exquisitely fair?" — Akenside. 1054. The following ia the plan of cultivation : Have the ground well trenched and manured, and plant the trees three or four feet from . the walk, and twice as near to one another as they should afterwards be when full-grown. The reasons for close planting are, that the value of a few crops is more than the expense of the trees ; the rails are sooner covered, and when the trees begin to meet and incommode one another, you can then, having ascertained their various qualities, give scope to the best, by diminishing or rooting out the less worthy. 1055. To incur no more expense than is necessary, the stakes may be placed two feet apart, in which case the annual shoots will require to be conducted from one resting-place to another, by pieces of bast or wild briar, or willow of two years' growth. These conductors require a firm and separate tying, distinct from that which fastens more loosely the living wood; they thus give strength to the rails and provide for straighter training than is commonly done by having the stakes twice as thickly set, and consequently at double the expense of timbers. Espaliers may be trained in a great variety of forms, those represented in the engravings being the best adapted for general purposes.* 1056. Why should cuttings be placed under hand glasses, or in hotbeds? Because they will more readily strike when shaded from the light, and kept warm and moist. Light has a tendency to draiv the sap towards the leaves and thus to prevent its being employed in throiuing out roots. * "Dictionary of Daily Wants." 302 THE gardener's and farmer's ' Here are thy walks, O aacred Health ! The monarch's bliss, the heggar's wealth; The seasoning of all good below ! ^ The sovereign friend in joy or woe 1 " — Maxlet. 1057. Propagation by cuttings is a mode of culture requiring some delicacy and discrimination. It may be considered, as to the choice of cuttings, their preparation, their insertion in the soil, and their future management. 1058. The choice of cuttings should be directed first towards those branches of trees and shrubs which are thrown out nearest the ground, and especially such as recline, or nearly so, on the earth's surface, as these have always the greatest tendency to produce roots. 1059. The proper time for taking cuttings from the mother plant is when the sap is in full motion, in order that in returning by the bark it may form a callus or protruding ring of granular substance between the bark and wood, whence the roots proceed. As this callus, or ring of spongy matter, is generally best formed in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the mother plant, should contain a part of the former year; or, in plants which grow twicQ a year, of the wood of the former growth; or in the case of plants which are continually growing, such wood as has begun to ripen or assume a brownish colour. 1060. The preparation of the cutting depends on, or is guided by, this principle — that the power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly, and. in most cases en- tirely, at what are called joints, or at those parts where leaves or buds already exist. Hence it is, that cuttings ought always to be cut across with tbe smoothest and soundest section possible at an eye or joint. 1061. It is a common practice to cut off the whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings ; but the former is always attended with bad effects, as the leaves may be said to supply nourishment to the cutting, till it can sustain itself. 1062. The insertion of cuttings may seem an easy matter, and none but a practical cultivator would imagine that there could be any difference in the growth between cuttings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at its sides; yet some sorts of plants if REASON WHY. 303 ' Few self-supported flowers endure the ■wind Uninjured, but expect the upliolding aid Of the smooth- sliaven prop."— Cotvpeu. inserted in a mere mass of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots; while, if they are inserted in sand, or in each of the sides of the pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they seldom fail of becoming rooted plants. The art is to place them so as to touch the bottom of the pot, and afterwards plunge them in a bank or hotbedi and keep them moist. 1083. The management of cuttings requires that they should not be planted too deep, though such as are large ought to tie planted deeper than such as are small. Too much light, air, water, heat, or cold, are alike injurious. To guard against these extremes in tender sorts, they should be nurtured beneath a hand or bell-glass. Immersing the pot in earth (if the cuttings are in pots), has a tendency to preserve a steady uniform degree of moisture at the roots; and shading or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a steady situation, prevents the bad effects of excess of light. The only method of regulating the heat is double or single coverings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a, very constant degree of heat. 1064. Piping is a mode of propagation similar to that of cuttings. This is effected by separating a shoot from a part of the stem, where it is nearly or somewhat ripened. The root end of the plant must be held between the finger and thumb of one hand, below « pair of leaves, and with the other pull the top part above the pair of leaves, so as to separate it from the root part of the stem. These pipings, or separated parts, ai-e Inserted without any further preparation in finely-sifted earth to the depth of the first joint or pipe, gently firmed with a small dibber ; then watered, a hand-glass put over them, and their future management similar to that of cuttings.* 1065. Why should standard fruit trees never be planted in the kitchen garden? Because, from their drip and shade, it is impossible to grow good culinary vegetables under them; wtile, on the other hand, the constant digging and movement of the soil required for culinary vegetables, make the roots of the trees Dictionary of Daily 'Wants;" 304 THE gardener's and eaemek's " As flowers in Nature's Irest Termilion dyed, The polished walks enclose on either side ; So minds with proper Cultivation drest, Are by the warmth of Heavenly influx hlest." — Lawbence. descend so far, iliat they get beyond the influence of the air, and cannot produce good fruit.* 1066. Why has man been able to establish so many varieties of fruits and flowers ? Because every quality in plants becomes hereditary, when the causes which first gave existence to those qualities continue to operate ; and also because their seedling offspring have a constant tendency to adapt their habits to any climate in which art or accident places them. 1067. This may be illustrated by the following considerations : — If two plants of the vine, or other tree, were placed to vegetate, during several successive seasons, in very different climates ; if the one were planted on the banks of the Rhine, and the other on those of the Nile, eacli would adapt its habits to the climate in which it loere placed; and if both were subsequently brought in early spring into a climate similar to that of Italy, the plant whicli had adapted its habits to a, cold climate would instantly vegetate, whilst the other would remain apparently lifelessA 1068. We have known dahlias, from a poor, single, dull-coloured flower break into superior forms and brilliant colours; we have seen a carnation, by the reduplication of its calyx, acquire almost the appearance of an ear of wheat, and look like a glumaceous plant j we have seen hollyhocJts in their generations branch into a variety of colours, which are reproduced by the several descendants with tolerable certainty; we cannot, therefore, say that the order to multiply after their kind meant that the produce should be precisely similar to the original type; and if the type was allowed to reproduce itself with variation, who could pretend to say how much variation the Almighty allowed? Who can say that His glorious scheme for peopling and clothing the earth was not the creation of a certain number of original animals and vegetables, predestined by Him in their reproduction to exhibit certain variations, which should here- after become fixed characters, as well as those variations which » Mrs. Loudon. t T. A. Knight, Esq., F.E.S. EEASON WHY. 305 ' 'T^Ya3 thus his fond inquiry used to trace Through nature's secrets with unwearied eye, And watch the shifting seasons* changing grace ; Spring's first wild flower, and Summer's painted slcy.' even now frequently arise and are nearly fixed characters, but not absolutely so, and those which are more variable, and very subject to relapse in reproduction.* 1069. Why may great variations he produced in the flavour and appearance of fruits and vegetables ? Because, if the 2^^stil of one species be fertilized by the pollen of anotlier species, which may take place in the same germs, or if two distinct varieties of the same species be in like manner intermixed, the seed which results from the operation will be intermediate between its parents, partaking of the qualities of both father and mother. In the first place the progeny is hybrid, or mule ; in the second, it is simply cross-bred. 1070. The Txxixmg'of YaTietieshy cross-impregnation OT bastardising happens to a greater extent to single plants than to larger masses ot them ; and it seldom happens that good seed can be saved in a garden, or near gardens, from a single individual. Solitary specimens of the turnip, the cauliflower, and such plants, have been frequently selected on account of their perfect characters, and been carefully planted in gardens for a stock of seed; but their produce has as frequently been of the worst description, bearing- no resemblance to the parent. In such oases as these, it would seem as if bees and! other insects were attracted from, all quarters by the guy colours or odour', of such isolated individuals, and arriving from a hundred flowers which they had previously visited, bring with them so many sources of cross-impregnation,\ 1071. By this knowledge loe may alter the property and taste of any fruit, by simply impregnating the one with the farina of another of the same class, as, for example, a codlin with a pearmain, which will occasion the codlin so impregnated to last a longer time than usual, and be of a sharper taste ; or if the winter fruit should be fecundated with the dust of the summer kinds, they will decay before their usual time ; and it is from this accidental coupling of the * Dr. Herhert. t Lindley's " Theory and Practice of Horticulture." 206 THE gaedenee's and 1'AKMEE'S " Tea, manhood'a "wann meyicUan sun Shall ripen wliat in Spring begun : . Thus infant ros^s, ere they blow, In germinating clusters grow." — Cotton. farina of one land with the other that, in an orchard lohere there is a variety of apples, even the fi-uit gathered from the same tree differs in flavour and times of ripening ; and, moreover, the seeds of those apples so generated being changed by that means fi'om their natural qualities, ivill produce different Mnds of fruit if they are sown.* 1072. This tendency to variation by cross-impregnation was noticed by Theophrastus and Pliny; and, in 1745, Mr. Bt Cook, F.R.S., communicated to the Royal Society the case of some russets, charged by the farina of trees, growing in the orchard of a neighbour. The charged russet grew among a great number of unaltered apples, hut bore the exact complexion of the apples growing upon a neighbouring tree.t 1073. Early in the year 1820, Mr. Braddick sent to the Royal Society samples of two sorts of apples of the preceding year's growth which he had himself taken from the trees, and carefully preserved, to show the extraordinary sport which they had made. The two sorts were the Holland pippin and the white winter calville, apples totally dissimilar in appearance; they grew on' low standards, very near each other ; two of the specimens gathered from the sides of the trees not contiguous retained their natural character perfectly well ; but the tohite calville gathered from the side of the tree next the Holland pippin had lost much of its own form and colour and partaken largely of that of its neighbour, while the Holland pippin, taken from the side next the calville, had become nearly a calville in form and colour.); 1074. Mr. John Goss cross-impregnated some prolific blue and dwarf peas, and found that the colour of the peas, instead of being a deep blue, like their female parent, was of a yellowish white, like the male. Towards the end of the season he found that these white seeds had produced some pods with all blue, some with all white, and many with bothhlae and white in the same pod. In the following spring he separated all the blue peas from the white, and sowed each * Bradley's " Improvements in Planting and Gardening." t " Philosophical Transactions." A further proof of such intermixture taking place is given by the same writer in the " Transactions," for the year 1748-9. X Mr. John Turner, "Horticultural Society's Transactions." EEASOJf WHT. 307 ' He therefore, who would see his flowers disposed Sightly, and in just order, ere he gives Tlie beds the trusted treasure of their seeds, Forecasts the future whole."— Cov.ter. colour in separate rows. He found that the blue produced only Mue, while the white seeds yielded some pods with all white, and some with both blue and white intermixed.* 1075. Why are there so many varieties of the genus hrassica, or cabbage tribe ? This interesting and valuable tribe of plants, which includes not only cabbages, , but all the varieties of hrocoli, cauliflowers, ttirnips, and radishes, are supposed to have sprung from one simple original — the wild cabb^ige —hrassica, oleracea or sea cabbages, the remarkable varieties of which have been altered by the influence of various climates and modes of cultivation, as well as increased by crosses obtained from the intermixture of races and varieties, f 1076. The parent of all the hrassica varieties, grows wild in many countries, especially in places adjacent to the sea. It is particularly distinguished by an herbaceous and biennial stalk, by its leaves being covered with a glaucous bloom, and glabrous from their first appearance, somewhat fleshy, not actually scolloped, but sinuating to the mid-rib, the lower leaves not excepted. 1077. The first variety which sprung from the original species appears to have been the wild cabbage {hrassica oleracia sylvestris). The stalk of the wild cabbage is crc^oked, half-woody, branching, and seemingly perennial, though it most probably runs to seed at the end of two, three, or four years, and then dies. From the remarkable thickness of the parent stalk, compared with its height, we can easily account for the thick and fleshy stalk of some of its varieties. The teaves, which shoot from the summit of the sterile branches, form a kind of rose, giving to the wild plant an intermediate aspect between the two leading races, the round-headed cabbage, and the cavalier, * " Horticultural Society's Transactions." t For an interesting account of the gradual development of varieties of flowers fruits, and esculent vegetaWes, with illustrations of their transitory stages, see;.the "Botanical and Horticultural Reason "Why." 308 THE gardener's and takmer's " I make some proper signals known to bees, To bid tlieir squadrons welcome to my trees ; Tlien at the sounding brass they all descend, And hang in clusters 'at a branch's end."— Lawrence. or tall cabbage, so that one may easily conceive it to have degenerated to both of these. When its natural tendency to form a rose ha been gradually decreasing, or, in other words, when the stalk or branches have had a greater tendency to shoot than the leaves, it has produced the race of cavalier cabbages ; when on the contrary, the disposition of growing to a rose has been gaining strength, and the •vigour of the stock diminishing, the race of round-headed cabbages has been obtained. 1078. On comparing the wild individuals, it is easy to conceive that, by culture, varieties have been obtained with loaves more or less swelled out, such as the savoy. 1079. A generous nutrition was found to promote the growth of the soft vegetable tissues more rapidly than that of the fibrous veins on stalks, and from perseverance in this treatment the savoy variety arose. 1080. The leaves of the wild cabbage are naturally green, and become red when much exposed to the sun ; this reddish colour has become permanent in some cultivated varieties. The flowers of the wild cabbage are in thick bunches in the shape of a panicle ; the lateral ones sprout from the axillEE of the upper leaves. These panicles fcrm a corymb, or head, greater or less according tp the distance of the lateral branches, and their length, compared to the central one, fi'om which circumstance it is easy to imagine the gradual development until the character of the cauliflotver becomes determined. This minute examination of the wild cabbage will enable us to understand how the many cultivated varieties maj' all be referred to one and the same type. The turnip cabbages remarkable for a swollen and fleshy stem, are intermediate between the proper cabbages and turnips. 1081. There is no doubt that many of the varieties are the results of different cross-breeds, obtained by mere chance, in various gardens, and preserved by the care of the cultivator,* 1082. WJiy are melons of British growth defective in richness and flavour? Because, in the culture of this plant, too little regard * M. De CandoUe, "Transactions of the Eoyal Horticnltural Society." EEASON -WHY. 309 ' "We track, half-hidden from the world besides, Sweet licrmit-nature that in woodlands hides ; Where nameless flowers that never meet the sun, Like bashful modesty, the sight to shun." — Clake. is paid to the development of the leaves — organs upon whidi the perfection of the fruit materially depends. 1083. The power of each proper leaf to generate sap, in any given species and vai-iety of plant, appears to be in the compound ratio of its width, thickness, and the exposure of its upper surface to light, in proper temperature. As the growth of the plant proceeds, the number and width of the leaves increases rapidly, in proportion to the number of young leaves to be found ; and the creation consequently exceeds the expenditure of true sap. This, therefore, accumulates during a succession of weeks, or months, or years, according to the naturalt habits and duration of the plant, and varying considerably according to the soil and the climate in which each individual grows : and the sap thus generated is deposited in the bulb of the tulip, in the tubes of the potatoe, in the fibrous roots of the grasses, and in the alburnum (sap) of trees, during winter, and is dispersed through their bark, during spring and'summer. 1084. As soon as the plant has attained its age and puberty, a portion of its sap is expended in the production of blossoms and fruit. Tlie fruit or seed-vessels appears to be generated wholly by the sap of the plant, and its chief office to be that of adapting the fluid, which ascends into it, to afford proper nutriment to the seeds it contains. 1085. The leaves of the vielon, as of every other plant, naturally arrange themselves so as to present, with the utmost advantage, their upper surfaces to the light ; and if, by any means, the position of the plant is changed, the leaves, so long as they are young and vigorous, make efforts to regain their proper position. But the extended branches of the melon plant, particularly under glass, are slender and feeble ; its leaves are broad and heavy ; and its leaf-stallts long ; so that if the leaves be once removed, either by the weight of water from the watering-pot, the hand of the gardener in pruning, in eradicating weeds, or any other cause, from their proper position, they NEVER AGAIN KEGAiN IT ; and, in consequence, a large portion of that foliage, which preceded, or was found at the same period with the blossoms, and which nature intended to generate sap to 310 THE gaedenek's akd faemer's " The sapless branch Must fly before the knife ; the withered leaf Must be detached." — Cowpek. feed the fruit, becomes diseased and sickly, before the fruit acquires maturity.* 1086. Why is it necessary to regulate, not only the temperature, hut the hiunidity of hot-houses ? Captain Sabine, in his meteorological researcLies between the tropics, rarely found, at the hottest period of the day, so great a difference as ten degrees, between the temperature of the air and tjie dew-point ; making the degree of saturation about 73°, but most frequently 5°, or 85° ; and the mean saturation of the air could not have exceeded 91°. Now, if the hygrometer were consulted, it would be no uncommon thing to find in hot-houses, as at present managed, a difference of 20° between the point of condensation and the air, or a degree of moisture falling short of 50°. 1087. The danger of over-watering most of the plants, especially at particular periods of their growth, is in general very justly appreciated ; and in consequence the earth at their roots is kept in a state comparatively dry; the only supply of moisture being commonly derived from the pots, and the exhalations of the leaves is not enough to saturate the air : the consequence is, a prodigious power of evaporation. 1088. This is injurious to the plants in two ways : in the first place, if the pots be at all moist, and not protected by tan or other litter, it produces a considerable degree of cold upon their surface, and communicates a chill to the tender fibres with which they are lined. The danger of * T. A. Knight, Esq., F.R.S. EEASON WHY. 311 " The corn the greedy reapers cut not down Before the fields with golden ears it crown ; Nor doth the verdant fruits the gardener puU ; But man is cropt before his years are full."— Dbdmmond. such a chill is carefully guarded against in the case of watering, for it is one of the commonest precautions not to use any water of a temperature at all inferior to that of the hot air of the house ; inattention to this point is quickly followed by disastrous consequences. The danger is quite as great from a moist floiver-pot 2^laced in a very dry atmosphere. 1089. The flowers of the torrid zone are many of them of a very- succulent nature, largely supplied with cuticular pores; and their tender buds are unprovided with those integuments and other wonderful provisions by which nature guards her first embryo productions in more uncertain climates. Compai'ative speaking, they shoot naked into the world, and are suited only to that enchanting mildness of the atmosphere, for which the whole system of their organization is adapted. In the tropical climates the sap never ceases to flow, and sudden checks or accelerations of its progress are as injurious to its healthy functions as they are necessary in the plants of more variable climates to the formation of those hybernacula which are provided for the preservation of the shoots in the winter season. Some idea may be formed of the prodigiously increasing drain upon the functions of a plant arising from an increase of dryness in the air from the following consideration. If we suppose the amount of its perspiration, in a given time, to be 57 grains, the temperature of the air fo be 75", and the dew-point 70°, or the saturation , of the air being 849°, the amount would be increased to 120 grains in the same time if the dew-point were to remain stationary, and the temperature were to rise to 80°, or in other words, if the saturation of the air were to fall. 1090. Besides this power of transpiration, the leaves of vegetables exercise also an absorbent function, which must be no less disarranged by any deficiency of moisture. Some plants derive the greatest portion of their nutriment from the vaporous atmosphere, and all are more or less dependent upon the same source. The Nepenthes distillatoria lays up a store of water in the cup formed at the end of its leaves, which is probably secreted from the air, and applied to the exigencies of the plant when exposed to drought, and the quantity, which is 312 THE gaedenee's and farmer's " The stone-rock'd -waggon with its rumbling sound, The windmill's sweeping sails at distance seen ; And every form that crowds the circling round, Where the sky stooping seems to kiss the meeting ground."— Clare. known to yary in the hot-house, is no doubt connected with the state of moisture pf the atmosphere.* 1091. Tropical plants require to be watered at the root with great caution, and it is impossible that a sufficient supply of vapour can be kept up from this source alone. There can, however, be no difficulty in keeping the floor of the house, and the flues continually wet, and an atmosphere of great elasticity may thus be maintained in a way perfectly analogous to the natural process. Where steam is employed as the means of communicating heat, an occasional injection of it into the air may also be had recourse to ; but this method would require much attention on the part of the superintendent, whereas the first cannot easily be carried to excess. 1092. Why should straw be laid under strawberry plants when coming in fruit? Not only because it prevents the fruit from coming in contact TKith the soil, but because it shades the roots from the sun ; prevents the waste of moisture by evaporation, and consequently, in dry times, when watering is necessary, makes a less quantity of water suffice than would be used if the sun could act immediately upon the surface of the mould. 1093. The custom of laying straw under strawberry plants, when their fruit begins to swell, is probably very old in this country : the name of the fruit bears testimony in favour of this conjecture, for the plant has no relation to the straw in any other way.t 1094. Why do early potatoes fail to produce seeds ? Because of the preternaturally early formation of the tuberous root, which draws off for its support that portion of the sap, which in other plants of the same species, affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds. When means are * J. r. Daniell. t Su" Joseph Banks. EEASON WHY. 313 But give me to ponder still Nature, when slie blooms at will, In her kindred taste and joy Wilderness and variety^" — Clabe. taken, to prevent tlie formation of tuberous roots, good seeds may "be procured.* 1095. Why are holly fences superior to hawthorn for gardens ? Hawthorn fences are usually the resort of small beetles, caterpillars, &c., which, after denuding the fence of leaves, pass to the nearest trees and shrubs, and extend their depredations. The leaves of the hawthorn also exhale a great deal of water, rendering the air cold which passes through them. 1096. This may be accounted for on the same principle that cool air is obtained in the houses of the wealthy in the East Indies, by sprinkling branches of trees with water in their . verandahs. Sollies, laurels, and most evergi'eens, exhale but little water from their leaves at any other season of the year, except for about a month in June, when their new leaves are recently expanded ; consequently, in April and May, when we most require warmth, and again in September and October, the leaves of these trees, when fully exposed to the sun, become sensibly heated, and impart warmth to the air which passes tlirough them.t 1097. Why is it a common error among gardeners -and fanners that insects, ^c, are destroyed by frosts ? The eggs of the silh-worm, and of other species, are capable of sustaining a great degree of cold ; and Reaumur found that a common caterpillar was not hurt by cold of 11° below the zero of Fahrenheit. It has been found that some caterpillars and larvm, after being so frozen as to chink like little stones when dropped into a glass, nevertheless revived. Both experiment and fact prove, that the supposed destruction of insects by severe • T. A. Knight, F.B.S. t J- Williams, Esq. 314 THE gaedener's and paemek's ** Ask we what makes one keep and one bestow, That Power who tids the ocean ebb and flow; Bids seed time, harvest, equai course maintain, Throngh reconciled extremes of drought and rain." — Pope. winters does not take place ; and, consequently, ttat , the gardener must rely on his own exertions for ridding himself of these assailants. 1098. But frosts are frequently the indirect cause of the destruction of insects, worms, and slugs, by making birds and other enemies search for them with greater diligence. 1099. The caterpillars of the gooseberi-y moth may be destroyed by laying a large sheet of strdng paper on the ground, underneath the branch. Let the sheet be so laid, and a sudden shake given to the branch ; nine-tenths of the caterpillars will immediately let themselves down on to the paper by a silken thread, when they may be collected with the greatest ease. By going over the trees twice or thrice in this way, the whole may be extirpated far more effectually, and at less expense both of money and time, than by watering trees with solutions of lime, tobacco, &c.* 1100. -In what way does the common earth-worm operate upon soils? Although one of the very humblest and most despised creatures in existence, the common earth-worm, or dew- worm, plays a very important part in the economy of the earth. As it is found almost everywhere, few persons are unacquainted with its appearance. 1101. It inhabits holes, which it makes in pai't by eating its way through the mould, the food it seeks being such decayed organic substances as it finds among, or drags down into it. These it takes, mixed with a certain portion — seldom, perhaps, less than a fourth, and sometimes much more — of the mineral ingredients of the soil : clay, sand, and -grit ; and it is surprising to see what large and sharp-edged grains of the latter it will swallow. ♦ T Spence, Esq. EEASON Al'IIY. " Ko floure in field that dantie odour throwes, And deckes his branch with blossoms over all, Etit there was planted or grew natural." — Spencer. When it has digested that portion of this strange diet ■which is digestible, it throws out the remainder, either upon the surface above it, or else into one of its own, or of another worm's deserted galleries, in, those familiar vermicular lumps which are called worm-casts. The mineral and vegetable matter ejected is no doubt a very valuable manure. 1 102. But these contemned animals have another office, less obvious, but perhaps more important. Although the casts of the larger -worms are the more conspicuous, standing up as little mounds at no great distance from one another, yet they may not, perhaps, effect so much upon the whole as the smaller heaps of the greater multitude of younger worms, which are hidden under the herbage. The quality of matter thus moved is sometimes astonishing, scarcely a space of two inches square being without a little heap of cylindrical castings. 1 103. As the worms desert their old burrows, the soil sinks in and fills them ; and by this means, a constant circulation is continued, the vegetable mould extending itself downwards, while the "dead soil" — the purely mineral matter — is brought np. 1104. What iAe ;ptore* specially wants from the- soil (as" is strongly enforced in the views of Liebig), is mineral matter ; and this the earth-worm keeps loithin its reach, by continually transferring it from beloiD upwards, in a properly comminuted state. Every shower that falls washes away some of this valuable matter, as any one may see who will watch the rills which trickle over the surface at the time ; and if the rain is heavy, it carries off a great quantity of clay and sand. The unavoidable consequence of this natural operation would be that the upper layer would consist chiefly of the coarser materials, the larger grit and stones, which would be ill adapted for the support of the more valuable kind of herbage. But the earth-worm supplies the waste.* 1105. Why should precautions against insects of all hinds he adopted early in the season? Because, when they are allowed to be developed to * " Greology in the Garden." 316 THE gardener's and faejiee's " Wlien to turn The fmitful soil, and when to sow the corn; The care of sheep, of oxen, and of kine; And how to raise on elms the teeming vine." — Drtden. maturity, they propagate bt eggs in such abundance, that it is almost impossible to keep them under. The DESTRUCTION OP ONE EAELT MOTH is A PAR BETTER PREVENTIVE THAN KILLING A HUNDEED CATERPILLARS.* 1106. The mode I would recommend in the case of almost all insects injurious to the horticulturist, is to employ children in the summer months to destroy the moths themselves, giving a small premium for every ten or twenty they collect, and increasing the reward as the number becomes lessened. When taught where to look for them, they would discover numbers on the bark of ti-ees ; and if provided with gauze clasp-nets, would find it a most healthy and interesting occupation to catch them when made to fly, by shaking the trees and bushes in which they repose. The destruction of every female moth before the deposition of eggs, inay he fairly calculated to ■prevent the existence of some hundreds of larvcc ; and thus, in any garden not in the neighbourhood of others, where the same methods are neglected, the whole race might in a few years be extirpated.t 1107. Slugs may be effectually destroyed by lime-water, which is greatly superior to lime-dust. Take some fresh caustic lime, and pour on it some hot water; when thoroughly dissolved, add water sufficient to make it pass through a fine rose of a water-pot. Previous to the preparation, let a woman take some peas haulm (I give that the preference), or any large leaves of the cabbage tribe, and lay them a pole distance from each other. If the weather permit, they will be found in abundance, collected under the haulm, Sec, both for shelter and food ; as we always find them prefer vegetables in a state of stagnation, to those luxuriant in growth ; "when properly collected, let a boy take up the haulm, &c., and, by a gentle shake, leave the whole of the slugs on the ground. The woman with a water-pot must then pour a very small portion of the liquor on them, and the boy in the mean time must remove the haulm, &c., to a different spot in the intermediate space. By pursuing this plan for one week (when the weather is favourable), I am perfectly satisfied the whole * A great variety of information upon the hahits of insects, with means for their extirp.ition, will he found in the "Entomological Reason "Why." t AV. Spence, Esq. KBASON WHY. 3l7 ' Nor is the mead unworthy of thy foot. Full of fresh, verdure, and nnmimhered flowers, The negligence of nature, wide and wild." — Thomson. of them may be destroyed, as the least drop of the liquor will cause immediate death, whereas with lime they frequently leave a slimy matter behind, and escape. In the flower-garden it will be found great acquisition,' by watering the edging of box, thrift, &c. ; for wherever it penetrates, it is certain to kill, even in a rainy season.* 1108. An excellent method for destroying the red spider, scale, thrips, and green fly, is the following : — Where there are but a few plants infested with either kind of insect, take a one-light frame and place the plants infested about four inches apart, and then procure from one to two gallons of gi'een laurel leaves and well bruise them, immediately place them between the pots and close the frame with the least possible delay, taking care to keep the frame air-tight ; at the expiration of one hour take out the plants infested with red spider and green fly, and it will -be found that the insects cease to exist. 1109. It will take from eight to twelve hours to destroy the thrips and scales ; at the expiration of that time take out the plants, place them in a warm and exposed situation, and in a few days the insects will all dry up and fall off. 1110. When plants are infested in stoves or green-houses with either insect, the process must be a little varied. A house 12 feet by 20 will require about two bushels of leaves ; they can be bruised in the house, and placed in a tub or box, and covered with a sack or cloth, until a sufBcient quantity is bruised ; then they are to be strewed in the paths, and between the pots, and other vacant places, and the house must be Tcept as close as possible for at least twelve hours ; the evening will be found the best time, so that the house can remain closed and covered with double mats at night. I have found, by repeated trials, that the plan thus described answers better than any I have ever used or heard of.t 1111. The red spider may be banished from hot-houses and green- houses, by the simple process of cutting off the infected leaf. A leaf once attacked soon decays and falls off j but then the animals remove io another. By carefully pursuing this amputation, plants will become remarkably healthy, t 1112. Insects in wood and walls may be destroyed by washing » Mr. J. WUmot, F.H.S. t Mr. J. Ingram. t Sir Brooke Boothby, Bart. 318 THE GAJKDEJfER's AXD FAKIIER's ' In a plait pleasant cottage, convfiniently neat, With a mill and some meadows— a freehold estate, A well meaning miller hy labour supplied Those blessings, that grandeur to great ones denied."— CnNNiNGHAsr. those parts with a solution of corrosive sublimate in water. But care must be taken that none falls on the plants ; and the -workmen must be apprised of the strength of the poison.* 1113. The red sjnder may also he destroyed by a wash of quick-lime, adding to it a quantity of sulphur mvum ; with this wash, brush over the flues of the house ; a fire rather stronger than usual should be kept up for a few days after the operation; the fumes will then be so effectual that scarcely any spiders will be .found alive. f 1114. Aphides are easily killed by burning tobacco in a chafing- dish, provided it is done while they are in a young state ; but it is expedient to have these remedies used before the plants can be injured by the attacks of insectsA 1115. The scaly insect, and mealy bug, when they are once perceptible to the eye, can be removed only by picking off, or washing the leaves and branches with u, sponged 1116. The Mack leech-like maggot on thorns, pears, and cherry trees, and the gooseberry caterpillars may be destroyed by slacked lime in very fine powder, dusted over the leaves while they are wet, or dewy. If rain follows immediately after the dusting, the good eifect will be diminished. Like aU such remedies, the earlier it is appUed, after the insect is discovered, the better; and it should be done before the fruit changes colour, lest it be disfigured. Lime water, thrown by the garden engine, is also effective ; but it renders the trees and borders unsightly. A decoction of elder-leaves mixed loith soap is also effective.i 1117. As a general destroyer of insects upon frees, gas water is exceedingly efiective. Mix a pound of flour of brimstone in three gallons of gas water, with soap enough to make it adhere to the buds and branches when laid on with a painter's brush. The composition may be mixed over a fire with safety, as it is not inflammable, the gas water being merely that which is employed at gas-works in the purification of gas. It does no injury to the trees, and probably kills the insects by its offensive odour.§ 1118. The moths and caterpillars of the Phalcena Srumata may * Sir Brooke Boothby, Bart. t W. Kent, Esq., F.L.S. t Mr. John Sweet. 5 J. Braddick, Esq., F.H.S. REASON WHY. • 319 " Thus to their toils, in early summer, run The clustering bees, and labour in the sun ; Led forth, in colonies, their buzzing race, , Or worlc the liquid sweets, and thidven to a mass."— Pitt. be destroyed in the following manner : — A mixture of oil and tar (which keeps moist longer than tar alone) to be painted in a broad ring around the trunk. This prevents the caterpillars from descending the trunk to work themselves into the bark near the root, to assume the chrysalis state. This change usually takes place between the end of October and December; in which months vast numbers of them may be seen on a, mild day about the roots of the trees. When the caterpillars are located upon the branches, the latter should be well shaken. The caterpillars falling to the ground may be desti'oyed.* 1119. The caterpillars are about half an inch in length, and of a green colour; these are exceedingly destructive to rose-buds, and the ointment of oil and tar may therefore be advantageously employed upon the stems of rose-trees. t 1120. The Aphis Lanigera, or American blight, may be destroyed on trees by applying train oil, with a painter's brush, to the infected parts of the tree. No mischief will result from the application of the oil to such parts of the tree only as are affected by 'the insects, t In America the following remedy is successfully applied : — Before the sap leaves the root, take the earth from around the tree, at least for a foot and a half, and half a foot deep. Mix a quantity of coal soot with fresh rich mould, and fill up the hole again. Be careful to carry off the old earth, and to burn it, lest the insect should be generated in it by the heat of the sun.§ Tar, applied with a painter's brush, is also an effectual remedy, and it operates, no doubt, in the same manner as the oil, by excluding the air, and involving the insects in a mass from which they cannot escape. It is probable that the effect of the tar is more lasting than that of the oil, and that it would more completely destroy any young insects that might be produced from the latent eggs, a considerable time after their application. Tar, however, destroys the leaves and young shoots, but it does not affect the wood.|| 1121. In applying lime for the destruction of snails, I began by sprinkling quick-lime lightly over the beds adjoining alleys and walks about ten o'clock at night, after a wet or very dewy evening, and I usually, found a large number of snails, many of them exceedingly * Mr. Rausleben, of Berlin. t Mr. MacLeay. J Sir Oswald Mosley, Bart. § Mr. Walton. II A. Seyton, Esq., F.H.S. 320 THE gardener's and farmer's ' The shepherd, he was on his rounds, The dog stopt short to lap the stream, And jinghng in the fallow grounds TJie ploughman m"ged his reeking team.' small, dead on the following morning ; but some always escaped, and I suspected these to be of another species, which did not leave their hiding-places so early in the evening as the others. I, therefore, tried the effect of sprinkling the lime over the same beds and walks about three o'clock in the morning; and, by these means, in a short time ceased to be troubled with snails of any kind in situations where they were before very abundant and destructive. The lime used should be fresh burned, and it should be sprinkled regularly though lightly, not only over the ground, but over every plant in the vicinity.* 1122. The American Might on apple trees may be destroyed by potash and quick-lime in equal quantities, mixed in water to the consistence of cream. The mixture, whilst hot, is to be laid on the stem and branches of the tree with a brush, rubbing it well into the crevices of the bark, which should be scraped and cleaned before the wash is applied. It may be used in the autumn, or during the winter, whilst the branches are destitute of leaves. It will effectually ]dll tlie insects, and consequently pi'mient their appearance in the succeeding spring.'; 1123. Fruit may be preserved from birds by a somewhat singular expedient, namely, the employment of cats. R. Brooke, Esq., of Melton Lodge, Suffolk, pursued the plan for several years with the most perfect success. He had four or five cats, each with a collar, and light chain and swivel, about a yard long, with a large iron ring at the end; as soon as the gooseberries, currants, and raspberries began to ripen, a small stake was driven into the ground, or bed, near the trees to be protected, leaving about a yard and a half of the stake abovfe gi'ound ; the ring was slipped over the head of the stake, and tlie cat thus tethered in sight of the trees : no birds would approach them. Cherry trees and wall-fruit trees were protected in the same manner as they successively ripened ; eafih cat, by way of a shed, had one of the largest-sized flower-pots, laid on its side, within reach of her chain, with a little hay or straw in bad weather, and her food and water placed near her.t » Mr. J. Corbett. J. Wedgwood, Esq. % P. Kendall. HEASON WHY, 321 ' Trees old and young, sprouting, a shady boon. For simple sheep ; and such are daffodils "With the green world they -live in." — Keats. MISCELLANEOUS. il24. WJiat are the relative nutritive qualities of the chief vegetables used as food ? The nutritiveness of any kind of solid or liquid food depends upon three circumstances : — its digestibility, the quantity, and the proportions of the alimentary substances contained in it. 1125. If an aliment contains many indigestible substances, -which are voided again in an undissolved state with the excrements, it must lose as much of its nutritiveness : for only that which passes as an essential constituent into the blood, is to be considered as an alimentary principle. The more digestible an aliment is, therefore, other things being equal, the more nourishing. 1126. In treating of the value of a nutriment with respect to the alimentary principles contained in it, no regard is paid to the amount of water contained. Water is, in general, so easily to be procured, that we have not to take it into consideration, when judging of the value of solid or liquid food, with respect to its nutritious qualities. In a dry arid desert, however, water ivould become the most important nutriment ; and an aliment containing much water ivould be the most nutritious food. Where no deficiency in w^ater exists, that aliment is the most nutritious which contains the greatest proportion of alimentary principles, and conveys, therefore, to the blood, the greatest quantity of its essential constituents.* * Dr. Scoffem : Orr's " Circle of the Sciencea." 322 THE gardener's and FARMER'S ' Or meeting objects from the rousing farm ; Tile- jingling plougli-teams driving down tlie steep, Waggon and cart— and sheplierd-dog's alarm, Raising the bleatings of unfolding slieep."— Clake. 1127. The dependence of the nutritive qualities of various articles of food upon the proportion of nitrogfen is well shown in a recent Memoir of Monsieur Boitssingault, who gives, on the authority of the celebrated agriculturist Von Shaer, a scale of the relative degree of nutriment afforded by various plants to cattle, and then places by the side of it a statement of the proportion of azote present in them from which it appears that the nutritious quality of each beai's a pretty constant ratio to the quantity of nitrogen they contain. 1128. This may be seen by the following table : — Nutriment Equiv. Ordinary Hay .... 100 its azote being O'OllS Red Clover Beans Wheat Straw Potatoes Beet . Maize, Barley Wheat 1129. When we reflect, indeed, that animal matter, which so abounds in nitrogen, is nevertheless derived, either directly or indirectly, from vegetable, it follows, as a necessary consequence, that existence can only be maintained by the aid of those principles in plants which contain a certain proportion of the element alluded to. And this has been shown by the experiments of Magendie upon dogs which were fed on sugar, starch, gum, and other substances destitute of nttrogenj and in a very short time pined away and died.* 1130. WTiat relation subsists between the elementary composition of vegetables and of animal flesh ? The flesh of oxen, or beef, illustrates the composition of all other kinds of meat. We may take the composition of heef as the standard, with which the varieties of the other most common aliments may be compared. In beef, as in 90 >f 0-0176 83 0-0141 400 0-0020 200 fj 0-0037 397 )j 0-0026 59 5J 0-0164 54 ' J> 00176 27 » 0-0213 * Dr. Daubeny. REASON -WHY. 323 ' While the cock with liTely din, Scatters the rear of darkness thin, And to the stack, or the barn-door, Stoutly stmts his dames before." — Milton. all other aliments which, when taken to the exclusion of all other food, are able to maintain human life, the three groujos of simple elementary principles are represented. These groups are : — 1. The inorganic. 2. The organic destitute of nitrogen. 3. The organic possessing nitrogen A combination of albuminous and fatty matters, of compounds of clj-lorine and of salts, abundantly diluted with water, is all that is necessary to sustain life. 1131. The albuminous substances of beef are the fibrine, or flesh fibres of the muscle and albumen, which is the essential body of the nutritious juice which occupies the space between the solid parts. The white of a hen's egg (albumen) gave its name to what are called albuminous substances. The flesh owes its red colour to the blood, which it contains in very numerous vessels ; and this blood contain^ both albumen and fibrine, and in addition to these albuminous substances, some other organic matters in small quantity, besides colouring matter containing iron.* 1132. All kinds of corn, including rice, maize, oats, barley, rye. and wheat, contain in their seeds a large quantity of undissolved vegetable albumen, combined with a, little vegetable gelatine. The latter compound belonging, like the former, to the albumenous matters, is a glutinous substance, which communicates its property to the whole combination ; from this circumstance it is called gluten. In addition to the gluten most kinds of corn contain a small quantity of soluble vegetable albumen. 1133. The constituents of fat are also abundantly represented in all kinds of flour; for all kinds of corn contain a quantity of starch so considerable, as by far to surpass their amount of albuminous substances. Besides the starch, a proportion of gum is always present Finally, all the inorganic constituents of the human body, are present, ■ with the organic, in the seeds of the cereals, namely, soda and potash, * Dr. Scoffern. M 2 324 THE gardener's and farmer's "The gaudy tulip, that displays - Her spreading foliage to the gaze ; That points her charms at all she sees, And yields to every wanton hreeze."— E, Moohe. magneBia and lime, iron and chlorine, phosphorus and sulphuric acids, &c. The phosphates of the alkalies and earths predominate amongst the salts, and magnesia among the earths.* 1134. Wheat contains the greatest quantity of gluten, and the smallest of starch ; rye a medium proportion of hoth ; while in rice and barley, in oats and maize, the largest proportion of starch, and the smallest of gluten, are to be found. Maize is remarkable for its considerable proportion of fattening matter. In the external covering of all kinds of grain there are contained much more gluten and fat than in the interior. Peeled rice and pearled barley have, therefore, lost a great deal of their nutritiveness ; and bread containing the bran is much more nourishing than that prepared from sifted flour ; but the power is rendered, by the hard cellular tissue which it contains, much more difficult of digestion than the latter.* 1135. Why is the system of " chaff aitting " beneficial? Because the food is more easily and perfectly masticated ; but chiefly because it prevents waste, and admits of different qualities — as of hay and straw, or straw and green forage — being so mixed that animals cannot pich out the one from amongst the other, but must eat the mixture as it is presented to them. Such cut fodder also forms an excellent vehicle in which to give meal or bruised grain, either cooked or raw, to live stock.f 1136. Why is green clover letter food than the My that is made for it f Because, in the process of drying, many of its vegetable particles are so hardened that the digestive organs have no longer any power to act upon them.| 1137. Why does steaming clover-hay improve its feeding qualities ? Because it softens the hardened particles, and, conse- • Dr. Scoffem. t Encylopajdia Britannica. t Dr. Spregnel. EEASON WHY. 325 " Aa from eacli barn the lumping flail rebounds In mingling concert with the i*ural sounds i While o'er the distant fields more faintly creep ^ The murmuring bleatings of unfolding sheep."— Claee. quently, there is a less quantity of sucli food required than of the dry.* 1138. If. has always been an agreeable thought to me, that the improvement of farming tends greatly to increase the comfort of all the animals usually found on a farm. Under the old system tliere ■was, and still is, where it lingers, a great deal of unreflecting cruelty. The sheep, when kept for wool only, is even yet, on some of oilr moor- lands, left to its fate in the winter, and not uncommonly dies of starvation. By the improved system, the farmer is taught to Tteep his animals in a thriving state steadily from their birth. Even horses, though not meant to be eaten, should not be stinted of food. Railway contractors hardly measure their horses' oats, and two well-fed horses can do as much work or more, for the same provender, which, on the old system, enabled three horses barely to crawl. We have now learnt that for our own interest, every animal on a farm should live well, and that a hard steek-master is a bad farmer.f 1139. Why should not calves he fed exclusively or chiefly upon turnip tops ? Because tops in their cleanest state are apt to produce looseness in the hoiuels, partly from the sudden change of food from grass to a very succulent vegetable, and partly from the dirty, wetted, or frosty state in which they ace-, usually given to beasts. 1140. Many farmers entertain the idea that tops make good feeding - for young beasts or calves at the beginning of the season — not from, the knowledge that the tops contain a larger proportion of bone- - producing matter than the bulbs, as chemical analysis shows, but , from a desire to keep the turnips for the larger beasts, and to rear the young ones in any way ; but the notion is a mistaken one, as may • easily be proved by giving one lot of calves turnip-tops and another - lot bulbs without tops, when the latter will present a superiority m. Su short time, both in bone and flesh. No doubt the large quautity- of watery juice the tops contain makes the young cattle devour them with eagerness on coming off a bare pasture, and indeed any cattl^ » Dr. Sprcgnel. t Mr, Pus^y, 326 THE gaedbnee's and faemee's "Indulged throngh every field by turns to range, And taste them all in one continual change, For though luxuriant their gr'aasy food. Sheep long confined but loathe the present good." — Bloosifield. ■will eat the tops before the turnips, when both are presented together; but observation and experience confirms me in the opinion that the time of cattle in consuming turnip-tops is worse than thrown away. The looseness never fails to bnng down their condition in so considerable a degree that part of the 'Winter passes away before they entirely recover. A few tops may be given to young cattle along with straw. The tops are not thrown away when spread upon the ground, as' they serve to manure it. Sheep are not so easily injured by them as cattle, on account of their costive habit.* 1141. Improvement of sheep feeding. — The increased use of artificial manures and bought food — the general introduction of the turnip cutter — a greater economy of straw, and its conversion into rich dung — will gradually change the present system of breeding sheep into that of feeding out their prodiice also, thereby increasing the annual return from stock, and, by the consumption of better food, adding fertility to the com land. Folding, as a system, will probably be superseded by attention being devoted to the feeding of the flocTl as the PRINCIPAL object, the enhiching op the land following as a matter of course, but not forming, as heretofore, an object paramount to the welfare of the stock. It may, then, be found that to enrich the soil by wasting the substance and injuring the constitution of the sheep in driving them to and fro, and confining them in a crowded fold, is a more expensive and less effectual plan than the direct application of those manures and food, which science and commerce have placed within the reach of the modern farmer.^; 1142. What are the causes of shyness in horses? Shyness is often the result of cowardice, playfulness, or want of worlc ; but it is at other times, and frequently, the consequence of defective sight.% 1143. Punishment by blows will very seldom cure vicious habits originating in fear. All startings and fears are only increased by them, for the horse in these cases, * H. Stephen's " Book of the Farm." t Caird's " English Agriculture." t Youatt "On the Horse." REASON TVIIY. , 327 "i'irst, with assiduous care, from winter keep Well-foddered in the stalls, thy tender sheep; Then spread with straw, the hedding of thy fold ; With fern beneath, to fend the bitter cold."— Dkyden. associates the dread of two evils instead of one : the consequence of which is, that his resistance is doubled.* 1144. What is the cause of "roaring" in horses? It arises from a disproportion between the size of the horse's chest, and the passages which convey air thereto. So that when the animal is pressed by exercise to breathe rapidly, the air, rushing violently through a tube of too small proportions, makes a loud grunting sound. The obstruction, either local or general, in the respiratory canal, may exist in the larynx, the cartilaginous box occupied by the mechanism of the voice, or it may be in the windpipe lower down. 1145. The system of tight-reining is, in many cases, u cause of roaring. It forces the lower jaw on the neck; the larynx, and the portion of the windpipe immediately beneath it, become flattened, and the respiratory passage not only obstructed, but in a manner closed. The mischief is usually done when the horse is young. It is effected in some measure by the impatience of the animal, unused to control, and suffering pain. In the violent tossing of his head he bruises the larynx, and produces inflammation. The injury is materially increased if the head is not naturally well set on, or the neck is thick, or the jaws narrow.f 1146. Why is the condition of the base of the horn frequently indicative of the state of health of the animal ? Because the base rests upon a bone full of blood-vessels, from which the horn grows. At the junction, the horn is very thin ; and, resting upon so vascular a part as the ■ "flint," as the bone is called, the state of the blood is easily ascertained by examining it ; when the horn feels cold, it indicates congestion in some particular part, consequent upon inflammation. * Blaine's " Rural Sports." t Touatt. 328 THE gardener's and FAEiTEK's '* And now, in lowing train, Were seen slow-pacing westward o'er tlie vale The milky mothers, foot pursuing foot. And nodding as they move." — Mallet. 1147. Why have some animals varied less than others under domestication ? It is probable that some animals have a less degree of tendency to variation than others. But the I'arity or absence of distinct breeds of the cat, the donkey, the peacock, goose, &c., may be attributed in main part to selection not having been brought into play : in cats, from the difficulty in pairing them ; in donkeys, from only c. few being kept by poor people, and little attention paid to their breeding ; in peacocks, from not being very easily reared, and a large stock not kept ; in geese, from bei?ig valuable only for two purposes, food and feathers, and more especially from no pleasure having been felt in the display of distinct breeds. 1148. In the domestic duck, the bones of the wing weigh less, and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bodies in the wild duck ; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, and walking more, than its wild parent. The great and inherited development of the udders in coivs and goats in countries tohere they are habitually milked, in comparison with the state of these organs in other countries, 15 another instance of the effect of use. Not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears ; and the view suggested by some authors, that the drooping is due to the disuse of the muscles of the ear, from the animals not being much alarmed by danger, seems probable.* 1149. When we compare the dray-horse and the race-horse, the dromedary and the camel, the various breeds of sheep iitted for either cultivated land or mountain pasture, with the wool of one breed good for one purpose, and that of another breed good for another purpose ; when we compare the many breeds of dogs, each good for man in very different ways ; when we compare the gam^-cock, so pertinacious in battle, with other breeds so little quarrelsome, with " everlasting layers " which never desire to sit, and with the bantam, so small * Dari^in'a "Origin of Species." REASON WHY. 329 " Again the bustling maiden seelis Her cleanly pajl, and eager now, Rivals the morn with rosy cheeks, And hastens off to milk her cow."— Clahe, and elegant; when we compare the host of agricultural, culinary, orchard, and flower-garden races of plants, most useful to man at different seasons of the year, and for different purposes, or so beautiful in his eyes, we must, I think, look further than to mere variability. We cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfcsct and. as useful as we now see them; indeed, in several cases, we know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power of accumulative selection : nature gives successive variations ; man adds them up in certain directions useful to him. In this sense, he may be said to multe for himself useful breeds.* 1150. It is a very surprising fact that characters should reappear after having been lost for many, perhaps for hundreds of generations. But when a breed has been crossed only once by some other breed, the offspring occasionally show a tendency to revert in character to the foreign breed for many generations — some say, for a dozen, or even a score of generations. After twelve generations, the proportion of blood, to use a common expression, of any one ancestor, is only 1 in 2048 ; and yet, as we see, it is generally believed that a tendency to reversion is retained by this very small proportion of foreign blood. In a breed which has not been crossed, but in which both parents have lost some character which their progenitor possessed, the tendency, whether strong or weak, to reproduce the lost character might be, for all that we can see to the contrary, transmitted for almost any number of generations.* 1151. A pigeon fancier is struck by a bird having a slightly shorter beak ; another fancier is struck by a pigeon having a rather longer beak ; and on the acknowledged principle that " fanciers do not and will not admire a medium standard, but like extremes," they both go on (as has actually occurred with tumbler pigeons), choosing and breeding from birds with longer and longer beaks, or with shorter and shorter beaks. 1152. Again, we may suppose that at an earlier period one man preferred swifter horses; another stroriger and more bulky horses. The early differences would be very slight; in the course of time, from the continued selection of swifter horses by some breeders, and of stronger ones by others, the differences would become greater. 330 THE gaedenee's a,nd faemek's season why. " Here might a sinner hnmbly kneel and pray. With this bright sky, this lovely scene in view, And ivorship Him who guardeth us alway! — Who hmig these lands -with green, this sky mth hlue."— T. Miller. and would be noted as forming two sub-breeds; finally, after the lapse of centuries, the sub-breeds would become converted into two well-established and distinct breeds. As the differences solely become greater, the inferior animals with intermediate characters, being neither very swift nor very strong, will have been neglected, and win have tended to disappear.* 1153. Not in one case out of a hundred can we pretend to assign any reason why this or that part differs, more or less, from the same part in the parents. But whenever we have the means of instituting a comparison, the same laws appear to have acted in producing the lesser differences between varieties of the same species, and the greater differences between species of the same genus. The external conditions of life, qs climate, food, &c., seem to have induced some slight modifications. HaUt in producing constitutional difietences, and use in strengthening, and disuse in weakening and diminishing organs, seem to have been more potent in their effects. * * When one part is largely developed, perhaps it tends to draw nourish- ment from the adjoining parts. * * Whatever the cause may be of each slight, difference in the off'spring from their parents — and a cause for each must exist — it is the steady accumulation of such differences, when beneficial to the individual, which gives rise to all the more important Modifications of structure.* * Darv-Tn. THE END. Snmfleld & Jones, Printers, West Harding Street, Fetter Lane. Just Published, price One Shilling, Stitched, THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE, BEING THE AGRICULTURAL SECTION OF PHILP'S "HISTORY OF PROGEESS IN GREAT BRITAIN," PUBLISHED SEPARATELY, FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF AGRICULTURAL READERS. " AND HE GATE IT FOR HIS OPINIOST, THAT WHOEVEH WOULD MAKE TWO EARS OF CORN, OR TWO BLADES OF GRASS, TO GROW UPON A SPOT OF GROUND WHERE ONLY ONE GREW BEFORE, WOULD DESERVE BETTER OF MANKIND, AND DO MORE ESSENTIAL SERVICE TO HIS COUNTRY, THAN THE WHOLE RACE OP POLITICIANS PUT TOGETHER." — SWIFT. CONTENTS. Early History of British Agrculture — Plants and Fruits Native to Great Britain — Fltzherbert's "Boke of Husbandry," in 1534 — Description of a Farm of the Sixteenth Century — Martin Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562 — Goodge's "Booke of Husbandry," 1577 — Sir Hugh Piatt's Principles of Husbandry in 1594 — The Ancient "Universal Salt" Theory — Gabriel Platte's Writings on Husbandry, in 1594 — Improvements in the reign of Queen Elizabeth — First Suggestion of the System of Drilling — Gervase Markman's Writings on Husbandry — Ancient Cures for Diseases of Cattle — Improved Methods suggested by Mr. Samuel Hartlib — Introduction of the Process of Steeping Corn — Commencement of Gardening; Prejudices against it — Walter Blith's "Survey of Husbandry" — The Theory of Mercurial Spirit and Sulphur ^ — First Drilling Machine — Dr. Grew's Anatomy of Plants — The Original Plough — Practice of Ploughing by the Horse's Tail — Act of Parliament for the Suppression thereof; also, against Plucking Wool from Sheep • — Early Draining Operations — Unenclosed Lands — Dreadful State of Public Roads — Arthur Young's Surveys — Fltzherbert's Writings — Jethro Tull's System of Horse-hoeing Husbandry — Formation of Agricultural Societies — The Board of Agriculture — Improvement of Agricultural Implements — Prejudices against Improvements — Sir Humphry Davy's Suggestion of Agricultural Chemistry — Liebig's Extension of Davy's Views — Societies for the Improvement of Live Stock-7-Discovery of Guano— Its Influence — Bones, Coprolites, &c. — Improved Rotations of Crops — Wonderful Results of Agricultural Improvements, &c., &c. LONDON: HOULSTON AND WRIGHT, 65, PATERNOSTER ROW. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION IN JULT, 1860, Yery highly Illustrated, price 3s. Qd., THE BOTAOTCAL & HOETICULTURAL REASON WHY. by the author of The " Gardener's and Farmer's Reason Why." " A thinliing man, when he knotos that u. thing happens, and HOW it happens, will always enquire vhy it is thus AXD NOT otherwise." The "Botanical and Horticultural Reason Why" will be an intensely interesting work, explaining the uses and adaptations of all the forms and parts of Plants, exhibiting the curiosities of their structure, and illustrating the physiological laws of their growth. It will show how they have been, and may be varied and improved by cultivation, and will endeavour to interpret the great design of the Creator as well in the majestic Cedar as the lowly Daisy. LONDON : HOULSTON AND WRIGHT, 65, Paternoster Row.