M\ L I 9Z IPlfitt o«n.ai ^924 031 276 557 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY arV 16192 J ^.J /jy COMPRRATIVE STUDY GERMnN. WM. W. VALENTINE. r The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031276557 •^^^ t^G^-^-fl^^^^hr^lL^Uti:^, COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. He who can see in modern languages nothing but corruption and anomaly, understands but little of the nature of language. Max MulIiEB, (^Science of Language.) Das Kennenlemen einer fremden Sprache erhoht und scharft noth- wendig auch das Bewusstsein iiber die elgene Sprache. Hezse, {System der Sprachioiesenschaft.) errata: Page 6, line 12 from the bottom, for : for its sound, read : for the sound of long a. Page 28, line 16 from the bottom, for : Feminines with ta>neless i, ancient en, read : Feminines with the weak sing. en. Page 28, line 14 from the bottom, for : Composition, read : Compo- sition, etc. Page 29, line 13 from the top, for: nachtes, etc., read: nachtes; Goth, nahls, etc. Page 36, line 11 from the top, for : the earlitr, read : the earlier connective. Page 41, line 6 from the bottom, read: limiting adverb, etc. Page 43, line 11 from the top, read : together in: Page 47, line 11 from the top, for: Comparative Forms, read: Superlative. Page 50, line 3 from the bottom, for : some one, read: some one, etc. Page 51, line 5 from the top for : coalesce, read : combine. Page 51, line 11 from the top, for : the substantives of the coalesceni forms, read : the substantives of these forms. ^ Pa^e 54, line 8 from the top, read : {cin or Werben. Page 57, line 4 from the top, read : I did not find it again until to-day. Page 66, line 17, read : the'pugdog had now disappeared. ISPECIMEN FAGES.I COMPARATIYE STUDY OF THE New High German Language, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. BT WM. W. YALENTINE, OF BICHUOND, VIRGINIA. Formerly Prof, of Modem Zanguagea at Bandolph-Macon College, Virginia. Die OffeDbaruDgen der Sprache Bind una ebeneo UberraBchend wie die Offenbarangen der Felsen. THE AUTHOR. ;*' 4 * CORNEUX ^"' .1 university] \LfBRARV,y Copyright, 1884, By Wm. W. Valentine. Or\y\/ ^0 PRINTED HY CARL H. HEINTZEMANN, 50 SCHOOL ST., BOSTON. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PKEFACE. INTEODUCTION. A. The Word ( Wortlehre) , containing : Phonology {Lautlehre) and Morphology (Formenlehre) ; B. Syntax (Salzlehre) ; C. Word and Clause Arrange- ment ( Wort- und Satzstellung) ; D. Punctuation {Inter- punktion) . Phonology contains : The Letters (Pronunciation and Orthography) ; The Syllables (Syllabic Division, Accentuation, and Rhythm). The Doctrine of Forms, or Morphology, contains : Eoots, Stems (bases, themes) and their forms ; Inflec- tion (Declension and Conjugation, the Uninflectionals) ; Derivation and Composition ; Other Formations. Syntax contains: Introduction ; The Simple Sentence ; The Compound Sentence or Coordination ; The Complex Sentence or Subordination ; Clause Abridgment ; Figures of Syntax, etc. . . . (3) FROM REPORT ON METHODS OP INSTEUCTION IN THE MODEEN LANGUAGES. READ BEFORE THE EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF VIRGINIA, JULY, 1877. Bt PROF. WM. W. VALENTINE, OP BICHMOND, VIBQINIA. [See Educational Jommal of Virginia for January, 1878.] In no branch of education have the best means of culture been more neglected than in that of the modem languages In spite of the apathy in this direction, it is pleasing and encouraging, how- ever, to aU Who aim at the accomplishment of the best purposes of education, to know that there are some at least who have been awakened to a true appreciation of these interesting vehicles of modem thought — of a civilization, which is, to a large exent, the outgrowth of Christianity, and which on this account is of higher import to us than any ever conceived in the brain or heart of Greek or Roman This is due in no ordinary degree to the influence of the labors of such men as Maetzner (in French and English), Westphal, Grimm, Koch, Curtius, Schleicher, MuUer, Morris, Skeat, Whitney, Hoffmann, Marsh, Kehrein, March, Littr^, Chavfe and others The modem languages are valuable on account of their means of intellectual training. The proper application of these means is shown not only in the exercise of the memory, but in the sharpening of the powers of observation and comparison, in the stimulation of the faculties of the mind in the direction of discovery, in careful analysis PREPATOBY. and synthesis. In the modem languages, it is true, occur no such intricate phonetic and inflectional systems as in Sanskrit, Greek or Latin. The later systems, however, should be compared -with those of the older languages, the losses.sustained by the; former, as well as the shifts they have made to supply such losses, properly discussed. .... One has but to attempt a faithful analysis of French, German or English, in order to learn how they are teeming with attractive syntactical phenomena, inany of which are as valuable for purposes of culture as are revealed by a careful study of Greek or Latin. What a treasure we have in our marvelous English ^syntax, and yet how poorly its means of discipline have been applied I . . . . Max Mueller (Science of Language) says : " He who can see in modern languages nothing, but corruption or anomaly, understands but little of the nature of language." .... The modern languages afford important and- interesting starting- points in the study, of the Science of Language They furnish us often with surer, more reliable data in carrying out the comparative method. We are more strongly attached to them because "they have to do with owr surroundings, .... and because they are the vehicles of those who ^ve direction to thought in our day. ... - In teaching the modern languages in schools, too much stress can not be laid upon oral.instpuctionj -. i . . for it must not be^forgotten that these lan- guages are living, moving,- and addressed also to the eye and ear. They -should be taught by comparison.- - The phenomena of the foreign language should be compared with those of the mother-tongue; which process ^11 be found available with all intelligent pupils. . . . '. With^"egaTd to siethods of instruction in colleges- ami universities, it may be stated, that there is among educators so little "harmdny,- so littIe>of the spirit ^f coSperation-^ grades of in^tfttction are so un- settled, their- working so-liable-to disturbance from the' want of proper preparation' on "the part of applicants for admi^Orf; that the establish- ment of anything peirmanent must necessarily bea gi^dual process. In the cellege Some pi-omineiice -migh^ be givien to the 'compaiatrve PREFATORY. V method with proper text-books. The pupils, besides translating from and into German and French, might also be instructed by ... . occasional lectures, on the history of each language, .... and of the people who speak it As for uniyersities, it may be said that most of them are doing but. \ little more than; what is properly college work » , The comparative Imethod should here receive special attention, including not only Aryan but also other forms of speech WJiat should be the method for one who wishes to study abroad? He sSiould, besides acquiring a proper knowledge of the grammar of the f cireign language, allow himself, for at least two or more years, all the practice possible in reading, writing, and speaking it. Having done this, he carries with him a ground-work which will render his visit both instructive and agreeable. Most people hold grammars in ab- horrence These much abused books, however, when properly written, are valuable auxiliaries iji, the acquisition of language GrDod grammars are codes of laws founded on such usage as exists- with the best writers and speakers of the language. In each of these codes the laws should be properly classified, in. order to be readily learned, and they can not be readily learned unless so classified. . . . Bacon says: "He that travelleth into a country before he hath some- entrance into the language, goeth to school and not to travel.'' . . . " AVhat is . here sulHuitted is but a small part tjf what was originally- prepared on this interesting theme." ..... From " The Academy," London, TEngland, Feb., 187§. " The Educational Journal ^/Virginia, for January. 1878,. contains^ an interesting article by Prof . Valentine, of Richmond, on 'Instruction; in Modern Languages.' "He beginsVwith a coraplaiiit, notouiknQwn; im England, that most of the grammars examined,- -as wellas the notes* Vi PREFATORY. attached to the Readers and Plays, are sadly wanting in proper grammatical analysis and a true philosophical treatment He then passes to some more general considerations, and calls attention both to the importance of Modem Languages from the comparative study of language,, and to the value of French and German syntax as an intellectual exercise, especially if treated historically. . . . ." From "The MrRROR or Literatuke,*' Lokdon, Eng., 1878. "In this year's initial number of the Educational Journal of Vir- ginia, Professor Wm. W. Valentine has a noteworthy paper on the present 'Methods of Instruction in Modem Languages.' He com- plains that in the United States — and a considerable portion of his iremarks apply with equal force to this country — the best means of oulture are more neglected in teaching Modem Languages than in any *ther branch of education. In an extremely valuable, comprehensive, •.and suggestive ' Report,' Prof. Valentine points out all the faults and ifallacies of the present system in America, and having done that, rshows how a scientific and yet simple scheme might easily be intro^ duced into schools and colleges, were professional bodies only aroused ifrom their present wonderful state of apathy. We can not find space iliere to analyze his reasoning, but trust he will reproduce his paper in Ibook-form, so that it may be made accessible to all." The above from the "Report" is offered as prefatory to what is to 'follow from the MS., Upon which is based the work now in course of •preparation, the publication of which will be followed by that of an i^xercise book for translation from English into German, and of a 6rtev, sepa- rated or disconnected words (licnce 2B6vtevbud), dictionary) ; fc^Iec^t, bad, low, common, and fi)lic^t, even, simple, smooth, artless, etc., which are both from O. H. G. and M. H. G. sWit, smooth, simple, even, friendly, etc. ; Eng. through and thor- ough ; priest and presbyter (Gr. Trpvr^vTepo's, elder) ; or the difference may be orthographic, as : ber duell (more poetic) and bie Quefle, the spring, source ; Slt^cm, O. H. G. dtum, M. H. G. S,tem, and Dbeiu (Luther, provin. and poetic) , breath ; A. Sax. ascian and d^csian ; M. E. d.sken, axien ; Eng. ask and ax (provin.) (see Metathesis ) ; Goth, hairto ; O. H. G. herza ; M. H. G. herze ; N. H. G. §ev^ ; Eng. heart. The Genesis and Forms of Words, with examples from the earliest Aryan Speech, etc. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GEKMAN. 17 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. INFLECTION. The Method and Elements of Inflection explained, with ex- amples from earlier fonns, Sanskrit, etc., etc. . . . Inflection should be studied in connection with Syntax, where the phenomena of the former are fully developed. DECLENSION. The New High German Method and elements explained by comparison with earlier Teutonic and other forms of Aryan speech THE ARTICLES. OKIGIN AND DECLENSION. The Def. Article contracted with prepositions, with examples of the usual forms in polite language. The contraction with Def. Article was formerly more fre- quent in the literary language than now. Others than those usually given occui-, and mostly in folk-speech, folk-poetry, the ballad (Wieland, Biirger, etc.), and in humorous and serio- comic style : aufm ©^log (Goethe), at the castle ; {(intenn §aufe, behind the house, etc., etc. Comp. the frequent contraction in M. H. G. of the demonst. pronoun der with the foregoing or following word : ans for dii des, without that ; ane'z gras (Parz.), on the grass ; Affen Uppich Jcniete sie (Parziv. 4, 411.), she knelt on the tapestry (coverlet) ; ann for an dem, on the (that), etc., etc. Comp. Fr. : du for de le, of the; au for d,le, to the, etc., etc. 18 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GEKMAN. THE INDEFINITE AKTICLE. THE NOUN-SUBSTANTIVE, or SUBSTANTIVE, • •■•>■>• GENDER WITH THE NOUN-SUBSTANTIVE. The distinction between the object and the word (noun-sub- stantive) naming the object must be observed. Sex, a term applied for the most part to man and the lower animals (see below ) , must not be confounded with gender, from the Lat. genus ; Gr. yeVos ; Sansk. g'anus ; Goth, kunl, class, kind, soii, which is a grammatical term or device, applied only to words, and not to the objects they name. Ancient grammarians (Quintilian and Varro) apply the term genus not only to noun- substantives, but also to verbs (active, passive, etc.), which has been continued by later grammarians. Masculine and fem- inine were applied originally to sex only, and then became grammatical terms for gender. Aryan speech shows that sex distinction was clearly understood in the beginning. The Ger- man word ®efd)(e(i)t meant originally stock, descent, family, kind, class ; O. H. G. geslate, kislahte (comp. ©d)Iag in SJieu^ f(^enfd)ta9, stamp, race of men), but was extended later to sex. S)a8 ®efd)te^tgtt:ort (also ber Slvttfel), the Article, is the gender- defining word The natural distinctions expressed by sex, grammarians call, for the sake of convenience, natural gender;" the distinctions expressed by grammatical rules, grammatical gender. In spite, however, of the rules there was afterwards naturally much fluctuation, and especially at later periods when terminational decay set in. Then came in the mere external analogy of the word, which gradually became a determining principle for gen- der. In languages of secondary formation the original basis of gender is forgotten. Sanskrit has three genders which are indicated in the stem, and the inflectional changes COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. 19 The method of expressing gender by wholly different words, as with man, woman ; boy, girl ; man-servant, maid-servant, etc., does not come under gender as it was originally under- stood New High German, like all the Teutonic languages, shows three genders, the masc., fem., and neut. The gender in ear- lier Teutonic was recognized hy the form and inflection of the word. In New High German, phonetic decay has caused much fluctuation and confusion ; hence the need of the Article (bnS ®efc^ted)t6>Dort), and the conjunctive demonstrative pronoim, in order to recognize the gender of the noun-substantive : ber 2JJann, the man ; bie grau, the woman ; ber %i\i), the table ; bte gebev, the pen ; ba§ §au§, the house ; eine Uf|v, a watch ; jener @tul)(, that chair; biefev $unb, this dog, etc., etc. Many sub- stantives have in New High German no longer the same gender they had in O. H. G. With some substantives (see Homo- graphs, below ) the gender differs with the signification. Comp. bei- SBanb, the volume, and baS 33anb, the riband ; ber ©ce, the lake, and bie (See, the sea. This device was unknown in Old High German. Some substantives have changed their gender, and been made to conform, as with foreign words. The Latin names of rivers, for example, have become feminine in New High German, i. e. made to conform with bte SSefer, the "Weser ; bie Elk, the Elbe ; bte ®m«, the Ems, etc. Such are : bie Siber, the Tiber ; bte SR^one, the Rhone, etc. ®er SRtjein, the Rhine (Lat. Rhenus) , has remained masculine. Many ancient masculines became feminines : bie ©d^Iaitge, the snake ; ' bte ©d^nede, the snail ; bte ®(I)nepfe, the snipe ; bie SStume, the flower. Some masculines became feminines or neu- ters ; some neuters became feminines The masculine was attributed to the strong, influential, pow- erful, defiant, haughty, bold ; the feminine to the mild, gentle, tender, quieter objects ; the neuter to the indefinite, unknown, undeveloped, general or universal, and hence found with many collectives, and the young of living beings : baS Santm, the 20 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. lamb; baS ^inb, the child ; bag ^at6, the calf ; ^^u^n, chicken, etc. (See .) Some substantives have a double form, as Ouett (masc.) and OueKe (fem.), spring, source, etc. With de- rivatives, form prevailed, as with the feminines in ei, ^eit, fctt, etc. (see Grammatical Gender, below ), and with the neuters m d)tn and Icin (see below ). Relics of gender are found with the demonstrative bag, that (Goth, fa-ta ; Lat. is.-tu-d ; Sansk. tit), the interrogative toaS, what, etc. Many substantives still fluctuate (see incerta, below ). This is especially apparent in comparing the literary language of N. H. G. with the dialects of Germany and with folk-speech. Grammatical gender in N. H. G. can be learned only by prac- tice in reading, writing, and speaking. The German begins to learn it in the cradle as the Roman did the grammatical gender in Latin. With the substantive the English language has de- stroyed all formal grammatical gender By this uni- formity, however, it has gained logically and intellectually. In English, sex determines class distinction for the most part. The attribution of sex to sexless objects occurs only with folk- speech, the poet, and in figurative language. In German an object of the male or female sex may be repre- sented by a noun-substantive of the neuter gender: bo8 ^tnb, the child (male and female) ; S3ie^, cattle ; SDtabc^en, girl, etc. ; or the names of sexless objects (material or abstract) may be masc. or fem. : ber SD^ul^, courage ; ber Sifd), the table ; bie Stiitte, the ink; bie Stebe, love, etc. The names. of the stronger and larger animals are masc, as a rule; the names of the smaller and weaker are mostly fem. Many . of the foreign names applied to foreign animals are neut. : baS Sanieet, the camel, etc. Exceptions are : ber Slep^attt, the elephant, etc. The names of large birds and birds of prey are masc. ; those of singing birds mostly fem. The gender of the names of am- phibious animals fluctuates, while the names of small insects are mostly fem. (See Epicenes, below .) COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 6EEMAN. 21 Common Substantives are divided according to gender into : 1) sucli as name objects with sex ; and 2) such as represent objects without sex. COMMON NAMES OF OBJECTS WITH A SEX DISTINCTION. These are either masc. or fern. : ber iKann, the man ; bte jjrou, the woman, etc., etc., etc Exceptions : bo8 SBetb, the woman, wife, etc., etc SPECIAL CLASSIFICATION Of Substantives which name Objects with Sex. The distinction here is expressed : 1) By independent words from special and distinct roots (heteroradieal forms): 9)Jaiin, man; jjrait, woman, etc., etc., etc. (Lat. vir, femina.) 2) By means of derivation either inner or outer (suffix) (see Derivation ). Such are the substantives of motion (siib- stantiva mobilia) . Many take the Umlaut in the change. The feminines are formed from the masculines, as a rule, and most- ly by means of the suffix in. Masculines in e drop this vowel in the fem. (see ) : (Sfel, jackass, Sfelin, she-ass; Jijitie, lion, ?otDtii, lioness, etc., etc. Comp. A. Sax. manna, male-servant, mennen, female-servant; A. Sax. /oa;, ^u^S (O. H. G. vw/is), male-fox, fj/xen, female-fox (Eng. vixen), N. H. G. gucf)fin, M. H. G. villmnne jDer Soufin, the male cousin, bie Souftnt, the female cousin, are respectively from the Fr. cousin, cousine The only exception is bev ©eutf^e, the German, which has for the fem. bie ©eutf^e, the German woman or lady. Masculines from feminines are : S^aubev, cock-pigeon, from Joufee, hen'pigeon; SBittmev, widower, from 2Bttt«3e, widow, etc. 3) By means of obscure or forgotten composition : (^anfevt^ (also ©onfer), gander, from ©atiS, goose ; (Sntcrid^, drake, from 22 COMPAKATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. (Siite, duck (see Composition : ^ricf) = ^errf^cr) j SBvfiuttflam (Goth, bruffafs = SSorgefe^ter ber 33raut), bridegroom (second r inorganic), A. Sax. bryd-guma, O. H. G. bi-fttigomo = S8raut= monn (Goth, guma, O. H. G. gomo = ajiann, homo). (See ), etc., etc. 4) By inverted composition in which the second element limits the first : §tifc[)6ocf, stag (hart), ^irfd^fu^ (also bte §tiibtu), hind (roe) ; ^cbva^eitgft, male zebra, ^sbvaflute, female zebra. Thus also with 5!J?amtd)en and aSeibd^en : bag Saiibeiiniann^eii, the cock-pigeon, baS S^aubenmet6d)en, the hen-pigeon, etc., etc. Comp. Thibetan : ra pho, he-goat, ra ma, she-goat. SJJdnnd^en and SSeibdjen may be separated either with the genitive or with tjon and the dative : baS ajJann^en etneg Slbferg, or con bent Slblev, the male eagle, etc., etc. The feminine is also expressed in elevated prose, in poetry, and in folk-speech by 3)iuttev (prepositive or postpositive) : i^ §irfc^muttei- or aJJutter^ivfc^, the hind, etc., etc. Comp. A. Sax. be6-m6dor, bee-mother, queen-bee. Noun-substantives may have one form and one grammatical gender for both sexes (Epicene Substantives). Masculine epicenes are: ®afl, guest; Stebting, favorite, etc., etc. Comp. Lat. anser, coi-vus ; Gr. o A.vkos. Feminine epicenes are : bte S33aife, the orphan ; bte ©c^toalbe, the swallow, etc. Comp. A. Sax. masc. olfend, camel ; bera, bear ; fem. mits, mouse etc. In some English dialects everything is called he. Gender may be expressed by an attributive adjective with epicenes to give greater definiteness : ber mfinnltd^e &tpiiant, the male elephant ; ber toeibltd^e (Sle^j^ont, the female elephant, etc. This is a very common mode in N. H. G. Comp. Gr. 6j?A.«o fXaoi (Find.) ; apcrrjv (later apprjv, see Assimilation) ; 6ri\eia linro'i (Homer Od.), etc. Lat. mas and femina: anser mas, anser femina, etc., etc. A. Sax. shows an attributive substan- tive : man-esne, man-servant ; cw6n-fugol, female bird (comp. Eng. queen-bee, German iBtenenlBntgtn) ; man-cUd, man-child, maeden-cild, girl-child ; knave-child (Chaucer). Comp. Chinese : COMPARATIVE STUDY OP GERMAN. 23 nan, male, masc, and nin, female, fern., from which are: nan tse = son ; nin tse = daughter. Substantives with a double gender (communia) do not occur in German. Such are in English friend, neighbor, etc. Comp. Lat. civis, artifex, etc. These are expressed in German by substantives of motion (see above) : 9?ad)bav, male neighbor ; 9?od)baiiii, female neighbor ; 93iiv,qer, male citizen ; Siivflevin, female citizen ; ber ^iinftlev, the artist, artisan ; bie Siinftlevin, the female artist, etc. In Schiller's SKaria ; bte ^nmutl^, grace ; :;Denuit^, humility j 'JDuib-- imtij, patience, or spirit of patience or toleration; (Sinmut^, unanimity, concord (usually ginmittjjtgtcit); ®xo^rcmtf), magna- nimity ; Jangmuti), forbearance, longsufEering ; ©anftmut^, gen- tleness, meekness ; ©^luermut^, melancholy, dejection ; 2Be^= niut^, sadness, sorrowfulness, wofulness. All the others, except the few that fluctuate, are masculine. Of about sixty the fol- lowing are the most usual masculines : bev (Sbetiitut^, generosity, magnanimity ; ^ro^mut^, joyousness, cheerfulness ; ^elbenmutl^, heroism ; ^od^mut^, haughtiness ; SDfifemut^, ill-humor, peevish- ness, discontent, etc. ; Uebermut^, superciliousness, haughtiness, arrogance. The following fluctuate : ®tei(^mut^, equanimity, usually masc, rarely fem. ; Stnmut^ = Sufi, iBegier, 9?etgitng (now obso- lete with this meaning), strong desire or inclination, is prevail- ingly masc, but with its present meaning = grace (see above ) it is fem. ; ^tetntnutl^, pusillanimity, faintheartedness, de- spondency, is frequent both as a masc. and a fem. ; ©vo^mut^, magnanimity (see above) is generally fem., sometimes masc. ; ©tarlmut^ (= (Semiit^Sftarle), strength of soul or spirit, is masc. and fem. Some occur as strong feminines already in earlier High G-er- man : ginmutl); M. H. G-. einmuote, einmuot; S)etniit^; O. H G. deomuotl ; M. H. G. diemuote, diemuot ; Jangmut^; O. H. G. langmuott, etc. Some of the feminines in N. H. G. have arisen from the inclination to follow these. A few of the N. H. G. masculines, however, represent ancient feminines : bev §o^= ntut^; O. H. G. bie hohmuotl ; bev SKi^mut^; O. H. G. bie missi- muotl ; bev Ucbevmut^ ; O. H. G. bie ubarmuotl ; M. H. G-. bte iibermiiete. In O. H. G-. occurs also the masculine bev upar- COMPABATIVE STUDY OP GEKMAN. 25 muot, uharmuot ; M. H. Gr. ber iibermuot (A. Sax. ofer-m6d, neuter) , which is formed with mvot (SDtut^), and used, although not frequently, for the older bie uparmuotl, uharmuol^. In Gothic we find the strong masc. substantive Tiidd = ber SMut^, courage, ^orn, anger, wrath (comp. Chaucer, mpffd = wrath); Gr. ^u/ios (Luke 4: 28), opyi} (Mark 3:5), and in O. H. G. the corresponding masculine and neut. muot ; M. H. G. bev muot (A. Sax. mdd) . Gothic mdd is not found in compo- sition, and muot in 0. H. G. but rarely in composition (see above ) . In Gothic occurs also the weak feminine -m(5c?ei (r= ©eftnniinfl), m,ond, m,ind, inclination, disposition, which like the corresponding 0. H. G. feminine -muotl is found only in composition, as, Goth, lagga-mddei (Romans 9 : 22), Sangmut^, forbearance, longsuffering ; O. H. G. langmuotl ; Goth, muka- mddei (2 Corinth. 10: 1), bie ©onftmut^, gentleness, meekness. Hence all the later masculines in N. H. G. are formations withs ajtut^; Goth, mdd ; 0. H..G. and M. H. G. muot, while -muoti. has been almost forgotten. Certain Compound Substantives which are the names of in- animate objects (masc, fem., or neut.) are applied as nick-- names to persons and animals. Some of these take the gender of the Substantive which usually names such persons or ani- mals. Many fluctuate. Comp. ba8 O^v, the ear, and ber Sang» o^r (for ber @fel), the jackass; ber and had ?angbein, the long- legged man, long-shanks, and also applied to the stork (bei ®tord^) and to the hare (ber §afe); bie SBurjt, the sausage, and. ber §onStt)nrjl, the Jack Pudding. Comp. Fr. Jean Potage ;, JeanFarine; Ital. pagliaccio, etc., etc. Science extends sex to plants with reference to their fructi- fying principle : ber manntt^e ^atmenbaum, the male palm-tree ;; ber toeiblt^e ^olmenbaiini, the female palm-tree, etc., etc., etc.. Comp. Fr. desfleurs mMes, des fleurs femelles. 26 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. DECLENSION WITH SUBSTANTIVES. Simple and Compound Common Substantives. Proper Substantives. In New High German the remains of ancient Teutonic de- clension ai'e extremely scanty, and scarcely deserve the name of case-endings. The term is here used merely for convenience. As with all languages of secondary formation, we find also with N. H. G. much inflectional change and phonetic decay (see Phonetic Decay ) . Modern English, as compared with the earlier forms, i. e. O. English and A. Sax., shows in this re- gard greater losses than New High German. Our English, however, has by the change gained logically and intellectually io a degree which is marvellous • DECLENSION OF SIMPLE COMMON SUBSTANTIVES. 1) Regular ; 2) Irregular or Anomalous. REGULAR DECLENSION. Here belong most of the Common Substantives in the lan- :guage. Any arrangement, however satisfactory, is more or Jess disturbed by fluctuation in the so-called case-endings, ;chiefly in the plural, and often even with the same writer. This -occurred to some extent also in the earlier periods of High 'German (O. H. G. and M. H. G.). Hence a convenient and practical arrangement is here attempted. Ancient declension will be referred to only so far as it will aid in explaining the ?tnnen^ 33ii^er, Minna's books ; droaS SKtnnen fagen, to tell Minna something, etc. , etc. 2J}onio'§ ^tetb, mamma's dress ; in SDJomaeng §au8 (Rahel), in mamma's house ; fag' baS Meg SDfotttacn, tell all that to mamma ; and fag'S (ber) iDtoma, tell it to mamma (see dlso plural, below ), etc., etc. Feminines with toneless t, ancient en, are now rare. They occur in the dative in adverbial expressions without the article and in Composition (see ) : auf Svben, on (the) earth ; grben^ fo^a (Goethe), son of earth, mortal; ©onnenuntergang, sunset; metnev g^rauen ©^tnejler (Goethe) , my wife's sister ; — for the Virgin Mary in Siebfrauenflt^e, Church of the Virgin Mary, or of Our (dear) Lady ; and in Stebfrauernnil^, a Rhenish wine ; ifl^BIMHMHMM ; Sebete l^errtid^ unb in {^reuiiet^^Luke 16 : 19), fared sumptuously every day; 9Ktt ?Jreuben (Sinent bienen,j?j to serve one gladly, joyfully, etc., etc. In New High German the ancient weak plural with the femi- nines is retained, while with many substantives the originally strong plural has become weak. Exceptional case-endings are found with : 9Ja^t8, or beS 9?ad)te, by night ; ju 5Wa^te, bet 9?arf)te, at or by night, etc. (see below, and also Apparent Genitive) , etc COMPARATIVE STUDY OP GEKMAN. 29 The primitive Grenitive ending las, -s (Sansk., Gr.and Lat.) is found for the most part in Teutonic speech. . With High German, however, it is wanting, with the feminine. Hence the g found here with feminines is not High German, but of foreign origin, O. H. G. shows exceptionally for: naht, night (STfa^t), besides its regular genitive sing., also nahtes (Kero). Comp. M.H. G. adverbial gen. nahtes (Iw. 6577), des nahtes (Nibel. 1108), beS 9?oc^t8, at night; des vinstern nahtes lieht, light of the dark night. This is explained by the influence of other adverbial forms expressive of the portions of the day, which are all from masc. subst. : M. H. G. morgens, des morgens ; O. H. G.-des morganes ; N. H. G. SDiorgenS, in the morning, etc. O. Friesic has : nachtis, nachtes, thSs nachtes, etc. CSee also Apparent Genitive .) Defective Pormsi . Fluctuating Forms. Such forms are due to the confusion which followed the grad- ual decay of original inflectional endings,- to the shifting of substantives from one gender to another, or to a striving after conformity, etc. Declension with the Proper Names op Persons. In the beginning only Christian names occur. The name of the race or family arose for the sake of distinction. .... As in English, many family names have arisen from occupations : SWUttev, Miller ; ©c^tntbt, Smith, etc. The nobility was known later by the place of residence or origin in connection with bott, as bon^otjenborffj etc;, with the name of the place ■in. the dative. When the name of the place is wanting, Bon is meaningless, as with: 3o§ann SBoIfgang »3on Oot^e; -So^ann S^rtftop^^nebvic^ con ©fitter; etc./ Some of the older German forms of ithe names of persons have been retained in New High German, as. 30 COMPABATITE STUDY OF GERMAN. SDfinua (0. H. G. Minnd) for SKinnte (comp. 9Koite, Mary ; Goth. Mai-ia, Marja ; O. H. G. MarlA and Marjd ; eccles. Lat. and Gr. Maria and M&ria) , etc. So also, instead of the weak- ened forms Otte, SBrune, New High German has srill the older Otto, Srutio, which have successfully resisted phonetic decay. (See .).,.. Number with the Substantive. HOMOGRAPHS. There are certain substantives which have the same orthog- raphy, but which differ in signification, inflection, and gender. Homographs of the same declension (homoclitic) are : ber 33onb, the volume, bte SBanbe, the volumes ; and bag iBanb, the riband, bie Sanber, the ribands, etc. , etc. These have the same stem (homothematic). . . . Homographs which differ in declension (heteroclitic) are : jDer Siefer, the jaw (1st Declen.), bie liefer, the jaws. 35ie Siefev, the pine (2d Declen.) , bie Siefevn, the pines. ®er jE^or, the fool (2d Declen.), bie Si^oren, the fools. 3)ag S^or, the gate (1st Declen.), bie S^ore, the gates, etc., etc. These have different stems (heterothematic) , etc., etc., etc. Some of these arose from -the unconscious retention of old forms. 'Wiim^^seiimmmtm'mmmmmiKmmmiKmigltltKi^'^i^ Qiiiiwu (O l4ii«a— irtJiKil^.). Comp.: Eng. brother, plur. brothers and brethren (redundant plur.) ; Fr. ciel, plur. dels and cieux, etc. f HETEROGKAPHS. The following differ in declension (heteroclitic) : ber jtru^)^) (1st Decl.), pi. bie Sru^itien; and bte Srup^ie (3d Decl.), pi. bte Svup^jen ; bev Ouell (1st Decl.), pi. bie Quette (rare) ; bie Quelle (3d Decl.), pi. bte Ouetten (usual pi.). ®o8 Quell is obsolete; etc., etc., etc COMPABATIVE STUDY OF GEBMAN. 31 THE ADJECTIVE. Omission op Case-endings. The eg of the neut. Nom. Ace. (also Voc.) is often omitted in folk-speech, and also in poetry where it stands in connection with euphony and quantity : l^ieb ^inb ! dear child ! mein einjifj SSefen (Goethe), for ItefeeS ^tnb ! etc. This omission occurred formerly also with the masc. (see tnand^ ). A few examples are still found, as : ein gar gefa^rli^ (for gefaf|rtic^er) 9)Jann (Claudius), a very dangerous man ; eiu t^atig (for t^fitigev) 9Komi (Goethe), an active (stiiTing) man. (See also Syntax .) Here belong also : 1) foreign words of color : ba§ rofa Steib (also Stofotteib), the rose-colored dress ; beS vofa ^Ieib§, of the rose-colored dress, etc. ; 2) German adjectives of color which occur sometimes without inflection in connection with a neuter substantive without the article: auf 6Iau unb grun ^ajjier (Goethe), upon blue and green paper, etc. NUMEEALS AND PRONOUNS. 1) Definite "Numerals ; 2) Definite Pronouns ; 3) Indefinites. Here the terminology of the grammarians is both fluctuating and confusing. One hears the words pronoun and pronominal adjective, substantive pronoun, numeral pronoun, numeral ad- jective, etc., etc. Definite Numerals. • ••••'■* The Definite Pronouns. Personal Pronouns. 32 COMPABAXIVE STUDY OJE GEBMAN. Eelative Pbonouns. A relative pronoun, properly speaking, is found in none of the Teutonic languages. In Gothic the particle ei occurs as a relative suflSx with the personal or demonstrative pronoun, and thus gives them the force of relatives : ik-ei, I who ; ]>u-ei, thou who ; fuk-ei, thee whom, etc. This particle is found oftencst with the demon- strative sa, so, ]>^^ au§=, bur^^, etn»^ erbtafen, etc. COMPAKATIVE STUDY OF 6EEMAN. 37 fdlten, to fold (redupl.). Only the past participle, is pre- served in literary language, and especially as an adjective: gcfattene §onbe (Goethe), (Schiller, Robbers); etc., folded hands. Dialect, and obsolete : ev fielt, he folded-; past parti- ciple is gefalten, and gefattet (more usual), folded. Eelic of re- dupl. pret. O. H. G. id), n fialt ; Goth, f&ifalp. loffcn (better la^en, see § ), to leave, quit, etc. (Eedupl. Pi-et.) Pres. Indie, i^ laffe, bit (afet (or lafft), ev lagt (or Icifft), tDiv laffen, etc. Pret. Indie, id) (ie^, etc. Past particip. gelaffen ; Imperat. kg (taffe), etc. The M. H. G. archaic infin. Mn (con- traction and apocope) occurs in earlier N. H. G. and sometimes later : fallen tan (Uhland) , to let fall. O. H. G. lazan, Pret. Indie, id) liaz (relic of redupl.), Goth. letan, Pret. Indie, l&ilot. Compounds : ab>, an=, auf', ou§=, bur^=, ein*, enttoffen, etc. faljcn^ to salt (Redup. Pret.), is now only weak except in the past participle, where it is both strong and weak, usually the former, and is used as an adjective : gefal3(e)neS O^leifd^ (Goethe) , salted meat ; eS \\m% IQeS mit geuev gefnijen roerben unb oHe^ O^jfer hiivb mit ®at^ gefot^en (3I,ai-k 9 : 49), For every one shall be salted with fire, and every sacrifice shall be salted with salt. The c Class. effctt (better e^en), to eat (O.H. G. ezzan, ezan; Goth. itan). Pres. Indie, id) effe (cge), I eat, bu iffejt, er i§t or iffet, etc. Pret. Indie, i^ ai, I ate, bu a^eft, ev a§, etc. ; Pret. Subj. i^ ofee, etc. ; Imperat. i§ ; past partic. gegeffen, eaten, which occurs already in the 17th century for the older gefferi, ge§en ; M. H. G. gezzen (i. e. g'ezzen, ge^ezzen). The form gceffen occurs often in the 16th century, and is the proper form (Stumpf, Gessner, and others) ; from it came the contracted form geffen, as in the 38 COMPAKATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. Bible, with Goethe and others : tc^ ijabi fetn SBvot geffen, I have eaten no bread, etc. Compounds : a6=, ouf=, auS<, iibereffen, etc. The ic Class. betlteren/ to lose (Goth, fraliusan; O. H. G. farliosan). Indie. Pres. i^ toerlierc, bu toerliereft (or toevlierfi), er berttert, etc. Pret. i^ tierlor (O. H. G. ic^ farlos), etc. Pret. Subj. t^ Berlore ; past part, bevloren; Imperat. tierlier, but more usual and not good berliere (weak). (See Ehotacism.) Obsolete are: bu Uerleureft, thou dost lose; er toerleuret, he loses (Luther and others), er tieittefet, he loses, and the Subjunctive: er Berlure (Luther), etc., etc. Double Forms, or Verbs with the Weak and Strong Conjugation. Origin and PecuUarily. (See also under the Strong Verbs, above .) The "Weak Verbs, as already stated, have increased in num- ber in the course of time. Old German in comparison with New High German had more than double as many strong verbs. It was natural that by the side of the weak or new forms the older should frequently remain in use, since the li-ansition to the monotonous and apparently regular forms was gradual. We find a series of verbs whose strong forms have been entire- ly thrust out by the weak. Others have lost the strong preterit, but retained the strong past participle by the side of the weak. The strong form of the past participle shows an inclination to become an adjective. Comp. beritiorrett, confused, and tierwtrvt^ (since 17th century), confounded, perplexed (= tievlegen), etc. Other verbs have still a complete weak and strong form, with a difference, however, in signification. Verbs with a complete weak and strong form with like signification have been least affected by the transition. Those which incline to the weak COMPARATIVE STUDY OP GBKMAN. 39 conjugation are peculiar in not taking the Umlaut in the 2d and 3d persons of the sing, of the Present Indie. Verbs which have passed from weak to strong are rare (see above ) . With tteifen, to show, indicate, and |)reifen, to laud, to praise, the strong, but later forms are now quite established, while the originally weak forms are now archaic and found in the Bible, and with Luther and others, etc. Verbs with Complete "Weak and Strong Forms. The weak and strong forms maj- have : 1 ) The same signifi- cation ; or 2) a different signification. Weak and Strong Forms with about the same signification are : biitgen (originally weak) , to bargaia for ; Pret. Indie, biugte (bonfi, bunci); past part, pebinflt and more usually ciebuiiflen; Himnien (originally strong), to climb; Pret. Indie. Homm (and flimmte) ; past part, geflomraen (and geftimmt), etc., etc. Weak and Strong Forms with a different Signification. The weak form here is secondary or derived, and has on this account another signification than the original or strong. The strong forms are subjective, the weak objective with the follow- ing verbs : Derberben, to spoil (subjective) ; Pret. Indie, tierbarb (M. H. G. verdarp), past part, toetbovben (M. H. G-. verdorben) ; Imper. Beibirb (M. H. G. verdirp) ; objective (factitive) = t)er= berben moc^en; Pret. Indie, toerberbte (M. H. G. verdarpte), past part, berbirbt (M. H. G. verderbet). So with: erfdiredeu, fc^niet= gen, fd^ttJeHen, etc. The weak forms of the following contain an iterative signification : roieflen, to rock, itjog, gemogen (subjective); roiegte, getuiegt (objective) (= fdjouMn, hiiegen moc^en), etc., etc. On the contrary, the following have only accidentally the same form in the infin. : lueidien, to yield, retire (subjective), (M. H. G. wichen [strong]), \m6), gemic^eit, and toeic^en = >uetc^ 40 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. fern, >t)M^ mciben or tndd) mac^en (M. H. G-. weichen), from miH), soft, etc., which has been weak from the earliest period. So: bleic^en, to become pale (bletd^ iserben), and bleic^en, to make white, bleach, i. e. 6letd) or iret^ madjm, from bleid), white, pale, etc. • ■•••■•a The weak form has prevailed least of all with the verbs which have the past participle always strong. Thus : ^eben, to lift ; Pret. Indie, ^ob and ()ebte ; past part, ge^oben ; fdjinbcn, to flay ; f^uub, (fd^onb) and fc^inbete, gefc^unben. Some verbs, as braten, to roast, briet and bratete, gebvaten, and bacEen, to bake, bu! and badfte, gebadten, are, until the present time, so little under the influence of the weak form, that they admit the Umlaut in the 2d and 3d pers. sing. Pres. Indie, as, id) brate, bu bratft, er brat, etc. (See above, braten, and badeu .) The verbs therefore with the strong conjugation have, as the most primitive, subjective signification for the most part. The objective verbs, and especially those with the accusative (so- called transitives) , conjugate weak, as a rule. Comp. : the subjective and strong biegen (also objective), bvtngen, ertvinfen, licgen, etc., with the weak and objective (factitive) beugen, brangen, ertranfen, legett, etc. Some show by the. different infini- tive form, the derivation of the weak obj.ective from the strong subjective. Comp. : bringen and brtogen, etc., etc. THE ANOMALOUS VERBS. These verbs, which are few in number — about twentyrfive or thirty in all — require necessarily a separate treatment. So treated, they will be more easily, understood and remembered. The notion and origin of their anomalies can be explained only historically. Some show a mixture of different stems, others strong and weak inflection side by side. Here unusual structure, and the application of certain fonns of an entire COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. 41 mood and t^nse, are the most prominent phenomena. In most cases a certain defective condition is involved. The anomalies therefore rest especially : 1) upon the addition of other word- stems ; 2) upon the difficulty in recognizing inflection, which arises mainly from syncopation (see ) ; 3) upon the mixing of temporal and modal relations ; 4) upon irregular vowel change in the stem ; 5) upon the attaching of weak endings to Ablaut relations. The verbs with these anomalies are such as occur most frequently, by which the forms have become worn off and unrecognizable, while the original and literal significa- tion has become more general and abstract. Hence some of them have liecome mere auxiliary verbs (see ), etc., etc. Classification of the Anomalous Verbs, with their conjugar^ tion and history. • ..*••.■ The TJninflectionals. COMPARISON, (Adjective, Advkeb, etc.) Derivative and Periphrastic Comparison are usually treated' under Declension with the Adjective. Since both have also to do with the Adverb, they are here discussed after the Uninflec- tionals. Derivative or Suffix Comparison belongs properly to- Derivation. Although comparison is found chiefly with th& adjective and adverb, yet it occurs also with other parts of speech (see below ). Some adjectives and adverbs suffer no degrees of comparison. Three degrees are usually given : tlie; positive or absolute, the comparative and superlative. With a. limiting adverb the positive may also express comparison of equality or inequality : ^Ttefc Slumen finb frf)on, nber jene fiub n'.iBerorbetitlirf) fcf)on, these flowers are beautiful, but those arer extraordinarily beautiful= }ene finb fdiBnev ol8 btefe. Comp. :: 1)0^, jiemlid) ^oi), fe^r ifoi], and ^immelf)0^, high, pretty high,, very high, as high as heaven ; ^eKbvaim unb bunfelbvann, light; 42 COJirARATIVE STUDY OF GEEMAJf. brown and dark brown ;• f^Bn, beautlfulj and mefft oIS fd^on, more than beautiful; biefe 93 lumen finb eben fo fc^ijn tote {ene, these flowers are just as beautiful as those (see below ) ; bicfeS ^a\x9 ifi ntc^t fo ait, ai§ (mie) ienea» this house is not so old as that one (see below ) . A difference in comparison may be expressed by different adjectives : !5)tefe§ Stnb ift p6fc^, oBer ieneS ifl vetjenb (= ^6d)fl anjte^enb), this child is pretty, but that one is lovely (charming). So with: gut, good, and bortrefftid), excellent, etc. The adjective with trte^v may be omitted : 3'cf) 6tn elenb, aber er ifl cS tio^ tnc^r, I am miserable, but he is still more so, etc., etc. Comparison with Adjectives (and Participles):, Comparison is either derivative (suffix), i. e. expressed by- means of ei- (r) for the comparative, and eft (ft) for the super- lative; or periphrastic, i. e. expressed by means of the ele- ;ments (adverbs) , me^r — , more — ,. niinber — , less — , etc, A 1 quality may be added to an object either absolutelj-, i. e. with- • out comparison, or relatively, i. e. bj' comparison with one or ■more objects. Relative Degrees or grades express : • " ^ 1) Equality: btefer ®orten ift e6en fo f^ott toieberS^rige; this ^garden is just as beautiful as yours. 2) Inequality, which may express : a) superiority: eirt f^oflettS S3i[b> a more beautiful; picture • '\>ai fdjonfte 93ttb, the most beautiful picture.. b) inferiority : itieniger (or minbev) f^on, less beautiful ; nid^i fo fd^on, not so beautiful; om hjetiiflftett fdjoit or am mnbeften tfdjon, least beautiful. Comparison with Adjective includes-: 1) Observations; 2) Diagram bf Scheme of Comparison, "Derivative and Periphrastic-; ,3) Comparison of Equality ; 4) 'Comparison of Inequality; 5) Positivej Comparative, and Su-, perlative strengthened or intensified; : 6) Adjectives without (.Compamon. . . COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. 43 EeIiATION of EQOAlilTY. • ••■■••« The elements here are : cl&cn'fo — Jute,' jnst as — as ; fo-^ tote, (al8,) so — as ; as — as : ^axl tfl tben fo (or fo) fleigig, tote ^etnric^, Charles is just as (or as) , diligent as Henry. Comp. 0. E. also -^ as, as — as ; O. H. G. al^6 — als6 ; M. H. Gr. als6 — als ; als — als, which last continued in use to the 16th century. The adverb ote is now rarely used as a connective of equality, but as a connective of inequality. Usage fluctuated for some time. Eedundant form (atS tote) : -S^ 6ttt fo ftug al8 tote juBor (Goethe), I am as wise as before. Note toie and afg together : ©r tfl glet(^ flro^ otS 9J?enfrf| tote olg ^itnflter (Waldau) , he is as great as (a) man as he is as (an) artist ; with two adjectives : @i- tft eben fo gele^rt aU f'lun, he is just as learned as (he is) wise, etc. The increase or diminution may be equal or proportional and expressed by : befto — , je — beflo ; fe — Jc ; um befto, etc. For je — je is found urn — fo, urn fo, (Tieck, etc.) Old fdi-ms are : beft (Fischart) ; befle (Luther), etc., all of which' will be ex- plained by means of examples, etc.> etc. - Relation of InequaiiItt. 1) Derivative Comparison of Inequality j- 2) PeriphraBtic Comparison of Inequality. ' Derivative Gamparison of IneqvMity. Here the ^derivative elements er"(r),'fl<(efi) are sufflxfed to' the stem, and the declensional endings are suflSxed to the ele- ments of comparison : f^ir, beautiful; f^ort^eiv more beautiful; f^6n=fl-, most beautiful ? ein fd^oner .©arten,- a beautiful 'gaSrdert ; etn f(^on»er4er ©arteii/ a more beautiful garden ; 'ber fiJ)5n=fl'e'®atfe : teti, the most beautiful garden, etc. ' ' ' Derivative Comparison of Inecpiality is :• •' 1) homothematic, i. e.. occurs with the 8am€ stem : i«tt; old ; attct, older; fi(ftft«, oldest; or 2) heterothematic,! i. e^ obeurft 44 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GERMAN. with different stems (called also defective, anomalous, irregu- lar) : gut, good; beffer, better; 6eft- best; 3) redundant or pleonastic, and defective. Heterothematic comparison is ex- ceptional (see below ) Use of the Umlaut with Comparison. The use of the Umlaut is increasing, especially in folk- speech. It is often found with classical writers even when dis- allowed by the grammarian : b(o^, pale ; bldffei", paler (Goethe), etc. A. Sax. shows the Umlaut in lengre, longer. O. E. pre- serves relics of the endings dr, 6st by the side of er, est. Chaucer has lenger. Relics of Umlaiit in Eng. are elder, eldest, besides which occur older and oldest. From this double form in Eng. arose a difference in signification, which, however, is not strictly observed. Heterothematic Derivative Comparison of Inequality. Here the comparative and superlative forms are borrowed. The onlj' adjective of quality is gut, good ; comparative, beffer, better ; superlative, befl- best. Comp. Lat. bonus, melior, op- timus ; Gr. oya^os, etc. (For Diet, see below .) Homothematic comparative and superlative forms of gut occur dialeetically, and also in the literary language, in a tone of irony or mock- ery : (SWein) ©utefter ! for (SKetn) Sefter ! dear sir ! ©utejler §err Seutenant! (Holtei). The comparative gflter (Rahel) for beffer is quite unusual. The ancient adverb bci| (see ^) ; O. H. G. baz ; O. Sax. bat, bet; Goth, [bats ?] , which occurred originally for beffer, me^r, has been rejected, except with the poets and in folk-speech, where it is used as a positive for fe^r, very, much, greatly, etc., and in the compound fiirba^ (now almost obsolete), forward, further, etc. After its rejection the form beffer was used as an adjective and adverb. Comp. Lat. melior and .melius ; Fr. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 6EEMAN. 45 meilleur and mieux. Luther has 6a§ (for 60^) gcfaCen (now beffer gefaden), to please better. With the Comparative occur the connectives alS and lute, ofe mie (Goethe, etc.), benn (archaic, in elevated style, and espe- cially in the Bible) , tueber (frequent with earlier writers, at present only dialectic), etc., for Eng. than. The particle >uie usually stands with the comparison of equality, otg on the con- trary stands usually with the comparison of inequality. Sffiie for atS, however, is not infrequent : 9t6tl)ei' luie ©d^ailad) (Voss), redder than scarlet. It occurs also with Gutzkow, Heine, and others, and. frequently in folk-speech. Comp. Lat. atque {ac) for quam with the poets, Plautus, Virgil, Horace, etc., in com- mon life and folk-speech : Amicior mihi nullus vivit atque is est, Plautus, etc., etc., etc. The comparison between two or more qualities is usually ex- pressed periphrastically, and only exceptionally by means of derivative comparison : Iftngev al8 feveit (Goethe and others) , more long than broad, etc. Comp. Eng. : Your company is fairer than honest (Shaksp.), etc. (See below .) Note the form : ber erfte befte (= jebei' beliebige), the first that comes, anyone, any. Comp. (Lat. primus quisque, etc. ; Fr. le premier venu) : SKon ma6)t einen 53erfud) mit bent evften bcflen ©titcte (Lessing, Laocoon), Let one make an attempt with the first piece that comes (any piece). Comp. also Lat. ut liomon- culus unus e multis (Cic, Tusc), lute bev crfte befte au8 ber SJfenge; quemvis media elige turha (Hor. Sat. 1. 4, 25), itia()te ben erflen beflen mitten auS bem ^aufen, etc. Redundant and Defective Derivative Comparison of Inequal- ity with the Adjective. Historic and practical treatment given with illustrations. 4.6 COMPARATIVE STXIDir OF, GBKMAJJ. ..',I^riplimsti,c Compairison of Inequality with the Adjective. ■ ■••■••• APJECTIVES VITHOUX DBGEEEH OF COMPABISON. Such are r 1) those which from their' nature and meaning seem ifieapable of a higher or lower degred, as, gan^, entire, whole; etuig, eternal ; tobt> dead ; leer, empty, etc.'; 2) those formed from the names of metals and niinei^als : tleievn, leaden ; eifevn, iron ; golbeii, golden, etc.;- 3) those used predicatively : (tHetn, alone; angfl, anxious-; fetnb, inimical, etc. (See also ■Periphrastic Comparison with Adject. .) The limit here is difficult to determine. Some of them are found, moreover, also in the comparative and superlative, both figuratively and literally : ®ie ©roigfeit nod) eiDtgcr madden (Borne), to make eternity still more eternal ; fate tobteften SSWenfc^en (Hack- lander), the deadest men; .bie bliitbefte Svgeben^eit (Goethe), the blindest attachment ; ba TOurben fie t^m noc^ feinber (Luther, Bible, Gen. 37: 5), and they hated him yet the more, lit. iCad they became still more inimical to himj etc.j' etc. ; oHeiner fein (Goethe), to be more alone. Comp. Lat. aureus, totusj-pleims, niger, etc. Yet also : plenissimis velis navigare (Cic.) ; vox grandior et plenior (Cic.) ; caelum pice nigrius, Ovid, M. 15, 107 ; magls unicus, Plant., etc. Comp. Eng. : a purpler beverage (Byron) ; a lonelier life (Longf.) ; the perfectest herald of joy (Shaksp.) ; ¥r. mon plus unique Men (Corn. Hor.) ; mats ses aeuvres sevaient moins'pleines, Bossuet ; Gr^ wAaoTepos, Od. 11, 859, etc., etc. : Declension of Comparative and Superlative Form's. ' ■ ...... • Comparison with the Adverbs. C. .:■ COMPABISON WITH OTHBB PABTS OF SPEECH. {Subst., Pronouns, NumeralSiMc.) .^ ,.,, Subfitap-tiye 5. ,3d^, bin nod^ me^^n Soget ats bu (I^e^ing.),. I am still more of a bird than thou ; @r ift loeniger ^JJavr alS