SPECIAL CONSIJL^VTl REnPORTS* BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY AUD FLAX CULTIVATION I^' FOREIGISr COUISTTRIES REPORTS FROM THE CONSULS OF THE UNITED STATES. Page. Part I. Beet-Sngar Induetry 395-571 PAItT n. Flax Cultivatiou 573-631 WASHINGTOIT: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 18 91. ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library SB 221.U58 Beet-sugar industry and flax cultivation 3 1924 003 383 837 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003383837 SPEOIA^L CONSULAR REP-ORTS. BEET-SUGAR mDUSTRY AND FLAX CULTIVATION m FOREiaiSr COTJiNrTRIEIS REPORTS FROM THE CONSULS OF THE UNITED STATES. Part I. Beet-Sugar Industry 395-571 Part II. Flax Cultivation 57J-C31 WASHIlSrGTOK: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1891. SB ears past. The progress of this BEET-SITGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 399 industry in the United States is being watched with the greatest interest by manufacturers in Germany, who, judging by the light and hasty mim- uer in which this difficult subject is treated in some of the plans for new beet-sugar manufactories in the CTnited States, predict that severe dis- appointment will be the result. The following facts are therefore cited, not only as a timely warning, but also for the purpose of encouraging those who propose, in a judi- cious way, to embark in a noble enterprise that may lead 'to results of the highest importance to the agricultural interests of the country. In the first place, which parts of the American Union appear to be most favorable to the production of the sugar-beet? The map of Europe and the long experience of manufacturers and producers there furnish a ready answer : The northern part of France, Belgium, a part of Holland, the Lower Ehine district, Hanover, Brans- wick, the neighborhood of Magdeburg and Halle, Silesia, Bohemia, and a portion of fertile Poland furnish by far the greatest part of the sugar product of Europe. In all of these countries, which are those best adapted to the culture of the beet, the richest lands are devoted to this purpose. Their climate is generally humid and too cold for grapes and Indian corn, not because the summer is too short for the latter, but because the average temperature from the end of March to the end of October is too low and the humidity of the atmosphere at the same time too great. The countries named have during the year from 20 to 30, seldom more than 40, so-called summer days ; that is, days when the thermometer rises to 77° Fahr. The abundant dews, which are produced by cool nights, are a life element with a northern plant like the beet. South of 50° latitude in France and Germany there are but few sugar manufactories, and these are, by reason of th& climate, more unfavorably located than those in the north. In Southern France proper, in Switzerland, Italy, and other countries of Southern Europe, there are no sugar manufactories, with the exception, perhaps, of a few that may have been established as an experiment, but which do not promise successful results. The reason of this probably is that in the northerly countries the growth of the beet goes on uninterruptedly during the summer in consequence of the greater moisture of the climate, while in autumn the cool nights check the further growth and develop the sugar in the roots. In the warm countries of Central Europe, however, where Indian corn flourishes, the dry warmth of summer fi-equently impedes the growth of the sugar-beet, while the warm autumn encourages the growth only of the plant, instead of the formation of sugar. The development of sugar in the maple tree is similar to that in the beet, in this respect, that both require for this process warm sunny days and cold nights. If, besides the northerly countries already named, there were no other parts of Europe adapted to the growth of the beet, viz, those parts having a hot summer, like that which generally prevails in the United 400 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. States, the prospects of the latter as a sugar-beet producing couutry would be very unfavorable. Fortunately, however, the experience in eastern part of Europe, particularly the extended neighborhood of Kiew, in Russia, which is the chief center of the Russian- beet-sugar industry, shows that the beet may be cultivated with great success in countries where the summer is hot, provided the climate is not too dry. From the foregoing facts it is evident that the establishment of beet- sugar manufactories in the United States should not be undertaken until the subject in all its bearings has been carefully and thoroughly investigated, for it is, of course, an essential point in the successful man- agement of every manufactory to have, not only in most years, but every year, a plentiful and certain supply of raw material of best quality at command. ^ Besides the climate, therefore, the matter of fertilization becomes a most important consideration. The beet plant draws its sugar mainly from the fertilizers used, and not froin the body of the native soil. For this reason there need be no fear of exhausting the soil so long as it is highly manured. There is not in the vegetable kingdom, probably, another plant that will so quickly impoverish the soil when fertilization is insuflicient or wholly wanting. It is, therefore, evident that success in the cultivation of the sugar-beet is dependent upon bountiful and unstinted fertilization. Even with this provision, every other year there should be planted different intervening crops upon the samesoil. There are sugar plantations in Europe whose originally excellent soil has be- come totally exhausted, simply because of insufficient fertilization, and, as a result, the manufactories connected with them have failed. A brief reference to the manufacture of sugar, from its beginning in Germany, may be of service to those proposing to engage in a similar enterprise in America. As is well known, the sugar of the beet was discovered by a Ger- man chemist named Sigismund Marggraf. On the 3d of March, 1747, al a session of the Academy of Sciences, in Berlin, he stated that he had found, in several of the indigenous plants, the same kind of sugar as that in the cane, and that the Silesian beet contained the greatest pro- portion of saccharine matter. He also proved that the extraction of sugar from this plant by his method was not only possible but might also be made profitable. Political disturbances prevented Marggraf from enjoying the honor of establishing the first beet-root sugar manufactory, but his pupil, Achard, founded. the first establishment of this kind in Cunorn, in Si- lesia, in the year 1790, and obtained 6 per cent, raw sugar and 3 per cent, molasses from the weight of the freshly harvested beets. Achard wrote to a friend in France concerning his success, and the subject was agitated there. Ilis letter, in -njliich he dwelt upon the adviintages of the beet-sugar manufacture and its great benefits to agriculture, was published in all the newspapers of France, and created BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 401 tlirougbout the country quite a seusation. As a consequence, in the year 1800, two establishments for the manufacture of beet sugar were founded, by way of experiment, in St. Owen and Chelles, near Paris, The results, however, were so unfavorable and discouraging in com- parison with those of the Silesian manufactory that this branch of industry was abandoned, and rarely referred to in France for many years afterward, except in terms of ridicule. Some time later, Napoleon I, in order to facilitate the accomplishment of the continental blockade, which was planned as a blow at England, encouraged the manufacture of beet sugar by enormous appropriations of money. But with his fall most of the manufactories failed, with heavy losses. About the year 1812-'15, animal charcoal began to be employed for the purpose of bleaching and purifying the sugar, thus opening a new era for this industry. This most important invention, in connection with further progress in chemistry and mechanics, was the means of calling into existence no less than 103 manufactories in Prance in the brief period of the 13 years previous to 1828. The total product of these 103 establishments was only 6,630,000 pounds of raw sugar, be- ing an average for each manufactory of aboflt 66,000 pounds, or the product of about 40 English acres of beets. The German manufactories began even more cautiously, for in the year 1836, 122 establishments produced only 3,111,901 pounds of raw sugar, made from 56,761,530 pounds, or 28,007 tons of beets, making an average for each manufactory of only 25,525 pounds of raw sugar and 459,250 pounds of beets, which would be about the yield of 20 English acres fairly cultivated, and producing an average of about 11 tons to the acre. This commendable prudence and caution in the establishment and manipulation of manufactories in France and Germany was a conse- sequence of former enormous losses, resulting from the attempts of en- terprising men to engage extensively in a business which they did not uiiderstand, and before they had studied it with sufficient care to master the difficulties that stood in the way of success. Their experience should be a serious warning to producers in America, and admonish them to begin with small, very small establishments, and study every step taken until they have learned the business in its minutest details, and are sure of a profit on their labor and investments. Expansion and large investments in this industry will then be safe, for the demands of the market for their production will be substantially without limit. The planting of 100 acres would be a liberal beginning for the first year. With even this small beginning the planter might pay dearly for his agricultural experience before he had carried a single load of his pro- duce to the " new factory." The experience of properly keeping the beets after harvesting is often as dear as that gained by labor in their culture. As soon as the 402 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. beets are taken from the ground, very shallow trenches are dug, and the beets are piled therein in such manner as to have at least three- quarters of the heap above the surface of the earth before covering. The danger of heating in the heaps covered with earth is fully as great as that of freezing. This heating is caused by making the heaps too high, and the injury resulting therefrom, as in the case of fresh grain, can never be made good. For this reason, the cellar is a most objectionable place in which to store the beets. The first essential to safety is the ripeness of the beets, and a moderate temperature at the time of harvesting. The golden rule "out of the earth into the earth" is always to be kept in mind, for in the air, particularly when the sun shines, the roots soon wither and become soft and elastic, in some degree like rubber. This is the first step towards decomposition after they have been taken out of the ground, and is more to be feared than frost. If pos- sible, the beets should be buried or covered the same day that they are harvested, and should be placed in heaps not more than 2J feet high by 3 feet broad, and should be covered just deep enough to prevent freezing. Straw is always dangerous on account of heating, decay, and mice. That the caution of the German manufacturers was well advised is proved by the fact that the number of factories, which had risen in the year 18S8 to 159, had decreased in the year 1845 to 96. Prom this depressed condition, with the assistance of past experience and new in- ventions, the industry progressed in a healthy manner, and the following statistics show how steadily the average production of the different manufactories has increased up to the present time: Tear. 1830 1845 1850 1855 1860 1865 ■ 1870 1875 1877 1878-'79 . . No. of mann- facto- ries in opera- tion. ]22 96 184 216 247 295 304 310 326 329 Total amotuit of raw BTigar produced. Foundt. 3, 111, 901 33,489,014 117, 901, 179 193, 063, 832 279, 622, 460 410, 387, 276 681, 200, 607 765, 092, 497 848, 259, 659 850, 850, 000 Average product of raw sugar in eachmanu- faotory. Pounds. 25, 525 348, 848 640, 789 893. 834 1, 132, 072 1, 391, 089 1, 911, 871 2, 468; 017 2, 668, 017 2, 685, 700 Beets re- quired for 100 pounds of raw sugar. PoufidB. 1, 989. 00 1, 624. 35 1, 514. 90 1, 381. 25 1, 281. 80 1, 292. 86 1, 281. 80 Eemarka. About 20 pounds beets to 1 pound sugar. About 16 pounds beets to 1 pound sugar. About 15 pounds beets to 1 pound sugar. About 14 pounds beets to 1 pound sugar. About 12i pounds beets to 1 pound sugar. Note— In the years 1860 and 1870 the qualit,y of the boats raised was unusuaily good. " The weights above given are stated in English pounds. The progress made in the process of extracting sugar from beets is shown by the gradually decreasing amount of beets required to produce a certain weight of sugar. In the year 1836 about 20 pounds of beets, and in 1860 only about 12 pounds were needed to make 1 pound of raw sugar. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 403 The prodnction of beet-sugar in all Europe during the 4 years ending June 30, 1879, was as follows : Year. Weight. Contnera. Englislr pounds. 1875-70 ....' 27,452,255 22, 022, 823 28, 4l6, 644 28,200,000 3' 033, 474, 177 1870-'77 2- 433, 521, 941 1877-78 3i 140, 028, 112 ]878-'79 8. 116, 100, 000 The total production for the year 1878-79 was divided amoDg the several European countries as follows: Countries. Germany France Austria-Hungary , iLUSsia and Poland lielgium Holland and other countries Total "Weight; Centners. English poundfl. 7, 700, 000 7, 600, 000 0,700,000 4, 300, OflO 1, 300, 000 eoo, 000 860, 860, 000 839, 800, 000 740, 360, 000 475, 160, 000 143,650,000 66, 300, 000 3, 116, 100, 000 Showing a consumption of about 10 pounds per year, or less than half an ounce per day to each inhabitant of EuFope. Upon this historical basis perhaps a better view may be taken of the general considerations connected with the establishment of beet sugar manufactories in the United States. Taking as a basis of judgment the facts developed by the beet-sugar production of Europe, the climate of the New England States, the vicinity of the Great Lakes, and in the same direction or zone westward, would appear to be the localities most favorable for the production and culture of the sugar-beet. But, in view of the important fact that the so-called Indian summer of the Middle States is very favorable to the best development of sugar in the l^eet,' the boundary of successful cultivation may be possibly extended to the Ohio Eiver. It may, however, be considered hazardous to undertake this industry south of this line, unless tests and experience shall prove the contrary. .- Besides the Indian summer, the United States has another important advantage in the fact that the spring season, although somewhat late, coijtinues warm from its beginning, and is therefore for the young beet more favorable than the cool, moist weather which sometimes occurs in Germany in the months of April and May. In considering the cost of cultivating and harvesting the sugar-beet the farmer of the United States may safely consider himself as possess- ing a high per cent of advantage over the European farmer in the vastly superior machinery for harvesting and cultivating which is always at his command. He will also be free from the enormous ad valorem tax* * The imperial tax collected by the German Government upon sn gar-beets raised within its jiu-isdiction amounts to more than 80,000,000 marks per annum. 404 • BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN EUROPE. which the German farmer is obliged to pay upon his beets liefore they are crushed at the sugar factory. In the process of manufacture in late years many improvements have been introduced. The present diffusion method (extracting the sugar with water) does not require more than half as many workmen as by the former method of hydrostatic pressure. It may also be considered a fortunate circumstance for the United States of America that the manufacture of beet-sugar has not heretofore been attempted on an extensive scale. The European farmers and man- ufacturers have suffered all the discouragements and losses incident to 20 years of experiments in developing this industry before it began "to pay." This development has been slow because the disasters re- sulting from such experiments had made those engaged in the enter- prise very cautious until perfection in methods of manufacture had been nearly attained. The advantages of all this expensive and tedious experience is now available to the people of the United States, and there seems to be no reason why the inauguration of this great industry into many of the different States of the Union should not be met on all sides with substantial and hearty encouragement. With a more favorable climate and a boundless area of better soil, with superior machinery and cheaper fuel, with labor in abundance and an unlimited market there appears to be no obstacle in the way to prevent the man- ufacture of beet- root sugar from being iirosecuted with a degree of suc- cess in the United States far in advance of that attained by European producers and manufacturers. The enormous advantages of sugar-beet planting to the agriculture of a country having a domain so extensive as that of the United States can not be estimated too highly. These will .become evident when a farmer, having the advantage of a favorable climate and suitable soil, begins operations with a small plantation and gradually increases his business, according to his success, until he arrives at independence, which he surely will do, with prudent and skillful management and proper surroundings. No industry could probably be introduced into the United States that would more rapidly add to the wealth of the country and the content- ment of its people, for its prosecution requires a large number of work- men, and its product comes wholly from the soil. For these reasons, ana with a favorable commencement, it is not extravagant to predict that its growth would be so rapid that in a few decades the sugar pro- duction of the United States, as an article for home consumption and export, would rank second only in importance to the great staple pro- ductions for bread. In conclusion, it is proper to refer to the subject of suitaible sugar-beet fieed for America. Germany and France produce two varieties of sugar- beets. The first produces a comparatively small weight to the acre. J5ut these are not only much richer in sugar than the other kind, but grow entirely underneath the soil, a fact of much importance to the BEET-SUGAK INDUSTXtY IN EUKOPE. 405 farmers of America where there ;ire often severe frosts in the mouth of October. In France the frost rarely appears in November, and conse- quently the French beets, which frequently grow half above ground, are not greatly endangered. The German sugar-beet seed is, therefore, greatly to be preferred for the climate of the United States. It is pre- dicted that the difference in fhe product of these two varieties of sfeeds will be so great in the United States as to produce in the manufacture of sugar success with one variety and, by reason of frost, etc., perhaps, entire failure with the other. The seed of the Silesian beet and the seed grown in the vicinity of Magdeburg are most to be recommended. j. s. pottek. United States Consulate, Stuttgart, November 1, 1879. BEET-ROOT SUGAR MACHINERY AND MANUFACTORIES (1880). MEFOBT BY COHSUL POTTER, OF STUTTOABT. With a view of furnishing to those interested information as full as possible concerning the manufacture of beet-root sugar in Germany, I herewith forward carefully prepared estimates for the construction of machinery for a mill, complete in all particulars, for the manufacture of sugar from beet roots. These estimates are furnished by an establishment well know in "Europe as being among the most responsible and advanced in the manu- facture of the best quality of improved machinery for the purpose named, and they provide for a mill capable of working up 100 tons of beets daily and also for a mill with a working capacity of 500 tons daily. The manufacture of beet sugar by hydrostatic pressure is now obsolete in Germany, the diffusion process being adopted instead, because the ' percentage of sugar obtained from the beets has been largely increased by the latter method. By the old process 20 to 30 pounds of beets were required to produce 1 pound of sugar. By the new method 10 to 12 pounds only of beets, of good average quality, produce 1 pound of sugkr, besides a considerable percentage of molasses. The estimates herewith submitted are for the most improved machinery for the modern diffusion process. A plan of a building for a medium-sized mill is also herewith submit- ted. It should be remembered that the measurements and figures thereon represent millimetres. I have attached to the estimates furnished copies of the letters received from the Braunschweig Company, in order that those interested in the subject may be made familiar with the responsible character of the statements therein contained. 406 BEET-SU6AE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. A table showing all the elements of cost that enter into the produc- tion of sugar by the improved German methods is also given. This table is made up from the carefully tested average results of three years' operations of a well-organized and successful manufactory in the north- ern part of Germany, and may be confidently relied on as accurate. The German Government collects a revenwe tax on the value of the beet roots after they are washed and ready for cutting. The ofdcial collect- ing this tax has a room in every manufactory and superintends the weighing of the beets. As the American manufacturer will not have to bear a similar burden this important item of cost has been omitted in the table referred to. For the benefit of the farmer proposing to engage in the culture of the sugar beet, I will suggest that deep, rich, moist, bottom land is dangerous ground upon which to experiment with a view of obtaining successful results. From such land he may obtain enormous crops in bulk and weight (20 to 25 or more tons per acre), but his product will be merely water with very little sugar, and the more tons he raises the more complete will be his failure. He will furnish the manufactory with a large amount of bulky material while the product in sugar will be very discouraging. It is well known that many of the French farmers, who cultivate a kind of beets which grow very large and partly above ground, often produce 30 tons to the acre, and yet utterly fail in the business, while the prudent and thinking German succeeds admirably with smaller beets, producing 11 or 12 tons to the acre. In one case a great weight of water is produced, containinga small amount of saccha- rine matter, while in the other a beet is produced rich in sugar proper- ties, and yielding more pounds of sugar to the acre with less than half the labor and cost of production. Rolling, and even hilly land, where there is not an excess of moisture, is best for the sugar beet. It should be strong and well enriched. One of the very best fertilizers is wood ashes, and material containing alka- line properties. The elements that produce sugar in the maple tree will develop sugar in the beet. In this connection it may be mentioned that ashes from the wood of the sugar maple tree are regarded as among the most valuable of all ashes in the production of potash. These hints will be quite enough for the intelligent farmers of the United States, and if those who propose to engage in the culture of sugar beets will carefully study the subject they wish to master, and remember that they should seek to produce the largest quantity of sugar in the smallest amount of raw material, and that it is concentrated sub- stance and not bulk or magnitude of material that is wanted, success in sugar-beet culture will be assured. The reduction in the cost of a mill smaller than the one for which estimates in detail are herewith furnished would not, of course be in proportion to jts reduced capacity. I have equally complete esti- mates for a manufactory capable of working up 500 toiis of beets daily. BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUEOPE. 407 The recapitulation only of the total cost of such au establishment is given. In order to insure the success of the experiment in making sugar from beet-roots in the United States, it is safe to recommend the construction of an establishment large enough to control all the economical advan- tages which science and late discoveries present. For further information I would refer to the following letter, received from the directors of the Braunschweigische Maschiuenbau-Austalt in Braunschweig : Braunschweig, March 22, 1880. SiK : From the inclosed note you will see that at the price for beet-roots of 1.034 marks per centner, 0.800 mark duty, the hundredweight of beet-roots will cost, to be worked up, 2.617 marks, including both sums. Consequently, without duty, which we understand is not paid in America, the cost is reduced to 1.817 marks. The amount of coals used will depend upon the size and construction of the manu- factory ; 12 to 30 per cent, of coals to the weight of beet-roots is required. If wo reckon the cost at 1 mark, you will see from the inclosed notathat here in Germany about 15 per cent, coals are used. With regard to wages, 0.158 mark is, as you will observe, paid per centner of beet- roots, the men earning, on an average, 1.75 to 2 marks, the women 1 to 1.20 marks per day. All other details you will find in the table following. The calculation of cost for the production of 1 centner raw sugar in America, re- ' suiting herefrom, is very simple. The result will differ according as you take 10, 11, 12 or more centners beet-roots to the centner of sugar. With good beet-roots we require here, with the three grades of product, 10 centners of roots to 1 centner of sugar. One centner sugar will, therefore, cost 10 times 1.817=18.17 marks, without duty. Besides this, there will be a gain of about 3i per cent, molasses on the weight of beet-roots, which represents a value of about 5 marks pei: centner, according to present prices. There still remains the food product for cattle, etc., the value of which we presume the American farmer understands, and we have not, therefore, given it a price. I am, sir, yours, most respectfully, ' BkAUNSOHWBIGISCUE MASCIiINENBAU-AUSTAI.T. M. Hecht. Hpn, J. S. PoTTBB, United States Comul, 408 BEET-SUGAE I^fDDST]RY IN EUROPE. Tlie following table shows in detail the average cost of extracting, by improved German machinery, the raw sugar produced by 1 cwt. of beet- roots of good average quality : Table showing average cost of working up 1 centner beet-roots, the product of which is about 10 per cent, raw sugar and 3iper cent, molasses— 11 pounds sugar and 3.65 pounds niD- Elemests of cost. 1 centDGT beet-roots, washed and ready for cutting Coal Coke Huriatic acid Bone charcoal Materials Press-cloths Sacks , Limestone Repairs , "Wages , Salaries , Interest Miscellaneous eipenses Commissions , insurance j ., Wear and tear, depreciations, etc German marks. 1.034 0.153 0.011 0.004 0.019 0.023 0.006 0.017 0.006 0.003 0.168 0.043 0.101 0.022 0.015 0.017 0.123 United States cents. 24.61 I 3.90 i 1. 09 2.23 ^ 4.78 1 I !■ 6.61 I J 1. 817 43. 22 It will be seen by the foregoing table that the cost of producing clear raw sugar from beet-roots in Germany is about 4 cents per pound. After the sugar there still remains a considerable percentage of molasses, the value of which should be credited to the cost of producing- the sugar, thus reducing the actual cost of good raw sugar from beet-roots to about 3J cents per pound. The value of the residuum as food for cattle or manure will be esti- mated according to the demand for it existing in the neighborhood of the factory. « Bradnschweig, March 12, 1880. Sir : EespectfuUy referring to your note of the 4tli instant, we h.ive the honor to submit to you the inclosed two estimates for the complete fitting up of sugar manu- factories for the woriting up of beet-roots, in the one case of 100,000, in the other of .500,000 kilograms daily. These estimates can not be considered entirely reliable under all circumstances, as a knowledge of the building, locality, and wafer privileges is indispensably necessary for the drawing up of binding ooutracts. They may, however, be regarded as essen- tially correct, and only subject to unimportant changes. We add drawings of the ground plan of a middle-sized manufactory, and are pre- pared to give further details. According to your v^ish, we have the honor to forward yon two copies of the ground phiu of the sugar manufactory, Jillioh, and at the same time beg to state that we will williugly send one or two skillful engine-fitters to America with the machines to as- sist in their erection, for whom, besides frep passage there and back and entirely free accommodations, 10 marks per man per day, including time of journey, would be re- quired. Yours, most respectfully, liKAUNSOUWElGISCIlK MaSCHINENBAU-ANSTALT. M. Heoht. Hon. J. S. POTTEH, Consul of the United States of Jmevica in Sliitlgart. BEET-SUGAR INDUS-TliY IN EUEOPE. Eaiimatea fur sugar manufaoiory. 409 Macbinery, fixtures, etc. KilograniB. Price. A., — Machinery and apparatus. 2 beet-root washiup-Tnttchinos witb perforated iron *5J, strong raetal drama, aud with iron boxes, each of *3,250}, leuftth. The drums have a diameter af I.IOOJ, aie provided with crosses forged in apiece, and one of them has a stone sorter. The machines have each 2 deposit valves, 2 manhole plufia, gaseliers and communicaiing cylinders, including station- ary and loose pulleys per piece . . 2 beet-root wagons capable of containing 500 kilograms, per piece 1 cutting machine with a disk, armed with 8 boxes and com- municator, with stationary and loose pullies and disengag- ing gear, and witb filling funnel 16 blade-boxes for the same per piece.. 10 sets of finger-blades for the same per set.. 10 sets of lateral -cutting blades for the same do 2 railroad cutting-wagons of sheet-iron, ^ith filling fun- nels per piece.. 70 running rails, including the necessary tenter-hooks, per innning millimeter 14 diffuaora of 1,100J and 1,570^ height in the direct plates, complete each witn 2 manholes, the upper one with hori- zontal covers capable of being turned, the lower one with strong covers banging on hinge joints. These are arranged for caoutchouc packings, to be tightened by means of wronght-iron hoops and span-screws. On the jars are brack- ets for the reception of transferable pipe-supports and props for the junction of the conduit of pipes, per piece, 925 kilograms 14n^etal stop-cocks for the same of 20J each.. 14 perforated wrought-iron sieve l;pottoms to be inserted in the upper manho.'es of the difTusera, and 14 similar ones for the lower vaulted bottoms of the jars. The jais re- ceive the whole diameter of the diffiiaors, and lie with the lower inner edge of the manhole in an horizontal position at 50 kilograms each.. 14 calorisators, each of 1.5 square meter heating surface, with brahs pipes and stuflSng-box packing per piece.. 14 steam-port valves of 33J do 14 self-acting steam exhaust port valves of 26|, with gauge cocks each . . 14 thermometers do.... 14 transferable pipe supports ' do.... 14 WTougbt-iron loosening keys do... 14 guide eyes to the same do 2 Iteys to I'he manholes of the difl'users do — 1 metal purging cock do 57 valves of 78f, with red brass spindles and stuffing boxes, with wrought-iron hoop, so constructed that the conical valves do not turn each.. 7 wronght-iron winch cranks do A complete cast-iron set of pipes, with cut flanges and bored screw holes per kilogram.. 28 4-edged caoutchouc packings for the manholes of the difl'us- ers each . . To about 280 drillings, the requisite caoutchouc sheaves and screws each . Iron foundation below the diffusers consisting of cast-iron horses and square supports, includinghooping..perkLlog'm. 1 cutting worm between the diffusers, including wrought- iron trough and motor per kilogram.. Flooring plates with perforated metal between the diffus- ers per kilogram. . 2 improved cutting presses ., each.. 1 distributing worm screw to the above presses, including wrought-iron trough, etc., omitted 6 deposit boxes for cutting^ on the cutting floor each.. The entire communication of motion for the whole of the working machines (driving engines), with all of the iron parts for the elevators and transports, for the moving of the beet roots and beet-root cuttings, as well as the coal, the brackets, the drop, etc., consisting in well-made rollers, pulleys, wheels, bottom plates, and brackets with metal pillars, etc ^. per kilogram.. Tin pockets and chains for the protractors do 90 wooden fillets each . . 320 fastening screws do Wrought-iron chains with steel screw bolts in drawn wrought-iron pipes per kilogram 700 2,000 Marks. 3, 000. OO 350. OO 30.00 32.00 40.00 230. 00 1.20 53.00 9.00 0.75 250. 00 24.00 26.00 15.00 9.00 6.00 3.00 6.00 50.00 3.00 33.00 6.00 2.00 24.00 63.00 0.70 1, 325. 00 35, 000 200 0.00 63.00 1.30 .50 .50 800 1.10 * The measures are given always in millimetres and the weight in kilograms. 77A- 410 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. Estimates for sugar manufactory — Continued. No. Machinery, fixtures, etc. Kilograms. Total. 37 A..~Machinery and apparatus— Contmueid. 1 grindstone for the blades, with iron trough, including star tionary and loose pulleys 4 complete separating pillows of 1,500,J, and 1,700} height in the direct plates, "with armature to tnesame, consisting in : 1 passage valve, 1 steam valve, 1 carbonic-acid tube, 1 car- bonic-acid worm, 1 steam valve, 1 juice outlet valve, 1 scum worm, 1 juice inlet valve, J knoo and 1 cross support, 1 passage cock, 2 guide eyes, 2 loosing rods, 1 winch crank, and saturcr, with cover and drying tube per piece.. 4 tubes ibrsaturer as before ., do — 2 chalk measuring barrels, eacli with two cocks each.. 6 scum-filter presses, each with 18 chambers ; each chamber with fluted lateral planes, unscrewed sieve plates, a metal drilling apparatus for the cloth's, and an outlet cock, the valves with turned wrought-iron columns, wrought-iron cones each . . 1 stone catcher, with sieve 6 sugar centrifugal raachiuos, with welded drums and full l^ottom plates, with protecting hoop each . . 1 complete doable mash machine 1 Sugar carriage with juice catcher 2 iron washing basins, with pipe connected below thera, and 2 outlet cocks 1 complete coal-washing machine, with wheel communicator entirely of iron 1 tilting apparatus for the same AH the iron parts to 3 Langen coal-heating furnaces, with firing in tiers, trisected heating cylinders, and with self- acting withdrawing apparatus, excepting dryer, each with 28 cylinders, with hard-aoldered cooling pipes of sheet iron per piece.. Drying plates for the same, with registers per kilogram . . 3 collecting boxes for the coal-heating furnaces, with slides, each , 2 water- pressure engines, includmg hooping each . . 3 coal transport carts do All the iron ]^arts to a limekiln, with 3 firings and 3 outlets, including tin case and pipe 1 coal-boiUng apparatus, with 3 barrels of 1,100^ and 1,570J height in the direct places complete, with all the connect- ing pipes below them, and valves, metal slides, tinned wire sieves and collecting pipe 1 double chalk-slaking barrel, with clack valves 1 limowater barrel, with fine wrought-iron grate and valve . . 1 stirring apparatus to the limowater, with wrougbt-iron barrel 1 lime pump of 22 percent, with rod 1 filling funnel for the filter 1 filling funnel for the coal-boiling apparatus 1 exbaust-ateam box for the Schutzenbach apparatus 1 lying working machine with 365J and 328J lift, with patent regulator, including grappling and closing valve llyingmachine of 300J and 525^ lift, with patent regulator, including grappling and closing valve for the sugar houso.. 1 lying machine of 235J and 525 lift, with patent regulator, in- cluding grappling and closing valve for the coal house 1 machine of 157| and 260^ lift, including grappling and clos- . ing valve for the lime station 2 double- working feeding pumps of lOOJ and 200J lift, includ- ing grappling and closing valve each.. 1 balance wator-pumping engine of 365J and 785^ lift, with 2 simple working water pumps of 315J and 2 feeding pumps of 105J, including hooping and valve 1 balance air-pumpmg engine of 305^ and 785J lift, with 2 air pumps of 420} and 2 heaping pumps of 210}, includini; hoop- ing and closing valve ' Special pipes and air chamber per kilogriim.. 2 pump valves of 210} each, with 1 soction bucket euoh.. 1 carbonic-acid steam pump of 470} and 525} lift, including hooping and closing valve ". 1 safety valve for the carbonic-acid pump II! 1 return valve Various valvea with rod brass cones andspindles, well-flnisbod wrought-iron columns and wrougbt-iron Allots, 891, 52},(ir4 78}. 92i, ]05:(, 1311, at 28, 35,45, 55, 05, 75, 105 marks.'. . each.. 14 ]dug8 audlorraenting tubs dn.: .. 1 sunnle gin with 125-iuotro chain and rolUir, wiMi luiIilCists to tlio srtiMo til tbo liiui' crano, 1 gin with double commuuirator ;md 12 motro chain, 1 roller j )vith holdfasts to it ..,...., I Marks. 4,500 850. 00 «50. 00 100. 00 1, 200. 00 1, 000. 00 1, 950. 00 22.00 ICO. 00 800. 00 160. 00 2,400 1,300.00 ' 32.00 135. 00 10,00 UEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. Eatimatea for surjar manufactory — Continued. 411 No. Machinery, fixtures, etc. A. — Machinery and apparatus — Continued. All the cast-iron pipes -with turned flanges and borod screw holes iu normallengtha per kilo!;ram. The same in unnormal lengths .iId... Special knee and support pipes do. - . 8 filters, about 116 to 9,200 kilosrams, 5 montages, I tetour d' «au, 3,600 per kilogram. Sieves and Btands to the filters do . Kilograms. Total A. K.—Goppenmith's work. a 1. Copper vacuum in ball form of 2,040}, with high dome, donble bottom, and double worm of 80, respectively, 106} and conus (milling apparatus) of 2a0J per kilogram . . 6. All the water, steam, and juice valves in triple positions, per kilogram c, V acuum barrels and complete conus motion, vacuum gauge, thermometer, glass tubes, eyeglasses, and India-rubber couus , 1 evaporating apparatus, standing in 2 bodios of togethoi 240 square-metro heating surface, with complete garniture 2 eondensators for conus injection each.. Filtration to 8 filters, consisting in 8 cast-iron pipes, 8 cast- Iron outlet knees, 8 brass air cocks, 8 brass 39}knije valves, contra steam, 8 brass 39J knee cocks and water, 8 brass 39} knee cocks, dam juice, 8 brass 39} knee cooks, thick juice, 8 brass 39} passage cocks, rising, 8 brass 39} outlet valves, with complete copper pipe connection (the pipes below) each , ; , Copper worms and knee per kilogram.. Straight copper pipes per kilogram. . Hose copper do Hard solder do Borax do... Tin do.... Small copper utensils .- do Wrought-iron plates do Various iron screws do Various screws with turned heads and brass female screws. . . Various brass valves and cocks with red brass cone and cube per kilogram.. ■Waonght.iron pipes, 32, 44, 57, 69, 82, 95, 108, 121, 134}, at 1.05, 1.80, 2.15, 2.70, 3.60, 4. 15, 5.55, 7, 0.8, 60 marks per metre Tin pipes and drying-stove pans, etc per kilogram.. Total B. C. — Other articles. Leather straps, girths, tin buckets, Schiitzenbaeh boxes, screws. India-rubber packings, and other minor arlicles. . . Eecapitulation. A^ — ^Machines and apparatus . B. — Coppersmiths' work C. — Other articles D. — Unforeseen things 17, 600 2,000 10, 000 12,800 150 Price. 2,750 250 1,000 1,500 1,200 900 200 400 300 3,000 2,000 '3,'000' Total Total in United States gold. Marks, 25.00 28.00 32.00 61.00 0.75 270. 00 270. 00 650. 00 270. 00 240. 00 225. 00 180. 00 180 00 200. 00 276.00 100. 00 270. 00 ioo.'oo' The cost of machinery for a manufactory capable of working up 500,000 kilograms (or 500 tons) daily, will bo as follows : Marks. A. — Machines and apparatus 329, 271, 50 B.— Coppersmiths' work 294,785.00 "C.— Other articles ^. 40,000.00 I). — Unforeseen things 35,943.50 Total 700,000.00 Total in United States gold $142,000.50 About 6 per cent, will bo added for seaworthy packing and for delivering on board steamer at "Bremen. J. S. POTIEli. United States Consulate, Stuttgart, April 5, 1880. 412 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. SUGAR-BEET CULTURE IN EUROPE (1884). f BEPOBT BY OONSVL WILSON, OF BBVSSBLS. . The fact that the manufacture of beet sugar on this continent has, within the last few years, grown into such magnitude and become such an element of national wealth, whilst in the United States it has made such little progress, notwithstanding the comparative cheapness of our land and the peculiar adaptation of much of our soil and climate to the growth of the beet, would seem to imply that our cultivators of this plant have either not yet fully appreciated all the conditions necessary to make its culture a profitable crop, or that for some reason our refiners have failed to render it such for them. However this may be, I here propose to give, in as brief a form as possible, some practical observations on this subjeot derived from relia- ble authorities, which may, perhaps, awaken amongst both our refiners and agriculturists an increased interest in what is regarded on this con- tinent as one of the most profitable of soil crops. AREA CULTIVATED. There are now no less than 875,000 hectares, or about 2,000,000 acres, of land devoted to the culture of this beet in Prance, Germany, Aus- tria-Hungary, Eussia-Poland, Belgium and Holland, distributed amongst these countries in the folowing proportions, viz : In France, 220,000 hectares ; in Germany, 210,000 ; in Austria-Hungary, 200,000 ; in Eus- sia-Poland, 180,000 ; in Belgium and Holland, 65,000 hectares. For Eussia and Holland I regret that I can not furnish further statistics re- lating to their sugar product ; but in France there are now 500 refiner- ies, producing annually about 385,000 tons of sugar ; in Germany 341, producing 675,000 tons ; in Austria-Hungary 245, with a product of 425,000 tons ; and in Belgium 156, turning out annually about 100,000 tons. Thus it will be seen that in the four above-named countries the annual product of this sugar amounts to an aggregate of 1,485,000 tons. CULTIVATION IN THE SEVERAL COUNTRIES. Germany, undoubtedly, now stands at the head of the beet-sugar man- ufacturing nations of this continent, for certainly in no other country of Europe has this manufacture developed with such rapidity or into such colossal proportions ; and this is generally attributed not so much to the better adaptation of German soil to the cultivation of the beet as to the mode in which this is done and the enlightened fiscal regime applied to the sugar refineries. In Germany and Austria, and, 1 believe, iu Eus- sia also, the excise duty is assessed upon the beet before it enters the refinery, leaviuj,' the manufacturer free to convert this material into whatever form he may find the most profitable; whilst in France Bel- gium, and Holland it is assessed upon the sugar produced in the refiner- BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 413 ies, to ascertain wliicb Government oflScials are appointed to waich over every stage of manufacture and to see that nothing goes out of these establishments by night or by day, either in the form of crystallized sugar or any other substance containing saccharine matter, without being first submitted to inspection and the imposition of duty. The refiners of this country are not only subjected to the surveillance of these official agents, but are also required to report to the Government the precise day of each year when they intend to commence refining opera- tions, in order that the inspectors may be on hand ; and in case they are not ready at that time they are compelled to pay 15 francs to the Gov- ernment for every twenty-four hours after that date until they begin operations. GOVERNMENT TAXATION AND ENCOURAGEMENT. The mode of assessing the excise duty in Germany gives to thesngar- refiners of that country another very great advantage over the refiners of France and .Belgium. The German refiner, instead of having to submit to the annoying interference of Government inspectors in deter- mining the duty to be paid according to the grade of his product, is simply required by law to pay an amonnt equal to 25 francs per ton on all the beets entering his refinery, and when once their weight is deter- mined and the duty paid the Government has no other claim upon him. But this is not all the superior advantages this mode of assessing the excise duty confers upon him. When it first became a law German beets contained about 6 per cent, of saccharine matter,, and the excise duty of 25 francs per ton was based upon that fact ; but under the present improved mode of selection and cultivation they contain from 10 to 12 per cent., all of which excess may be fairly regarded as clear gain to him. There is still another feature of this manufacture in Germany that accrues to the benefit of both cultivator and refiner well worthy of consideration. A very considerable number of the refineries in that country are now organized and incorporated as cooperative companies. In other words, the large and small cultivators of the beet in certain districts have built refineries upon the following joint-stock plan, viz : After determining the probable cost of their contemplated refineries, shares of stock are issued, payable in installments, to cover the expense incurred, and each stockholder obligates himself to furnish to the refinery an annual quantity of beets, proportioned to the stock he has in the concern, and as every stockholder dbligates himself to furnish to the refinery an annual quantity of beets proportioned to the stock he has in the concern, and as every stockholder, whether large or small, is dependent upon the product of the refinery for quite a portion of the profits of his cultivation, it may be readily imagined that he leaves noth- ing undone in the way of cultivation to bring his beet crop up to the highest possible standard of both quantity and quality. Indeed, there can be but little doubt that this class of sugar-manufacturing associations 414 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN EUROPE. has done more to perfect the beet-culture in Germany than any one other element whatever; and that the Germans have found this aprofltablein- dustry I need only here to mention that seventeen new refineries have recently been built, thirteen are in process of construction, and projects are now on foot for the building of no less than fifty more, which will necessitate an increased beet-culture of more than 50,000 hectares. In a recent report made to the German Eeichstag, Herr Kichter, a deputy from Hagen, made the statement that in 1881-'82 no less than 100,000 tons of beet sugar had been exported from the country, thus escaping 25^300,000 francs excise duty that otherwise would have gone into the public treasury. The remission of this duty to the German refiner on all the sugar he exports is of vastly more importance to him than is a similar remission to the French and Belgian refiner, seeing that it is assessed upon his beets, calculated to contain 6 per cent, of sugar, whilst they really contain from 10 to 12, the value of which difference be- comes to him an export premium paid him by the Government. Indeed, . it is thought here in Belgium, and in France also, that tf to the present number of refineries the new ones contemplated in Germany should be added, within two years the product of German sugar will amount to 1,000,000 tons, and that of this quantity there will be about 600,000 tons available for foreign exportation, which, with their premium-paying excise duty and their superior mode of cultivation, will enable them to largely monopolize the sugar markets of the continent and seriously cripple this industry both in France and Belgium, unless these Govern- ments come to its aid in one form or another. MODE OP CULTIVATION. The cultivation of the beet throughout France, but especially in Ger- many, is being constantly modified with a view to better results, both as to the gross yield of roots and the quantity of saccharine matter they contain. The climatic conditions and chemical qualities of the soil where it is proposed to plant are carefully and scientifically studied, and after these have been found satisfactory the preparation of the soil, class of fertilizers, mode of planting, and the variety of seed selected receive an equal amount of consideration. On the subject of climatic influence it is an established fact that no locality where the length and heat of the growing season are such as to force the plant into a seed-bearing stem the first year is fit for the cul- tivation of the beet for sugar, seeing that the rapid development of its organic structure into this degree of maturity always involves a marked decreaise of saccharine matter. It would seem from the reports of the most scientific and competent observers that during the early growing season of April and May this plant requires but a moderate degree of both heat and moisture; but in June and July, when it is maturing its foliage and form, a much greater degree of both is necessary ; and, finally, that durhig August and September, the period for the elabora- BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 415 tion of its saccharine matter, it requires niiiformly dry heat. If imich humidity prevails at this season the plant will continue to develop its foliage and become deficient in saccharine qualities and consequently more or less of a failure. The quality of the soil and the mode of its preparation are also ele- ments of the first consideration in this culture. It is now, I believe, generally admitted that neither a sandy nor a hard clay soil destitute of calcareous matter, nor yet one too highly charged with light, porous organic matter, is favorable to saccharine development in this plant. In short, without entering into a detailed description of the various soils recommended, it may be said that the soil best adapted to the produc- tion of wheat and rye in a due proportion of a strong straw and perfect grain will suit this beet well. But however favorable the climate or naturally well adapted the soil may be, if a due regard is not had to its proper preparation before plant- ing, a good and paying crop can not reasonably be expected. It is a chemical fact that (all other conditions being equal), for the fullest development of saccharine matter in this plant, it must possess a good tap-root and a smooth, well-proportioned form ; hence it matters not how rich in proper chemical constituents the soil may be, if it has not been plowed to a sufficient depth to allow the tender tap-root to prolong itself downward it will be forced aside and the plant will at once. throw out additional roots to attach it to its base. The downward growth, being thus obstructed, the body of the root is unduly pressed above the surface of the ground, and this, with the straggling lateral roots it is forced to throw out, destroys its symmetry of form and invariably re- sults in diminishing the elaboration of sugar in the plant according to its weight. On all successful beet-growing farms on this continent the soil is turned and opened to the depth of at least 20 inches, and this is always done when possible in the autumn preceding the spring plant- ing. On the subject of the best variety of beet to be selected for planting, it may suffice to say that, whilst the sugar-producing qualities of almost all (and there are many) have been improved within the last few years, it is an admitted fact that there is no variety especially superior to the others in its adaptation to the various soils and climatic conditions of -all countries, and that the safest method to pursue in this matter is for each cultivator to grow, from selected plants of known sugar-produc- ing quality, his own seed, and thus secure an acclimated variety suited to his locality. A vast number of methods have also been invented for determining the germinal quality of the seed intended for planting by the cultivator, but a knowledge of the maturity of the seed-bearing plants furnishing the seed and a proper regard to the form and relative weight of the seed will, in most caseSj be sufficient to guard the farmer against any errors in this direction. 416 BEEt-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. FERTII.IZEKS FOR BBBT-CULTURB. The subject of fertilizers for soil devoted to this culture has also claimed much attention from the beet-growers of this continent, and is, I think, now well understood. Formerly it was thought by farmers that a plant so charged with sugar was necessarily an exhaustive crop to the soil, but chemistry coming to their aid demonstrated to them that as sugar was composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen — all derived from the air and water— it wa;s one of the least exhaustive crops they could plant, and such, indeed, is the fact; for if, after the extraction of the sugar, the pulp, with the neck and leaves of the plant, were restored to the soil upon which they grew, there would only remain to be re- stored to it, of its original constituents, but a small amount of phos- phates, lime, potash, and soda, in order to bring it up to its original fertility. But the question with intelligent beet-growers now is not how they may best guard against an exhaustion of their soil, but bow they may secure from it the greatest weight of roots containing the highest pos- sible degree of sugar ; and here again chemistry has come to their aid. It has been satisfactorily established that to produce 50,000 kilograms of beet roots, yielding 12 per cent, of sugar, upon a hectare of land, the soil must contain at least 60 kilograms of phosphoric acid, 100 kilo- grams of lime, 90 kilograms of magnesia, 200 kilograms of potash, and 120 of azotic or nitrogenous matter; but, as all soils contain more or less of these agents, this quantity need not necessarily be added to many of them to secure the above-named crop. However, as a basis of calculation to serve as a guide to the culti- it^ator, it is assumed that to any given natural soil that will produce 15,000 kilograms of beets, jielding 10 per cent, of sugar, two-thirds of the above amount of fertilizers should be added to secure a yield of 50,000 kilograms of beets of 12 per cent, sugar constituents. Hence, to produce a crop of this beet yielding 6,000 kilograms of sugar per hectare, on a soil previously more or less exhausted, the following for- mula of fertilizers has been advised, viz: Hyperphosphates of lime, 400 kilograms; sulphate of lime, 200 kilograms; chloride of potash, 250 kilograms; nitrate of soda, 350 kilograms; sulphate of ammonia, 150 kilograms. This is what is here called intensive fertilization, and is now resorted to in some modified form, according to the original quality of the soil or the rotation of crops grown upon it, in all the large beet- growing districts on this continent. Stable manure, which generally contains a large proportion of nitro- gen, is rarely used as a fertilizer for a crop of beets immediately suc- ceeding its application, in consequence of its stimulating too much the growth of organic matter in the plants at the expense of saccharine qualities ; but, when wheat or rye is sown iu the autumn in a soil thus fertilized, a good crop of beets may generally be expected from it the next year. In the environs of Lillo, near the southern frontier of this BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 4l7 country, ifc is not an unfreqnent tiling for tlie farmers, by the free use of this strongly nitrogenous fertilizer, to grow upon a single hectare of land 100,000 kilograms of beets, but the roots, whilst unusually large, are cavernous and spongy and greatly deficient in sugar. Seeing, how- ever, that not only in France, but in Belgium and Holland also, the cultivators sell their beets to the refineries at a price agreed upon per ton and have no further interest in the sugar product, this kind of fer- tilization continues to be more or less practiced in these countries ; but in Germany, and especially among the cooperative cultivators, who have a double interest in their crops, it is generally repudiated, for, as the standard price per ton allowed for their crop is determined by the ascer- tained quantity of the sugar it contains, they have no motive to raise beets deficient in this matter, and especially as the Government levies a tax equal to 25 francs on every ton of beets that enters the refineries in which they are stockholders, regardless of quality, MODE OP PLANTING. Amongst successful beet-growers here there still exists a difference of opinion as to the mode of planting adapted to the product of the best crop, some advocating the sowing of the seed in rows on a flat surface and others on elevated ridges. The latter mode, however, is now the more popular, and is in Belgium almost universally practiced. After a due preparation of the ground, the planting is done by a machine de- positing the seed in ridges about 2 feet apart, previously made; and when the plants begin to show well upon the ground they are thinned out, so as to leave from 10 to 12 inches between those intended to remain. Whilst there are many advocates for larger spaces between the rows, and also between the plants in the row, from all I can learn, this plan, in a soil moderately rich, affords ample room for cultivation and produces the best results. The subsequent cultivation consists in destroying all weeds that may grow either between the rows or the plants in the row, and of loosening the soil and banking it up to the plants by small cultivators and plows adapted to the purpose; and the more frequently this is done during the growing season the better the prospects of a good crop will be. BEBT-OULTUEB IN THE UNITED STATES. As the subject of net profit from any kind of agricultural industry is the one which usually determines its adoption or rejection in every country, the question for our American farmers to determine in regard to this cultivation is : Does it pay or can it be made to pay 1 The an- swer to this interrogatory involves a number of considerations that must here be mentioned. However good the crops our farmers might be able to raise, they could not profitably dispose of them unless there were refineries to purchase them, and, unless the manufacture of sugar from the beet can be made a profitable industry in the United States, 418 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. refineries will not be built; hence the difficulty iu attempting to resolve this question. Of the paying results to the limited number of refineries now in the United States I have no knowledge and therefore can not venture an opinion upon the subject, nor have I any reliable data from which to judge of the profits of the continental refiueries, seeing that this is, as much as possible, kept a secret of the craft ; but as all beets raised by the farmers are freely bought by the refiners it is fair to assume that the manufacture of sugar from them is profitable, otherwise their culti- vation would soon cease. PROFITS OF CULTIVATION. The following facts showing the relative yield and value of some of the chief agricultural products of Belgium will, at least, indicate how the matter of profit stands with the farmers in this country. The aver- age yield of wheat, per hectare, is 1,675 kilograms; of rye, 1,460; of barley, 1,830; of oats, 1,500; and of beets, washed and cleaned ready for the refinery, 35,000 kilograms. The average price of wheat is 28.50 francs per 100 kilograms ; of rye, 23; of barley, 21; of oats, 19.80; and of beets, from 20 to 25 francs per ton. The estimate will give, per hec- tare, the following cash values of these respective crops, viz: Wheat, 477 francs; rye, 433; barley, 384; oats, 315; and beets, about 800 francs. Thus it will be seen that a hectare of beets will yield a cash value of 322 francs more than wheat, 367 more than rj e, 416 more than barley, and 484 more than oats. I am not able to give the exact proportionate cost of the cultivation of these crops in this country, but it may be accepted as a fact that the cultivation of a beet crop does not, by any means, involve an increased expenditure of money equal to the increased value of the crop raised over that of any of the cereals just named. From data now before me I fortunately can give an exhibit of the average cost and profit of this crop in Germany, and for this purpose have selected the following fig- ures, taken from an estimate made in the Duchy of Brunswick, where all the conditions of price of land, soil, climate, and cost of labor are probably as well adapted to this purpose as any other. Expense of citllh'ating per heolare. Franca. Seed and preparation of the soil 140 Plowing, harrowing, aud otlier cultivation X83 Artificial fertilizers 150 Rent paid to proprietor 150 Total expenses 623 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 419 Ileceipta per hectare. Francs. 28,000 kilograms of beots, at 27..'j0 francs per ton 770 35 per cent, of pulp, at 10 francs 98 Leaves and neck of plants for cattle food, valued at 50 Total receipts 918 Deduct expenses, including rent 623 Balance of profit to cultivator 295 This I doubt not would be as correct au average estimate of cost and profit for this entire continent as could well be made, and with it I leave the whole subject to the consideration of whom it may concern, merely remarking, jn conclusion, that if in any country this can be made a profitable industry it ought to, if scientifically pursued, be made so in the United States, where so much of both soil and climate favorable to it abound. Jno. Wilson, Consul. United States Consulate, Brussels, February 15, 1884. MANUFACTURE OF RAW SUGAR FROM BEET ROOTS (1888). BMP OUT BY CONSUL FALKENBAOS, OF BARMEN. The beet roots, which have been planted with the object of sugar pro- duction, are first of all conveyed, when their leaves have been removed, into the yard of the sugar factory. Here they are thrown into a canal (a) provided with descents in brickwork, or with metal gutters, through which they are borne by the rushing water into the washhouse, which constitutes the first stage of the factory. This beetconduit may besituated with advantage in a building known as the beet- root cellar, or beet-root house (&), whereby the beets are pro- tected to some extent from the influence of the weather. In place of the beet conduit a horizontal belt transporter is some- times employed, but it must be invariably roofed over. A distinct ad- vantage of the beet conduit over the transporter is that in the former the beets are not alone transported but also freed in the water from a portion of the impurities attaching to them without any being incurred. These conveyers, whether of mechanical or hydraulic construction,i bring the beets, as above stated, into that chamber of the sugar factory— the washhouse— which is utilized solely for washing purposes. The washing of the beet constitutes a very important element in the manu- facture of sugar, for the beets are thereby freed from mold, small stones, and other kinds of dirt attaching to them, and in consequence not only is the machinery employed in the actual preparation of the beets pre- served from injury but the sugar ultimately obtained is kept free from 420 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. impurity. So soou as the beets have been brought into the washhouse they are thrown into the washing machine by means of a raising wheel or a chain pump, or through a spiral passage (c) placed aslant. The last-named method has this special a^^lvantage, that it serves to wash as well as to convey the beets, and permits of the raising within an hour both the beets and water in which they are contained. There are two kinds of washing-machines, the drum-washer {d} and the bar-washer (e). The former consists of a cylinder rotating upon its own horizontal axis; the latter of an arm, or bar, likewise turning on its own horizontal axis. Both are mounted in a trough provided with cocks for admitting and leading off water, and in both there is a stone- catcher. In the washing apparatus the chief aim is to bring the beets as much as possible into contact with pure water, so as to be washed clean. The dirt and stones detached from the beets are deposited on the floor of the stone-catcher, or receiver, fixed to the back part of this machine, from which they are from time to time emptied out from below; the beets, however, are conveyed by a contrivance constructed for the pur- pose from the washing apparatus into the stone-receiver, by the arms of which their further transport is effected. The greater the area of the wash-machines the more thoroughly are the beets cleaned. It is ad- visable, therefore, to have two washing-machines placed one after an- other, and best of all two bar-washers, or one bar-washer and one drum-washer. In order to reduce the consumption of water in the sugar factory to the lowest possible figure, the water condensed from the steam given off from the boiling apparatus in the factory is utilized for the purposes of the conduit and washing the beets. The employment of this condensation water, which has a temperature of about 35° C, adds considerably to the effect produced by the wash- ing machine, and is quite indispensable when frozen beets have to be washed. In case the quantity of condensation water obtainable should prove insufficient it must, of course, be supplemented by the addition of fresh, cold water. With the mere washing of the beets the manufacturer is not con- tent ; provision is therefore made for the beets to be freed from those parts which are poor, or at least not so rich in sugar as the others, be- fore the process of extracting the juice begins. With this object the greenish upper part of the beet is cut away. This measure is of groat importance in Germany, for in that country the tax paid to the State by the sugar manufacturer on his productions is assessed on the weight of the beets, so| that he would be obliged to pay on the same scale for the portions which contained but a poor percentage of sugar as for the rest. In other countries, where the method of taxation is different, less importance is laid upon the removal of the grocn beet tops, and these are manufactured with the whole remaining portion. BEET-8UGAE INDUSTRY IN EUEOPE. 421 For the purpose of removing these tops and the pebbles and dirt which may have been torn up with them, as well as any rotten parts which the beet may contain, a caroussel (/), or broad transporter, is placed so as to receive the beets, which are thrown into it from the washing machine by means of the arms of the stone-receiver. This transporter is of wire and moves at alow rate of rapidity, so that the work- women beside it cau cut each beet and, as far as they are able to see, to remove with facility the rotten jiArts, the small stones, and all for- eign bodies. The caroussel is a circular sieve placed horizontally, through the apertures of which the water, of which a certain quantity is thrown in from the washing-machine, may run out. Around this caroussel, which moves very slowly upon its center, workwomen are also placed and perform exactly the same work as in the case of the transporter above mentioned. After passing under this thorough revisioji the beets are conveyed automatically from the caroussel to a perpendicular or slanting chaiu-pump (g), which provides for their passage from the wash department to the diffusion chambers. The waste, which the workwomen have separated out, is invariably put aside. There two kinds of chaiu-pumps, the dredge-pump and the chain-elevator, both of which consist of a number of cup-like vessels, which receive the beets from the caroussel and deposit them in a box called the beet-collecting box. They are distinguished from one another only by the kind of connection — belt or chain — between the different cups. The term collecting box is suflacient to explain that the beets are collected in this receptacle when the washing process is complete. Thence they are conveyed by separate lots in trucks running upon rails over a weighing machine [h), there weighed, and then drawn to the cutting or slicing machine (t), into which they are transferred. In Germany the weighing of the beets takes place under the control of the revenue authorities, and is to be recommended for factories in countries where a different system of taxation, or none at all, prevails, for solely by this means is the sugar manufacturer enable4 to ascertain the exact quantity of beets manufactured each day. Only the approx- imate weight of the beets can be arrived at by weighing them as they come from the field. Dirt and all other impurities removed during the washing process are, of course, valueless, but often amount to 30 per cent, of the weight of the beets. A previous weighing can, therefore, only serve the purpose of fixing the original weight of the quantity of beets employed for the sake of estimating the price. With the above mentioned cutting-machine we have reached one of the principal stages of actual sugar nianufacture, namely, the point at which the process for obtaining the juice comes under consideration. The system most generally adopted, and the one solely employed in new factories, is called the diffusion system (the manipulation of the beet root in slices), and is the only one which we propose to consider now. As the sugar juice, which it is intended to obtain, is contained in the 422 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUEOPE. cells of the beets, it is necessary to bring as many of the cells as poa.- sible into contact with water so that the latter may dissolve out the juice, an effect which is rendered possible by applying the process of diffusion to the beets after they have been cut up into slices. The lay- ing bare of the interior cells of the beets, which is produced by cutting the beets up into thin slices or lumps, is effected mechanically, namely, by means of the slicing-machine, which is thus seen to be one of the chief factors of the diffusion system. The slicing-machine consists of a disk, rotating horizontally on its own axis, and fitted with knives. By means of the rotation the knives catch the beets which descend upon them and cut them up into thin circles. The slices slip down beneath "the knives and fall into a transporter placed to receive them. The most celebrated and therefore the most generally employed cutting- machines are either stationary or depending, and driven by transmission gearing. Other kinds are known, but these are of inferior excellence. The knives employed are of very various construction, such as rib knives, goller knives, roof-rib knives, anchor knives, etc. If the beets have not been properly washed, and foreign, hard bodies, such as iron, stones, and such like, are brought into the cutting-machine, its knives are seriously damaged. These must then frequently be changed and sharpened and an interruption of the factory operations is the result. The cuts are also rendered bad thereby; they become irregular in shape, and it may be said that the diffusion suffers in consequence from indi- gestion. Hence the warning which must be given to expend as much care as possible upon the beet wash-house. The transporter into which the slices fall from the cutting-machine is called the fllliug transporter (_;■), as it serves to fill the diffusion vessels. This filling transporter is so arranged that one or the other of the diffusion vessels can be filled at will (in correct manufacture by rows), and is constructed of either a straight or a circular shape, according to the arrangement of these ves- sels. We have now come to the diffusion vessels, but before entering upon a detailed description of them we will first explain the nature of the diffusion which takes place in them. By diffusion, or osmose, is under- stood the process of exchange which goes on between two diflerent kinds of fluids of unequal degrees of density, contained in two differ- ent vessels, connected by a membrane. This diffusion, which takes place through a membrane, is called membrane diffusion, to distin- guish it from free diffusion, which takes place freely, that is, without any membrane. The beet juice is contained in the cells of the beets and each one of these cells is covered by a membrane. In this case, therefore, a mem- brane diffusion between two fluids — the juice in the colls and the water in which they are rinsed— is the only diffusion possible. In the case of the slictMl beets, the large quantitit s of cells contained in them must be considered, the process of diftusion being here somewhat dillereut than when only a single cell is concerned. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 423 In order to comprehend the process, let us imagine a number of cyl- inders tightly closed together on their circular surfaces, and with their contents for the present moment separate. This complex of cylinders, which are filled with juice, is hung in a vessel filled with water. The diffusion naturally takes place, first of all, with the two extreme cylin- ders, and then gradually advances from both sides towards the middle, until the juice in all the cells or cylinders has acquired, by means of exchange, the same density as the surrounding fluid in the vessel (originally water). When this has taken place the diffusion is at an end, but it can be repeated after the whole of the fluid, now of the same density, has been drawn off. In this way the cylinders can be lixiviated by constantly changing the fluid: also, new and additional complexes of cylinders can be lixiviated, when the drawn-off fluid is repeatedly re-employed. In the latter case a higher density or con- centration of the drawn-off juices is obtained. By this method the saccharine juice is extracted from the sliced beets. If now, instead of the vessel filled with water, a diffusion vessel be imagined, and, instead of .the cylinder tilled with saccharine juice, the cells in the sliced beets, which are conveyed from the cutting-machine to the diffusion vessels in the filling transporter, we have a mechanical explanation of the entire diffusion system. Temperature is a most influential factor in the diffusion process, for the higher it is the more rapid is the diffusion. At the same time it is not advisable to exceed certain proportions. In order to preserve the required temperature in the vessels in which the difi'usion is taking place, fore-heaters, or calorisators, are employed. It is not the object of these lines to describe in the minutest detail the nature of the diffusion, so that, after the above brief explanation, we turn back to the point at which the sliced beets are supposed to ar- rive in the diffusion vessels. The diffusion apparatus (Ic), or, to put it shortly, the diffusion, con- sists of ten to twelve vessels (the d'iffusers), as many fore-heaters, or calorisators, and the necessary valve and tube fittings. The complete diffusion apparatus is called the diffusion battery, and this can be constructed, according to arrangement, with vessels in one or two rows, or in a circle. If the diffusion battery is of one or two rows, the shape of the filling transporter is straight, and the cutting- machine can be placed at the side of the battery. In case of cir- cular diffusion, the filling transporter must also be circular, and the cutting-machine is placed either inside or outside the circle of the vessels, or in the center, in which case it is rotatory on its axis and fills each diffuser itself, so that a filling transporter is superfluous. In rare cases the entire diffusion battery rotates round the cutting ma- chine. The difiusers are cylindrical vessels placed in a vertical position, with water tight and hermetically-closing covers. In their upper apertiires 424 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. slices are tbrown in from the filliug- transporter, aud thus the diffuser is filled. Below, the diffusers are closed either by au hermetically- shutting lid or manhole, to empty the vessels of the lixiviated slices when the diffusion is completed. The filling of a diffuser with fresli slices lasts from 7 to 10 minutes, according to its size. With a battery of twelve vessels, one is always being filled and one emptied, while the remaining ten are operating. The diffused juice (about 60 per cent, in volume of the contents of the diffuser) is obtained by adding fresh, pure water under a pressure of one to one and one-half atmos- pheres to that diffuser which is about to be emptied. The water is " drawn from a reservoir [m) high enough to produce the required at- mospheric pressure, and into which it is raised by means of a water- pump (I). By separating out, by means of a compression pump (m i) applied from the last diffuser but one, the juice collects and leaves the diffuser, which is being filled with fresh slices, with a condensation of about 11 degrees Brix, and at a temperature of about 30 degrees 0. This temperature is attained by the application of a system of pipes filled with steam. In these pipes circulates the juice, which streams through from diffuser to diffuser, and which is thus previously heated. These pipes constitute the above-mentioned fore-heaters, and the ex- tent of their heating surface is in accordance with the length of time consumed by a diffuser in acquiring the necessary grade of warmth, and the extent of the difference of temperature between the steam and the juice. In the first six diffusers the juice is always maintained by fore-heat- ing, at a temperature of about 70° C, but from this point the tempera- ture declines, so that the last diffuser which is emptied has a tempera- ture of about 30° C, aud can therefore be manipulated. The quantity of juice drawn off from time to time is always a constant one. Continuing its journey, this diffusion juice arrives in a fore-heater (w), in which it is heated to 60° or 50° C, by steam produced in the last vessel of a steaming apparatus, which we will describe on a subse- quent occasion. After this the juice arrives in a second fore-heater (o), which is heated with the spent steam of the steam-engine, and is there heated to 90° C, and is then conveyed into a measuring cask {p). Before passing on to the further process of manufacture, to which the juice now obtained is subjected, we will turn back once more to the difi'u. sion battery, in order to follow the road which is taken by the residue remaining over from the diffusion. The juice having left the diffusers, the latter contain only the lixiv- iated slices, which have been deprived of the greatest portion of their juice. By opening the lids or manholes at the bottom, the slices are emptied out of the diffusers, and this operation takes place in the same order as the previous lixiviation. The diffusers are also rinsed out and tilled with fresh slices. The lixiviated beet slices, which fall below, are received either iu a brick gutter placed aslant and washed BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 425 into tbo slice-presses by the water pouriug out with tliem, and in which they have been rinsed, or they are received on a transporter {q), the shape of which is in accordance with the construction of the diftusiou battery, and which, from time to time, runs beneath it and conveys away the slices to the presses. If the presses are not set up immediately beneath the diffusion bat- tery, but above it, the slices must be conveyed by means of an elevator (r) from the battery to the presses. There are various kinds of slice- jiresses, the construction of which differs. They all, however, have the object of separating, as much as possible, the water contained in the slices, and whicli amounts to about 95 per cent., so that the slices may be utilized as fodder for cattle. The water extracted by the presses is not supijosed to contain more than 3 per cent, of sugar. If it should be proved that the percentage is higher, more care must be expended on the diffusion process, and either a better lixiviation of the slices must be effected or the water remaining over from the previous lixivi- ation must be retained in the diff'users and the latter filled with fewer slices. Latterly it has been found possible to dry the lixiviated slices very thoroughly by a means of a slice-drying apparatus, the employment of . which has proved highly profitable. The quantity of matter resulting from the drying process has thus been raised to its maximum, an effect not previously attainable by means of the presses. The drying of the slices has raised their value considerably as fodder, for the surplus water which they would otherwise contain interferes with the nourish- ment of the cattle; moreover, wet slices easily become rotten. Let us now return to the diffusion juice, which we had accompanied as far as the measuring cask and there left. In the measuring casks a fixed quantity allotted one diffuser is measured off and allowed to run out for saturation. Saturation, or separating out, consists in the treat- ment of the diffusion juices with lime and carbonic acid, whereby the uonsaccharine substances are partially precipitated and partially de- composed, the remainder being preserved unaltered in solution. These uonsaccharine, i. e., foreign, substances are present in the juice in con- siderable proportions and interfere with the crystallization of the sugar, which they can, in fact, actually prevent ; and for this reason pains must be taken to remove them from the juice. There are three processes of saturation. For the first saturation (s) the diffusion juice is brought from the measuring cask at the same tem- perature as that obtained in the foreheaters, through which it has already passed. It is then mixed with the milk of lime of a concentra- tion of 20° Beaum6, in the proportion of about 2J per cent, of lime to 97J per cent, weight of the beets. The action of this milk of lime is to decompose the juice and to combine with various organic substances (nonsaccharine), which are thereby separated out from the sugar juice. The lime is immediately afterwards precipitated by means of carbouie 77A 3 426 BEET-SUGAH INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. acid, whereby a certain quantity of nonsaccbarine substances are me- chanically precipitated, too, and tlie fluid, originally thick and clouded, becomes perfectly clear and bright. The first and also the two subse- quent stations are conducted in a number of circular or polygonal ves- sels. The process of saturation being complete the juice is drawn through sahd-catchers (t) by means of a lye pump, which conveys it under i)res- sure into the filter presses (w) of the first saturation, where the precipi- tated substances or lye is received. The filters, or lye presses, are classified according to their construc- tion as chamber and frame filter presses. They consist of a number of four-cornered plates (in the case of chamber presses) or of plates and frames (frame presses), over which cloths are stretched. The lye is deposited between the plates or in the frames, while the tiuid passes through the cloths before leaving the press, and is thus filtered. This juice as it flows out passes through foreheaters, in which its tempera,- ture is raised to about 25° 0. preparatory to undergoing second satura- tion (v). It is then treated once more with milk of lime in the propor- tion of about IJ per cent of lime to the beets, then s.iturated, and after- wards drawn once more through a sand-catcher by means of a second lye-pump [to), and pressed into the filter presses of the second satura- tion. There the juice passes through exactly the same process as in the first presses and flows out to undergo the third saturation {y). Previous to the third saturation the juice is warmed by means of fore- heaters to about 15° G. and then treated in the saturators with sulphur- ous acid, which is obtained by burning sulphur in special sulphur-kilns, constructed near to the saturators, and which is forced into them by means of a pump. After the third saturation the juice is conveyed, by means of a third lye-pump, through a third sand-catcher («), and then ^rced into the filter-presses of the third saturation. There the precipi- tate is also deposited as lye, while the juice left over is raised at a con- centration of about 9° to 10° Brix into a reservoir (B), placed above, for containing the diluted saccharine juice, by means of a pump (A) specially employed for this purpose. The lye which has been left behind in all the three filter presses is first of all washed in clean water under pressure from the same reser- voir used in the process of diffusion. This water is then added to the juice contained in the difi'users and undergoes the same process to which the juice is subsequently subjected, or it is conveyed by means of a small pump direct into the reservoir m which the diluted juice is con- tained. The lye contained in the presses is subsequently submitted to an evaporating process, but this measure is not absolutely necessary. The presses are opened and the lye transferred from them on a small carriage running underneath or in a transport worm to the lye-wagon, or it is thrown down the l.ve transport-worm and then removed from the factory. The lye still contains at this stage about 5 per cent, of BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 427 sugar and constitutes a serviceable product in agriculture as a fertilizer. Among its component parts are phosphoric acid, albumen, and a quan- tity of lime. The question now presents itself, how do we obtain the requiied milk of lime and carbonic acid? These two products are obtained together from a limekiln (0). This limekiln consists of a hollow circular chamber of incombustible material, provided with furnaces and delivery apertures, and is generally placed in the open air in the factory yard, or in what is known as a " closed building " The lime and the carbonic acid, are obtained in this kiln by calcining limestone (or chalk). The limestone destined for this purpose is drawn up in an elevator (D) to the highest point of the kiln or "mouth," as it is called, and through an aperture in this mouth, provided with a lid, is thrown into the kiln alternately with quantities of coke. The coke is added to accelerate the calcination of the limestone. By means of this calcining process the carbonic acid, also obtained as a lye product, collects in the uppermost parts of the kiln mouth and is Xjumped out by means of an air-pump, which is known as the carbonic acid gas-pump (U), and which is placed inside the factory. The pump-conduit, which connects the pump with the kiln, passes on its way through a washing-vessel {F), the object of which is not only to cool the carbonic acid, but to free it from all impurities with which it may be mixed, such as dust, but above all from sulphurous acids. The carbonic acid gas obtained from the limekiln is mixed in the proportion of about 23 per cent, of pure carbonic acid with large quantities of nitrogen, superfluous air, sulphurous acids, and steam. The washer is a cylindric.il or conicallyshaped vessel, filled to about half of its depth with water, above which there is a perforated plate sup- porting pieces of limestone. The carbonic acid gas is conveyed through a small tube into the water, and when it has passed through both the water and the sieve it is pumped, by means of a carbonic acid gas pump, through a desiccator, in which the water caught up in the washer is re- tained. The gas is then pressed into a receiver and thence transferred to the'saturators. The calcined, or quicklime, is drawn off in strata from the openings at the bottom of the kiln and allowed to cool in the open air. As soon as possible, wheu cooled, the lime is slacked with pure water, and with the aid of a lime-slacking apparatus (of various construction), the re- sulting milk of lime (at about 20° Beaum6) being passed through a sieve, which retains the impurities. The milk of lime is then trans- ported, by means of a pump, to vessels specially placed for its reception above the saturators. The diluted juice, which we left in the reservoirs, is there warmed by steam, and is then run into the evaporating appa- ratus ( (r). In the evaporating apparatus the concentration of the diluted juice is carried out; for, after the diffusion, this juice has been diluted to about 9° or 10° Brix by the addition of the milk of lime and the sweetened water from the filter presses. The temperature of the juice, 428 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. when it arrives ia the evaporating apparatus, where it receives a tem- perature of 50° Balling, is about 75° 0. The concentration of the diluted juice is effected by evaporating the water which it contains. The evaporating apparatus consists of one or more vessels, according as its effect is single, double, triple, or quadruple, etc. The more ves- sels there are in the evaporating apparatus the more economically it works; that is to say, the greater is the economy of steam. Not alone, however, does an economy of steam result from employing the greatest possible number of vessels, which, of course, represents the maximum heating surface, but there is a further and consequent economy of coal in the boiler-house, while the heating of the apparatus is effected mainly by slightly rarefied steam of about IJ atmospheres, and also by the spent steam from the steam engines. The steam,' moreover, which pro- ceeds from the boiling juicu in the first vessel, serves to heat the second vessel, and so on through the entire series. Owing to the decrease of- pressure in the evaporating apparatus, the boiling point is lowered. Water which boils, under normal conditions, at 100° C, boils at a lower temperature when the pressure upon it is less. If it be desired to keep the boiling point constant, the pressure of the increasing con- centration of the juice must be lessened. As an example for illustration let us take the quadruple effect. In-a quadruple effect, about a quarter of the quantity of water contained iu each vessel is evaporated ; in the case of a triple eftect, one-third, and' so forth. It is thus seen that the concentration increases from vessel to vessel, and in the particular instance we are discussing reaches its highest point — 50 per cent. Balling — in the fourth vessel. The steam produced by the evaporation of the water iu the first vessel streams into the heating chamber of the second vessel, which it heats, at the same time that a portion of the water of the juice (as already stated, about the quarter of the total quantity of water\o be evaporated) is likewise con- verted into steam. This steam heats the chamber containing the second vessel, evaporates the water again, and the resulting steam finally heats the fourth vessel, whence the steam produced by the repeated evapora- tions is let free. The first vessel, however, is heated with steam of about ij atmospheres. The vapor produced by the evaporation of the juice in the first, second, third, and fourth vessels, and so forth, leaves the last (iu the special case considered above the fourth) vessel at a temperature of 60° C, and can be economically employed for heating the first fore-heater, through which the diffusion juice passes previous to saturation. The vapor can then be condensed. The juice, which has attained to a cer- tain concentration in the first vessel, is then drawn off into the second, then into the third, and finally into the fourth vessel, whore it is con- centrated to 50 per cent. Balling, and henceforth known as concentrated juice. The quadruple effect here described, inclusive of the heating of the BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 429 first fore-hoater, which receives the diirasion juice by meaus of the vapor proceeding from the evaporating vessel, is a very simple affair. Highly complicated combinations may, however, be arranged, and it is possible to further utilize to some extent the vapor proceeding from the first, second, third, and fourth vessels of the quadruple apparatus which we have been describing, and even to em])loy it according to need or desire for fore-heating -or evaporation — that is to say, decoction. The con- struction of these evaporating vessels is of various kinds. As a rule, however, they consist of cylindrical vessels, either in a vertical or a horizontal position, and provided with a system of heating pipes. Latterly the Wellner-Felinck system has been most generally em- ployed, and its capabilities have as yet been unsurpassed by any other system. In this apparatus the vessels are of a box shape and are fitted with horizontfil heating pipes. As an example, it may be stated that one square meter heating surface in a quadruple apparatus of this sys- tem suffices to evaporate 22J kilograms of the water contained in the juice in one hour, while with other evaporating apparatus the maximum weight is 17 kilograms. In order to evaporate 100 kilograms of water from the juice 26J kilograms of steam are required by the Wellner- Felinck apparatus. It is clear, then, that with this apparatus the greatest economy in steatn and, therefore, in the coal required for the boiler is, up to the present date, attainable. The steam which streams through the heating system of the various vessels in any kind of evaporating ai^paratus is invariably condensed to water. In order, therefore, to prevent this condeused water from filling up the entire heating system in the course of time and thus hin- dering the heating surfaces from operating, some means must be found for getting rid of this water, and this is done in the following manner: From the first vessel of the evaporating apparatus, whether the lat- ter produce a quadruple or a triple effect, the coBdensed water obtained from the spent steam or direct from the boiler steam passes into a tightly-closed receiver, in which all the remaining waste water from steam of approximately the same expansion throughout the entire sugar factory is collected. This receiver is known as the waste- water tank, and is provided with an automatic or ball cock, which regulates the outflow of water and any accompanying outflow of steam. The water collected in this waste tank is conveyed by means of a pump into the feed-water tank, and being at a fairly high temperature serves for feed- ing the steam-boiler. From each of the other vessels of the evaporating apparatus the condensed water flows into a special vapor receiver, is thence pumped through a ball cock {H) valve (to prevent any steam coming, too) into a reservoir, and may then be employed for slaking lime, for feeding the boiler, or, finally, in the beet conduit, and for washing the beets. The evacuation of the heating system in the evaporating apparatus 430 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. is effected by means of small tubes leading from one vessel to the other and connected with the condenser. The vapor receivers are also evacu- ated by means of small tubes and the air contained in them is also passed into the condenser. The evaporating apparatus itself is freed of air by the aid of an air pump {I), which is required for bringing the juice to a boil at a lower temperature than 100° 0. The air pump, however, is not connected directly with the evaporating apparatus, an additional vapor receiver being inserted in the exhaust tubes, in which the vapor from the other boiling apparatus — which still remain to be described — collect, together with the vapor from the evaporating apparatus, and pass into a con- denser. Here they are condensed by the injection of cold water from the reservoir, which was previously made use of in the diffusion proc- ess. This condensed water is employed in the initial stage of manu- facture for washing and conveying the beets, and possesses a tempera- ture of about 35° G. The condenser is connected with the exhaust pipe of the air pump, while the force pipe of the latter machine puffs out, into the open, air which the pump has withdrawn. There are two kinds of condensers, the wet and the dry, which differ from each other by their construction and their application. The air pump which operates with the wet condenser is also called the wet air psmp, while tlie dry condenser is in its turn connected with the dry- air pump. The wet condenser is situated close to the air pump, at the upper end of the factory, and sucks in the interjection water it requires from a maximum depth of 6 metres. In this case, however, the air pump is employed for getting rid of the injection and condensed water and of the noncondensed gases. As it is the part of the air pump to dispose of all the water, the wet condenser can be employed in cases where this water can find no further vent. If, however, the water does not find a vent, the dry condenser must be employed. In this case the condenser is placed in an elevated position. Water is injected into it which condenses the vapor from the juice, while the noncondensible gases and air are drawn off by the dry-air pump, which takes up no water in this instance. The condensed and injected water leaves the condenser through a pipe which leads down into a waste-water tank, and may then be utilized, as already stated, for washing and conveying the beets. The dry condenser must be placed at least 10 metres above the waste-water tank. The juice contained in the last vessel of the evaporating apparatus (in the case we have assumed, the fourth vessel) and concentrated to 50O Balling is called concentrated juice or sirup, and is raised, by means of a sirup pump (TT), to reservoirs (X) placed high up, and there kept warm by means of steam. Prom these reservoirs the sirup flows into the sirup presses (M), which are of a similar construction to the lye presses already described, or, in place of presses, the sirup may be run through filter bags and filtered. After the filtration the concentrated BEKT-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 431 sirup flows into a special reservoir, whence it is drawn off, either direct from the vacuum apparatus or from the first boiler. The sirup presses must be placed aboat three metres below the reservoir containing the uu filtered sirup. For the purposes of explanation we will take the case in which the concentrated sirup passes into the first boiler, or fore vacuum as it is called, and then into the vacuum apparatus. The first boiler consists of a series of vessels of the same kind as those of the evaporating ap- paratus, and serves, by means of the use and economy of steam, to fur- ther concentrate the juice which actually passes into the vacuum boiler. It constitutes, therefore, a sort of fifth vessel, supplementing the quad- ruple effect of our evaporating apparatus. This first boiler, however, is not heated by the steam proceeding from the fourth vessel of the evaporating apparatus. It receives a portion of the vapor which passes from the third to the fourth vessel. As, however, an extra quantity of vapor is required for this purpose, more water must be added in the, necessary j)roportion to the first three vessels of the quadruple evapo- rating apparatus, and the latter must possess correspondingly large evaporating surfaces. In this case each vessel of the quadruple apparatus will not have merely to evaporate about a quarter of the water in the diluted juice, but the first three vessels will have to evaporate a large proportion. From the reservoir the filtered concentrated sirup now passes into this " first boiler "at a concentration of 50 percent. Balling. It receives the name " Concentrated sirup No. 1," and undergoes a further concentra- tion to about 63 per cent. Balling by evaporation of water. When the sirup has attained to this degree of concentration it is drawn off by means of pneumatic suction direct into the vacuum-boiler, or is transferred by means of a second concentrated sirup-pump to the reser- voir set apart for " concentrated sirup No. 2," and is thence conveyed to the vacuum boiler. The vacuum boiler (N) consists of a vertical, cylindrical, or ball-shaped vessel, with a conical base, containing heat- ing worm tubes. Latterly vacuum boilers have also been built of a box shape, with horizontal heating tubes (Wellner-Felinck system). These boilers can be heated with steam obtained direct from a steam- boiler, with spent steam, or vapor from the evaporating apparatus in various combinations, according to the distribution of the entire evap- oration. The object of boiling the juice is for the sugar to separate out in crystalline form. The product of the boiling may either be " clear" or in crystals. This depends on the purity of the concentrated juice. By "clear boiling" is understood the production of a thick sirup, which only deposits crystals when it has been removed from the vacuum boiler and allowed to cool. During the boiling ^process the sirup is perfectly clear. If the concentrated juice has been badly filtered, a quantity of nonsaccharine matter is retained in it. In this case clear boiling is the sole process possible, as a direct crystallization 432 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTliV IN EUROPE. < <^ (I) < Oh 3 1 c 0) o ff /^ D 1 1) V^ BEET-SUOAE INDUSTRY IN EUEOPE. 433 " p. rt^3 ^ C 3 _ ■ a o N g, t^ ■" bf 3 2 (D ■- « t^ «'5 rt «M p,P i S •-•-&? ." S 3J iH e e-.2 S & ■a °= E-S^S S o .S "ts o- td 2 •- ._p..t< rt (3 i' 9 -I) a 8 5 «-<5 a, It 2 b o 434 BEET-SUGAE INI>USTRY IN EUROPE. of the sugar can not then be effected. If, however, crystals are formed during the process of boiling (which can only take place after efQcient. filtering), direct crystallization is aimed at. In the latter case the yield of crystals is much larger than with clear boiling, so that this method is universally adopted when the purity of the juice permits of' it. The concentrated sirup No. 2, which has been conveyed into the vacuum boiler (in the example we have assumed), leaves the latter with a concentration of 95 per cent. Balling; that is to say, that the mass obtained from the vacuum boiler has been fixed by the evaporation which has taken place of all but 5 per cent, of its water. The steam produced in the vacuum boiler by the evaporation of con- centrated sirup No. 2 passes into receivers, which also contain the vapor given off from the evaporating apparatus, and the whole of this steam and vapor is then condensed to water in a condenser. The vacuum boiler is connected with an air-pump (O) similar in con- struction to the first one employed in the evaporating process, and both of these operate on the common condenser above mentioned. A general air-pump of large size is also occasionally employed and serves both for the evaporating station and the vacuum boiler. The mass obtained from the vacuum boiler contains, therefore, already 95 per cent, of sugar, which has now to be obtained. It is open to employ either clear boiling or direct crystallization, according to the nature of this mass, which has also to be manipulated in one of two particular ways. Before considering further the manii)ulation to which this mass re- quires to be subjected, it is as well to state beforehand that the mass can either be manufactured into raw sugar (with which it is the object of this treatise to deal) or direct into consumption goods. Eaw sugar consists of sugar crystals hanging loosely together, of a color varying between yellow and brown, which have to be purified or refined before they can be employed for consumption. The sugar of consumption, on the other hand, consists of white sugar crystals in close conglomera- tion, and comes into commercial circulation in various forms. Not always is it possible to manufacture the product of the vacuum boiler direct into consumption goods, in which a certain degree of purity has to be attained. Eaw sugar, however, can be produced in any case. It is with the manufacture of raw sugar that we have hitherto been concerned and to which we shall now limit ourselves. For the production of raw sugar, then, the mass produced in the vacuum boiler can be equally well employed, whether clear boiled or crystallized outv In our description, however, we will only concern ourselves with the latter case, which is by far of the most general oc- currence. The mass obtained from the vacuum boiler is first of all placed in a re- BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN EUROPE. 435 frigerator (P), which consists of a trough provided with a stiirer and a refrigerating jacket. This construction is of the latest and most ap- proved kind. The mass, or rather the sugar crystals of which it con- sists, must now be separated from the sirup, so that raw sugar may be obtained, and this is effected in the following manner: The mass is transported in quantities at a time from the refrigerator into a mov- able jar (Q), or onto a horizontal transport-worm (E), and then con- veyed to the centrifugal machines. A centrifugal machine consists of a cylindrical drum, over which is stretched a finely perforated sieve, and which rotates with great rapidity on its own axis. The mass placed in the drum is pressed against the sieve by the action of centrifugal force, and the fluid sirup escapes tlirough the small apertures. There are various kinds of centrifugal machines. In respect, how- ever, of the safety afforded to the workmen engaged on the machine, apart from its intrinsic excellence, the Panzer, or armored centrifugal, is the best. For preventing accidents, which may be caused by over- loading the drum, this part of the machine is so constructed that it may be emptied from the bottom, whereby its capabilities are also somewhat increased. The sirup having been disposed of, the yellow sugar obtained is called the " first product, " and this, having been emptied out of the drum, is placed upon a transporter (S) running horizontally, which conveys it to an elevator (T), by means of which it is transferred onto a sieve (TJ), where it is freed from lumps which it may contain. The raw sugar is then packed in sacks and sold for manufacture into con- sumption goods. As a rule, about 68 or 70 per cent, of raw sugar is obtained from the mass produced in the vacuum boiler. A commencement is now made with the manipulation of the after- products, the sirup eliminated in the centrifugal machine, and which is known by the name of "green sirup" and constitutes from 30 to 32 per cent, of the mass produced in the vacuum boiler. In order to crys- tallize the sugar contained in this green matter, a further boiling is re- quired. First of all, the green sirup, as it runs from the centrifugals, is pumped into certain reservoirs, and after passing through foreheat- ers, arrives in a vacuum boiler, or sirup- boiler, as it is sometimes called. In this case, as with all subsequent decoctions of sirup, clear-boiling can alone be effected, the impurity of the sirup being so great that direct crystallization is impossible. The sirup- boiler closely resembles the vacuum boiler (in some cases is identical with it) and is provided with a system of warming-tubes. The steam produced by the boiling of the sirup passes over to the receiver already referred to, and subse- quently into the condenser m company with the steam and yapor from the evaporating apparatus and vacuum boiler previously used, and is there pondensed to water to be used as waste-water. The sirup-boiler is heated either with spent steam from the steam engine or with vapor 436 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. from the evaporating vessels. The sirnp contained in it, and which shows 73 percent, of sugar by the sacebarometer, is condensed to about 90 per cent. This apparatus has also to be connected with an air-pump, which operates, together with the other air-pumps previously men- tioned, on the common condenser. The best arrangement, however, is to provide the evaporating sta- tion with a special air-pump, and the sirup-boiler and vacuum boiler with one in common. The green sirup is boiled from day to day, and the mass obtained from it by evaporation, and which shows 90 per cent, of sugar by the saccharometer, is called the " second product." This clear- boiled mass is then transferred from the sirup-boiler into receptacles, called reserve receptacles {v), and placed in a warm room. Here it re- mains for about ten days in order to crystallize out. When the crystal- lization is complete the product is raised in an elevator and placed in tip-trucks, which convey it to a mash machine (W), which is provided with a smasher. The object of the mash machine and the smasher is to pound the larger crystals small. The second product is then conveyed by means of a suspension line (Q), or a transport- worm to the centrif- ugal machines (X) specially constructed for it. These centrifugals are built on the same plan as those used in the manufacture of the first product, but their drum diameter is, as a rule, somewhat smaller^ The mass placed in these centrifugals is treated in exactly the same way as in the former case; the raw sugar remains be- hind in the drum and the fluid which runs out is pumped up into the afterproduct chamber. The raw sugar thus obtained is called raw sugar of the second product, and is only distinguished from raw sugar of the first product by a less robust grain. About 25 per cent, of' sugar is contained in the green sirup, which is called sirup of the sec- ond product. Having left the centrifugals, this sugar goes through ex- actly the same i)rocess as its predecessor, the sugar of the first product. The mass separated out from this sugar in the centrifugals contains about 75 per cent, of nonsaccharine matter. It is drawn up by means of a pump into the reserve receptacles (v), and afterwards decocted once more. The separated sirup is transferred from the reserves into the sirup-boiler (exactly as before), and there concentrated from 73 to 90 per cent., the resulting mass being called " third i)roduct." This mass is brought into reserve (v) in the afterproduct chamber, where it remains for about thirty days, in order to crystallize out. After this crystallization it goes through exactly the same process as in the pre- vious case, raw sugar being finally obtained, which is called raw sugar of the third product. Of this raw sugar, the third-product mass con- tains about 10 to 18 per cent. This raw sugar is brought into the mar- ket in the same way as its two predecessors. The sirup separated out by the centrifugals (about 82 to 84 per cent, of the entire mass) is also in this case pumped into reserve receptacles in the afterproduct chamber and afterwards sold as molasses (if this BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE. 437 has not already taken place with the simp of the second product), or Lt is decocted a fourth time (in the same way as iu the previous cases) and the sirup finally remaining over from this last operations old as molasses. The mass of the fourth product produced from this sirup in the sirup- boiler must remain in the afterproduct chamber for some months, as a rule, until the next campagne, at a temperature of 50° (J., to render the separation of the sugar of the fourth product a feasible task. As we have mentioned molasses, we may as well consider this prod- uct a little more closely for a moment. Molasses is the last sirup formed in the manufacture of sugar, and on account of its high per- centage of nonsaccharine matter can form few or no sugar crystals even after lengthy stocking. It is therefore sold to spirit-distillers or, if the local conditions are favorable, once more manipulated for the ex- traction of the little sugar which it contains. By employing a sugar- eliminating process (the Steffen separating process is the simplest and best), almost all the sugar contained in the molasses may be ob- tained. We must refrain from describing this process, for the American patent of the same has been secured for the CTuited States by Mr. Glaus Spreckels, of San Francisco, and the process, therefore, can only be employed by that gentleman. In conclusion we may remark that all the individual machines em- ployed in the sugar branch are constructed in as many different ways as there are machine-factories to make them. Of course these varia- tions are only of an unimportant character, but at the same time we must take this opportunity of recommending specially one firm which concerns itself solely with the construction of all kinds of machinery and apparatus for employment iu all branches of sugar-manufacture, whether from beets or cane. The name of this firm is the Maschioen- fabrik Langen und Hundhausen, in Greveiibroich (Rhenish Prussia), Its manufactures have always found fullest approval iu the sugar-fac- tories where they have been employed. Most of those practical and simply constructed separating apparatus on the Steften system employed in the manufacture of raw sugar are obtained from this firm. Joseph Falkbnbach, Consul. United States Consulate, Barmen, November 24, 1888. 438 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN EUROPE, Eaiimaled cost of a ieet-sugar factory consuming daily (24 hours) 300,000 Myograms of beets, hy Messrs. Langen ^ Hundhauaen, in Grevenbroiclj, Rhenish Prussia. a a 'A Machinery. Esti- mated weight. Esti- matid cost. 1 One spiral beet-conveyer, 1,000 centimetres iliaineter and 8,000 centimetres long, with wheel work, propelling power, and grappling-irons, complefo . One beet-washing machine, 1,400 diameter, 3,000 centimetres long, stone- Kilo- grams. 8,000 B, 000 25, 000 Marks. 2 3 The iron pieces for a beet-elevator. 12 meters long, with iron trestle-work. 1 Diffusion and boiling-house. One beet-cutting machine, with receiving and throwing-out hoppers, gear- ing, steel spindle, mounted knife-disk (without blades), 3 lifting cai.s to 5 Twenty-four lifting bars, mounted with receiver, exclusive of blades (re- 6 The diffusion battery, consisting of 12 wrought-iron vessels, 1,400 centi- meters, 2,100 holes in straight plates, with connecting wrought-iron ad- .justage, upper and lower manhole cover, buck6^cha^ger, and sieve bot- tom, complete ^ 7 Twelve single calorisators of 4 square metres heating surface in drawn brass pipes, inclusive of stop-valve, 25 centimeters diameter, escape-valve, 20 centimetrf^s diameter, with thermometer, complete 8 Thirty-six diifusion -valves of 125 centimetea-s diameter, with rising spindle. Twelve tapping-valves, 100 diameter, with wronght-iron lengthening spin- dles, cast-iron column, with lever 9 10 Twelve valves, 50 diameter, for air transmission 11 Twelve air-disoharging cooks, with curves, 25 diameter la Complete pipe system of diffusion battery for juice, water, steam, andair ; the diameters worked and bored corresponding to the valves at Nos. 8 9 10, and 11 ;. 13 Impermeable rubber and screwing apparatus for the pipe system, valves, and man-hole covers of the diflu nion battery 14 Three hose cocks, 30 diameter, for water 16 The worked I iron supporters for I he d iflusion battery 16 One complete chip-flUiup: transportiT with wooden gearing, without girdors- The iron pieces for a horizontal chip transporter below the diffusion appa- ratus, without girders IV 18 One horizontal working-machine, 400 diameter, 700 strokes, with Dr. Proll'a regulator, Mayer's expansion, with grappling-irons, complete 19 One horizontal steam pump for cirbonic acid, with two air compressors at- tached, to serve the diifaeion and sulphur furnace.s , steam-cylinder, 400 diameter; carbonic acid cylinder. 700 diameter; air compressor for diffu- sion, 200 diameter; sulphur furnaces, 120 diameter ; piston for ioint use 700 millimetres ' 20 Eleven saturation vessels for first, second, and third saturation, of 2,600 2,200, and 1,200 (broad), inclusive of lime-meaauring vessels, armature', and transmission _ 21 Three stone catchers between saturation and lye-jfump 22 One horizontal triplicate lye-pump for the three saturations ; eteam-cflin- i'i Seven filter presses, with thirty chamiiers each, fur tlie first and seeond sat- urations, and two filter presses, with twenty-four chambers each, for the third saturation 24 Two sulphur furnaces, with charging pans, compression stop-valves, and air transmission, complete 2b One triple-effect evaporation apparatus, Wellner-Feiinck system- I body 200 square metres ; II body, 200 square metres ; 111 body, 200 square me- ture, evaporating liquor conduit of pipes, and three reservoirs fur the condensed steam, with armature 26 Horizontal steam-pump machines, consistlngof cold-water pump with side- ways attached; pnraps for condensed steam, thin juice, simp and cdiil- coralion; water pump, with air-pump behind; steam-cylinder, 550 centi- metres diameter ; cold-water pump. 350 diameter, double acting ■ con- densed steam-pump, 175 diameter, double acting; thin- juice pump 175 diameter, double acting; sirup-pump, 175 diameter, double autmg- ednl- coration water-pump, 160 diameter, double acting; air-pump 850 dianin- ter, doulile acting; engine for joint use, 700 millimetres, comiilete with grappling-irons ' "" ' "'^" 27 One feed heater for condensed steam from evaporated juice iso square metres heating surface, in drawn brass pipes, counter construction, com- plote, with armature h'ertu^al); one feed heater for direct steam of the same construction, 45 snuiiro metres heating surface, complete One vacuum, Wflluor-Folliick system, heldiug 15,000 kilograms fced'ing fluid, of 70 square metres heating surface, ooustructod for direct and re- verse steam, complete, with armature BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN EUROPE. Eativiated cost of a beet-svgar factory, etc. — Continued. 439 Machinery. Diffusion and hoiling-house^CoDtmnad. One Birnpyacnuro, with vertical pipes of 60 square metres heating snrface, complete, with armature, for direct and reverse steam Two horizontal cooling mash-basiuSt with elliptical stirring apparatus, to hold 10,U00 kilograms of tluid, with water-cooler, gearing, etc., complete.. One wrooght-irou cataract condenser, with recoodensation, 13,000 diameter, 2,200 centimetres high. Total of Nob. 4 to 31, inclusive Sugar-hoitse. Six armor-plated centrifngal machines, with tambour, 960 diameter, 470 millimetres high, with wrooght-irou jacket reacliing to the ground, com- plete One feeding carriage, with sliding utop-valve, and suspension track above the centrifugal One plunger pump, foi' tran.smission, of 100 diameter, 150 strokes . Que horizontal machine, 350 diameter, 700 strokes, with Dr. Froll's regula- ttir and Mayor's expansion, complete, with grappling-irons One horizontal mash furb> products, with a crushing machine, SOOdiameter, 1,200 centimetres long Ten cr,v8ialli7.atIon veasola of sheet-iron, with sliding stop, of 10 square me- tres volume each for first produce ; twenty-five crystallization vessels, of 18 square metres volume each, for second produce The iron pieces for two complete cable elevators, with English chains, etc. Total of 32 to 38, inclusive Esti- mated weight. Kilo, grams. Lime station. The iron pieces for a limekiln, with three coke fnrnaces, complete, with wTOUght-iron casing The iron pieces for a limestone elevator, with stool, English chains, etc., without wooden gearing One wrought-iron laver lor cooling and washing the carbonic acid, with sieve, bottom, manhole cover, etc., complete Three wrought-irun, lime-slacking vessels, with stone catcher, delivery valve, etc One wrought-iron lime-milk settling vessel, No. 3 x , lame-niilk stirring apparatus in wrought -iron box, with bedding, geaTinp-, etc One plunger-puiiip to carry the linn'-niilk to the saturation, 120 diameter, 180 strokes. Total of 39 to 45, inclusive Boiler house. Seven steam-boilers of 00 square metres heating surface, with the necessary armature, according to the legal requirements of the German Government. One horizontal steam feed-pump, with governors ; steam-cylinder, 300 diam- eter; pump cylinder, 200 diameter; strokes. 400 millimetres ; complete, with grappling-irons ; one hand-feed pump.jBO diameter, 200 strokes One feed-water reservoir of wrought iron, 1,400 diameter, 3,000 centimetres long, with safety-valve, water mark, etc Transmission for the whole factory works. Total of 46 to 49, inclusive — Grand total (at 23.8, $76, 746j. Esti- mated cost. Marks. 188, 278 72, 275 322, 463 440 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGAEY. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1867. BEPOBT BY OONSTjLaENEBA-L I^OUT, OF VIENNA. The production and the export of beet-root sugar is increasing, and the history of its increase is best shown by the following table: Table showing the quantity of beets taxed and used during the last three years in Austria. Season of— No. of facto- ries in oper- ation. Quantity of beets taxed. Amoant of tax col- lected. Average quantity of beets us6d by one fac- tory in the tliree years. Average amonnt of taxes paid by one fac- tory dnring tlie three yeara.* 143 138 138 Yienna cwt. 18, 040, 561 l.i, 612, 209 19, 105, 874 Florin). 7, 387, 609 G. 393, 199 7, 823, 855 Vienna cwt. \ 125. 916 _ m. kr. 51, 562 60 Ifififi '67 - * The tax on beets is at the^rate of 40.95 kreutzors per Vienna centuer. A Vienna hundred-weight is equal to 123.4616 pounds. Table showing Austria's sugar production, consumption, export and import, during the las thirty-three years, from 1834-'35 to 1867. Colonial Tor the Average quaLtily Amount of Average import of Sugar ex- sugar im- ported and beet- root Amount of sugar Aver- ago No. ot facto- season of— of beets taxed per year.* produci'd per year.* colonial sugar per year.* ported per year.* sugar pro- ductions, less the ex- portation per year.* Population. sumed per person.? of loaf sugar. ries in opera- tion. 1834-1839 606, 016 30, 270 518, 193 38 548,425 38, 000, 000 1.5.! 44.25 37.2 1839-1844 1,. 577, 995 78, 875 574, 470 89 504, 316 35, 444, 400 1.42 38.00 42.6 1844-1849 1, 729, 280 103, 757 568. 955 150 672. .'•.62 37,160. 100 1.81 38.00 59.4 1849-18.'i4 5,196,896 311,814 787, 478 324 1,093,968 36,451,000 3. Ill 39.20 97.6 1854-18.'.9 11,712,692 820, 080 581, 489 88 1,401,481 36, 7U,0U0 3.00 41. 90 119.2 1850-1864 17, 798, 429 1,246,09U 71, 125 21,058 1, V96,157 36,917,200 3.51 39.60 135.2 1864-1867 19,201,861 1, 344, 138 2,115 506, 074 840, 177 35, 650, 000 2.36 30.32 139.4 * Custom cwt. t Custom pound. Sidney Post, Consul. United States Consulate-General, Vienna, December 31, 1867. BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 441 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY- 1870. REPORT BT aONSTTL-aBNEUAL POST, OF VIENNA. The production of beet-root sugar iu the Austro-Hungarian monarchy has been as follows : Vienna centners. Florins. 1868 20, ma, 937 21, 982, 209 S, 202 618 9,001,713 1869 1, 951, 272 799, 045 Shortly after the opening of the sugar campaign in 1868 and 1869, alarming reports were spread abroad concerning the quantity of beets, indicating that there were insufQcient supplies even for home consump- tion. Unfortunately no official and trustworthy contradiction was made of these reports, though, in consequence of the tax levied upon the beets, it would have been easy to have given such official denial. In the month of January a combination was formed, and the price advanced more than 10 per cent., but it soon became evident that the old beet crop had been underestimated, and the old prices were again restored. ROBERTS'S NEW INTENTION. A former report, published in the Commercial Kelations of the year 1867, page 513, contained a description of Eoberts's diffusion process for extracting sugar from cane or beets. That invention required what was called a "battery of diffusion," consisting of a number of vessels which were filled with a certain quantity of the sliced cane or beets, and through which water, heated to a certain temperature, was forced in a certain succession and systematic order requisite for the complete extraction and proper concentration of the diffusion juice. Mr. Roberts has now perfected this invention, or rather made a new in- vention, and this diffusion process may now be carried on in a single ves- sel through the instrn mentality of a feeding apparatus, by means of which the slices of cane, beet root, or other plant from which the sugar is to be extracted ate introduced at the bottom of the vessel, and in which they slowly and gradually rise to the top, while fresh water isconstantly run- ning in at the top of the diffusion vessel, and after having remained in contact with the slices for a sufficient length of time, and having extracted the sugar therefrom, it is drawn off as diffusion juice at the bottom. The water in its gradual descent through the entire length of the diffusion vessel passes through all the stages of gradual increasing concentration which are obtained in the diffusion vessels of a diffusion battery, and the slices in their ascentbecome gradually extracted in a corresponding man- ner, so that the whole process of extraction is effectively carried out in one single vessel. Mr. Eoberts has tried his invention at his sugar factory on a large scale, and has found it to work to his entire satisfaction. P. S. Post, United States Consulate-General, Consul- General. Vienna, September 30, 1870. 77a 4 442 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTKIA-IIUNGAKY. AUSTRIA-1873. BEPORT BY OONSVL-aENEBAL POST, OF VIENNA. The remarkable inveution of Julius Eoberts for extracting sugar, de- scribed in former reports published in the Commercial Eelations, 1867 and 1870, has proved itself to be a most useful and important one. The diffusion process is applicable to extractiiig sugar from cane as well as from beets, and a large amount of machinery is now on the way from this Empire to Louisiana, for the introduction of the process in our sugar-producing districts. The favorable reception this diffusion pro- cess has received in the beet- root manufacturing countries is best indi- cated by the following table, which shows its rapid and general intro- duction : Table showing the nnmier of manufactories which have adopted the Roberta diffuston process. Tear. C9 1 t Id a u ■a 1 1 s 1 a 1 i i M i i 1 El 1865 . 1 3 10 13 14 27 37 24 ...... 2 2 15 23 11 6 1 1 3 9 11 24 45 39 18 8 1 6 6 8 12 12 15 23 2 1 9 1867 . 3 3 4 6 6 9 10 15 lfl68 1 1 19 1869 2 1 36 1870 57 1871 54 1872 . .... 1 1 41 1873 10 129 G4 42 2 4 1 1 158 85 243 United States Consulate-General, Vienna, September 30, 1873. S. Post, Consul- Qeneral. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY— 1885. REPORT OF riCE-OONSUL HiJNING, OF PRAGUE. A direct shipment of beet-EOOt sugar was made a few weeks ago from this consular district to the United States, the first one of this kind. As this industry is of the greatest interest to America, I applied to the chamber of commerce, to the board of trade, and to other oflBcial sources for information on this subject, the result of which I submit herewith. There are few countries in Europe of the same extent and population for which the beet-root sugar industry has equal importance and sig- nificance as Bohemia, not alone on account of the prominent position which this branch of industry occupies, but also on account of its bear- ing on the rational cultivation of agricultural lands, the breeding of BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 443 cattle, the adoption of machinery, and the opening of new conimunica. tions. Statistics show that the prosperity and decline of the Bohemian sugar industry affects to a greater or less extent the banking institutes, the coalmining interest, and the spirit manufactories. The Bohemian sugar industry is greater than that of all the other provinces of the Empire, Hungary included, taken together. Official statistics show that during the campaign of 1883-'84: the en- tire number of sugar factories in Austria-Hungary was 230, of which 152 were located in Bohemia; and that of the entire quantity of 41,845,679 metrical centners of beets on which a tax was levied before they were manufactured into sugar, 26,178,845 metrical centners fell to the share of Bohemia alone. The following table shows the quantity of beets converted into sugar, the Government tax levied, and the number of factories in Bo- hemia during the last ten years : 1874-'75 187E-'76 1876-'77 lB77-'78 1878-'79 1879-'80 18d0-'81 1881-'82 1882-'e3 1883-'84 A.Terage Number of facto- ries. 145 160 149 152 161 130 162 155 154 152 151 Quantity of beets. Met. cent. 5, 344, 100 8, 581, 660 9, 725, 560 15. 297, 910 17, 619, 500 18, 266, 150 2!.<,081, 510 28,327,110 31, 968, 280 26, 178, 845 18, 939, 002 Amount of tax. Quantity. Tax. Florins. 3, 907, 434 6, 263, 352 7, 099, 654 11,167,474 13, 862, 230 13, 334, 227 22, 465, 210 22, 661, 685 25, 574, 628 20, 943, 076 14, 627, 897 Average amount of eacu factory. Met. cent. 36, 856 67, 211 65, 272 100, 644 118, 685 12 k 774 184, 747 183, 756 207, 586 172, 229 125, 424 Florins. 26,948 41, 756 47, 619 73, 470 85, 180 88, 895 147, 797 149, 234 166, 060 137,783 96, 873 Exports of sugar from Bohemia on which the Government bounty was paid. [In mettical centners. J Tear. Keflued. Powdered. Total. 1875 . .,,, 38, eos 114, 387 99, 979 120, 892 136, 448 167, 776 269, 897 316, 095 464, 930 467, 564 446, 981 763, 365 850, 669 745, 154 1, 219, 751 1, 481, 559 1, 689, 370 1,101,664 1, 257, 373 1, 552, 534 485 676 877, 752 950, 648 866, 046 1, 356, 199 1, 649, 334 1877 1879 , 1860 1881 1, 859, 268 1882 • 1,417,659 1883 1, 722, 303 1884 2, 020, 098 219, 666 1, 100, 832 1, 320, 498 The bounty paid by Government in 1884 for sugar exported from the countries represeuled in the Keichsrath amounted to 23,313,408 florins, for sugar exported from Hungary to 1,011,877 florins, and from Bohe- mia alone to 19,977,076 florins, of which sum 6,400,372 florins was for refined and 14,576,734 florins for powdered sugar, while in 1883 the 444 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRfA-HUNGARY. amount paid for bouuties for exports from Bohemia was 17,184,482 florins. During the campaign 1884-'85 there were in operation in the entire Austrian Empire 249 sugar factories, of which number 165 were situ- ated in Bohemia. Of these latter 50 were owned by joint stock compa- nies, 3 by large corporations, 2 by the Bohemian Sugar Industrial Soci- ety, 60 by the nobility, 3 by the Emperor, and the rest by private par-; ties. Machintry employed by the sugar factories of Bohemia and of Aasiria- Hungary during thet campaign 1883 to 1884. Items. Entire Empire. Total number of factories Total number of steam-boilers . . . Heating? surface in square metres Motive power: Steam horse-power Water 230 1,912 157,273] 25,809 31 Quantity of beets converted into sugar, and the expenses of manufacture and fuel, during the campaign 1883 to 1884. Items. Fresh beets used . - - Manufactured sugar Molasses Fuel: Coal Charcoal Gohes Wood Spodumene Bohemia. Quantity. Met cent. 26, 178, 169 619, 904 1, 336, 840 12, 195, 702 295 87, 414 155 229, 009 Average price per metrical centner. Kreuzers. 100-200 80-190 190-400 120-175 360-500 72-20 Entire Empire. Quantity. Met. cent. 41, 845, 079 765, 844 1, 3S3, 880 831, 151 295 118,444 18, 125 365, 897 Average price per metrical centner. Krevzeri. 95-200 28-18r' 190-400 103-175 200-500 11-20" During the campaign of 1883-'84 the number of persons employed; in the sugar manufactories of Bohemia was 30,580 males and 11,332 females, and in. those of the entire Empire of Austria-Hungary 46,683 males and 20,024 females, whose daily wages average from 35 kreuzers to 1 florin; 80 kreuzers per day for males, and from 20 kreuzers to 1 florin 20 kreuzers for females. The Government tax on beets for the same period of time amounted, to 20,942,535 florins for Bohemia and to 33,476,543 florins for the entire Empire. * The extraction of the juice iu the 152 factories of Bohemia took place by means of what is known as the diifusion process, while the old method of employing grinding and powerful presses was adopted by twelve factories situated in other parts of the Empire. When sugar first became an article of export the Government paid a certain bounty or drawback, which in 1800 was 5.16 florins on the cent- ner of refined and 4.20 floiiiis on powdered sugar, in 1864 the bounty was increased to 6.51 florins on refined and 5.30 florins on powdered BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTEIA-HUNGARY. 445 sugar, and the bounty paid at present is 8.40 florins on the metrical centner of sugar containing from 88 to 92 per cent, of saccharine mat- ter; 9.40 florins on the metrical ceutner of sugar containing from 92 to 99J per cent, of saccharine matter, and 11.55 florins on the metrical cent- ner containing more than 99^ per cent. The financial calamities caused by the crisis in the sugar trade in the fall of 1884, the unforeseen collapse of the Bohemian " Boden-Credlt- Anstalt," which caused the closiQg of a number of sugar factories depending entirely upon-that institution for support, and the consequent lack of faith on the part of the Bohemian and Moravian growers, ren- dered a further existence of this branch of industry for some time ex- tremely doubtful. A long time was required before matters became more settled aud confidence restored, and even now it has not yet entirely recovered. It is now admitted on all sides that the crisis was caused by an excessive cultivation of beets and an irrational over- production of sugar in Bohemia and other sugar-producing countries of Europe, and that the gradual improvement is due solely to the move- ment in favor of a reduced cultivation of the sugar beet. The prospect, however, that the Bohemian sugar industry will fully recover from the disastrous blow it had been made to feel, is made problematical by the fact that this branch of its industry js con^ned almost to export alone, and that foreign legislation, repeated increases in the rates of tariffs and customs, as well as obstacles in the means of communication and transportation, all tend towards driving the Bohem- ian sugar from foreign markets without opening new fields, and home consumption being as yet far too little developed in proportion to the number of population to make it remunerative, the more so as the fru- gality of the people is proverbial and not likely to undergo a sudden change. The consumption of sugar in Austria is calculated to average 6 kilo- grams for every inhabitant per year, but in Bohemia, where* coflee is in great demand, it is a fraction over 6 kilograms. From the following statement, compiled from ofiflcial statistics fur- nished me for this purpose, may be learned the actual present condition of the beet-root sugar industry of Bohemia and of Austria-Hungary during the campaign of 1885-86 : Itema. Bohemia. Entire en- terprises. Factories in operation Pactories closed* Ketineries in operation Eefineries closed Extraction of jnice by diffusion . Extraction of jnice by pressure • ExclilBively powdered sugar Refined and powdered Exclusively refined sugar. Exclttsively pil6 Molasses 214 14 15 3 203 11 144 35 44 6 229 * There are six factories aside from tbeae where resumption of business is doubtful, bat likely they will remain closed. 44:6 BEET-SUGAR INOUSTEY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGAEY. Table showing the average price of the metrioat centner of sugar in Austrian currency (florins) and the London, rate of exchange, during the ten years from 1876 to 1H85. Boscription, etc.' Powdered sugar, basis 88 per ;cent., at Bohemian railroad station' la. Centrifugal piI6, free transit, Trieste Fine brod molasses, from Vienna rail- road station London rate of oxcbange ...*. 1876. 28.05 30.2: 43.00 45.12 «.50 1878. 31.43 32.00 44.50 120. 12 1879. 29.90 30.00 42.50 117.20 36.00 33.37 47.12 116. 82 33.92 31.00 42.50 1882. < 1883. 33. 00| 30.05 32. 00, 29. 25 28.77, 19.42 27.25j 17.25 1.00 30.87, 4'.;. 00 40.00 43.12 'ti.vv ov.tn 117. 7411H. 03119. 44 121. 00 123.40' I I - TOTAL AVERAGE DURING THE TEN TEARS. | Powdered sugar, basis 88 per cent. , at Boll emian railway station » 31. 64 Iff. Centrilugal pili', free transit, Tiiesto 30.68 Fine brod molasses, from Vienna railway station 44. 29 London rate of cxcbange 119. 31 The greater part of the sugar exported from Bohemia is sent by way of the river Elbe to Hamburg, and from there to England. Other markets are Holland and France, though legislation in these two last- mentioned countries has seriously injured the trade of late ; the export to Italy has also suffered in consequence of the higher rates of duty imposed, the gradual development of domestic production, and the competition made by Ilussia. The chief markets for Bohemian sugar are the Balkan States, Servia, Eoumania, Bulgaria, and Greece, Turkey, and the Levant, where it not only occupies the first position, but has even succeeded in driving its rivals and competitors, England and France, almost entirely from these markets, and it is only quite recently that Eussia begins to boom up as a competing power. Some shipments even found their way to Persia, to ports of the Eed Sea, and to Ceylon, as well as to Tunis and Morocco. Several attempts have been made to gain a foothold in the markets of the West, and several shipments were made to Spain, to the La Plata States, and other South American coun- tries, and one to the United States, but there is not the slightest doubt that a great deal of the "German sugar" shipped from Hamburg to the United States is Bohemian product; and as soon as the investigations I am now making to find out this proportion have placed me in posses- sion of the necessary information, I shall immediately place it at yonr disposition. \ William Ili'NiXG, ' Vice-Consul. United States Consulate, Prague, Bohemia, February 6, 1886. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 447 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY-I889. THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY OF BOHEMIA. REPORT BY COMMERCIAL AQENT BAV/ES, OF REIOBENBERa. INTRODUCTORY, During the year ended June 30, 1888, the United States imported sugar, including molasses and confectionery, amounting to $7*9,760,891. So little sugar is grown in the United States, indeed, that it has been' proposed to remove the duty on this article upon the ground that we have no sugar industry to protect. The Department of Agriculture has for years, with the aid of Con- gress, been endeavoring to establish a substitute for sugar cane by the cultivation of sorghum. While the latter experiments seem to show that sorghum can be successfully cultivated and manufactured into sugar in the United States, I desire to call attention to a subject that has passed beyond the stage of experimentation in Europe, and which, indeed, meets the indorsement of so practical and successful a manu- facturer as the well known Glaus Spreckels. According to this au- thority, sugar-beet culture can be successful and profitable just as much on the Atlantic slope as on the Pacific, in the Mississippi Valley as in California. Why should we pay x)ut $80,000,000 yearly for an article that we can easily produce ourselves? Clearly our efiforts should be directed to the development and pro- tection of such an iiyiustry until we may be able to save the enormous sum now paid to foreign countries, if not eventually to supply those countries themselves with sugar. It has been my aim to make the following report so complete that the practical farmer, as well as the theorist, may become interested in the subject and find all the details necessary for his information. I have also described briefly the process of manufacture. With this preface I will pass directly to my subject, and first call at- tention to the CULTIVATION OP THE SUGAR BEET. The sugar beet {Beta vulgaris saceharifera) is a variety of the class Beta vulgaris linncei, and belongs to the family Ghenopodiacece. It has become biennial by cultivation, and there are many varieties. The conditions required of a good sugar beet are — (1) Eegular shape (cone, pear, or olive shape). Many side roots or prongs are disadvantageous, because they make cleaning more difficult and increase the waste. The leaves should be thick and should be of the characteristic shape and color, and those which lie flat are to be preferred as protecting the beet against frost. (2) A medium size, say, 1 to 2 pounds. Small beets make a small 448 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. crop, while large beets contain comparatively little sugar. The length slioald not be more than 35 centimeters. The crop should not be less than 30,000 kilograms to the hectare {2j acres). (3) Rich in sugar — from 9 to 16 per cent. (4) A white, compact, brittle substance. Such beets are more re- sistant to destruction by storage. A small head not protruding from the ground, as this head must be cut off, containing, as it does, very little sugar. It is. very important to select the proper variety for a given district, because the different economical conditions of climate and soil require different varieties, if the largest possible crop is to be harvested. It is, therefore, quite necessary for every farmer to experiment with different varieties. VARIETIES OP BEET. The varieties which fulfill the above conditions are — ■ (1) The white beet of Silesia. — This beet was formerly the best sugar- beet; today it is only used where large quantities are required, as it does not contain as much sugar as some other varieties. This beet re- quires an excellent soil. (2) The Quedlinhurger. — This beet is distinguished as ripening 14 days earlier than most other beets, so that in localities where an early frost is the rule this beet is to be preferred. (3) The Imperial. — This beet is excellent for deep, good soils. It has now three offspring : (a) The white Imperial, by Knauer. (b) The small Wanzlebner, which has a high percentage of sugar. (c) Brothers Dippe small Wanzlebner. (4) Knauer Electoral. — This is good on soils otherwise unfit for beet cultivation, as hilly lands and poor alluvial soils. (5) Knauer Mangold. — This beet at present contains the highest per- centage of sugar. (6) Vilmorin. — This beet is very valuable, as it produces asufBcieut percentage of sugar on low lands rich in nitrogen, and in soils where all other kinds are valueless. The offspring of this variety are — (a) Vilmorin blanche amelior^e. (6) Vilmorin rose partial. (c) Vilmorin blanche collet rose. (d) Vilmorin collet verte race braberut. (c) Brothers Dippe white elite — very rich in sugar. (/) Besteborn's Imperator, which is not recommended, as it has the faults of the Vilmorin, i. e., too many side rootlets and not sufficient sugar. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 449 CLIMATE. In Europe the sugar beet is successfully planted between the forty- seventh and tifty-fourth degrees of nortltern latitude ; in Germany, be- tween the iifty-flrst and fifty-fourth ; in France, between the forty-sev- enth and fiftieth; in Austria-Hungary, between the forty-eighth and fiftieth ; and in linssia, between the forty-eighth and fifty-third degrees. Like all plants, the sugar beet requires certain conditions of climate to arrive at perfection. According to the experiments Of Briem, director of the experimental station in Grusbach, Moravia, concerning the distribution of warmth and rainfall dnring the period of vegetation of the sugar beet in the first period, i. e., in the first two months, the time of germinating, the daily temperature was 10.70° C; in the second period (the time of develop, ment of the vegetative organs), 18.8° 0.; and in the third period (in which the storage of the reserve substances takes place), 16.5° G. ; and during the whole vegetation, 15.3° 0. The total warmth in the first period was 650° C.; in the second, 1,160° C. j, and in the third, 1,000° O. The rainfall was in the first period 97 millimetres; in the second, 114 millimetres; and, in the third, 100 millimetres; together, 311 millime- tres. The sugar beet needs much warmth and light, sunny days, and a certain ainount of nnoisture. The best climate for sugar beets is the so-called " wine climate," with a temperature from 9° to 10° G. in April and May, 17° to 18° 0. in June and July, and 15° and 12° in August and September, respectively. The seacoast is not warm enough and has not enough sunny days in June and July to be successful for sugar-beet raising. For the first period of vegetation it is necessary that a certain amount of winter moisture be in the ground, as the seeds need moisture to ger- minate. In the second period warmth and moisture are required for the production of roots and leaves. In the third period, in which the sac- charification goes on, dry warmth. If the days be sunny, the beets will become rich in sugar ; but if this period be wet the crop will be great in quantity, but poor in quality. If, after a dry summer, a warm and rainy fall follows, new leaves spring up at the cost of the sugar. SOIL. The best soils for qualitj^ as well as quantity of production, according to the experiments of Orth, are those that consist of mild, moist loam about 50 centimetres deep, then loam or marl 1 to 2 metres, and, under this, sand. Such soils, which are easy to cultivate, have a high degree of absorption, can combine nourishments, and give the plant physically a good start. Such soils are called " natural sugar-beet soils." It is possible to raise beets on soils that do not have all these quali- ties, but the crop will be better the nearer this standard is approached. 450 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The conditions required for a good sugar-beet soil are — (1) Depth, because the roots mostly take their nourishment from a depth of 30 centimetres, and the soil must therefore be loosened and contain nourishment up to this depth. (2) Porousness of the subsoil, because it is impossible to cultivate a damp, cold soil at the right time. Such a soil will become cracked jLf very dry, and the young plants suffer, while the beets will contain little sugar. In such a case drainage must be employed. Clay soils can be improved by manuring, by the use of lime, and drainage; light soils, , by manuring and loamy marl. Leplay found that the heaviest beets will be raised in descendant succession from clay, lime, loam, and sand soils ; beets with the greatest percentage of sugar, in lime, clay, sand, and loam soils ; the most leaves, in sand, clay, lime, and loam soils. According to experiments of Marek, the more moisture in the soil the greater will be the development of leaves. This influence is stronger in sand soil than in one of clay. The normal development of the root depends upon organic matter in the soil. The more moisture there is in the soil the looser the texture, the poorer the quality, and the less sugar will be in the beet. The following soils are adapted for the culture of the beet, if they have a gqod subsoil : Loamy soils, mild, clayey, or sandy, and clay marl. Of clay soils, the mild and loamj^ ones ; if the amount of clay is excessive the soil must be made suitable by manuring. Strong clay soils are useless for beets, but clay-marl soils are good, Sandy soils are least adapted to the cultivation of the sugar beet, with the exception of loamy sand soil not deficient in humidity and the subsoil possessing enough water-holding power. Lime soils are, with the exception of loamy lime soil, not good for beets. From moist soils are raised good quantities, but poor qualities. The best locations for sugar-beet- planting are on level or only slightly slojMng lands, because work is done best on such lands and it is impos- sible for the beets to be swept away by heavy rains. TRANSPORTATION, MARKET, AND LABOR. Sugar beets are, in relation to their weight, cheap, and therefore it is not possible to transport them great distances. They should, there- fore, be planted not far from the factory or the railway. The calcula- tions of Settegast (Germany) show the influence of transportation upon beet-raising. His results show that, if 50 kilograms (112.5 pounds) of beets cost 25 cents, transportation on country roads costs SJ cents, and by rail 0.625 cents, for 1 German mile, or 4 English miles, therefore, beets are worth nothing if (ihey must be carried 26.68 miles on a country road or 160 miles by rail. It is very important to have laborers enough, as it is impossible to do all of the work by machinery. The best way to provide laborers is BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 451 to give them work the whole year — in winter in the factorj', in summer in the field. One man (Gorman) ean do in a day's work of 10 hours and for a day's pay : Sowing by hand after the marker, 0.15 to 0.075 acres; cultivating the young plants, 0.75 to 0.10 acres; hilling np by hand, 0.15 to 0.20 acres; thinning out, 0.10 to 0.125 acres; harvesting and loading, 2,250 pounds. Contract work, one-third to one fifth more. MANURING. The sugar beet, of all the cultivated plants, needs the greatest amount of nourishment in the soil. It is, therefore, very necessary to use such a manure as will supply it with the best nourishment and in such a condition that it cau be taken up by the beet. Possibly some soils are rich enough to do without manuring, but this seldom occurs. There are cases where beets have been raised in the same fields for 10 successive years without fertilizer, and yet good crops have been obtained. The ability of the sugar beet to disclose and take up nourishment is not very high, and, therefore, if a large crop is desired, inuch manure must be used. Manure must be used that will increase the percentage of sugar as well as the quantity of the crop. According to E. Wolft', in 1,000 kilograms of sugar beets are — Constitnents. Roots. Leaves. Water Nitrogen Ashes Potassinm Sodium ' Lime Magnesia Phosphoric acid Snlphnric acid. . Silicic aoid Chlorine Kilonramt. Kilogramg. 815 897 1.6 3 7.1 15.3 3.8 7 0.6 2 0.4 3.1 0.6 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.2 1.6 0.3 1.3 If we calculate per hectare (2.5 acres) 30,000 kilograms of beets (67,500 pounds) and 7,000 kilograms (15,7o0 pounds) of leaves, there is removed from the ground by beets — Description. Nitrogen. PotassiunK Phosphates Kilograms. 21 Kilojrams. 114 28 Kilograms. 27 5 Total 69 142 32 STABLE MANURE. The direct application of stable manure to the beet is not good, be- cause the beet will then not ripen at the right time, and the quality •will be poor. Stable manure should not be put in the soil in the spring. It should be plowed under in the fall. The manure of sheep is worth- 452 BEET-SUQAK IND^STEY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. less, as it contains too much nitrogen and potassium, and the amount of salts in the beets is so increased that they are hardly fit for the fac tory. Manure of cattle can be used if mixed with that of horses. This manure contains sui3licient nourishment, but the amount of nitrogen in proportion to phosphoric acid is too high. This should be 1 to 2, but in this manure it is just the contrary. The amount of manure usually needed per hectare (2.5 acres) is between 20,000 and 40,000 kilograms. According to a table by Wolff there is produced in the ground by applying 30,000 kilograms of manure 150 kilograms nitro- gen, 78 kilograms phosphates, and 189 kilograms potassium. From this nourishment the result of applying freshly decomposed manure is, in the first year 35 to 50 per cent.; in the second year, 40 to 35 per cent.; in the third year, 25 to 15 per cent. An average crop of sugar beets (30,000 kilograms) needs 69 kilograms nitrogen, 32 kilograms phosphates, and 142 kilograms potassium. Compost is a very good manure, but it is not good to use any sugar beet soil in its prepara- tion, as it may contain nematodes. FERTILIZING. In applying fertilizer, not only the crop but the quality of the beets will be better if it be used alone or employed to modify stable manure. Generally nitrogen, salts, and phosphates are used ; exceptionally, po- tassium. According to P. Wagner the following amount of phos- phoric acid and nitrogen should be used : Description. Minimum, per hectare. Mean per hectare. Maximam per hectare. Dissolved phosphates . Nitrogen Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. 80 60 If nitrogen, as Chile nitrate, is used, then there will be needed 150 kilograms minimum, 250 kilograms mean, and 400 kilograms maximum. TIME FOR MANURING. Manuring should always be done as early as possible in the fall. The longer the manure has been in the ground before the vegetation of the beet the greater will be the amount of nourishment and its distribution. Experiments show that manuring in spring is wrong, and there are many reasons why. For instance, if the season is dry the manure can not decompose, the ground remains loose, and consequently the young plant suffers for water. On the other hand, as soon as a heavy rain comes after a drought the leaves grow very fast, but the plant does not ripen well, and a large crop is raised, but of a poor quality. If the manure is not decomposed, the work in the field can not be done in good shape, and insects have a good refuge. On heavy, loamy soils" fresh manure is good for loosening it and allowing the air to enter. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTBIA-HUNGAEY. 453 How deep to put the manure. — It is best first to put the manure iu the ground as shallowy as possible, because it decomposes better until the deep plowing is done. The more nitrogen the beet finds iu the first period of its vegetation the better. The less nitrogeu found iu the grouud in the first period the more will be taken up in the last period, and that means a loss for sacchariflcation. The following table shows, by the experiments of Liebscher, that the crop may be increased without losing iu quality if the manure be prop- erly applied and the beets planted closely: Manare per heotaie. Sap. Suear Quot'?"' ougar. j^ purity. Crop per hectare. None 20,000 kilngratns. 30,000 kilosrams. iu,000 kilograms. Per cent. 18.4 16.3 16.4 16.2 Per cent. 89.1 87.4 88.8 89.1 Eiloe. 31, (IC5 34, 785 35, 435 42, 100 The more nitrogen there is in the soil the less fertilizer will be re- quired, but the more phosphate. The increase of the crop by fertilizing with nitrogen is, according to experiments by "Wagner, 100 kilograms Chile saltpeter with 15J to 10 kilograms of nitrogen increases the crop about 4,500 kilograms of beets and 900 kilograms of leaves. Fertilizing with nitrogen should take place ouly when enough phosphate, lime, and potassium is in the soil, because large and good crops can only be expected when these sub- stances are present. Whether enough phosphate is present can only Tbe learned by experiment. Fertilizing with nitrogen should only be done in the spring. Chile nitrate should always be preferred, and the following rules should be observed: (1) A good variety must be planted. (2) Seeds should be obtained from the best sources. (3) In addition to Chile nitrate, phosphate must be added, or the crop will mature too late. (4) Fertilizing with Chile nitrate should be done before sowing, not after. (5) Beets must be thickly planted and cultivated four or five times. According to the calculations of Stutzer, the use of more than 400 kilograms to the hectare of Chile nitrate does not pay. Professor Marker has experimented upon the influence of phosphates with the following results : Phosphates do not always produce an effect. If the soil is super- saturated with it it can cause loss. This has often been observed by practical farmers. The cause is that P2O3 quickeus maturity or causes an early death of the leaves, and that may lessen the crop, especially in a dry, rainless season. Ten experiments have given the following results: 454 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Fertilizer. (Jrop per hectare. Increase. Without phosphate (P2O3) 400 kilograma precipitate SaperpBosphate (PaOs — 76 to 80 kilograms) 400 kilograms Thomas slag 1,000 kilograms Thomas slag Kilos, 32, 063 3), 456 35, 346 33, 589 34, 750 Kilos. 2,303 3,283 1,526 2,693 There is not much difference iu the effect of the various phosphate fertilizers so far as sugar in the beet is concerned. If it be necessary to use phosphate fertilizer in spring, superphosphate is always to be preferred. SPREADING THE FERTILIZER. Spreading broadcast has been found to be better than drilling. There are, however, drills which have an attachment for drilling fer- tilizer. It is very important to put the fertilizer in the right depth. Practical experiments have shown that it should not be used after sowing. In using Chile nitrate a shallow harrowing in sufBcient, because the next rain will carry it deeper. Potassium and phosphate, which are absorbed immediately, must be put deep enough so that they will not evaporate. This can be done with a sharp harrow, or, better still, by shallow plow- ing. It is said that a depth of 20 to 22 centimetres is the best. The following table shows the results of different depths in sandy loam per hectare : Depth. -^ Tear. 10 to 12 cen- timetres. 20 to 22 cen- timetres. DiflFerence. 1881 Kilos. 32, 674 36, 217 65,726^ Kilos. 38,543 39,030 69, 596 Kilos. 5,869 2,813 3,870 Per cent. 17.90 7.77 &89 1882 1883 MIXED FERTILIZER (PHOSPHATE AND NITROGEN). Of these are used, Peruvian guano (7 per cent, nitrogen to 10 per cent. P2O5), ammonia superphosphate, blood manure, with superphos. phate. Bonedust is seldom used, as its effect is too slow ; if used, it must be applied in the fall. Although most soils have potassium enough, it may occur that lands where beets are raised every year may need it. The direct application of potassium salts to the beets is not good, because all these salts con- tain a chloride which injures the plants. The best is to give potassium mixed with stable manure two years before the beets are planted. When thus mixed the ammonia is kept from becoming volatile. Wwe.— -Quicklime is a good fertilizer, especially on very heavy soils which it loosens. For 1 hectare 2i to 40 kilograms should be used. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 455 For sandy soils marl is excellent, the best containing 30 to 50 per cent of lime. The amount of marl needed for 1 hectare, if coutaiuing 30 per cent, of lime, is 220 kilograms ; if containing 50 per cent., only 130 kilograms. PREPARATION OP THE LAND. The sugar beet needs well cultivated land. First, a surface loose and fine, which allows the air to enter and facilitates germinating and swell- ing; second, deep, loose, uniform soil, because the beet should develop a slender root without side rootlets. Both can be obtained only by good cultivation. Cultivation differs according to the soil. The following suggestions are of value: Loosen the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. If the subsoil be not good, this is doubly important. The depth should be from 30 to 40 centimetres, and a plow similar to that shown in plate 3 should be used. To begin deep plowing, 30 centimetres, will be deep enough. After several years it may be made 40 centimetres, but should be deepened only gradually, because if too much dead soil comes up the land is ruined for at least one year. Deep plowing should always be done be- fore winter, so that the frost has time to work on the soil. Steam plowing. — By the introduction of the steam plow an implement was put into the hands of the farmer the work of which can not be equaled. The reasons why the steam plow works so well are — (1) By the speed with which it operates the soil is well mixed and pulverized. (2) The depth of all the furrows is the same. (3) It plows to any depth, especially in heavy soils, which would re- quire a large number of animals. Generally the soil is loosened to a depth of 35 to, 40 centimetres, and the plants are enabled to take nour- ishment from a larger quantity of soil. (4) In dry seasons soils plowed by steam retain longer their humidity. In wet seasons the water descends quicker to the subsoil. The steam plow increases the crop and renders it certain. (5) The animals leave footprints (four oxen make about three hun- dred and sixty thousand in plowing 1 hectare), and therefore cause a not unimportant loss. (6) It is possible to work in spring and fall, when with animals it would be impossible, (7) A large number of animals can thus be used for other purposes. If we consider that with a steam plow 3 hectares can be plowed in a day, while with a common plow one-third of a hectare can be gone over, then nine common plows are needed to do the work of one steam plow; and, as four oxen are needed for each plow, 36 oxen would be employed, and a^ they should be used only half a day, 72 oxen would be required, and their work is not equal to that of one steam plow. The excellent work of the steam plow can increase the crop of beets 456 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTEY IN AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY. from 4,000 to 5,000 kilograms per hectare. The cost of plowing by steam is between $11 and $16 per hectare for a depth of 32 to 40 centi- metres. Deep plowing can be done in such a way that two plows go one after the uther, the first cutting 15 to 20 centimetres deep and the second 10 to 18 centimetres. Another way to loosen the deeper soil is as follows : The land is plowed from 15 to 20 centimetres, and laborers then spade up the deeper soil from 20 to 24 centimetres, the under soil being scattered over the surface. This method is expensive, but produces very good results. Still anothei' way to procure most of the advantages of deep plowing, and one which is generally used on very heavy soil or on lands exposed to inundations, which consequently dry at a late period, is to form ridges. This is done in the following manner : The land is plowed in the fall in such a way as to form ridge. For this purpose a hill plow is used, or a machine invented by Dr. Bartel and called a " ridge former." In spring these ridges are split, and thus new ridges are formed, These must be rolled to an even surface. The advantages of preparing the land in ttis way are : The water gathers in the furrows and runs off ; the soil in the ridge is always in a ' good condition and the air can penetrate it. If grain has been grown on land about to be planted in beets the preparation goes on in the following way : The stubble is plowed as soon as possible to a depth of 5 to 8 centimetres. For this work gang plows are used. As soon as weeds come up the land is harrowed and rolled. Before winter the deep furrow is plowed, and, if stable manure is used, it should be applied before the middle of November. In such cases only a mod- erately deep furrow is needed, because, as before remarked, the manure thus decomposes better. The land remains in this state during the winter, and is therefore ex- posed to the influence of frost, raiu, etc. In spring it is ready for the beets. Then, as soon as possible, it should be harrowed. The harrows used are, if the land is crusted, " the Extirpator," or if necessary it must be plowed 15 centimetres deep, then the "Acme " harrow is used. If sugar beets follow beets, potatoes, or corn, the land is simply plowed before winter. Before planting all laud should be rolled. PLANTING. The time of planting influences the crop in a high degree. It is shown that in a warm, dry season the crop of an early planting is larger than in a cold, humid season. The time of planting is the middle of spring, with a temperaturo of from 9° to lli'" O. (48° to 54° F.). Early planting begins with April and lasts until the end of that BEET-SDOAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTEIA-HUNGART. 457 month ; late plantings in May. In general, early planting is to be pre- ferred, because tbe danger from frost is not so great as that of drought. It should always be remembered that the seeds should be put in a soil warm enough to germinate in 6 or 8 days, not 12 to 16 days, as is the case in cold, humid soil. Distance apart — This has a great influence on the crop and the quality of the beet. The experiments of Valmorin show that the largest crop will be grown if the beets be planted comparatively near together. If the distance increases, the proportion of leaves increases. The lighter and poorer the soil the farther must the beets be planted apart, and ex- periments show that this influence is greater than that due to manuring, or even the choice of the variety. Distances vary from 30 to 50 centi- metres from row to row and from 10 to 25 centimetres in the row. Depth for planting. — The seeds ueed only a very light covering — 2 to 3 centimetres is the right depth. If part of the seeds are not covered at all it does not cause so much damage as if they are covered too deeply. CULTIVATION. From the time of planting up to that of harvesting the following sug- gestions should be observed : As soon as the sowing is done the roller must be used, because in pressing the surface the humidity, which is very necessary for the process of germinating, is drawn by capillary attraction out of the deeper soil, and the surface is thus kept moist. The roller may be smooth or have rings ; the latter is better, because it makes the surface of the land rough, and therefore a heavy rain can not form a crust. If after sowing a crust covers the field the ring- roller is the best implement for breaking it, and after this a light har- row is recommended. Thus is the soil loosened, the air can enter, and germinating and growing are facilitated. When the plants have grown so that the rows are visible hoeing must be done, and the earlier the better, not only because the weeds are destroyed, but also because the plants need a loosened soil. The oftener the plants are hoed the better will be the crop as regards quantity and quality. Indeed, quantity and a high sugar percentage can only be obtained by hoeing. The first hoeing must be only superficial, that all the weeds are thrown on the surface to dry, and care must be taken that no soil covers the young plants. The hoeing should be done even if the land be dry, as hoe- ing prevents the evaporation of the water from the deeper soil. If laborers can be had, it is preferable to first hoe by hand in such a way that only the soil about 50 centimetres distant from the beet is hoed and the soil between the rows is untouched. This is then hoed with the cultivator. If hoeing must be done by horse-power a cultivator is used. After the hoeing comes thinning out. This must be done as early as possible, and generally plants sowed by the Dippel machine must be 77A 5 458 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. thinned out earlier than those planted by the drill, the reason being that the latter have more light and air than the former. It is practical to thin out when the plants have three or four leaves. The root is then as thick as a straw, and the whole plant has a length of 8 to 10 centi- metres. If planted with a drill, the work of cultivating can be done in two ways: (1) The field is crossed with the cultivator at right angles to the rows, and the knives are set so that they leave about 2.5 centimetres on each side of the beet untouched. Of the plants which remain in this space the weakest are removed by hand. (2) The whole work is done by hand. By means of hoes tie laborers remove the superflous plants, leaving spaces about 20 to 25 centimetres between. Children are employed hgre for this work, as they can best get down to it. Cutting the leaves off is not sufficient, as the leaves grow again ; or, if not, the plant becomes a harbor for insects. One person can thin out one-ninth to one-eighth of an acre a day. After thinning, hoeing by hand should follow immediately to loosen the soil around the plants; then between the rows should be hoed, and the time this should be done depends upon the weeds and the soil. As a rule, the intervals should not be more than a fortnight. A fourth, and possibly a fifth, hoeing would increase the crop. Of course hoeing can not be done when the plants are large enough to be damaged. (^Hilling up now follows. This must be done, because by covering the bfeets with soil it prevents the heads from growing out, and therefore this part of the root, which is of no value to the manufacturer as it contains little sugar, is lessened ; water can run off and evaporate bet- ter, and the soil will not become incrusted. In heavy soils this is a very important point. The time for hilling up is important, as if this is done too early the plants are buried, and if too late the leaves are damaged. Hilling up can only be done when the soil is in good con- dition — i, e., neither too wet nor too dry. For this a plow can be used with a single share, or that already shown in Plate 5. On small farms it is usually done by hand. ENEMIES OF THE SUGAR BEET. The insects which do the most damage to the root are — (1) The larvae of the May bug. Remedies are to collect the bug and leaves and encourage protecting birds and moles. (2) The larvae (wireworm) of the Mater lineatus. Remedy is to gather the leaves. (3) Atomaria linearis. Remedy is not to plant successive crops of beets, and to wash the seeds in a liquid composed of 100 parts water, 5 parts Epsom salts, and 1 part of carbolic acid. In this fluid the seeds should remain 20 minutes. BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN A-USTRIA-HUNGARY. 459 (4) Caterpillars of Agratis segetum (Noctua seq.). Eemedy is deep plowing and gathering the insect at night with a lantern. (5) Julus gullulatus et terrestris. The remedy for this formidable- sounding insect seems to be like that in the preceding cases — i. e., the best thing to do is to catch the bug. (6) Heterodera spacMie nematode. This insect caused the disease of the soil which produced the so-called "fatigue of the beet." Eemedy is to sow plants in which to catch the insects. The best is the Bopia brassica rapaoleifera. Insects which damage the leaves are — (1) Silpha apaca. Eemedy, distribution of dead animals in the soil, as the larvsB prefer flesh. (2) Gassida nebulosa. As this insect is attracted by the weeds the latter should be carefully removed. (3) LarvsB of Gleonus sulcirostris et punctiventris. Eemedy is its col- lection and remvoal. (4) Plusia gama. Eemedy, collecting. (5) Larvae of Anthomya conformis. Eemedy is to hoe it on the sur- face where the birds can get it. Collect it with the leaves, if necessary, and burn them. (6) Hattita nemorum. Eemedy is to plant early enough that the plant can resist ihe attacks of the insect; also destroy them. Parasites which injure the plant are — (1) Eust, caused by Aeromioes betce. Eemedy, the leaves of the beets used for raising seed, and which show attacks of the parasite, must be destroyed. (2) Mildew of beets (Peronospora betce). Eemedy, beets used for raising seeds must be carefully selected and, if mildew is observed, the beet must be rejected. In spring, before planting, the same precau- tions must be again taken. (3) Beet rot, caused by Bhiecetonia violacea. Eemedy, in storing, to separate the affected beets from the sound ones. (4) Smut, caused by Helminthis parium rezoctonia. (5) Leaf dryness, caused by Dapazea betcecula. (6) Eot of the heart, caused by Sporidium putrifacieum. (7) Eot of the beet. It is possible that the sugar-beet may meet in the United States with a still more formidable enemy, though bearing a less imposing name, viz, the "sugar trust." So doubt, however, the remedy used in so many of the cases above mentioned may also be used here. HARVESTING. This is done when the beets are ripe, i. e., when growing stops and all the products of the leaves go to root, where they are deposited. In Bohemia beets ripen from the end of September to the middle of Octo- ber. 460 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Signs of ripeness. — The leaves become yellowish green, fall, and form a kind of wreath around the plant. The middle leaves, so-called "heart leaves," also of a yellowish green, do not fall. Harvesting should not be too early, as the loss occasioned thereby may amount to as much as 2 per cent. Of course harvesting must take place before heavy frost, though the beet can stand frost from 3° to 4P 0. (24° to 27° F.). If early frosts should come, it is best to let the beets thaw in the soil, as the loss will be thus lessened. How harvesting is done. — (1) By hand. To each man is apportioned a certain tract of land, which he works by contract. The soil around the plant is loosened, and then the plant is drawn from the ground by hand. Work with the fork would be easier, but might injure the beet. (2) By team. A subsoil plow is used, which should be set for a depth of 35 centimetres. A still better implement is the beet-lifter. This ma- chine can be worked by a boy, and also does not injure the plants, which are left loosely standing upright in their places, where they are better protected against sudden rain or frost than if lying upon the ground. As work can be done much faster with the lifter than by hand, this machine will no doubt be of much use in the United States. Gutting off the heads. — The green heads must now be cut off, as they are of no use. This is done in the field, and here it is the work of women and girls, who accomplish their work rapidly, using sharp knives. About 1 to 2 centimetres of the beet is removed. Filing up the beets. — This is necessary, as it is impossible to immedi- ately transport an entire crop to the factory, and they must be protected from rot and frost. Perhaps the best plan is that recommended by Knauer, especially if the beets must remain a long time on the field. A ditch 1 foot deep and 6 feet wide is dug, and of the required length. Beats are then piled up with roots toward the center for a height of 1 foot and covered with 6 inches of soil. Then another layer of beets, covered also, is added, and then another, until the pile, tapering, is of the shape of a prism. If the soil is very dry, water should be applied. Beets so buried will keep six or seven months with little loss. It is best to grow only one crop in 4 or 5 years on a single field, as otherwise the soil will be exhausted and insects and parasites in- crease, so that great losses would occur. Beets should follow grain or barley, and after the beet the best crop to plant is barley. RAISING SEEDS. If the beet industry were fully introduced iuto the United States one of the first subjects that our people would have to consider would be the raising of seeds, as in Germany and Austria the supply is only able to meet the present demand. The beets selected for raising seed should possess all the attributes of a good beet as previously described. For ascertaining the proportion of sugar in the beet a piece is taken from the middle and the specific gravity of its sap found. This is, how- ever, inaccurate, and the best plan is to submit the sap to polarization. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 461 JTor raising seeds stable manure is unsuitable, but phosphate is highly recommended. This can be applied in the spring by grubbing. The cultivation of the beet then goes on in the manner already described. The seeds are ripe when they look meal-like if cut. The main sprouts ripen earlier, and therefore harvesting must begin with these. The plants are cut off with sickles, bundled up, and put away for drying. Threshing is generally done by hand, either on the field or at home. If done on the field, a cloth is spread, upon which the work is done. The seeds are then cleaned and ready for storing. If stored properly they should retain their generating power from 4 to 5 years. The crop from 1 hectare should be from 15 to 35 metre centners (3,360 to 7,740- pounds). It should be mentioned that the seed beets, after being carefully se- lected, are buried in the ditches. In the spring these are carefully set out and cultivated with great care. Upon ripening the leaves are gathered and treated as above described. Prof. Anton Yeith, director of the agricultnral college here, whose assistance has been invaluable to me in the preparation of this report, submits the following suggestions for the American farmer. As Profes- sor Veith is thoroughly familiar with the subject of beet culture, and furthermore spent 2 years in America studying our farming methods from New York to California, his hints will be found practical. The professor also kindly expresses a willingness to answer any inquiries made to him on the subject of beet culture. HINTS TO AMERICAN FARMERS. [By Professor Veith.] In traveling throngh the United States I was astonished to find that an industry so highly developed in the old country was nearly unknown there. The influence of such an industry as the fabrication of sugar from beets exerts such a great influence upon a country that it deserves all the support of a great gov- ernment. ' In 1887 there was only one beet-sugar factory in the United States, and that was in Alvarado, Alameda County, Cal. Upon inquiring as to the cause of this, I heard that several factories had been started in Illinois, but that after a few years had to be closed, as they did not pay. I was told by the editor of a rural paper in Chicago that the soil was unfit for the purpose ; by a professor in Kansas that beets would not grow containing a high enough percentage of sugar ; by a chemist in Washington that the cultivation and manu- facture had not been properly carried out. The last opinion was undoubtedly the correct one. The United States possesses soils of every kind, and In every State where wine and corn are grown it is surely possible to raise sugar beets. But in raising sugar beets the American farmer, especially of the Western States, must get rid of the idea of always trying to save labor. Sugar beets need much ■work, but they pay double or treble as much as any other crop. Localities are to be preferred where there is a large population, plenty of transpor- tation facilities, providing always the climate and soil are suitable. Raising sugar beets on a large scale, as is the case with grain in America, is impoa- 462 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY. Bible, as labor is dear and it is impossible to get sufficient help for a few weeks' work. I think the plan adopted by Glaus Spreckels, in California, is the best. Here small farmers who do their own work with little help raise the beets and sell them to the factory. A better plan would be for a number of such farmers to form an association and erect a factory themselves. We find such associations- in Germany, and they do Tery well. In order to stimulate the farmer to raise beets of a high sugar quality, the factory should pay in accordance with the sugar percentage, i. e., to demand a certain per- centage, say 9, and pay extra for any increase over this figure. Raising sugar beets gives the farmer a chance not only to get more out of his land than possible with other products, but also improves his land for other products. If the farmer sells the beets to the factory and gets back the pulp for feeding and perhaps the mud or lime, he loses very little of the mineral substance from his soil, as the sugar-producing substances are absorbed by the plants from the air. Raising beets improves the land, becanse the thorough cultivation necessary brings it to a perfection never to be attained with other crops. The land will also be clearer of weeds. In raising beets the whole agriculture of the country must be changed, i. e., brought from an extensive culture to an intensive one. In raising corn, grain, fodder, et c, the farmer uses only the upper part of his land and not the subsoil. If sugar beets are planted, the deeper soil is also placed at the service of the owner. In connection with the improvement of the land, cattle raising is also improved, as the waste furnishes excellent fodder for milk as well as for fattening. An increase of manure can therefore be produced. The first thing a farmer should do is to procure proper seeds, and these he should raise himself. As implements are expensive, those should be procured which can be used for various purposes, as the universal plow of Sack. For planting seeds it is recommended to try the corn-planter. In closing I would only state that there exists a great future for beef culture in the United States (and I would recommend that careful experiments be made) and that the success which has already greeted Glaus Spreckels in California be followed in other quarters. Sugar-beet crop of Austria-Hungary. Crop. Planted in sugar beets. Crop raised in 1 hectare. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1887. 1888. 1887. 188& Met cent.* Met cent.' 383, 760 16, 301, 600 7, 639, 050 788,630 444, 500 Met cent.' 730, 690 27, 400, 460 10, 523, 830 887, 820 651, 450 Hectares.^ 2,576 91, 830 61, 142 4,024 4,445 Heetaret.i 2,578 120, 060 02, 800 4,165 4,025 Met. cmt' 136 151 137 182 100 Met cent* 169 190 152 SileBia 175 120 Total 32,984,870 24, 568, 140 40,094,350 154,019 194, 228 5141.6 5161.2 * 1 metre centner=220 pounds. tl heotare=2.47 nores. J Average. MANUFAOTUBB OF SUGAE. We have qow traced the cultivation of the beet from the preparation of the land to the moment when the root, minus its useless head, is ready for fabrication. In studying the subject of this report, then, I have to ask my readers who have accompanied me through the great BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY. 463 beet fields of Bohemia, where we have seen the various stages of cul- tivation, to now leave the farm and enter with me the greatest sugar factory in Bohemia. And here I may remark that, while this paper is not intended to give more than a superficial idea of the process of manufacture of sugar — and machinists and engineers are referred to the books mentioned for detailed information — I have found it neces sary to go somewhat into technicalities and to employ plates to illus- trate the various processes. Without this the general reader could not possibly get an intelligent idea of the subject. Standing in the courtyard of the great factory referred to, we see wagon after wagon dumping its load, for each of which the farmer gets a receipt. No price has yet been fixed, but the farmer must sell to the factory, as beets can not stand transportation, on account of their weight, as already explained. The price will be fixed later by the manufacturer, who is, indeed, the Great Mogul of the neighborhood, and could exclaim with Napoleon : "L'eiat, o' est moi." Through the middle of the court referred to runs a ditch lined with perfectly smooth tile, through which a rapid stream of water carries the beets to the washing machines, where all dirt and stones are re- moved. It may be here remarked that while there are two ways of extract- ing the sap from the beet, viz, by pressure and by diffusion, only the latter is employed in this neighborhood. The advantages of the proc- ess of diffusion are: The cheaper plant required less workmen and force, ease of keeping apparatus in order, simple inspection of the work, its cleanliness, easy increase of work without corresponding loss of sap, and the entire absence of " press cloths." The only disadvan- tage is the great amount of water required, which limits such factories to those localities where sufiQcient water can be had. The beets having been thoroughly cleaned, an elevator carries them to the top of the building and delivers them to the cutters, where ribbed knives reduce the beet to little cuttings like vermicelli. A railway carries this material and dumps it into the " diffuser." The diffuser is an iron, cylindrical tank, made to close tightly, and supplied with pipes above and below. Nine are usually connected together, and constitute what is called the " diffusion battery." This battery forms an important a part of the sugar factory. Passing the first eight stages through which the beets pass in this battery, we come to the ninth, with which stage begins the regular work. From now on, of the nine vessels, eight are always working, while one is emptied and filled with fresh cuttings. Each diffuser, before being emptied, is completely isolated, by closing the valves, from the rest of the battery. The operation of the valves must be in precisely the order indicated. Failure to do this will cause disturbance. For instance, the closing of the valves w and s to the right is of importance, as otherwise the water and sap will become mixed, whereby leaching will take place 464 beet-sugAe industry in austeia-hungaky. and evaporation rendered more difficult. Further, it sliould be taken as a general rule that the sap stream should enter every operating vessel from above, except in case of the vessel just filled, when the stream is reversed and ascends from below, in order to prevent formation of foam and to drive out all air from between the cuttings. The temperature must be right in each difi'user, or the sap, as well as the pulp, will be injured. As the sap circulation proceeds without interruption, the principal steam valve remains always open, and the regulation of the temperature is controlled by the valves from the calo- risator. We will now suppose that the sap has been all extracted from the beet cuttings and has passed over to the saturator as a dirty-looking fluid with a disagreeable taste and smell. In the diffusers remain the pulp, now of no more use in the sugar process, but of much value in other respects. A trap in the bottom of the diffuser opens and the pulp is thrown into a slide, where moderate pressure removes the water as it passes downward to the cellar, to be used subsequently for fodder, for which it is admirably adapted, especially if mixed with substances con- taining fat and nitrogen, as oil cake, ground corn, etc. It is stored for use in ditches after being mixed with chopped straw, and is covered with straw and soil, being packed down as tight as possible. By be- ing stored the pulp ferments and gains in digestive properties and flavor. We now return to the sap, which has reached the saturator, a vessel made of block tin, the use of which is the removal of foreign substances and the saturation of the sap. The saturator is half filled with sap. Lime milk is now introduced, as well as steam and carbonic dioxide. The steam must be so controlled that the temperature of the sap slowly rises until at the close of the saturation it amounts to about 85° to 90° 0. The results of the treatment with lime and carbonic acid gas are as follows : (1) The sap, previously dirty, dark, smelling of beets, more or less slimy, and slightly acid, becomes clear, light yellow, thin in consist- ency, alkaline, and emits an odor of ammonia. (2) The sugar forms with the lime a saccharate, which however, under the influence of the COj, is immediately resolved. (3) The nitrogen, holding portion of the sap, is resolved through the action of the lime. (4) The nitrogen free organic acids, as ascetic and oxalic, are precipi- tated as salts of lime. (5) Coloring matters are partly thrown down and partly remain in the solution. Dextrine combines loosely with the lime. (6) Magnesia, oxide of iron, and phosphoric acid are precipitated, and sulphuric acid is also separated, while all the other mineral sub- stances remain in the solution. By this process, of 100 parts of foreign matter 40 to 50 will be re- DEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 465 moved. The sap contains yet, however, many impurities, and the next step is to carry it through the filter press, which removes the dirt in the form of a cake. This cake is used for manuring. A still more important means of cleaning, and one which removes the last of the impurities from the sap, is the filtration through animal charcoal or spodium. This spodium is a charcoal made of bone, and is used in pieces as small as a chestnut, or smaller. The filter battery is composed of several filters made of block tin, from 18 to 30 feet high and from IJ to 3 feet in diameter. These are filled with spodium and are packed, to prevent cooling of the sap as it passes through. Over the battery are reservoirs for water and sap. The action of the spodium upon the sap is as follows: The sugar is taken up by the charcoal, but is only loosely held, and can be easily removed with water; saccharate of lime is rapidly seized upon and precipitated as hydrate of lime and free sugar ; coloring matters are energetically absorbed and can not be washed out. The remaining organic non-sugar substances are absorbed, but are not combined with equal force. A part enters into a chemical combination, while another part is only loosely retained by the spodium, and may be again washed out. - The salts act respectively in accordance with their chemical nature. In spite of many experiments, no good substitute has yet been found for spodium as a filter material. After being used it is washed out and then thrown into a furnace and all impurities burned out, when it is again ready for use. The sap must now be concentrated, and this is done by steaming and boiling until the right consistency is reached to favor crystillization. As a high temperature is objectionable, use is made of the well-known physical law that boiling takes place at a lower temperature in a vac- uum apparatus. The material is now let off into cooling pans, where crystallization begins, and from here the mass is poured into block-tin conical molds, and finally comes out as the familiar sugar loaf. A second quality of sap is conveyed to the centrifugal machines, which revolve about a thousand times a minute, with the effect of causing the crystallization of a great ring of white sugar, while the bal- ance is drawn off as molasses, no further crystallization being possible. These rings of sugar are crushed and packed in sacks for market, con- stituting the so-called "pil6." I may now mention the existing 466 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. TAXES AND DUTIKS ON SUGAR IN AUSTRIA. According to the law of June 20, 1888, there must be paid a consump- tion tax on sugar, whether made out of raw material or the "reste". from sugar manutacture. Florins. (1) Beet and all other sugars in every degree of purity, with the exception of sirup unfit for human use per 100 kilograms, net 11 (9) Sugar of any other kind : As a solid -- 3 As a fluid 1 Export indemnity. Prom August 1, 1888, an indemnity is granted on exports of sugar of the first class — Florins. ' (o) For 100 kilograms, net, from 93° to 98° of polarization 1.50 (6) For 100 kilograms, net, with at least 99.5° of polarization 2.30 If this indemnity should amount in one year to more than 5,000,000 florins, the manufacturers are pledged to return the balance to the '. Government. Duty on imported sugar . Florins. " (o) Raw sugar under Holland ^standard No. 19 per 100 kilograms 15 (ft)Raw sugar under Holland standard and higher than No. 19 20| Refined sugar.. 20 Sugar solutions, starch sugar, grape sugar (glucose), as a solid 15 Sirap (starch sugar, grape sugar, as a liquid) and molasses 6 This, sirup must not contain any crystallized sugar, and must not crystallize if heated. If boiled two minutes it must reduce Soldaini's solution. statistics of the sugar-heet industry in Austria-Hungary. Number of facto- ries "working. Amount of beets. Exports. Years. Notified. Paid tax for. Eeflned sugar. Raw sugar. Total in raw sugar. 1867-'68 151 162 181 215 261 266 244 226 231 227 229 226 22U 227 230 232 230 229 212 217 207 Met. cent. 12,165,753 9, 409, 232 14, 107, 376 15, 538, 173 10,114,002 20, 418, 912 16, 166, 107 11, 634, 409 14,969,313 17, 105, 661 26, 310, 864 30,926,289 28, 976, 077 47, 308, 640 46,280,701 51, 346, 805 44, 866, 566 40, 087, 060 28, 463, 837 46, 689, 629 35, 226, 900 Met. cent. 10, 854, 380 7, 934, 382 12, 291, 100 16, 931, 191 13, 824, 246 17, 333, 189 13, 773, 879 9, 8a-.', 973 12, 780, 932 14, 891, 538 22, 846, 002 28, 287, 800 26, 262, 919 44, 007, 228 42, 800, 736 48, 862, 203 41, 846, 679 43,401,900 26, 1!)1,016 42, 870, 875 3'J, 263, 262 Met. cent Met. cent. Met. cent 1868-'69 5,258 149, 438 369, 762 213, 594 233, 431) 293, SG7 299, 939 398, 775 385, 633 667, 300 809, 916 605, 836 880, 096 891, 022 1, 267, 466 1,251,786 1, 291, 086 1, 164, 488 1, 697, 822 1, 243, 418 2,452 362, 646 400, 897 396, 840 455, 262 495,466 264, 007 609,334 688,371 988,440 1, 088, 559 1, 546, 142 2, 113, 493 1, 204, 814 1, 387, 934 1,105,021 165, 648 683, 607 1,010,392 602, 349 8,765 541,972 844,651 653,153 735,382 848,105 623,934 1,087,S64 1, 161, ISl 1,669,202 2,060,457 2, 273, 144 3,169,564 2,274,040 2,896,893 2, 007, 164 8, 704, 590 2,080,993 2,896,861 1,883,926 1869 '70 1870 '71 1871-'72 1872-'73 1873-'74 1874-'75 1875-'76 1876-'77 1877-'78 1878-'79 1879-'80 1880-'8l 1 881-'82 188'2-'83 ]883-'84 1884 '86 -.. . 1885-'86 188a-'87 1887-'88 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTKY IN AUSTRIA-IIUNGAEY. 4G7 Statistics of the sugar-teet industry in Austria-Hungary — Contimied. Tears. Beceipta. Tiix on beets. Duty. Total. Total re- jmid lor evaporated sui^ar. Net amount of tax over duty, Recovered by after paiyments. lfiC7-'C8.. 1868-'C9.. 1809-70.. 1870-'71.. 1871-'72.. 1872-'73.. !873-'74.. 1674-'75., 1875-'76.. 1876-'77. 1877-78.. 1878-79., 1879-'80.. 1S80-'81., ]8*;l-'82. 1882-'83., ]883-'S4. 1884-'85., 1885-'86., I88li-'87., 1887-'88., Fiorina. 7, 3,'i2, 2G6 5, 802, 017 8, 987, 9U 11, (J49, 684 9, 902, 730 12, 674, 894 10, 072, 149 7, 190, 861 9, 330, 081 10, 870, 823 16, 677, 681 20, 060, 094 19, 164, 634 3,), 277, 7S3 34, 376, 531 39, 090, 563 33, 470, 543 34, 721, 521 20, 920, 812 34, 296, 700 25, 810, 610 Florins. 10, 010 267, 600 23, 886 10, 056 14, 482 23, 032 23, 400 10, 646 7,354 5,364 8,477 6,761 11, 150 8,402 14, 862 10, 693 8,782 7,112 7,085 6,155 5,947 Florins. 7, 368, 276 6,069,017 9, Oil, 797 11, 659, 740 9,997,212 12, 697, 926 10, 095, 868 7, 201, 007 9, 446, 744 10,876,187 16, 686, 068 20, 656, 865 19, 175, 784 36, 286, 245 34, 290, 393 39, 101, 156 33, 485, 323 34, 728, 521 20, 927, 897 34, 302, 856 26, 816, 567 Florins. 1, 806, 117 77, 528 4, 742, 147 7, 306, 663 5, 817, 097 6, 410, 106 7, 152, 401 6, 458, 083 9, 472, 991 10, 479, 973 15, 335, 217 18, 960, 724 20, 843, 110 29, 904, 247 21, 608, 839 27, 563, 813 24, 833, 009 35, 173, 673 19, 86.'), 085 29, 098, 681 19, 979, 946 Florins. 5, 663, 159 5, 992, 089 4, 289, 050 4,353,087 4,160,116 6, 287, 820 2, 943, 067 1, 742, 324 —20, 247 396, 214 1, 350, 841 1, 698, 131 1, 667, 326 5, 291, 098 12, 781, 554 11, 537, 343 8, 052, 111 —445, 041 1,062,812 6, 204, 174 6, 836, 811 Florins. 4, 303, 869 8, 167, 326 4, 708, 002 1, 810, 546 12, 045, 041 10,937,188 6, 963, 389 THE SUGAR FACTORY. The manufacture of sugar can only be carried on on a large scale. It is a great advantage for the manufacturer to own and conduct his own plantation. Water is a prime requisite, and an important matter, also, is the disposal of the water after it has been used, as it is then. capable of destroying a stream for all further uses, and this would cause end- less suits and annoyances. The water should be conveyed into ponds where it may evaporate or sink into the ground, or, better, distributed over the fields. The factory should be so situated that coal can easily and cheaply be obtained and the goods profitably shipped to market. It is, however, more important that it be in the immediate neighborhood of the plantation. A middling sized factory requires about 300 work- men. As the factory only works about 5 months, it is necessary, in order to secure permanent help, to employ the laborers in the field also. THE BUILDING. While it is not my purpose to go into the architectural features, I desire to introduce here the accompanying admirable plan, not only as exhibiting a model factory building, but as showing the relative loca- tion of the apparatus as described in the foregoing pages. The build- ing should be in the form of a cross, with a great central rotunda. 468 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN FRANCE. Summary of sugar factories in AuatriaSungary. Description. Boliemia. Moravia. Silesia. Lower Austria. Galicia. Hungary. Total. Sugar factories : Working 138 7 10 60 9 3 1 14 4 216 U Kefineries : Working 4 1 15 165 Total 54 10 3 1 18 241 Sap extraction : , 138 60 9 3 1 14 216 Production : 120 20 8 1 33 17 4 5 3 1 1 2 4 8 163 Raw sugar and white 1 51 13 Onlv Dil6 2 3 United States Oommeecial Agency, John B. Hawes, Commercial Agent. Beichenberg, November 8, 1889. FRANCE, 1874. BEPOET BT OONSTTL-QMNERAL TOBBEBT, OF BASIS. The manufacture of beet-root sugar began in 1812, in consequence of the continental blockade. It constitutes now one of the most important products of France. It is almost entirely confined to the five deparf; ments of Aisne, Nord, Oise, Pas-de-Oalais, and Somme. Out of 508 establishments engaged last season 181 were situated in the single department of the Nord, 92 in Pas-de-Calais, 60 in the Somme, 39 in the Oise, 89 in Aisne, and 47 divided among eight other departments. The following table illustrates the development of this product during the past few years: Fonnds prodaoed. 1868 304,950,533 1869 533,643,890 1870 612,285,762 1871 741,294,545 1872 828,041,14(1 1873 , 916,511,742 1874 957,581,885 Sugar refining has also considerable importance, and constitutes a very large item of revenue. A. T. A. TORiJERT, Consul- General. United States Oonsttl-General, Paris, October 30, 1875. 1. HYDRAULIC BEET TRANSPORT. 3. ELEVATOR. 8. SLIDE FOR PULP. 33, 32, 31, CONCENTRATING f 2. WASH-MACHINE. 4. CUTTING-MACHINE. 35. COOLER. 3. ENGINE. 6, RAILWAY. 7. DIFFUSION BATTERY A 18. FILTER PRESS. 17. SATURAT08,. 77a— Face page 468 RATING MACHINES.. 2Q, FILTER BffTTERy, p' "^^ L^l r ■;! £3 Cii ijix''' 25. S.PODIUM FERMENTATION CASKS. I I i I I , 20 Mir. 33. VACUUM APPARATUS, ^^^ 36. CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN DENMARK. 469 DENMARK. DENMARK— 1886. SEPORT OF CONSUL BTDER, OF OOFENEAQEN. The rapid and very great development which has taken place in the manufacture of beet sugar in this country in the last years, namely, from 4,000,000 pounds in 1880 to over 20,000,000 pounds in 1884, has been a source of material benefit in these times of unusually low grain prices to the agricultural classes, more especially to tie agricul- turists located in the vicinity of the districts where the large sugar re- fineries have been erected. These parties have been anxiously seeking every opportunity for bringing an increased area of their lands under culture of these roots ; but unfortunately, with the simultaneous de- pression which has been felt in the sugar markets, due, in great measure to the large exports from Germany and France under the protective influence of the sugar-export bounties, the owners of the large sugar refineries in this country have found themselves compelled to refuse to enter into fresh agreements for any increased areas, upon conditions of similar nature to those contained in still running contracts. Tak- ing further into consideration the present unfavorable aspect of the world's sugar markets, they have decided to limit all new contracts to the term of 1 year's duration, as likewise to call for a reduction of about 2f cents per hundredweight of roots on the prices hitherto paid. The fresh agreements thus determined upon by the owners of the refineries have produced a feeling of sad disappointment amongst a large number of the older contractors. They had commenced operations upon a small scale, with the view of first acquiring full experience in the cultivation of this product, but with the full expectation that if the results responded favorably to their hopes, that they would then be enabled to place under the same culture such increase of area as might be fairly counted upon for a reasonable supply to the sugar works. Again, many husbandmen, who With still greater caution had not ventured to embark at once In the same undertaking, but had preferred first to watch the results obtained by their neighbors before they also took part in the culture, now that the yearly returns have so plainly demonstrated the great advantages that have been derived by their neighbors from the culture of sugar beets during the present low prices of grain, are also anxiously looking forward to a greater development in this branch of agriculture, in which they may likewise be enabled to participate. With the somewhat firmer tone of the sugar markets during the latter part of the expired year, a more hopeful feeling seemed to spring up among the cultivators, and it was generally felt by them that the opportunity should not be allowed to slip away without some attempt being made to obtain terms of such favorable nature as would justify 470 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN DENMARK. them in bringing a greater extent of area under culture of these roots" and they more especially were of the opinion thaf such prospects might' be more easily realized when they could at the same time offer to the different newly-established refineries at Nakskov Stege and at Assens such a collective extent of area that the manufacturers could obtain full security for the carrying on of their works without interruptionl throughout the whole working campaign. At a numerously attended meeting lately held in the principal sugar-beet district it was unani- mously resolved to send a deputation from the growers, who should without delay seek to enter into negotiation with the proprietors of the sugar refineries with the view of establishing a basis of agreement leading to an increased area being brought under culture of these beets upon terms of mutual advantage to the refiners as well as to growers. It was suggested at tliis meeting that, as a starting point in these negotiations, it would be desirable first and foremost to seek to establish a fixed connection between the prices of sugar and the prices of the sugar beets, in such manner that, with a stipulated price of sugar accord- ing to the quotations of the London market, the growers should receive; the hitherto noi'mal prices paid for the roots (21.44 cents per hundred- weight of roots without regard to their saccharine contents, or else 20.10 cents — an extra payment of 1.34 cents percentage of saccharine inthe roots, over and above 12 per cent. ; as also the respective prices of 22.25 and 23.30 cents after the 15th l!^ovember and 15th December) ; and with a decline in the price of sugar, that a fixed scale should be regulated for a corresponding reduction in the price to be paid for the roots; or, again, that a somewhat lower price for the roots (say of 1.34 cents per hundredweight) might be fixed, the same to be maintained without re- gard to any corresponding fluctuations in the sugar market. It would appear to have been the general feeling of all who attended this meeting that it could not be too forcibly impressed upon the minds- of those who might be delegated to take part in these negotiations,^ that no satisfactory and lasting arrangement could be looked for unless the interest and welfare of the refineries were taken into consideration equally as well as those of the growers. Meetings have been subsequently held in the less important sugar- beet districts, where it was also unanimously resolved to send delegates who should cooperate with the deputation from the first-named district. Although the yield of sugar beets per area of land at Assens was stated to have been considerably less than that obtained on the islands of Moen and Leolard it was nevertheless fully acknowledged at the meeting held at that place that a greater development of the culture of these roots was a matter of great pecuniary importance under the present agricultural depression, and that it was therefore most desirable that all endeavors should be made towards bringing an increased areal under culture of these roots. The parties so deeply interested in the prosperity and further development of this branch of industry would BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 471 appear to have taken very sensible and practical steps towards arriving at an amicable arrangement, and it is to be hoped that with a mutual display of good will on the part of refiners as well as growers, that such satisfactory banis may be agreed upon as may allow of an increased areal to be brought under this culture, and that all parties concerned may find themselves in a position to tide over this seemingly intermi- nable period of trade depression. Henry B. Ryder, United States Consulate, Consul. Copenhagen, March 25, 1886. GERMANY. GERMANY— i86i. liEFOBr BY OONSVL SUNDELL, OF STETTfS. Formerly a good number of United States vessels entered here yearly, bringing either whale oil, rosin, dyewood, and turpentine from there, or raw sugars from the West Indies, and coffee from Brazil. But the price of the first article having advanced so much that it could not be pur- chased any longer, it has been replaced by the flax and the rape-seed oil, now extensively manufactured in this country; and from a singular protection given the fabrication of sugar made from the white-beetroot, a discovery deserving its own chapter, the importation of the India sugar has become almost prohibited all over the German states. Since the introduction of beet-root sugar within the " Zollverein " much thought has been devoted to the subject, and frequent conven- tions have exhausted themselves in deliberations over how to raise sufficient revenue from the product, and at the same time protect the manufacturers thereof. In the latter they have undoubtedly succeeded, but the people have now a poorer sugar at higher prices than before, and it is beingdemonstrated that the Prussian Government now receives some two million thalers less in revenue from the article (sugar) than during the time when colonial sugar was imported. Thus we have the significant fact of how a comparatively few favored individuals are allowed to grow rich at the expense of the national treasury and the people at large. It is now thought, however, that when, with the term- ination of the present " Zollverein " in 1865, this protection also shall have ceased, it will not be reestablished again on the same terms, but the beet root will then be left to compete with other saccharine matters, and colonial sugars will once more be brought to the German markets. It is also argued that, with a change in the Prussian ministry in favor of free trade, the protection of the beetroot fabrication, as far as Prussia is concerned, would at once be slackened so as to allow other sugars to come in for competition. Stettin, March 31, 1862. 472 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GEEMANY. GERMANY-1864. Amount of ditty on foreign sugar and beet-root sugar in the Zollverein from April 1, 1863, to March 31, 1864. States. Sugar paid import duty. Loaf sugar. Importa- tion. Duty 477i per owt. Importa- tion. Brown or raw sugar. Duty. For home refineries. Importa- tion. Duty. Sirap. Importa- tion. Prussia Luxemburg Bavaria,... Saxony...!. Hanorer ... Wlirternhnrg, Baden Hesse Cassel Hesse Barm stadt Tliuringia... Bmnswick.. Oldenburg .. T^assau !Frankfort.on the-Main . . Total .. Zoll. lbs. 398. 55 .83 415. 05 155. 31 56U. 01 214. 00 285. 56 20.88 83.26 25.51 6.40 242. 00 42.58 6666 Thalers. 2,922 6 3,043 1,138 4,033 1,791 2,094 153 610 187 46 1,774 312 408 (hot. Ihs. 220 60 3 58 7 17 27 79 8 4 13 1 80 4 172 67 37 2 89 4 70 1 95 06 Thaleri. 1,323 Owt. U». 296, 178 07 ThaUrt. 1, 254, 510 348 103 474 24 10 1,036 67 58 64, 057 17 287 272,242 15, 026 47 63, 862 Owl. at. 42,152 7 137 56 1,817 23 10, 108 64 24, 116 11 437 18 933 15 94 68 1,047 37 2, 336 12 2, 250 24 3,587 9 2, 525. 82 18, 617 ,380 374, 330 19 1, 590, 901 89, 476 62 States. Prussia Luxemburg Bavaria Saxony Hanover Wurtemburg Baden Hosse Cassel Hesse Darmstadt Thuringia Brunswick Oldenburg Ifassan Frankfort-on-the-Kain . Total. Beet root paid duty. Beet root. Owt. lb». 34, 189, 599 60 405, 304 00 80, 070 00 142, 455 00 ],.184,795 50 987, 303 00 13, 790 00 243, 959 30 2,420,721 50 39, 667, 997 60 Duty. Tlialers. 8, 647, 399 101, 323 20, 017 36, 613 296, 198 246, 825 3,447 9, 916, 999 Total duty. Thalern. 9,911,537 350 109, 261 46, 819 372, 655 200,108 315,131 3,838 4,264 67, 020 610, 870 10, 771 324 1,557 11, 753, 506 429, 494 Bonifica- tions for sugar ex- ported. Thalert. 374, 731 1,100 151, 185 11,324,010 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 473 Quantity of raw ieei root worked into beet-root sugar from September 1, 1863, to August 21, 1864. h Beet roo ts paid du 2dqiiart'r 1864. y- States. From Sept. 1 to Deo. 31,1863. let qnart«r, 1864. ■ Jnly and Aug.lSOl. Total. 221 Zoll. lbs. 20,.084, 713. 00 Zoll. lbs. 19, D33, 897. 60 Zoll. lbs. 166, 285 ZoU. lbs. 2,495 ZoU. lbs. 34,187,290.50 6 1 1 6 1 1 234,699.00 47, 786. 00 90,300.00 648,208.11 323, 163. 00 169, 510. 00 32, 285. 00 62. 155. 00 560, 110. 00 291,604.00 13, 790. 00 18, 335 422,244.00 80, 070. 00 142, 155. 00 Hftnover "Wurtemburg .,.. , 82, 639 350, 325 3,570 1,247, 2B7. 11 179, 480 1, 144, 172. 00 Eleotoral Hesse 17, 360. 00 2 14 125, 597. 00 1,370,311.60 118,362.00 1,060,411.00 1,551 3,910 215, 510. 00 2, 424, 631. 50 Frankfort Total 253 217 22, 924, 576. 64 21, 710, 040. 30 16,178,353.50 14,398,833.56 628, 615 428, 393 181, 975 151, 992 39,911,520.14 Total in 1862-'63 36, 719, 258. 86 ;, Infavorofl863-'64 6 1, 184, 536. 34 1,779,519.94 198, 222 29, 983 3,192,261.28 GERMANY— 1865. BBFOST BY GONSXTL KLANPREOBT, OF STVTTQAllT. Owing to a very poor crop of sugar beets, the sugar factory at Stutt gart consumed last year only 192,000 centners of beets, (265,000 in 1864) ; the manufactory at Heilbronn, 314,982 centners. The total value -of the product of the latter establishment was 650,000 florins. Prices were for prime, 28 J florins; farin, 20 J florins; molasses, 2 florins. Stock- holders received a dividend of 15 per cent, on their investments, the highest ever divided since the foundation of the establishment in 1855. Up to this year an average profit of 6 per cent, only was attained. , The manufactories of Zuttlingen and Althausen do not show more favorable results. The market price of beets remained stationary. This year, also, the prospects are improving, the returns of the crops indicating an abundance of beets ; higher prices of sugar, therefore, can not be expected. There were raised in the Zollverein States last year 41,641,204 cent- ners of beets, producing a total value of 100,000,000 of florins. Man- ufactories and quantities of their consumption in 1865 are distributed as follows through the States of the Zollverein : states. FruBsia - Bavaria Saxony Hanover , W'ortemberg . . . Baden Hesse Gassel . . . . Thurin^ia -Brunswick Total tTa- -f. Quantity of ^°- beets. Oentners. 35. 623, 805 863, 071 84, 100 126, 020 1, 104, 408 1, 085, 371 29, 376 211, 055 2, 813, 698 41, 441, 204 Product. Centners. 153, 093 60, 512 84, 100 126, 020 220, 881 1, 085, 371 29, 376 105, 527 156, 316 2, 021, 196 474 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. Eleven and a half centners of beets on an average famish a centner raw, or 82 pounds, of refined sugar. There were produced from 41,641,204 centners of beets 2,869,200 centners of refined sugar, at a value of 89,076,000 florins. In reality a larger quantity of refined su- gar was made; the secondary products, viz., molasses, residue from pressed beets for fattening animals, also being of some value. According to the same rate, Wiirtemberg last year should have pro- duced 78,784 centners of refined sugar, at a value of (30 florins per cent- ner) 2,362,440 florins ; or, including the surrounding products, of 2,600,000 florins. Emil Klanprecht, Consul. United States Consulate, Stuttgart, April 30, 1866. GERMANY— 1867. The harvest of sugar beet will be about one-fourth larger than last year. Prices are from 28 to 30 kreutzers per centner. Manufacture of beet sugar did not prove remunerative last season. Overproduction of the article, together with the unfavorable state of monetary affairs, caused a reaction in prices to a lower rate than ever was heard of be- fore. Many sales did not bring the cost of manufacture. Orders from France and England to the amount of 1,000,000 centners prevented a still greater reduction of prices. Sales are, for prime, 26 J florins ; farin- 20^ florins per centner. Last year the 6 factories at Wiirtemberg cou, sumed 1,636,097 centners of beet root. Emil Klanprecht, Consul. Stuttgart, December 31, 1867. GERMANY— 1861-1878. BEPOBT BY OONSVLGENERAL KBEISMANX, OF BERLIN. The cultivation of sugar beets steadily continues to grow in impor- tance, and the manufacture of beet sugar has fairly become one of the leading and most profitable industries in this country. Only forty years ago no more than 20,000 acres were planted with beets, while at the present time nearly 400,000 acres of land are devoted to that purpose per annum. For fuller particulars I beg to refer to the following table; BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. Beturn of beet-sugar produoHon in the German ZoUvereln. 475 Years. 1860-'61 , ]861-'63 1862-'63 1863-'64 1864-'65 1865-'e6 i86B-'67 ■a867-'68 'l868-'6» -v 1869-'70 1870-'71 1871-72 :1872-'73 1873-'74 •1874-'75 1875-'76 1876-'77 1877-78 No. of fac- tories in operation. 247 247 247 293 J70 295 296 293 295 29S 304 311 324 337 333 332 328 329 Beets manufac- tured into sugar. Owt. 354, 032 692, 394 719, 269 911,620 641, 204 462, 773 712, 709 693, 392 953, 656 697, 733 012, 912 018, 363 631, 015 575, 277 134, 902 225, 683 000, 731 819, 360 Raw a agar produced. Cwt 2, 530, 520 2, 515, 269 2, 760, 847 3, 023, 600 3,413,214 3, 713, 912 4, 024, 818 3, 300, 276 4, 162, 805 4, 307, 646 5, 259, 734 a, 728, 838 5, 261, 021 5, 820, 813 5, 128, 247 7, 100, 964 5, 788, 453 7, 560, 181 As a matter of commercial interest it may also be stated that of the total quantity of raw sugar refined by the 64 sugar refineries existing in this country, 4,420,954 cwt. were beet sugar, while the remainder, cane sugar, amounted to only 3,699 cwt. H. Kreismann, Consul- General. United States Consulate-General, Berlin, November, 1879. GERMANY— 1871. REPORT Br OONSULQENERAI, SPRA0UE, OF BERLIN. The nianufacture of beet sugar is an extensive and important branch of the industry of Brunswick. There are 25 factories and 7 refineries, whose aggregate product for the year 1870-'71 was 21,000,000 kilos, valued at 5,000,000 thalers. To produce this amount of sugar 255,000, 000 kilos of beets were consumed. As the average product of a hectare is about 27,500 kilos of beets, it appears that more than 9,272 hectares, or about 22,913 acres, of this little state are devoted to the cultivation 6f the sugar beet. The average percentage of sugar in the beets is 8, and they cost, delivered at the factory, 18 silbergroschens per 50 kilos, which includes the tax of 8 silbergroschens. The present en gros price for best refined is lOJ thalers per 50 kilos. There is also a tax of 3^^ and 3^ thalers, according to the grade, on all raw sugar manufactured; but a drawback is allowed on exported sugar. The exports of this article are chiefly to England, Switzerland, Italy, Sweden, Eussia, and Holland, and now and then an invoice goes to the United States. During tlie past year but one invoice of sugar was verified at this office, and the value was only 363^*^ thalers. The process for the production 476 BEET-SUGAR INDIJSTEY IN GEEMANT. of beet sugar has been brought to a very high state of perfection in the^ Duchy of Brunswick. The net earnings of some of the factories last year were from 50 to 85 per cent. Through the kindness of Herr Eberh Mencke, of this city, I am en- abled to prepare the following table, showing the amount (in kilos) of beet sugar produced in the several states of Europe during the last 6 years : states. 1868-'69. 1867-'68. 1866-'67. 1865-'6I France Germany Austria and Hungary . . Kassiaand Poland .. .. Belgium Holland, Sweden, Italy, and other states of Surope not men- tioned 295, 000, 000 252, 000, ODD 190, 000, 000 135, 000, 000 S5, 000, 000 25, 000, 000 285, 150, 000 215, 400, 000 152, 200, 000 132, 500, 000 43, 650, 000 12, 500, 000 213, 900, 000 208, 160, 000 101, 600, 000 87, 500, 000 37, 100, 000 10, 000, 000 225, 000, 000 165, 000, 000 124, 050, 000 112,500,000 31, 050, 000 7, 600, 000 216, 850, 060 201,250,000 90, 000, 000 90, 000, oeo 39, 125, 000 274, 009, 000 185, 700, 000 71,050,000 80, 000, 000 41,650,000 4, 000, (100 De "Witt 0. Speague, Gonsul-General. United States Consulatb-Geneeal, Berlin, October 9, 1871. GERMANY— 1871. Insignificant quantities are imported of colonial sugar, and it becomes daily rarer in this country. Beet sugar has entirely removed the colo- nial sugar, and the former is alone used for general consumption. The beet sugar manufactories are increasing from year to year. Those of this city have produced 294,266 centners, and the rate of duty is 8 sil- bergroschen of 100 pounds raw beets. Geo. Holscher, Consul. BeunswiOK, October 16, 1871. GERMANY— 1875. REPORT BY OONSUL-QBNERAL WEBSTER, OF FRANKFORT. The sugar manufacture has now become a staple business in Ger- many. There are now 341 manufactories in Germany, more than one- half of which are in the Saxon provinces. In Wvirtemberg, 6 ; in Bavaria, 2; and Baden only 1. The manufacture of this article has grown from 100 establishments, making 124,000 centners, in 1842, to 341 establish- ments, making about 4,000,000 centners of sugar annually. In 9 months, from September 1 to June 1, 1875, 55,072,412 centners of beet- sugar were raised in Germany, which pays a tax of about 18 cents per BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 477 centner, while during the same period in 1873-'74: more than 70,000,000 centners were raised, being a decrease of 20 per cent. In consequence 6f this extent of production in the last 10 years the consumption has so much increased that while for 30 years only five pounds of sugar to a person could be reckoned, now ten pounds can be reckoned annually. In addition to this, about 25 per cent, of the production is exported. William P. Webster, Consul- General. United States Consulate -General, Franlifort-onthe-Main, November 10, 1875. GERMANY— 1878. Of the agricultural products the sugar-beet continues to be a leading staple. The beet crop of the last and the immediately previous season is shown in the following exhibit : Beturn of the beet-sugar production of the year from September 1, 1877, to August 31, 1878. [GEEMAN ZOLLVJBREIir.] Countries and districts. Factories on Sept. 1— 1877. 1876. Beets manufactured into sugar during tile year ending Aug. 1878. 1877. I. Kingdom of Prussia: 1. Province of West Prassia 2. Province of Brandenburg B. Province of Ponierania ;. 4. Province of Posen 5. Province of Silesia 6. Province of Saxony with the principaiilJy of Schwarzburg 7. Province of Schleswig-flolstein 8. Province of Hanover 0. Province of Westphalia 10. Province of Hesse-Nassau 11. Kbine province Xotal Prussia n. Bavaria m. ^iirtemberg rV. Baden V. Meclilenburg VX. Thuringian States Vn. Brunswiclc ^ Vm. Anhalt IX. Luxemburg Qrand total 1 17 6 1 47 140 1 27 2 1 8 251 2 5 1 2 5 29 33 2 1 18 1 47 141 . 1 26 1 1 8 Owt. 243, 415 2, 634, 350 1, 225, 830 346, 250 10, 740, 583 39, 134, 712 284, 540 0, 2U, 430 128, 415 108, 400 2, 382, 895 261 2 5 1 1 5 29 63, 493, 820 292, 105 1, 004, 762 89S, 030 411, 290 1, 164, 542 6, 454, 089 8, 489, 540 142, 190 Owt 261, 570 1, 982, 325 896, 810 325, 605 8, 417, 180 34, 100, 651 264, 733 5, 566, 965 102, 360 93, 955 2, 699, 420 54, 711, 574 24«,0OO 1, 058, 172 292, 721 174, 936 978, 913 6, 008, 020 7, 336, 995, 192, 800 328 82,407,368 71, 000, 731 Kreismann, Consul- General. United States Consulate-General, Berlin, November 30, 1878. 478 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. GERMANY— 1878. REPORTS BY OONSIIL-GESSBAL EBMISMANN, OF BERLIN. The quantity of beet taxed and used in the manufacture of sugar| amounted in the harvest of September-August, 1876-77, to 70,949,323' cwt., as against 83,225,683 cwt. in the preceding year, showing a decrease therefore of nearly 15 per cent. Along with this falling off in the yield there was a still greater decrease in the production in France and in the other countries, so that the prices toward the end of 1876 reached : quite an extraordinary height, and the consumption of sugar experi-J enced considerable reductions. The exports of German raw sugar have therefore in the last year attained dimensions never before reached. According to the returns of exports, which at present are submitted up to the end of August, the sugar trade and sugar consumption of Germany show the following results as compared, with those of the pre ceding years : Harvest. Production of beet sugar. Imports. Exports. ConsumptioD. 1874-'7B Owt 5, 128, 547 7, 160, 964 5, 800, 000 Cwt. 568, 930 426, 489 163, 900 Owt. 240, 250 1, 147, 820 1, 162, 620 Owt. 5, 457, 927 6,439,633 4,801,300 1876 '76 1876-77 Notwithstanding the diminished production, the export of beet sugar from Germany has yet experienced an increase, the home consumptioa on the other hand remaining behind that of the j^ear lS7o-'76 by \ about 1,600,000 cwt. With the simultaneous falling off in the beet 5 sugar productions in Prance the home-sugar manufacturers have, ,^ however, been sufferers in a less degree than the state or rather the- customs department. The increased demand of France and of England for foreign raw sugar gave the German manufacturers toward the end of last spring an opportunity to dispose of a large quantity of their stock at a pretty good profit and thus to equalize the decrease in production by higher prices. The state, however, in the last year has not only lost so much in duties on sugar as the production of sugar has diminished, , but also in proportion as the exports have increased. The falling off in the production amounts to about 1,400,000 cwt., which would represent a duty of some 13,000,000 of marks. The sugar-beet crop of Europe is estimated as follows : Germany Franco Biissin iinil Poland Aii.itria-Huugary ., Boleium Holland and others Totiil 1877-'78. Tons. 355, 000 325, 000 250, 000 235, 000 60, 000 25, 000 1, 250, 000 1876-'77. Tons. 291, 204 243,295 250, 000 205, 207 44, 407 25, 000 1, 059, 233 1873-'76. Tons. ;U6, 645 450, 877 245,000 ' 180, UO 79, 795 30, 000 1, 322, 457 • BEET-SUGAR INDUSTKY IN GERMANY. 479 This brauch of agricultare has experienced an enormous development within the last twenty-five years. In 1850 the number of raw-sugar factories was 184, and the mass of sugar beet manufactured into sugar 14,750,000 hundred- weight, whereas in the years 1874-'75 333 factories were in operation, using up more than 55,000,000 hundred-weight of beet sugar. H. Krbissmann, Consul- General. United States Consulate-Geneeal, Berlin, November 26, 1877. GERMANY— i88i. ESPORT BT OONSUL-QENERAL SEEWMB, OF BERLIIT. Concerning the beet-sugar industry, a few expla,natory remarks may not be out of place. How much the influence is appreciated of the cul- tivation of sugar beets upon agriculture and national welfare may be seen from a few passages extracted from a very valuable treatise by Richard von Kaumann on sugar industry (published by L. Guttentag— D. Collin, Berlin), in which it is stated that — It is an established fact that notwithstanding the extensive onltivation of sugar beets, no decrease in the yield of cereals has taken place, but hag, on the contrary, augmented by double and treble the amount in the districts where sugar beets are planted, and that at those very places the production of meat is steadily increasing. The growth of sugar beets requires that the soil be tilled to a greater depth, thus adding to the thrift also of other plants to be cultivated later on the same soil. Be- sides, the remnants or waste left in the manufacture of beet sugar furnishes not only an excellent food for cattle, but also a fertilizing stuff, dispensing to a considerable extent with the use of artificial manure. But the profit is also considerable which this industry affords people who work in the sugar manufactories, as they get em- ployment throughout the whole year, during the spring and summer seasons, in the growing and cultivation of the beets, and during the fall and winter in the manu- factories. Exhibit C is a statement showing the beet-sugar manufacture during the year ended August 31, 1881 : Exhibit C. — Table showing the results of the beet sugar manufactured during the year from September 1, 1830, to August 31, 1881. [Quantities in 100 kilograms. J states. Factories in opera- tion. Beets worked. Produced. Purchased. Total. I. Prussia II. Bavaria m. Wnrtemberg IV. Baden V. Meoklenburf: VL Thurin^ian States . VIX. Brunswick Vin. Anbalt IX. Luxemburg Total... Squal to cwt.. 256 2 S 1 1 4 333 14, 013, 154 71, 650 194, 505 62, 928 34, 087 272, 730 2, 426, 957 1, 685, 809 29, 000 11, 662, 010 72, 439 256, 944 78, 862 130, 007 170, 000 835, 272 1, 086, 469 54,575 18, 790, 820 41, 339, 804 14, 346, 578 31, 562, 471 25, 675, 164 144, 089 451,449 141, 790 164,094 442, 730 3, 262, 229 2, 772, 278 83,575 33, 137, 398 72, 902, 275 480 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN GERMANY. Exhibit C— Table showing the results of the Met sugar manufactured, e(e.— Continued, States. Evapo- rated crys- tallizablo juice. Beets still to be worked. Total pro- duction of beets. In tbe preceding year. rao- tories. Quantity worked. , I. Pruaaia ■,.. 3, 112, 939 18, 674 49, 975 19, 520 21, 070 61, 259 371,655 318, 409 10, 356 22, 029, 712 104, 787 305, 040 240, 000 150, 906 252, 600 2, 201, 631 2, 440, 318 32, 000 47, 704, 876 2(b,S76 816,489 381, 790 315, 000 695, 230 5, 463, 860 5, 212, 696 116,675 251 2 5 1 1 4 30 32 2 37,407,890 206, 600 III. Wurtt'inberg 868, 663 IV. Baden 245,664 236,559 VI. Thurin 238 32 Mahriaoh... Koenigsberg . , . . 252 72 247.26 ITactorv Seed ... 267 19 Knauer's . . . 225 00 Heuclte's , . , , . 267 89 * Morgen ^ ^^^ of au acre. Grossman reports the following results of a series of experiments carried out in 1886 with different kinds of beets : Tliere were 16 different kinds of beets selected for the experiments,^ namely: East Prussian, Knauer's Mangold II, Dippe's Sugar Eichest, Kuauer's Mangold I, Knauer's Improved Imperial (white), Dippe's Im- proved Imperial, Knauer's Improved Imperial (rose), Kl. Wanzleben Original, Kuauer's Electoral, Auuiiible, Mahrisch, Koenigsberg, Kuauer's Imperial, Factory Seed, Knauer's, Heucke's Seed. In latter years great care and attention have been given in Germany, to the selection of the best beet seed. Professor Maercker, director of the agricultural experiment station at Halle, Province of Saxony, conducted in recent years a series of experiments with a variety of seed. The seed selected consisted of 26 different sorts, which were divided among 21 different experts for experiments. The following are the results obtained : "5 n ■" a «.- ij >. c.„ ^Sri *^ u *: fi *» >> J ^ a Douomination of aeed. t. C 3 -- p c Pi ps " C ° A. Sugar hi-et. Yilmorin race. MS. « 10. 2S 17.86 80.2 24. 24 (iobr. Dippo b improvciJ Ufat wlifto (luality 167.7 15.69 17.05 85.5 24.19 \'ilnioriii biniicliu aninlinrcn, iirif^iiiul (irusHhnff ((^lU'dhiilHULi), Vilnuniii, Hooond niiHiii^'. 177.0 14.89 16.04 SI. 7 20.29 Scliitpor (JiuHslii), liiit li:iroMsa, aoooinl raiHing 1^.6 15. il3 1 7. :!0 85.8 23.12 Sotiicilicr ifc Sun (JJtwinm'ii) Vilnioriii 14] 4 15 39 10.91 S5. 1 21.83 Sclililtr &. Co. {Auniiilile), Vilmorin, mch-ohiI rais- 16.45 87.6 24.30 J[(ii'iiiiii[i A', Co. (FTiiiilioiih.nnMoii), Yiliiuiriii, hco- .. II 152.8 15.03 17.47 86.7 24.50 Siij,cai" iiiiiiiiilacloi'v, Ki'i l)irtilorl, Vilmoriji, H^^(^uIl(^ raissiiji; 163.9 10.06 17.39 85.6 20.29 * Moryeu = ,% of au an BEET-SUGAE INDUSTEY IN GEEMANY. 495 Denomiuatiou of seedi ■S.2 K ^^ s O ■Sft 2 Ph & & 201.6 14.74 16.00 85,8 180.4 15.38 16.39 86.6 183.4 16,10 17.51 87.3 179.0 14.29 16.36 8t.2 201.5 14.75 15.84 85.9 205.3 14.89 15.90 86.0 184.9 16.71 17.02 86.4 209.6 14.34 16.05 84.4 166.2 16.40 16.93 86.7 183.1 15.21 16.17 85.5 196.2 14.84 15.76 86.2 197.9 15.28 16,35 86.1 161.4 14.79 16.07 84.9 174.4 13.81 14.93 83.5 204.2 14.74 14 60 84.4 198.1 14.98 10.30 86.9 J65.0 14.61 15.78 84.7 193.3 14.29 16.44 83.6 o pi9 B. Sugar beet, Kl, Wanzleben race. KI. Wauzlobun, original, old raisiug KL Wanzleboii, origiual, uow raisiu^ Dippe's improved Kl. Wanzloben, best Groasboff {Quedliubarg), Kl, "Wanzleben .Braune (BioudorOiniproved, Kl. "Wanzleben Schreibei & Son (Horlngen), Kl. "Wanzleben Schlitte &. Co. (Aumiible), improved, Kl. Wan- zleben "Wilke (Gr. Mobringen), Altm^rlcer, Kl, Wanzle- ben .Hornuug & Co. (Franllenbauaen), Kl, Wanzleben Kabbetbge (Eiubeck), KLWanalebon... Wein3chenli (Lulkau), KLWanzleben C. YilTno7'i7i and Kl. Wanzleben, Cross, Braunc (Biendorf), Tilmorin and Kl. Wanzleben, cross Strandes (Zohringou), Vilmorin and Kl. Wanzle- ben, cross Bibrans (Ueflngon), Vilmorin andKl. Wanzleben, cross D. Yarious, Vilmorin collet rose, original Oebr. Mette (Quedlinburg) Gebr. Mette (Quedlinbarg), improved white impe- rial ^ Strandes (Zebringen), improved smoutli leaf 29.78 29.10 29. 65 25. 55 29.57 30. 86 , 29. 08 30.09 25.82 27.72 29.32 30.06 24.65 24.01 28.03 29.66 27. 02 27. 29 ' * Morgen = iVs o^ "n acre. The field ou which the experimeuts were made, being a good second- class humus beet soil, with a loamy and marly subsoil, had been manured in the early part of spring with factory compost, rich in lime. A few days previous to planting the soil had been supplied with 100 pounds each of Chili saltpeter and nitrogenous phosphatic meal to the acre. The question of manuring the soil is one that requires the greatest at- tention in the cultivation of the sugar beet. Careless and injudicious use of manures is more or less detrimental to the quality of the beet. lu order to determine upon the quality and quantity of manures to be used it is necessary to possess a general knowledge of the physical character and chemical composition of the soil and the beets. The prejudice against the use of certain kinds of manures— such, for example, as salt- peter—seems to be unjust. But its abuse is detrimental, and therefore great care should be exercised in employing it. With reference to the question whether the percentage of sugar in the beets is determined by saltpeter manuring, the eminent Professor Wagner, of Darmstadt, makes the following observations : If it has been formerly obaerved that by strong saltpeter manuring, iiotwithstan"d- ing that the same had been done in conjunction with phosphoric acid manuring, the amount of sugar in the beets showed a decrease of from % to 1 per cent, or more, with a considerable reduction in the quotient of purity, the latest experiences furnish the 496 , BBET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. satisfactory result that boot cultivators have succeeded in establishing more uniformity- in the perceutage of suf;ar in the various kinds of beets, which is not at all, or only: very slightly, diminished by manuring with 200 pounds of Chile saltpeter per morgen.; A great number of experiments have proved that by strong saltpeter manuring a considerable increase -in the crops of beet was obtained without showing any im- portant reduction either in the percentage of sugar or quotient of purity in the j uiee. But to obtain such favorable results the chief conditions to be observed are the fol- lowing: 1. Cultivate excelleut sugar-rich varieties of beets. 2. Procure the seed from the best and most reliable quarter. 3. Use with Chile saltpeter a sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid, in order that the ripening of the beets is not retarded. 4. Apply the saltpeter before the sowing of the seed, and do not use it as a top dressing. The following results were obtained from a series of inanurial experi- ments carried out under the supervision of the agricultural society on the light and dark beet soils of the province of Posen, which show the average increase per 100 pounds of beets in the crop : Average increase, 200 pounds superphosphate 7, S 200 pounds superphosphate and 100 pounds Chile saltpeter 27.3 200 pounds superphosphate and 200 pounds Chile saltpeter 37.6 100 pounds superphosphate and 200 pounds Chili saltpetre 26.0 200 pounds Chile saltpeter 17.2 200 pounds ammoniated superphosphate 5.3 A mere glance at the above figures will serve to illustrate the rapid growth of the beet-sugar industry in Germany during the last 15 years. In the campaign year of 1871-'72 the production of raw sugar was only 18,644 tons, while in that of 1884-'85 it reached the enormous amount of 112,303 tons, showing an increase in 12 years of about 500 per cent United States Consulate, Cologne, March 17, 1888. Wm. D. Wamer, Gomul. GERMANY— 1887. REPORT OF CONSUL MILLAR, OF LEIPSJO. BOUNTIES. A short time ago the Leipziger Zeitung, which is a.u ofiQcial organ of the Saxon Government, published an article on the above subject with reference to the general question of bounties and the limits within which they should be confined. As the subject is in itself one of con- siderable importance, and is now occupying the attention of the Impe- rial Government, I have thought it worth while to summarize the argu- ments and conclusions of the article. The duties of the Imperial Government are defined by the writer as twofold : First, to see that an important and wealthy industry, such BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN GERMANY. 497 as tlie siigai fabricatioi), contributes its due share towards the taxes of the country; second, to jH'otect the industry from the ruinous effects of French and Austrian competition, which would otherwise bring dis- aster upon those districts of Germany which depend upon the contin- uance of the sugar industry for their prosperity. The mean between these two functions, however, is no longer maintained. Last year 8,500,000 cwt. of sugar were consumed, on which a tax of 9 marks per cwt., amounting to about 7«,000,000 marks, was levied. But of this sum only about 33,000,000 will remain in the treasury, the surplus of 43,000,000 returning as bounty into the pockets of the exporting manu- facturers and refiners, to enable them to undersell their French and Austrian competitors in foreign markets. A similar state of things exists in Austria and France, in which latter country the bounty threat- ens in the course of a few years to consume the entire income derived from the duty. Obviously this state of things can not continue, and the Governments of all three countries have been compelled to devote their attention to the question. The remedy, in the view of the writer of the article, is to be found by limiting the influence of protective duties. Such duties should con- fine themselves to securing the home market for the native producer; they should not attempt to secure for him the control of foreign mar- kets. An industry which desires to extend its operations beyond the frontiers of its own country must do so with its own resources and at, its own risk. It can not expect support from the taxpayers of the fatherland. Such support is not only unjust to the taxpayers and to other industries ; in the long run it is injurious to the favored industry , itself, and an industry which can not freely encounter competition does better not to enter into the lists at all. The article then proceeds to consider the prospects of the sugar in- dustry after a reduction of the bounty. As respects methods of culti- vation and manufacture, tlie sugar industry of Germany is superior to that of any other nation ; and if other German industries are able, under less favorable conditions, to comi^ete successfully with other countries, the sugar industry may reasonably be called on to do the same. An examination of statistics leads to the same conclusion. The European production of sugar last year was as follows: Germany Austria.. France .- Itiissia ... (inantity. Cwt. 20, 200, 000 10, 600, 000 10, 000, 000 0, 400, 000 Countries. Belgium .. UolL-ind .. lotal Quantity. 63, 000, 000 498 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. The export from Germany in the last Jdve years is estimated to have been as follows : Yeara. Quantity. Tears. Quantity. 1882-'83 Owt. 9, 400, 000 :i, 900, 000 13, 500, 000 1885 '86 Owt. 10, 000, 000 1883-'84 18S6 '87 13.000,000 1884-'85 These figures show that German sugar plays a leading part in the markets of the world and that foreign countries are largely dependent ou Germany for their supplies. The only competition to be feared is that of Prance, and even here it is to be remarked that a long time will elapse before France is in a position to raise its production from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 cwt., and when it has done so the increased consumption in the world will probably leave France in the same posi- tion as now. There is, consequently, no reason to fear that sugar facto- ries will work with no profit if the export bounties are withdrawn. Two classes of bounties have to be distinguished in Germany, the bounty on raw sugar and the special export bounty on refined sugar. The manufacturer of raw sugar is generally a farmer also and culti- vates large areas of ground. He pays 85 pfennigs (20J cents) tax per cwt. of beets and receives 9 marks ($2.14^) returned on the export of each cwt. of raw sugar, so that he presumably uses about 10^ cwt. of beets to produce 1 cwt. of sug^r. In point of fact he only uses 8|^, so that he gets about 2 marks surplus bounty on each cwt. of manufac- tured sugar. The refiners are a smaller and, for the state, less im- portant class than the farmer manufacturers of raw sugar, but they re- ceive greater benefits. The tax paid by the refiners on raw sugar (that is, the difference between the home and export prices) is, as above, 9 marks per cwt. Ten cwt. of raw sugar produce nine of re- fined, so that the export bounty should not exceed 10 marks. In fact it amounts to 11.10 marks ($2.64), so that the state loses 1.10 marks (26 cents) on every cwt. of refined sugar exported. This inequality is not removed by the new proposals for the reduction of the bounties, inasmuch as the tax on raw sugar is reduced to 8.63 marks and the export bounty on refined sugar to 10.75 marks. Strictly, the export bounty should be reduced to 9.58 marks, so that the new proposal would produce a loss to the state of 1.17 marks per cwt. In other words, the state will collect some 20,000,000 marks from the farming manufacturers of raw sugar to return the bulk into the pockets of the few refiners, while only a million or two will come into the treasury. This form of the proposal is no doubt due to the great political influ- ence of the refiners ; but the article concludes with the belief that the Imperial Government and the Eeichstag will nevertheless view the matter more in the light of the general welfare and protect the inter- ests of the many against those of the few. Sam'l Rolfe Millar, Consul. United States Consulate, Leipsio, Germany, July 21, 1887. BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. GERMANY- 1887. SEPOIiT BT OONSUL-OENERAL BAINE, OF BERLIN. Beet-sugar production in the German Zollverein, years 1881-'82 to 1885-'86. |Ton,22owt.; pound, ona-lialf kllogriiin ; 100 kilograms, 2.2 owt.] 499 i 1 p< a i Faol.ir taJuiL •by- ('3 ob- g Juice Quantities obtained. Beets worked. Produced by the factories. Filling mass. Kaw sugar product of all kinda. Tear. 1 .B.S .sis ill Mo- lasses. 1881-'«2 1882-'83 lf83-'84 l884-'85 1885-'86 343 358 376 408 399 324 343 368 402 395 19 S 8 6 4 Tons. 6,271,948 8, 747, 164 8,918,130 10, 402, 688 7, 070, 317 Tons. 3, 431, 754 4,448,632 4, 205, 064 4, 936, 246 4, 199, 047 On acres. 303, 140 3'23, 165 35'2, 107 375, 193 347, 173 Tons. 774, 004 1, 097, 508 1, 216, 879 1,448,019 1, 025, 777 Tons. 599, 722 835, 166 940,109 1, 123, 030 808, 105 Tons. 150, 813 190,305 207, 978 259. 700 I8O; 178 Ye ar. Obtained from 100 kilograms of taxed beet.'?. Obtained from 100 kilograms. (0 Oct ^ «'Sc;j 5 Filling mass. I'rom tie filling mass. Haw sugar. Mo- lassos. Kaw sugar. Mo. lassos. i &5 i ^' 1881 '82 Founds. 27.14 27.61 27. 30 30.04 31.92 Founds. 21.03 21.01 21. 08 23 73 25.14 Pounds. 5.28 4.92 4.66 5.50 5.61 Po^inds, 170.45 167. 42 154. 50 170. 54 173. 31 Pounds. 42.85 39. 36 34.18 39. 44 38 63 Founds. 23.01 23.03 18.98 20.24 l«82-'«3 1883-84 lS84-'85 1885 '86 By German act of July 9, 1887, a new modff of taxation -was adopted (as reported in dispatch No. 271, dated July 26, 1887), to take effect August 1, 1877. The extraordinary develoiiment of the sugar industry in recent years is striking. The average consumption per head of the population of the chief sugar-consuming countries in the periods men- tioned is reported as follows : Country. Year. KUos. Country. Year. Kilos. ]876-'80 1876-'80 1875-'79 1878-'79 28.07 17.11 11.70 10.80 ]876-'79 1875-'79 1874-'79 United States 8.34 Denmark 13 55 Holland From 1881-'86 the consumption has rapidly increased, on an average per head of nearly 9 kilograms, while Great Britain's consumption shows one of 32 kilograms per head. Great Britain's high average is as remarkable as Germany's low one, and it is but natural, therefore, that the former remains chief consumer of Germany's sugar. Prom the 1st day of January to the 30th of Octo- 500 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. ber, 1887, Germany imported in 100 kilograms (2.2 cwts.) 35,568 (against 27,■ rapidly augmented exportation of sugar. In the years from 1871 to 1885 the excess of bounties paid over tbe beet tax amounted to 5,737,274 marks. The results of an official international meeting held at Loudon a short time ago to do away, if possible, entirely with all export bounties ou sugar, have not yet been officially iiublished. In principle this export bounty has been disapproved also by German beet-sugar manufacturers in a recent meeting, though these latter claim to be still dependent ou it in practice. F. Eainb, Coiisul-OeiieraL United States Consulate-General, licrlin, Fchrunry 15, 1888. BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN GERMANY, 501 GERMANY-1887. JiEVOET BY COMMERCIAL AGENT SMITH, OF MAYENCE. REFORM OF SUGAR TAX. About as prouiinoufc a question at the last session of the Rel6hstag was the reform of the sugar tax. The Goverament for a long time lias been paying a bounty, as it were, upon sugar, and an urgent demand has been made for several years past from various quarters for a re\'ia- ion of the tax upon sugar, so that this anomaly should cease. By a law passed iu 1869 it was assumed that it took 12.^ centners of beet- roots to give one centner of crude sugar, and a tax was levied on this basis and a corresponding drawback allowed on exported sugar. Since then great improvements have been made in the process of manufactur- ing, so that but 10^ centners of roots are necessary to produce one cent- ner of sugar instead of 12J, as formerly, but the Government continued to grant a drawback on the basis of 12J. The export drawback thus became an enormous premium to the producers, and the German sugar manufacturers have been able to supply all Europe with cheap sugar, till to protect themselves different states had to increase their duties on foreign sugar. The industry has bloomed and astonishing dividends been iiaid. But the large profits at last led to overproduction and a crisis in the trade, and the export bounty cost the German Government about §5,000,000. A new law has been passed this year remedying the old to some extent. Under it, from August, 1886, the tax on sugar is to be 1.75 marks (41| cents) per 100 kilograms (220 pounds). The export drawback upon the same quantity of raw sugar of at least 90 per cent, polarization and upon reftned sugar of 90 to 98 per cent, will be 18 marks ($4.28) for tlie first year, and afterwards 17.25 marks ($4.10). On candies and on sugar in white hard loaves, blocks and bars, the drawback is 22.20 marks ($5.2§) for this year and 21.25 marks ($5.05) hereafter. On all hard sugar and on all white dry sugar in crystal, crumb, or flour form of at least 90 per cent, polarization the bounty is 20.80 marks ($4.95) to August 1887, and 20.15 marks ($4.79) thereafter. J, H. Smith, Commercial Agent. United States Commercial Agency, Mayence, January 8, 1887. GERMANY— 1888. REPORT BY OOySUL-GENERAL EDWARDS, OF BERLIN. INTRODUCTORT. I have the lionor to submit herewith a report relating to the produc- tion, fabrication, taxation, and consumption of beet-root sugar in Ger- many, together with tables marked A, B, C, D, B, F, and G, containing 502 BEBT-SU6AE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. Statistical information concerning tbe condition and progress of the beet-roo^t sugar industry in Germany, Attention is especially directed to the conditions, modifications, and operations of the material and consumption taxes, as described and explained in the,report. The result of the operations of the taxes in question may be seen from an examination of Table A. It will be observed that under the operations of the material tax Hamburg paid nothing, but received, as a rebate on the different classes of exports, the sum of 18,421,851 marks.* The rebate allowances accorded by the federal council are fully explained in the report, and the articles directly affected specified by name. The beets are planted on land belonging to or rented by the factories. Whenever the factory directors do not plant their own beets, they write down very exactly the' rules for cultivation, direct and oversee the ma- nuring and working of the beet fields. The factories purchase only from those who have pledged themselves to cultivate the beets in accord- ance with fixed regulations. By reference to the tabte marked D it will be observed that during the year 1888-'89 the factories raised 53.3 per cent, and purchased 46.7 per cent, of the entire quantity of beets used. The prices, it will be ■ seen by reference to the report, depend upon the percentage of sugar contained in the beet, and not, as formerly, upon the weight of the beet. Table D also shows the number of factories in operation from 1871-'72 to 1888-'89. It will be seen, by reference to the same table, that the press sj'Stem has gradually given way to the diffusion process. Special mention is made in the report as to improvement introduced in the factories during the year 1888-'89. I beg to invite your attention to the inclosed clipping from the Lon- don Times of January 24, 1890, which pretends to explain the causes of the movement in the prices of sugar during the year 1888-'89. THE REPORT. With the beginning of the year 1888-'89 the provisions of the law of July 9, 1887, concerning the taxation of sugar, were put into operation. This law, in addition to the old material tax on the weight of beets used in the fabrication of sugar, imposed a consumption tax on the weight of suyar placed upon the home market. Before August 1, 1888, be?t sugar was taxed only to the extent that the raw roots destined to the manufacture of suj;:ir were subject to a weight duty. This duty, in tbe fiscal years 188G-'S7 and 1887-'8S, amonnted to 1.70 marks on 100 kilo- grams of raw beets. t In the preceding years, as far back as Sopteniber, 1869, it was l.GO marks. The material tax introduced in 188S-'89 amounts to O.SO mark per 100 kilograms, a decrease of 0.90 mark as compared with the preceding year. But there is, in addition to this, a consuinption tax of 12 marks ])er 100 kilograms of iidand beet' sugar, * 1 mark =23.8 cents. 1 1 ldlogr.am=2,205 pounds. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 50i5 that is, on all sngar wbich is manufactured in inland factories from beets, or products of sugar fabrication (Rirup and molasses), or by far- ther iiuishiiig processes, from such sugar (refining, etc.). This con- sumption tax is due so soon as the sugar i>asses from the revenue con- trol, under which it has lain during the manufacturing and refining process, into the open market. Only sirup and molasses are free from this consumption tax, and even upon these the federal council is em- powered to impose the consumption tax, partially or in full, when the condition of such drippings is such as to fit them for finer uses. Ac- cording to section G of the law of July 9, 1887, all drippings which in the dry substance contain 70 per cent, or more of sugar are subject to the consumption tax of 12 marks per 100 kilograms. The material tax for sugar which is exported beyond the customs frontier, or which is kept in bond in public or private warehouses, when the amount is at least 500 kilograms, is refunded per 100 kilograms as follows : (a) For raw sugar of at least 90 per cent, fine, and for refined sugar containing less than 98 per cent., but at least 90 percent, of sugar, 8.50 marks. {h) For candies, and for sugars in white, full, hard loaves, blocks, plates, sticks, or cubes, or broken small in the presence of revenue offi- cers ; for so-called crystals, or for other white, hard, translucent sugar in crystal form, containing at least 99J per cent, of sugar, particularly the sort known in trade as granulated ; further, for other sugars of at least 99J per cent, purity, which at any time may be thus classified by the federal council, 10.65 marks. (c) For all other hard sugars, as well as for all white, dry (not con- taining t)ver 1 per cent, water) sugars in crystal, crumb, or flour form, containing at least 98 per cent, sugar, so long as they do not fall under b, 10 marks. The sugar lying in public or private warehouses, upon payment of the tax, may be placed upon the domestic market. Upon the exportation of wares in whose manufacture sugar of all sorts described in a, b, and c has been used, or upon the storing of such wares in public or private warehouses, under official surveillance, ac- cording to the decision of the federal council, the material tax and the already paid consumption tax on the amount of sugar contained in the wares is to be refunded. The federal council has accorded this privilege to the following articles : Condensed milk, chocolate, conditor's wares (drag^es, desert bonbons, marzipan, cakes, and similar baked wares, sugared southern and other fruits glazed and candied, as well as fruits preserved in sugar), alcoholic fluids containing sugar, namely, sweet- ened spirits (liqueurs), as well as fruit juices and brandies cooked with sugar and mixed with alcohol, and further, to fluid refined sugar and that known in trade as fruit sugar. If such goods are taken from the warehouse where they have been stored in bond, the material and con- sumption taxes must be paid. For the transition period from August 1 504 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. to October 1, 1888, certaiu lighteniiigs of the new regulations were allowed, and particularly for such cases in which the sugar has been produced before the revenue ofQcers before August 1, and its identity- established by its having been stored iu bond ; or in wliich the revenue officers, on August 1, in tlie sugar factory, had made an inventory of the supplies on hand of raw sugar or unfinished wares, and had reck- oned the product therefrom of finished sugar ; or in which the sugar came from factories which, during the term in question, had not used beets or procured sugar or sugar drippings elsewhere, or only so far as their origin in the preceding fiscal period was beyond doubt. Tlie modifying of the taxes in these cases consisted in this, that upon ex- portation, or storing iu bonded warehouses, a rebate was allowed amounting on 100 kilograms of sugar, class a, to 17.25 marks; class 6, to 21.50 marks ; class c to 20.15 marks; or, upon being placed on tbe inland market, the consumption tax was remitted. For sugar from foreign countries (all kinds, with the exception of sirup and molasses) since August 1, 1888, the import duty has been 30 marks per 100 kilo- grams. Previously this rate of duty had been only for refined sugar and such raw sugars as reached the Dutch standard No. 19, while other raw sugars paid 24 marks per 100 kilograms. When foreign sugar is introduced for further manufacture in a sugar factory, the amount of the consumption tax (12 marks per 100 kilograms) can be deducted and only 18 marks per 100 kilograms collected in customs duties. As in the second half of the year 1887-'88 the condition of sugar prices was not unfavorable, and as, consequently, the coming campaign could be looked forward to with some degree of confidence by the sugar factories, more sugar beets were planted iu 1888 than in the preceding year. If, notwithstanding this, in the year lSS8-'89 not more beets were used nor a much larger mass of sugar produced than 18S7-'88, these facts were due to the weather of 1888. The late winter delayed planting partially until May. The frequent rains in the months of June and July promoted, it is true, the growth of the beet; but the lack of heat was unfavorable to the development of the sugar ingredients, and the more favorable weather of August could not remedy the injury. If, therefore, the crop in quantity ex- ceeded that of the preceding year, it fell behind in quality, the beet of 1887, according to the reports of Magdeburg officials, having been equaled by that of no previous year in the amount of sugar contained in it. Furthermore, the frosts in the early part of November did great damage, because at that time many of the factories still had a large portion of their beets in the ground. It is true that work was at once begun with the frozen beets, though— a thaw setting in at the end of November— the great supply on hand could not bo used with sufiicient rapidity. The juices of the thawedout beets were to such an extent rendered impure by a slimy substance (tlie so-called beet gum) that they could only with difficulty, and often not at all, be filtered by BEET-SUGAB INDUSTRY IN GERMANY 505 means of the presses. The cooking in vacuum was also difficult in many factories, so that some of the manufacturers gave up the attempt to use the frozen beets. Similar reports concerning the injuries from frost, which rendered a part of the beet crop useless in sugar fabrica- cation and consequently disturbed business, were made from nearly all the North German directive districts. In general, however, the condi- tion of the beets used was favorable, though their quality did not equal that of the [>receding year. In regard to the cultivation and produC' tiou of beets no important changes were introduced. As formerly, the beets were either planted on laud belonging to or rented by the facto- ries or obtained from others who had pledged themselves to cultivate the beets in accordance with fixed regulations. Whenever the factory directors do not plant their own beets they write down very exactly the rules for cultivation, direct and oversee the manuring and working of the beet fields. It is more and more becoming the custom of the factories not to pay for the beets by weight, but to take also into con- sideration the amount of contained sugar. The best delivery contracts fix for a certain price a certain percentage of sugar in the beet, for any thing in excess of which additional prices are paid. Often, moreover, these contracts contain the provision that, if the beets do not produce a certain percentage of sugar, they may be refused. For 100 kilo- grams of beets from 1.5 to 2.5 marks were paid, the usual price being from 1.8 to 2 marks. No special technical improvements or inventions are reported as having been practically introduced during the year 188S-'89, though many of the factories were more thoroughly equipped. The improve- ments were chiefly in the direction of economizing in the use of steam, the strengthening and improvement of the diffusion batteries, the introduction of the process of purifying the juice with sulphuric acid, the adoption of new filter presses, etc. In some factories a new system has been tried with more or less success, by which raw sugar, by means of systematic washing, is freed from molasses and converted into white sugar fit for consumption. The manufacture of sugar from molasses, as compared with the pre- ceding year, showed a decline in 1888-'89, in 1887-'88 167 factories pro- ducing sugar from molasses as well as from beets, while in 1888-'89 there were only 115. Of these 45 used the Osmose process (1887-'88, 84 ; 1886-'87, 55 ; 18S5-'86, 78 ; 1884:-'85, 79 ; 1883-'84, 115 ; 1882-'83, 124 ; and 1881-'82, 135), and probably the use of this costly process would have been still more diminished had it not been for the rise in the prices of sugar, owing to which the price of Osmosist sugar at the end of the year was higher than that of the first product at the beginning of the campaign. The elution process is in use in 40 factories (1887-'88, 48 ; 1886-'87, 46; 1885-'86 and 1884-'85, 51 ; 1883-'84,46; 1882-'83,50; and 1881-'82, 44). The substitutson process was used in 5 (1887-'88, 9; 1886-'87,1885-'86,andl884-'85, 10; 1883-'84,13; 1882-'83, 8 ; 1881-'82, 4). The settling process was used in 2 (1887-'88, 3 ; 1886-'87, 2 ; 1885- f7A 8 506 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. '86,4; 1884-'85,5; 1883-'84, 4; 1882-'83, 6 ; and 1881-'82, 4). The sepa-, ration process was used in 20 (1887-'88, 20; 1886-'87,17; 1885-'86, 16; 1884-'85, 13 ; and 1882-'83, 2). The stroiitian process was in use in 3 (1887-'88, ]886-'87, 1885-'86, 1884-'85, and 1883-'84, each 3). In regard to the costs of fabrication only to a limited extent were reports made, and these were calculated differently. In general, however, it appears, that these expenses were somewhat larger than in the preceding year,l because the beet price and, to an extent, the wages of labor were higher. In comparison with the preceding year the saving in the beet tax (0.90 mark on the 100 kilograms, see above) more or less equahzed the increase in cost of production. From the beginning of the cam- paign until December sugar prices fell not inconsiderably, but in that month they recovered again somewhat, and remained at about the same height during the two following months. From the month of March on, however, the influence of a high-price union (sugar trust) in Magde- burg made itself felt, and prices rose very high, though in July a very great fall followed. The price rise in the spring of 1889 occasioned the unusual circumstance that most of the factories were able to dispose of their seconds for higher prices than they got for their first products. A. — Amount of tax on inland sugar and customs duty on foreign sugar, together with the amiunt of sugar products placed in the open market in the year 1888-89. District. Income from material tax. Sugar material tax (beet tax.) Gross re- ceipts. Less for ex- ported or wareiioused sugar.* Net receipts. Material tai for angar Jxnd wares ,| coutaininjj sugar (taxes paid on wares taken from ware- ileuses.)' J East Prussia "West Prussia Brandenburg Pomerania. Posen Silesia Province of — Saxony Schlcswig-Holatein . Hanover Westphalia flesaen-N.aasau Bliineland Total Prussia. Bavaria Saxony Wiirtomburg Badcii HesBon Mocltlenburg , Thuringia BruuRWick Aniialt Lliheck JlMMuen lliiuibnrg , Marks. 271, 028 2, 081. 311 1, 263, 948 1, 258, 418 3, 820, 274 8, 197, 265 22, 224, 126 192, 933 6, 769, 688 747, 972 529, 064 2, 002, 642 50, 259, 101, 565, 4,14, 175, B14, 1, 027, 1, 086, 4, 824, 4, 099, U'oImI for German customs district 63,1«9, 618 Marks. 127, 601 5, 479, 886 r:4, 412 3, 329, 010 1, 042, 560 4, 939, 389 21, 534, 662 1, 317, 602 3, 060. 912 168, 858 172, 181 5, 126, 977 46, 424, 850 6,122 442 11, 659 9,616 712,764 252, 920 81, 107 41,535 3, 51,\ 353 2, 958, 747 2 7S3 2, 520[ 626 18,421,851 80, 070, 053 Marks. 143, 427 -2, 498, 675 1, 139, 536 -2, 071, 492 2, 777, 714 3, 257, 876 689, 464 -1, 124, 569 3, 708. 776 579. 114 367, T83 -3, 124, 335 3, 834, 719 —4, 960, 882 553, 697 445, 062 —637, 092 261, 416 946, 620 1, 044, 790 I, 309, 383 1, 140, 922 —2, 783 —2, 620, 526 ~18, 421, 851 -16, 900, 535 Marks. 5,'i 489, 531 ' 838,452 2, 976, 711 707, T97 46, 617 7,173 771,825 5,841,918 2,194,204 4,6 206,3 130, 138,701 5,625 1.522,4(iO_ • As olaasiflod iu sootloQ 6 of the law of July 9, 1887, BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 507 A.—Amoiitit of tax on inland sugar and customs duty on foreign sugar, e(c.— Continued. District. East Pniasia 'Vest I'russift BraDfleuburjj Pomer.ini.'V Poseu Silesia Provinco of— Saxeny Sclileswig-Holstein . Hanover* "Westphalia Heasen-Kassau Kliinelaud Total, Prussia. Bavaria Saxouy Wtirtemburg fiaden Besacn Mecklenburg g'huringia Idenbuiff BmuswicK Anbalt liiibeck Bremen Hambnr,!^ Alsacp-Lorraine :I(Uxemburg , Total for Gerinau customs district Income from consumption tax. Gross re- ceipts. Markg. 200, 032 312, 746 712, 143 393, 920 003, 995 7, 140, 220 8, 371, 303 1, 158, 354 1, 020, 555 137, 751 86, 552 5, 191, 583 25, 479, 166 3, 924, 082 645, 213 730, 921 1,210,311 261, 925 732 517, 049 2, 485, 930 1,692,007 813 69, 482 Less for ex ported or warehoused wares. Marks. 22, 395 841 23, 236 Net rpceipts Marks. 260, 032 312, 740 712, 143 393, 926 693, 995 7, 140, 220 8, 371, 303 1, 158, 354 1, 020, 555 137, 751 86, 552 5,191^683 25, 479, 100 3, 902, 287 044, 372 736,921 1,210,311 201,925 732 517, 649 2, 485, 930 1, 632, 067 813 69, 483 37,001,055 Receipts from cus- toms duties on foreign sugar. Marks. 4,035 17, 730 29, 370 39, 830 660 9,405 35, 746 58, 410 76, 966 2,100 17, 025 104, 236 395, 610 74, 280 38, 355 3,075 105, 318 013,359 12, 610 1,980 795 15, 855 90 20, 820 33, 000 57, 735 90, 450 7, 305 Total re- ceipts. Marks. 407, 494 -2,102,277 1,881,049 —1,148.715 3, 472, 309 11, 243, 959 12, 073, 223 799, 992 4, 852, 913 726, 138 401, 960 , 2, 943, 308 35, 551, 413 1, 209, 889 1, 230, 424 1, 189, 737 984, 933 1,136,700 960, 120 1, 564. 419 795 3, 941, 827 2, 971, 780 24, 037 —2, 485, 753 -18, 289, 009 90, 450 7,305 30, 095, 067 A. — Amoiiiil of tax on inland sugar and customs duty on foreign sugar, etc. — Continued. District. East Prussia West Prussia Brandenburg Poraerania Posen Silesia Province of — Saxony - Schleswig-Holstein Hanover "Westphalia Hessen-Nassau Khineland Total, Praaaia -Bavaria Saxony Wiirtemburg Baden Hesaen Mecklenburg Thuringia iBxnnawick - Anhalt Bremen Hamburg ' Total for German customs district In the open market. Inland beet sugar. Paying con aumpcion tax. 100 kilos. 21, 070 26, 062 59, 345 32, 810 57, 833 595, 031 697, 581 96, 630 86, 048 11, 510 7,213 432, 389 1, 123, 028 327, 003 53, 407 61, 416 100, 859 21, 827 61 43, 138 207, 104 141, 007 08 5, 149 3, 084, 247 Not paying consump tiou tax. Sirup and molasses paying con- sumption tax. :0O kilos. 1,609 10, 129 12, 471 4,066 57, 701 83, 861 33, 976 3,336 254 312 207, 714 75, 314 16, 385 24, 914 40,918 196 9,039 40, 284 39, 003 100 kilos. 25 249 280 362' 041 1,232 Total. 100 kilos. 21, 670 27, 071 09,474 45, 299 61, 899 652, 732 781, 442 130, 606 88, 383 11, 789 7,525 432, 638 2, 331, 028 402, 377 70, 154 80, 335 141, 777 22, 023 61 52, 777 247,448 180, 013 68 6,088 3, 540, 149 608 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. B. — German sugar trade with foreign countries in 1888-89. IMPOETATION. Country. Parts of Germany not in Zollverein Belginm Denmark France Great Britain Italy Hetlierlands Kussia Sweden Switzerland Asia America - Other lands Total Total in 1887-'88 Keiined sugar, all sorts. Kaw sugar. 100 kilos. 961 2,213 66 2,315 3,104 2 0,889 7 1 60 306 142 22 19, 078 13,314 100 Uloe. 323 519 111 157 11, 985 99 5,617 52 1,168 149 84 20, 164 43, 274 Sirnp. 100 Ulos. 2,605 1 74 618 13, 206 587 2 1,123 21 21,239 26, 837 Molasses. 100 Ulos, Glucoaej starcli, 8u-_ gar, and ' sirup. 100 kilos. SI 31 11 , 100 224 145 EXPOETATION. , Country. Sugar of the rebate classes. (a.) (b.) (c.) Sugfir for which re- bates are not pro- vided. Sirup. Molasses Glucose,.; starch, ■ sugar, f and airup.^ Parts of Germany not in Zollverein Belgium Denmark Franco Great Britain Italy Netherlands Norway _. , Koumauia Eussift Sweden Switzerland Asia America Other lands Total Total in 1887-'88. 100 kilos. 1,035,158 8,244 9,426 2, 322, 199 ""483,472 50 2,113 98, 942 838 158, 845 4,955 4, 124, 242 3, 447, 108 100 kilos. 475,015 45, 621 17, 703 103 735, 253 57 59, 210 30, 004 33, 427 47, 847 80, 828 95, 818 331 15,917 3,885 100 kilos. 74, 948 1,682 4,693 36, 782 100 kilos. 151 88 2 63 9 1,379 5,368 1,596 3,061 4,252 21, 068 1,677 1, 641, 518 1, 322, 128 166, 506 207, 438 100 kilos. 2,899 16 53 453 546 2,330 89 154 25 81 84 297 108 353 6,491 3,043 100 kHos. 15, M2 31, 961 180, S62 747 2, U2 2,366 2,919 3,171 100 kHos. •„ 20,239 2,'10 1,009 11 95,870 4 171 240 1,319 9,'i 705 2,340 239, 208 572, 420 4,639 3,236 130, 166 259,444 *l ' .-«.",'.. -J»MUUJ BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 50& C. — RemtUs of the heet-sugar fabrication in the German customs ierntory. Produciiil from taxed beets. BusiuosR year. Sugar in mass. Salable products. * Raw sugar of all aorta. Molasses. Total. 1871-'72 100 kilos. 2, 629, 031 3, 716, 170 4,121,142 3, 080, 442 5, 028, 183 4, 056, 036 5, 165, 951 5, 761, 803 5, 544, 094 7, 393, 300 7, 740, 044 10, 935, 556 12,168,794 14, 480, 187 10, 257, 772 12, 459, 832 11, 239, 290 11, 653, 469 100 Ulos. 1, 864, 419 2,626,,M1 2, 910, 417 2, ,504, 124 3, 580, 482 2, 894, 227 3, 780, 091 4, 261, 561 4, 094, 152 5, 659, 151 6, 997, 222 8, 319, 963 9. 401. 093 11, 230, 303 8, 081, 049 9, 856, 278 9, 106, 984 9,445,046 100 Ulos. 038, 917 916, 887 1, 058, 181 970, 028 1, 339, 524 1, 111, Oil 1,228,128 1,336,515 1, 313, 709 1, 649, 842 1,608,129 1, 963, 047 2, 079, 781 2, 696, 997 1,801,775 2, 168, 872 1, 830, 309 2,011,890 100 Hloi. 2, 603, 336 187J '73 187:!-'74 3 QfiP rfta 1,17J 75 3, 540, 162 4, 920, 006 4 005 238 1875 '76 1K76 '77 1X77 '78 5,008,219 •» 598 Ofifi 187,^ '79 1879 '80 5, 407, 861 7, 208, 993 7, 506,-351 10, 283, 000 11,480,874 13, 827, 300 9, 882, 824 12, 015, l.M 10, 937, 353 11,450,936 lssll-'81 1881 '82 1882 '83 1883-'84 3884-'85 188.'J-'80 1886-'S7 1887 '88 1888-89 Produced from 100 kilograms of taxed boeta. ' Qu.mtity of beets re- Produced from 100 kilo.' BusiDoss yoar. Salable products. grama of augarin niaaa quired for production Su<:ar in maHH. Ila\\' suiiar of all soim. Molasses. Total. Eaw sugar of all sorts. Molasses. grams of raw sugar. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. 100 Hlos. ]871-'72 11. ns 8.28 2.84 11.12 70.89 24.29 12.07 187'2-'73 11. (is 8.25 2.88 11.13 70.65 24.65 12.11 1873-74 11.68 8.25 3 11.26 70.62 25.08 12.12 1874-'75 13.35 9.30 3.54 12.84 69.67 26.52 10.75 1876-'76 12.08 8.00 3.22 11.83 71.21 20.64 11.62 187C-'77 11.42 8.16 3.13 11.28 71.37 27.40 12.27 1877-'78 12.60 9.24 3 12.24 73.32 23.82 10. S2 1878-'79 12.45 9.21 2.89 12. 10 73. 96 23.20 10.80 1879-'80 11.54 8.52 2.73 11.25 73.86 23.70 11.74 ]880-'81 11.69 8.79 2.61 11.40 75.19 ■77.48 22.32 11.37 1881-'82 12.34 9.56 2.40 11.96 19.18 10.46 1882-'83 12.60 9.51 2.24 11.76 76.08 17.95 10.61 ]883-'84 13.85 10 54 2.33 12.87 77.26 17.09 9.49 188J-'85 13 93 10.79 2.60 13.29 77.62 17.03 9.26 1885-'86 14.51 11.43 2.65 13.98 78.78 17.56 8.75 1886-'S7 15 11.87 2.00 14.47 79.10 17.33 8.43 18S7-'88 16.14 13.08 2.63 16.71 81.03 10.29 7.65 1888-'89 14.76 11.90 2.66 14.61 81.05 17.20 8.36 510 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. D. — Production and use of he eis. ' ' [The years from 1871-'72 to 1879-'80 ,ire reckoned from Sopteinbor 1 to August 31 ; tlie year ISSO-'Si; isreokonedl'rom September 1 to July 31 ; the following years am reekoned from Au^juaL 1 to duly 31:]'; Number of facto- riea in op oration. Steam machines used. Number of factories using the different processes. Number. Horse- power. Diffusion. Press system. Other systems. 1871-72 311 324 337 333 332 328 329 324 328 333 343 358 376 408 399 401 391 396 1,921 2,078 2,203 2,233 2,300 2,370 2,413 2,493 2,627 2, 8r.i 3,046 3,365 3,715 4,196 4,188 4,276 4,292 4,363 18,162 19, 923 21, 954 22,712 23, 325 24,923 25, 788 26, 882 29, 686 32, 269 35, 476 40, 515 46, 158 56, 119 57, 194 68, 770 68, 325 60, 313 62 63 80 113 157 :97 224 258 291 309 324 343 368 402 395 397 387 393 216 220 214 181 137 98 81 50 28 20 16 12 4 3 3 3 3 43 1872-'73 . 41 1873 '74 43 1874-'75 39 1875-'76 3S 1876-'77 33 1877-'78 24 1878-'79 1879 '80 9 1880-81 1881-82 3 188'i-'83 . 3 1883 '84 18S4-'85 1 885-'86 1886 '87 . ... . . I 1887-88 I 1888-'89 Beets used. Proportion to whole " ' amount of beeta nsed. ; Cultivated hy factory ownera. Purchased. Total. Raised. Purchased.; 1871 '72 1872 '73 100 kilos. 15, 043. 510 21,013,014 24, 209, 086 19, 080, 947 28, 363, 068 24,901,537 28, 727, 752 31, 140, 298 28, 505, 861 38, 710, 787 34,317,535 44, 486, 31S 43, 050, 039 49, 302, 459 41,990,474 44, 360, 835 37, 976, 517 42, 099, 419 100 l-!los. 7, 405, 672 10, 802, 494 11,078,653 8, 486, 504 13,249,774 10, 598, 829 12,181,928 15, 147, 179 19, 546, 754 24, 505, 213 28,401,944 4'3, 985,219 47. 130, 061 54,664,424 28, 712, 694 38, 705, 877 31, 663, 089 36, 862, 411 100 mos. 22, 509, 182 31, 815, 508 35, 287, 639 27, 567, 451 41, 612, 842 35, 500, 366 40, 909, 680 46,287,477 48, 052, 645 63, 222, 030 62,719,479 87, 471, 537 89,181,303 104, 026, 883 70, 703, 168 83, 060, 712 69, 639, 006 78, 961, 830 Per cent 66.8 66 68.6 69.2 68.2 70.1 70.2 67.3 59.3 61.2 54.7 60.9 47.2 47.5 59.4 63.4 54.5 53.3 Per cent 33.2 34 31.1 30.8 31.8 •29.9 •") 8 1873 '74 1874-'75 1876-'77 1878-'79 32.7 1879 '80 1880-'81. 3^ 8 1882-'83 49 1 1883-'84. 1884-'85 1880~'87 45 5 1888-'89 46 7 Tear. Amount of land from which beets raised by fac- tory owners were harvested. Amouul produced per hectare. Number of days' (12 hours) work con- sumed in process of extraction. Amonnt of beets ; used in each day's ,. work. ia71-'72 ]Ivtafes. 73, 090 82, .'•.90 KS. S77 11-', cri.'-i 0(i. 724 104,'7S;l 107, 879 n;i, 003 ll.>i,43] 121,2li6 129, 202 IJO, S4:l 1511,077 138. sm 147, 782 143, 853 100 Ulos 204 2:.4 272 ■206 293 2.i2 274 289 252 327 •283 344 299 3-29 302 300 264 64,451 87,677 91,254 70, 020 91, 075 70, 0ll8 75, 320 75, 805 70, 909 S2, 052 70, 325 94, 816 89, 950 97, 005 66, 642 72, 5!13 59, S56 100 moe. 349 1H7L' '73 363 1H7:1-'71 3S7 ]K74-'7ri 394 ix7r.-'7ii 45i 1870 '77 503 1877 '78 543 1878- ' 7!J 610 1879 '80 678 ]880-'81 1881~'82 822 1882-'83 1883-'81 IHHI-'KG 1,07a 1.077^ l.ltt 1,163 1,183 1KK6 '«« 1880-87 1887 •8K 1888-'80 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 511 E.— GecwdM importation and exportation of sugar. IMPORTED. Year. Refined sugar, EaWHUgari Sirup and dutiable molasses. Molasses for fabrica- tion of spir- its. 1871-72 100 kiloa. 127, 305 124, 886 161,483 141,010 145, 273 77, 097 49, 163 39, 012 29, 831 22,054 22, 016 21, 038 15, 577 12, 683 12, 300 14, 618 15, 799 19, 078 100 kilo». 315, 832 97, 562 84,148 89, 133 24,626 10, 172 11, 674 15, 301 16,764 12, 652 15, 049 23, 705 18,763 20,668 26, 203 15, 675 40, 789 20, 164 100 HloB. 73, 298 69,323 61, 021 66, 587 48, 397 53, 189 41, 028 38, 329 28, 996 33, 220 33, 139 35, 369 32, 216 33, 372 28, 942 27, 166 26, 842 21, 241 100 kilot. 81,341 23, 716 60, 422 50, 335 4,748 28, 600 7,054 31, 827 72, 369 48, 510 4,588 3,611 1,695 2,816 187L'-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 1879-'80 1880-'81 1881-'82 l883-'83 t883-'84 l884-'85 ■"■ " l885-'86 l886-'87 2 l887-'88 1888-'«9 EXPORTED. With export rebate. Sugar with- out export rebate. Tear. Eaw sugar, etc. Candy su- gar, etc. Other hard sugars, etc. and sirup. 1871-72 100 Hlos. 56, 665 81, 777 118, 092 28,«38 468, 942 462, 189 712, 010 1, 034, 718 951, 616 2, 214, 420 2, 639, 310 3, 907, 027 4,911,701 5, 537, 931 4, 040, 715 4, 896, 801 3, 447, 108 4,124,242 100 Ulos. 41, 763 51, 331 41, 120 39, 452 47, 125 73, 935 140, 013 193, 561 252, 364 353, 787 399, 160 493, 811 642, 469 760, 154 66li, 196 1, 303, 789 1, 322, 128 1,641,518 100 kUog. 16, 328 28,472 26, 310 15,359 25,329 43, 423 S3, 416 113, 966 97, 052 206, 814 144, 130 242, 181 298, 679 318, 852 205, 689 238, 828 207, 438 166, 506 100 kUos. 19, 394 8,043 2l, 183 16, 531 19, 583 9,857 6,764 2,243 2,073 1,056 615 646 597 403 365 414 546 453 lOtkOoa. 8,563 35, 569 79,363 79, 829 84,588 122, 624 148, 744 174, 507 171, 676 160, 782 211, 183 141,473 255 381 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1876-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 l879-'80 1880-81 1881-'82 1882-'83 l883-'84 1884-'85 650, 618 551 206 1885-'S6 1886-'87 245, 508 675, 463 18S7-'88 1888-'89 245, 699 F, —Average prices per 100 kilograms of sugar and molasses during the year ending July 31, 1889. [The prices for raw sugar are quoted wittout, for refined sagar with, the conaumptiontax.] As reported by trade corporations. JSjiw sngar : BrunawicTc, corn, 92 per cent, fine , . Halle, corn, 92 per cent. fine.l Cologne, light com, of 96 per cent, polarization Magdebnrg, I product, corn, 92 per cent, fine Stettin, 96 per cent, polarization Refined sugar : Brunawiclv, ffmelis (loaf) Halle, fine (loaf) Cologne, with small etiquettes Madgeburg, fine (loaf) Stettin, la loaf 3t£o1as3es : Brnnswick, nnosmosirt, 43° B6., without tun Haile, unoamoairt, without tun . . . . . Magdeburg, without tun for spirit fabrication ■ August. Septem- ber. October. Novem- ber. Decem- ber. January. Marks. 47.30 47.60 Marks. 48.00 36.70 Marks. 34.66 34.60 Marks. 34.68 34.65 Marks. 36.38 30.75 Marks. 36.38 36.35 49.80 60.40 36.92 37.15 38.16 37.84 48.00 68.50 37.15 37.00 34.64 35.00 34.68 36.00 36.70 35.00 36.34 36.00 58.75 58.60 60.70 59.00 58.50 60.62 58.00 62.00 58.63 68.20 69.00 58.00 57.80 59.37 66.80 63.00 58.75 68. .'50 69.83 57.50 63.00 68.63 58.00 59.70 67.19 82.00 61.00 62.00 6.00 5.80 6.00 5.80 6.08 5.80 7.40 6.20 7.35 6.05 6.45 6.25 4.72 4.80 4.80 4.80 512 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. F.—Averaoe prices per 100 kilograms of sugar, e(c.— Continued. As reported by trade corporations. February. March. April. May. Juoe. July. Raw sugar : Eruiiswiok, corD, 92 per cent. fine. . . Hallp, corn, 92, per cent, tine Cologne, light corn, of 96 per cent. polarization Magdeburg, I product, corn, 92 per cent, tine Stettin, 90 per cent, polarisation Eefined sugar: -Brunswick, tT melis (loaf) Halle, fine (loal) Cologne, witli small etiquettes Magdeburg, fine (loaf) Stettin, la loaf Molasses : ^ BrnnflwicTc, unosraosirt, 43° B6 , without tun Halle, unosraosirt, withoot tun Magdeburg, without tun for spirit fabrication Marks. 3(i. 70 36.70 38.72 36.71 37.75 58.63 58.00 59.00 50.92 63.50 6.15 6.20 6.80 Marks. 41.05 41.05 41.09 43.50 61.50 01.60 61.00 01.00 68.00 6.10 6.15 Marks. 43. 03 50.05 49.80 50.00 09.63 70.26 71.60 69.81 72.00 7.16 7.00 5.40 Marks. Marks. Mar):s. 50.70 55.17 62.21 53.00 74.00 74.30 75.50 76.00 7.60 7.55 57.00 74.60 76.15 78.25 75.41 86.00 7.68 7.80 58.38 51.00 50.00 75.25 76.50 79.00 74.58 79 00 Ct. — Consumption of sugar and amount of sugar taxation in the German customs terrilory Year. Production of raw sugar. Importa- tion of su- gar, re- duced to the basis of raw sugar. Total. Exporta- tion of su- gar, re- duced to the basis of raw sugar. Consnraption of sugar. Consump- tion pep head of popula- tion. 1871 '12 100 kilos. 1, 864, 419 2, 625, 511 2,910,407 2, 564, 124 3,580,482 2, 894, 227 3.780,091 4, 201, 551 4, 094, 152 5, 559, 151 6, 907, 222 8, 319, 933 9, 401, 093 11,230,303 8, 081, 049 100 Ulos. 496, 332 270, 852 289, 530 276, 907 212, 532 125, 060 88, 830 79,710 65,842 60, 073 57, 330 66, 012 53,761 53,035 55, 745 100 kilos. 2, 360, 761 2, 896, 363 3, 199, 937 2,841,031 3", 793, 014 3, 019, 287 3,868,921 4, 341, 261 4, 15'<, 994 5, 615, 224 6, 054, 652 8, 385, 965 9,454,854 11, 283, 338 8, 136, 794 100 kUos. 143, 757 179, 382 216, 550 108, 134 561,209 603, 538 967, 786 1, 380, 788 1, 344, 857 2, 839, 039 3, 144, 103 4, 726, 614 5, 958, 144 6, 737, 274 5,003,215 100 kUos. 2, 217, 991 2,716,981 2, 983, 387 2, 732, 897 3, 231, 805 2, 415, 749 2, 901, 136 2, 960, 493 2, 816, 137 2, 776, 186 2, 910, 449 3,660,451 3, 496, 710 4, 546, 064 3, 133, 579 3, 614, 756 3, 981, 631 3, 575, 975 mot. E.5 6.6 1873 '74 . 7.2 1874 '75 6.5 1875-'76 7.6 5.6 6.7 8.7 0.3 1880-'81 1881 '82 8.8 6.4 1882 '83 8.1 1883 '84 .- 7.7 1884 '85 9.9 6.8 7.7 1887 '88 8.4 7.4 Year. Taxes. Taxes on beets and sugar. Customs duty. Total. Tax rebates. Not receipts. Per head of ]>opn. lation. ]871-'72 ]872-'73 I873-'74 ]S74-'7S lK75-'76 1 870-77 ]K77-'78 ]878-'79 1879-'80 IKSII^'Sl 1SH1^'R2 1K82-'S:! 1HH3--'81 ] KK4-'K.'i 1886-'80 188«-'87 1887-'88 1888-'89 Marks. 30, 015, 000 50, 905, 000 66, 460, 000 44,1(18,000 CO, .Ml, 000 5li, 800, 000 m, 450, 000 74, 000, 000 7li, 87ri, 1100 101. 104,000 uio, ri.'ii.ooo ):;!i, ii.'i,'., 000 145, 690, ono ICCi, 44:1, 000 li:i, i:;r., 000 141, '.'i:!. 000 118, ;1K7, 000 KIK, (iUl.OOO Marks. 12, 498, 000 7, 127, 000 7, 779, 000 7, 218, 000 6, 072, 000 3,354,000 2, 309, 000 2,112,000 1, 730, 000 ],4,SI,000 l,ril8, 000 1, 7;io, 000 1, 1111,000 1, ;i7ii, 000 i,4:i.'">, 000 i,L':i'.;, 000 1 , H'M, 000 1, 477, 000 Marks. 48, 613, 000 68, 032, 000 64, 239, 000 61, 320, 000 72, 253, 000 60,151,000 67, 825, 000 76, 172, 000 78, 006, 000 102, 646, 000 101,869,000 141, 085. 000 144,091,000 107, 822, 000 114,50(1,000 142, 445, 000 120, 'J45, 000 110,171,000 Marks. 3, 322, 000 3, 226, 000 3, 593, 000 1,651,000 9, 004, 000 11,018,000 18, 009, 000 25, 627, 000 24, 399, 000 56, 496, 000 44, 992, 000 74, 398, 000 90, 303, 000 128, 463, 000 90, 068, 000 108,821,000 105,568,000 80, 076, 000 Marks. 45, 191, 54, 806, 60, 640, 49, 675, 63, 249. 48, 536, 49, 816, 50,646, .'>4, 206, 48, 149, 68, 877, 67, 287, 47, 789, 39, 369, 24, 492, 33, 624, 14, 667, 30, 095, Marks. 1.12 1.33' 1.46 1.18 1.49 1.13 1.18: 1.15! i.n 1.12 1.25 1,47 1.04 .86 .63 .75 .31 .M W. H. Edwards, United States Consttlate-Geneual, Con.tnI- General. l!c)lin, February 9, 1890. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 513 GERMANY— 1888. IIEI'ORT liY CONSUL WAMEB, OF COLOGNE., Ill the hope that the sugar crisis in the campaigu of 1885-'8G would soon come to au end the area of beets planted in 1887 was not very much larger than that cultivated in the preceding year, which had been re- duced as much as possible in order to avoid an overproduction. The condition of the industry in the campaign of 188C-'87 did not turn out as it had been hoped it would, and so it was again thought necessary to reduce the production in the following campaign. In 1887 the m3.n- ufacturers not only reduced their area, but also made smaller contracts with the farmers. The farmers, therefore, who raise beets for sale, that is, those who are not manufacturers themselves, planted less because they were unable any longer to realize the profits which they had hoped for. The production of beets in the campaign 1884-'85 amounted in tons to 10,402,688; campaign 1885-'86 to 7,070,316; campaign 1886-'87 to 8,306,671, and campaign of lS87-'88 to 6,963,960. ■ The prices paid for beets in the last campaign ranged from l.oO to 2.40 marks per 100 'kilograms. The technical improvements in the campaign of 1887-88 in beet-sugar manufacture consisted in evaporation contrivances and filtering proc- esses. The improvement in the first instance consisted in a greater ;saving in the use of waste steam by making the evaporation space larger and the heating of the apparatus more than formerly with indirect .steam, whereby a material saving in heating fuel is accomplished. In the purifying of the beet jnicesulphurousacidhas been brought more into use; also, the repeating treatment of the juice with lime and carbonic acid, with the use of the filtering presses, has proved satisfactory. A new separation process, with the addition of carbonate of magnesia, is reported to have worked with good results in the Rhineland. In the campaign of 1887-'88, there were 167 factories that prepared sugar from molasses against 137 in the preceding campaign, of which 84 worked by the "Osmose" process. As long as the prices of sugar were low and the price of molasses proportionately so, this process went largely out of use on account of too small profits, but it has been recommenced in the last year by a large number of factories, because 1;he corresponding prices of sugar and molasses have been more favor- able. In the campaign of 1886-'87, 55 factories worked with the "Os- mose" process, 3 in 188r)-'8C, 79 in 1884-'85, 115 in 1883-'84, 124 in 1882-'83, and 135 in 1881-'82. In 1886-'87, 48 factories worked with the "Elution" process, 9 with the "Substitution," 3 with the "Precipi- tation," 20 with the "Separation," 3 with the "Strontium," and 1 with the "Manoury." 514 BEET- SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. The following quantities of molasses were used for being converted^ into sugar by the above factories in the campaign of 1886-'87: Tona. Osmose process -- 68, 954 Elutiou and precipitation process 88, 256 Substitution process 11,754 Separation process - 39,889 Strontium process - 6, 341 All otber processes - - 761 Total 215,955 The prices of sugar in the last campaign were more favorable in con- sequence of the prospect of a reduction in the production of beets, and of a smaller supply of sugar, on hand. In September and October there was a considerable sinking in the prices, but from that time they began to rise, when in January their highest points were reached. During the remaining period of the campaign, although the movement in the prices from February to May was downward, it took an upward course in June and July. The average prices of sugar in the principal markets of Germany per 100 kilograms during the last and preceding campaigns were as follows : liefiDod sugar. Kaw sugar. Campaign. Bnins- wicli. Gologue. Magde- burg. Bruns- wick. Cologne. Jtagdc- Ijurg. 1887 '88 Marks. 68.76 53.36 Marks. 59. 43 Marks. 57.70 Marks. 46.33 41.27 Marks. 48.67 43.53 AFarks. 1886 '87 54. 43 i 62. 64 41.29 The annexed table of the production of beet sugar in Germany during the past 17 years shows what wonderful progress there has been uinde in this one industry in Germany. The number of factories in operation rose from 311 in 1871-'72 to 391 in 1887-'88, and the quantity of beets worked during the same period rose from 2,250,000 to near 7,000,000 tons. The largest quantity of beets worked during said period was iu 1884-'85, which amounted to 10,500,000 tons. (See Table A.) The exports of raw beet sugar from the German Zollverein rose from 5,666 tons in 1871-'72 to 553,793 tons in 1SS1-'S5, which fell off to 344,710 tons in 1887-'88. The export bounties amounted in lS71-'72 to about $922,468, and in 1887-'88 to a little over $2,700,000. The total gross receipts of the taxes on sugar in 1871-72, including the import duties, were $ll,51(i,044, and in 18S7-'88, $26,010,844. The net income, therefore, to the Government, that is, alter deducting the bounty, was only a little above $1,000,000 in 1887-'88, against $ 10,025,000 in 1871-72, The highest net income received by the Government during the 17 years was iu 1882-'83, when it amounted to about $16,000,000. BEET-SUGAB INBTTSTKY IN GERMANY. 515 Bevenuea from taxes on sugar heet oollected in the ZoUvarein of Germany. Tears. Gross re ceipts from sugar tax. G-rbss re- ceipts from import duty on sugar. Xotal cross receipts from all taxes and duty. Bounties on exports. Ket receipts from taxes and duties. Total. Per capita. asso '81 $24, 077, 024 23, 833, 576 33, 309, 168 33, 960, 239 89, 013, 436 26, 023, 766 33, 608, 791 28, 176, 253 $352, 470 361, 297 411, 765 333, 314 328, 107 341, 456 293, 161 442, 135 $24, 429, 491 24, 244, 873 33, 720, 923 34, 293, 663 39, 941, 543 27, 265, 221 33, 901, 952 28, 618, 388 $13, 458, 421 10, 332, 189 17, 706, 044 22, 919, 936 30, 671, 741 21, 436, 075 27,176,207 27, 040, 844 $10, 971, 073 13, 912, 684 16, 014, 279 11, 373, 618 9,369,799 6, 829, 146 6, 726, 745 1, 677, 644 Cents. 28i 31 1881-'82 1882 '83 35i 26 , l88;i '84 1P84 '85 204 'It 1887 '88 Imports and exports of sugar in the German Customs Union. Fiscal years. 1871-'72 187J-'73 1873-74 ]874-'75 1875-'70 'l87lJ-'77 1877-'iS 1878-'79 1870-'80 1880- 'SI 18«l-'8-J 1882-'63 1883-84 1884-'85 1885-'80 1886-'87 Averaso-.. Imports. _ ^-a p. sa-5B 100 kilos. 127, 305 124, 880 161,483 141,010 146, 273 77, 097 49, 153 39, 012 29, 831 22, 664 22, 016 21,038 15, 577 12, 646 12, 300 14, 618 gf5 100 kiloa. 315, 832 07, 662 84, 148 89, 133 24. 626 10, 172 11.674 15, 304 16, 764 12, 662 15, 049 23, 705 18, 703 20, 668 26, 203 15, 675 nS IB IB a o 100 kilos. 73,298 69, 323 61,021 50, 687 48, 307 53, 189 41,028 88, 329 28, 990 33, 220 33, 139 35, 369 32, 216 33, 372 28, 942 27, 166 100 iUos. 81, 341 23, 716 60, 422 50,335 4,748 28, 000 7,064 31, 827 73, 369 48, 510 4,688 3,611 1,693 2,816 Exports. ■26 :-9^ 100 kilos. 66, 6C5 81,777 118, 092 28, 838 458, 942 462, 189 712, 010 1,034,718 915, 616 2, 214, 420 2, 639, 310 3, 907, 027 4,911,761 5,537,931 4, 040, 716 4, 890, 801 63,494 49,804 43,350 25,727 1,997,061 343,377 131,562 6,861 196,094 O 100 kUos. 41,703 51, 331 41, 120 39, 452 47, 125 73, 935 140, 013 193, 561 262, 364 363, 787 399, 160 493, 811 642, 469 760, 154 600, 196 1,303,789 100 Wos. 10, 328 28, 472 20, 310 15, 359 25, 329 43, 423 83,416 113, 900 97, 052 206,814 144, 130 242, 181 298, 679 318, 852 205, 689 238, 828 ^e: 100 Klos. 19, 394 8, 04:) 21, isi; 16, 531 19. 688 9,867 6,764 2,243 2,073 1, 066 615 646 597 403 366 414 1^ iOO kilos. 8,503 35, 559 70, 303 79, 829 84, 688 122, 624 148, 744 174, 607 171,576 160, 782 211,183 141,473 265, 381 630,618 511,206 '.U6, 094 Wm. D. Wamee, Consul. United States Consulate, Cologne, February 23, 1890. GERMANY— 1888. EEPORT OF COMMERCIAL AGENT SMIIB, OF MATENCE. The beet-root crop amounted to less than in the preceding year. On the first of August of the past year the new sugar law went into effect, by which the tax upon roots was reduced from 1.70 marks (42 cents) per hundred kilograms (220 pounds) to 80 pfennigs (20 cents), and the ex- port drawback allowed, from 17.25 marks ($4.31) a hundred kilograms of raw sugar having at least 90 per cent, of polarization to 8.50 marks 516 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. ($2.12), aud a new consumption tax of 12 marks ($3) a hundred kilo- grams introduced on sugar of all kinds consumed in the Empire. Thisi latter tax, it is thought, will yield the Government about $12,000,000 on about 4, 000,000 double centners of sugar (a double centner is 221 pounds)^; which is about the amount consumed in the empire. The export bounty^ is 8.50 marks ($2.12) on raw sugar containing at least 90 per cent, of' sugar, 10 marks ($2.50) on refined sugar containing at least 90 per cent, of sugar and not more than 98 per cent., and 10.55 marks ($2.63) on sugar containing at least 99J per cent, of sugar. In 1868 a law was passed fixing a tax on beet roots and providing for a drawback on exported sugar. At that time it took 12J hundred- weight of beet roots to give 1 hundred- weight of sugar, and on this basis the tax was imposed, so as to give the government 10 marks ($2.50) on each hundred-weight of sugar; and on the sugar when exported a drawback of 9.40 marks ($2.35) was allowed. This afterward turned out to be a very advantageous arrangement for the sugar-manufac- turers, as improved processes of manufacture took place by which 1 hundred- weight of sugar was obtained from 9 hundred-weight of roots, and sugar was even got from molasses, which the law of 1868 did not" tax atall. The sugar- manufacturers, therefore, instead of payingatax of 10 marks ($2.50), as contemplated by law, paid only 7.80 marks ($1.95) a hundred- weight, and on exporting the sugar got a drawback of 9.40 marks ($2.35) a hundred-weight, thus receiving a nice bounty. All this was very fine for the manufacturers, but very disadvantageous to the imperial exchequer. In 1883, and again in 1886, an effort was made to regulate the matter somewhat by laws passed in those years; but- the knife was not sufficiently well applied, and it became necessary to pass still another law on the subject, which went into effect on the 1st of August, 1888. On the sugar consumed in the empire, say about 3,500,000 double centners annually, the government received a tax of about $15,000,000, to collect which cost about $1,500,000, and the actual loss to the imperial exchequer by the drawback allowed on exported sugar amounted to about $9,000,000 to $9,500,000. Thus the government got from the sugar tax in net receipts only $3,500,000 to 84,500,000. The lion's share went in indirect bounty to tlie manuiacturers. Under the present law the manufacturers will still get an export premium of about '2h marks per double centner, or about $4,000,000 for the whole amount annually exported. J. H. Smith, Commercial Agent, Commercial Agency, Mayeiwc, January 12, 1889. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 517 GERMANY— 1888. FEPOnr BY OONIiUL FALKBNJiACH, OF BARMEN. Mauy tBings which were formerly counted articles of luxury have now entered into general and daily use and are reckoned as indispen- sable to life and comfort. This is due to the great change which has come over our habits and customs. As the relations between the dif- ferent countries and people of the world have become more intimate and their means of communication speedier, competition in interna- tional trade and commerce has grown sharper and more active. A wider theoretical knowledge and a profounder technical skill have come to the assistance of labor. The products of labor have been thereby cheapened, the cost of living consequently reduced, while hand in hand with the increased consumption there has been an unprecedented in- crease of production. This is particularly the case with sugar. SUGAR PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. s At the beginning of the last century the supply of sugar in Europe scarcely equaled half a million meter centners.* In 1730 the import of ' this article to Europe was estimated at a little over a million meter centner. Today the annual consumption of raw sugar in England alone, amounts approximately to 11,000,000 meter centners. According to authentic sources, moreover, in the year 1867, the total annual prodnc- ' tion of colonial sugar (cane sugar) amounted to 14,000,000 meter cent- ners, while at present it reaches far above 30,000,000. Of beet sugar, the annual production of which wasatone time only 3,500,000 meter centners, ,25,000,000 meter centners are now annually consumed. In the saccha- rine constituents of the native German sugar beet, cane sugar, formerly exclusi\ely used, has found a mighty competitor. It is from the sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum, that the major por- tion of the world's supply of sugar is obtained. The American conti- nent, with its adjacent islands, constitutes undoubtedly the most pro- ductive source, while the Island of Cuba is the largest sugar-growing country in the world, having produced in 1849 about 220,000 meter tons; in 1859, 415,000 meter tons; in 1870, 660,000 meter tons; in' 1881, 521,000 meter tons, and, in 1882, 606,000 meter tons. On the South American continent Brazil ranks first as a sugar-producing country, and, after Cuba, furnishes the largest supply of sugar cane. In the harvest of 1860-'61 Brazil exported rather more than 650,000 meter centners, and in 1876-'77 as much as 1,800,000 meter centners. Since 1879, notwithstanding various circumstances, which tended to paralyze the trade, the export of sugar from Brazil has averaged more than 2,000,000 meter centners. In the extraordinary good harvest year of 1880-'81 it rose to over 2,500,000 meter centners, and in 1881-'82, in *A meter oeutner is ec|,nal to 110 pounds. 518 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. which year the sugar-cane harvest was generally unfavorable, equaled, quite unexpectedly, 2,200,000 meter centners. The following comparative estimate shows the present average produc- tion of coloniiil sugar in all sugar-growing countries. Owing to unavoid- able circumstances the figures are in some instances only approximate: Meter centners. Culja (production) 6,000,000 Brazil (export) 2,500,000 British "West Indies (export) 1,800,000 United States of America (production) 1,500,000 French West Indies (production) 950,000 British Guiana (export) 850,000 Peru (production) 630,000 Venezuela (production) — 420,000 Argentine Repuhlic, (production) 230,000 Dutch Guiana (export) , 140,000 San Domingo (production) 63,000 Mexico (export) '. 40,000 San Salvador (export) 25,000 British Honduras (export) 25,000 Nicaragua (export) 5,000 French Guiana (production) 2,000 Total in America 15,180,000 Java (production) 2,500,000 China (production) 2,500,000 Philippine Islands (export) 2, 000, 000 British East Indies (export) 330, 000 Siam (export) - 18,000 Total in Asia 7,348,000 Hawaii (export) 300,000 Queensland (production) 210,000 New South Wales (production) 90,000 Fiji Islands (production) 10,000 Total in Australia and Polynesia 610 000 Mauritius (production) 1,350,000 R^junion (production) 320,000 Egypt (production) 430,000 Natal (export) 120,000 Mayotte (production) 40,000 Nossi B6 (production) 20,000 Total in Africa 2,280,000 Spain. :ffiO,000 ■ Total in Europe 380,000; The total production of colonial sugar in the world amounts, there-: fore, to 25,689,000 metre centners. To this amount, however, must be added, first, the cane sugar produced in countries other than those. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 519 above mentioned; and secondly, the home consumptiou of cane sugar iu places from which the export has alone been stated. The total amount of sugar produced from sugar cane may then be reckoned at consider- ably more than 25,000,000 metre centners j in fact, a total of 2(1,000,000 to 27,000,000 could not be regarded as an exaggerated estimate. Great, however, as the importance and growth of the sugar-cane in- dustry as shown by the above figures most undoubtedly are, the vast- ness of the increase iu the consumption of sugar by all nations during the past 20 years is first seen when a comparison is made between the development of beet sugar and that of colonial sugar as articles of com- merce. Professor Achard, a pupil of the highly meritorious discoverer of the new method of beet-sugar manufacture, Professor Markgraf, of the Berlin University, whose death occurred in 1782, started on bis farm "Cuneru," in Lower Silesia, at the turn of the past and present cen- tury, with the aid of and under the protection of Frederic William III, the then reigning king of J'russia, the first beet-sugar factory in Eu- rope. The new industry, however, owing to various causes, did not begin to flourish until much later. France, in fact, which had in 1837 no less than 585 beet-sugar factories, producing 60,000 metre centners of beet sugar annually, was the first country in which the industry iu question can be said to have struck firm root. Germany followed slowly in the wake of her neighbor. In 1837 she had only 122 beet- sugar factories iu operation with an annual production of only 14,400 metre centners of sugar from 254,000 metre centners of beets. New, and almost exclusively European, the beet sugar industry sup- plied the world's market in 1S82-'S3 with 21,455,340 metre centners of sugar; in lS83-'84with 22,400,000 meter centners, and iu 1886-'87 with approximately 23,672,000 metre centners, or scarcely 14 per cent, less than the old colonial sugar industry, which is distributed over the tropic and temperate zones of the whole earth. At the present date the beet-sugar production amounts in metre tons, at 1,000 kilograms, to — Countries. 1876- '77. 1881-'82. 1882-'83. lS85-'86. 1886-'87. In Germany In Austria-Hungary . . luFrance In Hu^sia and Poland . In Belgium i In Netherlands In other countries Total production Tons. 289, 422 341, 553 243, 182 250, 000 45, 628 16, 078 10, 000 Tons. 599, 722 411,015 393, 269 308, 779 73, 136 20, 000 10, COO Tons. 848, 124 472, 002 42.% 194 284, 491 82, 723 25, 000 10, 000 Tons. 925, 000 435, 000 460, 000 300, 000 90, 000 30, 000 10, 000 Tons. 1, 123, 030 4,'iO, 000 475, 000 320, 000 92,000 35, 000 10, ODD Tons. 808, 100 475, 000 460, 000 315,000 90, 000 32, 000 10, OOO Ions. 985, COO 460, 600 465, OOO 320, OOO 93, 000 35, 000 10, 000 1, 195, 563 1, 815, 921 2, 145, 634 2, 240, 000 2, 605, 030 2, 369, 200 These figures, however, only show the extensive development of the beet-sugar industry, and not the more important development, which must certainly be considered as the true cause of the enormous increase in the consumption of beet-sugar. 520 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. GERMAN BEET-SUGAR PRODUCTION. This intensive development is sLiowu in the following tabl«, extracted from the official statistics of the German Empire on beet-sugar manu- facture : SlatlsHcs of the average production of sugar and molassea during the years 1836 to 1887. No. Aunual average amount of ijoeta con- Production rroduotion of— Beets con- Average produc- lion '■*■ During of fac- to- ries. Bumod. of raw sug- ar (jnlco reduced to raw sugai-). sumed per m. craw sugar. the year. In all facto- ries gener- ally. Per fac- tory. Molaa8e.s. Eaw sugar per factory. Eaw sugar. Mo- lassea. Met. cwt. Met. cwt. Met. cwt. 3lct. cwt. Met cwt. Mct.ciot Per cent. Per ceiU. 1836-'37. 122 353, 000 2,100 14, 100 10, 900 115, 500 IH. 00 5.50 4.30 1840-'45. 110 2, 067, 700 17, 806 129, 900 70, 40O 1, 119, 500 IS. 91 6.30 3.38 184:3-'55. 221 9, 238, 000 41, 800 701, 800 233, 700 3. 125, 500 5, 129, 500 13.66 7.67 2.54 1860-'85. 2.W 17, 931, 800 70, 900 1, 424, 4C0 402, 000 12.50 8.00 2.23 1870-'75. 322 29, 530, 600 9I,<700 2, 512, 400 8t0, 800 7, 802, 600 11.75 8.63 2.96 1875-'76. 332 41, 012, 800 125, 300 3, 580, 500 1, 389, 500 10, 314, 500 11.62 8.60 3.22 i878-'79. 324 46, 287, 400 141, 800 4,261,500 1, 330, 500 13, 152, 500 10.86 9.21 2.80 1880-'81. 333 63, 22-!, 000 184, 300 5, 559, 100 1, 649, 800 16, 694, 000 11.37 8.80 2.69 1881-'82. 343 62, 719, 500 182, 900 5, 997, 200 1,508,100 17, 484, 600 10.46 9.50 2.40 1882-'83. 358 87, 471, 500 244, 300 8,319,900 1. 903, 100 23, 826, 200 10.47 9.51 2.24 1883-'Si. 376 89, 181, 300 2.17, 200 9, 401, 000 2, 079, 700 2.5, 002, 900 10.54 10. .51 2.33 1884-'85. 408 101, 026, 800 251, 900 11,230,300 2, 596, 900 27, 532, 600 10.79 10.79 2.50 188o-'86. 379 70, 703, 100 177, 200 8,081,400 1,801,700 19, 687, 6C0 11.03 11.43 2.55 1886-'87. 401 83, 006, 700 207, 100 9, 856, 200 2, 158, 800 24, 579, 200 11.86 11.87 2. CO According to these figures the quantity of beets requisite to produce one metre centner of raw sugar has declined in the German Customs Union since 1836 by 40 per cent. ; in the case of the less valuable mo- lasses by 45 per cent, while the gain in raw sugar has risen by 75 per cent. The efficiency of the individual factories in producing raw sugar has increased by 20.202 per cent., and the total production by 59.2 per cent. The superior yield of saccharine matter from the beets is attrib- uted only in a small degree to the larger average intrinsic quantity of sugar gradually produced by rational culture in the beets consumed. It is far more the result of the scientific and technical improvements which have been introduced in the internal economy of the sugar fac- tories. The enterprise which the Germans have shown in their application of science and new technical processes in the manufacture of beet sugar is shown by the following facts and statistics: In the German Empire were operated in the years — 1871-'72, in a total of 311 factories, 52 with diflfusion, 259 with presses. 1875-'7G, in a total of 332 factories, 157 with diffusion, 175 with presses. :, 1882-'83, in a total of 358 factories, 343 with diffusion, 15 with presses. 1886-'87, in a total of 401 factories, 397 with diffusion, 4 with presses. ) In 188G-'87, 401 sugar factories wore in operation in Germany, while I a large additional number wore either planned or in course of construe- * tiou. No less than 147,7S2 hectares of land were appropriated to the cultivation of beets (1 hectare equals 2.471 acres), the average crop being 300 meter centners to the hectare. The production of raw sugat. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 521 amounted to 9,866,278 meter centners, that of molasses to 2,158,872 meter centners, or ] 2,015,150 meter centners of salable produce. ' Germany exported in 18S6-'87 : Eaw sugar, 5,136,039 meter centners, valued at 188,234,829 marks ; refined sugar, 1,303,789 meter centners, iyalaed at 101,04:3,649 marks; sirup and molasses, 243,608 meter cent- j,ners, valued at 2,725,138 marks; total beet-sugar produce export, '6,685,336 meter ceutners, valued at 292,003,616 marks. The value of 'the export in 1882 was 156,770,000 marks, and in 1881, 151 ,898,000 marks, so that from 1881 to 1882 ah increase of 4,897,000 marks took place, and from 1881 to 1887 an increase of 140,105,616 marks. The principal por- tion of the beet sugar mauufactured in Germany is exported to Eng- land. At the same time it is probable that a portion of the English import stated as of German origin may have come from Germany only in transit. Nevertheless the German sugar industry most undoubtedly dominates the English market. In fact Germany, with her present an- nual production of 9,856,200 meter centners of raw sugar, is without doubt the chief sugar-producing country in the world. During the past few years great efforts have been made to develop the beet-sugar industry in the United States. The experiments, how- ever, which have been made at a vast sacrifice of energy and capital, have entirely failed. This deplorable experience, so dearly purchased, is partly due to the insufiScient supply of beets, inferior apparatus, and mismanagement. I The following tables. A, B, C, and D, compiled from the official sta- tistics of the German Empire for the beet-sugar industry, give a clear and very comprehensive idea of its vast extent and profitableness. Tablk a. — Number, arrangements, and days' work of tke sugar factories in the German, i' Customs Union, extraction and manufacturing of raw material, during the fiscal years • _1871-'72«ol886-'87. \ No. of facto- ries. Bun wilh steam engines. Factories extracting the juice — Amount ol sugar beete conRumed. Fiscal year. No. Total horse- power. With diflFii- sion. With presses. With other opera- tions. Own pro- duce. Purchased. Total con- sumption. t * 3 3 4 S 6 t 8 9 10 f .1871-72, ,. 1872-'73 311 324 337 333 332 328 829 324 328 333 348 358 376 408 399 401 1,921 2,076 2, 203 2,233 2,300 2,370 2,413 2,493 2, 6-i7 2,812 3,046 3,365 3,715 4,196 4,188 4,276 18, 163 19, 923 21, 954 22, 712 23, 325 24, 923 25, 788 26, 882 29, 586 32, 269 35, 476 40, 515 46, 158 56, 119 57, 194 58, 770 52 63 80 113 157 197 224 258 2!)1 309 324 343 368 402 395 397 216 220 214 181 137 98 81 68 28 20 16 12 6 4 3 3 43 41 43 39 38 33 24 16 9 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 100 moi. 15, 043, 510 21, 012, 014 24, 209, 086 19, 080. 947 28, 363, 068 24, 901, 537 28, 727, 752 31, 140, 298 28, 605, 861 38, 716, 787 34, 317, 536 44, 486, 318 42, 050, 639 49, 302, 459 41, 990, 474 44, 360, 835 100 hOoi. 7, 465, 762 19,802,494 11, 078, 653 8, 486, 504 13, 249, 774 10, 598, 829 12, 181, 928 15, 147, 179 19,546,754 24, 505, 243 28, 401, 944 42, 985, 219 47, 180, 664 54, 664, 424 28,7r3,604 38, 705, 877 IWUlol. 22, 509, 182 31, 815, 508 1873-'74 1874-'76 . ... 35, 287, 637 27, 567, 451 1875-'76 ;.... ^1876-'77 . , 41,612,842 3-), 500, 366 1877-78 40, 1)09, 080 1878-79 46, 287, 477 1879-'80 48, 052, 615 1880 '81 6;!, 222. 030 1881-82..: C:;, 719, 479 a882-'83 87, 471, 537 188:i '84 89,181,303 1884 '85 104, 026, 883 ISS'i '86 . . 70, 703, 168 1886 '87 83, 066, 712 Average of 16 years 348 2,890 33,735 218 81 19 32, 266, 883 23, 353, 984 55,620,867 77A— -9 522 • BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GEEMANY. Table A.—Miniber, arrangements, and days' worlc of the siirjar factories, efc— Continued! Fiscal year. Proportion of pur- cliased crop beeta to total con- sumption. Area ot own crop.' Beets raised per hec- tare. Days of 12 hours in - which beets wore consumed. Beetifl con- ' Slimed '■ per day of 12 working hours. 1 11 1» 13 14 13 16 1871 *72 Per et. 66.8 66.0 68.6 69.2 68.2 70.1 70.2 67.3 59.3 61.2 64 7 60.9 47.2 47.5 69.4 53.4 Per et. 3.3.2 34.0 31.4 30.8 31.8 29.9 29.8 32.7 40.7 38.8 4,5.3 49.1 62.8 52.6 40.6 46.6 JEfeatares. 73, 690 82, 690 88, 877 92, 655 96, 724 98, 725 104, 723 107, 679 113, 003 118, 431 121, 250 129, 262 140, 843 150,077 138, 869 147, 782 100 ks. 204 254 272 206 293 262 274 289 262 327 283 344 299 329 302 300 64, 451 87, 677 91, 2.J4 70, 020 91, 675 70, 608 75,320 76, 895 70, 909 82, 052 76,325 94,816 89,956 97, 005 65,642 72, 693 100 kt. ■ 349 363. 1873 '74 387 1874 '76 mi 1875 '76 45< 1876 '77 503 1877 '78 543 1878 '79 . 610 1880 '81 771 1881 '82 -822. 923 1882 '83 1883 '84 18H4-'85 . ],072 1,077 1886 '86 1886 '87 Average of 16 years 68.0 42.0 112,828 286 79, 766 697 TA.BLE B. — Business results of the sugar factories in ilie German Customs Uviqi^ ITiscal years. Taxed sugar beets (Table A., column 10) produced;; Juice. Out of juice (column 2). Eaw suizar. Molasses. Total sala. ble produce (columns 3 and 4). and 4). J in W7nD ,3 1871-'72 1872-'73 1873-'74 1874-'75 ia75-'76 1870-'77 1877-'78 i 1878-'79 1879-'80 3g80-'81 1881-'g2 1882-'8:i 1883-'84 ]884-'85 , 1885-'86 1886-'87 Average of 16 years 100 kilos. 2, 629, 931 3, 716, 170 4, 121, 142 3, 680, 442 6, 028, 183 4, 055, o.se 5, 156, 951 6, 761, 803 5, 544, 094 7, 303, 360 7, 740, 044 1 0, 0,'l."i, "..■i6 12, Ui8, 794 U, 4.<(i, ]S- 10, 257, 772 12, 409, 832 100 Hlos. 1,864,419 2, 025, 611 2, 910, 407 2, 664, 124 3, 580, 482 2, 894, 227 3, 780, 091 4, 261, 551 4, 094, 152 5, 569, 151 5, 997, 232 8, 319, 953 9,401,093 11,230,303 8, 081, 049 9, 856, 278 100 Hlos. 638, 9:7 916,887 1, 058, 183 976. 028 1, 339, 524 1,111,011 1, 228, 128 1, 336, 515 1, 313, 709 1, 649, 842 1, 508, 129 1, %3, 017 2,079,7fil 2, 596, Sill 7 1, 801, 7T5 2, 158, S72 7, 195, 894 5,43S,7,')1 1,479,771 100 Kto«. 2, 503, m 3,541,,'!98 3, 968 590 3,540,152 l,920,0ll6i 4,(105,338* 5, 008, 219 6,598,069 5,407,861 7,208,993 7, 501), 351 10, 283, 000 11,4H),S'71 13, 82", 300 9,882,824 12, 015, 150 6,918,532 BEKT-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GKRMANY. 623 Table B. — Bminesa results of the sugar faotoriea, cic— Continued. Protlaced out of 100 kilograios taxed sugar beets. Produced out of 100 kilos of juice. B.uts consuujed to mau- nfacture 100 kiloB raw sugar. FlBcal years. Jaioe. Raw Mo- lasses. Total salable prod, uce (col- uniuH 7 and 8). Kaw sugar. Mo- lasses. 1 6 »• S 9 lO 11 13 1871-'72 1872-'73 ZUos. 11.68 11.68 11.68 13.35 12.08 11.42 12. HO 12.45 11.54 11.69 12.34 12.50 13.65 13.93 14.51 15.00 Kilos. 8.28 8.25 8.25 9.30 8.00 8.15 9.24 9.21 8.52 8.79 9.56 9.51 10.54 10.79 11.43 11.87 KUos. 2.84 2.88 3.00 3.54 3.22 3.13 3.00 2.89 2.73 2.6* 2.40 2.24 2.33 2. .-.0 2.55 2. CI) Kilos. 11.12 11.13 11.25 12.84 11.82 11.28 12.24 12.10 11. 25 11.40 11.% 11.75 12.87 13.29 13.ilK 14.47 Kilos, 70.89 70.65 70.62 69.67 71.21 71.37 73. 32 73.96 73.85 75.19 77.48 76.08 77.35 77.52 78.78 79.10 Kilos. 24.19 24.65 25.68 26.52 26. 64 27.40 23.82 23.20 23.70 22. 32 19.48 17.95 17.09 17.93 17,56 17.33 10" kilo/. 12.87 12.11 12.12 10. 7B 11.62 12.27 10.82 10.86 11.74 11.37 10.46 10.61 9.49 9.26 8.75 8.43 1873-'71 lB74-'75 1876-'76 1876-'77 1877-78 187K-'79 l«79-'80 ]880-'81 18«1-'S2 lS82-'«3 ■188:i-'S4 1884-'85 1883-'86 1886-'87 Average of 16 years 12.94 9.78 2.66 12.44 75.58 20.56 10 23 Table C. — Impoi'is and exporls of sugar in tlie German Customs Union. Imports. Exports. riacal ycars- Eefined and raw sugar, Dutch stand- dard, No. 19 and up- wards. Raw sugar bi'Iow No. 19. Sirup and du- tiable mo- lasses. Molas- ses for dis- tilleries. Raw sugar, etc. (ngiiiust draw- back). Candy sugar, (against draw- back). Otlier bard su- gar, clo. (against draw- back). . Sugar without draw- back. Molasses and simp. 1 it 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 1871-72 1872 73 ioakiloi. 127, 305 124, S80 161, 483 141,010 145, 273 77, 097 49, 1.53 39, 012 29, 831 22,054 22, 016 21, 038 15, 577 12,615 12, 300 14,618 100 Ulos. 315, ,S32 97, 562 84, 148 89, 133 24, 526 ll>. 172 11,674 1.5, 304 16. 764 12,0.52 15. 040 23, 705 18, 763 100 kHot. 73, 298 69, 323 61, 021 66, 587 48, 397 53, 189 41,028 38, 329 88,996 33, 220 33. 139 36,369 32. 21B 100 kilos. 81, 341 23, 716 50, 422 50,336 4,748 28, 600 7,054 31,827 72, 369 48, 510 4,588 3,611 1,695 2,816 100 kilos. 56, 665 81, 777 118, 092 28, 838 458, 942 462, 189 712,010 l,03i718 951,616 2,214,420 2,539,310 3.907,027 4.911,761 5,537,931 4,040,715 4,890,801 100 kilos. 41,783 51,331 41,120 39,4.^2 47, 126 73, 935 140, 01.1 193, 561 2,52, 364 353, 787 399, 160 493, 811 642, 469 760, 154 660, 196 1,303,789 100 kilos. 16, 328 •28, 472 26,310 15,359 25, 329 43, 423 83,416 113, 966 97, 052 206, 814 144,130 242, 181 298, 679 318,852 306, 689 238, 828 100 kilos. 19, 394 8,043 21, 182 16, 531 19, 5«8 9,857 6,764 2,243 2,073 1,056 615 646 S97 403 365 414 100 kilos. 8,563 35, 569 1873 74 79, 363 1874 75 . 79, 829 1875 76 84. 588 1870 '77 - 122, 624 1877-78 1878 79 148, 744 174, 607 IBIQ-'fO .... 171, 576 18J0 '81 160, 782 1881 '82 ... 211, im :i882-'83 1883 'f 4 141, 473 255, 381 J884-'65 20, 068 33, 372 26, 203 38- 492 650, 618 1885-'66 651, 206 188(>-'87 15, 675 27, 166 1 245, 094 Average in 16 years . - 63,494 49, 864 43, 350 25, 727 1,997,051 343, 377 131,652 6,861 195, 094 524 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. Table B.— Sugar consumption and revenue from sugar duties in the German Customg! Union. ~ Production of raw sugar. Imports of sugar reduced to raw sugar. Total pro- duction and im- ports. Exports of sugar reduced to raw sugar. Consumption of sugar computed to raw sugar. Fiscal years. Total (col- umn 4 and 5). Per I lead popula- tion. 1 •z 4 3 S 6 7 1871 '72 100 kilos. 1, 864, 419 2, 025, 511 2, 910, 407 2, 664, 124 3, 580, 482 2, 894, 227 3, 780, 091 4, 261, 651 4, 094, 162 6, 559, 151 5, 997, 222 8,319,953 9, 401, 093 11, 230, 303 8, 081, 049 9, 856, 278 100 kilos. 496, 332 270, 852 289, 630 276, 907 , 212,632 125, 060 88,830 79, 710 65, 842 56, 073 57, 330 66, 012 53, 761 63, 035 65, 745 46, 779 100 Ulos. 2, 360, 761 2, 896, 303 3, 199, 937 2,841,031 3, 793, 014 3, 019, 287 3, 868, 921 4, 341, 261 4, 159, 994 5,615,224 6, 054, 552 8, 385, 965 9, 454, 864 11, 2'f3, 338 8, 136, 794 9, 903, 057 iOO kilos. 142, 757 179, 382 216, 550 108, 134 561,209 603, 538 967, 785 1, 380, 768 1, 344, 857 2, 839, 039 3, 144, 103 4, 72.5, 514 5, 958, 144 6, 737, 274 5, 003, 215 6, Oil, 280 100 kilos. 2, 217, 994 2, 716, 981 2, 983, 387 2,73-2,897 3, 231, 805 2, 415, 749 2, 901, 136 2, 900, 493 2,815,137 2, 776, 185 2,910,419 3, 660, 451 3, 496, 710 4, 546, 064 3,133,579 3, 291, 777 M 5,5 6.6 7.2 6.6 7.6 5.6 6.7 6.7 63 6.8 6.4 8.1 7.7 9.9 6.8 7.0 J .OS. 1872 '73 ]873-'74 ('•■•- 1876 '77 1878-'79 6 6 1880 '81 1882 '83 7 fl 1884-'85 1886-'87 Average in 16 years 5,438,751 143, 395 5, 582, 146 2, 532, 722 3,049,424 7.0 Internal revenue. Fiscal years. Taxes on beet sugar. Duties of entry. Total reve- euue. Drawbacks on exports. Net rev- enue. Per head of popala- tion. 1 8 9 10 11 13 13 1871-'72 Marks. 30, 014, 691 50,901,813 56, 460, 222 44, 107, 920 66, 680, 546 66, 800, 570 65,455,491 74, 059, 961 7.6, 875, 469 101,163,969 100, 351, 163 139, 954,448 142, 690, 084 166, 443, 012 113,125,068 131,21'3,410 Marks. 12,498,225 7, 127, 469 7, 778, 976 7,217,593 5, 672, 131 3, 353, 926 2, 369, 082 2,111,772 1, 738, 536 1, 480, 067 1, 518, 066 1, 730, 108 1, 400, 481 1, 378, 602 1, 434, 687 1, 231, 770 Marks. 48,512,916 58, 032, 282 64, 239, 198 51, 325, 513 72, 252, 677 60, 154, 496 67, 824, 573 76,171,733 78, 604, 995 102, 644, 936 101, 869, 219 141, 684, 556 144, 090, 565 167, 821, 614 114. o.ll, 755 142, 445, 180 Marks. 3, 876, 916 3, 201, 150 3, 506, 669 1, 641, 786 8, 888, mS 11, 389, 541 17, 855, 173 25 359, 970 24, 141, 395 56, 547, 988 43,412,561 74, 397, 666 96, 302, 249 128,452,707 90, 067, 544 114,181,546 Marks. 44, 637, 000 54, 831, 132 60, 643, 629 49, 683, 727 63, 364, 069 48, 764, 955 49, 969, 400 50,811,763 54, 403, 600 46, 096, 948 56, 456, 658 67, 2S6, 890 47. Tsa. 316 39, :i6.^, 907 24.492,211 28, 263, 634 Marks. 1.11 1872-'73 L33 1873 '74 1.46 1874 '75 1.18 1875 '76 1.49 1870 '77 1.14 187.'-'78 1.15 187&-'79 1.16 1879 '80 1.23 1880 '81 1.12 1881 '82 1.29 1882 '83 1.49 1.05 lS84-'86 .86 1885 '86 .53 .60 Average in 16 years 80, 512, 662 3, 762, 086 93, 264, 638 43, 956, 961 49, 307, 677 1.13 Joseph Falicenbach, Consul. United States Consulate, Barmen, April 27, 1888. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 525 GERMANY— 1890. ItEPORT BY aONSUL-GENEKAL EDWARDS, OF BERLIN. As throwing light on the systematic methods employed in Germany for the purpose of increasing the percentage of sugar in sugar beets, the following translation of the Hadmersleben Sugar Factory's instrac- tious to beet-farmers may bo found of interest : INSTRUCTION AS TO THE CULTIVATION OF BICETS FOR THE HADMERSLEBEN SUGAIS FACTORY. Sec. 1. Every stookhol pounds of siinar, while the highest estimate requires only W\ pounds of beets for a pound of ^ sugar. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 531 There are about thirty kinds of lieets which are grown for the sugar factories of Germany. Bach kind has some chiim of special merit for special localities. Much depends on the kind of soil to be planted and in the selection of the beets to be sown. Among the most necessary elements in the successful cultivation of sugar beets are the richness of the beets in saccharine, the procuring of the seed from the most reliable sources, the proper preparation of the soil, the use of the most improved fertilizers, and the careful attention to and harvesting of the crops. A visit to the beet-growing districts will disclose that the best crops are obtained from a loose, sandy loam called a mild soil. The roots grow deep and require soil prepared fully 12 inches deep supplemented by a subsoil. Care is observed to avoid wet soil. Certain districts have certain regulations regarding the width between the rows and the dis- tance between the beets in the rows. All are governed by fixed inter- vals, and it is stated that the nearer the beets grow together the more saccharine they contain, but the smaller they grow. On the better class of soils beets should be planted closer than on poorer soils if unir jformity of size is desired. Growing of beets is decidedly beneficial to the soil and improves it for cereals. Crops should bo reasonably alter- nated in order to rest the soil. FUTURE OF BEET SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES. The future of beet sugar in the United States is problematical. It can not be gainsaid that the climate and soil of large portions of the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, •Wisconsin, Minnesota, and many other districts are perfectly adapted to the culture of sugar beets. The Congress of the United States has recently taken novel and special action, which would give encourage- ment and protection to the enterprise should the American agricul- turists embark in the beet-sugar industry. All machinery needed to convert the saccharine of beets into fine sugar is, by act of Congress, permitted to be imported free of duty from now on until the 1st day of July,. 1892. A bounty of 3 cents per pound will be paid by the Gov- ernment of the United States to the manufacturers of sugar for an indefinite period of time. It is likely that the Government would do more. In Louisiana, on the Magnolia sugar plantation, owned by Ex-Governor Warmoth, lying some 40 miles south of New Orleans, on the Mississippi Eiver, the United States has, within recent years, erected a magnificent experiment station in the interest of cane sugar production. The vast benefits of this station to sugar-growers can be relied upon to induce the Gov- ernment at Washington to consider a proposition for the establishment of a similar station in the interests of a beet-sugar industry, should such an undertaking be entered upon by the farming community of our country and the production of sugar from beets can be easily trans- ferred to that belt of country so admirably adapted to its culture which 532 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. has been mentioried before. The information and experience gathered through all the costly experiments and mistakes which have been marie and paid for during nearly a huudred years can be turned, without cost, to the benefit of our people, and profitable employment can be given to many thousands both winter and summer. It would not be difficult to enter upon this industry at once. In order that all interesbed might share in the undoubted prosperity which would follow, the plan here submitted is modestly offered. A stock company, with a capital stock of $-;50,000 in 2,500 shares of $100 each, could be organized. Three-fifths of the shares could be made " beet shares " and two-fifths cash shares. Ten or 20 per cent, of the beet shares could be paid in cash, and the balance might be gradually de- ducted from the money due the shareholders for the beets delivered by them to their factory. The cash shares could be paid for in such man- ner as determined upon. The management of the concern is to be determined upon by the share-holders. This plan has been found to work with unqualified success in Germany, where many factories are in operation on this basis. The bounty to be paid by the Government insures at least $4 per acre. Besides that small sum, the agricultural element will receive compensation for the beets raised, also a share of the residue from the. beets after using, and which is very good fodder, and, what is of equal importance — in fact, the best of all — a share of the dividends. As has been heretofore stated, beet culture improves the soil, which is a con- sideration by no means to be underestimated nor overlooked. In the beginning of this it is stated that the sum of $16,000,000 was paid by the people Of the United States to the beet-sugar makers of Germany within one year. This sum is nearly three times as much money as our people paid for any other given article imported from Germany, cotton having come next with $6,000,000. It does not seem proper nor consistent that an agricultural country like the United States should be dependent for any article of purely agricultural character on foreign countries, especially when the United States has fully one hundred times as much land adapted to the pro- duction of that article as is available in the country from whence the article comes. It would be a matter of justice and equity, as well as of patriotism and profit, if the people of the United States (who have always treated, through their representatives, the people of all foreign nations with scrupulous fairness and with no wrongful discrimination against any) should convert some part of the vast domain now used for growing corn to fatten and nourish the splendid pork of our Western States into acres of sugar beets. In European beet-sugar countries American pork is forbidden entry. H. P. Mekritt, United States Oonsttlate, Consul Chemnitz, October 25, 1890. BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 533 GERMAN SUGAR-BEET LEGISLATION. REPORT BY aOMMEliOlAL AOBNT WASHBXTKN, OF MAODEBUBQ. INTRODUCTION. TWO things have contributed to Germany's present ascendency in the production and exportation of raw beet sugar. The first is the superiority of soil and climate for the growing of the beet root ; the second is the peculiar encouragement given the industry itself by the Government. It is to this latter factor that I wish to call attention in this report. NATURE OF THE GERMAN TAX AND HOW IT WORKS. ' The imposing of a tax on raw beets destined for the manufacture of sugar, with the accompanying rebate for the finished product when ex- ?ported, is German in its origin, and is known as the "material tax," or " weight duty." This system presents no difliculties so long as the manufactured sugar goes into the home consumption, because the state treasury retains the amount of the tax in full. The moment, however, that the product is destined for the foreign market it imposes upon the customs authorities the responsibility of determining the exact amount of rebate to be granted. Though it is universally recognized that the' effect of the present system is one of concealed bounties, the theory of the law is that of reimbursement. In other words, the Government icontracts to return the amount of the tax upon all exported sugar, thus enabling the seller the better to compete in the world's market. To this end it is necessary to establish by law the estimated amount of raw beets required to produce a given quantity of sugar. Clearly, this will vary in different years and in different districts. An average re- bate is therefore always sought. It thus happens that to those factories which work up beets rich in sugar and which have improved appliances the rebate comes, not as a reimbursement only, but as a bounty as well. LEGISLATION, PAST AND PRESENT. The history of recent sugar legislation is one of experiments, but all ^consistently tending towards one ultimate object — the suppression of the premiums. Prior to 1861 no rebate was allowed. The material tax pure and simple had, however, existed since 1844. The law of Sep- tember 1 of that year placed the duty at 30 pfennigs* per 100 kilo- grams t of raw beets. This tax wp,s steadily increased from time to time up to the passage of the present law, when it was materially mod- ified. • 1 mark of 100 pfennigs=23.8 cents. tl kilogram=2.205 pounds. 534 EEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GEEM,ANY. The accompanying table shows the amount of tax per 100 kilograms; from 184d to 1891. Period of enforcement. Amount. Period of enforcement. Amount. September 1, 1844, to September 1, 1850.. September 1, 1850, to September 1, 1853.. September 1,1853. to September 1,1868.. September 1, 1868, to September 1, 1809.. Marks. 0.30 O.CO 1.20 1.50 Septemljer 1, 18B9, to S<-ptember 1, 1886. September 1, 1886, to September 1, 1888 Marks. . 1.60 1.70 0.80 Law of 1869 and its important results. — In 1869 a tborongh classiflca- tiou of the material tax and rebate took place. This law remained unchanged until 1883, and is regarded as having a more important bearing on the development of the beet-.root industry than any other law which has been jilaced on the statute books. Its maiu ijrovisions are here appended. It imposed a weight duty of 1.60 marks upon each 100 kilograms of raw beets. Upon home or foreign sugar exported beyond the customs frontier, the following rebate was granted per 100 kilograms: (1) For raw sugar of at least 88 per cent, polarization, 18.S0 marks; (2) for candy and sugar in white, full, hard loaves up to 25 pounds net weight, or sugar crushed in the presence of the customs authorities, 23 marks ; (3) for all other hard sugars, as well as for all white, dry (containing not less than 1 per cent, of water) sugar in crystals, crumbs, or flower form of at least 98 per cent, polarization, 21.60 marks. To receive the benefit of this drawback the amount exported must at least have reached 500 kilograms. Exportation could only take place through custom-houses indicated by the Bundesrath, and fines and pen- alties were attached for false declarations. Two important results of this law are to be noted. Since the tax was imposed, not on the sugar itself but on the raw beets, farmers took great pains to increase the saccharine richness of the beets, and the manufacturers strove to devise more economical methods of extracting the sugar. What this means is most forcibly illustrated by a reference to recent French legislation. In 1884: it was estimated that it required about 17 tons of roots in France to produce a ton of sugar, as against 9J tons in Germany for the same purpose. In that year the German material tax was adopted. Its results are seen in the following table, which shows the quantity of raw beets required to produce a double centner* for the years 1884-'85 to 1889-'90, inclusive: Tear. Quantity. Tear. QQ»ntity..>l 1881 -'85 D. centners. 15. 02 11. K 10.16 1887 '88 D. centners. 9.44 9.16 8. £6 ISMvSO 1888-'89 )»8il-'87 188D-'90 . • 1 double coutuor = 100 kilograms. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. c6b For the current year, it is believed that the ratio will sink to 7.50 double centners of raw beets to 1 double centner of sug.ar. Hxperime'ntal legislation. — As a source of revenue, the law of 1809 was a failure. While under its fostering provisions the production of sugar was yearly increased, and with it the export trade, the receipts from the material tax showed no corresponding growth. Accoirdingly, measures looking to the modification of the law were initiated by the preliminary act of July 7, 1883. This act merely lowered the rebate scale and pro- posed further legislation in two years. In the meantime, in the autumn of 1883, a commission was appointed which examined carefully into all proposals relating to the taxing of sugar. Their recommendations were embodied in a report to the Keichstag in the early summer of 1884 (June 11). Following this, on May 13, 1885, the law of 1883, about to expire by time limit, was given another year's lease of life, that is, until August 1, 1886. This afforded opportunity for further investigation. The result was the law of July 1, 1886. This measure raised the ma- terial tax 10 pfennigs and still further lowered the rebate scale. It was hardly published before it \yus seen to be insufficient. A considerable bounty was still possible. Just what the bounty was I have not been able to learn. In a speech on July 9, 1884, the French minister of agri- culture is reported to have said that it was equivalent to 3 francs per 100 kilograms on the whole crop and 7 francs on the amount exported. Unsatisfactory results of the present law. — It becomiug evident that no effectual reform could be had by adhering to the old system, a new principle more sweeping and radical in its provisions than anything hitherto attempted, was introduced into the law of July 9, 1887. This was the consumption tax, by which all sugars entering into home con- sumption were required to pay a certain duty. The old material tax on the beet root and the rebate were still retained, though both were re- duced. This law, which is still in force, went into effect on August 1, 1888. The schedules were arranged as follows: The material tax was fixed at 80 pfennigs per 100 kilograms. This was a reduction of 90 pfennigs. The rebate per 100 kilograms was: (I) Forrawsugarof at leastOSper cent, andfor refined sugar containing less than 98 per cent., but at least 90 percent., of sugar, 8.50 marks; (2) for candies and for sugars in white, full, hard loaves, blocks, plates, sticks, or cubes, or crushed in the presence of the revenue officers and for other sugars of at least 99J per cent, pu- rity which at any time may be classified by the federal council, 10.65 marks; (3) for all other hard sugar, as well as for all white, dry (not containing over 1 per cent, water) sugar in crystal, crumb, or flower form containing at least 98 per cent, sugar, so long as they do not fall under 2, 10 marks. I The actual workings of this measure, while yielding to the imperial pireasury a larger income than was possible under the old system, do ndt ^eem to have met the expectations of its projectors. It seems -to bese- 536 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. garded as a financial fiasco, and it is believed that handsome profits still accrue to the manufacturers. The clear amount received by the Government from the sugar tax for the last five years, after deducting the managing expenses, which are reckoned at about 4 per cent., is : Marks. 1885-'86 16,932,822 188&-'87 13,510,145 1887-'88..... al,270,284 18'^8-'89.....' 47,298,681 1889-'90 60,309,848 An analysis of the receipts for the last two working years, during which time the additional consumption tax provided for by the new law has been in force, shows the following : 1888-'89. Marks. 78,961,830 double centners of raw beets were consumed, on which there was a material tax of 80 pfennigs per 100 kilograms 63, 109,464 From this reimbursements were allowed : On 4,124,242 double centners of raw sugar at 8.50 marks.. 35, 056, 057 On 1,641,518 double centners of candies at 10.65 marks... 17,482,167 On 156, 506 double centners of crushed sugar at 10 marks . 1, 66.i, 060 54,103,284 9,066,180 ■ Deducting managing expenses at 4 per cent 2,526,779 Net receipts from the material tax 6,539,401 Net receipts from the consumption tax 40,759,280 Total income 47,298,683 1889-'90. 98,250,394 double centners of raw beets at 80 pfennigs , 78,600,315 The reimbursements were : On 4,938,309 double centners of raw sugar at 8.50 marks 41, 975, 627 On 2,157,366 double centners of candies at 10.65 marks ... 22, 975, 948 On 94,917 double centuers of crushed sugar at 10 marks .. 949. 170 65,900,745 12,699,570 Managing expenses at 4 per cent 3, 144,011 Net receipts from the material tax 9,555,557 Not receipts from tlio consumption tax 50,'^14,291 Total income 60,369,848 The present bounty or profit accruing to the uuuuifacturers is con- ceded to be about 2.13 marks per 100 kilograms. During the last year it is estimated that the Governnieut sufl'ered a net loss of 16,000,000 marks. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 537 PROJECTED COIUiEOTIVE LEGISLATION. To correct permanently, this condition of attairs the Eeicli.stag lias now under consideration a measure which proposes to abolish alto- gether the old material tax, or weight duty, and with it the system of rebates. The consumption tax is increased to an amount which is con- sidered equivalent to the present weight and consumption duty. Though the rebate is withdrawn, all sugar, intended for exptjit is exempt. During the year 1889-'90 about 4,400,000 doable centners of sugar entered into the home consumption. This is considered as a normal yearly consumption in the German sugar-taxing districts. Without regard to the natural increase of the population or the in- crease of consumption per head, it is believed that an average yearly con- sumption of 4,500,000 double centners can be reckoned upon in the near future. This amount of sugar, taxed at 22 marks per double centner, would give an annual return of about 99,000,000 marks, which, after deducting the necessary collecting expenses, would leave to the imperial : treasury a clear total of about 95,000,000 marks, as against about 60,000,000 marks under the preseut arrangement. Such a showing, it is argued, could not be brought about by adhering to the present system. ARGUMENT FOR AND AGAINST THE NEW METHOD OP TAXATION. In support of this innovation it is urged that the expenses of the Empire have increased to a very great degree during the past few years, and that it can be predicted with certainty that they will continue to increase. This is due, first of all and chiefly, to the enormous military outlay for the improvement of the national defenses. As secondary causes, the new pension insurance law and the increases granted to the various states for their own purposes are mentioned. The present in- come is inadequate to meet these growing demands, and other and more profitable sources of taxation must be found. The proposed law does not conteipplate any added burden, but simply the doing away of the bounty as such. On the other hand, the combined sugar interest is unanimous in stren- uous opposition to the new measure. It is maintained that the present duty is indispensable to a successful competition with foreign produ- , cers, notably the French, who are at present receiving decided govern- ment encouragement. It is pointed out that the Freuch premium amounts to 7.50 francs for every 100 kilograms, the Austrian to 3.20 marks, and the German only to 2.12 marks. This, in United States cur- rency, would be as $1.45, 75 cents, and 50 cents, respectively. More- over, the Austrians have the additional advantage of buying at jiaper and selling at gold value. The complaint is also made that during the last year German sugar was constantl.y underbid in the London market by Freuch and Belgian sellers. If this condition of things actually exists, it will deal a severe blow to the German export trade, which is estimated, iu round numbers, to 77a 10 538 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. equal tliree-fiftlis of the entire production. Of tliis, lingland takes at good sliare. Out of 001,681 tons of sugar, molasses, and sirup ex- ported in 1888, England received 274,277 tons. This is about five and a half times the quantity sent to any other one country. The United States, according to the German ofScial figures, received a relatively small amount. It is to be said, however, that this amount has been rapidly increasing of late; indeed, the increase during this last year was the most' striking feature of our sugar importation. It was nearly three times as much as the year previous and made Ger- many second only to Cuba as our source of supply. The value of the sugar received by the United States from the most important sugar centers for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, was as follows : Country. Value. Per- centage. Country. Value. Per- centage. $39, 099, 670 16, 098, 224 11, B69, 142 8, 910, 130 6, 817, 866 4,325,370 38.61 15.90 11.42 8.80 6.73 4.27 Porto Rico 3, 681, 247 2, 722, 320 1, 715, 460 1, 659, 251 1,578,494 3 81 D ntcli East Indies 2.69 Hawaiian Islands British West ludies Philippine Islands 1.70 1.64 1.66 Austriar Hungary The value of the sugar exported by Germany to the United States in 1887-'88 and in 1888-'89 was $1,321,516 and $5,814,407, respectively. Aside from the alarm expressed by the exporters for the security of foreign trade, there is the cry of the manufacturers that the abolishing of the material tax will disastrously affect the quality of the beets. At- tention is called to the French experience. It is further claimed that the burden of the new law will fall most heavily upon the agricultural and laboring classes. In order to compete at all under the new condi- tions, the cost of production must be lowered. Therefore the farmer will have to accept a lower scale of prices for his beets and the wage- earner for his wages. RECENT FRENCH LEGISLATION AND THE M'KINLEY BILL. It is interesting to note, in connection with this agitation, a recent petition forwarded to Chancellor von Caprivi in the name of the Asso- ciation for the Beet Eoot Sugar Industry of the Gorman Empire. It bears the date of November 7, 1890. After reciting the objections which have already been alluded to in this report, it proceeds to consider two otlier dangers which have lately arisen. One is the hostile French legislation of July and August of the present year, the other is the McKinley bill. By the former the duty on all foreign sugar is raised and German molasses is shut out altogether from the luench markets. As to the recent tariff legislation iu the United States, the prediction is made ; that, under the bounty system and with the aid of improved machinery, Florida and Louisiana will be able to produce nearly 500,000 tons of pugar. Moreover, the fear is expressed that what is known as the reel- BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 539 procity clause may work serious harm to the German sugar interests. In the language of the petition, this » falls all the harder upon our manufacturers, because under former laws they had always reckoned upon a good market in the United States. The recent interest taken iu the United States in the growing of the beet root is another disquiet- ing feature. The report continues : It is not doubted that a country with such enormous plains can cultivate beets. Even in Germany, with the light of our present experience, we are not now so par- ticular as regards the soil and climate for beet cultivation. CONCLUSION. What efi'ect this opposition will have upon the Eeichstag is not yet apparent. The whole course of legislation of late years, though, leaves no doubt that the Government is in earnest in its endeavor to suppress premiums. It is safe to predict that such suppression can not be much longer delayed. Several tables are here annexed. In Table A it is instructive to note that, while the quantity of beets annually worked up is now triple the amount so employed in 1871-'72, the number of factories has only slightly increased, showing a great increase of capacity, due, in a large measure, to the substitution of the diffusion process. The apparent discrepancy in the amount of income received into the imperial treasury, as shown in Table B and as elsewhere given for the last five years, may be explained by the fact that Table B takes into account the amount of duty received from Imported sugar and the rebate afterwards granted. Table A. — Production and use of teets. Tear. Number of factories in operation. Quantity of beets used. Raw sugar of all sorts. Molasses. Quantity of raw sugar extracted from 100 kilograms of taxed beets. 3871 '72 311 324 337 333 332 328 329 324 328 333 343 358 376 408 399 401 391 396 Tons. 2, 260, 918 3, 181, 651 3, 528, 764 2,756,745 4, 161, 284 3, 650, 037 4, 090, 968 4, 628, 748 4, 805, 262 6, 322, 203 6, 271, 948 8, 747, 164 8,918,130 10,402,688 7,070,317 8, 306, 671 9,963,961 7, 896, 183 Tons. 186,422 262, 551 291, 041 256, 412 358, 048 289,423 378, 009 426, 155 409, 415 665, 915 599, 722 831, 995 940, 109 1, 123, 030 808, 105 986, 628 910,698 944,505 Tons. 63, 892 91, 689 lO.i, 818 97, 603 133, 952 111, 101 122,813 133, 652 131, 371 164,984 160, 813 196, 305 207, 978 259, 700 ISO, 178 215, 887 183, 037 201, 189 Kilograms, 8 28 lo72 '73 8.25 8.25 Ict74 '75 9.30 8.60 1S76 '77 8.15 n. 24 187a-'79 9.21 ]879 '80 . 8.52 8 79 IftHl '82 9.56 1882 '83 9.51 10.54 18«4-'85 10.79 11.43 18S6-'87 11.87 '1887 '88 13.08 11.96 540' BEET-SUGAR INUUSTKY IN GERMANY. Table A. — I'roi} notion anduse of beets — Continued. Tear. Beets re- quired to produce 1 kilograui of raw sugar. 1871-'72 1872-"i3 1873-'74 l«74-'75 1875-'76 1876-'77 1877-'78 1878-'79 1879-'80 1880-'ei 1881-'82 1882-'R3 1883-'84 1884-86 1885-'86 1886-'87 1887-'88 1888-'89 Kilogranne. 12.07 12.12 12.12 10.75 11.62 12.27 10.82 10. 86 11.74 11.37 10.46 10.51 9.49 9.20 8.75 8.43 7.65 8.30 Beets raised by factory - owners. Tone. 504, 351 101,301 420, 909 908, 095 836, 307 490. 164 872, 775 114,030 850, 686 871. 679 431, 754 4)8, 632 205, 064 936, 246 199, 047 436, 084 797, 652 209, 942 Beets culti vated by factory- owners. Quantit* prodncea. perbectareiS) Sectares. 73, 690 82, 590 88, 877 92, 655 96,724 98, 725 104, 783 107, 679 113,003 118, 431 121, 256 129, •.^63 140, 843 150, 077 138,869 147, 782 143, 853, 149, 411 100 kiUa. m 2SIE 272 206 293 252 274 289 282 327 283 3i4 299 302 300 Table B. — Taxes and rebaies in the German customs territory. Year. Total re ceipts, includ- ing amount from import duty. Tax rebates. Net receipts. Per bead of population,' 1844^'45 to 1849-'60 1850-51 to 1855 1856 to 1860 -1861 to 1865 1866 to 1870 1871-'72 to 1875-'76 1876-'77 ]877-'78 1878-'79 1879-'a0 1880-'81 1881-'82 1882-'83 1883-'84 1884-'85 1885-'86 1886-'87 1887-'88 1888-'89 Maries. 20, 457, 800 21, 119, 600 27, 374, 300 32, 708, 800 39, 537, 400 58, 872, 500 60,154,500 67, 824, 600 - 76. 171, 800 78, 605, 000 102, 645, 000 101, 869, 200 141,684,600 144, 090, 600 167, 821, 600 114, 559, 800 142,445,200 120, 245, 300 110, 171, 100 Marks. 2, 578, 400 2, 212, 900 1, 368, 900 864, 200 4,198,500 4, 159, 000 11,618,200 18, 009, 100 25, 627, 100 24, 399, 500 56, 496, 500 44, 992, 200 74, 397, 700 96, 302, 300 128, 452, 700 90, 067, 600 108, 821, 000 105, 5fi8, 000 80, 076, 100 Marks. 17,879,400 18, 906, 700 26, 005, 400 31,844,600 35, 338, 900 54, 713, 600 48, 536, 300 49,815,500 50, 544, 700 54, 20'i, 500 46, 148, 500 56, 877, 000 67, 286, 900 47, 788, 300 39, 368, 900 24, 492, 200 33, 624, 200 14, 677, 300 30, 095, 000 Marks. 0.61 0.57 0.78 0.90 0.94 1.32 1.13 L15 1.15 L22 1.12 1.26 1.49 1.05 0.86 0.53 0.72 0.31 0.62 Albert H. Washburn, Commercial Agent, United States Commercial Agency, Madgeburg, December 27, 1890. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTEY IN GERMANY. 541 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. TRANSLATED AND FORWARDED BY OONSVL-QENERAL EDWAUDS, OF BERLIN. KatioQal economists have heretofore never attempted to follow a world industry so far as possible through all lands in which it has obtained a footing, everywhere inquiring how it originated, how, under the influence of the requirements of natural production, it has devel- oped, how it has been helped or hindered by legislative measures, how tlie social and political conditions of the country have influenced its extension, etc. In times like the present, in which trade and industry expand more and more beyond political frontiers, it becomes day by day more difhcult to keep in view the home industry competing in th(* world's market. Hence it appears how easily false conclusions and erroneous conceptions concerning the condition of a great industry may arise and how governmental and legislative measures may exercise disastrous influences. For this reason the attempt of Dr. Hermann Paasche, professor of j)olitical economy at the University of Marburg, to place side by side historical sket&hes of the development of the sugar industry in all countries of the world is of practical value. The sugar industry is certainly worthy and deserving of such treat- ment at the hands of national economists. It is a world industry in the true sense of the term ; it is aifected by a very great variety of influences; its powers of vitality and growth often depend upon the system of taxation which obtains, and, in the central European states, it exerts an intense influence upon agricul- Inre. As Professor Paasche says in the preface to his book (Sugar Indus- try and Sugar Trade of the World, published by Gustav Fischer, in Jena), in recent years the development of the sugar industry has be- come of special interest in theory and practice. By temporary overproduction, by the accidents of trade, and, above all, on account of a aeries of legislative measures in the chief producing districts of the continent, a few years ago the sugar-fabrication industry was brought almost to the brink of ruin. Suddenly and unexpectedly a crisis of such threatening character overtook this industry that even the most hopeful optimists wavered and complaints were heard from all beet-sugar-producing countries as well as from the tropical colouies. Never has the fight for existence between beet and cane sugar been so fierce and energetic as wjthin the past few years, and the governments of France, Russia, Austria-Hun- gary, etc., as well as those of the colonial states, have exerted themselves to support and strengthen their industries in this battle for existence by means of internal-tax and customs-tariff expedients of many sorts. Unfortunately all these measures have exerted a bad influence npou the state of affairs by protracting and directly imbit- tering the crisis. The years of the most recent development of the sugar industry, therefore, as well as of the agitation for reform in the matter of sugar taxation and bnstoms legislation, are of great interest to the economist and financier. They give » clear insight into a great world industry, in the continual struggle of competition, Beveloping itself further nuder the pressure of "hard times;'' an insight into the deep influence exerted upon it by State legislation, and they show how little founda- tion plausible theories have in such changeable conditions. 542 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. In a most conscientious way Professor Paasche proceeds to investi- gate tlie development of the sugar industry in its many homes. In tbi^ examination the German industry is entitled to the first place, because both in technical and agricultural development and in the amounts produced it stands first. In 50 years the German sugar industry has made such forward strides that instead of 17 only 7.99 metre-centners of beets now produce 1 metre-centner of sugar, and that the 2.077 metre-centners of beets, which in the campaign of 1836-'37 were used during the entire season, on the average, by one factory, in many factories now would not suffice for a single day's work. The entire beet-sugar production of Europe in 1889-'90 was 3,520,000 tons, of which Germany supplied 1,260,000 tons, or more than one-third. The growth to this degree of produc- tiveness is very carefully followed by Professor Paasche, in a manner indicative of his mastery of the subject and of the statistical, legislative, and political-economical material pertaining thereto. The work contains much practical and valuable material and is par- ticularly useful as giving detailed facts in regard to the sugar districts which compete with the German beet-sugar industry, and also in regard to cane-sugar-producing regions. The author has done the beet-sugar industry an especially valuable service by presenting in convenient form facts formerly very difficult of access in regard to the existence and development conditions of the cane-sugar industry. The value of this work is doubled for the German beet-sugar industry by its appearance exactly at this time, when legislative reform of the sugar-tax system is being discussed in official circles. PKOGRESS OF THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY. REPOBT BY OOMMEROIAL AQENT WASMBTIBN, OF MAQDEBUBO. THE GERMAN INDUSTRY. Introduction, — Eecently published statistics touching the sugar-beet industry in Germany show no abatement in the steady progress which is one of its distingniahing features. The much-discussed law abolish- ing the bounty system, to which I had the honor to call attention in an earlier report, lately passed the Eeichstng after a long debate. Very naturally this threatened change called forth some liiouths ago a storm of vigorous protests, and incidentally it was made the text for a seemingly serious and despondent disquisition upon the future of the German sugar-beet industry. The fact that several other countries, notably France and Austria, are already enjoying larger bounties, the rapidly spreading cultivation of the beet in all temperate belts, and our new tariff bill were among the enumerat(Ml causes of the decadence in Germany. It is possible that the authors of these articles were sin- BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. 543 Cero in their visions of impending rain, but the simple truth is that the German, through years of accurate and scientific experiments, leads the world in the cultivation of the beet and the manufacture of it into sugar. That best of teachers — experience — has taught him every phase of the question presented to him for economic solution. While there- fore he may have his regrets at the inevitable doing away of a system, which, it can not be gainsaid, has been a prime factor in the present advanced development of the beet industry, he yet has not the slightest intention of yielding up his hard-earned vantage to anybody else. He understands perfectly well his strength, and, understanding, will use it to keep right where he is — certainly for some years to come. New legislation.— The new law was passed May 9 by a vote of 159 to 126. In view of the very determined opposition to any change in the form of taxation, a modification of the original draft of the new meas- ure was to have been expected, and this is what happened. It is to be borne in mind that there are two methods of taxation prevailing in Germany — the material or weight tax on the beet roots, and the con- sumption tax levied on the sugar itself when it enters into home con- sumption. Since 1861 a drawback has been granted on the material tax wlien the sugar was exported, and this has operated as a concealed bounty. Under the new law, after August 1, 1892, the material tax is to be abolished altogether and a consumption tax substituted of 18 marks* per metric hundredweight.! As an offset to the doing away of the old method, an open export bounty is to be granted for 5 years. For the first 3 years the scale will be 1.25 marks per metric hundredweight of raw sugar, and 2 marks and 1.65 marks for refined sugar; for the last 2 years the bounty given will be 1 maric, 1.75 marks and 1.40 marks respectively. At present the concealed bounty is supposed to be about 2.25 marks per metric hundredweight of raw sugar. Outlooh. — Some time before the present season opened, information from the most trustworthy sources pointed to an increase in the acreage this year of 5 per cent. Later developments have confirmed this esti- mate. This growth is likely to be maintained and is the natural out- come of the moderately satisfactory price of sugar of late, the flue yield of the beet root during the past 2 years, and the erection of new fac- tories. It is quite true that the legislation just passed comes too late to afiect the present campaign, but it is equally true that no steps would have been taken looking to a permanent enlargement of the in- dustry if there had been any question as to the disastrous effects of a law whose passage has been long foreseen. Over and beyond the first estimated increase for this year, there will be a further extension in the acreage given to the beet root, due to a cause accidental and temporary. This has been the state of the weather. During March and April frequent frosts and falls of snow and heavy * One mark = 23.8 cents. t One metric hundredweight = 220.5 pounds. 544 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY. raius and iuundations in the Ehine district made sowing impossible. Labor was confined to the preliminary and rougher work -manuring and plowing. The drilling of the beet kernels consequently took place later than usual. What was more serious, though, in many places the moisture of the ground prevented the sowing of the wheat crop until the season was too far advanced. The result was that a very consider- able number of intended wheat fields were at the last moment turu(d into beet fields. Of course, the final yield may bear no proportion to the area cultivated. Much must always depend upon the quality of seeds selected and the care taken in cultivation, but after this the success or failure of a season's crop is merely a question of favorable or unfavorable weather. Some newly tabulated statistics are here given : Cultivation and yield. Year. Beet area. Average yield per hectare. Year. Beet area. Average yield iier bectare. 1889 '90 Hectares. 298, 560 280, 361 263, 786 276,889 234, 116 Met. cwt. 329 282 264 300 302 18P4-'85 Hectares. 316, 191 298, 271 254, 278 221, 624 103, 339 Met. cwt. 1888 '89 1883-'84 299 18fi7-'88 1882-'83 1886 '87 1881 '82 283 l885-'86 1880-81 1 hectare=2.471 acres. In Germany very many beets are grown by the manufacturers them- selves. The purchased roots moreover are generally grown by contract and under special instructions furnished by the manufacturers. The proportion during the past ten years has been: Year. Grown by manufac- turers. Purchased. Year. Grown by manufac- turers. Purchased. 1889-'90 Per cent. 51.8 53.3 54.5 63.4 59.4 Per cent. 48.2 46.7 45.5 46.6 40.6 18b4-'85.. 1883-'84.. 1882-'83.. 1881-'82. 18S0-'81.. Per cent. 47.5 47.2 50.9 54.7 61.2 Per cent 5'* 5 1888-'89 1887 '88 18S6-'87 45.3 3S.8 1885 '86 Year. Active li.rtci- rica. Beels worUed up. Beets required for 1 met. cwt. of raw .sujiar, not includ- ing su^ar ex- tracted from molasses. 1889 '90 401 306 301 401 899 408 376 358 3J3 333 Met. cwt. 98, 226, 352 78,961,830 69, 639, 606 83,066,712 70, 703, 168 104, 0-i6, 883 89,161,303 87, 471, r,37 82, 719, 479 64, si2« nafi Met. cut. 188«-'89 1887 '88 1888 '87 18S5 '86 8 75 1884-85 1883-'84 ; 1882 '83 1881-'82 1880-'8i BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IK GERMANY. 545 Cultivation and i/u'eW— Continued. Year. Kaw sup.M" obtained per hectare. Workinr days. Production, raw and re- fined, reckon- ing from September to August. 1889^'!)0 "188S^'«'.l 1887-88 18Sli-'87 l«S,i-'80 18S4-'85 fm«;i-'84 188J-'83 18«l-'82 1880-'81 Met cwt. 42. :n 35.29 36.41 36.54 35.82 36.62 31.61 32. 73 27.05 28.76 95.3 84.3 76.6 90.5 82.3 119.3 119. 4 132.4 111.2 123.9 Tons. 1, 204, 607 990, (i04 • 958,333 1, 012, 1)08 838, 131 1, 154, 816 980, 403 848.124 644, 780 594, 223 GENERAL ET7EOPBAN OUTLOOK. The same generally satisfactory and prosperous condition of the beet industry is noticeable throughout Europe. Reports show that in many countries early sowing was prevented, as in Germany, by unfavorable weather. The most reliable estimates indicate that there will be an Increase of acreage in France of from 12 to 15 per cent., probably the latter figure; in Austria, of from 8 to 10 per cent. ; in Belgium, of 15 per cent. In Holland and Eussia the reports are conflicting and not very encouraging. The increase throughout Europe is likely to be about 7 per cent. The sugar production of Europe, including the cane sugar of Ma- deira and Spain, during the past 10 years has been as follows : Tons. 1889-'90 3,627,967 l888-'89 2,783,844 1887-'KS 2,481,950 l886-'87 2,750,206 l885-'86 2,239,973 Tons. 1884-'85 2,672,883 lR83-'84 2,430,813 1882-'S3 2, li37,034 1881-'82 1,915,974 1880-'81 1,814,545 Statement sliowing the heet-sugar production by countries, including estimate for ilte current year. Country. ]890-'91. 1889-'90. 1888-'89. 1887-'88. 188e-'87. Tons. 1, 335, 000 760, 000 700, 000 530, 000 200, 000 65, 000 80,000 Tons. 1, 264, 607 753, 078 787, 989 466,711 221,480 35, 813 30,000 Tons. 990, 604 523, 242 466, 767 520, 387 145, 804 46,040 87, 000 Tons. 959, 150 428, 616 392, 824 441, 342 140, 742 39, 280 79, 980 li.ns 1,1J12, 968 Susdia .--- 623, 059 481,739 487, 460 135, 755 Holland 36, 098 69, 127 Total 3, 670, 000 3, 619, 678 2, 785, 844 2, 481, 950 2, 750, 206 546 BEET -SUGAR INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA. The total sugar productiou, beet and cane, for the same period is set down at: 1890-'91.' 1889-'90. 1888-'89. 1887-'88. ]888-'87. Beefrsugar Tons. 3, 670, 000 2, 385, 000 Tom. 3, 619, 678 2, 049, 464 Tons. S, 785, 844 2, 318, 708 Tom. .2, 481, 950 2, 501, 735 Turn. 2, 750, 206 2,371,221 Total 6, 055, 000 5, 669, 142 5, 104, 652 4,983,685 5, 121, 427 Albert H. Washburn, Commercial Agent. United States Commercial Agency, Magdeburg, June 9, 1891, RUSSIA. RUSSIA— 1872. BEPORT BY aONSVL SMITS, OF ODESSA. The great industry of South Eussia is agriculture, which, the past year, has been very successful, as shown by the exportations from Odessa and other ports. The beet-sugar industry, protected by high tariffs, has grown very much these last years, the product having become ample for the wants of the people, and prices reduced to eight', teu, and twelve kopecks the pound, according to quality. This is nearly as low as sugar could be imported if duty free. Last fall the Government, satisfied that^reat profits were derived by the manufacturers, determined to laj' a heavy excise on it for revenue. At about the same time, however, it turned out tbat the beet crop was deceptive or deficient, so that the product was considerably diminished and prices accordingly mounted up, so that foreign sugar could be iin- ported-and sold in competition, notwithstanding the high tariff. It is now feared by some that the sugar industry may be discouraged, if not destroyed. The general prosperity and progress of the country continue. T. 0. Smith, United States Consulate, Gomul, Odessa, May 4, 1872. RUSSIA— 1875. BEPOBT BY COXSVL Y.'A 1I7CZ, OF WABSAW. The cultivation of beet root for the manufacture of sugar has of late years received an immense development in Poland and the adjoining- provinces of Bothnia, and particularly that of Podolia. ■ BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA. 547 As early as 1812 the Governmeut endeavored to introduce this manu- facture into Poland, by offering loans and promising freedom from con- scription to persons employed in it. These means did not, however, meet with success, the first factory having been established only in 1831, and the first refinery in 1839. Since that time this manufacture has received a great development, as there are at present, according to the last oflicial returns, 38 factories, employing 11,389 workmen, the value of produce being estimated at 9,379,669 rubles. The average prices of sugar in 1873 were : Eefined, 4 rubles 65 kopecks; farina, 3 rubles 30 kopecks, per stone of 24 pounds. The conversion of beet root into sugar is entirely performed from the end of September to the commencement of Aj)ril in each year, beyond which time the beet root, if kept, becomes deteriorated. Joseph Eawicz, Consul. United States Consulate, Warsaic, October 1, 1875. RUSSIA— 1877. BBTOBT BT CONSUL BTBR, OF ODBSSA. Industries of every nature are in a languishing condition. Some of the largest establishments at Odessa have during the year gone into liquidation and many others are upon the verge of bankruptcy. The industry in which the largest amount ef capij;al is engaged is in the manufacture of sugar from the beet root. At the end of 1875 there had been a crisis in this business, and the early months of 1876 brought failures of such establishments in all directions. The withdrawal of the duty on exported sugar gave for a time some relief, but toward the end of the year failures seemed almost epidemic from the Baltic to the Black Sea. At the recent convention of persons interested in this busi- ness at Kief, it was discovered that but two of all the companies repre- sented had been able to pay a dividend. With most of them it was simply a question of being able to continue their operations. The pro- duction of the root is said to very rapidly exhaust the soil, while the destruction of the forests for purposes of fuel for steam is an item that might well be considered, in view of the scarcity of timber in all South Eussia. L. B. Dtek, Consul. 'United States Consulate, Odessa, October, 1877, 548 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA. RUSSIA— 1881. BEPOBT BT COWSUL-aSNUBAL STANTON, OF ST. PETEIiSBUUO. Governmenta. No. Quantity. Value. Laborers, Insured value. Excise. Kief Podolien Chaikuff T.sbei-iag;off Kursk "Volhynion Vorniiesh Tainboff Tula Poltava .-... Penaa....' Bessarabia Orel Mohileff Minsk Total Hussla "Warsaw Kalisli Lyublin PkaJom Kyeltzl Peteikofif Lninslia ,. Ploi.'ik Syedletz Total Poland Grand total.. Tons. 84,384 44, 347 -23, 193 4,629 •*13, C95 12,254 2,455 2,962 3,018 801 440 504 2(i3 145 *43 $10. 900, 865 4, 978, .585 *2, 577, 750 585, 440 *1, S-i."), 315 1,525,315 338, 245 426, 925 480, 700 97, 150 95, 246 60, 200 27, 120 28, 236 *4, 780 24, Oil 15, 946 8, 248 5,187 4,925 6,175 1,969 1,475 1,440 538 375 580 170 190 88 $12, 322, 500 8, 403, 100 2, 658, 760 1, 062, 100 1, 672, 500 2, 786, 300 482, 500 1, 429, 000 $575, 156 383, 654 182, seo 73, 499 110,015 90, 073 29,287 34, 695 39, 300 8,924 4,431 4, 72R 4,375 2,168 345 193, 075 23, 740, 872 70, 312 1, 543, 630 '14, 551 *2, 206 1,994 1,277 1,186 *], 114 652 1,258 «462 *2, 182,500 *275, 753 285, 700 184, 596 165, 184 *139, 394 85, 135 139, 750 *51, 340 '1,708 *2388 1,595 617 *3384 131 250 550 "84 1, 900, COO 600, 000 615, 950 183, 268 27, 810 24,054 17,544 17, 748 15, 635 5,950 16,834 5,817 24, 700 3, 499, 352 4,434.000 3,(120 217, 775 27, 240, 224 '"le, 019 36, 250, 750 1, 857, 250 * Calculated on tbe estimaU'd capacity of works. 'Actually in 1879-'80, 9,683. ^Actually in 1879-'80, 1,552. 3 Actually in 1879-'80, 685. «Actuany in 1879-80, 380. ^Actually in 1830-'81, 23,879. "Actually in 1880-'81, 93,190. From the foregoing table it will be seen that during the season of 1880-'81 there were in operation in all Russia 336 sugar works, 196 be- ing in liussian and 40 in Polish governments. It has hitherto been the practice of the Russian Imperial Government to estimate, from existing data, the capacity of a sugar mill and to collect the excise duty on the estimated — without regard to the actual — production. According to this established rule there were 83,846 tons (4,658,146 poods) of sugar produced, viz, 69,824 tons (3,879,129 poods) in the Rus- sian and 14,022 tons (779,026 poods) iu the Polish governments. The excise duty collected amounted to $1,857,250. In consequence of the introduction of more perfect apparatus the actual exceeds by far the estimated production. Thus in the Russian the relation of the established standard to the actual production was as 1 to 2.7664 and in the Polish government as 1 to 17.653,80 that the actual production of sugar was 217,861 tons (12,103,415 poods), the Russian Government producing 193,163 tons- (10,731,295 poods) and the Polish 24,698 tons (1,:?72,120 poods). The value of the production was $27,236,690, viz, $23,737,286 for the Russian and $3,499,208 for the Polish works. This great diftereuco between the estimated and the actual produc- BEET SUGAR INDUSTKY IN KUSSIA. 549 tion has called forth a decroc whereby the excise duty is henceforth to be collected on the actual production, at first at a less, later at an in- creased rate. It is believed that this change of system, which has already increased the price of sugar, will treble the government's re- ceipts. The buildings and machinery of Eussia's beet-root-sugar manufac- tories are insured for $35,250,750 (of which $30,810,750 are on Russian and $l,l;34,000 on Polish mills), which is an evidence of the magnitude of this branch of industry. There were 93,190 laborers of both sexes employed, viz, 70,312 in^^he Eussian and 22,879 in the Polish works. Many mills are largely en giiged in cultivating the beet root, whilst others depend entirely on others for their ravr material. In the Russian Governments the manufacturers cultivated themselves 240,9G7 acres of beet root, which yielded 1,327,697 tons— 7,376,098 ber- kovets — being an average yield per acre of 5.5 tons. Besides their own production the manufacturers purchased 1,105,947 tons for $3,763,892, the average price per ton being $3.43. Assuming that the other i3roducers obtained an equal average yield with the factories they would have cultivated 201,560 acres, with a re- turn per acre of $18.86, to which should be added the value of the leaves and pressed roots returned by most of the factories. From this will be seen how.great is the agricultural importance of the beet-root-sugar trade in Eussia, to which, in fact, many of the provinces owe their prosperity exclusively. Altogether there were 442,527 acres devoted to the culture of the beet root. About 34J per cent, of the mills are the property of stock companies. Edgar Stanton, Consul- General, United States Consul ate-Genbral, St. Petersburg, February 2, 1882. RUSSIA— iS83-'84. EEPOBT BY AOTINQ CONSTTL-OENBltAL SWANN, OF ST. PHTERSBUEO. This industry is mostly confined to limited areas in -the southwestern. Little Russian, and Prevestland provinces of the Empire, and from the total number of sugar works in successful operation during the year 1883 the distribution was as follows : In the southwestern provinces there were 128 establishments in opera- tion, of which the greater number (68) were in the government of KieflF, and 49 in Podolsk; in Little Russia 38; in the government of Kharkoff 22, and in the Prevestland provinces 42. In nine other governments 38 establishments were in active operation, of which latter number 14 were in the government of Koursk. 550 BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA. The beet-root plantations under cultivation in 1883— and in connec- tion with this sugar industry — equaled 735,000 acres, being an excess of 102,051 acres over the area- under cultivation in 1882. Of this (otal 302,!)42 acres belonged to the sugar companies, and 432,058 acres, to planters. During the year 1883 the sugar works consumed 22,473,096 berkovets of beets (1 berkovet llussian equals 360 English pounds), of which quan- tity 22,172,777 berkovets were accounted for as follows : Sugar works located in- 1883. 1882. Southwest governments . Prevestlaud provinces . -. other govern monta Berkovets, 12, 511, 461 3, 516, 996 6, 484, 649 Berkovets. '683,716 ■972,365 1 888, 651 '' Decrease. t Increase. Eesults obtained from these operations were as follows, given in poods (1 pood equals 36 pounds English): Poods. Best sugars 1, 553, 295 White aud moist 14,422,554 Yellow moist 9,306 Refined molasses 1, 249 Being an excess of 894,104 poods over the workings of the former year 1882, although in the manufacture of best sugar there was a decrease in the output of 528,916 poods as compared with 1882. From the total quantities of best refined sugars and lower gradeSj the manufacture has been distributed as follows for 1883 : REFINED BEST. Pooda. Warsaw 717,426 Koiff 204,176 Podolsk 252,179 LOWBE GRADES. Poods. Kieff 4,991,283 Podolsk 2,924,499 Kharkoff 2,230,281 The total number of employes engaged in the sugar industry at the manufactories, exclusive of beet-root cultivation, was, in 1883, 94,580 persons; of which number 73,334 were male laborers, 13,869 were female laborers, and 7,377 were children. Notwithstanding low prices ;in connection with this industr.y, the trade returns during the past year 1884 have been satisfactory, the ex- ports being as follows: Eeflned sugars. 1884. 1883. Tin i tic Sea expoits roods. 4, 830 28, 990 39 Poods. 8,081 22 Land transit - 33, 859 8,113 BEET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA. 551 The profits derived by the comiiaiiies orignged iu this industry are not 80 great for the year 1884 as in 1SS3, and in the greater number of instances the profits and bonuses at the disposal of the shareholders iu the sugar undertakings of ll'ussia were much diminished, as will be seen from the following details collected from the Kierlanui, a journal devoted to this industry. The dividends of the sugar refinery Lorodok for the year 1884 was 20 per cent, as compared with 25 per cent, gain in 1883. The refinery lar- opowitch gave 15 per cent. The Kieff Su^ar Refining Company de- clared a dividend of 8 per cent, as compared with, 10 per cent, in 1883. The Kalinsky Sugar Works gave a dividend of 20 per cent, as compared with profits exceeding 40 per cent in 1883, and the Eomanoflfsky Refin- ery gave 16 per cent, for the late year's working. Other sugar works and refineries gave results not less satisfactory to their shareholders, though, as already intimated, the dividends were not so great as iu 1883. James Y. E. Swann, Consul- General. United States Consulate-General, St. Petersburg, May 12, 1885. RUSSIA— 1886. EBPOJtT BY CONSUL ME-EiXAN, OF OBESSA. BOUNTIES. I submit the few statements this dispatch contains on the subject of sugar iu Russia with the intention of calling the attention of the De- partment in the first place to the enormous quantity produced, and the consequent effect on the price of the article, and iu the second place to the action of the Eussian Government in coming to the relief of the sugar manufacturers, and the effect of the same on the sugar interests generally. Russia did not export sugar until last year, except in very small quantities, and then only to neighboring countries, the home consump- tion heretofore absorbing all that could be raised, the quantity required being between 720,000,000 and 792,000,000 pounds each year. The producers, who are also the manufacturers of sugar, for years past have been realizing enormous profits from the protection afforded them by the Government in placing a high tariff on all foreign sugar. These profits, according to good authority, have reached as high a figure as 50 per cent., besides increasing the value of the lands from 150 to 200 per cent., owing to the cultivation of the beet. In consequence of these high profits there was an overproduction of sugar. This was foreseen early in 1835, a surplus of between 288,000,000 and 360,000,000 pounds being the result. This surplus caused prices to 552 BEET-SUGAE INDUSTRY IN KUSSIA. drop to the low price of 5 cents per pound. The wealthy owners at once appealed to the Government for aid to keep up, not their indus- tries, because it was shown that even at this low figure a moderate profit would result, biit to keep up their large profits. The Government yielded to this demand, and gave a premium or bounty of 1 ruble per pood, or 50 cents on every 36 pounds of sugar exported, until 72,000,000 pounds should be reached. As this quantity was not sufficient to relieve the market of its surplus, free permit was given for sugar exported, with a premium or bounty of 40 cents on every 36 pounds exported until May 1, 1886 (Kussiau calendar). The quantity exported thus far (April 8) is about 216,000,000 pounds, so that from 72,000,000 to 144,000,000 pounds remain to be disposed of. The greater part of the sugar exported was sent to England. It was not sold, but was consigned, and still remains unsold on the English market, which is depressed by the supply pouring in from all countries. The bounty allowed by the Russian Government was not sufficient to induce the owners of the sur^dus sugar here to part with their stock. They have therefore applied to the Government for an increase of tbis bounty, with the additional request that the bounty be paid in the future on all sugar exported, and that the manufacturers be not asked to re- turn the bounty already paid. The Government levies a tax of 65 kopecks on every pood of manu- factured sugar, or 32J cents on 36 pounds. The bounty allowed was to be refunded by increased taxation (in- ternal revenue) on future crops. This additional demand on the part of the sugar interest was received with' great discontent and opposition by the agricultural classes gen- erally, and the question was asked, "Why should not the Government give a bounty to other products which were exported, wheat, for in- stance, as well as sugar, which had a long run of prosperity ?" The' other interests of the country objected to paying tribute to increase the profits of the wealthy sugar manufacturers. ,The Eussjan minister of finance refused to grant the request made, and declined to help in any other way toward a reduction of tbis product, declaring that those people who unreasonably increase production must bear the consequences of their own action. The minister further replied that the difficult situation of the sugar industry produced by the overproduction during the periods of 18S4- '85-'86 has attracted the attention of the Government. l>y two resolu- tions of the committee of ministers there was given to the mauulacturers of the whole Empire an export premium of, first, 1 ruble, and afterwards 80 kopecks, per pood, and through this measure undoubtedly a collapse of prices was prevented. However, on the part of the manufacturers, different petitions and appeals have been made, and are still being presented, regarding which the minister of finance sees himself induced to give some explanation, EEKT-SUGAR INDUSTUY IN RUSSIA. 553 Some of the applications deinaiid partly an increase arid partly a non- refundable premium ; others a limitation of production by fixing the amount produced by each manufactory, and extra taxation of the amount exceeded; others again consider all measures superduons, and ixpect an amelioration and improvement through the cheapening of production or through the stoppage of work of those factories which are not able to compete. The minister of finance, therefore, considers it necessary to observe tliat an increase or a non-refundable export premium is out of the question, and that the premium paid up to now had the purpose to re- lieve the maiket of its surplus production for the period of 1885-'86, and must cease in the future, it not being the intention to in any way en- courage overproduction. A continuation of this premium would be purposeless, as the rest of the Euro])ean States— Germany, France, and Austria— have gone so far in the way of premiums as to make it impossible to compete with them. The minister of finance intends to protect home production only so far as to supply the home consumption, and not to supply foreign con- sumers with cheap sugar at the expense of the Russian Government and the Russian people; consequently the minister of finance considers it necessary to inform the sugar interest in advance that the produce of the next season can count upon no premium for export. Regarding the question of limiting the production, the minister of finance considers it necessary to remark that before all it is the duty of the manufacturers themselves to reduce the production sufficiently for the demand, and that the question is not a matter for Government in- terference; all consequences of immoderate production must fall ou unreasoning producers. The minister of finance therefore considers it necessary — 1st. To provide for an outlet to some oriental market. 2d. To prevent speculative rise of prices through a lowering of im- port duties. 3d. To reconsider the arrangement for repayment of premiums. Regarding the first two points a resolution may be arrived at within a short time, and any further communications on the subject will be useless; but regarding the last point the minister of finance solicits the opinion of parties interested up to May 15, 1886. • The refunding of the premium may be left as heretofore, viz, ac- cording to the quantity manufactured, or it may be so allotted as to bring it in proportion to the increased production of certain manufac- tories. Petitions only will be received and considered on this latter point; all others which demand favors and assistance, such as abandoning the premium paid on the part of the Government, and also petitions asking for an extension of time on internal-revenue taxes, must not count on favorable consideration, 77A 11 554 BEET VS. CANE SUGAK PRODUCTION. The grade of this sugar is from 99 J to 100 per cent polarization, all beiug made from the beet, no cane being used or grown. The method of refining is not up to the latest improved methods, else the yield per pound of beet would be much larger. Eussia is a high protective- tariff" nation, and strongly in falvor of and jealously anxious to protect home industries, yet is not willing that the majority of her citizens should suffer in order that a favored few might prosper, a sentiment that will be favorably received in every farming community on this as well as on the other side of the Atlantic. I venture to hope that the matter contained in this communication may pardon its length. Thomas E. He en an, Vomul. United States Consulate, Odessa, April 8, 1886. RUSSIA— 1889. The manufacture of beet-root sugar is yearly increasing in Eussia, and the industry is in a flourishing condition. The completion of the Transcaspian Railway opened up an immense field for the sugar inter- ests, and large shipments are constantly being made to Toorkistan, Per- sia, and the Caspian side of the Caucasus generally. The beet root is largely grown and manufactured into sugar in the governments of Kiev, Podolia, V'olhynia, Karkov, Kurtsk, and Veronsk, as well as in some of the more northern districts of Eussia. Thos. E. Heenan, Consul. Odessa, March 26, 1890. BEET VS. CANE SUGAR PRODUCTION. REPORT SY OONSXTL-OENEIiAL WILLIAMS, OF SAY ANA. With reference to the inclosed extracts from a few of the dispatches addressed by me to the Department upon the economic state of the island of Cuba since my official connection with this consulate general in 1875, and as confirmatory of their statements, I now beg to inclose the trans- lation of a paragraph from the Avisada Comercial, of this city, relating to the enormous increase of 800,000 tons in the European beet-sugar crop of this year over that of last year, which sudden increase not only offsets the average annual exportable Cuban crop of some 600,000 tons, but even overshoots it by an excess of 33;\ per cent. The general welfare of the inhabitants of this island is so inwrought with their production of sugar, as pointed out by the simile of the labor- BEET VS. CANE SUGAR PRODUCTION. 655 ers A and B iu my dispatch No. 724 of August 8, 1878, that 1 respect- fully beg to express the opinion to the Department that the present beet-root sugar crop of Europe, reported at 3,600,000 tons, ought to be a subject of preferred solicitude and consideration on the part of the Government of Spain. Eamon O. Williams, Consul- General. United States Consulate-General, Havana, April 9, 1890. BEET-ROOT SUGAR. [Inolosure 1 in Consul-General Williams's report Translation from the Avisada Comercial, Havana, April 7, 1890. The holders of this sweet have been offering it freely during the whole week (in the New York market), but without forcing operations, and it is believed that no sales were made. Owing to the suddou increase in the saccharine richness of the juice from the root in Germany, Mr. Licht (the statistician) has had to raise his esti- mates of the production of that Empire to 50,000 tons more ; and as the total crop of Europe now reaches 3,600,000 tous, there results an increase of 800,000 tons in the present crop of 1889-90 over that of 1888. It is therefore not strange that in sight of snch a formidable increase of supply the American refiners feel they will be able to cover their needs of raw sugars at their own pleasure and at moderate prices, and therefore show no anxiety to accept present offerings. BEBT-ROOT SUGAR IN 1889-'90. [Inclosiire 2 in Consul-General Williams's report. — Translation from tlie Boletin Comercial.] Mr. Licht estimates, in his last bulletin, the beet-root sugar crop for 1889-'90 at the following figures: Conntries. Tons. Conntries. Tons. Germany 1, 250, 000 730, 000 750,000 480, UOO 200, 000 Holland 60, 000 80, 000 50, 000 France Germany, ihcrease, as explained Total ... Russia Belgium. .. 3, 600, 000 Note.— In 18e8-'89 the total was 2,78 5,8« tons, and in 1887-'88 it was 2,481,950 tons. BEET-ROOT SUGAR IN 1875." [Xnclosure 3 in Consul-Goneral Williams's report.] The beet-root production during the last year in Europe has reached the enormous amount of 1,100,000 tons of sugar, and the coming crop there, according to the esti- mates of the best European statisticians, will show another increase of production of *This and inclosures 4, 5, and 6 are extracts from former reports to the Department by Consul-General Williams. 556 BEET VS. CANE SUGAR PRODUCTION. at least 10 per cent, oyer that of last year. Should this be realized, then scarcely any market at all will be left in Europe for Cuba and Porto Rico, and, as a consequence, almost their entire crop will be forced for sale into the market of the United States; and, as the amount of supply will determine the price to be paid by the consumer, and not the cost of production, prices must inevitably fall to a lower standard, unless prevented by some unexpected event. In this case some advantages will accrue to the general material interests of the United States as a partial compensation for the injuries inflicted upon our commerce by the action of the differential tariff which reigns here ; and, acting like a turbine wheel — receiving the force of impulse at one angle and deflecting it at another — nearly all that reciprocal of trade which should be returned to the United States as the equivalent for the seventy-odd millions of dollars, comprised principally of sugar and molasses sold there by Cuba and Porto Rico, is diverted and imparted by its action to Spain and her dependencies, with its immensity of commercial moving power, for the invigoration and development of their agricultural, industrial, commercial, and maritime interests. BEET-ROOT SUGAR IN 1878. llnclosare 4 in Gonsal-General Williams's repoii;.] The following example in domestic economy will illustrate, in some degree, the mode in which these differential duties are, in the wider operation of political econ- omy, eating, cancer-like, into the very vitals of the material prosperity of this island as likewise those of Spain, that of the latter being mostly an effect of the former. Let it be supposed that the laborers A and B are compelled to go into the labor market to sell their services. They each earn, for instance, |1 per day, and with these earnings they buy the supplies of themselves and families. The law governing A compels him to buy his bread from a certain baker, and in the same way his meat, groceries, shoes, and clothes from a designated butcher, gro- cer, shoemaker, and tailor, to each of whom he has to pay, say, 30 per cent, higher for his supplies than the laborer B, because the latter has the right to buy wherever he can get his supplies cheapest. Now, it is clear in this case that, though both laborers earn the same wages, this differential taxation reduces the exchangeable value of a day's labor of A to 70 cents when compared with the day's labor of B, which is worth to him $1 in the purchase of supplies. Further, and what probably is a still more important effect for the purposes of this analysis, is that B possesses a competitive advantage of 30 per cent, in the labor market over the laborer A. Now, the same simile holding good when treating of the selling and buying power of a nation, it follows that the exports of Cuba bear the same relation to its economic being as the wages of the laborer A bear to his personal welfare and to that of his family. Cuba has, from the necessity of self-preservation, to send her exports, consisting mostly of sugars, molasses, tobacco, and cigars, to whatever market will pay her best. She finds the best market for her products in the United States, where she sends about 90 per cent, of her exports. Now, with her exports out, she buys her imports in, in a similar manner as laborer A with his daily earnings buys his supplies. But the law governing Cuba subjects her imports to the action of a differential tariff, so constructed as to force her to buy to the furthest possible extent from a certain nation and to employ for the purposes of transportation a designated ship- ping. Accordingly, Cuba is pressed to purchase her flour,*pro visions, groceries, shoes, dry goods, and all other articles of consumption in Spain, and to bring them in Spanish shipping, only buying from other countries when these, despite the discrimination, are »ble to aell to her cheaper than Spain, BEKT VS. CANE SUGAR PKODUCTION. 557 Thus Cuba, like laborer A, suffers :i great loss in tbo exobaugeable value of her exports, although gctUug the same prices for them when compared to the exports of other sugar-producing countries, but who, like laborer B, have the right to buy wherever they can get the cheapest. * In this arrangement we probably find the most glaring example of economic fallacy existing in any country doing an extensive foreign commerce; for, just in proportion as Spain is "protected" at the expense of Cuba, it being an anreciprocal protection, the exchangeable value of Cuba's exports is thereby lessened, as in the case of the serv- ices of laborer A, she suffering a corresponding diminishuient in the amoant of imports purchasable by her exports, just upon the same principle that a given measure short- ened at one end is thereby shortened at both ends. Further, to the extent of the harm done by the operation of these differential duties, BO does the competitive power of the beet-root sugar of Europe and the cane sugar of all other countries operate against Cuba in the sugar-consuming markets of the world ; and to such a potent degree has this competition risen, through the increase of sugar- production, which, at the same time, is gradually affording the United States, through other channels, that reciprocity of trade diverted from them by the differential tariff" of Cuba, that Cuba's sugars are now quite forced out of the markets of Europe, and she is helplessly reduced to the sugar market of the United States, notwithstanding the high import duties there on sugar, to which Cuban planters and high Spaniel officials point, believing that they come out of the Cuban producer instead of the American consumer. But, were such the fact, it is surprising that Cuba does not at- tempt to avoid their payment by the shipment of its sugars to Great Britain, where, at present, no import duties are levied on the article. It is easy to perceive that the more necessity compels Cuba to gravitate to the United States for a market to sell in and the more Spanish legislation compels her, on the other hand, to go to Spain as a market to buy in, so wiU her commercial status become aboornial, and in like proportion must the effects in time be disastrous to Cuba and to Spain ; for it is impossible for a people to stand when so divided that its commercial pieqessities are in one direction and its political ties in another directly opposite. BEET-ROOT SUGAR IN 1878. [Incloanre 5 in Consul-General Williams's report.] At a time not far remote, when Cuba, owing to the temporary effects of factitious and accidental causes, made nearly 40 per cent, of the sugar supply of the world, and when her market lay principally in Great Britain and other countries of Europe, where, from motives of interest, no retaliatory duties were imposed on merchandise imported and exported in Spanish shipping, it was, from this relatively dominating position, temporarily feasible for Spain to maintain in Cuba a differential tariff ; but, now that her quota of that supply scarcely reaches 18 per cent., and Cuba's market to sell in having changed from Europe to be confined almost exclusively to the United Stfites, where these differential duties are offset by retaliatory duties, it has ceased to De longer beneficially practicable. For some time past the operation of this differential tariff has been reactive and destructive of the interest and welfare of Cuba, and it now only operates as a " pro- jection" favoring the development of the sugar industry in all other countries just to an extent exactly correlative to the amount of exchangeable value it detracts (from Cuba's export in their purchase of her exports. The Spanish Government is now in the dilemma of either continuing this differential tariff or of abolishing it. If it chooses the first alternative,' it will thereby, in a brief leries of years, destroy not only the sugar industry of the island, but with it, as sec- pndary effects, all the many interests that derive their moving power from that crop, 558 BEET VS. CANE SUGAR PRODUCTION. such as the railroads, the coastwise sliippiug, exporting mercUants, banks, sugar warehouses, cooperage establishments, wharves, lighters, and depriving of employ- ment its brokers, clerks, mechanics, laborers, st'svedores, and rendering, also, value- less to creditors its public debt. The exjfort basis of the island once dissipated, its import business, too, ceases, and tben another train of large and small business establishments will simultaneously go out of existence for the want of sugar, out of which staple flows their moving power. Coincidently with the working out of this process, other countries are striving to occupy the position of Cuba as sugar-pur- veyors to the United States. If, however, Spain would act from a higher standard of thought and with the wisdom and sense of responsibility that ought to be the rule of all governing powers, and abolish this tariff, thereby leaving Cuba with the right to buy wherever she can do so the cheapest, then ia that event the great bulk of Cuba's imports must come from the United States, for the simple reason that she can there buy them cheapest, reapiug, besides, a great saving of time, because of the proximity of the United States, over bringing them from Spain and other European countries. As aproof of the capability of the United States to furnish the imports of Cuba to the advantage of its population, we have the practical fact that the dry goods merchants of this city are at the present day importing American calicoes from the United States via Liverpool, England, whence they are brought in Spanish steamships to Havana, with the surcharge of commission, freight, truckage, and marine insurance conse- quent upon the roundabout way of importing enforced by this differential tariff, in- stead of bringing them direct from New York or Boston. And this only means that Cuba gets just so much less of imports iv exchange for her exports and that other sugar-producing countries are literally "protected" by Spanish legislation just to that extent at the expense of Cuba. BEET-ROOT SCGAR IN 1886. [Inclosare 6 in Consnl-General Williams' report.] I inclose a copy of F. 0. Licht's monthly report of the beet-root sugar industry of Europe, published at Magdeburg, and dated the 20th of November, 1886, as also, for the like purpose of comparison, an aecompanyiog extract of my dispatch No. 291 of the same date of the year 1875, the interval between the two dates being exactly 11 years. You will please observe that what I called in 1875 in the said dispatch the enormous amount of 1,100,000 tons of beet- root sugar produced in the year 1874-75 in Europe will, according to the inclosed report of Mr. Licht, reach the coming year to 3,580,000 tons, which is equivalent to an increase of 134.54 per cent, during the last 11 years. It is likewise observable that, according to the best statistical data of the exports of Cuba attainable in 1875, the percentage of its sugar crop sent in that year for sale to the United States, as reported in my said dispatch, was 81 per cent., whereas the similar data now attainable, and as stated in my report of the 25th of June ultimo (dispatch No. 427), published in the Consular Reports, show that Cuba has shipped to the United States during the present year 94 per cent, of her sugar and molasses crop, leaving a remainder of only 6 per cent, which was shipped to other countries during the same period. From these facts several very important economic relations are deducible: (1) With the exception of the very limited sugar market of the Spanish Peninsula, Cuba is completely shut out of the European sugar market, Great Britain, France, Germany, AnHtria-Hungiuy, Italy, Russia, Bolginm, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden and Nor- way being no li)n/;er lonsumerNof Cuban sugar ; (2) that, practically, the island is now entirely dependent upon the market of the United States in which to sell ita BEET AND CANE SUGAE IN NEW ZEALAND. 559 sngar-cano pioaucta. Also, that tho oxisteuce of the sugar plantations, the railroads used in transporting their products to the shipping ports of the island, the import and export trades of Cuba based thereon, each including hundreds of minor industries, such as the agricultural and mechanical trades, storehouses, wharves and lighters, stevedores, brokers, clerks, bankers, real-estate-ownera, shopkeepers of all kinds, and holders of the public debt, are now all directly related to the market of the United States to the extent of 94 per cent, for the employment, and only 6 per cent, toother countries, of the latter mostly Spain, simply for the reason that sugar is the principal ecouomic basis of all those interests. It is with the knowledge of this fact of the dependence of Cuba upon the United States to the extent of 94 per cent, for a market in which to sell, added to the apprc' heusion that that market may .ilso be taken by other sugar-producing countries from Cuba, that now leads its inhabitants (o urge upon the Madrid Government the immediate negotiation of a treaty of commerce to put the island in a more harmoni- ous relationship with its natural market, the United States. BEET-ROOT AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. REPORT BY CONSUL QRIFFIN, OF AUCKLAND. The large and steady annual increase in the consumption of sugar in New Zealand has directed very general attention to the various meth- ods for its production in this colony. So much interest was taken in the subject that the Government at the last session of Parliament passed an act for the encouragement of the manufacture of sugar from beet root and sorghum. The act provides — That the colonial treasurer shall, out of the consolidated fund, pay to the person producing the same, one-half penny (1 cent) per pound on the first 1,000 tons of sugar produced from beet root or sorghum grown in this colony, and, further, that no duty by way of excise or ortherwise shall be levied for 15 years from the 1st day of 1885 on any sugar produced in this colony whilst the present Import duty of one-half penny per pound continues; but, if the import duty is increased, then an excise may be levied so long as one-half penny per pound at least remains as the difference of duty charged on sugar imported and sugar produced in the colony from beet root or sor- ghum grown in the colony, to every person producing the same equal to the duty so removed or reduced, but never exceeding one-half penny per pound. Much opposition was offered to the bill before it became a law. It was urged that it would crush out the industry of the manufacture of sugar from the cane, already established in the colony, and that the bonds system was simply introducing protection in an insidious form, that it would impose a fresh burden on the people, and that it would lead to every other industry demanding similar legislation in its favor. It was also said that it would result in the squandering of public money and in the ruin of speculative manufacturers who might be induced to erect costly factories and machinery. The people throughout the col- ony, and especially in the district of Auckland, were strongly in favor of the law. Mr. William A. Graham, of Hamilton, New Zealand, wrote a very able and interesting pamphlet ou the inducements offered for the man- 5 GO BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. ufacture of beet-root sugar in tlie Waikato district, wliicli bad exten- sive circulation in the North Inland, and Mr. Pond, the goverumeut analyst at Auckland, published the results of a series of experiments he had made with beet roots grown in various parts of Auckland, in which the average yield of sugar was 12.29 per cent., the highest being 15 and the lowest 9.82 per cent. The general circulation given to these papers, together with much other matter on the same subject, ajipeared to settle the question that beetroot sugar could be produced profitably in New Zealand. Excellent results have been obtained from the cul- tivation of the sugar beet in the Waikato, where the crop is as much aspecialty as the orange or banana is in the extreme north. The absence of salt in the soil and in the atmosphere, caused by its inland position, added to its adaptability to the growth of root crops, gives the district very great advantages over the country near the seacoast, and there is now no doubt that the average yield of sugar in the Waikato beet is greater than that produced in Germany and France. Mr. Pond's paper is so full of interesting and valuable material and contains the results of so many chemical experiments of a direct, prac- tical character that I had thought to reproduce it here entire, although I feel constrained to express the opinion that the production of sugar from the cane will, in the end, prove more profitable than from the beet root : ON THE SUGAR VALUES OF BEBT ROOT GROWN IN THE WAIKATO. By I. A. Pond, government analyst for the dratrict of Auctland During the session of 1880 a paper was read before the New Zealand Institnte en- titled "On the growth of sugar beet in New Zealand," by Dr. S. M. Cnrl. In this paper the writer very ably reviewed the subject and placed much valuable data he- fore US ; but, when spealiiag of the values of sugar in the different varieties of beet root examined by him, ho claimed to have found as high as 17.5 per cent. This excessive amount, the fact that parliamentary papers bad been published giving analysis of New Zealand grown beets showing much less favorable results, and the absence of any details of examination led me to take up this subject with the view of prac- tical operations should the experiments justify it. About this period also, I had in- terested myself in the matter of sugar beet, owing to some superior seed having been brought from Hamburgh by Mr. G. S. Graham, and, finding it had been distributed amongst some of the Waikato settlers for planting, I undertook the examination of the roots when tbey should be sufliciently {jiown. Mr. W. A. Graham, of Tamahere, who had taken a very great interest in the matter, had papers printed according to a plan drawn out by myself, and forwarded to those settlers who had undertaken to grow the roots. These papers were designed to obtain data for the future guidance of a company, should one be formed through any satisfactory results of these experi- ments, and were divided into columns requesting information, as follows : Particulars of Waikato heel roots. From whom forwarded, and name of ostate. Oliiiractcr of soil, and whether drained, etc. Whether manured or otliciwise ; if manured, state character of manure. Whether from imported sicils or from where obtained. Give approximate of weight to the aere, if possible. BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. 561 Analytical icsnlts. I'wcontage of boet sugar and notes. Thelirst installmeut I leceivocl was from Mr. L. O'Neill, Hamilton, and came to hand on the 28th Jannary. There were three roots, grown from seed imported by Mr. Lavers, and resnlted as follows : No. 1. weight, 2 pounds 2 ounces ; percentage of cane sugar, 10.<):>. No. 2, weight, 1 pound 2 ounces ; percentage of cane sugar, 10.17. No. 3, weight, 12 ounces; percentage of cane sugar, 13.5.5. On the 24th February, one month later, Mr. O'Neill again forwarded a parcel of four roots from the same crop. Taking the largest of them, weighing 2 pounds 2 ounces, I found the percentage of sugar to be 14.25 ; the three others I aggregated ■with a like percentage of 14.25. Finally, on the 24th August, I received a parcel of five roots from the same grower, which had been removed from the ground and stored, some of which are on the table. Two of these I have examined with the following results : No. 8, weight, 2 pounds 7 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 11.40. No. 9, weight, 2 pounds; percentage of sugar, 14.25. The further examination of these roots I will speak of again, in relation to the specific gravity of the juice. On the 18th of Febrnary I received three roots from Mr. Ralph, Huntley, marked sugar beet. They were of a full red-colored skin, but I have obtained no knowledge of the name of the seed or where procured. Result of analysis : No. 1, weight, 5 pounds 5 onnces ; percentage of sugar, 4.31. No. 2, weight, 12 ounces; percentage of sugar, 7.50. No. 3, weight, 9 onnces; percentage of sugar, 11.87. This root No. 1 was a well-shaped one, of large proportions, very watery, but with a very low percentage of sugar. This is the lowest result I have obtained, and far below any other. At the same time its excessive size would lead to the conclusion that its valne in sugar was low. One more parcel I received of unknown seed, from Eaglan, through Mr. Will, com- prising five small roots, badly formed, the largest of which, weighing 1 pound 12 ounces, yielded a percentage of sugar, 8.14. I now proceed to note the results of the seed obtained by Mr. Graham from Ham- burg, and which had been distributed as already noted. There were three kinds in aU. No. 1. — Genuine white small Wanzlebenel imperial. No. 2. — Deppe's pure white improved Silesian imperial. No. 3. — Extra saccharine red-top imperial. In the following notes I will simply call these varieties by their respective num- bers, 1, 2, and 3. On the 10th March I received three roots, one of each variety, from Mr. R. Watson, Pukerimu. No. 1, weight, 13 ounces; percentage of sugar, 13.57. No. 2, weight, 1 pound 1 ounce, and No. 3 (weight, 12 onnces), I treated in the aggregate, with the result of 15 per cent, of sugar, this being the highest value obtained. On the 2d of April I received a parcel of five roots from Mr. E. B. Walker, Cam- bridge, the weights of which were between 1 pound 1 ounce and 1 pound 15 ounces and were of the three varieties, Hut without anythiiig to distinguish them. These I treated in the aggregate with the result of 13.57 per cent, of sugar. Taking the best proportioned root of the parcel, weight, 1 pound 10 ounces, I found it to contain 15 per cent, of sugar. On the 10th August I received samples of the three kinds of root already named from Mr. T. Goodlellow, Alexandria, which gave the following results : No. 1, weight, li pounds ; percentage of sugar, 12.66. No. 2, weight, li pounds ; percentage of sugar, 11.40. No. 3, weight, 2J pounds; percentage of sugar, 9.H2. These roots arrived with the crowns removed. I had, therefore, no opportunity of observing whether there had been any late growth of leaves, but from the freshness of the roots and the results above quoted, I should think they had been left in the ground, and not dug up at maturity and stored. 562 BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. I have now given the results of the examination of roots grown in the different parts of the Waikato, and will not unnecessarily multiply the details for yon, but take as a last experiment the result of analysis of roots grown upon Mr. Graham's estate at Tamahere, It was my desire to examine these roots while they grew, and, if possible, to note the time at which they became matured, and ffa that account, the crop having been sown late, I received samples of the three varieties on the 8th February, result- ing as follows: No. 1, weight, 1 pound 1 ounce; percentage of sugar, 8.90. No. 2,' weight, 1 pound 6 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 7.50. No. 3, weight, 3 ounces ; per- centage of sugar, 8.S8. These roots were immature, and consequently the results were low. On the 26th March I received another parcel of the three kinds from the same estate, yielding as follows : No. 1, weight, 1 pound 2 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 10.55. No. 2, weight, 2 pounds ; percentage of sugar, 11.87. No. 3, weight, 1 pound 7 ounces; percentage of sugar, 11.17. On the 7th of May I visited the ground and chose samples of the three varieties which were still in the ground, rather overgrown with weeds and certainly having been left too long in the earth, the leaves still growing vigorously, the result no doubt of the late rains .which had then been falling. Still they were fine roots, averaging from 1 to 3 pounds. They had been planted too far apart, and much space had been lost and room given for weeds to accumulate in. Being rather pressed for time I was unable to make a separate examination of these roots, and therefore I treated them in the aggregate with a result of 12.79 per ceut. of sugar. Finally, on the 29th August, I received samples of each variety fresh from the ground where they had still been allowed to remain, though fully 4 months had elapsed since they had reached maturity. These roots had been growing vigorously, a large crop of young leaves shooting up at the expense of the sugar stored up in the root. The result of the analyses, though low, has surprised me at the amount even yet left in the roots. No. 1, weight, 2 pounds 9 ounces; percentage of sugar, 7,42. No. 2, weight, 2 pounds 4 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 6.47. No. 3, weight, 3 pounds 5 ounces ; per- centage of sugar, 8.65. Three of this parcel of roots were fowarded by Mr. Graham to Dr. Hector, Wel- lington, for analysis, with the result appended. • Results of analysis. — Three roots of sugar beet for sugar. Received 13th Septem- ber, reported on 23d September, 1881 : No. 1, weight, 1 pound 2 ounces ; sugar per cent., 8.42. No. 2, weight, 1 pound 10 ounces ; sugar per cent., 8.01. No. 3, weight, 2 pounds 10 ounces ; sugar per cent., 6.94. These are fairly good yields. W. Skey. In reference to the methods of analysis and the sampling of the roots, I may remark that in every ease, to insure a true average, I have punctured the root from crown to apex, taking the core for purposes of analysis, as it is a well-known fact that the sugar is not found in equal proportions throughout, the root being richer in sug.ir in the lower than in the upper portion. Having thus obtained a fair average of the root, I have accurately weighed and then pulped the assay portion in a mortar with distilled water, and inverted the sugar in the ordinary manner with dilute sulphuriaacid, making my (luantity up to a known amount, from which I have chnigod the burette in the ordinary way. • Fearful of the conversion of the woody fiber into glucose, and a consequent false increase of the results, I have frequently checked this process by filtering oft' the dif- fused juice from the pulp, well washing the latter, and then inverting the sugar i-on- tained, but in nil these cases the pulp still retains a .small amouut of saccharine matter, but the differonoo between these two methods is so small as not to cause much disparity, and here 1 will give one oxperimeut to show the dift'ereuco. A root BEET AND CANR SU6AE IN NEW ZEALAND. 563 of tlip rod-top imperial wcigliiiig 24 poniuls was takon, and two cores from tlio puncture tube fairly c-lioseu, to the wiiif^lit of vi grams eaeli, pulped, aud tUe ouc iuverted witli tbo pnlp, the second lilteiuil, tbo pulp washed and the filtrate inverted, the percentages of sugar being 9.bi in the first portion and 9.50 in the second. The difference I attribute to the sugar still left in the pnlp. The methods by which I have determined the percentages of sugar have been with Feliling's copper solution and Knapp's mercuiic cyanide solution, both volumetric analyses, the former being in my opinion the most accurate. To insure precision, I have frequently inverted pure anhydrous cane sugar, and estimated my standard solutions with itr, and there- fore feel justified in saying that the analyses given by me in this paper are reliable. In addition to the chemical analysis we have the specific gravity, this being a very reliable guide to the value of sugar present, and this I have obtained after expression of the juice on several occasions by means of the balance. Before concluding this portion of my paper on the chemical manipulations it will be interesting in a few cases to note the relative proportions between the chemical values and the speoiflo gravities. ^ The root already mentioned as having been received from Mr. Walker, Cambridge, and which I estimated to contain 1.5 per cent, of sugar, was grated until it had lost weight equal to 200 grams, the juice from which being expressed equaled ViS cubic centimeters added water to the pnlp and macerated, pressed to near dryness and made up the amount with v^•ater 200 cubic centimetres. Found the specific gravity of the pure juice before adding water to be 1.08087, and the percentage, of cane sugar in the 200 centimeters to be 14.35, the difference being the amount of sugar still re- tained by the pnlp. Again a root from Mr. O'Neil was grated, 1 pound of which yielded 14^ ounces weight of juice and IJ ounces pulp. The specific gravity equaled 1.0528 and the percentage of sugar in the juice was 11.4. One more experiment I will give, that of a root weighing 2 pounds, of which 14 ounces was grated, yielding 12 ounces juice and 2 ounces pulp, the specific gravity of the jnice being 1.0653 and the percentage of sugar present 14.25. There is one point in connection with this subject which deserves more than a pass- ing notice, and that is in reference to the presence of chlorides, and especially that of chloride of sodium — common salt— this being so detrimental as to result in a loss of 5 per cent, of sugar for every 1 per cent, of the salt. When making my examina- tion for sugar I have also tested for the presence of chlorine, but only to find a trace in any of the Waikato beet roots, with the exception of those now before you, which, having been left in the ground at least 4 months too long, are heavily charged with chlorides. One interesting feature is the absence, beyond a trace, of chlorides in the roots received from Raglan, already mentioned, and this though grown in the vicinity of the sea. I may state thai, I have not estimated the amount of chlorides, but simply as a qualitative test. The distribution of the seed in the Waikato alone was in consequence of its distance from the sea aud the very favorable situation and comparative absence of chloride of sodium from the pumice soil, but its cultivation in other portions of the Auckland district fairly deserves a trial. The great objection to the presence of salt, either from the proximity to sea air, fertilization of the ground with it, or from an abnormal amount being naturally pres- ent, is owing to the impossibility of freeing the sugar from this substance, and in con'sequence°the estimation of the chlorides is only second in importance to that of the sugar present. So inimical is this salt that M. Baruchson says: "In some in- stances the undue proportion of this salt in sugar has nearly rendered the sng.ir un- salable ; and so generally is this recognized abroad, especially in Germany, that the manufacturers in contracting with the growers of the root stipulate that it shall not bo grown on certain soils, and often even name the manure which shall be used." It is owiu"- to this substance and the want of sufficient care in eliminating the molasses that beet sugar at one time was strongly objected to on account of the taste, aud even 564 BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. here I have heard complaints of (he same character. On this subject Grant, in his Beet Koot Sugar, remarks: "There was formerly a prejudice in the minds of many I)eople against beet sugar ; but it is perfectly well ascertained that, if properly refined, it can not be distinguished from the best sugar of sugar cane, either, by taste, appear- ance, or chemical analysis; the two are identical." Again, on page 24, he remarks: "The cost of producing from the beet'a pure white sugar, entirely free from unpleas- ant smell or taste, is but a trifle more than is required to produce a low grade. In Germany refined loaf sugar is produced directly from the beet. In France the brown is first produced and then refined. Within the last two years, however, sugar has been produced of such purity and whiteness that it has been sold directly for con- sumption without refining; and there is no question that the peculiar odoi of the beet may be entirely got rid of in the manufactory." I will quote one more aulhority on this subject, and that one of the highest we could have. I allude to Crookes, who says in his work Manufacture of Beet-Root Sugar : " Crystallized beet-root sugar is perfectly identical in composition with cane sugar and is indistinguishable frorii it by the sight, the taste, or by chemical tests.'' t, Proceeding from the foregoing facts to summarize my results, I find that the value of sugar obtained from the whole of the roots examined by me last season under 3} pounds in weight is a percentage of 11.66, but this average includes the immature ones from Tamahere, made when they were but half-grown, and also these roots now before us, which, having remained in the earth so many months after coming to ma- turity, have deteriorated considerably. If then we exclude these, the average result of the rest shows a percentage of 12.45 ; but, as some of the roots examined were prac- tically too small for manufacturing purposes, I propose to exclude all under 1 pound weight, and thus reduce the average to roots between one and three pounds weight, this being a useful size for manufacturing purposes, large enough to pass safely through the washing machine without being lost or clogging the bars, and yet not too large to materially reduce the percentage of sugar. By this exclusion the aver- age is 12.29, my highest being 15 and lowest 9.68. In arriving at these results, I do so after a series of experiments extending over the past seven mouths, in which time I have made upwards of 80 analyses and ex- amined more than 60 beet roots grown in different parts of the Waikato, many of them raised under very unfavorable conditions; some I found overrun with weeds, of others cattle had destroyed the leaves, while the majority were planted too far- apart, and in almost all cases not sufficiently earthed-up, in consequence of which a portion of the sugar coutaiued in the root, exposed to sun and air, becomes converted into other substances. Yet, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the average of all the analyses made by me, with the exception of one root weighing over five pounds, was 11.66, while the exclusion of those which would under no circumstances be per- mitted to enter a sugar factory brought up the total to 12.45, an average return so favorable that it would result in a very large profit were it achieved in the countries where beet-sugar factories are established. That these results are not exceptional is, I think, shown by the wide area over which I have obtained my supplies for examination ; and that it will be fully equaled on the large scale is shown by the unskilled manner in which some of these roots were planted and tended, and also by the request, which in m.iny instances was ad- hered to, that no manure should be used. So far from this, I feel convinced that, with due attention, proper cultivation, and suitable manuring, a higher percentage will be obtained than from those which the past season's growth has furnished us with ; and, should a factory be established for the conversion of beet sugar, I lielieve the true economy of procedure would be iu the purchase of routs at a fixed rate per ton, with an additional schedule price for every degree of sugar above a minimum, a practice which works beneficially amongst some of the German factories; especially would this be the casn in the colonics, where the higher price of labor would natu- rally load us to seek for the maximum oT sugar from a miuimum of root. It is not BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. 565 within the scope of this paper to dilate upon tlio value to this district should such au industry find a home amongst us, but the benefits would be so great and varied, while the returns which I have now brought before you give so large a promise of success, that I hope the early future may find such an establishment situated where it would be most profitably worked — in the center of the Waikato district — where soil, temperature, and the absence of sea air proclaim its fitness for the growth of the beet. 1 PEODUCTION OF BEET STJGAK IN VAEIOUS COUNTRIES. The increase of the production of beet-root sugar in various parts of the world has led many to believe that it will eventually supersede sugar made from cane. Some idea of the growth and extent of the industry can be formed from the latest estimated production of beet root in the various coun- tries of Europe for this season as compared with the actual output of the two previous seasons : Conn tries. 1884-'85. 1883-'84. 1882-'83. France Germany Anstria KuHsia Belgium other con D tries Total Tone. 430, 000 ., IOC, 000 525, 000 340, 000 105, 000 SO, 000 Tons. 4,75, 000 985, 000 445, 000 310, 000 105, 000 40, 000 Tons. 423, 194 848, 124 473, 002 234, 401 82, 723 35, 00« 2, 550, 000 2, 360, 000 2, 146, 634 In 1878 the total production of all the countries in the world was 1,101,141 tons, which, as will be seen from the preceding table, is less than one-half of the amount of 1884. In 1881 the output was 1,860,974 tons, in 1880 it was 1,403,929 tons, and in 1879 it was 1,574,153 tons. It will be seen from Mr. Pond's paper that he quotes from Grant's works on Beet-Eoot Sugar to prove that the peculiar odor of the beet may be got rid of in the process of manu- facture and that there is no difference between sugar made from the beet root and that made from the cane. Grooke's work is also cited to establish the fact that the two sugars are essentially the same. It should, nevertheless, be borne in mind that sugar cane is much richer in saccharine matter than the beet root. I am very well aware that within the last few years the methods of manufacturing sugar from the beet have been greatly improved, but I am also aware that improve- ments of equal or greater value have been applied to the manufacture of sugar from the cane. BEET vs. CANE SUGAR. Much stress is laid on the fact that the Improved systems of modern agriculture have very greatly raised the yield of beet-root crops, but it is none the less true that the same systems of agriculture have increased in quite as high a degree the yield of the crops of sugar cane, Mr. 566 BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. Steel, the analyst of the 'Sew Zealand Sugar Company, who has ren- dered me much valuable aid in the preparation of several reports for the Department of State at Washington on the sugar trade of this colony, has taken great pains to explain to me that, while cane crystal- lizable sugar is identical in all its properties whether derived from the sugar cane or beet root or from any other source, there are other circumstances which must be considered besides the mere identity of this substance when derived from different sources. For instance, I have leatned from him that, associated with the crystallizable sugar, which is the sweetening element, there are naturally present in all sugar- producing plants other bodies which vary greatly in nature and amount in different plants, and which are more or less difficult to separate from the sugar according to their nature. In the juice of the sugar cane the organic and inorganic impurities are exceedingly small in quantity and not of a nature to impart an ob- jectionable flavor to the sugar; they are moreover comparatively easy of removal. In the beet root the opposite is the case. Here we have to deal with organic and saline impurities in very much greater proportion than is the case with the cane, and these impurities all accounts agree, have a most tenacious and objectionable flavor and smell. The amount of crop got from an acre of land is much greater in the case of cane than of beet. In G-ermany the yield of cleaned beets per acre may be fairly stated at from 10 to 12 tons. In Queensland and New South Wales the yield of cleaned cane, ready for crushing, is about 30 tons l^er acre at a low estimate for one-year-old cane, and for two-year-old it may be safely taken at from 50 to 60 tons. Here the cane has a de- cided advantage, even when we do not consider that it requires much less attention during its growth than the beet root. Again, as I have previously mentioned, the amount of sugar contained in the cane is greater than that present in the beet. From 11 to 13 per cent, is a fair allowance as to amount of sugar in the best beet root. In Australia the canes contain from 11 to 18 per cent, (generally about 14 or 16), ac- cording to the age and variety. Then, again, the beet crop has to be replanted after each harvest, while the sugar cane is habitually " ra- tooned" twice at least; that is, a second and third crop are obtained in succeeding seasons from the same old roots without any replanting. The pulp resulting from the extraction of sugar from the beet is util- ized as fodder for cattle. The begasse, the residue from the crushing of the cane, is in all modern and well-regulated sugar mills utilized as fuel, being burnt along with coal or wood in specially constructed furnaces. Of late considerable attention has been directed to the sub- ject of utilizing the begasse in paper making. The chief impediment to its .practical use is in the hard fiber from the joints of the canes, which is more difficult to pulp than that of the spaces between the joints. In reflniiin the v.ivf sugars produced iVom beet root and from cane the latter has important advantages over the former. BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. 567 While there is no difficulty in the way of refining and disposing of the higher grades of raw beetroot s-ugar, when it comes to workingupthe lower i)rodiicts the matter assumes quite a different aspect. The im- purities in this sugar consist of saline and organic bodies, having a most disagreeable taste and smell, and it is very generally admitted that these cannot be comi)letely separated from the lower grades in the process of refining, and consequently the refined product retains more or less of them ; besides, in working the lower grades of beet sugar, the accumuiulation of impurities renders it necessary to turn out theresi.dual sirups, and this is done in the form of golden sirup. It is also admitted that the products of the cane can be worked to an infinitely further extent in the refining than those of the beet without the necessity of turning out sirup. On the other hand, the golden airup produced from the residues of the refining of beet sugar has a most objectionable smell, and it is customary to mask this by the use of sulphuric acid, which gives a sharp, biting taste to the sirup. When cane-sugar resi- dues are worked up into golden sirup the product is sightly and palat- able, and of an entirely different flavor to that made from the beet sugar. While it is difiQcult to distinguish between the higher grades of the refined products of the beet and cane, the lower grades are very palpa- bly marked. The impurities in the two sugars, which differ so much in their properties, and which, as I have said previously, it is imprac- ticable to remove, are, in the case of the beet root, of a particularly per- sistent nature. Many contend that the sweetening power derived from the beet, and particularly in the lower grades, is inferior to that derived from the cane. It is not disputed that the sweetness is not there, for it is there in exact proportion to the amount of cane or crystallizable sugar present, but it is maintained that the sweetness is masked by the flavor of the impurities inherent to the beet sugar, and hence the in- ferior sweetening power. The Impurities, even in the very lowest qual- ities of cane sugar, are of quite a different nature, and do not tend to mask the intrinsic sweetening power of the sugar. If we taste a little of the lower grades of raw beet sugar we find that it has little or none of the characteristic flavor or sweetness of sugar, but possesses a very disagreeable, sickly, saline, oily taste. On the other hand, the lowest black "takas" or " concrete " sugars from the cane have always the strong sweet taste. In a modified degree this is precisely the difference between the refined products of the two sugars. The advocates of the cane sugar industry state that the wasteful methods of extraction which have always been applied to the sugar cane have given the beet root, with the fostering care besowed upon it as an industry, a temporary advantage over its naturally more favored rival, and they confidently believe that it is only a matter of time when the cane will reassume its old position as the principal source of sugar. There is, however, one point in favor of the beet root which I have not mentioned, and that is the possibility of cultivating it in climates tQO sold for the sugar cane. 568 BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. I am iudebtecl to Mr. Steel for the following valuable tables showing the analyses of various kinds of representative raw sugars, including beet-root sugars, Australian-cane sugars, Fiji sugars, and sugars from Java, Formosa, and Tokyo, and the analyses of refiued sugars, sirups, molasses, etc. These tables were prepared by Mr. Steel while employed in the refinery in this city and in various refineries in Europe, and have never hitherto been published. Analyses! of raw and refined sugars, eto. BEET-KOOT S0GAK. Crystallizable au^ar ... other organic matters. Ash {.saline matters) .. Water Net titre . 96.00 1.31 1.19 1.60 100.00 95.00 1.10 1.15 2.95 100. 00 89.25 94.00 1.32 1.17 3.60 100. 00 94.00 1.71 1.39 2.90 100. 00 87.05 93.60 1.41 1.64 3.35 100. 00 91.20 2.27 2.23 4.30 100. 00 80.05 90.50 2.50 2.45 4.55 100. 00 Crystallizable sugar . . Other organic njatters. Ash (.saline matters) .. Water Net titre . 92.00 2.21 2.99 2.80 100. 00 77.05 91.00 2.66 3.04 3.30 88.40 2.84 3.11 5.65 100. 00 100.00 75.80 72.85 88.50 3.24 4.01 4.25 100. 00 86.00 3.39 4.06 6.55 100.00 86.00 3.43 4.32 6.25 100. 00 64.40 86.60 3.20 4.75 5.45 100. 00 62.85 BEETEOOT SUGARS CONTAINING FRUIT SUGAE. Crystallizable sugar — Fmit sugar Other organic matters . Ash (salme matters) .. Water 89.20 88.20 1.82 2.15 2.20 2.45 2.43 2.60 4.35 4.60 87.60 1.97 3.29 2.74 4.50 CANE SUGARS. Australian sugars. Crystallizable engar — Fruit sugar Other organic matters . Ash (saline maters) — Sand Water 96.20 1.16 .76 96.50 1.90 .75 93.70 1.17 1.72 1.18 92.00 2.08 2.09 1.69 90.60 3.81 1.48 1.39 89.50 4.12 1.74 1.53 s:. 20 5.88 4.53 2.75 Not titre . 1.19 1.73 2.14 2.81 3.11 100. 00 91.44 100. 00 90.30 100. 00 80.29 100. 00 "77.73" 4.64 100. 00 62.67 Crystallizable sugar .. Fruit sugar Other organic matter . Ash (saline matters) . . Sanrt Water Net titre . Fiji sugars. 95.90 1.12 1.01 .34 .01 1.59 100. 00 03.08 02.40 2.63 1.43 .67 .03 2.84 100. 00 89. 70 3.29 l.kO 1.14 .05 3.02 1110.00 8l>. 71 87.30 3.60 2.80 1.28 .05 4,88 100. 00 77. 21 Java sugars. 97.20 .85 .85 .21 .06 100.00 95. :io 95.10 1.75 1.16 .33 .07 1. m 91.70 94.50 2,45 .97 .33 .07 1.G8 100. 00 92.30 3.63 1.15 .40 .13 2.39 100.00 86.07 BEET AND CANE SUGAR IN NEW ZEALAND. 569 CHINA SUGARS. Formosa sugars. llo-IIo. Takao sugars. Oryatallizablo sujjar. . . Fruit sugar Otber organic matters . Asli (saline mators) . . . Saml Water 80.00 7.13 2.84 2.18 .30 7.66 100. 00 Net titre . 61.97 80.00 7.38 3.97 2.66 .14 6.85 100. 00 59.32 70.70 e. 50 5.93 2.68 .20 6.93 82.10 6.29 4.47 2.30 .24 4.60 80.00 7.02 4.04 1.42 .09 0.83 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 54.74 66.48 78.60 5.69 5.11 2.59 .48 7.93 100. 00 61.36 76.30 2.26 3.47 2.79 .20 8.93 100. 00 54.09 EEFINED SUGAES. Loaf sugar. First white. First counters. Yellow. Crystallizable sugar. Fruit sugar Other organic mat- 99.50 .10 .14 .02 .24 99.30 .16 .20 .02 .32 98.20 .47 .12 .04 1.17 97.70 .57 .35 .05 1.33 96.20 1.05, .49 .12 2.14 94.10 2.57 .83 .31 2.19 93.30 3.10 .53 .38 2.69 87.70 6.34 1.38 1.00 3.58 85.60 8.10 1.45 1.28 3.57 85.40 7.85 1.67 Asli (salineraatters). 1.17 3.91 100. OO 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 SIRUP AND MOLASSES. Golden sirup. Haw beet molasses. Raw cane molasses. Crystallizable sugar. . Fruit sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters). Water 39.50 28.57 9.61 5.27 17.05 100. 00 27.80 35.71 13.55 5.47 17.45 48.80 .54 23.22 10.94 16.50 61.14 7.54 14.18 100. 00 100. 00 100. OO 46.02 12.93 10.34 11.36 19.35 100. 00 Before studying the preceding tables it is well enough to explain that crystallizable sugar is the body to which the sugar owes its sweetness. It is known by various other names, such as sucrose, cane sugar, etc. Fruit sugar is glucose or uncrystallizable sugar. The net titre is the Tiheoretical amouut of pure loaf sugar which would be obtained were the sugar refined up entirely into loaf sugar and sirup. It is merely, however, an empirical figure, and its use is solely for comparative pur- poses, for which it is of great value. It is based on the assumption that each 1 part of ash prevents 5 parts of crystallizable sugar from crystal- lizing, holding it in solution as sirup; and that each 1 part of fruit sugar has the crystallization of its own weight of cane sugar. Therefore, to find the net titre or theoretical available percentage of sugar in any sample, we multiply the ash by 5, add on the fruit sugar, and deduct the total from the crystallizable or cane sugar; the result is the net titre. On the examination of the table of analyses it will be seen that cane sugar is superior to the product of the beet in net titre. Thus, a cane sugar containing 90.60 per cent, of crystallizable sugar has a net titre 77a- — 13 570 SUGAR IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES. of 80.29 per cent., while a beet-root sugar has a net titre of 80.05 per cent. This holds good throughout the whole series. These analyses of beet-root sugar, Mr. Steel informs me, are fair representatives of the sugar of this class imported to the Greenock refineries. The analyses of cane sugars will give an idea of the composition of the sugar from the main sugar-producing districts imported into Australia. The re- fined sugars are average iiroducts of a refinery working cane sugar. The golden sirup was made in a refinery in Greenock, working a mixture of beet and cane sugars. The composition of the molasses from the beet and cane factories varies exceedingly according to the system of work- ing. Beet-root sugar seldom contains any fruit sugar. G. W. Griffin, Consul. United States Consulate, AucTcland, December 1, 1884. SUGAR IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Importe and exports of sugar into and from the United States during the fiscal year 1890. [Commerce and Navigation for tlie year 1890— Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department] IMPORTS— DUl'IABLE. ' Countries from whicli imported. Molasses. Sugar, Dutch standard in color (not above Nfl. 13, and tank bottoms, sirups, melada, etc.). ' Beet sugar. Cane, and other. Qallons. Poxtnds. 60,591,333 19, 329, 390 $1,577,244 498, 868 Fmmdi. 73, 800, 070 ,^83 934 1, 876, 450 606, 644 13, 642, 707 729, 092 4, 074, 460 2,411,584 23, 587, 254 22, 400 1, 556, 238 717,086 192 291,306,725 135, 971, 015 391, 144 29, 367 10, 002, 44,"! 747, 012 $1,659,251- 24,331 69,846 15, 407 474, 893 23,935 124, 248 6.\ T94 763,889 546 55,828 48,328 Central American States : Guatemala Cliina 78, 244 34 $11, 371 53 France 844, 936 21, 019 612, 009, 173 5, 968, 944 16, 031, 431 167, 104 268 78 Scotland Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, and Prince Edward 86,648 9,983 23, 687 2,226 Qaebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and the Northwest Terri- tory British Columbia British West Indies 2, 119, 049 7,213 320,430 834 8,589,677 4, 32.3, 703 11,456 681 381, 898 27,015 British Guiana Hong-Kon^ 14 1 British possessions in Af- 7 6 Nothorlands 2, 385, 080 62,761 Dutch Gniana 73,863 7,680 3,422,571 111,929,287 47,033,940 103,691 2,722,320 1,715,361 Dutch East Indies San Domingo 400 96 Spain Cuba 24, !HH,292 4, 1110,368 IS, .115 3, 079, 076 1,110,473 3,400 1 1, 011, 072, 929 76, 926, 934 259, 77.5, 540 3,'i,420,4ll 2,760,774 6,814,387 Porto Rico Philippine Islands Turkey in Europe Venezuela 218 5 Total 81, 41.'-., 800 6, 15n,481 001,119,470 18, 348, 417 2, 108, 218, 158 66,187,726 SUGAR IMPORTS AND RXPOKTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 571 FKOM THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS— TREE OV DUTY. Molaxses SuKar, brown . All other Quantity. Oallons. 81,443 224,457,011 Value. $9, 314 11, 549, 828 861 EXPORTS. Countries to whioli exported. Argentine Bepublio Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil Central Anierioan States : Costa EicB Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Salvador .-- Chile China Colombia Denmark Danish West Indies .'-- Ecuador France - French West Indies French Guiana Miqnelon, Langley, Saint Pierre Islands.. •-: • French .possessions in Africa and ' adjacent islands French possessions in Oceanica... Germany nd. Molasses and sirup. Oallons. 60 27,090 S3 2, 027 Bnglani Scotland Ireland :■,--■••;' Jf oviB Scotia, New Brunswick, and Ptince Edward Island Quebec, Ontsrio, Manitoba, and Northwest Territory British Columbia K^fonndland and La.bra*lor British West Indies British Guiana ., British Honduras British East Indies ;Hione-Kong • - British. •possessions in Afnca and ' ' adjacent islands -,- . ■ British possessions in Australasia. British possessions, all other Hawaiian Islands Haiti Italy:... 'Japan ■ IilDeria Mexico Netherlands Dutch West Indies Peru Portugal ■ - ■ ■ ^- • ■; • Azore, Madeira, and Cape Verde , Islands vu.- :;"„-• ■ ■Russia on the Baltic andWhite Seas San Domingo Cuba.. • •Porto Rico - ■ - Spanish possessions in Africa and '.. a^aeent islands 'Sweden and Norway , •Urugveiy - ■ ■Venezuela :-■ All other countries and ports in /^Africa AH other islands and ports 272, 116 2, 670, 800 2, 013, 602 82, 159 14, 990 222, 719 28, S63 1,280 276 Total . 334 183, 438 100 66, 147 388, 790 275, 190 ,395 42. 649 8,698 276 97 360 030 11, 030 440 1,340 10 261 3,054 20,619 40 20 329, 614 300 28 478 201 220 37,4S6 2,185 Sugar, brown. PouTids. 28, 764 8,120 16, 165 45, 931 10, 856 675 1,702 164 362 2,079 140 299 7 123 486 3,496 10 76, 176 6, 034, 868 936, 233 82, 000 "i,"788 5,020 1,000 $1, 880 480 967 2,743 40 180 4,612 127 sio 90 448 207, 467 Sugar, refined. Candy and confec- tionery. Pounds, 347 8,491 155, 158 34, 576 208, 204 304, 419 532 1, 263, 415 9,438 1, 816, 928 16, 115 305, 854 2,785 760 10, 169 59, 634 450, 538 2,803 316, 980 147, 353 5, 688, 627 1, 502, 394 1^2, 691 311,550 169, 275 256, 276 1, 713, O90 2,422 96, 208 4|968 3,910 425, 063 7, 097, 629 1, 280, 819 1, 665, 188 .'lOO 186, 317 36, 035 541, 481 69, 769 145, 343 $25 600 11,617 2,546 15, 757 22, 004 44 87, 947 803 141, 929 1,302 22, 601 213 54 768 4,329 28, 138 116 23, 272 9,984 368, 574 105, 648 12, 129 14, 394 10, 628 16,885 136, 417 205 7,062 417 265 33, 619 487, 000 4,041 242, 704 251, 655 1,229 10, 921 2,415 5,070 1,455 3,050 2, 428 12,518 27,018,002 91,833 129, 714 40 14, S80 2,656 41,464 6,493 11,317 16, 786 19, 098 110 4?0 121 209 166 1,901,386 P:ART II. FLAX OULTIVATIOK 573 FLAX CULTIVATION. THE FLAX INDUSTRY OF RUSSIA. REPORT OF aONSULQENEBAL CRAWFORD, OF ST. PETERSBVBO. ANTIQUITY OP FLAX AND LINEN. The cultivation of flaxseed in Europe, and the spinning and weaving, by the most primitive means, of flue linen would seem to antedate his- tory. As far back as the Stone Age the inhabitants of Switzerland and of Lombardy, living in huts and feeding upon roots and acorns, were familiar in a crude way with this industry. It is in evidence also that before the appearance of the Aryans west of the Ural Mountains the Finns cultivated flax to a considerable degree in the north of Europe. Historical memoirs prove that the ancient Hindoos and Egyp- tians produced flax, the former for its seed, the latter, about 5,000 years ago, for its thread. The Egyptian linen must have reached a very high degree of perfec tion, as Herodotus, in enumerating the presents made to the Emperor Amasis, of Athens, speaks of garments made of flax a single thread of which consisted of three hundred and sixty finer threads. According to Pliny, Tacitus, and other Roman authors, the cultivation of flax flourished in northern Italy, Gaul, Germany, and with the ancient Finns, and more especially with the Celts early settled in Ireland. The history of the flax industry in Russia dates from the discovery of the country. In his " Life of Theodore Petchersky" Nestor states * that the monks produced oil from flaxseed, and made for themselves a "strong" linen from the filaments of the stalks. The importance of flax among the early Lithuanians is evidenced by the fact that in their mythology they worshiped a special deity who presided over this in- dustry. Peter the Great interested himself largely in furthering the cultiva- tion of flax in Russia. In a ukase December 13, 1715, he ordered that in all the provinces the peasants should plow an increased acreage each year to be sown with flax and hemp. As early as the first half of the present century the cultivation of flax occupied a considerable acreage in Russia, which has gradually increased to the present day, as shiowu by the fact that notwithstanding the in- 575 676 FLAX CULTIVATION IN EUSSIA. creased consumption atliome, the exportation of flax increased from 43,942 tons in 1824 to 70,333 tons iu tlie year 1848, But the emancipation of serfs in Russia gave the greatest impetus to this industry. Although this event obliged many proprietors to abandon large portions of arable land, much of which had been sown with flax, still many of the freed peas- ants willingly undertook to till the lands abandoned by the proprietors as well as to open up new fields to this branch of agriculture, also to increase the acreage of land sown with flax in the provinces of Pskofv, Smolensk, Tver, Kostroma, and some others. In 1881, according to information published by the central bureau of statistics, in Russia in Europe, excepting the Polish provinces and Finland, there were 3,776,287 acres under flax, and divided as follows: 2,668,550 acres belonged to the peasants, 1,107,737 acres belonged to proprietors. It IS very difficult to state the exact acreage of land sown with flax belonging to the peasants, because it is dispersed over all the empire; but the figures given above must be considered as underestimated. Concerning the different acreages sown with flax for the last 7 years, it must be said that no definite information exists, inasmuch as that obtained by the central statistical committee in 1886 has not yet been published, but from tlie data given tothe Imperial Agricultural Depart- ment by proprietors we may conclude that until 1884, thanks to the high price of wheat, the cultivation of flax in many districts decreased, whereas in the last 2 or 3 years it has again increased and the cultiva- tion of flax is once more one of the most lucrative products of Russian agriculture, especially as this product has not suffered any decline in ^prices. On this account the flax producers of the Baltic provinces Lave taken this industry up again. In many other places the same move- ment has been noticed, so that it is proper to suppose that at the present time the acreage sown under flax is considerably larger than that ot 1881. In the district of Gjatsk, province of Smolensk, for example, twice as much land was sown to flax in 188S as in the previous year. FLAX CROP OF 1888. The general crop of flaxseed in the black soil provinces was satisfac- tory; the east of Russia, and especially the provinces of Orenburg, Oufa, Samara, and Saratoflf were an exception, where this crop was as unsatisfactory as that of spring wheat, and for a similar reason. In the common-soil provinces of Russia this crop was above the average in the western provinces excepting that of Vitebsk, and it ap- proached the average in the Baltic provinces, as well as those of the north and nothwest. In some places of the industrial provinces flax- seed was completely destroyed by a species of butterfly, and therefore the crop was unsatisfactory. In the central Volga provinces and the trans-Volga forest lands the crop was also below the av( rage. FLAX CULTIVATION IN EUSSIA. 677 Statement showing the flaxseed cropper deciatine (2.7 acres) in the Uaok-aoil and common- soil provinces for 1888 compared with that of the two pretnous years. Districts. BLACK-SOIL PKOVINCES. Southern sandy toil. Besarabia Oerson Tauride Eoathfirinoslaw Don district Central black-toil provineet. Poltava Khariiow VoroneJ Southweetem provinces. Kleff Poflolia Voiilonya ; Nortliern black soil, SToarsk Tebernigow Orloff TambofF Toula Kiazan JPenza Hastem and soutlieastern. KsLSboa Simbirsk. . . Saratoff.... Samara Onfa Orenburg .. :&.strakhan. COMMON-SOIL PROVINCES. Industrial provinces. ^osoow -. Tver [Vladimir . ^aroslaw . Kuolensk . ^aloiiga.. Western provinces. Ventral Volga and trans-Volga forest land. Sloni-No-vgorod Ipstroma ^tka feim Northwestern. ftC'Petersbnrg hkoS Hovgorod^ Baltic provinces. ponrland Mfiand Bastland....; Iforthcm. jVologda Olonets A.rchangel. Average crop. Proprietors. 18ee. Sushels. 17i 291 5J 27 43i 38^ B2i "22' 1887. *2i 27i 27 3»i 36 26| 29 21i 27J 23 31 Hi 21i 20i 17i 17i 13J 18 19i Hi 13i 11 13 13} 174 16 16i m 13i 13i Bushels. 26 19 19 23 16i 22i 12i 22 27 17 22 27 24 20 21 21 204 17i 14 14i H 6i 13 12 10 12 9 16 15J 16 i2i 7 114 141 124 6i 94 20 144 134 lOi 14S 14i 1888. Bushels. 18 9i 13 4 8i 174 16 204 11 19 16 16 213 134 244 18} 18i 16J 224 16J 16 134 19i 13 13 114 16 18 14} 7} 9| 141 154 18 114 m 12i 12i 6 11 19 14 lOi 11 Peasants. 1886. Bushels. 13 19} 6 43 30} 19} 1887. 27} 32i 274 25} 20} 24J 24 24 14} 32 17 17} 17 19} 19} 11 134 7} 114 19} 16 24} 134 7 14} 12} 14 154 Bushels. 27 20 16 19 15 'I' 174 29} 16} 23 21 20 18 20 18} 164 12 18 144 10} H 84 8 74 7 12 8i 154 134 9} 19} 14 174 10} 7 94 11 114 7} 9} 16} 104 12} lOi 8} 114 1888. Bushels. 12} 11 4 578 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. As no average is given for the Polish provinces, I therefore infer that flax was only produced in the provinces of Kalisch and Souvalsk, where it rendered 36 pounds per acre with the proprietors and C6 English pounds with the peasants. The total yield of flaxseed in 1888. DistrictH. Quantitica. Diatrlota. Quantities. BLACK-SOII, PEOVINOBB. South gandy lands. Beaarabia Kherson Tauxide Ecatherinoslaw Don district '. Total Central. Poltava Kharkow ^ Voroney Total Southwestern. Kieff.... Podolia Volhynia Total Iforthern. Konrsk ^ ...... Tchernigow Orel Tamboff Tonla Hiazan Penza Total Eastern and southeastern. Kazan Simbirsk SaratofT Samara Oufa Orenburg Astrakhan Total Total in black -soil provinces COMMON-SOIL PEOVINCES. Industrial. Moscow Tver Vladimir Bwihels. 351, 551 1, 204, 839 699, 452 1, 205, 630 1, 758, 676 5, 223, 151 645, 459 313, 172 570, 260 1, 528, 891 31, 142 8,830 136, 259 176, 231 17, 362 189, 727 95, 850 962, 210 67, 425 251, 060 514, 016 2, 087, 650 278, 968 154, 866 466, 242 366, 972 164, 255 134, 071 36, 878 1, 602, 252 1, 618, 252 133, 708 380, 693 372, 880 COMMON-BOIL PROVINCES— continued. Industrial — Continued. Yaroslaw Smolensk Kalou^a ,.. Total Western. Kovna Vilna Vitebsk Grodno Minsk Mohiliew Total Central Volga and Transvolga. Nijui-Novgorod Kostroma Viatka Perm Total Northwestern. St. Petersburg Pskoff. Novgorxid Total Baltic. Courland LiHand Eastland , Total Northern, Vologda Olonets Archangel Total Total crop of common-soil provinces Total crop of Euasiau Empire ■ Sushels, 284, 076 401, 262 153, 135 1, 725, 751 782, 847 290, 509 330, 790 172, 597 300, 677 87, 696 1, 965, 007 370, 050 353,297 809, 587 469, 396 2, 001, 330 105, 107 475, 369 177, 103 757, 817, 161 201, 503 34, 373 1,053,037 228, 147 36, 604 18,290 281, 9tl 7, 7S4, 6(8 18, 402, 838 From the data obtained from the central statistical bureau, grouped in the following table, it will be seen that in the 50 provinces of Eussia in Europe, flax covered about 42 per cent, of the laud sown in the black- soil provinces, and about 60 per cent, of that of the common-soil prov- inces. Although the greatest part of laud sown to flax in the common- FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 579 soil provinces is sown by peasants upon lands ren ted by them from the proprietors, nevertheless, the peasants sow to flax 72 per cent, of their own lands in the black soil, and -.. 8.5 1,869,147 311, 196 2, 170, 343 4.6 0.0 18.6 3.2 0.0 19.0 5 so FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA, The reason why the ]ieasauts of the common soil provinces, rather than those of the black soil provinces, push the cultivation of flax may be summed up as follows : In the black soil provinces, where flax is generally cultivated for the seed, it requires virgin land or plowed fields which have remained idle for some time. This requisite is rarely to be found among the peas- ants, and it often happens that the flax crop is not more valuable than that of wheat or other cereals. On the other hand, in the common soil provinces, with the existing system enforced by the landowners, the cereal crops are generally so poor, that the peasants have difllculty in supporting their families, and therefore they are obliged to devote them- selves to other means of livelihood aud nothing is left more lucrative in agriculture than the cultivation of flax, especiallj' in the northern regions. Flax grown for the fiber is raised satisfactorily in ordinary plowed fields, but gives more abundant and a better quality offiber when sown in waste ground or ravines, having a rich surface soil, thus enabling the farmer to utilize lands not suited to the growth of cereals proper. Again, in cultivating flax seed, the principal expenses of the proprie- tor are the rental of land and the labor on the same — that is to say, the same category of expenses, and generally in the same proportion, as for the cultivation of cereals. The production of flax for the fiber, however, demands, besides the work in the fields, nearly five times as many working days to prepare the fiber properly as for the cultivation of the seed. A landowner of the province of Novgorod states that the cultivation of a deciatine (2.7 acres) of land requires 13 days labor with a horse and 45 days hand labor, and for the working of the fiber it takes 229 days hand labor. It is generally considered that each deciatine of land with an average crop of flax requires from 100 to 150 days of work, of which 25 to 35 are in the field and the remaining 75 to 115 in the prep- aration of the fiber. The flax industry requires great pains and hard work, and is there- fore less profitable to the proprietors than to the peasants, as it gives the latter occupation outside the field labor and during the winter sea- sou. Besides, to grow a good quality of flax-fiber, and to prepare and hatchel it properly, necessitates both patience and skill, so much so that the proprietors who have to hire their laborers often suffer great losses on this account. Therefore, many proprietors of the flax- growing provinces prefer to rent out their laud to the peasants for the cultivation of flax, reserving for themselves such laud only as can prof- itably be sown to cereals and potatoes. It often happens that a high price is paid for the rental of laud suitable for the cultivation of flax, exceeding in some cases the original value of the land. For instance, in the province of Pskov the average price for the rental of land is be- tween 25 and 60 rubles per deciatine, attaining even the price of 80 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 581 rubles per deciatiue and even higher in other localities of the Pskov and Ostrow districts, the average rental of flax land in these districts from 1870 to 1880 being about 33 rubles per deciatine. From the foregoing tables it is furthermore seen that the flax is cul- tivated in every province, but with varying degrees of success. Of the black-soil provinces, that of Koursk had only sown 716 deciatines under flax, and the amount of land sown with flax in the provinces of Podolia, Kiefl", Astrakhan, Toula, Orel, Volhynia, Simberia, and Oufa did not exceed 10,000 deciatines ; from 10,000 to 20,000 deciatines of land were sown to flax in the provinces of Tchernigow, Penza, Khar- kow, Riazan, Orenburg, Kazan, and Besarabia; about 40,000 decia- tines in the provinces of Vorony, Poltava, Samara, Saratoff, and Tam- bofif ; and lastly, more than 45,000 deciatines of land in the provinces of Tauride, Kherson, Ecatherinoslaw, and the Don districts. In gen- eral, the principal center of flax cultivation in the southern region of the Empire is restrained to the sandy and central black-soil provinces. The extension of this industry varies also very greatly in the provinces. Some districts do not cultivate flax at all, whereas in the neighboring district of the same province the cultivation of flax exceeds 10 per cent, of all the land sown. It appears that in the common soil provinces, there are only two dis- tricts where the flax industry is entirely wanting ; these are the dis- tricts of Archangel and Kemsk, situated on the coast of the Frozen Sea. The amount of land devoted to the cultivation of flax in the dis- tricts of Mezen and Onega, does not exceed 150 acres. The very small quantity of flax grown also in the districts of Povienetz, province of Olenets, in the vicinity of St. Petersburg and in several other places is explained by the fact that in these places the industry has neither an industrial value, nor are the laborers in these districts competent to satisfy the demands of the market as to quality. But in general, the cultivation of flax in the common soil provinces shows itself more evenly distributed than in the black soil provinces, where it is not cul- tivated for its fiber, which is so necessary to the peasants for making their linen and other necessary household articles, but for the seed, which is all exported. If the common soil provinces were grouped to show the relative amount of land sown to flax the provinces at the head of the list would be Pskoff and Lifland. More than a tenth of the arable land in these two provinces is devoted to flax, and in some districts it even amounts to 20 per cent, of the whole. There are some districts in the above- named provinces, as well as in those of Tver, Vladimir, Smolensk, and others, where all the spring fields are sown to flax. In the provinces of Jaroslaw, Kovno, Vitebsk, Vladimir, and Kostronia, the provinces of Tver, Vologda, Smolensk, Viatka, Olenets, St. Petersburg, Niji- Novgorod, and Oourland, the amount of flax cultivated is only six de- ciatines in a hundred and in some of the neighboring provinces, two 582 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. deciatines, while in the provinces of Eastland, Grodno, and Archangel one deciatine to the hundred is sown to iiax. The picture, however, presents itself somewhat differently if we ex- amine the figures of flax cultivation. In this case it appears that this cultivation is concentrated principally in two regions of the Empire, the first, being the eastern region, extending from Upper Volga to Upper Kama, embracing the provinces of Tver, Jaroslaw, Vladimir, Kostroma, Vologda, Niji-Novgorod, Viatka, and Perm, and including almost the half of all the land devoted to the cultivation of flax hi the common soil provinces of the Empire. The center of the other, the western region, is the province of Pskofif. To this region, besides the province of Pskoff, belong also those of Lifland, Vitebsk, Kovno, and Smolensk, and the proportion of flax land in these provinces is 24 per cent, of the entire arable fields. It therefore follows that in the remaining twelve out of the twenty-five common-soil provinces the proportion of land de- voted to the cultivation of flax is about 25 per cent., and this is devoted to the cultivation of flax fiber. In speaking of this industry in Eussia, it must also be said that flax is also grown in almost every province of the kingdom of Poland, although in most cases only in quantities sufficient to supply the home demand. In western Siberia the surface of land devoted to the cultivation of flax fiber is also considerable and the product finds a ready sale in St. Petersburg, whence it is exported to European markets. In the district of Turkistan'the large proprietors cultivate flax simply for the seed. Flaxseed is also the principal reason for which flax is sown in the Cau- casus, although in some places, in the district of Lenkoran, for iustance, the dolgounets-flax is sown, and an excellent fiber is produced. Lastly the amount of land sown to flax in Finland is about 13,550 acres. Thus, taking the whole Eussian Empire into consideration, it can be said that the cultivation of flax in Russia occupies about 4,150,000 acres. The data received by the Agricultural Department from proprietors relative to the flax crops for the last 7 years show excessively small figures. So that the flaxseed crop per deciatine (2.7 acres) for the average of 5 years, in the common soil provinces, is about IS bushels and iu the black soil provinces about 16 bushels. The crop of flax- seed is still less iu those regions where the principal object of the flax growing is the production of the fiber and therefore flax-dolgouuets (high-growing) is sown, which forms comparatively small heads, with seed, and is reaped before its complete maturity, whereas where flax is cultivated with the object obtaining the seeds a crop of 20 to 30 poods of seed per deciatine is -consideied unsatisfactory. The average crop of seed for 5 years in the south sandy lands varies from 10 to 21 poods per deciatine. It must be stated, however, that this region during the past years has suffered greatly from drought, a condition that affects flax-growing more seriously thiiu the cereal crops. The principal reason, however, of poor flax ci-ops must be attributed FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 583 to the fact that fresh or virgin land is uo longer to be found, and that soft natural earth, bearing from year to year the same crop, has lost in a considerable degree its productive qualities. The tables below show the average crop of seed to the deciatine, the general crop per province, per region, and for the whole Empire, with the exception of Poland ; the average local price of seed per pood, and the value of the total produce of flaxseed in Russia. The figures con- tained in these tables prove that of the total quantity of flaxseed pro- duced in Russia the common soil provinces produce 63 per cent., and the blacjc soil provinces 48 per cent. Besides this, the flaxseed grown in the south is principally oleaginous, and is valued in the interior markets, as well as in those of Europe, somewhat lower in price than seed received in most of the common soil provinces, although the latter is also destined for the mills, but its principal importance is as seed for the next year's crop. In reality, of 11^ bushels, which is the average crop per 2.7 acres of land in the common soil provinces, 40 per cent, is retained by the pro- prietors for Seed, and the portion which is exported is mostly purchased for seed by German and Belgian proprietors, who reap their own flax before the seed has ma,tnred. The local demand for flaxseed as seed is exceedingly large after a rainy summer, and likewise in the north- eastern region when an early autumn sets in. In general, the highest average local prices are given in the provinces of Olenets, Jaroslaw, Kostroma, Vladimir, and Pskoff, which finds its sale of flaxseed secured by all the flax-producing region of common soil provinces ; and lastly, the provinces of Gourland and Lifland, which also produce flax- seed of high quality, readily sold abroad. Good flaxseed for sowing purposes grown in the province of Pskoflf is highly esteemed, and brings from $3.10 to $3.90 per bushel. Thanks to all the data obtained it is seen that in the average for the period, 1882-1886, in the common soil provinces, 13 copecks more per pood of seed were paid than for the seed of the black soil provinces, and the total cost of seed produced exceeded the production of the black soil provinces by 3,279,158 poods, or more than 21 per cent. This calculation somewhat varies if the quantity of seed kept for the next year's crop is taken into consideration. In the black soil provinces the amount of seed sown on one deciatine of land differs, according to the localitj', from 2 to 10 poods, and on an average about 4 poods. In the common-soil provinces one estimates that from 4 to 10 poods and on an average 7 poods of seed are required per deciatine. Conse- quently the quantity of seed required in order to sow the whole land devoted to the production of flax is estimated to be 3,620,151 bushels in the common-soil provincesand 1,459,311 bushels in the black-soil prov- inces ; the quantity of seed which therefore remains for sale in the first-named provinces is 6,307,107 bushels, valued $6,388,809, and in the ^ecoud-named provinces this amount is 7,206,645 bushels, estimated at 584 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. $6,445,940 ; so that all the empire of Russia in Europe disposes of 13,573,753 bushels of flaxseed valued according to the average local prices at $10,557,360, all of which is intended for the oil-mills and for export. Flax crop and prices. Flaxseed. Flax fiber. Provinces. Land sown to flax. Aver- age crop per 2.7 acres. Average crop per province. Aver- age pilce per 36 pounds. Value of total produc- tion. Aver- age yield per 2.7 acres. Aver- age crop per prov- ince. Aver- age price per 36 pounds. Total value of produc- tion. Black soil. Acres. 262, 691 252, 728 164, 389 117, 607 103, 736 68, 618 67, 146 57, 891 57, 342 44, 666 40, 819 39, 404 37, 309 35,377 32,643 31, 258 26, 876 22,302 21, 713 12, 293 11, 968 10, 298 5,260 3,218 1,933 Pounds. 756 720 648 676 1,188 1,116 1,188 1,080 1,080 864 900 864 1,080 720 1,206 1,008 1,162 1,080 1, 036 1,080 828 720 1,008 720 1,080 Bushels. 1, 313, 455 1,203,669 548, 287 448, 025 815, 076 521, 232 626, 793 413, 506 409, 590 255,236 242, 968 226, 165 266, 490 173, 224 278, 941 208, 386 204, 768 169, 300 185, 846 87, 808 65, 486 49, 037 35, 004 15, 325 13, 809 $0.57 .62 .67 .65 .56 .62 .48 .69 .67 .58 .51 .36 .60 .58 .50 .52 .42 .47 .57 .65 .55 .48 .56 .60 .61 $1,154,383 1.170,038 717, 834 453, 003 716, 359. 421,619 393, 339 382, 722 363. 170 232, 263 190, 865 126, 092 234, 343 -164, 634 216, 954 170, 182 135, 375 116, 466 164, 783 92, 198 56, 027 36, 996 30, 817 14, 304 13, 103 Eng.lbs. Tons. Besarabia .., Orenburg Tohernigow Oafa Orel ToTila KiefF Podolia , Total 15, 616, 375 951 8, 666, 282 0.57 7, 767, 861 Common soil. Viatka 247, 455 220, 390 180, 203 150, 379 148, 332 136, 698 113, 686 113, 640 104, 895 101, 404 98, 747 98, 188 67, 041 68, 806 52,564 49, 569 44,080 40, 737 33, 969 33, 846 30, 566 23, 306 11,842 7,303 3,846 612 432 504 432 792 900 1,080 720 612 676 576 756 684 720 792 576 684 900 756 864 640 828 720 676 676 1,001,604 620, 686 600, 678 429.666- 779, 597 813, 086 812, 044 541, 145 424, 575 381,301 376, 174 490, 941 303, 281 280, 030 275, 333 188, 794 199,410 242, 486 170, 343 139, 826 109, 128 127, 956 56, 391 28, 019 14,647 .57 .81 .67 .70 ,69 .63 .59 .60 .71 .52 .62 .64 .67 .61 .56 .65 .54 .56 .73 .68 .67 .58 1.00 .50 .62 888, 088 793, 405 621,368 467, 836 836, 767 790. 500 745, 276 505. 068 468,919 312, 474 359. 879 488, 769 313, 727 263, 538 237, 704 190, 882 165, 954 211,232 192, 109 203, 067 112, 887 114, 449 87, 720 21, 816 14. 012 468 666 720 468 684 630 658 684 540 432 694 720 612 640 668 684 612 684 882 810 792 468 702 828 432 21 446 27; 182 24,027 13, 033 18, 852 16, 937 11,748 14,394 10,489 7,612 10,862 13,092 7,617 5,880 5,431 6,277 13, 991 6,160 5,565 6,077 4,482 2.026 1,639 11,173 307 $2.09 2.33 2.08 2.60 2.17 1.87 1.50 2.05 2.39 2.13 1.95 1.35 2.50 1.81 1.61 2.12 1.43 1.67 2.07 1.60 2.25 2.75 2.70 1,88 3,50 $2,490,118 3,518,559 2, 776. 453 1, 810, 132 2,272,713 1,534,894 918,999 1,639,315 1, 391, 506 910,209 1, 176, 716 986,900 1, 057, 873 591,265 485 772 Pstoff Liflnnd Kostronia Niji-Novgorod Tver Yaroslaw Vitebsk Smolensk Tilna Minsk Novgorod 739,291 1,111,508. 378 732 i^.V, 9U 4.';i,288 660,250 309,375 230,850. 1,160,957 42,63r St. Petersburg ... Archangel Total 2, 171, 490 688 9,421,160 9.64 9,107,438 631 10,828 2.06 29,247,286 The above table shows the quantity of flax fiber obtained per deoia- tine in the common-soil provinces, the average crop per province, the average price per pood of flax, and the value of the total product, cal" culated on the average of the live-year period 1882-1886. FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 5H5 It is thus seen that the average yield of flax fiber ]ier rteciatine or 2.7 acres is about 631 pounds. As to the variations of average crops for separate years, one can form some idea by studying the following: In 1882 the average crop per 2.7 acres amounted to 081 pounds with the proprietors and 612 pounds with the peasants; in 1883 the proprietors received 681 pounds and the peasants 066; in 1881 the proprietors got 630 pounds and the peasants 576; in 1885 the proprietors received 504 pounds and the peasants 486; in 1886 the proprietors received 648 pounds and the peasants 618; iu 1887 the proprietors received 684 pounds and the peasants 048 pounds. FLAX CROP OF OTHER COUNTRIES. The flax crop of other countries is much higher than in Russia Thus, according to data given by the Flax Supply Association in Bel fast, 1 hectare of land gave the following number of kilograms : In Ger many, in 1875, 352 kilograms ; in 1879, 410 kilograms ; in 1883, 410 kilograms ; on an average 391 kilograms per hectare, or 940 pounds per 2.7 acres. In France, in 1876, 698 kilograms ; in 1882, 761 kilograms in 1884, 815 kilograms; or au average of 758 kilograms or 677 pounds per acre. In Austria, in 1878, 430 kilograms ; in 1882, 426 kilograms in 1885, 502 kilograms; or an average of 453 kilograms or 404 pounds per acre. In Hungary, in 1877, 603 kilograms; in 1882, 413 kilograms jn 1885, 375 kilograms ; or an average of 464 kilograms or 416 pound.s per acre. In Holland, in 1876, 498 kilograms; inl882, 442 kilograms; inl884 518 kilograms ; or an average of 486 kilograms or 433 pounds per acre In Belgium, in 1878, 527 kilograms; in 1881, 502 kilograms; in 1884, 503 kilograms ; or an average of 511 kilograms or 456 pounds per acre In Ireland, in 1878, 284 kilograms ; in 1881,470 kilograms; in 1885, 186 kilograms; or an average of 410 kilograms or 329 pounds per acre In Great Britain, in 1878, 489 kilograms; in 1881, 471 kilograms; in 1885, 470 kilograms ; or an average of 477 kilograms or 423 pounds per acre. In Italy, in 1875, 284 kilograms ; in 1879-1883, 290 kilograms ; or an average of 268 pounds per acre. In Greece, in 1876, 312 kilograms per hectare, or 268 pounds per hectare. In Denmark, in 1878, 314 kilo- grams ; in 1881, 290 kilograms ; or an average of 302 kilograms or 270 i pounds per acre. In Switzerland, for the five-year period 1881-1885, an average of 2.83 cwts. per tumland, or 227 pounds per acre ; so that Switzerland only gives as little flax fiber to the acre as Eussia. The production of flax in Denmark, Italy, and Greece is considerably better ; iu Germany and Ireland the crops are from 50 to 60 per cent, higher than those of Eussia; iu England, Austria, Hungary, Holland, and Belgium, the crops are from 70 to 100 per cent., and lastly those of France 200 per cent, larger than that of Eussia. If we stop to consider why the crop per acre is so small in Eussia, it would seem to be from two causes : the climate and consequent condition of the soil seem to be unfavorable, and, secondly, an important reason lies in the fact that the Eussians are neither skilled nor economic farmers. 77A 13 586 FJ^AX CULTIVATION IN ElisSIA. YIELD OF THE COMMON-SOIL PBOVINCBS. It is well known that' the process of separating the fiber from the stalk and also the further manipulation of the fiber afiect not only the quality but also the quantity of the product received. Owing to the extensive surface devoted to flax cultivation the total quantity obtained in the common-soil provinces amounts to more than 243,000 tons. If indeed we take into consideration that the flax-lands have been increased considerably within the last three or four years and if we recognize the fact that there are many small farmers from whom the central bureau of statistics was not able to get any data, a con- servative estimate would show that the common-soil provinces yielded during the past year not less than 276,000 tons of flax proper. The amount of flax produced in the kingdom of Poland is not less than 1,800 tons. Again, the cultivation of flax for its fiber, with a view to industry, is extending in many places of the black-soil provinces. For instance, in the province of Kazan, in the northern districts of the provinces of Simberia, Reazan, Orloff, and Tchernigow, in Constantino- grad, and several districts of Poltava, as well as in the distrfcts of Tcheliabin and Traitsky, in the province of Orenburg, a noticeable increase is found. Lastly, in every black-soil province where flax is cultivated, a certain portion of the fiber is worked, from which the peasants make, for their own use, a coarse tissue for sacks and under- linen known as Russian crash. At the same time there is no ofiQcial data as to the exact quantity of flax worked in the provinces of the black-soil region, but without doubt this quantity must amount to at least 50,000 tons. In Finland, according to ofiicial data obtained in 1885, 138 tons of flax fiber was obtained in the province of Newland ; the province of Abo gave 315 tons ; Tavastguss gave 740 tons; the province of Viborg gave 264 tons ; the province of St. Michel gave 152 tons ; those of Kouopia, 101 tons; Vasa, 156, and Ouleaborg, 2 tons, making a total of about 1,600 tons. Thus the total amount of flax fiber produced yearly in Rus- sia in Europe may be said to amount to about 350,000 tons, amouutmg to 360,000 tons in good years and to 270,000 tons in bad years. In the year 1881 it is known that 270,000 tons of flax fiber were exported abroad. THE world's flax PEODTJCTION. In comparing the cultivation and production of flax fiber, Russia far surpasses all other countries. Neimau Spallart gives the countries of Western Europe, with the amount of land sown to flax and their respective crops. (See Uebersichten der Weltwerthschaft, Yahrgang 1883-'84, p. 386.) FLAX CULTIVATION IN KUS.SIA. 587 Country. Tear. 1883 1885 1884 I8K5 lHi^4 1883 1S84 1886 1884 1K81 1885 1875 Acres. Tons. 267, 534 210, 834 110, 035 107, 940 99, 014 109,28? 26, 082 27, 089 27, 664 4,7.-.4 2,487 058 48, 753 47, 209 Ireland 23 366 Jtal V . i 21 306 HoUand Jlnn^ary ' 4,501 2,851 613 Denmark 133 Total 1, 053, 678 215, 496 Considering that in Rouraania, Servia, Bulgaria, Turkey in Europe, Spain, and Portugal, of wbich no data are given, the production of flax amounts to about 4,500 tons, still the total produced in Europe does nob exceed 225,000 tons, whereas Russia alone produces about 330,000 tons per annum. As the yearly production of flax in the United States of America only amounts to about 45,000 tons and the production of all the remaining countries is, equivalent to that produced in the Siberian colonies, it follows that Russia produces fully 25 per cent, more flax than all the rest of the world combined. LOCAL PRICES IN RUSSIA. The local prices of flax depend upon the quality of the flax rather than upon the quantity. Thus, according to the data received from the correspondents of the department, the average price per pood or 36 English pounds in 1882 was $1.83; in 1883, $1.85; in 1881, $1.93; in 1885, $3.05 ; in 1886, $2.03; in 1887, $1.96. If we consider the local autumn price paid for flax in the provinces grouped together, we find that in the black-soil provinces the average for 1882-'86 was about $l.ijO for 36 English pounds, while in the provinces of Oufa and Oren- burg the price was $2.25. In the common-soil provinces the lowest price was about $1.75 in the western provinces ; in the industrial prov- inces this price rose to 1.85, in the Baltic provinces to $2.07 (that is to say, about equal to the prices paid in the central and transvolga prov- inces), and to $2.25 in the northwestern provinces. If proprietary flax be taken separately, the difierence in prices is excessive ; in some places the prices fell 50 cents and in other cases they rose to $5 and $6 per 36 pounds ; and also in the provinces taken separately the variations of prices were quite remarkable. From the foregoing tables it is seen that in the provinces of Smolensk and Mohilieff the average price for five years did not exceed $1.50, whereas in the provinces of Kostroma, Vo- logda, Archangel, Olenets, and Grodno the price rose to $2.50 and higher. In the provinces which produce the most flax fiber, namely, the prov- inces of Viatka and Lifland, the pood costs about $2.10 and in the province of Pskoff about $2.33. 588 FLAX CULTIVATION IN KUSSIA- Because of the difference iu prices, the value of the total production accoi'ding to provinces does not agree with the distribution of (he latter according to the quantity produced, leaving out of the question the amount of land sown. For instance, the province of Viatka, which has the largest acreage devoted to the cultivation of flax, occupies, according to the value of the fiber produced, ouly the third place, giving preced- ence to the provinces of Pskoff and Lifland. The total value of fiber produced in the common-soil provinces exceeds $30,000,000, and, if to this amount is added the amount of fiber produced in the black soil provinces and the annexed provinces, the total value of the production of flax fiber throughout Russia in Europe amounts to $36,000,000. I have already shown above that the value of the flaxseed produced amounted to $17,175,297; therefore the total gross revenue obtained from theEussian flax industry amounts to about $53,000,000. FLAX CULTIVATION. It is difQcnlt to learn the net profit of the flax industry, having at present ouly the above data, but there is no doubt that it, in many places of the common soil provinces, is one of the most profitable of the country, especially if carefully managed. If the proprietors are robbed and the manipulation of the fiber passes into bad hands the result will be, as is too often the case, that the proprietor is bankrupt. The instances are great in number and are met with in all the provinces devoted to the culture of flax. Prince . Vassiltchikoff says that to his knowledge certain proprietors and vil- lages have been completely ruined by the cultivation of flax, through unbusinesslike methods, snch in fact that result in a few years in ren- dering the soil absolutely worthless. In the flax-producing districts of the province of Pskoff' the rental of land for flax is called "a sale;" " to rent" and " to sell " iu those places are synonymous terms, and the prices for renting land, as has been mentioned above, often equal the selling prices. In fact after a crop of flax, if the land is not properly manured or Is not allowed to rest a year or two from flax cultivation, it loses all its producing qualities and becomes worthless. Therefore the peasants of the province of Pskoff have been observed to emigrate from the northwestern flax-producing districts to the southeastoru dis- tricts, where there still exists plenty of virgin soil. But it is well known that there are means of conducting a regular series of flax crops without injury to the land. If a peasant has means sufficient he knows how to improve his lands by the use of artificial and vegetable fertilizers, which he uses to his profit. But even the poor I)eaaant understands that he must practice the system of crop rotation, or his little farm will soon bo rained. Bx|ierionco i)roves that fljix uses up the land, at least for the purposes of flax-growing, so rapidly that the same field can not be llax-sown oftener than every G or 7 years with- out irreparable injury to the soil. FLAX CULTIVATION! IN EUSSIA. 589 The Russian cultivators of Hax sow very difi'erent crops upon their flax fields to keep their lands from deteriorating; but the most success- ful seems to be that of alternating tbeir fields with wheat, clover, and other species of grass for fodder. It has been already proved that un- less the flax fields can be rotated with pasture-land fields for the rais- ing of cattle and horses, or with a series of successive clover crops, the flax lands soon become unproductive. Therefore an economic school of farming is coming into general fixvor in many of the provinces, which combines with great success stock-farming with flax-raising. According to dnta obtained in 1883 by the flax committee attached to the Imjit'i ial Voluntary Economic Society the cost of production of flax per deciatine is as follows : Provinces. Minsk, Yitobsk, Vilua , Tskoir KftTgoroil, Tver, Sinnleiisk, Kalouga Vliliinir. Yaroalan, Vlaiiiniir Vologda, Vi.itka Averaffo Average coat of— Production, $7.30 7.80 9..S5 8.60 6.85 7.80 Preparii fiber. $10. 60 10.85 9.00 12.20 8.50 10.20 Total. $17. 90 17.60 18.35 20.80 15.35 18.00 The above figures are incredibly low, and can only be explained by the fact that the peasants receive a mere pittance for a day's labor. To speak in comparative figures with reference to the wages of the work- men of other countries, the expense of working a deciatiue in flax would not cost less than $20. PROFIT OF FLAX-GROWING. From 1 deciatine of land sowed to flax the fanner derives in the common soil provinces about 15 bushels of seed and about 610 pounds of flax fiber. Setting aside 4J bushels of seed for the nest year's sowing, there will remain lOJ bushels of linseed, or an income from the seed alone amounting to more than $9 per deciatine. The flax proper, 010 pounds, would average about $36, so that the total product would be about $45 yer deciatine. The average expense for cultivating this amount of flax land is about $20 and the rental of the land is fairly estimated at $7.50 ; therefore one would have a net profit of $17.50 per deciatine. Tiiis is certainly a very good revenue even for the proprietor who has to hire all of his labor, and still better for the peasants who do their own work. HOUSE INDUSTRY VERSUS FACTORY. At the beginning of this report it was said that the ancient inhabi- tants of Novgorod conducted a large flax business, not only with the neighboring principalities, but with the Hanse towns of the Baltic. Besides the amount exported there existed at that epocb a sale of flax 590 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. fiber in such places of the interior districts in which it was not produced at all or was produced in insufficient quantity. Similar movements of flax exist also to-day, but with this difference, that to-day the export of flax abroad has taken immense proportions, consuming one-half of the total production. It must also be said that the means and character of the home trade has greatly changed. Every family prepared from its own crude flax linen and cordage necessary for its domestic use. Later on small indus- trials i^resented themselves in some places, working either for others according to order, or making different flaxen articles for sale, for which they generally purchased their flax elsewhere than at home. In this manner there were opened more or less important centers for the home consumption of flax fiber. In time linen mills were introduced into Eussia, forming already a more solid center for the sale of flax goods than could be depended upon with the " Koustar " trade. Not entering into details, it must still be said that the total amount of crash or linen made by the peasants, prepared for sale, amounts to 117,000,000 yards. According to data taken from the collection of " military statistical collection " the province of Viatka is at the head of the Koustar linen and crash industry, and prepares about 18,000,000 archines or 14,000,000 yards per annum ; then come — Yards. Taroslaw 12,500,000 Tver 8, ."560, 000 Vologda 7,800,000 Perm 5,840,000 Kalouga 5,500,000 Xnrds. KoslToma 4,670,000 Konrsk 3,8;)0,000 Orel 2, 730, 000 Tamboff 2,400,000 In the western region the extension of the flax industry has increased, but the sale of theKoustar flax products has for some time decreased, and for the last few years is decreasing to such an extent that all the sur|)lus fiber is sent in its crude state to points wheuceit can be exported. For instance, in some places of the province of Litland, the peasants not long ago occupied themselves with the manufacture of linen and crash, and sold their work not only in the villages and towusof that province but in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and other towns in central Russia. The rapidly advancing manufactories have obliged the Koustars almost to abandon their industry. In the same manner the Koustars in the above-named provinces of the northeastern region are beginning to abandon their industry, forced to compete with large flax mills. The first spinning mill in Eussia was erected in the sixteenth century, when the English had opened a trading-way through the White Sea. The English oi>ened a rope mill and flax-spinning mill at Kholmogar. Peter the Great undertook n number of means to develop the num- ber of linen iactoiic^s in Eussia, and his imperial successors did the same. According to statistical information of the last century the number of mills in existence were : FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 591 In 17C1, 54 mills, producing $320,753; in 17(55, 60 mills, producing $451,435 ; and in 1770, 70 mills. The beginning of the present century has been marked by wars which could not do otherwise than influence not only the liussian export of raw material, but also tte manufacture and the exportation of manufactured goods ; and notwithstanding this, in 1809 the Eussian production of linon was represented as follows: Provinoo8. - r\ Mills. Looms. Production. Mills export- ing- Exporta- tion. Vladimir 110 24 20 10 13 7 5 2 5 7,818 4,841 2, 283 908 2,302 628 168 228 97 Yards. 8, 078, 155 3,1587,888 1, 628, 433 890, 854 1, 033, 628 253, 509 229, 444 157,017 60,083 16 11 12 ? ) 1 Tards. 8 .599, 150 2, 794, 632 1, 122, 839 69, 417 251, 222 38 888 Tonla 2 1 134 128 Mohilietf 31 265 However, the hesitancy of Russian manufacturers to adopt improved machinery, the increase of cotton mills and their produce, and the suc- cess of flax factories abroad, place most of the mills in Russia in an embarrassed position from a lessening demand and consequent fall in prices, and gradually decreased their number until the result was as follows : In 1820, there were 211 mills in Russia ; in 18.30, there were 190 mills; in 1835, there were 171 ; in 1863, there were 109 mills, pro- ducing to the value only of $4,025,000. In the recent years there is again an increase, both in the number of mills and iu their productions. The following table will show this re- action for 1880-'84 : Kiissia iu Europe. Poland. Years. Mills. Valuoof pro- duct. Laborers. Mills. Value of pro- duct. Laborers. ISUO 158 153 154 100 106 $12,402,500 11, 809, 000 12, 032, 000 13,665,000 13, 173, 500 24,031 33, 688 32, 170 35, 991 38, 966 15 14 18 21 10 $1, 348, 500 1, 138, 000 1, 628, 000 1, 920, 000 l,871,5oO 9,339 1881 7,298 18S2 7, 42.'i 1883 8,402 1884 7,810 The yearly product of flax mills and flax-beating works of Russia in Europe in 1884, is as follows: Twelve factories produced less than $1,000 ; 61 produced from $1,000 to $5,000 ; 18 produced from $5,000 to $12,500; 14 produced from $12,500 to $25,000; 15 produced from $25,000 to $50,000 ; 26 produced from $50,000 to $250,000 ; 14 produced from $250,000 to $500,000; and 6 produced from $500,000 to $1,000,000. The value of the production of one mill alone in the Kingdom of Po- land exceeded $1,500,000. Out of the 166 mills and factories in the "provinces of Russia in Europe, 55 occupied themselves with cleaning the flax by breaking and hatcheling ; 24 with the preparation of yarn, 87 with the manufacture of linen. 592 FLAX CULTIVATION IN EUSSIA. The table below shows the division of these three classes of facto- ries: Proviucee. No. of works. Produc- tion. Value. Laborers employed 40 8 3 2 1 1 Tont. 13,114 1,710 171 774 468 72 $1, 483, 500 213,600 19, 000 67, 500 50, 000 10, 000 1 209 Vladimir 486 173 Tver . . ... 212 155 As seeu, of the 324,000 or 312,000 tons of flax which are produced yearly within the limits of Ens.sia in Europe, the flax mills only con- sume about 18,000 tons. This table, however, can not be said to be exact, as the statistics obtained from the province of Viatka show that in the district of V^lij the flax produced by the peasants is mostly bought up in its crude state and worked by the inhabitants of that province. During the winter some 300 or 500 peasants of the district of Tchepel are employed each day cleaning the flax. The district of Volij "prepared and exported about 18,000 tons of flax during the winter 1880-'87. Some of the spinning mills have textile departments attached to them, with a total of 1, ICO looms, on which 242,000 pieces of linen and duck, and 480,000 sacks or bags are manufactured, for a value of $1,097,000. Thus the real annual product in the 24 factories, shown below, amounts to $7,636,000. Flax-spinning Mills. Provinces. Num- ber of nulla. Qunntily of .>arn produced. Value. Laborers employed. Num ber of spindles. Vladimir Kostroma Yaroslaw Kiazau : Karau Vologda Liefland Courlaud Nize- Novgorod . Tons. 7,360 7, no 6,402 1,278 450 432 396 126 27 007, 600 033, 600 672, 000 2.53, 000 187, 500 175, 000 125, 000 60, 000 5,500 6, 374 6,390 4,518 715 1,000 1,304 335 117 27 51,200 63. OOO 40, 000 7,600 12, 700 3, 7H4 4,000 2,000 500 Total. 22, 661 20, 780 184,784 Limn Factories. Pro\:incos. Vladimir Kostroma Moscow Tcliornijrow. ... Yaroslaw St. Petersburg . TambolT Novgorod Kaloiiga Tver Total. Nuni- lii.r of Illitrs. I'ipci's of linrn produced. 4.52, 000 ;i'.;7, 300 16,800 6, 300 00, 000 125, 200 7,400 40, 000 1,600 500 1, 036, 000 807, .500 080, 000 101,000 18, 500 245, 000 490, 000 9,500 100, 000 16, 500 2,000 3, 930, 000 WorUtiitMi employed. 7,105 5, 320 630 164 201 1,421 43 425 87 10 15,481 Number of looms. 2,521 2,800 421 00 300 253 42 72 20 10 6, 529 Besides these, different textile works i)rcpare 300,000 pieces of linen on 1,160 looms, for a valiK^ of $l,0fi7,000, so that the total amount of linen manufactured amounts to over $5,000,000. It appears that the FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 593 flax mills are mostly concentrated in that group of provinces called the industrial provinces. In these provinces the number of i)urchii.ser,s for flax luills is greater than in other parts of the Empire, so that the peasants, having profitable work, do not trouble themselves with the preparation of linen and crash even for their own use. Besides this, these provinces raise a large quantity of cereals under the plan of crop- rotation mentioned above, and are one of the priucipal centers where flour is made, so that the demand for flour bags, as well as for sail cloth for the river boats, is more important than in anj' other part within the limits of Eussia in Europe. Many trials to revive the flax industry in the western flax-producing provinces have proved futile, princijially because of tlie meager demand for manufactured articles and because of the comparatively easy sale of crude flax for export. PKEPAEINa THE FIBEK. For this reason, in the western region there exist no really favorable conditions for the preparation of flax-flber and its separation from the stalk. As has been said, the flax industry in Kussia is mostly in the hands of the peasants, who pay too little attention to the method of manipulating it and obtaining from the stalk a clean, well prepared, and assorted stalk for the markets. The best known method in llussia for separating the liber from the stalk is the rotting jjrocess. The method of moistening the flax is lit- tle practiced in most of the places of the eastern flax-producing region, whereas it is still less known and scarcely ever practiced in the southern and western regions, although this method gives a much better liax than that obtained by the process of exposing it to the dew and rain. When thetifix has been exposed, the operation of separating the fiber from the stalk takes from 4 to 5 and even 6 weeks' time, whereas when it has been macerated in summer it only requires from 8 to 10 days. The color_of macerated flax is always more even than that of littered flax; the latter, even in the best conditions, receives different tints, such as light with gray or brown. The fiber of macerated flax is uniformly strong throughout its whole length, when properly handled, which can not be said of flax exposed to the dew ; and in general, macerated flax fiber is stronger than that obtained by the former process, in consequence of which, in working the flax with machinery, separating the good, from 25 to 30 per cent, less yarn is obtained from the flax exposed to the dew than from the macerated flax. This fact very greatly raises the price of the latter compared with that of the former. The yarn obtained from the latter is much rounder and more even than that of the first, in which are often met flat fibers and bits of dried stems. With the maceration system the chances of a good manipulation of the fiber are much greater than when the flax is exposed to the dew. If the flax which has been grown on a well-known soil is macerated in water, whose quality is known, the proprietor may be certain that he 594 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. will receive a nnifarmly good quality of fiber in a definite number of days; whereas when the proprietor exposes the flax to the weather he is liable to serious consequences, which may occur as well from the^ excessive rainfalls of autumn as from continued drought, frost, and cold winds, not allowing the flax thus exposed to lie until the time when it could be properh' handled, although in a clear and warm au- tumn, with occasional rain and great dew-fall, the fiber may receive a high quality; but such autumns are very rare. The obstacle which places itself iu the way for changing the method from exposing to the dew to that of maceration is the want of water suitable for the maceration process. And, in reality, every kind of water is not suitable for this purpose. Flax can not be macerated in hard water containing either iron, lime, or salt, nor are stagnant waters, containing slime, clay, sand, and like substances, which injure the color and quality of the flax, to be used for this newer and better process. And, likewise, every field is not suitable for the spreading out of the macer- ated flax, the worst being reddish clay, red sandy ground, and places cov- ered with slimy and red stagnant water. Some of the best places for maceration are on turf ground and moss ground, as likewise in marshy places of white and blue clay. A very good ground also for maceration is the black soil and sandy soil. In general it is easier to find a ground suitable for maceration than is generally thought, if it be accepted that the maceration should not take place in streams and lakes because of the danger in hygienic relations. The principal obstacle which prevents the maceration of flax from being- extended, is the ignorance of the best means to accomplish- it. And even iu these provinces, where maceration of flax has long since become the rule, it generally gives dissatisfaction, in consequence of which fact the splendid quality of Russian flax is spoiled even there, after great precautions were taken for its cultivation. Before being worked, the stalks of the macerated flax, as well as, that which has been exposed to the dew, are dried in ovens, and it often occurs that these heated rooms are made too hot or filled with smoke, in which event the filament becomes darker or loses its oleaginous matter and becomes hard and brittle. The workiiig of the flax takes place, in most cases, in the most primitive manner, with simple hand- brakes, which generally injures the too ripe stalks, besides the fact that the most practiced hands can only work about 72 pounds of flax a day. More improved brakes are only to be found in the western prov. inces, in that of Tcskotfand some of the neighboring districts, where some proprietors have installed brakes run by horse-power. Lastly, the final step in the working of the flax, the scutching, takes place in a similar and most primitiv(( manner, for which they use the ordinary wooden scutcher, in the shape of a long, narrow knife or oar. Scutching by nia<'hinery is employed as a rarity, exclusively here and tliere in the provinces of Lillaiul, I'skofif, and Vladimir. It may be stated, however, that scutching by machinery only presents an ad- FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 595 vantage if the flax has already been sorted according to the length, thickness, and niatnrity of the stalk. Difi'crent qualities of flax can not well be scutched at one time by machinery, because i't would become thicker and stick faster in one part than in another, and therefore the the obstructed bollen in the filament would become uneven.. If scutched by hand, the laborer can direct his blows where he sees it is necessary, whereas machinery scutches everywhere evenly and it can therefore happen that all the bollen in one place will necessitate such long-continued working that at the same time nearly all the residue becomes ruined. And at the same time it must be remarked that flax is rarely assorted by the Russian farmer. In general, the manipulation of the flax in Russia is so primitive and poor that, as a result, the i^rice ofi'ered for it abroad is much lower than that paid for German, Austrian, Irish, and especially French and Bel- gian flax. When flax is purchased as it is when it enters the market, the manufacturer can not know what he is purchasing, that is to day, he does not know how much clean flax he will have nor the quality. It is, therefore, easy to understand that the purchaser wishes to guar- anty himself against such loss and therefore purchases at very low ])rices, a fact that causes the Russian farmers to lose needlessly about $15,000,- 000 a year. The Agricultural Department urged the Government to take this question uji and to use all means to teach the peasants how to work the flax. It reasoned that in Germany and Austria teachers had been called for by the government, and that here the same might be done, or at least to organize model farms on the jirinciple of those in vogue in Finland, for the cultivation of flax, or to install stations in the prov- inces, where the manipulation of flax conld be done by experienced hands, such as the one which has already been organized by Mr. Her- man Getze, 9 miles from the town of Viazuikoff, in the province *of Vladimir. It is said that the filament obtained by Mr. Getze is most perfect, and therefore his flax sells at $3.50 to $4, and the higher quality from $4.50 to $5 per 36 English pounds, against $1.50 and $2.50 paid for local flax worked by the peasants. Again, Mr. Getze obtains 32 Russian pounds of pure filament and 8 pounds of tow from 5 poods of crude flax, whereas the peasants obtain only 33 pounds of filament from 7J to 8 poods of crude flax and no tow whatever. Besides these facts Mr. Getze's establishment has proved the great advantages that could be reaped from such stations. The flax committee of the province of Pskoff has taken up this ques- tion and has decided upon the Lefebure system, but it can in no way be compared to the system organized by Mr. Getze. PLAX-SOBTING. As Las been stated above, the Russian farmers in, no way embarrass themselves by sorting the flax, but mix all together, thin, thick, long, short good, and poor. In this shape it is purchased by small dealers 596 FLAX CULTIVATION IN .RUSSIA. and finally reaches the warehouses of rich merchants, where it is as- sorted according to its quality. It is generally best assorted in ports whence it is expected to reach foreign markets, and it therefore takes foreign marks or names which are almost historical on account of their loi^ standing. In Archangel and the localities trading in flax, it used to take the name of the locality from which it came, but, as all kind of swindling was discovered, since 1838, flax in Archangel has been purchased under three sorts named "assorted," kron (crown), and brak or waste. Flax tow is divided into two grades, the first sort being subdivided into three sorts and the second quality into two other sorts. At St. Petersburg the flax is arranged for export into three sorts, the first of which is according to the number of handfuls, generally con- tains twelve, and forms a twelve-headed bale; the second is composed of nine heads, and the third sort is composed of a six headed bale. In the towns of Ejev and Viaznia, and other centers of foreign export, the flax is in a crude state and forms four sorts, second, third, fourth and fifth grades, the first quality being assorted, but there is very little of this grade. In Riga, according to the rules fixed by the exchange committee in 1872, there are 33 sorls, which are divided into 4 divisions: The kron or crown, brak or waste, dreiband or third sort, and dreiband waste or fourth sort. Each of these sorts has received a special mark and name, and at the same time the price in the exchange report is applied to the kron sort only, which is considered as the base for fixing prices. As the price of kron flax has remained the same for the last four years the table given below shows the difference in the prices as they really are. Price Price for 10 for 10 Mark. pooils or 360 Mark. pood,^ or 300 pounds. pounds. B. -SVco/irf i]ual- A. Kinnnr first quality. )(;;.— L'oiilil. Kioii K. $22. 60 Hots ilreihauil weias.. w. n. n. $;;. 50 Kron lit'II (lifflitcrowii) . n.K. 2:1. 00 Puik iiots dreibanii. .. P.H.I). ■J2. 50 Kri)ii wciPB {wbile W.K. 24.00 Puik hol'a (IrcihanU W. p. U. D. 24.00 Clown). wciaa. Kiiiii grau (grey G.K. 24.00 Foin puik hofa drei. F.P.H.P. 24.00 Clown). band. Puik Itron (picked P.K. 21.00 Fein puik hofa drei- W. F. p. H. D. 25.50 crown). band weia.s. Puik kron hell (light)-. ir. V. K. 24.60 Superior IV'iu pnik S.F.P.H-D. 25.60 Puik krouwoias (white) W. I'. K. 25,60 liiifs dreilumd. Pnik kron cr.an (grey) ('.. 1'. K. ■_',-.. ;m Siipciinr fcin puik W. S. F. P. H. D. 27.00 Sti])erior puik kron .-- S P.K. ■JO. DO hofH dreiband weisa. Snpeiior pnik kron hell - H. S.P.K. LIO. !)ll Supi-rior puik kron a Third quality. WeiHH. W. S. P. K. 27.50 ' Sujierior imik kron gran. SpaniHijh wetss kron (S]>ani8h). G. S. P. K. S. W. K. 27.50 30.60 Droiliatnl D. P.P. L. I). P.L. P. S.D. 17.00 Pnik ilieibaud l.ivland dieibaud .' I'liilv I.i\laii.i (lilland). Sliiiiif/, diciiiand (ex. 18.1)0 17.50 18.00 17.00 Jl. Second iiitality. imscd (0 dew). Wriiok (waste) Puik l.ivland drei- P. S. D. 18.00 I'MiI< wra<'k ...... ... W 19.60 ■Jl.OO band. I'liilt wrmk weisfl P. W. Pililt \^'r;n■k jiiilii W. P. W. 'Jl. mi A', Fourth ijtfaliti/. Iliifa liriiliiinil (supi- (1. P. W. •Jl. 1)11 Drciliniid wrack T). W. IC.OO rior tlliril (iuali1;> ). U.D. 21.011 Si.uiit/.dreiliaiid wrack S. I>. w. 16.00 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 597 Besides the Sixinisli crown flax, foriiieily flax was classifted iii Ui'^.h accordiDg to nations in which the flax was grown— Belgian crown, French crown, or En-lish crown— the. highest qualit.v being tlie English crown; bnt with the increased export to Germany, which reexported the greatest portion of this flax to other Enropean countries, the as- sortment of Kiga flax under clussiflcatiou of diflereut European coun- tries lost all importance. The marks adopted by the province of r.skoff are those known by the name of I'skott-Narva brands. The crown quality is divided into four sorts, namely: E., Eisten, or very higlie.^t; II. D., Hofs Ureiband, high quality; D., Dreiband, ordinary; O. D., Ordiniirer Dreiband, ordi- nary, third sort. The wrack or waste is not specified, but the above crown marks are subdivided into G, or gray; W., or white; although the difference in color does not alter the price. The letters F and P express the quality of the fiber, F., or fine, and oleaginous; P., strong and heavy; thus, W. F. P. E. signifies white, fine, strong, highest quality. PEICES OF FLAX. The large number of different sorts of flax occasion also a very varied list of prices, besides the variations upon the crops and the demand. Thus in St. Petersburg the prices paid for the different sorts varied per berkovets or 300 pounds in 1884 from $8.50 to $31.50; in 3885 from $8.50 to $32 ; in 1886 from $9 to $34 ; in 1887 from $13.50 to $32. The variations for the average yearly prices during the years 1S83 to 1887 are as follows : Varictios of Jlax, Macerated. Pskoff asHortt'd . . .- Pdlcoft onUnaiv Loujra SulotH, lirdt HOI I- ... Snli.^t..^, SLT'tiul aort . Bolets, tliird sort... Exposed lo the dew. Tarotilaw Koolruiua liiejolti ... IvarliuiMlw - Voli.Kdil... OiiKlits .... Phoiiiin.sk. Expot.ed to dele and worked. ^Iplenkow . Kjew If 20. 84 25. 78 23.03 21. iO 1(1 li,''. 14.40 •». 05 29.00 20.40 20. 07 2!l. 05 2,1. 75 25.50 25.25 24. 50 $31. 84 28.00 25. 85 2:1. 28 18.93 11. 39 31.12 31.71 29. 0,-. 2f. 32 33.07 30.12 21. 33 25 OU 27.09 $27. J 5 23.79 21.31 18.88 15. 20 10. 14 29.08 30. 38 25.95 26.00 30. M 20.49 24.31 24.54 26.17 1884. $22. 50 20.25 18.00 15.75 13.76 10.25 28.00 29.50 23. 25 23.25 29.75 24.50 23:75 23.50 23.50 $21. 00 J 9. 00 17.25 15. 25 i;i. 75 11.00 25,75 26.00 21.00 20, 25 28.25 21,75 21,75 22.00 21. 60 Averagn. $25, 87 23.38 21,19 18.01 10,20 11.83 28.64 29.44 25,25 24,90 30.31 25, 73 23, 93 24.03 24,18 If we separate the different kinds according to their prices it appears that, although in general the difference of the average for the five-year period for different sorts is not the same, it hai3pens that the price of 598 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. one grade rises vvhile that of another falls. Thus, for instance, for 1886 to 1887,-mosfc of the grades declined more or less in price, whereas, at the same time, Splets macerated flax of the second and third grades and Phominsk exposed flax somewhat rose in price. This fact is also observed in other markets where flax is not classilied according to the name of the place where it is grown, but according to its quality, such as in Riga. This fact is due not to the crop, but to the bad assortment. This is the principal cause of complaint received from foreign pur- chasers, who, when ordering a special mark or brand and not knowing before hand whether or not it will correspond with that of the same mark received the previous year, therefore pay a lower jirioe for it, in order to protect against loss. In Melenk, the pood of flax of an aver- age quality sold from 1885-1887 as follows: In 1885, from $1.25 to $2.13; in 1886, from $1.50 to $2.37 ; in 1887, from $1.75 to $2.25. The higher quality as follows: In 1885, from $2.25 to $2.80 ; in 1886, from $2 to $3 ; in 1887, from $2.25 to $2.87. In the village of Grodets the price of a high-quality flax varied, in 1887, from $2.50 to $3.13 per pood. In Riga a berkovets or 360 pounds of flax was quoted in the market as follows : 1886, K., or crown flax, from $20 to $21.50; 1887, K., or crown flax, from .$20 to $22 50; 1886, H. D., or superior Dreiband, from $19 to $22.50; 1887, H. D., or super- ior Dreiband, from $18 to $21. In Warsaw macerated flax brought, per pood: In 1886, from $2.40 to $3.80 ; in 1887, from $2.40 to $3.15 ; and dew-exposed flax, per pood, brought: In 1886, from $1.60 to $3; in 1887, from $2 to $3. In general the variations in the prices of different assorted flax fiber are very great, and as said before depend less on the place where it was grown than in the n:anner in which it is manipulated and assorted. It is a well-known fact that the best flax produced, when it has not been properly exposed to the dew or macerated or has been badly dried and manipulated, renders the lowest grade of fiber. The peasants' flax mostly reaches the market in its crude state, not having been manipu- lated. Besides this there is a great complaint of their adding to the flax, thus made up in bundles, sand and other heavy substances of no value. A very important question is that of the variation of prices of flax for a long period ; unfortunately the material ou this subject is very scarce and in many instances false, as it is not always known whetlier the prices refer to hij^h or low grades. But nevertheless it is known that up to the years in 70 of the present century the prices of flax fiber, as well as of other agricultural products, have more or less gradually risen. Thus in the half of the sixteenth century, 360 pounds of flax in Nov- gorod cost up to $1.50 and in the town of Kholmogar it cost $2. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, flax in Kholmogar was sold at the rate of $4 for 90 pounds. Considering the quantity of flax ex- FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 599 ported and its price, the average for 300 pounds of flax was about as follows : 1749 $10.50 1758-'60 11.50 1778-'t;0 15.00 1790-'92 14.00 lS02-'04 19.00 1814-'15 17. .50 1820-'21 21.50 These figures, in general, are proved by tlie following data relative to the average prices in St. Petersburg and Eiga, the two principal points of llussiau flax export, namely : X821-'^r> $20.50 iy;i;3-'3r. 17.50 1842-'44 14.50 1845-'47 16.00 1848-'50 12.00 1851-'53 14.00 Period. St. Peters- burg. Higa. 1832-'41 1833-'42 lS3t-'43 1835-'44 1836-'4E $16. 78 16. 50 16. 2C 15.50 15.30 $15. 18 16.00 14.50 14.16 13.90 According to the price current, as published by the customs depart- ment of the ministry of finance, the j)rices for the exports of flax from Archangel, St. Petersburg, and Eiga, from 1855 to 1886, were, per 360 pounds, as follows: Tears. ArcbaDgel. St. Petersburg. Kiga. $13. 00 to $23. 00 14. 00 24. 00 12. 00 21. 75 9.75 14.75 14.50 19.00 10.25 22.38 16. 60 23. 65 17.60 30.00 21. 00 30. 00 20. 88 29. 00 20.00 26.13 21.00 31.00 23. 50 33. 50 22. 50 36. 75 29. 50 50. 00 20. 60 41. 00 20.00 37.50 22. 50 39. 50 20.00 36.50 21.50 40.00 2.5.86 31.67 21.84 31.67 23.60 29.88 19. 00 36. 25 20.25 38.00 21. 90 40. 50 24. 00 39. 25 26. 00 39. 50 25. 25 37. 7» 19. 00 32. 00 22. 50 29. 60 21. 25 31. 25 20. 75 32. 25 22. 25 36. 75 23.60 33.60 $10. 78 to $10. 00 10. 78 18. 58 $9. 00 to $20. 00 11. 00 17. 50 8. 50 16. 00 9. 50 15. 00 1856 - -- 1857 11. 43 15. 00 11. 43 17. 85 12. 00 22. 50 13. 00 27. 50 15.60 24.00 13. 00 22. 50 13. 50 26. 00 11.60 23.60 11.60 19.00 11.50 19.00 11. 50 33. 50 11.50 30.00 11. 50 25 00 17. 00 32. 60 12. 60 32. 50 12. 50 22. 00 12. 60 20. 00 12. 60 23. 68 12. 60 26. 60 12. 50 26. 50 12.50 26.50 13. 00 36. 60 10. 60 36. 60 10. 50 34. 00 12. 00 34. 00 12. 00 30. 00 29. 92 27. 50 9. 50 29. 75 8.62 31.60 8. 60 32. 00 9.00 34.00 10. 60 15. 75 10. 60 17. 00 1858 ' 9.00 28.50 ]8j)9 10. 00 32. 00 9. 50 26. 50 I^Ql 11.00 26.00 1862 - 15 00 26.00 16.60 26.50 18(34 15. 00 31. 00 16/60 32.92 186(5 - 16. 60 38. 60 12. 00 34. 50 1869 13. 00 30. 65 13. 00 30. 65 13. 00 28. 50 16. 26 27. 31 1.5. 38 26. 93 jg'ji 17.97 25.65 iS'J'y .- 12. 00 32. 00 20. 00 32. 00 J877 15. 00 34. 00 16. 00 30. 00 1879 16. 00 30. 60 1881 ii.'66'"'"32.'56 19.00 29.50 600 FLAX CULTIVATION IN KUSSIA. The Agricultural Department somewhat criticises some of the above stated prices, and as aa instance it says that from 1864 to 1865 the highest price obtained in St. Petersburg, according to all belief, was higher than $19 ; the lowest price for flax exported from Riga iu 1886 being $19. But this price was lower for IT. B. and not for D. W., which to all belief was also exported from Eiga. The average prices for periods of 5 years of 360 pounds of flax ex- ported were as follows : Years. ArcIiaDgel. St. Toterg- buig. Riga. Average. 1852 '5G , $16. 58 Ti. 72 29.28 29.00 28. 20 30.43 27.25 $13.74 17.03 18.05 2'.'. 70 18.99 22.90 20.08 $13.28 18.00 23.39 21.83 22.55 23.42 22.46 $14. 53 1857-'G1 ....^ 18fi3-'6ti , ]9..')5 23. .19 1367 '71 24. U 1872 '76 23.27 1877 '>il 25.58 Ifl82-"SG . . 23.26 The movement of' prices in the markets abroad more or less corre- sponded with the movement of prices in Russia. Thus iu Hamburg, lier 100 kilograms of flax, there were paid as follows: Marks. Pfenniga. In 18J7-'50 -.... ll-l 80 In 1871-75 -•-. 123 12 In 1S85 148 20 In 1880 132 34 Comparative prices of flax in Ireland for 36 years, as published by Villars Stewart in Dublin and Loudon, 1887, are shown below: 1850 40 to 70 1851. 1852 . 1853. 183'i . 1860. 1861. IrilW. 1863. IHM . 40 4-2 36 56 61 1 .11 60 40 46 46 91 72 81 8S 84 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1S74 . 1880. 1881 . lti&> . 1S8:!. 1881 . 8. s. 4 1 to 76 64 112 60 70 66i .^i6 76 50 80 x!l 84 ;i-2 80 36 70 41 If tliese wci^lits and currency are converted into currency of the United States, .'560 pounds of Irish Ihix for the averngc of lSSO-1884 cost about $51.60, and for 300 pounds of Hamburg flax iu 18S5 about $60.74; in 1886 about $60.H7. As I have already said, French, Holland, and Belgian flax commands still higher aud is sold at $70 per 360 pounds. Iviissian flax, on account of the bad maiiipulatiou, is gen- erally sold 50 per cent, less than that of Belgium or France. FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 601 According to tbe lieport of the Flax Supply Association in Ireland for the year 1887, the average prices in the London market, for flax of different countries, is as follows, per 360 pounds : Countriea. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1880. $72. 68 80. 00 6,'j. 10 52. 20 30.00 30.00 .$71.60 62.90 40.45 H.W 30.97 30.97 $00. 97 59. 03 3K.71 48.38 36.80 34.84 $W. 85 Duluh ^French 50 32 44 52 (iermiin..... 34 81 33.87 PRICES OF FLAX SEED. I have already given the average price of flaxseed for the five-year period 1882-1886 at tbe place of production, and I have shown that, ac- cording to the quantity and quality of the crop, the price ranges from 25 and 30 cents to $1.50 and $2 per 36 pounds, going as high as from $2.50 to $3 for the best seed raised in the province of Pskoff, and that of the northeastern flax-producing provinces, whence it is purchased for seed, the ditt'erence in local prices does not appear so great, if tbe average prices grouped by provinces of the common and black soil are taken. According to information obtained from proprietors the prices for six bushels of flaxseed in the black-soil provinces ranged as follows : In 1883 $5.25 In 1886 $5.11 18d4 .5.11 1887 4.98 18S5.- 5.74 The average price was $5.24 per six bushels. In the common-soil provinces flaxseed sold as follows: In 1886 $5.12 1887 4v8 In 1883. 1884. 1885. 10. 24 5.95 6.75 The average for this five-year period was $5.57 for six bushels. As is seen from the above, the differences in the prices, if the different years are considered, is much greater than if the groups of provinces are con- sidered. This is explained by the fact that nearly the whole of the seed produced by the proprietors in both the black-soil provinces and tbe common-soil provinces of Eussia goes to the oil mills, and for this purpose the seed produced in some places, for instance in the province of Borisogliebsk, is more suitable than the seed produced in most of the common-soil provinces, where the flax has been pulled before the plant has fully matured; consequently, the seed obtained in the south gets a higher price than that grown in the common-soil provinces and exported from the Baltic ports and Archangel. For instance, for the five-year period 1882-1886 for six bushels of seed one paid on an average, in Odessa, $7.88, and, in Taganrog, $7. 10, whereas in St. Petersburg only #6.71, in Eiga $6.53, and in Archangel $6.19, although some of the qualities brought to the ports obtained higher prices than the best 77A U 602 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA goods ill the soutlieru ports. In the south the different sorts are classi- fied according lo the amount of dirt the seed contains, usually from 10 to 15 per cent., whereas the seed in the northern markets is classified, besides that containing dirt, into oleaginous and seed for sowing, the latter being the more expensive, also according to the places where it isgrownj a matter of considerable importance in the ports of the Black Sea. As I have already stated the variations in the prices differ from ,>ear to year. This variation depends upon the crops in the other countries of Europe as well as upon the condition of the universal markets. Be- low I give the tables showing the prices quoted by the exchange iu Archangel, St. Petersburg, Iliga, Odessa, and Taganrog, from 1853 to 1886, j)er six bushels. Archangel. St. Putei-aburg. Eiga. Odessa. Tagaorog Aver- ago. 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 18.59 1860 1801 1862 1863 1864 1805 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 18(10 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1880 .f 3. 00 to 3.02 3.12 2.30 2.75 4.00 4.30 4.37 3.50 4.20 4.75 5.65 4.35 4.60 5.90 6.00 5.30 6.12 5.50 5.75 5.07 6.50 5.60 4.00 4.26 6.00 6.35 6.45 6.75 6.50 6.33 f3.83 3.78 3.75 2.57 4.12 5.40 6.00 4.50 4.50 4. ilO 6.00 6. 2r, li.OO 0.12 7.37 6.45 6.30 6.92 6.45 6.32 5.95 5.07 5.07 5.37 6.50 7.00 7.00 7.16 6.93 6.60 6.13 7.00 0.00 6.62 6.00 $2. 85 to 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.50 4.25 4.25 3.60 6.00 6.00 3.50 3.72 4.56 6.00 6.87 6.37 6.37 6.60 6.25 6.70 6.75 5.81 6.62 6.12 6.50 5.12 5.62 5.62 6.00 5.12 5.87 6.25 5.55 5.25 fl.OO 4.07 3.75 3.00 5.60 6.25 .5.50 6.00 5.50 6. .50 6.62 6.02 6.50 0.50 6.50 6.75 6.75 6.87 7.26 7.10 7.33 7.50 6.07 0.60 0.60 9.12 8.75 8.12 8.87 8.37 7.25 7.12 7.26 8.75 8.75 :. 00 to $4. 30 .00 2.25 2.92 3.00 3.50 2.50 3.25 4.75 2.87 6.20 4.00 4.00 3.50 4.06 3.62 4.55 4.64 4.29 4.32 3.40 4.12 3.95 5.12 4.37 5.00 5.04 5.52 8.00 5.10 7.00 4.30 3.75 4.60 5.80 5.17 6.00 4.87 li.OO 6.67 5.75 6.00 6.37 6.87 6. .50 5.15 6.00 5.62 4.99 4.70 4.60 4.81 5.12 7.00 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.50 5.90 8. 75 8.90 8. 60 .$3. 1 J to $3. 90 2. 95 3. 62 3. 07 4. 72 $3. 00 to $3. 50 2. 27 3. 27 1. 50 3. 85 4.37 4.87 4.40 3.60 3.50 4.17 4.05 6.25 5.00 5.25 6.00 6.37 0.12 5.50 5.87 6.00 6.13 6.17 5.76 6.62 6.65 6.60 6.75 8.40 8.00 6.07 6.25 7.02 7.75 7.75 7.65 6.32 6.37 5.75 6.00 6.2^ 6.90 6.60 6.60 6.50 0.32 7.87 7.37 0.75 7.00 7.25 7.00 6.82 0.65 6.07 6.00 6.12 7.00 8.00 9.00 9.50 7.87 7.37 8.60 8.60 8.75 8.75 3 50 4.75 4.00 3.75 4.25 4.50 4.00 4.50 4.60 6.60 5.95 6.25 4.87 5.00 5.00 5.26 0.20 6.17 .5. 89 5.25 5. .50 5.50 6.25 7.25 8.12 6.75 7.00 6.00 6.25 0.25 7.00 6.00 6.60 5.90 4.75 6.00 6.00 7.00 6. 7.) 7.00 6.60 7.50 7.00 6.62 7.60 7.62 7.25 7.19 6.82 6.14 6.62 0.62 6,62 8.00 9.00 9.00 8. r.o 8,00 6.32 6.90^ 8.12 7.75 $3.40 3.27 3.22 2.87 4.43 5.20 4.87 4.25 4.32 6.25 5.49 6.37 6.44 6.15 6.25 6.10 5.77 .5.90 6.12 6.10 (i.20 6.05 5.65 5.40 6.55 6. 42 6.75 7,20 7.00 7.02 0.02 6.60 7.32 7.40 ■ 7.23 The information given in this table, which ha,s mostly been obtained from the lloport upon the Interior Ooinmercc of Russia, is defective in that the information as to the prices of seed us well as of llax fiber is not com- plete. It often happens that in some years the data given do not relate to all the grades. "With this in view the average yearly export prices of all the five markets must be considered as being approximate. The table below, showing the average yearly prices of seed per six bushels for periods of five years from 1852 to 1886, may be considered as more exact. FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 603 Five yt':ir periods. Arcli- augel. SI. I'ltcrs- Eiga. Oilcssa. Tapan- A.vorago. 1852-1856 $3. -2 •). 17 .I. 7U .^ 48 5.47 6.46 6.18 $3.41 4.92 6.45 6.51 6.56 7.15 6.71 $3.67 4.62 5.01 4.77 4. « 5.27 6.63 .^4.01 J. 87 .'•.. 92 (i.75 6. UU 7.71 7.88 $3.36 4.94 5.93 6.13 6.24 7.50 7.10 $3 54 4.76 5.60 5.95 5.77 1857-1861 1862-1860 1867-1871 1S;'J-1876 1S77-1SS1 l!;8J-]886 6. 88 AvoraLjo.^ 5. 28 5. 83 4.91 6.17 5.88 5.63 Thus it is seen tliat tbe' })iico, of flax.set'd has iucreased each i)erio(l of 5 ycais, hiiviiig- attained iu 1S77-1SS(; nearly double that which it had ill the first flveyear period. In l872-lS7e, however, there wa.s a slight fall ill the price of tlie seed a.s well as in the fiber. The reason why in tiieflve-.year jieriod KS.S'i-lSSO liij;lier figures were obtained than in the five-year period 1S77-18S1 is explained principally by the want of exact data from the llij;a market. Formerly in this market the price of flax- seed was Dot quoted for a tchetvert, or six bushels, but for a barrel, which contains two thirds of a tchetvert, or four bushels ; the figures shown for the period of 1SS'J-1S8G refer without doubt to tchetverts. Therefore the i^rices of the liiga market, of all the remaining years, are surely calculated one-third lower than they should be; therefore the high rise during the five-year periods 1S77-1881 and 1882-1886 is erroneous. If we add to the above figures the prices of flaxseed for the period 1827-1851 we obtain the following table of the movement of approxi- mate prices per bushel for 60 years : 18^^7-18:!! fO.r.o l8:i-'-183C 66 IKiT-ls 1 1 1)3 184v'-1846 5W 1847-18.""il 56 le.V>-1856 60 IH-W-ISGI 79 186.'-1866 93 1867-1871 99 1872-1870 95 1877-1881 1.14 1882-1886 1.15 Thus, the movement of price of flaxseed rau ou a parallel with the " prfce of flax fiber ; the prices fell from 1830 to 1855 and rose rapidly after the Crimean war and later after the freedom was given to the serfs. The difficulty of sale and the fall in price iu the market, which -have afi'ected most of the agricultural products within the last few years, have scarcely affected the flax industry. The most sensitive fall in price of flaxseed as well as of flax fiber was in the year 1887. In that year a bushel of flaxseed brought in St. Petersburg from 79 cents to $1.19, and ou an average $1.07 against $1.13 in 1882-1886; in Odessa, from 12 to 14 cents, or ou an average 13 cents per 36 pounds against 14 cents in the five year period which preceded ; iu Taganrog, from 10 to 13 cents, ou an average 11| cents per 36 pounds against 12 cents. In Riga, however, the price of a pood of flaxseed in 1882-1886 was lOJ cents, and in 1887 the price was from 10 to 13 cents, on an average 12 cents. 604 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. EXPORT OP FLAX PRODUCTS. Among the flax products exported, the principal are flax fiber, tow, and different flax mauul'actures. The following table shows the pro- portion and gradual increase of export of flax products as it is given for the period from 1749 to 1887. JTlax. Tow. Tears. Flax. Tow. Years. Quan- tity. Value. Quan- tity. Value. QlKlll- 11 ly. Value. Quan- tity. Value. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1749 9, U29 $55.5, 500 1,117 $20, 500 1860 86,310 9, 591, 088 14, 364 977, 674 1758-1700- 1778-1780. 9,801 10, 291 1867 80, 244 9,792 902, 600 483 8,500 1868 130, 044 14,515,054 16,848 1,146,814 1790-1792 20, 0'<2 1, 567, 500 608 10, 000 1869 ---. 107, 532 16, 428, 568 19, 206 1, 334, 082 lSI)2-18(lt- 23,212 2, .597, 600 1,137 (*) 1870 196, 870 28, 548,-984 20, 358 1, 413, 698 1814-1815. 19, 798 2, 220, 51)0 839 33, 000 1871 103, 890 33, 791, 384 16, 740 1,162,206 18J0-1831. 29, 282 3, 553, 600 1,524 59, 000 1872 130, 302 18, 957, 197 13, 968 1,404,201 18i4-182« 38, 943 4, 488, 500 1,626 63, 500 1873 162, 738 20,376,891 10,498 881,093 1813-18311. 33, 325 3, 239, 500 6,997 296, 000 1674 179, 820 24, 147, 927 12, 450 1, 020, 347 1842-1844 02, 441 4, 656, 500 8,293 825, 600 1875 170, 118 23, 140, 803 11, 620 1, 026, 498 184.5-1847 )8l8-18.i0. 45, 279 4, 075, 500 12, 127 668, 600 1876 122, 790 10, 420, 746 9,918 1, 354, 061 76, 337 6, 092, 000 10, 230 419,000 1877 201,780 31,689,978 11, 142 1, 720, 397 1831-1853 07, 354 5, 262, 500 13, 218 629, 500 1878 175, 320 28, 269, 708 9,000 1, 688, 693 18.)4-lo56 43, 701 32. 980 9 155 1879 202, 008 34, 834, 536 23, 076 2,221,557 1857 7. 567, 025 17, 010 727, 293 1880 172, 656 27, 786, 039 27, 558 2, 627, 243 1S.j8 OO', 801 0, 825, 332 11, 574 643, 270 1881 233, 086 34, 891, 603 33. 408 3, 454, 576 1859 69, 784 6, 603, 870 19, 828 1, 184, 755 1882 218,894 32, 742, 264 27, 108 2, 726, 727 iseo 71,370 7, 791, 405 10, 062 552,972 1883 197, 442 28, 422, 849 26,784 2, 701, 716 1«01 01, 500 0, 788, 099 15, 087 921,312 1884 200, 052 29, 364, 021 30. 024 3, 037. 750 W-1 75, 609 8, 241, 998 14. 616 891,692 1885 168, 372 23, 108, 624 34,812 2, 043, 008 IWiS 75, 030 8, 271, 065 14, 166 906, 370 1886 127, 898 19, 304, 799 27, 216 2, 202, 002 l.-li4 70, 320 7, 942, 518 14, 698 1, 118, 989 1887 163, 918 23, 797, 600 45, 138 2,721,000 ISlii 110,784 12,975,016 14, O40 900. 066 * Included in the flax. As can be seen the export of flax according to its quantity and price varies greatly. For instance, from 1830 to 1840, from 1850 to 1S55, in 1874-1877, and also in the last three years the export of flax visibly decreased, but in general the Russian participation in the sup- lily of the western Europe mills with raw material increased rapidly only for the period 1861 to 1881, iu quantity only four times, and in price more than five times. The decrease of flax for the last years must be regarded as temporary. The reason can be explained in that the high prices paid for cereals in the first part of the last ten years caused many of the proprietors to abandon the cultivation of flax for that of cereals. The amount of flax exported in 1887 ahvaily proves a return to the former output. With regard to flax tow it must also be said that its export has also increased, but in a much smaller proiiortion than that of flax proper. Lastly, the value of flax fiber and its mauufac- tures can be seen in the following table : Yrnr.^. Flax y.irn. Sail cloth. rlomish linen. Ravens- duoU. Toweling, Crash. Table linci 1800 1805 1870 187.5 1880 1885 $7, 600 11,260,000 057, 500, 000 123, 300, 000 47, 000, 000 80, 300, 000 127, .500, 000 5i,:i5ii, onn 147, 300, 11(111 50, liOO, 000 «2, 1 .^;2, 000 61,8011,000 $14,400,000 26, 900, 000 1, 400, 000 26, 000 200, 000 1, 450, 000 $,-,3, MM, 000 5!), 71111, 000 22, 200. 000 11,5(10,000 9, (1(10, 0011 13, S5'l, 000 $.5, 000 13, 1.50,000 800, OOO' "'s.'iso.ciio $266. 850, 000 613,000,000 232, 750, 000 130,000,000 304, 350, 000 221, 550, 000 $20, 150, 000 60, 900, 000 161.700,000 45, 250, '0(10 12S, 550, oinf (0 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. G05 Therefore the exports of flax products have not increased, but have decreased, forming for the last years not more than one-fifth of the valueof manufactures of the same kind imported from abroad. The table below shows from what ports or frontiers of Eussia the llax fiber has been exported during the five-year period 1857-1861 com- pared with the years 1885, 188C, and 1887. Doscriptiou. 1857-1861. 1885. 1880. 1887. White Soa: Flax Tons. 5,776 6,147 60,164 7,830 1 3, 197 1,337 Tons. 4,938 3,209 90, 834 24, 478 Tons. 2,420 1,708 70. 205 19, 469 3, 310 Tons. 1,636 936 92, 808 2i, 878 Tow ., . , Bultir Sea; Flax Black Sea : Flax 'I'ow Western laml frontiers; Flax 72, 440 6,658 51, 422 5,885 69,151 9 3''4 Tow ' Thus it is seen that the exports from the Baltic Sea, and especially by the land frontiers, have greatly increased ; by the White Sea tlie ex- port has decreased, and in the Blacli Sea it is only occasional. A small quantitj' of flax is exported to Finland and by the Asiatic frontier. In 1886, 334 tons of flax and 459 tons of tow were sent to Finlaud, and 2'2l tons of flax and about 1 ton of tow were exported by the Asiatic fron- tier. The following table shows the amounts of flax exported abroad from 1884 to ISSti and through what custom houses it passed : Custom-houses. 1884. 1885. 1880. Average. Tons. 05. 899 53, 008 18, 1.52 14, 177 12.521 1!,687 5,940 4,808 838 2,812 2,449 2,403 991 201 105 154 77 Tons. 18,884 .50, 517 10. 313 14, 39.1 7, 164 7,771 7,7.55 4,938 2,406 2,045 1,978 2,108 473 576 93 23 13 Tons. 35. 978 35, .1^83 8,287 11,747 .'^, liSO 4, l.W 0, 0;-.:i 2, -i:!0 .'".,71 1, IIOK 1,708 1,408 528 47 142 55 30 Tons. 60, 250 40 330 Ei""a 14, 251 13, 439 jieval ■ 9,401 7,839 6, 58.1 4,059 3.053 2,175 2,045 1, 993 603 295 113 77 42 In 1887, the export from Riga amounted to 49,176 tons. From Verj- balow, 36,144 tons ; from Eeval, 21,888 tons; from Graeva, 12,114 tons; from St. Petersburg 8730 tons ; from Sosnovitz, 5,184 tons ; and from Libau, 2,350 tons. 606 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. The following table shows to what countries Eussian flax is princi- pally exported; it being understood that much of the exports to Eng- land are really destined to the United States : Exported to — 188J. 1885. 18S6. Tons. Tong. Tons. 89, 434 65, 458 48. 665 55, 383 57,682 36, 503 32, 900 21,700 20, 392 8,000 10, 095 3, 457 1,699 279 3,410 9,016 Ifl, 880 10, 489 1887, Germany England JFriiuce Austria- Hungary Holland '.. Belgium , Toi\8. til, 038 56, G58 20, 754 ],02C 12, 036 The countries to which tow is most largely exported and the re- spective amounts are shown in the following table : Exi.ortcd to — England . Germany Prance... Belgium . Holland . Denmark 1884. 1685. 1886. Tons. Tons. Tons. 11,907 17,208 15, 372 7,041 9,076 7,080 5,045 3,193 900 3,113 2,213 1,764 1,406 559 302 120 J, 177 773 Ions. 17,650 11,208 1,179 So it is seen that most of Eussian flax fiber is exported to Germany whereas the greatest purchaser of Eussian tow is England. Formerly both the flax fiber and tow went principally to England, so that in the ten year period from 1857 to 1866, from the total quantity, there was exported : England Germany France Hulland and Bolginni Norwjiy and Sweden . Denmark n.ix. Tow. l\rcnit. I'tr cent. 71 78 7 13 6 1 5 3 . 1 1 1 Consequently the flourishing maiuifactorio.s of England required three-fourths of the flax tow exported from Russia, whereas the Geniiiui manufacturers domandcd very little. But from the. year 187(1, (lermany has rapidly increased its manufactures of flax goods and is to-day tlic first on the list. As has already been stated above, Enssia supplies almost all the countries with llax. Of the total aniount of flax imported into Gei- many, Eussiau flax reiue.sciited S7. 1 toil J. 'J percent, from 1880 to 1884, about 88.6 per cent, iii 1885, and about S,~>. t per cent, in 1886. The percentage of Eussiau tlax imported into England, compared with the total import of flax into England, wa-s, for 1886, 63 per cent, FLA\ CTILTIVATIOK IN RUSSIA. 607 and for 1887, 74 per cent. And these percentages are almost the same in the other countries of Europe. Generally speaking, notwithstanding the great competition brought to flax by cotton, it may be stated that the Eussian flax industry has nothing to fear whatever iu this industry, which will still flourish, especially if proper means are employed to im- prove its manipulation. The export of flaxseed, like that of flax fiber has also increased, al- though it maybe said that these twoproductshavenothingtodoone with the other ; as for instance in the gouthern provinces no account of the fiber is taken, whereas in the northern region the crop of flax fiber may be abundant and that of flaxseed nothing. There is no exact information relative to the export of flaxseed up to 1827, because up to that period flaxseed was not classified separately iu the report of interior commerce. From 1827 to 1887 the average amounts of flaxseed exported per periods of 5 years were as follows : Period. 1S27-'31 1832-';i6 1837-'41 1842-'-lli 1847-'51 1852-56 1857-'61 Qiiantilioa; Bushels. 3, 620, 184 3, 333, 482 5, 567, 484 6, 672, 918 7, 537, 938 8, 343, 936 8, 688, 984 Pjji'iod. 1 862-' 00 1S67-'71 1872-'76 1877-'81 1882-'8fl 1887.... Quantities. Bushels. 8, 588, 082 U, 159, 442 14, 653, 080 14, 655, 1G2 . 10, 451, 172 13, 146, 000 As is seen, the gradual increase of foreign export continued until the eighties. In 1882 a larger amount of flaxseed was exported than had been exported for many years, while in 1885 it was quite insignificant and only amounted to 3,940,490 bushels. In 1886 the exports appeared somewhat improved, and iu 1887 it again attained the figure which is only a little less than for the 5-year period, 1877-81. The following table, however, will better demonstrate the variations in the exports of the flaxseed : Tear. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1876 1876 1877 1878 Quantity. Tons. 366, 422 388, 030 364, 617 393, 655 461, 869 413, 630 344,492 266, 900 436, 813 Value. .$13,671,190 14, 371, .'■)06 II, 146,773 13, 858, 444 1.5, 883, 831 14, 34-1, 227 11, 902, 369 11,361,032 17, 959, 686 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1880 1887 Quantity. Tons. 480, 667 402, 570 383, 506 470, 772 364, 715 270, 560 109, 093 183, 767 354, 960 Value. $20, 538, 296 18, 638, 681 16, 138, 723 18, 623, 698 14, 965, 206 10, 749, 221 4, 332. 650 7, 362, 433 13, 435, 500 608 FLAX CDLTIVATION IN EUSSIA. The division of the amount of flaxseed exported from Eussia, pass- ing through the different custom-houses of Eussia, is as follows : Frontiers. 1884. 1885. 1880. 1887.^ Tons 10, 347 112,561 22, 205 11,602 Tons. 176 66, 229 13, 898 1,043 1 6,193 21, 554 191 495 Tons. 954 99, 0'J3 20, 007 1,418 150 27, 810 34, 349 212 2,2-13 Tons. 0,796 236, 668 Baltic Sea Kusso-GeriDaii . .. , Black Sea 35,649 87, 038 9 741 i 103,206 Azof Sea Finland (!) CO The principal ports through which the flaxseed i)ayses goin^* nbroad are Kiga, Libau, St, Petersburg, Revel, Kostoff, Odessa, aud NieoUiieffj and the principal land frontiers are thj3 Warsaw frontier and (hose of Yerybaloff and Sosnovitz. The amounts of flaxseed exported from Russia during the last 4 years were directed to the following: countries: Countries. England . Germany Holland.. Belgium . France. .. Denmark 1884. 1885. 1886. Tons. Tons. Ton.s. 16), .W? 53, 500 86, 639 32, 500 22, 007 29, 681 27, 408 13,142 32, 897 16,517 12, 039 25, 488 10, 725 2,990 3,161 7,418 891 3,321 Tons. 199, 602 41, 400 45, 432 38, 106 4,496 (!) Besides flaxseed, flax oil and residue aTe exported, but as the latter are not specially classified in the "report of the interior commerce," but are condensed with the same products obtained from hempseed and sunflower seed, the figures below must be considered as much above the reality : I Xear Flaxseed oil. Flax.sceO residue. (Jimiility. 3'..?ix 37 lllO :i27 974 330 un 306 139 548 3,'i 156 Valno. Qaaiitity. Value. 1870 $4,162 11,100 44, 499 26, 779 101,465 24, 035 40, 040 20, 344 00,493 17, 050 70, 514 4.099 26, 101 Tons. r.>, 045 12,770 16,41.2 l,'i, :i(iS 17, 4.M 19,857 27, 74,S i:'. r.liU 20, 9111 30, 043 30 507 30, 895 48. 825 74, 602 190, 106 102, 301 ' ,S0, ^'K', 97,812 $334, 588 1871 1872 187S 1874 421 :ui0 1875 1H7G 0')^' 825 1877 (:,">9 771 1878. . . OSli, 312 1879 1880 .... .«8(1, 542 911, 006 1,489,428 2 239,980 1881 1882 . . 1883 ' 1884 2, 483, 845 2, 474, 967 1886 r:o 103 20 16, 454 14,707 3, 500 1886 1,921,921 2, 074, 600 1887 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 609 As is seen, the exports of flaxseed varies very greatly from year to year, whereas the export of residue nob ouly increases, but seems to have a progressive increase. The largest amount of residue exported is directed to England, and next in order to Germany, Denmark, Bel- gium, Switzerland, and France. If the value of all the flax products be added together, it appears that the average for the last few years amounts to about $45,000,000. Ill 18r)G-'60 this amount was only about $14,500,000; in 186I-'65, it was $17,000,000; iu 1806-'7O it was $29,000,000; in 1871-'75 it was $39,000,000 and in 1870-'80 it was $40,000,000. Therefore tlax and its products amount to about one-sixth of all the goods exported from Russia, showing conclusively that the flax industry merits full atten- tion, not only as an object of revenue for the proprietors, but also as one of the principal national industries of the empire. J. M. Crawford, Consul- Oeneral. United States Consulate-General, St. I'l'tcrsburg, February 10, 1891. FLAX CULTUEE IN RUSSIA. REPORT BY CONSVL BEENAN, OF ODESSA. Flax is cultivated in all parts of European Eussia for local consump- tion, but it has an importance for manufacture only in twenty-three governments, which sow more than 3,105,000 acres in flax, the remain- ing twenty-seven governments showing less than 675,000 acres. With regard to the object for which flax is sown European Russia can be divided into two regions — the northern and the southern. In the first flax is sown chiefly to obtain the fiber, although with the fiber seed is also obtained; and in the second nearly exclusively for the seed. The northern region of the cultivation of flax for manufacturing purposes extends from the southeastern part of the Baltic Sea to the central piirt of the Ural Mountains, within which are the governments of Livonia, Kovco, Vilna (Vitebsk, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslav, Vladimir, JSTizhneeNovgorod, Kostroma, Vologda, Viatka, and Perm. More flax is cultivated in the governments of Viatka and Pskov than in the others. In the first about 251,000 acres are sown into flax, and in the second about 221,000 acres. These two provinces may be considered as the centers of the cultivation of flax, around which the other flax- producing provinces are grouped. The yield of flax per acre in these provinces is very diiferent, and depends on the quality of the soil in which the flax is sown. An acre of good laud gives 400 pounds or more of fiber and from 400 to 535 pounds of seed, but an acre of poor, exhausted soil will not yield more than ICO to 200 pounds of fiber and about 265 pounds of seed. The average yield for the entire region may 610 flax" cultivation in RUSSIA. be considered to be from 2G5 to 330 pounds of flax fiber and 400 pounds of flaxseed per acre. The southern region of the cultivation of flax for the sake of the seed consists of the following territory and governments : The Don-Oossack territory, sowing 262,000 acres; Yekateriuoslav government, sowing 251,000 acres; Klierson government, sowing 175,000 acres; Tanrida (Crimea), Samara, Saratov, Vitroiiezh, Tambov, and Poltava. la the last two provinces flax is grow both for tlie seed and fiber. Flax for the seed is mostly sown either in virgin soil or in old fallow lands. The yield of seed in this rogioii varies from 400 to 670 pounds and more per acre, and for an average may be estimated to be about 535 pounds - per acre. The total harvest of flaxseed for all of European Eussia attains to about 1,800,000,000 pounds. Considering the average value of the flax fiber to be $186 per ton and that of the seed to be $44.10 per ton, it will be seen that value or gain to Russia from the cultivation of flax is about $112,000,000 annually. The advantages derived from the cultivation of flax would be far more if the qualities of the Russian fiber would correspond with its quantities and if a larger portion of it were to be exported in a manu- factured state. As regards its quality, Russian flax is not only sur- passed by Irish flax, but also by the flax of many other countries of western Eurojie (Belgian, Dutch, French, and Bohemian), and is valued in foreign markets lower than any other flax. The low qualities of the Russian fiber are not the result of natural causes, but of the ignorance as to the proper method of treating the flax. The cultivators of flax are chietiy peasants, who partly do not know and partly do not possess tiie means to acquire the latest iinprovements in the primary technical manipulation of the fiber. Another cause of the imperfect working out of the flax is to be found in the absence of a home demand for a higli quality of fiber. Russian factories do not produce linen from the finest numbers of spun thread, and therefore do not require the high- est class of flax. This latter circumstance is unfortunate, as it is a strong impediment to improvements in the manipulation of the flax fiber. The aim of the producer is a large quantity rather than an improved quality, and the result is a progressive redaction in the qiialities of the liber. Ot late years this has becoine particularly apparent in the gov- ernment of Pskov. Formerly Pskov flax had a high reputation all over Russia, but now it is quoted much lower than flax from Velogda, Kos- troma, Yaroslav, and Tver. About 07ie-h:ilf of the flax; fiber produced in Russia is exported abroad only hal (' worked (th(^ unbrushed fiber together with the tow), and the greater part of the fihl^r remaining in the empire is worked up by the peasants in their farmhouses into thread and linen for their own use, as well as for sale. A mncli smaller part of the flax goes to the spinning a,nd weaving factories, which are chiefly situated in the governmenis of Vliidimeer, Kostroma, and Yaroslav. FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 611 As regards the internal or home trade of flax, it is almost entirely in the hands of small dealers, ^¥ho drive from villaj^o to village and make their purchases in' small lots. The flax thus collected is then sent in considerable quantities to the towns which serve as centers to the flax trade. In the western part of the northern region the most important centers of the flax trade are Poneviezh (government of Kovno), Dilna- burg (government of Vitebsk), Pskov, Ostrov, Opochka, and the ham- let of Soltsy (government of Pskov). Prom Poneviezh and Diiiiabiirg the flax is chiefly forwarded to Kiga, and only a small qunntity of it to Libau, and from Soltsj'^ by rafts on the spring high water to St. Peters- burg. The i)ort of St. Petersburg receives the flax, tow, and linseed from Tver, V'aroslav, Kostroma, Vladimeer, and even from Vologdti and Viatka. In the government of Tver the chief markets for the products of flax cultivation are Byetsk, Pzhev, and Kashin; in the government of Yaroslav, Ooglitch, Eostoft', and the village of Velikoje; in the government of Kostroma, Kostroma, Nerekhta, Kineshma, and Pies ; in the gove-rnment of Vladimeer, Melenki. From the three last- named governments only a small part of the flax is sent to St. Peters- burg, the greater part being nsed up by the flax-spinning and linen- weaving factories. Prom the governmentsof Vologda and Viatka the bulk of the flax is forwarded to Archangel. The points where flax produce is collected for shipment by way of Archangel are: In the government of Vologda, Oostioog Velikee; in the government of Viatka, Viatka, Orlof, Slobodskoi, Kotelnik, Glazov, and Kn"karka. In the southern region the chief product of the cultivation of flax (linseed) goes direct by rail to the ports of Odessa, Eostofl', and Tag- anrog for exportation abroad. As regards the southeastern provinces of Samara, Saratov, and part of Tambov, they send their linseed by the water ways of the Volga and her system of canals to St. Petersburg. The Linum tisitatissimum vulgarc and crepitans are being cultivated in Russia in several varieties of both kinds, but the difference in these varieties is so slight and they so easily blend that even those initiated in the tradeof the article often fail topercei ve it. Both (vulgare and crep- itans) have bine blossoms and occasionally white blossoms. The blue- blossom varieties are preferred. About -!1,000,000 bushels of seed are annually raised in European Russia. The quantity exported was as follows : Bushels. 1887 13,000,000 1KS8 14,000,000 1889 • 13,500,000 1890 (estimated) 12,000,000 Of the total export of Russian oilseeds England receives (via Hull and London) 57 per cent.; Germany, about 14 per cent.; Holland, about 11 per cent. ; and Belgium about 8 per cent. The most impor- tant markets for the sale of Russian flax fiber are Dundee, in Scotland ; Lille, in France ; Ghent and Antwerp, in Belgium. 612 FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. Flaxseed, as understood in Russia, comprises sowing seed and crush- ing seed. The first named is a more carefully sorted quality, exported exclusively for sowing purposes. Crushing seed is tHe surplus seed of the flax plant, which is exported for making oil, etc., as there is no de- mand for it as sowing seed. With this quality the seed received from the interior is mixed and the whole exported as crushing seed. Of the total quantity exported, viz, 13,000,000 bushels, about two-thirds is de- scribed as sowing seed. The seed is sown in April, May, and early in June. It is sown earlier in the south and southeast than in the center, west, and north ; much depends 'whether the seasons are early or late. The harvest begins as early as July and as late as the months of August and September, earlier in the south and later in the north. The number of bushels of flaxseed raised per acre depends on the object to be attained ; when the seed is the object a much less quantity is sown, per acre, and when the fiber is desired a much larger quantity is sown. In the south and east of Russia a little over a half bushel per acre is sown, and the yield is about 10 bushels. In those parts of central Russia where the fiber is not utilized a little over four-fifths of a bushel is sown, and the yield is about 10 bushels. In western Russia and those parts of central Russia where the fiber is utilized, 1 to 1 J bushels per acre are sown, and about 5 bushels is the yield. In northern Russia, where the fiber is the chief consideration, nearly 3 bushels per acre are sown, which gives about 6 bushels of seed and from 300 pounds to COO pounds of fiber. This year's crop is above the average in quality, but less in quantity than any year since 1885. The seed is.ready for export in the months of September, October, and November in the south, and from northern and central Russia often not before March of the following year. Flaxseed is exported from Riga, Libau, Pernau, St. Petersburg, Rostofton-Don, Odessa, Mcolisev, Sevastopol, Mariopol, Taganrog, Berdiansk, and other ports by water, and also in large quantities by rail to Germany and Austria. Flaxseed is usually sown by hand, and the land should be carefully prepared and be of good quality. The plowing should not be less than 9 inches in depth, and the land should be as free as possible from weeds and thoroughly prejiared boforeluind for the reception of the seed ; after the sowing, the seed is covered by passing a harrow once or twice over the ground. Moist and mild weather favors the development of the plant in all of its parts; a hot and dry climate, with occasional showers, will produce a good develop- ment of the seed, but the fiber is usually coarse and brittle, as the ligniu jiarts of the stems then develop at the expense of the fiber. The culti- ■\ation of flax, whether for seed or fiber, rc(iuirps for its proper develop- ment a rich black loam (10 to li inches) having a clay subsoil ; good crops, however, are grown where the subsoil is gravel or gray sand. Flax is grown in nearly every ]>rovince of European Russia. The working up of the flax til)or is carried out by the so-called flax- FLAX CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA. 613 breakiag or flax-swinging, and further by flax-spiuning and linen- weaving, factories. The total number of flax-swinging factories is 59 ; of flax-spinning factories, 20; of linen-weaving factories, 88. These factories produce annually goods valued at $20,000,000 and over, which are made entirely from the flax fiber. Much linen and thread is made yearly by the peasantry at their homes, the value of which can not be ob- tained. About $5,000,000 worth of linseed oil is manufactured and con- sumed annually in Russia, a very small quantity being exported. Oil cake, the product of tiaxseed, is exported to the value of about $2,500,000 yearly. The lesson to American farmers, especially those of I lie North- west, which the total product of the cultivation of flax in Russia fur- nishes will be readily appreciated and understood. The possibilities ■which the cultivation of the flax fiber ofters to Western farmers is only equaled by the surprise that such possibilities have thus far been neglected, if, indeed, they were not altogether unknown. The seed has been cultivated with more or less satisfactory results in the United' States, but the fiber practically not at all. The climate, soil, and con- ditions generally throughout the Northwest are very favorable to the cultivation of the flax fiber as well as the seed. After a short expe- rience, as to the primary manipulation or handling of the flax fiber, our farmers would produce flax which would compare favorably with the best varieties of the fiber. It seems strange that a jiractical people like ourselves should for years have been satisfied to cultivate flax for the seed at a value of about $15 per acre, and at the same time we allow 600 pounds of flax fiber per acre to rot on the ground, this flax fiber having a value, after being manipulated, of $186 per ton. Familiar as our farmers are with the working of improved and expen- sive agricultural machinery and the latest developments of the human intellect as applied to the soil, they may always learn something by watching the working of rude ideas as seen in a primitive and unso- phisticated ijeople. The main dift'ereuce between the old and the new system of farming is not one of method, but of expense; and, as phy- sicians never really know what a disease is capable of until they see an outbreak in virgin soil, so it is not possible to fathom all the possi- bilities of the most commonplace notions and devices until we see them applied with the unconventional freedom and simple directness that belong to comparatively primitive peoples. The Russian peasant is both simple-minded and ignorant; he clings to old methods as much from liking as for the expense which new methods involve. From the flax fiber by the aid of his primitive and rude contrivance, the Rus sian peasant produces linen, thread, crash, and other valuable and necessary articles for the use of his family and for sale. It does not require the aid of expensive machinery to make the flax fiber either useful or valuable. The rude machines which the Russian peasant em- ploys are the handiwork of some village carpenter or wheelwright, and are made at a comparatively small cost. If the Russian peasant farmer 614 FLAX CULTIVAl'ION IN KUSSIA. accomplishes sucli results, the American farmers, who possess like con- ditions of climate and soil, should accomplish much more. The unsat- isfactory condition of the farmers in our Northwestern States, which is certainly due to the overcnltivation of wheat, with its yearly decreas- ing yield per acre, renders it all the more important that a speedy means be found to relieve a comlition of things which affects the ma- terial interest iind welfare of the great. majority of the people of the United Stales. Such a means exists in the llnx plant. It will not only enable farmers to make their own linen, r(>[)e, thread, crash toweling, oil cake, and much besides, but will cause new industries to bo estab- lished throughout the country iu districts where the advent would be both profitable uud new. Tliere should be a general and persistent effort made to encourage the cultivation of the llax fiber throughout the United States, with the \iew of establishing factories for the man- ufacture of twine or textiles, and, if this report should develop a proper interest in so important a subject, the result can not fail to be satisfactory. PLAX PEODUOT OF EUROPE. In no country of the world does the cultivation of flax attain such large dimensions as iu liussia. Russia alone produces more flax than all the other countries of Europe combined. Exact statistical data re- garding the annually obtained products from the cultivation of flax are not compiled either in western Europe or iu Russia. There are only approximate valuations, based upou the knowledge of the area which is occnpied under the cultivation of Bax and of the avei'age yield per acre. Out of the total area sown in Europe with flax, and amounting to about 5,700,000 acres, more than 3,700,000 acres are sown in Russia. Notice must at the same time be taken of the fact that, while in all European countries without exception the area of land under the culti- vation of flax is being annually more and ujore reduced, it is. in Russia, on the contrary, being increased. The total quantity of flax fiber pro- duced in the whole of ICurope is estimated to be 1,354,000,000 pounds, distributed as follows : Coiiutrii's. Quantity. Couutriea. Quiiiitity. lillHHiit ... J'uiindH. OUO, UOO, 000 104,4(10,000 !)7. L:(iO, 000 7J), 200, OUO Tivl;m.l •1G MKI 000 An.Hl,ii;i-Hi 4't 200 01 Kijuii'o ... All otlier countries , ... ;!(), 000, OiO Thus the share which Kiissia has in the total cpnuitity of flax fiber produced in all Eurox)e is exactly two-thirds. Tiios. E. Heenan, Consul. United States Consulate, Odessa, January 17, 1891. FLAX CULTIVATION IN IRELAND. ' 615 DECLINE OF THE IRISH FLAX INDUSTRY. RJirOUT BY C'OMMERVIAL AOEXT SMYTIJ, III-' UV J>1)EI;SFIELD. A steady decline in the 1l:i\ induNtiy of Ireliiiid is noted, notwitli- stimdinj;- tbo repesited ell'orts of kite ycar.s to revive it. Stranj,'e as it may seem, howevoi', Bellast still mainta-iiiH its pioininonce in the linen trade, while for years the native soiircH's from \yhich it was accustomed to draw its supplies of fiber have been contracting- and growing less, so that to-day we find its manufacturers importing from the Continent millions of pounds' worth annually. It is not within the province of this report to discuss the economic causes which have produced such a serious revolution in the cominerceof the country, for such a discussion would only lead to the coiisideration of systems and (juestious which may not properly come under consular review, ^\'hile lieUast to-day exports its linen products to all (jountiies of the .^lobe, the material benefits of its trade have a local application only, instead of being felt throughout every section of the country where a pound of llax cau be raised. This is the result of those singular conditions which have been forced upon the people by direct legislation, and which have gradually destroyed all the native industries and driven their natural products otf the face of the laud. It has been ascertained by Professor Sullivan, of Cork, that the soil and climate of Ireland can not be excelled for the l)roduction of flax, and yet Belgium, liussia, and Holland supply mil- lions' worth of the fiber every year to the linen manufacturers of JJel- fasf. It is said on good authority that, were the internal affairs of the country properly managed and this important industry properly en- couraged and supported, the Irish flax producers would soon be able to drive their foreign competitors out of the market and turn to their account every year from $50,000,000 to $75,{)()(),000. It would also enable them to export a large T]|uantity of fiax of a superior grade. In an interesting article ou this subject Professor Sullivan writesj I have examiaed .all the soils of Europe iind of iiiuoteon Amevican States ; iioiip, of all tliese possesses the properties for tUe productiou of liber equal lo the soil of Ire- land . A writer in one of the magazines for March takes up the subject, and locates the cause of failure among the farmers themselves, charging their methods with the greatest part of it. It must be remembered that these very causes are in themselves but the effects of other causes which invoke conditions and circumstances which are, unfortunately, a part of the political management of the country. The poor farmer is always found between forces, which, operating like millstones, have ground the very life out of him, until there is very little of either him or his name left in the country. He gets none of that encouragement of material aid that might enable him to elevate either himself or his methods in the struggle against superior powers and superior advan- 616 FLA.X CULTIVAXrON IN IRELAND. tages. Hence lie is left to toil and spin in vain, while the Dutch and the Belgians and the far-off Eussians step in with their products and carry off the money that should flow into his pockets to improve his lot, en- rich his country, or brighten his own home. It is contended in this magazine article that the failure of the Irish flax in the native market can be explained only by the defective way in which the crop is cultivated. The writer says : ' In Ireland the farmers produce the crop and prepare it for the cloth maunfactnrer. In Belgium, In Holland, and in Russia, on the other hand, the farmer concerns himself solely with the cultivation of the crop. The preparation of the fiber is in the hands of persona specially fekilled and trained in the work. The coubiunance in Ireland of the old system is known to entail much loss and wasie, while it is seemingly on account of the greater efficiency and higher quality arising from the division of labor that the Belfast manufacturers so frequently jirefer the foreign to the home-grown article. Alter the farmer has sown the seed and gathered the crop several processes remain before the flax can he used in the cloth mills. The most important are techni- cally known as " steeping " and " scutching." By steeping is generally meant sink- ing the straw in deep water. Different methods of steeping prevail in difierent coun- tries, according to local circumstances. In Holland stones are scarce, so the flax has to he laid on the surface of the water and then covered with mud raked up from the bottom of the water. The finest flax in the world comes from Courtrai, in Belgium, where the fiber is steeped in the River Lys, whose velocity is only at the rate of 3 miles an hour. The straw is sunk packed in crates, and for many miles both banks of the river are used as steeping grounds. In Russia, on the other hand, the flax is merely spread upon the ground and the rain is left to do the steeping. On Irish flax farms the straw is thrown into pits or wells with the seed still on it, the farmers not having learned the continental trick of saving the seed and yet getting goqd fiber. Much expense is consequently incurred in obtaining seed from abroad. On theCou- tinent, too, the method of "scutching" is widely diflerent, the yield of fiber being usually wider and better. So general is the necesary technical knowledge, that in the scutching mills the labor is mostly that of girls and lads from 17 to SO years old, instead of men, as in Ireland, earning 30s. a week. Both the cheapness and the effi- ciency of the labor is said to he due to the separation of the functions of the producer from what are really those of the manufacturer. There are two methods by which this is accomplished: The farmer may buy the seed and sow it on his land in order to sell it to the factor, who will prepare the flax for the market; the factor, on the other hand, may himself provide the seeds and hire the land from the farmer, whose remuneration for preparing the land, sowing the seed, etc., will be included in the rent. It is to the adoption of one or the other of, these plans that some people in Ireland are looking for a revival of what should bo one of its most important industries. At the present time the crop is only cultivated to any extent in seven out of thirty-two counties, the production of flax in all the southern counties being quite insignificant. The avenif;e crop of the seven counties is worth £800,000 per annum ; so that if the other twenty-five counties were prodncers in the same proportion, Ireland's flax industry, regardless of the seed that should be saved under an improved system, which would of itself represent a considerable suui, could be made to realize an income of between £S, 000, 000 and £4,000,000 yearly. As a mat- ter of fact, the experts are of opinion that with its well-watered valleys the south of Ireland is even better adapted to the production of llax than the north. Befi^ro the farmers of the south can supply Belfast market with lilier etiual to that which is now imported from across the seas, there must, itis thought, be some intermediate agency by which the preparatory process could bo undertiil;eu. Some 2 years ago a Belfast manufacturer made a very successful experiment with flax-growing in the south on FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND, 617 the continental system. He rented 60 acres of land near Cork, which he had prepared for a flax crop; last season the land yielded 80 stones of fiber of the value of 10». per stone and seed to the value of £6 per acre, the profit being over 300 per cent. This is probably an exceptionally favorable result, but it certainly sbows that under proper conditions the production of flax in the southern part of the island can be made to yield wealth beyond the Irish farmers' dreams of avarice. It is proposed to give the continental system a trial in Tipperary. Mr. Dickson, a member of Parliament, has guarantied a fund to start it with 100 acres. Its success would undoubtedly lead to the revival of a very important industry for the Irish people. William P. Smyth, Commercial Agent. United States Commeeoial Agency, Huddersfield, March 6, 1891. NEW ZEALAND FLAX. REPORT BY CONSVL QRIFFIN, OF A VOKLASD. [From Consular Beports ^o. 11. J New Zealand flax {Phormium tenax) is by far the most valuable fibrous plant indigenous to this colony. It has been an article for export ever since 1809. The attention of Europeans was first directed to it by the great navi- gator. Captain Cook, who described it as something superior to either flax or hemp. The natives, or Maories, have for many years used it for binding together the framework of their houses, and for making cloth- ing, baskets, fine mats, fishing nets and lines, and sails for their boats and canoes. The name Phormium tenax is derived from the Greek word Phornos (a basket), and tenax (strength). It belongs to the liliaceous family of plants, a species of plants whose history can be traced from the earliest ages. It is mentioned in the book of Exodus as one of the productions of Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs, and it has been ascertained that the cloth in which the Egyptians enfolded their mum- mies was made of this plant. Herodotus frequently refers to it, and mention is also made of it in the New Testament. Our Savior once selected one of the flowers of the Lilium chalcedonicum as an emblem of beauty. Phormium tenax is sometimes called the flax lily. The leaf varies in size from 3 to 14 feet in length, and from one-half inch to 5 inches in breadth at the widest part. It grows in bunches or groups of plants ; each shoot has five leaves. On an average, about ten of these shoots form a bunch. The leaves are perennial, hard, and sword shaped, with a stalk rising 5 or 6 feet above them bearing a profusion of yellow and some- times red flowers, followed by triangular seed vessels filled with flat and thin black shining seed. The plant attains its full growth in 3 77A- — 15 618 FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. years, wlien the leaves generally split at the end, and it first comes into flower. It is said that in rich soil the flower rises to a height of 20 feet. The leaves are smaller in structure than those of European flax and hemp plants, being composed of cellular trusses running the whole length of the leaf, incased in a green substance. The trusses consist of two parts, wood and bast, the latter forming the fiber so highly prized. The fibro-vascular bundles compose the inner bark of the plant, and serve to circulate the juices which are taken from the soil by the roots. They consist of exceedingly fine threads, one lapping over the other in such a manner as to give a free circulation throughout the leaf. The plant is indigenous only to New Zealand and Norfolk Island, although it has been transplanted in India and other countries, and is said to grow on the Pacific slope of the United States. It grows best in rich, moist, and well-drained ground. It reaches the greatest size on the banks of running streams. When the leaves are full grown, the natives gather them when green and separate the fibers. They scrape the leaves with a shell, and then divide them with a comb. They are then put in the sun to dry, and when dry are perfectly white, soft, and silky to the touch. It takes but little time to prepare the fiber ; the plant may be shorn of its leaves in the morning, and before the sun is set the fibers are ready for weaving into cloth. The natives produce about 1 ton of fiber out of 4^ tons of green leaves. A full-grown plant will produce on an average about 36 leases, besides oflshoots from the roots, and it takes about six leaves to yield one ounce of fiber. At this estimate an acre of ground, planted 3 feet apart, would yield about 16 cwt. of fiber. When cultivated, the yield is about 2^ tons per acre. DIFFERENT VAKIETIES OP PHOEMIUM TENAX. The list of names of the different varieties of Phormium tenax distin- guished by the natives is a very long one. It embraces aonga, a vari- gated flax described by Bishop Selwin; atewhild, a very white fiber used for making fine mats and garments, the leaf is narrow with a red- dish tinge, edge and keel narrow, bright scarlet lines; sapoto, cultivated at Coromandel, Kawhia, and Waikata — glossy leaves, rather red at the edge, has a general orange-green appearance at a distance; sarariki, a species of very fine and soft texture used for making ornamented mats, the leaves tapering, of a dull olive-green, lighter on the other side, dark- red keel and edge, and a keel on the upper side, gradually shaded away, forming a dark-colored band one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch broad ; about 2 or 3 inches of the point of the leaves are of the same dark color. Two varieties of Phormium tenax are described in the New Zealand flora. Dr. Hochsetter makes the following classification : FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 619 Sihori, a cultivated kind; suhari, swamp flax; and wharariM, hUl liax. The first named, sihori, is regarded as tbe best variety ; it is used only for tbe finest work by the Maories ; it seldom grows to a greater height than 5 feet. Suhara, or swamp flax, grows to a height of frojn 10 to 13 feet; it bears a red flower about half an inch longer than the sihori, the seed-pods are also larger, and the scape is of a dark-red color. This flax may be distinguished from the other species by its bright color, ■ sturdiness, and the nature of its fiber. WharariM, or hill flax, is said to possess but a small proportion of fiber, and that of a very coarse kind. It is said to be cultivated in the coldest parts of the South Island, but it does not appear to be used for manufacturing purposes. DIFPIOXJLTIES TN THE PREPARATION OP THE FIBER. The greatest difficulty iu the preparation of the fiber of Phormiiim tenax is to do away with the gummy or mucilaginous products found in the leaf. Captain Huttou is of the opinion that what is ordinarily spoken olas the gum is, iu reality, at least three different products, viz: First, the gum on the outside of the lower part of the leaf; second, the bitter principle and mucilage contained in the cells of the leaf ; third, the cement that binds the ultimate fibers together into bundles. He found, while experimenting, that the gum softens, but does not dissolve in cold water, and that it readily dissolves in boiling water. The bitter principle is easily overcome by cold water. The cement dissolves in boiling water, and more quickly in alkalies. Acids which dissolve the gum have no efiect upon the cement. Hutton says: The strength of the fibrous bundles depends entirely upon the cement that holds the ultimate fibers together; and if this is dissolved, either b\ hot water or alkali, the who^e would separate into a mass of fluff, with no coherence or strength. It appears from a report on the chemistry of Phormium tenax, by Prof. A. H. Church, that the fiber contains much matter soluble iu water, or liable to change. This accounts for the decay of rope made with this material. Professor Church says that the use of a mixture of lubricating or machinery parafflne oil with wood tar seems to prevent the entrance of sea water and the pron«ness to change in phormium fiber. He suggests that the fiber should be immersed in sulphuric acid of the consistency of that used in the manufacture of vegetable parch- ment for the purpose of toughening and strengthening it. Professor Church is opposed to the use of akaline matters at a high temperature in the treatment of the fiber, from the fact that it tends to destroy the oil and otherwise injure the fiber. He does not think that the ultimate fibers are held together by any cement, but by their cell walls. STRENGTH OF NEW ZEALAND FLAX. New Zealand flax is generally supposed to be the strongest fiber in the world, but such is not the case. Eecent experiments with testing 620 FLAX CULTIVATION. IN NEW ZEALAND. machfnes show that, while it is more thau double the streugth of ordi- nary hemp and flax it is not as strong as silk. I give below a table furnished me by Mr. S. Cheesemaii, of the New Zealand Institute, showing the comparative strength of various kinds of fibers. Table showing the strength of various fliers. PouDds. Silk will bear a strain of i 34 Phormmm tenax, a strain of SSiV Russian heiup, a strain of 16f Common flax, a strain of IIJ Agave americana, a strain of 7 This table does not vary much from that given by Professor Lindley, which is as follows : Pounds. Silk will bear a strain of 34 Fhormium tenax, a strain of 23 European hemp, a strain of 16 European flax, a strain of 11 EXPORT OF FLAX. In 1837 there was exported from New Zealand 1,062 tons of Fliormium, tenax, the value of which was $106,200. In 1864 the export iucreased to 2,228 tons, with a value of $302,950. The largest export occurred in the year 1873, when the quantity was 6,451 tous and the value $718,975. I give below a table showing the quantity and value of flax exported from New Zealand for each year since 1871 : TaMe showing the quantity and value of Phormium tenax exported from the various ports oj New Zealand for each year from 1869 to 1880, inclusive. Tears. Quantity. Value. Tears. Quantity. Value. X871 4,248 3,987 0,454 2,038 639 $453, 055 497, 025 718, 975 188, 450 58, 710 1876 897 1,053 022 445 894 $31 425 1877 94, 130 187;t 1878 53 331 1870 30, 370 1876 .... 1880 78,085 FLAX MILLS. The latest complete returns I have of the number of flax mills in New Zealand is for the year 1878. During that year most of the mills were worked for only a portion of the year. The industry, owing to the low price realized for dressed flax, was iu a declining state. I append hereto a table showing the number of flax mills in operation during the year ending March, 1878, with the number of machines, the power and num- FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 021 ber of bands employed, and the quantity of flax manufactured during the year. Provisional districta. Aucklimd "Wellington . . Marlborough Kelsob Canterbary . - Otago Total . . No. of uiills. No. of lacliines. Horse- power. 134 14 45 30 9 19 Em- ploy 68. 172 4 36 12 28 10 Qiiiiniity uiauti- factured. Tout. 642 10 297 UO leri 111 1,190 It will be seen from this table that Auckland has a larger number of flax mills than all the other provincial districts of the colony put to- gether. I am informed by Mr. J. M. King, who is now engaged iu compiling the census returns of Auckland for the year ending April, 1881, that the returns indicate a more prosperous condition of the flax .mills than the colony has enjoyed since 1874, and that the number of mills and hands employed therein are largely iu excess of those of 1880, ' These mills are used principally for dressing the flax for rope making. I learn from the commissioners' report on flax that the green leaves are stripped by revolving rollers with projecting beaters traveling at a high rate of speed, which crush the epidermis against a fixed plate, so set as to allow room for the fiber to remain intact. The fiber, thus freed from the leaf of the plant, is washed by various methods, put on the ground or on lines to dry and bleach, finished by an arm or bar- rel scutch, and, when boiled, is ready for market. All the machines used are identical in principle and vary only iu the details by which the principle is carried out. This principle is that the leaf is held between horizontal feed rollers, revolving at a certain speed, while, as the leaf passes out from them, a drum armed in its circumfer- ence with iron beaters, and revolving more rapidly than the feed rollers, strips the epidermis and tissues away from the fiber, means being pro- vided for adjusting the beating drum to a proper distance from the roller or bar against which the phormium leaf is stripped, so that the leaf may neither on the one hand pass through without being crushed, nor, on the other, have the fibers cut. PEBPAEATION OF "THE FIBER BY THE NATIVES. The method of preparing the fiber by machinery is certainly a great improvement over that of the Maoris, because the waste is nothing like so great. Indeed, the Maoris do not obtain from each leaf one-fourth of the quantity that would be secured in machine dressing. The natives cut off the leaf about six inches below the point where the two blades adhere together and reject the colored edges ; they so take much time 622 FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. and pains in preparing the leaf, often soaking it four or five days in rnn- ning water and then beat it with a stone or mallet. This process is re- peated over and over again for four or five weeks. They can not be made to understand the value of time. It is certain, however, that the fiber dressed by the natives is far more valuable and beautiful than that prepared by machinery. COMPETING PIBEES. The principal competing fiber with Phormium tenax is manilla hemp, of which such vast quantities are used in the United States. Manilla hemp is a native of the Philippine Islands. It is made from a species of plantain called Musa textiles. It is planted generally on the slopes of hills, and requires shade and plenty of moisture. The trees are planted about eight feet apart, and are cut down at the end of the third year and made into fiber. A full grown tree will yield about 1^ pounds of hemp. It does not appear that machinery has ever been used successfully in its manufacture, altliough many inventions have been made for the purpose, but the hemp for the most part continues to be produced by manual labor. The process of manufacture is described as follows : The tree is cut down and stripped of its linings; these are then cut into pieces three or four inches wide, after which they are drawn underneath an instrument resembling a saw fixed in a block of wood. The fleshy part of the cortex is scraped oif, and the fiber alone remains, which is then placed in the sun to dry. ^wo persons, one engaged in cutting down the trees and stripping them and the other in extracting the fiber, can work up about 25 pounds of clean hemp in the course of one day. The greatest objection to rope made of New Zealand flax is that it becomes unfit for use after it is once wet, although there is no doubt that it will -last longer than any other kind if kept dry. On the other hand, rope made from manilla hemp is actually improved by getting wet. NEW ZEALAND FLAX IN THE AZOEES. Phormimm tenax, I learn, is now being cultivated extensively in the Azore Islands. A company lias been established thore composed of two Englishmen and two Portuguese. One o1' the latter is stated to be the holder of a concession from the Government of a monopoly for the manufacture of this article throughout Portugal and all Portuguese possessions, which concession the company are to buy of him for £15,000 in shares, being one-half the nominal capital of the company, the ven- dor agi'(^eing not to receive, any dividend until the other 15,000 shares shall have received six i)er (!ent. CULTIVATION OK PLAX IN NEW ZEALAND. It is more than probable that the cultivntion of Phormium tenn.v in New Zealand will soon become a profitable industry. The rapid spread FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 623 of colonization and tlie alienation of tbe waste lands of tlie crown to private proprietors have very much narrowed the source of supply of wild liax, which principally grows most luxuriently in soil that is selected by the settlers for agricultural purposes. Of course, as the stock of wild tlax becomes scarce the necessity for cultivating the plant becomes greater. Experience proves that the wild flax will soon become insufli- cient for the demand, and due consideration must be given to the fact that flax, like nearly all other plants, can bo improved by cultivation. EXPORT OF FLAX TO THE UNITED STATES. Very Itttle New Zealand flax is shipped direct to the United States Whatreaches there generally goes by way of London. There was but one small direct shii)ment to America from Auckland in 1879, iind none at all in the year 1880. The duty charged upon the imports of New Zealand flax into the United States is only $5 per ton, and ought, not to interfere materially with its shipment to America. It may be, how- ever, that it can not compete successfully with manilla or some of the various kinds of hemp grown in the United States. G. W. Griffin, Consul. United States Consulate, AucTcland, June 15, 1881. NEW ZEALAND FLAX. REPORT BY CONSUL OONNOLLr, OF AUCKLAND. [From Consalar Keporta No. llC] Inasmuch as flax fiber has become an article of considerable com- mercial importance in New Zealand during the past year, I have endeav- ored to procure some of the seed, which I forward herewith,* together with such information as I have been able to obtain in relation to the cultivation of the fiber. The purchase of New Zealand flax by the United States has largely exceeded that of any other country during 1889. I have therefore deemed it my duty, in view of the immense commercial value to which this exclusively New Zealand product has attained during the brief space of one year, to acquaint the Department of its growing importance as an article of export to the United States and other countries. I am convinced that if handled with intelligence and care the Phor- niium tenax plant can be successfully and advantageously cultivated in the United States. The climate and swamps of many of the South- ern States are peculiarly adapted to the propagation of New Zealand * Sent to the Department of Agriculture. 624 FLAX CULTIVATION IN NEW ZEALAND. flax. The climate of California is also suitable for the cultivation of the flax plant. Fhormium tenax is indigenous to New Zealand, Norfolk Islands^ Chatham Islands, and other smaller islands situate between between 30° and 50° south latitude. The most robust and finest plants are to be found between 35° and 41°. It grows on any soil from the sea-level to an altitude of 2,000 feet ; but it is found in the greatest luxuriousness in swamps and on the banks of rivers and lakes. The leaf or blade often attains the length of 15 feet and from 2J to 3 inches in width. Before the Maoris adopted European clothing considerable care was bestowed on the selection and cultivation of the plant by them. They dressed it by a process of steeping and scraping and hand scutch- ing, which produced a fiber almost as fine and glossy as floss silk, of which they wove their mats and "kakahu" (clothing). But of late years, since the Maoris have learned they can procure their clothing from their European neighbors with much less effort than they could manufacture it with the primitive methods at their command, no steps have been taken for the conservation of the better varieties. The seed accompanying this paper is of a superior quality, was pro- cured for me by a Mr. Jeffs, who has lived in this colony for nearly 40 years and who is thoroughly familiar with the flax industry of New Zealand. It may be proper to state that Mr. C. K. Jefts, of Oneliunga, New Zealand, is willing to furnish seeds and practical information to any one desiring to engage in the cultivation of Fhormium tenax in America. The seed above referred to was obtained from an old Maori cultivation, and is highly prized by those natives who still devote their attention to the weaving of mats and other useful ornaments manu- factured from the fiber. The flax used for export is usually cut from the swamps, marshes, and river banks. It is in its wild, uncultivated state, and it is cut down and run through the machines without any attempt at selection. This is much to be regretted, as with a little care, even with the crude ma- chinery in use at present, a much finer article could be produced. The persons usually employed to cut the green flax are paid by the ton. It is therefore to their interest to get as much weight as possible, and, in consequence, they cut as close to the ground as they can. The lower ,end of the leaf is thick and fleshy, containing a large amount of gum and vegetable matter, and weighs heavily as compared with upper portions of the leaf; besides, the fiber obtained from the butt end is very much inferior in texture to that procured from the body and top of the blaAe. To imperfect machinery and carelessness in theselection of green plants may be ascribed the apparent coarseness and inferiority so often com- plained of in the flax exported from certain portions of New Zealand. But with improved flax-dressing machinery and projier care exercised in the selection of the raw material a very superior article can be pro- duced. The Fhormium tenax fiber is susceptible of a much higher de- FLAX CULTIVATION IN INDIA. 625 gree of preparation than has been bestowed upon it up to the present. This, however, is not altogether the fault of those who are engaged in its manufacture; it is for want of tlie necessary machinery. The hand- dressed article prepared by the natives is as fine as silk as compared with the modern machine-dressed flax of today. This only demonstates the fact that the fiber may be reduced to a much finer quality, and all that is necessary to do this is an iiaproved machine. If the New Zea- landers can not produce the requisite machinery I trust the inventive genius of America will come to the rescue. There is certainly a splen- did opportunity and a fortune for any man who will invent a machine that will successfully and economically reduce New Zealand flax to a proper degree of fineness. Many who profess to thoroughly understand the toughness and dura- bility of the Phormium tenax believe that if it could be properly reduced it would enter largely and successfully into the manufacture of valuable textile fabrics. The quantity of seed I havQ forwarded to the Department, I am re- liably informed, is nearly sufficient for an acre of ground, and with ordinary care in its cultivation will be in proper condition to send to the "flax-mill" at the expiration of 3 years from the date it is put in the ground. It takes about twelve hundred healthy plants to the acre, Jbndj to use Mr. Jefl:''s expressive language, " in 3 or 4 years it would be so close you would hardly be able to ride a horse through it." For additional information on the subject reference to my report to the Department, dated December 31, 1889, may be of some value. Jno. D. Connolly, Consul. United States Consulate, Auckland, March 6, 1890. LINSEED IN INDIA. S.EPOBT BY OONSVLOENERAL MERRILL, OF OALOVITA., IFrom Consnlar Reports No. 126.] The seed obtained from the cultivated plant lAnum usitatissimum is known as linseed. The linseed cultivated in India up to altitudes of 6,000 feet above the sea is oil-yielding. Experiments extending through years prove that the climate of this country is not as favorable as that of Europe for the production of the best flax fiber, also that a certain apathy or dislike of change among the peasantry will prevent the cultivation of this plant for anything but the seed. Though much has been done by the Government for the production of flax and hopefulness of success has been indulged, the result has not been commensurate with the efltbrts put forth nor with the hopes entertained. Jute holds the place of flax in popular favor. 626 PLAX CULTIVATION IN INDIA. ^ Linseed is grown on all the diiferent classes of soils comprised be- tween the lighter clay and sandy loam. It does not do as well in stiff clay as in light sandy soils, but thrives on the lieavy black cotton soiL of which the level plans of this country are formed, similar to the land in southern Louisiana were there in this Mississippi delta a stronger admixture of clay. The valley lands receive three or four plowings and two or three harrowings. Linseed should not be buried deep ; oth- erwise it will not germinate properly. The- seeds are, therefore, not plowed in, but simply covered by passing a drag over the field ouce or twice. It can be sown alone or with wheat, grain, or mustard. Some- times all of these crops are grown together. When sown with such a crop as grain or wheat, the plan adopted is this: After wheat or grain has been sown the land is plowed ; linseed is now sown broadcast and the operation is finished by using the drag or ladder twice. On the lighter clay land the method for growing linseed is the sim- plest imaginable. As soon as the rice field has become sufiiciently dry, linseed is sown broadcast on the standing rice. The rice is harvested as usual, the linseed being left to be reaped about the last of March. In some districts it is grown on land which is under water during the rains, and in this case its cultivation is of the roughest possible descrip- tion, there being no preparatory plowing, but the seed being simply scattered over the ground and plowed in. Yet it is acknowledged that the land must be well drained, as stagnant water is very injurious to the crop. When linseed occupies the land alone, from 15 to 20 pounds of seed is used; but, when it divides the soil with other plants, only half as much is required. Among the varieties of linseed there are two important kinds — the white and the red — which seem, in ordinary nomenclature, to be all- embracing. A slight preference is expressed for the former, as it is said to yield a little more oil and to yield it more easily thaTi the latter, while the cake is softer and sweeter than that produced from the red seed. It is impossible to arrive at definite information in regard to the actual area devoted to the cultivation of linseed, owing to the very gen- eral habit of raising it as a mixed crop. If intended for local consump- tion, it is frequently grown along with mustard, both seeds being, expressed at once for their mixed oils. It is often, also, grown with nonyielding-oil crops in lines tlirough the fields or in broad borders around the edges. It is estimated, however, that in all British India nearly 5,000,000 acres are now occupied by the present crop. The average outturn per acre from year to year is from 250 to -iOO pounds, though in a few districts, such as Bustee and Goruckpoor, double this amount is claimed. The arch enemy of this plant is rust, from' which it always suffers in damp seasons. As linseed is sown in October and harvested in Feb- ruary, March, and April, it will not do at this early date to make esti- FLAX CULTIVATION IN INDIA. 627 mates in regard to the coming product. It can be safely said, how- ever, that more space has been given to it this year than last, that the ground was in good order, that the seed germinated well, that the weather has been favorable, that the crop is growing finely, and that everything promises a good outturn. Pure linseed oil has not an extensive demand in India, there being practically but one linseed -oil mill in all thisi-egion. The oil cake does not seem to be appreciated as a food for cattle; consequently almost the entire production is exported. The first exportation was in 1832 and amounted to 10 bushels. In the year ended March 31, 1861, it was 550,700 owts.;* in 1881, ended as above, 5,997,172 cwts.; and during the year ended March 31, 1889, 8,461,374 cwts. The subjoined table sets forth the imports into the chief seaports from the interior during the three years 1886-1889. Exports take place chiefly in the quarter ended on the 30th of June. The United Kingdom receives about 65 per cent, of its total supplies of linseed from India, the remainder going chiefly from Eussia. la 1851 the total demand in Great Britain amounted to only 630,471 cwts., whereas in 1889 India alone furnished the United Kingdom 5,295,175 cwts. During the year ended March 31, 1890, the exports of linseed were as follows : Countries. TTuited Kiugdom . Austria Belginra France Germany Holland Italy Portugal Quantity. Cwts. 4, 342, 962 2,000 254, 033 929, 725 24, 603 324, 943 328, 743 9,027 Countries. Bgypt United States . . China Austria Otlier conntries Total Quantity. Cwts. 129,102 772, 758 17,514 II, 1U6 420 7, 146, 896 Of the above, 5,124,285 cwts. were exported from Bengal, 2,013,169 cwts. from Bombay, and 9,442 cwts. from Sind. During the eight months beginning April 1 and ended November 30, 1890, the following amount of linseed was exported : Countries. TJnitod Kingdom Belgium l^'rance . ..'. nolland . Italy ■ Quantity. Cwts. 2, 772, 4fi8 225, 009 846, 391 588, 630 208, 341 Countries. United States. . Otiior countries Total Quantity. Owts. 618, 750 153,085 5, 412, 694 From April 1 to December 15, 1890, the shipment from Calcutta to the different United States ports was as follows: New York, 651,060 cwts.- San Francisco, 65,394 cwts.; Philadelphia, 74,994 cwts. ' 1 cwt. = 112 pounds. 628 FLAX CULTIVATION IN INDIA. The value of linseed has more than doubled since 1840, but of late years the price has varied but little. The following table shows the price in Calcutta for the past five years per mauud* of 82 pounds : Year. January. ' July. Year. January. July. 1886 Ps. A. P. 4 8 4 8 4, 4 Be. A. P. 4 8 6 4 7 4 3 6 ■889 Bs. A. P. 5 9 4 14 Bg. A. p. 5 6 1887 1890 1888 KoTK. — 'Ra. A. P. at the head of money column signify rupees, annas, and pice ; 12 pice =:1 anna, 16 annas ^ 1 rupee = 40.4 cents. In preparing the above report I have been kindly given access to the proof sheets of Dr. Watt's great work on " The Economic Products of India." Table showing the imports of linseed ly rail and river into Hoiiibay, Karachi, and Cal- cutta during the three years lri86-'87, 1887-'88, and 1888-'89. Provinces whence imported. Into Bombay. Into Karachi. 1886-'87. 1887-'8B. 1888-'89. 1886-'87. lS87-'88. 1888-'89. Bombay Tons. 35, 240 Tons. 25, 328 Tons. 27, 738 Tons. Tons. Tons. Sindh 44 5 Bengal ..'. ...,. 33 16, 204 149 27, 738 23, 681 28, 397 10,161 .Northwest Provinces and Oadh .- 35, 769 1,525 39, 008 §3, 101 25, 787 9,346 11, 373 102 24, 036 28,546 22, 402 10, 309 2 34 ' 53 Punjab Central Provinces 61 60 Berar . Xotal 179,776 122, 095 134, 161 105 36 118 Provinces whence imported. Into Calcutta. Total. 1886-'87. 1887-'88. 1888-'89. 1886-'87. 1887-'88. 188S-'89. Bombay Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 35,240 44 220,755 96, 362 ],.'-..S6 39, 221 33, 730 25, 787 10,949 , Tons. 25, .328 Tons. 27,738 5 Sindh 220, 765 60, 593 228, 933 • 59, 676 41 222 2, 7.M 199, 098 74, 098 262 138 587 228, 933 - 70,950 177 24, 258 31, 300 22, 402 12, 326 199, 131 91, 015 461 27, 876 24.268 28,397 12, 472 Northwest Provinces and Oudh ;. Punjab 213 029 1,603 2,017 2,311 Total 283, 793 203, 543 277, 084 463,674 415, 674 411, 363 SAMtlEL J. MeKEILL, Consul- General. United States Oonsulate-CtEnebal, Calcutta, January 7, 1890. •There are two sets of weights in Calcutta, viz, the factory and the bazaar. The factory maund is equal to 74,6fi7 pounds ; tho bazaar iiiaund, the weight used by the consul-general, is 10 per cent, groator than the factory maund. FLAX CULTIVATION IN THE ARGENTINE EEPUBLIC. 629 LINSEED IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. BEFOUT JiV CONSUL JBAKISK, OF BTTMNOS ATBES. [Froiu Consular Keport No. 125.] The flax industry iu this country is only a very recent branch of its agriculture. It is only within the last few years, indeed, that it has had any development at all, and as yet there is very little to be said about it. A COMPARATIVELY NEW INDUSTET. As late as 1877 the custom-house returns do not show that a pound of the seed had ever been shipped from any Argentine port. In 1878 the exports amounted to 35 tons ; iu 1880 the amount shipped had in- creased to 958 tons ; in 1881 it was 6,394 tons ; in 1882 it was 18,644 tons ; and in 1883 it was 23,061 tons. About this time, owing to the steady foreign demand and the good prices which were obtained for the seed, a very general interest was manifested, not merely in the produc- tion of the linseed for foreign consumption, but also in the preparation of the fiber. Since then, with the advent of agricultural laborers from Europe, there has been a gradual increase in the breadth of land under this crop, the yield of which is variously stated to be from 20 to 40 for one, and for which the country seems to be very well adapted. The range of the exports of linseed since 1883 will be seen from the following table: Tear. Quantity. Tear. Quantity. Tons. 33, 991 69, 426 37, 689 81, 204 1883 Tone. 40, 222 1889 28, 195 1890 (9 montha) 30, 542 BKBADTH OF LAND IN FLAX CULTIVATION. The cultivation of linseed, however, is as yet almost exclusively con- fined to the provinces of Santa F6 and Buenos Ayres, though a little is now also grown in the province of Entre IJios. In 1881 the amount of land under flax cultivation was as follows, in hectares : Province of Buenos A.yres, 29,192 ; province of Santa F6, 6,122; total, 36,314. In 1889 the breadth of land under this crop was as follows, in hectares : Province of Buenos Ayres, 43,899 ; province of Santa F6, 73,009 ; prov- ince of Entre Eios, 4,161 ; province of Eioja, 34 ; total, 121,103. As the total area of land under crop cultivation in the Argentine Eepublic is 2 422 995 hectares, it appears that the amount at present put down in flax is only about 5 per cent, of the whole. 630 FLAX CULTIVATION IN THE ARGENTINE KEPUELIC. AMOUNT OF THE HARVEST. I am unable to answer your inquiry as to tlie total amount of flax produced in the Argentine Republic. There is no way of obtaining the information, as the Argentine Government has no provision for crop reports. We can only estimate, and it is estimated that the harvest in the province of Santa F6 last year amounted to 56,887 tons, while that of Buenos Ayres was about 25,000 tons ; total crop, say, 100,000 tons, including Bntre Eios. In regard to the approaching harvest, it is stated that the acreage is larger than ever before, and, unless some misfortune overtakes the crop, the yield will show a very considerable increase over that of any previous year. THE COMING CHOP. What the shipments will be, however, will depend a good deal on the price abroad, for there is now an annually increasing home market for the crop, as several oil mills have recently been established in the country, and great hopes are entertained that the production of linseed oils wUl henceforth be added to the category of national industries. DESTINATION OF CROP. The next crop will be harvested and ready for shipment about the 1st of March, and the business will probably run through the quarter end- ing June 30, 1891. The shipments will all go forward either from this port or Eosario. It is not possible to say whither the crop will be ex- ported, but, as a general indication of the direction it will take, I give the following destinations which the shipments of 1888 and 1889, accord- ing to the custom-house returns, appear to have had : Destination. 1888. 1889. Destination. 1888. 1889. Kilograms. 1, 805, 604 3,490,721 114,575 2,123,470 4, 917, 427 121, 061 Kilograms, 1, 792, 338 2, 623, 180 826, 100 6, 755, 263 2, 134, 329 1, 422, 525 Kilograms, Kitogramg. 322 790 Great Britain 27, 650, 030 12, 2«!l, 203 Braail 10 088 TTuitod States Total 46,222,888 28, lt)5, 816 MARKET VALUE. The price of linseed in this market durin,!* the last year, according to the returns of the Brienos Ayres Bolsa, ranged as follows : January 1 to March 31, 57 to 70 cents ; April 1 to June 30, 45 to 65 cents ; July 1 to September 30, 45 to 75 cents ; October 1 to December 31, 60 to 80 cents in current money per 10 kilograms. So far during the present year there has been a slight increase in the price. FLAX CULTIVATION IN THE ARGENTINE KESUBLIC. 631 CONDITIONS OP FLAX CULTIVATION. As to the mode of cultivation here, I am but iudiffeieutly posted ; but if it differs at all from that employed iu the Uuited States, it is certainly not for the better. I assume this to be so for the reason that no crops in this country receive that care and attention which good husbandry exacts. I may add that the crop is not a favorite one, although it is believed to pay well for the reason that it is thought tbat the cultiva- tion very rapidly exhausts the land, so that most of the production is by those who do not own, but only rent, their farms. It is only necessary to add, in regard to soil and climate, that flaxseed culture is exactly under the same conditions as that of wheat or corn. E. L. Baker, Consul. United States Consulate, Buenos Ayres, November 20, 1890. IN'DEX. Part I.— Beet-Sugar Industry. GENERAL REFERENCES. Page. Beet «». cane sngar production 554-559 Cultivation in Europe up to 1884 412-419 (Area cultivated and cultivation in the several countries, 413 ; Govern- ment taxation and encouragement, 413; mode of cultivation, 414 ; fertil- izers, 416; planting, 417; culture in the United States, 417; profits of cultivation, 418.) Discovery of sngar in the beet, and early experiments 395-398, 529 Early notes about sugar; sugar production and consumption 537-529 Growth of the industry in Europe up to 1879 398-405 Industry of Europe 481 Machinery and manufactories, 1880 --.—.-- ---- 405-411 Manufacture of the sngar, full details -rr.-r - 419-439 Production of Europe, 1866-1871 .476,497,545,546,565 World's production and consumption (beet and cane) 517-519 REFERENCES, BY COUNTRIES Austria-Hungary : 1867. Production and export 440 1870. Increased production and Soberts'^ invention 44 1 1873. Factories using the Roberts invention , . 442 1885. Shipment to the United Stait'es 442 Increase in production in Bohemia 443 Bounty paid to exporteirs..".'. 443 Machinery and factory statistics 444-446 1889. Industry in Bohemia 447-468 (Cultivation of beets, 447 ; varieties of beets, 448 ; climate and soil, 449; transportation, markets, and labor, 450; manuring; stable manure, 451 ; fertilizing, and time for, 452,454 ; prepara- tion of the lands, 455 ; planting, 456 ; cultivation, 457 ; enemies of the beet, 458 ; harvesting, 459 ; raising seeds, 460 ; hints to American farmers, 461 ; sugar manufacture, 462 ; taxes, duties and bounties, 466 ; statistics, 1867-1888, 466,467 ; a factory build- ing, 467; factories in Austria-Hungary, 468. ) Denmark : 1886. Development of the industry 469-471 France : 1874. Importance of the industry in.. 468 Germany : 1861. .Introduction of the industry into - 471 1864. D.atiee and, bounties , ,-., ...- .- 472 1865. The crop of 1865 473 I 11 INDEX. Page. Germany — Continued. 1867. The crop of 1867... 474 1861-1878. Sugar production, 1861-1868 474 1871. Growth of the industry 475 1875. Factories in Germany and their output 476 1878. Production for the year 477 Taxation, exports, and bounty 478 1881. Production for the year 479 1883. Exports to the United States 480 Industry in Pomerania 480 Establishment of a factory in Stettin 481 Industry in the United States 483 1884. Taxation and bounty ; 484 1885. Duty and revenue 486, Business during the year 486 Production and output 490 1886. Taxation and bounty 487 Production, 1881-1885 ". 488 Progress of the industry 488-490 1887. Progress and improvements 492 Production, imports, and exports (1872-1889) 493 Selection of seed and results of selection 494 Manures, effect of, on production 495 Bounties 496 European production 497 Exports and bounties 498 Production (1882-1886) and consumption 499 Prices and foreign consumption 500 Sugartax reform . .*. 501 1888. Production, manufacture, taxation, bounty, and consumption 501-51^ Production, revenue, and imports ..'. 513-515 Eeduction of tax and bounty 515-516 Sugar, cane and beet, production and consumption of the world. .. 517-519 German production, 1837-1887 520 Exports and factory statistics 521-.523 Imports and exports, 1872-1887 523 Consumption and revenue, 1872-1877 523 1890. Systematic cultivation of beets for the Hadmersleben factory 525 Exports C$16,000,000) to the United States ". 527 Present condition of the industry 530 Future of beet sugar in the United States 531 Beet sugar legislation, past and present 533-539 Production and use of beets, 1872-1879 539, 540 Taxes and rebates 540 Sugar industry, development of 541 Progress of the industry 541-545 New Zealand, beet-sugar industry in 559-670 Russia : 1872. Development of the industry 546 1870. Introduction and government protection of the industry 546 1877. Depression of the industry 547 1881. Sugar works and production 548 1883-1884. Statistics of the industry 549-551 1886. Bounties and exports 551-554 INDEX. in Page. Spanish West Indies : Beet VI. cane sugar production 554-559 United States : Hints to American faimers 461 Beet industry In 483,527,531 Exports of beet sugar to, from— Austria, 442 ; Germany 480, 527 Imports and exports of sugar in 1890 570, 571 Part II.— Flax Cultivation. Argentine Republic, linseed in 629-631 (A new industry, land under flax, 629 ; crop, destination, and market , value, 630; condition of flax cultivation, 631.) Europe, flax production of 614 India, linseed in '..■ 625-628 Ireland, decline of flax industry 615-617 New Zealand flax (^Phormium tenax) 617-625 (Description of, 617 ; Varieties, 618 ; difficulties of preparing fibers and strength of, 619 ; export and flax mills, 620 ; preparation of fiber by natives, 621 ; competing fibers ; the flax in the Azores, cultivation of, 622 ; ex- ports to the United States, 623; value of the flax, 623-625.) Bussia, flax industry of 575-619 (Antiquity of flax and linen, 575, 576 ; flax crop of 1888, 576-578 ; land sown under flax, 579 ; cultivation of flax, 580-583 ; flax crop and price, 584 ; flax crop of the several countries, 585 ; yield of the common-soil provinces, 586 ; production of the world, 586 ; local prices, 587 ; rotation of crops, 588; profit of flax growing, house va. factory industry, 589 f preparing the fiber, 593 ; flax sorting, 595 ; prices of flax, 597-601 ; prices of flax seed, 601-603 ; exports of flax products, 604-609.) Flax culture in Russia 609-614 ^Au".} i4"-^^