% W tiiltw ntawkn sa tiJ/iWf it H MJMWf*-M ItW** ^w* *Jf+++r'+ I'tTf-^^Wf'-i^tfiirfftii: tritirtH^iiitii tttfUtrf rtjiaa tftfb":!!^ i^u-h3tr^itfei^^H5KSEttri!a:ii:i:r-,"T^:^=... ""r"^!:^i;:. ■•.^'-?r-^ >n. ill-b Cornell IDlniversit^ OF THE mew l?orf? State College of Hariculture ^0^»1.r\.Q..!4t »^\>S>.t>Z^iD Cornell University Library The original of tiiis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003626698 Framing A Practical Matmal of APPROVED UP-TO-DATE METHODS OF HOUSE FRAMING AND CONSTRUCTION TOGETHER WITH TESTED METHODS OF HEAVY TIMBER AND PLANK FRAMING AS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OP BARNS, FACT- ORIES, STORES, AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS: STRENGTH OF TIMBERS: AND PRINCIPLES OF ROOF AND BRIDGE TRUSSES Edited under the /Supervision of WILLIAM A. RADFORD PRESIDENT OF THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF THE "AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER" AND THE "CEMENT WORLD" Assisted by ALFRED S. JOHNSON, A. M., Ph. D. EDITOR IN CHARGE OF CYCLOPEDIA DEPARTMENT THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY and BERNARD L. JOHNSON, B. S. EDITOR OF THE "AMERICAN CARPENTER AND 6UILDER" ILLUSTRATED THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY CHICAGO, ILL. COPTKIGHT, 1909 BY THE RADFOED AECHITECTUBAL COMPANY Table of Contents House Framing Page 3 Laying Out Building Lines — Squaring a Corner— Foundation Work — Forms for Concrete — Cement Cellar Floors — Water- proofing Cellars — Braced Framing — Balloon Framing — Sill Con- struction — Floor Joists — Bridging and Bracing — Beams and Supports — Studding — Wall Framing — Ledger-Board and Plate — Sheathing a Houses-Building Paper — Trussed and Braced Par- titions — Party- Walls — Sound-Proofing — Cornice Construction — Putting in Show Blocks — Window Framing — Bays, Casements, Dormers, etc. — Transom — Triple Window — Octagon Bay — Window Ventilators — "Open-Air" Rooms — Trussed Openings — Door Framing — Flooring — Porch Framing — Steps — Fireplaces — Furring and Lathing — Interior Trim — Roof Framing — Hips and Valleys — Rafter Framing with Steel Square — Ridge-Pole — Purlins — Wind Bracing — Stair-Building — Types of Stairs — Laying Out a Stair — Treads and Risers — Landings — Strings — Handrail — Balusters — Framing for Cement House Construc- tion — Concrete Walls — ^Metal and Wood Lath — Cement Surfac- ing — Artistic Finishing — English Half-Timbered Houses — Brick Veneer Houses — Waterproofing — Bonding of Masonry and . Woodwork — Cement Block Veneer — Timber Framing for Stone and Brick Houses — Framing for Slate, Tile, and Other Heavy Roofing Baen Framing Page 239 Heavy Timber Barns — General Principles — Location — Drain- age — Foundation — Details, Sizes, and Spacing of Timbers — Joints — Bracing — Roof Construction — Plank-Framing — Relative Cost and Desirability — Balloon Framing — Support of Hay Track — Hanging of Doors — Water-Tight Floor — Cement Floor — Mangers Framing of Industrial Buildings . . Page 375 Mill Construction — Relative Fireproof Character — Cost and Desirability — Factories and Shops — OfiSce and Public Buildings — Fireproofing — Saw-Tooth Roofs — Supports for Machinery, Shafting, etc. Strength of Timbers; Truss Framing . Page 393 Principles of Truss Construction — Safe Loads on Beams — = Factor of Safety — Sizes of Beams — Simple Roof Trusses — Truss Loads — Chords — Diagonals — Ties — Struts — Tension and Com- pression Members — Trusses for Broad Spans — Curved Trusses — ~ Plank-Framed Trusses — Lattice Trusses — Flat Roof Trusses — Strengthening Trusses — Cambering a Truss — Trussed Partitions Index Page 335 Framing The subject of Framing, taken in its'broadest sense, includes pretty nearly the entire struc- tural field. By one of the most common uses of the term, whenever two members are joined or fastened together they are said to be framed together. More especially, this applies to the heavy or supporting members of any structure. Thus we speak of the steel framing of a modem ** skyscraper." Most framing, however, implies wood construction, as the timber framing of trestle bridges, heavy framing for barns or public buildings, and the framing for houses of various sorts. V To the carpenter especially, and to all others interested in wood in a structural way, this is a most important subject. The framing of a building has been likened to the skeleton of the human body; it is important that it be put together properly and connected up in the right way. The whole stability and success of the edifice depend on the strength and proper arrangement of the supporting frame. Also, when the framing in its various forms and with its various allies has been mastered, the whole structure will be understood. 2 FRAMING In examining this subject with special refer- ence to practical carpentry construction, framing may naturally be divided under the following heads: (1) Timber framing for houses ; (2) Barn framing; (3) Framing of factories, stores, and public buildings ; (4) Miscellaneous framing, including strength of timbers and the principles of truss construction. The work, accordingly, will be taken up in this order. In some cases, certain subjects of an introductory or explanatory nature will be discussed, although, strictly speaking, they are no part of "framing," and, possibly, are not done by the carpenter. Yet a knowledge of tliem will add to the carpenter's equipment, and will help him to do his work more intelligently. Frame Houses Framing Complete from Foundation to Roof Taking up the subject of house framing, it is to be noted at the outset, that certain very important work must be done before anything like a stable, permanent structure can be erected. The plan must be laid out, building lines determined and fixed, excavations made, and foundations erected. Building Lines. After the site has been determined exactly — either in accordance with the architect's drawings or determined by the soil conditions, elevation, grade, etc. — ^it is in order to stake it out. This is done by placing stakes outside of each corner and connecting them with cords to guide the workmen in their excavating. It is very important that this be done with great care. Even in small buildings, it should be carefully attended to; while for large structures this work is entrusted to an engineer, who lays out the building lines with transit and level. The lines that have to be located are: the excavation line (which is out- side of all); the face line of the basement wall; and, for masonry construction, the ashlar line, which indicates the outside face of the brick or stone wall. The main rectangle of the plan is laid out 4 FEAMING first; and then the supplemental rectangles — as for eUs, porches, bays, etc. — are laid out with reference to it, in their proper places. Squaring a Comer; the 6, 8, and 10 Rule. It is frequently required to square the excavation for a building with a tape line, without the use of other lines and stakes. The method is simple, A (16) L B Fig. 1. Squaring Work by the 6, 8, and 10 Bule. and may be quickly done by three parties, as follows: Run off 24 feet; then the first party should take the end of the tape, and hold it at the 24th foot. The second party should hold the line with thumb and finger at the 16th foot, and the third party in like manner at the 10th foot. Draw till the line is tight, and it wiH form a right-angled corner true enough for proving up excavation work. The figures given are absolutely correct; but, as a little is liable to be lost at the comers in not being able to hold the tape so as to make sharp bends, this may cause a trifle variation, but the results will be true enough for the purpose stated. The tape FRAMING 5 will outline a triangle with its sides 6, 8, and 10 feet long; hence the method is called the 6, 8, and 10 Rule. Other figures may be used, provided they are in the same proportion — as 12, 16, and 20. The illustration, Fig. 1, shows the latter- figures applied. Suppose we wish to square-cut from the line AB at D. Measure back on the line from this point 16 feet, as at E, and with the end of the tape drawn to 48 and stationed at E, the 32-foot mark wiU be at D, and the third point will be at the 20-foot mark at F; then DF wiU be at right angles to AB. Another method which is very convenient to use at times is as follows: Draw a line, Fig. STARTwe HMe>, PoiiiT Me/iMnEO *\ TIBST COWVSi / \ » / , . / \ rAnAkUk LiHE'' fpomtGuesseo. Fig. 2. Method of Squaring Work. 2, parallel to the starting line at opposite side or where there is to be an angle. Now, stick a pin in line at corner stake, and measure a given distance each way on the line — usually about as far as the parallel line is distance away. Now, from one of the points measured, draw a tape to as nearly square across from the corner 6 FRAMING as can be guessed at, and place a pin there. Then measure the same distance from the other measured point, and stick another pin. Divide distance between these two pins, and you are "squared" across from first corner; and the rest is easy. Concrete Foundations. Except in a few localities where native stone is to be had very cheaply, all foimdation walls are coming to be of concrete. Builders have found that for strength, warmth, and enduring qualities, foundation and basement work in this material is far superior to brick or to wood piles; and for economy and ease in handling, it has an advantage over stone. This growing popularity of cement for the foundation and basement work of frame houses makes it exceedingly desirable for all carpen- ters to become familiar with the special prob- lems of its use. The contracting-carpenter on a small job does not want to be obliged to call in a concrete specialist to show him how the foundations and cellar floor should be put in. It is not necessary. Also there are certain problems in connection with the joining of the wood construction onto the concrete that are worthy of attention. There are a number of types of concrete foundation walls now accepted in general use. Two are illustrated in Fig, 3. They are: first, the entire foundation wall of cement blocks; FRAMING CCMCNT SLOCK VS/ N£EP ON BLOCK FOUNDATION. "^ FRAME. CONSTRUCT- /ON ON COMBINEiD ^BLOCK si. POUQ£D CONCRETE. FOUND'N:, i-^HB/ITHmg Fig. 3. Two Standard Types of Concrete Foundations for Houses. 8 FRAMING second, the combination wall (poured concrete to grade, and blocks or dressed stone above). A wall of the first kind is shown to the left. Excavation for foundation of this kind is made in the usual way, deep enough to provide a foot- ing below frost (3 to 5 feet down). It is well to make the footing twice the width of the wall, and 10 inches thick. If the soil is firm, as it should be, no forms will be needed for this, the concrete being poured into the trench to harden. A special large-size block is good for the wall, 8 by 12 by 24 inches. These are laid up in the regular way with cement mortar. When finished, the wall may be thoroughly water- proofed by painting the exterior face with a paint made of Portland cement and water. The inside of the wall should also be finished with a quarter-inch coat of neat cement. The second type or combination wall is shown to the right in Pig. 3. This is very good, especially where the soil is firm; for, in that case, only the inside forms need be used. Excavation is carefully made, stopping just at the outside foundation Hne; the bank is hol- lowed back in under, for a sloping footing below frost; and the inside forms are set up. Con- crete, composed of 1 part cement, 2% parts sand, and 5 parts crushed stone or gravel, is then carefuUy shoveled in and tamped solid. This wall will be waterproof, dense, impervious to water, if, before the Portland cement was used, hydrated lime in the proportion of 1 to FRAMING 9 10 was thoroughly mixed through it. When this foundation has hardened sufficiently, the upper wall of blocks or dressed stone is laid up in the regular way. Fig. 3 shows also two methods of framing for the superstructure — one for an ordinary frame building, standard construction, and the other for a frame building veneered with four- inch-thick concrete blocks. These should be secured to the framework, either with patent anchors or with large spikes driven into the wood with the heads built into the joints. An economical foundation wall sometimes used where the building code prescribes thick walls, is a combination of hollow block and monolithic construction. Its economical fea- tures are not confined alone to the saving of concrete, but include the forms also, as scarcely any form is necessary for the footing; and after that the piers are built, requiring but a few forms, which can be used over and over again without resawing or wasting lumber. Fig. 4 shows the arrangement. Piers 6 or 8 feet apart are erected, using a grooved block. Between these piers the curtain walls are placed after the piers become hard. On small work, where only two or three men are employed, no stop need be made if four piers and three sections of curtain wall forms are used. The water-table is made after the piers and curtain walls are self-sustaining. 10 FRAMING By the use of hollow blocks for piers and monolithic curtain walls, this method of con- struction is surprisingly rapid and effects a great saving of cost, especially in localities where the hauling adds much to the cost of concrete. The appearance of this wall is preferable to ^m Hel/ow P/er »^|- FlancfWa)}. yy-'^^: ^^PA^^I tx/orc w Fig. i. An Economical Concrete Foundation. that of the straight plain type. Besides, when building codes class concrete with rubble stone walls in thickness, only the piers need be the thickness required, while the curtain wall is usually acceptable if six inches thick. Walls FRAMING 11 of this type have been made as light as four inches, and have stood every test. "With this method, a single wagon carries all forms and tools from one job to another; the cost of the forms, made of surface lumber, is about $18.00, while the waste of lumber on a complete form for a dwelling foundation wall 30 by 40 by 7 feet high, for a 12 or 18 inch wall, will be $25, to say nothing of discoloring about $150 worth of good lumber. By adding about one pound of ultramarine blue to each barrel of cement used for curtain walls, a beautiful effect is obtained, as it gives the piers and water-table a lighter color and more massive appearance. Cement Cellar Floors. No matter what kind of foundation walls are used, the floor of the up-to-date basement or cellar is of concrete. The construction is very similar to that for cement sidewalks. No sub-foundation is, how- ever, necessary as a general thing. Level and pack the earth surface and lay down 5 inches of concrete. Moat smooth, giving all sections a slight slope toward some common drain point. When the concrete has become slightly hard- ened, apply a half-inch top dressing of neat cement, or a rich cement mortar. This dressing should be rounded up in the corners and made continuous with the side wall finish. To provide for cleaning water, or for any other moisture that may get in at any time, a 12 FRAMING tUe drain leading outside the basement wall should be provided. Securing Dry Cellars. In localities where a porous or sandy soil exists to the depth of six or more feet, cellars are usually dry without the use of any preventative to dampness; but where compact soil exists, usually about 80 per cent of all present cellars are more or less sub- ject to dampness, as few have been water- proofed. That concrete, like brick and stone, is a conductor of dampness is known; but that it is more readily adapted to waterproofing only those experienced in waterproofing walls below the grade hue have appreciated. Physicians have long realized that a large amount of sickness is caused by damp cellars, but as waterproofing does not add to the appear- ance while adding to the cost, it is usually omitted, though medical bills more than make up this additional cost in a few years. In the illustration, Pig. 5, it must be remem- bered that the piping shown is for drainage only, and no provisions are shown for sewerage plumbing, which will require separate piping and should never be connected to the drainage sewer nearer to the building than beyond the last trap shown, A monolithic concrete wall below grade is the cheapest and strongest; and when water- proofed on the outside and on the top with the offset shown, with any positive waterproofing, it will insure dry walls. It, however, causes 9Mli«OOW ■ FLOOR Jo (ST. rv r Q Z) ^ WALL PI ilTF.^i^%^gg^ Pig. 13. WaU Construction, SiU to Plate, in Small House. 27 28 FEAMING sheath a house horizontally makes a poor job, while to put the same lumber on diagonally makes a first-class job. Now, we do not con- demn diagonal sheathing, for if it's well done it makes a good job, and in some respects is much better than it would have been if put on horizontally. Some put it on diagonally at each corner until they come to an opening, and then put the rest on horizontally. Some claim that makes a good job, while others claim it makes a very poor one. Now, if bracing the -house is what is wanted, this arrangement does it, to some extent at least, though unless the joint is reinforced with a 2 by 4 — which is not often done — it makes a weak and bad job where the diagonal and horizontal work come together. A good way is to make both corners braced, and then come together in the middle the best you can. Ordinarily the sheathing is applied to the outside of the studding; then comes the build- ing paper, and then the finish siding. From time to time discussions occur, looking to the reversal of this order, or, in other words, put- ting the sheathing on the inside of the stud- ding. Among the arguments for this is that the sheathing would then furnish a sound and positive backing for the plaster walls. Another argument is that when the sheathing is put on the outside and then the weatherboard, there is some tendency for the moisture to get FRAMING 29 in between the two and cause decay; so it was thought better to have the sheathing inside, and the weatherboarding simply as an outside pro- tection on the outside of the studding. Sound-Proof Walls. Every builder is at some time or other interested more or less in what might be termed noise-proof or sound- proof walls and floors. It is always desirable to have floors and partition walls as non-pro- ductive and as non-conductive of sound as practicable; and there are several different kinds of composition and methods of construc- tion resorted to for this purpose. It is, however, a bigger task than one might think to make an absolutely noise-proof wall. It is said that what is indorsed by Prof. S. I. Franz as the one noise- proof room is a room about 8 feet square and high, on the top floor of the University of Utrecht. Its walls are about 11 inches thick. From the inside, these are made up of successive layers of horse-hair felt, porous stone, dead air, wood partition, ground cork composition, and a plastered surface. The ceiling, though some- what simpler made, has similar layers. The boards of the floor were sawed, and the joints fllled with lead to stop vibration; a layer of lead was then covered over all, to the thickness of more than an inch; and over this, in turn, is used a carpet nearly half an inch in thick- ness. This only goes to show to what lengths it is 30 FRAMING necessary to go to secure absolutely sound-proof walls. A method sufficient for all practical pur- poses, and one that is very often used as a cheap way to deafen the center wall in a double house, so that the occupants of one side cannot hear the other, is shown in Fig. 14. Set a double row of studding, as shown; they are of 2 by 4 inch stuff, set in the usual way, but set stag- gered, so that the face lines will be 6 inches apart. This will leave a space of 2 inches) between the studs and the plastering. Then, on Fig. 14. An Inexpensive Sound-Proof Wall. the inner edges of the studs, heavy felt paper or hair insulator quilt should be stretched, and made secure by nailing a lath over the stud, as shown in the section. Two by six-inch plate can be used at the top and bottom. The floors should be deafened, and this can be done very satisfactorily by putting down a rough floor of shiplap, and after all rough work is done, cover this with felt or hair cloth and lay the finished floor. As to back-plastering the wall to deaden the sound, it is not as effective as the above method. Substitute for Back Plaster. Tar paper FRAMING 31 may be used to very good advantage instead of back-plastering a house, provided it is tough enough. The ordinary tar paper, such as is used for covering the sheathing, is generally too soft and is very liable to puncture while the work is being carried on. The accompany- ing sketch. Pig. 15, shows two ways of doing the work. In the first, by using 32-inch paper and putting it on vertically, it will cover two spaces. All laps should be on solid bearing. Then strip oheathin-^ ShEATHWS'^ Fig. 15. Wall Sections, Showing Use of Paper Backing. with %"i^ich pieces, and put on the sheathing, which should also be covered with paper, and sided in the usual way. Or it may be done as shown in the second sketch in the figure. This, however, requires more cutting and fitting of the paper. The former is preferable in many cases, on account of giving a wider fall at win- dow jambs. The object in this construction is to give as nearly a dead-air space as possible. Therefore every part should be made thor- oughly tight, or the object sought will be of no avaU. 32 PEAMING Double, Trussed Partition. In framing the wide door opening and double partition for a large sliding door, the first thing to be consid- ered is the foundation on which to rest the jambs at the sides of the door. If it is not convenient to have a partition under the door, the joist should be doubled, and especially so if the joist above the door rest or break over the same. If there is great weight there, the Fig. 16. Double Trussed Partition for Sliding Doors. joist should be doubled under both partition walls of the sliding door. Pig. 16 shows good construction where the joists run at right angles with the door opening. The truss may be omitted where the joists run parallel to the door; but it is a good idea to put in the double joist at the head of the opening, as it furnishes an excellent bearing on which to fasten the track. FRAMING 31 Braced Partitions. Quite recently the writer noted for the second time only, in a somewhat wide experience of construction, a very curious and mistaken way of putting braces in a parti- tion. The carpenter had placed the head and sill in position, and then cut and nailed up all the studs in position before the braces. The latter were cut in between the studs, as shown in Fig. 17 (left sketch) ; and while they did their duty, perhaps, in preventing to some extent the racking of the partition, yet they were not M ^ ^ '' ^ ^ ^ ^/\ H ¥\ M k w N M N M M yyrong way /iight n See ti 019 tl^roug)^ fire piaee. Fig. 46. Aaangement for Fireplace. FRAMING 85 it will not show. If a straight-top opening is desired, then use a 3-inch by 3-inch angle iron, with the flange on the inside of the brickwork. The dotted lines show the position of the flue for the fireplace, and will require the open- ing or throat to draw over to it; but it should start straight from the fireplace, and gradually draw over to its position as shown. The face of the brickwork should carry up to the ceiling of the first story; and this gives ample space to make the proper bend in the flue. The flues shoidd be independent of other openings. Cast-iron hoods with damper attachment are quite often used to form the top of open fire- places, and are set in place at the time of build- ing the chimney. The top should be capped with Portland cement, or with a 3 or 4-inch flat stone with openings cut to fit the flue openings. Constructing a Cupboard Fig. 47 is a sketch of a cupboard. It makes a very complete fixture for the kitchen, and is easily made. The flour bin is hung the same as a door, and swings outward as shown by the dotted lines in the plan. It is quarter-circle in shape, the back being made of zinc, with a roll rim at upper edge. A board 1% inches thick and 16 or 18 inches wide is used for the front and back. The bottom is grooved in about 1% inches from the bottom ends of these pieces, 86 PEAMING "~ GU ASS. GLASS. P«riEu Pamcl QooR T « I C UPBOARD. 'uummmMmm/MM>M>»mx»xx>mimmmm/>///vu^^^^^ '•^ j ^^msum. Fig. 47. Design for Kitchen Cupboard. and gained in about % inch deep. The front and back edges are grooved about % inch wide FEAMING 87 by 14 i^ch deep, to receive the zinc back, whicli is made fast by nailing with round-headed tacks. The front may be paneled, as shown in the draw- ing, if a better finish is desired. Shingling the Sides of a Building It is the style in many sections of the coun- try, to shingle the sides of buildings, not only for the smaller class of buildings, but for public buildings as weU. See Figs. 48, 49, and 50. When properly done, it makes a good-look- ing building, and the cost is generally less than for any other siding material, since wall shingles can be put on with more space exposed than in regular roof work; also a cheaper grade of shingles can be used for this purpose, with good satisfaction. One thousand will cover about 150 square feet of surface; and a man will put on about as many in a day as he can on the ordinary roof in the same length of time. As this kind of work is comparatively new, differ- ing in some respects from roof shingling, it may be that some wUl be benefited by a few pointers concerning the work. The building may have corner boards and water-table, though these are generally omitted. It makes a more weatherproof and at the same time a better-looking job, to run the shingles out to the corners. The first course at the bot- tom should be double. The first or under course furnishes a good place to work in some of the poorer shingles. In shingling the corners. 88 FRAMING the shingles on one side should be kept flush with the corner, and those on the other side should be flush with the butts or a little beyond, so that they may be trimmed even by sawing in on the edge and cutting out with a knife. There are several ways of getting the first course straight; a straight edge can be used by tacking a shingle at each end to hold it in place, and should be used for each course thereafter. tLtVATIOM AT CORMLR PERSPtCTlVt OF CORntR Fig. 48. Shingling a Comer. The siding boards should be straight and level, and the first course should extend a little below to form a water drip. The courses should come even with the top and bottom of the window- frames, which can be easily done by varying the courses the same as in clapboard siding. It will be necessary to cut the tops of the two last courses under the windows, but the pieces can be used at the tops of the windows, which should FRAMING 89 Double Course Iiave a rabbeted cap. The shingles should be doubled at the point; one row should be put above the cap, and the other should drop below these. At the corners of the window-frames, it is better to cut out a corner of a few shingles so as to break joints. When a first-class job is desired, it is better to put the cornice on and cut the shingles to fit under it. For some classes of buildings, it is all right to put the cor- nice on over the shin- gles; or, in case the cor- nice is already on, to drive the shingles up under it. Do not use too large nails for shingling. If the boards are sound, three-penny nails are large enough. Paper may be put under the shingles, and in some cases this is the best method; but as so ^^^- ^^^ many nails are driven through the paper, it seems better to put it on the inside of the sheathing between the studs. As to the cost of this method of building, boards for less than $20.00 per thousand may Shingling Over a Window. 90 PEAMING be used, which will answer. The shingles at $4.00 per thousand will come to about two cents NNIMDOW FRAMt Fig. 50. Shingling Below a Window. per square foot laid. Plaster will cost about one cent per square foot, so that j&ve cents per square foot will cover the cost. Roof Framing Simplified The details of roof construction are com- paratively simple, and are pret*ty generally understood. It is in the laying out of the dif- ferent members, finding their proper lengths and cuts, that the difficulties of roOf framing arise. Owing to the many different styles and pitches of roofs, this is considered a very com- plicated matter by a great many otherwise good mechanics, who accordingly resort to certain unsatisfactory ''cut and try" methods and "rules,-o '-thumb" to lay out the work. The steel square is the carpenter's best assistant for laying out all framing; but it is for roof work that its use is most essential. By the use of the steel square — after a very few of the fundamental principles of roof framing are well understood — the whole subject becomes clear to an astonishing degree. Roof Pitches and Degrees. Fig. 51 contains a whole volume on roof framing. The fractional pitch lines for the common rafter are shown for each inch in rise up to the full pitch; and their lengths are expressed in decimal figures to the one-hundredth part of an inch; while to the right of the blade, the same are expressed for the corresponding octagon and for the common hip or valley for a square-cornered building, 91 92 FRAMING which are reckoned from 13 and 17 on the tongue respectively. However, neither is abso- lutely correct, though near enough so far as the (oof Pitches Fig. 51. Boof Fitches and Degrees on the Steel Sciuaie. cuts are concerned, the greater deviation being in the hip for the square-cornered building. It lacks .0295 of being 17 inches, and represents FRAMING 93 the run of the hip to a 12-inch run of the com- mon rafter. Its true length being 16.9705 inches, this is the length from which we have reckoned for the lengths of the hips, instead of 17, as is the usual custom. This may seem a trifling difference; and so it is in a short run and low pitches ; but suppose it is for iron con- struction. To begin with, the shortage of each foot in run with the common rafter is .0295 inch; added to this is the gain it would have in the pitch, which would be .015 of an inch by the time it got up to the full pitch for the common rafter. This, added to the .0295 to start with, would be a difference of .0445 inch to the foot ia run with the common rafter. Now, suppose the rim to be 18 feet; 18 times .0445 equals .8 plus, or ^V24 of an inch difference; or, if no account were made of the gain in pitch, the .0295 inch in the run would amount to over half an inch in the length of the hip alone. This is a common error; and while it is not much, and probably would never be noticed in wood construction, it is well to know this dis- crepancy and guard against it when the occasion demands, and for that reason we give the cor- rect amounts. The shortage in the octagon is not so pronounced. Instead of it being in the run, it is the tangent that is lacking the same amount, it being 4.9705 instead of 5 inches. This, coming as it does, cannot affect the length of the rafter nearly so much as in the above. We explain this shortage better by referring 94 FRAMING to that part of the illustration showing the plan of a combination square and octagon frame with the heel of the steel square resting at the center. From this it will be seen that the two outer circles catch the corners of the frame and seem- Fig. 52. Eoof Pitches. ingly intersect the tongue at 13 and 17, the figures used on that member for the seat cuts; but the true length of the run of the hip is 16.9705, and that for the tangent of the octagon is 4.9705. In connection with this illustration we also give a table of decimal equivalents to the one- FRAMING 95 twenty-fourth part of an inch, for convenience in finding their values in common fractions. What Determines the Pitch? This is a sim- ple question; yet there seems to be a wide difference of opinion as to what determines the incline given the roof. Custom has long since settled upon the rise given the roof in proportion to the span; thus, a one-foiu'th, one- third, one-half, etc., pitch, must have a rise in that proportion to the span. Reckoned on this basis, a full pitch has a rise equal to its span. See Fig. 52. Here the span is divided into several parts. The dotted lines are shown Fig. 53. Boof Fitches on the Steel Square. in the transferring of these parts to the rise line. In Fig. 53 these parts are shown in connection with the steel square. Twelve is used on the tongue, because it represents a one-foot run. 96 FRAMING The span would therefore be two feet, or 24 inches, which is equal to the length of the blade. It is then a very easy matter to fix in the mind what figures to use on the blade for any pitch, as 6 is 14 of 24; 12 is 1/2; 18 is a % pitch, etc. A 24-inch rise would necessarily be a full pitch. A 30-inch rise would be V-^ pitch; and so on. There seems to be some uncertainty as to which should be given first, the run or the rise, when telling what figures to use on the steel square to find the bevels for rafters. Some give it one way, and some another. The same man will give the run in one place first, and the rise in another. For example, take the one- third pitch. He will say, 12 and 8 for the seat and plumb cuts of the common rafter; then he wiU say 8 and 17 for the corresponding cuts for the hip or valley. Now, it has long since been the recognized custom to give the width first for all kinds of mill work, such as doors, sash, etc. The same rule should apply to framing work, because the run represents width or space covered by the rafter, and it should therefore be given first. For the example in question, we should say 12 and 8 for seat and plumb cuts of the common rafter, and 17 and 8 for the corresponding cuts for the hip or valley. It is better to always take the figures 12 and 17 on the tongue, because they are standard for any regular pitch; the blade will admit of from 1 to 24 inch rise per FEAMING 97 foot, besides giving a greater range of side cuts without change of figures on the tongue. Then, again, it helps to familiarize the mind as to which member of the square gives the desired cuts. How to find the cuts for rafters, no matter what the pitch, is a point that gives trouble, yet there is nothing sim- pler when properly understood. Take, for instance, how to find the cuts for hips, valleys, and jacks when the com- mon rafters are 6 to 12, 7 to 12, 8 to 12, 9 to 12, 10 to 12, etc. Take the first example, 6 to 12. The formula given applies to all alike, whether it be a six-inch or a fifteen- inch rise to the foot. Fig. 54 will show why certain figures are used on the square to obtain the cuts. Of course other figures can be used, but they must Pig. I. Fig. 64. Lengths and Cut of Common and Hip Rafters. be in the proportions here given. Twelve on the tongue is used because it represents one foot, and 17 because it is the length of the diagonal 98 FRAMING of a foot square, and represents the correspond- ing run of the hip or valley to one foot run of the common rafter. These figures are standard or fixed points for any pitch desired. Taking the 6-inch rise to the foot, the com- mon rafter is 13% inches, and the hip or valley 18 inches for a one-foot run. Now, suppose we wish to find the length of the common rafter for a building 22 feet 6 inches wide. Since the run is one-half of this amount (11 feet 3 inches), all that is necessary is to place the square at 12 and 6 along the edge of the rafter eleven times (see Fig. 55); and as there are 3 inches more, lay off that amount from 12 along the ■•Length of ~~> Common Rafter. Fig. 55. Getting the Length of Rafters. tongue and check. Then slide the square along tUl the 12 rests at the check, and mark along the blade, which will be the proper point for the plumb cut. Proceed in like manner for the hip or valley, taking 17 and 6; but, at the last placing of the square, instead of measuring off 3 inches, take 414 inches, which is the length of the diagonal FEAMING 99 of a 3-inch square. This may be reckoned as follows: Since 3 inches is one-quarter of 12 inches, one-quarter of 17 inches equals 414 inches. Thus, the length of the rafters is obtained without any further measurement, and that, too, without knowing their actual length. The jacks being a part of the common raft- ers, their lengths may be found in the same way. Or, if they are to set on 16-inch centers, place the square at 12 and 6, as for the common rafter, and mark along the tongue; then slide the square along till 16 rests at the edge of the rafter, and the length will be indicated by that part of the rafter covered by the square, which represents the common difference of the jacks. However, if one is good in mathematics, it is often better to find the rafter lengths by multiplying the lengths for one foot by the run. Taking the above case: 11^4 times 13% inches equals 12 feet 934 inches, the length of the common rafter; V/g times 13% inches equals 1 foot 6 inches, the common difference of the jacks; and 11^4 times 18 inches equals 16 feet 10y2 inches, the length for the corresponding hip or valley. The cuts on the square are as follows: 12 and 6, seat and plumb cut of the common and jack rafters; 17 and 6, seat and plumb cut of the hip or valley; 12 on the tongue and 13% on the blade will give the side cut of the jack; they also give the face cut across roof boards to fit in the valley or over the hip, the blade giving 100 FRAMING the cut in the former and the tongue in the latter. The backing of the hip may also be found by taking 18 on the tongue and 8 on the blade, and the tongue will give the required angle. For an 8-inch rise, the lines from 12 and 17 (Fig. 54) would run to 8 on the blade, and their Fig. 56. Cripple Jack Bafters in Place. lengths would consequently be changed; but the formula remains the same. To Find the Length of Cripple Jacks. The length and cuts for a cripple jack can be found just the same as for a jack resting against a hip. The cuts of the cripple are the same at FRAMING 101 both ends, and are identical with that for the upper end of a jack resting against a hip. Where the roof is all of the same pitch, the runs of the hips and vaUey wUl rest parallel with each other, as will be seen in Fig. 56. Now, here is a point that a great many do not grasp — namely, that the run of the cripple jack is the same as the length of the plates that form the angle. Thus, in the illustration, the length of the plate on one side is 6 feet, and on the other it is 10 feet, which represent the respective runs of the jacks in question. However, it should be remembered that this measurement is from center to center of hip and valley; and it is therefore necessary to make a deduction in the run equal to the thickness of the hip or valley. Or the length of the cripple may be found for the fuU run; then measure square back from the plumb cut the full thickness of the hip, which will be at the proper point for the plumb cut. Framing Plan for Hip-and-Valley Roof. Fig. 57 is the plan of a. common hip-and- valley roof, detailed to show all the different rafters, with their lengths and cuts, that usually enter into its construction. We shall assume it to be 10 inches to the foot. The view taken is from a point directly above. Consequently there is nothing in the plan to show what the rise is. In other words, if there were no pitch given the roof at all, the plan would show just the same, and the side cuts for hips and jacks 102 FEAMING would all be at an angle of 45 degrees, and their lengths would be as per the scale of the plan. That is, the first jack being placed 2 feet from the corner, its length would also be 2 feet; and ;-- 1-* X--SO'- Jl •HO-.- -i-. ..-6-0':. -i-rji Fig. 57. Framing Plan for Hip-and-VaUey Koof these proportions taken on the square, as 12 and 12, will give what is generally called the side cut, but in reality should more properly be called the top cut. This, the reader will observe, FRAMING 103 is the regular miter, which is simple enough. Everybody understands so far; but when a pitch is given, this simple rule is usually for- gotten. In this example, the rafter, having a rise of 10 inches, has a gain of 714 inches in two feet; and this, added to its run, makes its length 2 feet 7^ inches. Then the proportion of 2 feet and 2 feet 7^4 inches, taken on the square as 12 and 15Vi2 inches, will give the cut. The side on which the larger number is taken, gives the cut. If the point of the jack is removed by cutting on a line parallel to the seat, it will be found that the angle of the cut is still 45 degrees, or just what the angle shows in the plan. The same rule applies for this as for the cut of the hip or valley. It also applies to the jack for an octagon, or any other corner. In this example there is shown an octagon bay, and the side cut of the jack would be in the proportion of 1 foot and 3 feet 2 inches. The first, because that is the space that the foot of the jack is from the corner; and the latter represents the length of the Jack. This jack, like all others, is simply part of a common rafter; reduced to a one-foot basis on the square, it is 5 and IS'^Aa inches. The lengths of the rafters are given from the edge of the plate to the center lines, as shown by the dotted line on the hips and valleys. There- fore, for the common rafters a reduction should be made for one-half the thickness of the ridge 104 FRAMING piece, by measuring square back that amount from the plumb cut. It is not necessary to make any reduction for the jacks that rest on a plate, because the lengths given, if used for the long side, will make the jacks space all right, since the length is sup- posed to be taken along a line at the middle of the back. But a reduction equal to the diagonal of the thickness of the hip or valley should be made for the jacks that come in between a hip and valley. This also applies to the side cut of the hip where it rests against the ridge piece, by deducting half of the thickness of the diagonal of the piece. However, this is of small concern; and more than likely the variation, if not made, would go unnoticed. In this example are shown some self-support- ing hips and valleys, formed by letting one run by the other to a solid bearing. This is an im- portant matter, which is too often overlooked; and consequently a sagged Toof is the result. There are other points about this plan that might be brought out. The figures to use on the square for a one-foot basis are as follows : 12 and 10 — Seat and plumb cut of the common and jack rafters. 12 and 15 7/12— Side cut of the jack. 5 and 15 7/12— Side cut of the jack. 13 and 10 — Seat and plumb cut of octagon hip. 17 and 10 — Seat and plumb cut of hip or valley. 17 and 19% — Side cut of hip or valley. The study of a rafter plan like this is valu- FRAMING 105 able, for it contains practically all the elements of any roof. A Common Mistake. We wish to make a small note right here which may set right some of the younger members of the craft and a few of the older heads who have never paid any at- tention to it. It is in the manner of adding the projection for cornice. Pig. 58, at the left, shows the wrong way, and makes the rafters too short,- causing the ridge joint to open as shown in the middle part of the figure. The right way of get- ting this length is shown in the right-hand part of the figure. Fig. 58. Wrong and Bight Methods of Figuring Rafter Lengths. Framing for Roof Dormers. Fig. 59 repre- sents the plan and the corresponding elevation of the valleys in a roof dormer or gable. For ex- ample, 14 feet is taken for the run of the main roof, and 8 feet for that of the gable. The roof of the main part and that of the gable being of the same pitch, it is evident that the ridge of the latter will be below that of the former, as the rise is proportional to the difference in the runs. 106 FRAMING A-B represents the run of the long valley and A' D that of the short valley. Thus it will be seen that valleys framed in this way are self- A».— Run of Gable -..^C ! iK- — Run OfShort Valley — -* js — —Run or Main Roof I — ie Run or Lon6 Valley — E LE: VATION. Fig. 59. Framing for Eoof Dormers. supporting. That part from D to B is what is generally termed blind valley, because it is con- cealed in the plane of the main roof. The meas- FRAMING 107 urement should be taken along the center of the back of the valley, as shown by the dotted lines; and if backed — or, more properly speaking, grooved, so that the roof boards will have a solid bearing at all points — then the seat cut should be made so as to bring the grooves in the plane with that of the back of the common rafters. This furnishes a problem in itself that is not so Section of Blind Valley Fig. 60. Intersection of Valleys — Eoof Dormers. easily understood as may appear at first sight, especially where there is a projection of the rafter to form the cornice. However, it is not usual to groove the val- leys, as they are generally concealed from view and otherwise not of enough advantage to war- rant the extra work required. Where they are not grooved, they should set proportionately 108 FRAMING lower than the common rafter, so that the under edge of the roof boards will intersect the center of the back of the valley. Even then, that part from D to B would have to be backed or beveled on one side the same as for a hip, to bring the center in plane with the common rafter. Eig. 60 shows the plan of the valleys at the intersection on a larger scale. In this the sec- tions are shown grooved below the intersection; and in that case that part called the blind val- ley should be beveled one way, as shown. This part, while it may look out of place in the illus- tration, wiU be foxmd to conform with the roof planes when set in position. In large or heavy roofs, the valleys should be doubled; and in that case it is an easy matter to groove the backs by simply backing them one way only, and then spiking them together so as to form the groove. In other words, they would show the same as in the illustration by letting the center line repre- sent the joining of the two pieces. Another point comes up in this connection that should not be overlooked before passing on, and that is the joining of the short valley to the long one. Simple as it is, builders sometimes do not readily grasp that it is nothing more than the plumb cut for the valley. It rests at right angles from the long valley, and therefore must rest square against it, just the same as if against a level piece; and in this example, the pitch being %, 17 and 9 will give the cut. Referring to the elevation part of Pig. 59, FRAMING 109 the valleys are sliown in position in the roof. They also show the same as the common rafters in their true position; but the valleys resting at an angle of 45 degrees from the common rafter, their lengths per scale are not easily arrived at without a few extra lines, which may be obtained as shown by the dotted lines from the plan to the elevation, as follows: A-E represents the long valley in position from the point of sight, while A-E' shows its length. The same is true of the short valley. It is the same as A-F on the long valley. On a straight view, it represents the length of the common rafter for the gable, but its (the valley) length is found at A-F'. Now we shall illustrate the above by simple lines on the steel square (see Fig. 61), using the same reference letters for the different parts, as shown in Fig. 59. The pitch being %, or 9-inch rise to the foot, we let 12 on the tongue of square No. 1 represent the starting point, and 9 on the blade the rise. The run of the main roof being 14 feet, measure back 14 inches along the line of the tongue and draw a line parallel to the blade to opposite 14 inches on that member, as at B' B. The line from A to B will represent the run of the long valley. Now, by placing 17 on the tongue of square No. 2 at 12 on the square No. 1, and with the tongue along the line A-B, the heel will rest at 12 on square No. 1. Since the rise is 9 inches to the foot, a line from A passing at 9 on the square 110 FRAMING No. 2 and intersecting the line B-E' (the rise of the main roof) will represent the long valley; and the line passing at 9 on square No. 1, inter- secting the line B'B as at E, will represent the common rafter for the main part. vi^ K \; 1 \\ /\ i \bC^ \ /\ \ \ Center Line / \ ^. / B 1 7\ y ■•TK 1 ! 1 /vC X ^ .1 (0 I4y\ O " / ^^^ • 1 ■ L^^^ W^, No.l. _ , j _ 1 #• — 8" O" »iC --I40" B'l Plate Lime Fig. 61. Steel Square in Boof Dormer Framing. Now, since the run of the small gable is 8 feet, measure back 8 inches on square No. 1 and draw the lines C-D and D-P' at right angles from the tongue of the respective squares. A-F' will represent the short valley, and A-F the corresponding common rafter to a scale of one FRAMING 111 inch to the foot. The figures shown on the square intersected by the lines A-E and A-E' will give the seat and plumb cuts of the com- mon and valley rafters respectively. The length of the diagonal lines on the squares are 19^ and 15 inches, and these figures taken on the blade of the respective squares will give the side cuts for the vaUey and jack rafters. In this illustration we have used two scales — the fuU scale on the steel square for a one- foot run, to obtain the cuts; and the V12 scale, or one inch to the foot run, for the diagram of the roof, from which to obtain the length of the rafters. The fact that there are two scales employed may render the subject harder to grasp by some; but we trust that after a little study of this illustration will be clear. The reader will observe that in all of our work we have adhered to 12 on the tongue as the starting point. We do this because it repre- sents unity or the beginning, and therefore answers for any run or pitch given the roof. However, as a comparison, it might be well to illustrate this problem by the one-inch scale to the foot. Bear in mind that while we illustrate these problems with two squares, only one is neces- sary, as the angles may be laid out with the different positions of the square and the required proportions taken on the same. As the run of the small gable is 8 feet, place the blade of square No. 2 at 8 on both the tongue 112 FEAMING and blade (Fig. 62), with the heel opposite 14 of square No. 1 (because 14 represents the run of the main roof). Now, since the rise is 9 inches to the foot, for 14 feet it would be 10 feet 6 inches. Then the line from 193^4 to IQi/o Fig. 62. Steel Square iu Boof Dormer Framing. will be the same length as AE' of like letters in the previous illustrations. By drawing the line D-F' at right angles to the blade, A-F' will represent the length of the short valley. FRAMING 113 As for the length of the common rafters, this is an easy matter to get by the scale method, by simply taking the run and rise of the roof on the tongue and blade and measuring diagon- ally across. However, while this does for work- ing purposes for the more common run of work, it is not absolutely a correct method, because the least variation is magnified twelve-fold. How to Roof a Circular Bay. The trouble that one carpenter had with such a job work- ing ''by rule o' thumb" is well illustrated in the following letter. "I executed a piece of work last week which acci- dentally proved satisfactory to the contractor I am work- ing for, but not to myself. Not knowing the proper way to go about it, I had a deuce of a time and worried myself half -sick. "The job in question was framing a roof over a circu- lar bay window, as they are termed here. The window had a radius of 15 feet, with a projection of 2 feet 6 inches and a rise at the center of 1 foot 6 inches. The roof was sheathed and covered with tin. "The way I went about it at first was to strike my 15 feet radius, and then lay off the rise at center, allowing for projection. Next I struck the radius of my roof, which was 19 feet, something — do not call to mind just what it was. By doing so I expected to get the true rise and run of my rafters. ■ The rafters were spaced on 32-inch centers — ^that is, I spiked my lookouts on every other joist, and set my rafters on top of them. I spaced off my drawing 32 inches, commencing at the center and working each way,. Then took the run and rise of each rafter separately and cut them, but when I commenced to put them up something was wrong. The first, or center 114 FRAMING rafter, was all right and the others were wrong. I felt awfully cheap, but of course the work had to be done, and not knowing any better way than by the old, old- fashioned one, or the rule of 'thumb,' I finished my roof that way. It looks all right, I suppose, to most people outside of a good practical man, but I am not satisfied. The chances are I will have more of the same work to do, as they are getting to be quite the style. "If it is not asking too much, I certainly would esteem it a great favor if you would, or could, afford the time to enlighten me as to the simplest method of executing the above described work." The above letter is printed in full, because it is clear-cut and shows that the writer is after information pure and simple. He admits his error, and is anxious to avoid a like occurrence in the future. His frankness in the matter shows that he is on the right track to better fit himself for his work and give value received to his employer, with a good share of interest thrown in. We are all given to mistakes ; and from one another's experience we gain our knowledge for paving the way for still others to follow. To the experienced, such questions may seem simple and a waste of words in the way of explanation, but all such should remember that they too were once groping in the dark for information just as thousands of others are to-day; and so it will ever be. The great trouble experienced by the would- be learner is that he does not stop to think — FRAMING 115 that is, of the rules of application or relation of one part to another. Take, for instance, the above example. If the bay window had been a full half-circle, this man would without hesitation have framed his Scat and Pluhb Cut. D^TOP CUT c OrJACK Fig. 63. How to Boof a Circular Bay. rafters the same as for a circular roof — aU of same length and radiating from a common center; but when only a fraction of the roof is wanted, he forgets that the rafters must lie in the same position as for the half-circle bay. In one case, the wall line of the house, as it were, 116 FEAMING cuts through the center of a circular conical roof; while in the other, it cuts off only the edge of the roof. Therefore, being a part of the same roof, the seat and plumb cuts must be the same in either case; but not being whole rafters, they must be considered as jacks, and therefore need a side cut, with the exception of the center, which is No. 1 in Fig. 63. The others of like numbers, will be rights and lefts, and may be obtained with a bevel square provided it is paralleled with seat cut line or at right angles — square out from the plumb cut. For work of this kind, it is better to lay out a full-size diagram of such parts as are required, on a level space, to get the measurements as shown in Fig. 63. The plan shows the indi- vidual run of the rafters as A-1, B-2, 0-3, etc. The elevation shows the rise of same, as 1-1', 2-2', 3-3', etc.; and the stretch-out of their lengths, as a-1', b-2', c-3', etc. This part shows the shape of the boards for the covering. The elevation also shows the curve the roof has at the intersection of the wall; however, this part will not be a true circle as our friend tried to have it. This should cause no worry because it will take care of itself, provided the rafters are cut to the right length and placed radiating to a common center. Further explanation, we trust, is not necessary. To Develop Curved Eafters. A question that frequently comes up for solution, in get- ting out rafters that have a sweep or curve, is FRAMING 117 how to make the hips without scribing them from the common rafter, and make them so that all parts will line up properly. The method is shown in Pig, 64, which is self-explanatory. The curve for the common rafter can be any- thing desired, and should be laid off full -size. Fig. 64, Developing Curved Hip Eafter. In the illustration, AB represents the run of the curve for the common rafter, and OB the same for the hip. B D represents the rise; and it necessarily follows that AD represents the curve given the common rafter. For a square-cornered building and where the pitch 118 FEAMING is the same on both sides, the run of the hip will necessarily rest at 45 degrees from that of the common rafter as shown. Next, lay off any mmaber of lines parallel to the run of the common rafter; also a like number with corresponding spacing parallel to the run of the hip, but to be of indefinite lengths, as shown. Now, draw lines from the curve of the common rafter (AD), and at right angles to the run (AB), intersecting the run of the hip (0 B) , thence at right angles indefinitely. The intersection of these lines with the cor- responding parallel lines of the hip, will give the points from which to run an offhand curve to correspond with that of the common rafter. Rafter ends of various fancy slopes, such as are used for bungalows, are developed in a similar way. For particular work, the curve of the hip should be backed. Measure back one-half of the thickness of the hip on the parallel lines, which will give the gauge line along the side of the rafter from which to remove the wood to the center as indicated by the first curve devel- oped. How to Use the Octagon Scale. On the tongue of almost all steel squares, there is a row of dots enclosed between two lines, and figured to a scale of tenths. This scale is called the octagon scale, and is designed for changing a square timber to an octagon, or for finding the width of the side of an octagon of a given FRAMING 119 diameter. In Pig. 65 is shown a part of this scale. But very few understand it, or are even interested enough in it to look it up. It is quite evident that the inventor did not under- stand the use of the plain steel square with its standard scale of measurement, which is sufifi- Fig. 65. Octagon Scale and Another Method. cient for solving all problems of this kind, for he wandered from the path of simplicity into a byway to exemplify a single problem in the polygons, then leaving the would-be learner ignorant of any apparent reason why his scale gives correct results. The solution is as follows: Suppose it is desired to change a seven-inch 120 FRAMING square stick to an octagon. Lay off a center line on all four faces of the timber; and from either side of this line set off a space equal to seven of the spaces shown on the steel square, which will be the point for the gauge line, from which to remove the wood at the corners to form the oc- tagon. These same proportions may be found direct- ly from the steel square; in fact, Fig. 65 shows a rule that applies not only to the octagon, but to any of the other polygons as well. Draw an indefinite line from 12 and passing at 5 as shown. Now, if the timber is seven inches square, measure back that amount from 12 on the tongue, and square up to the diagonal Une, as at aa, which will be found to be 2 11-12 inches and represents the side of the octagon. If the timber is 16 inches, then bb represents the width of the sides and is found to be 6 2-3 inches. This rule, as we said before, applies to any of the polygons. The starting points on the square are the figures that give their respective miters, and the diagonal line across the square is governed accordingly. How to Frame by Degrees With the Steel Square. The steel squares that are in general use do not contain a degree scale for framing purposes, though unquestionably it would be a good thing instead of some of the obsolete rules that now encumber its faces. However, in the absence of a protractor, the angle may be found FRAMING 121 as shown by the accompanying illustration, Pig. 66, as follows: Lay off a line, as at AB, and apply the square as shown, and draw liae AC from 12 on the tongue and passing at 12 on the blade. This line will be at an angle of 45 degrees to AB. Now, with the compass, strike an arc of any ra- Fig. 66. To Lay Out an Angle with the Steel Square. dius — ^the larger the better, for the more accu- rate will be the final result. Divide this arc into nine equal parts, and these divisions will be five degrees apart, as shown by the figures opposite the divisions. Now, to find the figures on the blade for the degrees wanted, as 40, draw a line from A to 40 on the arc, and the line will pass at 122 FRAMING 10.06, or practically 10 1-12 inches on the blade, which will represent the figures to use on that member for either 40 or 50 degrees, the blade giving the plumb cut in the former and the tongue in the latter. Vice versa for the seat cut. The changing point is at 45 degrees, and as 40 is less than 45, the blade gives the plumb cut. On the other hand, 50 being more than 45, the tongue gives the cut. The reason that 12 and 10 1-12 also gives the cuts for 50 degrees is because 50 is the comple- ment degree of 40, or, in other words, the sum of the two equals 90. Thus it will be seen that this diagram is all that is necessary to find any angle on the square. Suppose we wish to find the figures for 22^^ degrees. Then divide the space from 20 to 25 into five equal parts, and these will be one degree apart, and by drawing a line from A to 22^^ on the arc, the line will be found to pass practically 5 on the blade. Having found what figures to use on the blade for any desired degree, the procedure in roof framing is the same as in framing by the proportion of the span or per inch rise to the foot in run of the common rafter. To Prevent a Ridge from Sagging. A method of construction such as is illustrated in Pig. 67 is at times desirable. It keeps the ridge from sagging, or plates from bulging out on the sides. The board, 1 by 8 inch, nailed on under FRAMING 123 side of rafter, will prevent roof from sagging. No collar beams are required. The board ex- tends from end of plate at corner of building diagonally to center of ridge. RlO£E ,' (M // ^ y Plate ^ '/ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Pig. 67. Good Brace for Ridge. Roof Construction to Prevent Formation of Ice on Eaves. This is a most important matter in many parts of the country, especially in the North. Before suggesting a method of construction, it may be well to examine into the causes of this 124 FKAMING very prevalent trouble, which annoys many a householder winter after winter. When a body of snow several inches thick lies on a roof, it forms a very effective non-con- ductor of heat. The warmth of the attic pene- trates or radiates through the boarding and shingles (wood or metal alike), and cannot pass off into the air, on account of the layer of snow acting as a sort of blanket to retain the heat. In consequence, the under part of the layer of snow is melted slightly, and trickles down until it reaches the eaves. As the eaves overhang the walls, the internal heat of the house does not affect this part of the roof, which is in conse- quence quite cold. The water, trickling down the surface of the roof, freezes at once on reach- ing this cold zone of roof, and gradually accumu- lates a mass of ice ranging from two or three inches to a foot or more in thickness. This serves to back up the water over the warm part of the roof, and hence the leaks which are the worst effects of this condition of things. It should also be observed that when the snow melts from the outside — that is, from the heat of the sun — no trouble occurs at the eaves, the resulting water running freely down off the roof. Seeing, then, that the cause of the trouble is the radiation, through the roof itself, of the internal heat of the house, the remedy evidently lies in preventing such radiation. This may be done in two ways, either of which is fairly effective alone; but for first-class FRAMING 125 work and to insure the very best results it would be well to use both methods in combination. The first method consists in thoroughly deadening the ceilings of all the upper rooms of the building — that is, to form a dead air space through which the heat of the rooms cannot es- cape. It cannot be too widely known by build- ers throughout the colder regions of this conti- nent, that a lath and plaster ceiling allows a tre- mendous lot of heat to escape into the attic of a building; and, if for no other reason than the saving of fuel, this should be prevented. An effective method is to lay rough boarding on fil- lets near the upper edge of the ceiling joists, and to cover the same with some composition to ren- der it air-proof. Pig. 68 shows the details of this method, which calls for slightly deeper joists to carry the extra weight of the deadening. f^ Jtou^/i morteLr or con\. position ^SSSIl^S % '^> ; '.'.:'.f ^, Vf7yfffvyy''>PPilvVjJ^ bf: rule fs magate»M »M*iuwti < w*»»»i»*'wff;j rsj noj rioi nos in; nil 2-0 2'03 2'li .a'3 2'44 2-6 2-74 2-9 4 sa 23 2'4 ^'H 2-5 2-5i 2' 6 2'6i 27 2'7i 2'8 2'9 a'.io 30 3'2 3-4 3-6 3'8 5 2-8i 293 2'll aiii 3o; 3'0! 3'li 3'2i 32j 3'3| 3-4 3'54 3'6A 3' 9 3114 42 4-44 4-7 6 3-3 3'4i 3'6 3'6} 3-7i 38i 3'9 J'Si 3'lOi 3'lli 4-0 4'li 4' 3 4'6 4- 9 5-0 5-3 5-6 7 3-91 3'li; 41 4-15 425 4-3J 4'4; 4'5| ,4-6; 4'7i 4-8 4-9J 4'lli S3 5-64 5-10 SU 6-5 a *4 4-6 4'8 49 410 411 S'O 51 '5'2 5' 3 5'4 5' 6 S'8 e-0 6'4 6-8 7-0 7'4 9 4'I04 SOi S3 5-4i 5-54 5'6J sn 3'6j 5'93 5'IOJ 6'0 G'2; 6'4i 6'9 714 7-6 7-104 8-3 10 5-5 STi S'lO s'li; 60i 6'lJ 6 3 6'4i 6'5J G'63 6'a e-iti 7-1 7'6 rii 6-4 8-9 9-2 II S«l 6-s; 6' 6 6'6j 6'7J 6'9i 6'IOi 6'llJ 7'i; 7'2i T4 7-63 7-94 8'3 a'84 9-2 9-74 10- 1 12 6'6 6'9 ro 7li 73 7'4i 7'6 7'7i 7-9 7'IOJ 8'0 8'3 8'6 9-0 9'6 10-0 10-6 iro 13 7-Oi 73i 7-7 7-6S 7IOi 7'llS 8'li 8'3S e'4S 8'6S 8-8 6114 924 9' 9 1034 10-10 11-44 in 4 77 7I0J 82 8-33 83J 8'7J 8' 9 8103 9'0; 9'2; 9'4 9'7S 911 10' 6 III l|-6 12-3 12'I0 5 6'li S5i 8'9 8101 90J 9'2i 9'4l 9'6| 9'8i 9'IOi IffO I0'3^ 1074 ll'3 II' 104 12-6 13-14 13-9 6 a' 6 g'o 9'4 9' 6 9'8 910 100 10' 2 I0'4 10'6 I0'8 M-0 ir4 120 I2'a 13-4 14-0 W6 7 92i 9'6J 911 10 la I0'3i I0'5i I07i lO'Oj io'ii3 H-ll ll'4 ir8i I2'04 I2'9 I3'34 14-2 KIOS 15-7 fi 9-9 lO'li ID'S 10' 6« iO'lOJ lI'Ol II 3 U'S. ll'7i ll'Oi 12' 12-44 I2'9 13'6 14'3 15-0 15- 9 16-6 9 I0'3i Ida; in ir3i M-5J ll'fia ll'lOi 12'0e I2'3i 12'6i 12'8 1303 I3'54 143 13' 04 15-10 l6-7i 17-i 20 lO'lO 11-3 ll'B irioi 12' 1 I2-3J 12' 6 12'SJ I2'll 13' 14 13'4 13'9 142 15'0 IS'IO I6'S 17-6 18-4 ?.\ 11 -45 1194 12-3 I2-5J l?Bi 12' 10s 13' li I3'4i 13' 63 13'Se 140 14'54 14104 lo9 16-74 I7'6 ie-4i 19-3 22 ll'JI I24) 1210 13'Oi 13' 3i I3'64 13' 3 13'll3 14' 2; 14'6i 148 I5'li 15' 7 16'6 175 18'4 19-3 20-2 ?.?i I2'5} I2li; 13-5 I3-7J 13'lOi 14li |4'4; 14'7i I4'10j 15-li 15'4 1593 I6'34 17-3 1824 192 20-14 21-1 PA I3'0 I3'6 140 143 146 I4'9 150 15-3 15' 6 I5'9 IG'O I6'6 17'0 IS'O 19-0 200 21-0 220 2b I3'6i 14' 0> 447 I4[0e rai 15'4J 15' 7J IS'lOl IE'l3 I6'4e I6'8 17'24 17'84 I8'3 19-94 2010 ai'ioi 22-11 28 14-1 i4t; 15-2 15-5; 15'ei 13'llj 163 16'64 I6'9j troi I7'4 17104 lO'b 19'6 207 2I'8 22-9 2310 27 |l4Ti 11524 IS-9 I60j I6'3i I6'7i 16'IOi 1714 I7ii i/'»j lUO Ib'Oi 1914 20'3 21-41 22'6 23'7e 24-9 Fig. 72. Table Giving Number of Treads or Kisers of Any Width for Any Size Space. layout for stairs, the accompanying table, Pig. 72, will be found very handy and useful as a time-saver. The first row of figures running down the left-hand side, represents the number of risers, while the first row running across the top represents either the rise or the width of the tread. Those in the following lines repre- 134 FRAMING sent either the total rise or run for the number of risers shown in the opposite left-hand column. For example: Suppose we wish to find the number of risers required in a stairway that is 10 feet 5y2 inches from floor to floor, and we desire to keep the risers as near 7^4 inches as possible. Operation — Take 7% in the top line, and run down the column to the nearest figures to 10 feet 51/2 inches. It is 10 feet 7^^ inches, and is opposite 17 in the left-hand column. There- fore, 17 represents the number of risers; but there is 2 inches left over. This must be divided into 17 parts and one of these parts subtracted from each riser, which would be nearly % inch less than 71/^ inches. Now look in the next column to the left. In this, the risers are 7% inches; and for 17 risers, the total is found to be 10 feet 5% inches, which is just Yq inch short. Thus the risers will be 7% inches, plus Vit of % inch. To find the run of the stairs, it must be remembered that there is always one less tread than there are risers. So take 16 in the left- hand column, and trace the figures to the right till you come to the column whose figures at the top represent the desired width of tread. Sup- pose it to be 9 inches, then it will be found that the run wUl be 12 feet. If the treads are 91/^ inches wide, then the run wiU be 12 feet 8 inches, and so on for any desired width of tread. Usually there is some leeway in the run; that FRAMING 135 is, it is not confined to a certain space like the rise from floor to floor. Therefore, a few inches in the run of a straight flight of stairs does not usually make any difference, thus leaving it to the builder to select at once the width of tread desired. When this cannot be done, then the allotted space must be arrived at in the same manner as that given in the above for the risers. But after all, it should be remembered that while the measurements can be accurately found by the aid of this table, its greatest utility is as a quick reckoner, in laying out the space and proper openings for the finished stair work. In that case it is not necessary to calculate down to the minuteness required in the building of the stairs. Types of Stair Construction. Taking up the various details of construc- tion, the housed string stair, one of the simplest and at the same time an important type, pre- sents itself. This class of stairs may be divided into two kinds — ^first, where the stair is between waUs (that is, where both strings are fastened to and supported by the walls); and second, where only one of the strings is fastened to the wall, and the other (the face or outside string) is free. The first is the cheaper, and is used very much in small cottages, and also as a rear stair in the better grade of houses. Of course, very often both of these stairs are framed without 136 FRAMING the housed string. The treads are carried on a rough string, and the finished string is fast- ened to the treads and risers by nailing through it into the treads and risers; but this is very poor construction. By the term housed string is meant a string notched out to receive the ends of the treads Fig. 73. Housed-String Stair Construction. and risers. An examination of Pig. 73 will show clearly what is meant. In the stair between two waUs, rough strings are unnecessary, unless the stair is over 2 feet 6 inches wide, when a rough string must be pro- vided under the middle of the stair. The fin- ished strings are fastened to the walls, and are more rigid than if a rough string were the means of support. FEAMING 137 Laying Out Stair Strings. After determin- ing the tread and riser lengths, proceed to lay out the string. A little device very helpful in laying out a string is a gauge-board, as shown in Fig. 74, upon which has been cut the proper length of tread and riser to the pitch of the stair. In notching out the treads and risers, the notches should be cut large enough to receive a small wedge below the tread and back of the riser. These are used to make a tight Fig. 74. Use of Gauge-Board. fit in front, where the treads and risers come against the edge of the notches. When the stairs are put together, the wedges are covered with glue before being driven into place. Another method of laying out housing for stair strings is as follows: Joint top edge of string-board straight; draw a gauge-line down the required distance for the center of nosings. Then, having found the rise and run of riser and step, set dividers from rise on blade of square, and step off on gauge- 138 FRAMING line the reqviired number of treads. Next take a center bit the size of nosings, and start holes at these points. Next mark a pitch-board, as shown in the lower part of Fig. 75, at D, and a wedge-shaped stick F, the thickness of tread, plus the shape of wedge to be used in gluing up the stairs. Now place pitch-board on string, as shown at D in the upper part of Fig. 75, tost op 4TRin« ^Blocks rtAttco c PhojccTin ■ ZK&"Ofcida- I no Tao 'P? ^ ^ Ha y -Ti po be r— re fc 'yii^^yii!»>>^^ SJTo 1 N nq -lb i ock -Obea+hinc ^— I oferior- -Ploafcr-- Fig. 91. Wall Sections — Cement Plaster Houses. heavier sash than for the common double- strength glass. It is a good idea to plow or groove out the corner of the frame so that the mortar will extend under the edge of the frame. The flashing of the caps may be put on in the usual way, and plastered over. Of course it would be much easier, so far as the plastering is 164 FRAMING concerned, to set the frames after the plastering is done; but this would not make so tight a job, especially as to the prevention of leakage at the top. The framework should be very substan- tial; otherwise settlement or vibration will crack the plastering. r- Plaster 1 r ME TALic La th. ^Plaster Fig. 92. Framing for Windows, Cement Piaster House. Casement Window Construction. Pig. 93 shows the construction of an inward-opening casement; also the manner of making and applying stucco to the exterior surfaces of frame walls. The only serious objection to the use of case- ment windows in general, is that it is very diffi- cult to make them proof against rain and wind; and with casements opening inward, the difficulty is much greater than with those open- FRAMING 165 ing outward. This detail shows as simple a method as can well be employed in constructing an inward-opening casement, though it is not always thoroughly weather-tight during driving rainstorms, when the house is in an exposed location. The frame is made out of two-inch stock, rebated for the sash, for outside blinds or storm sash. The channel at B on both jambs of the frame, is for the purpose of catching any water that may beat in between the sash and the frame, and for conveying it downward to the sill, on which it discharges in the manner indi- cated by the arrows at B. A filling piece A, of the same material and finish as the adjoining interior woodwork, is placed on the inner edge of the frame, so that none of the frame will be exposed in the room. The sill is usually the weak point of inward- opening casements, owing to the fact that what- ever rebate is made for the sash, must neces- sarily have its lower edge on the inside of the window, so that any water which once enters between the lower rail of the sash and the sill will leak into the room. To prevent the water from entering at this point, an undercut drip is provided on the lower rail of the sash, so that any water which may trickle down the outside surface of the sash will drop to the sill from the lower edge; and the sill has a hollow in the raised portion just under the sash, for the pur- 166 FRAMING feffiATHIHS. ^/f^""^^^ Fig. 93. Casement Window in Cement Plaster House. pose of casting off any water which may be driven against it in severe weather. The sill is rebated for the outside blinds, and has an apron which is tongued into it. FRAMING 167 The wall is frame, constructed in the usual manner of two by four-inch studs placed sixteen inches on centers, and doubled for jambs, heads, and siUs of openings. It is lathed and plastered on the inside; and grounds G- are set as a nail- ing for the inside finishing woodwork. The trim is moulded and hollow-backed and mitered at angles, and has a face-mould. It finishes on wood plinth blocks of the same height as the adjoining base; and underneath the window a moulded panel-back is provided. Walls should be plastered behind panel-backs, but the finish coat may be omitted. Panels should be set loose to allow for expansion and contraction, and the mouldings should be nailed to the stiles and rails of the panel-back. Also, the joint of panels with the stiles and rails should be so constructed that the panel may be readily removed by taking off the moulding. This is very essential, as panels frequently need replacing, owing to cracks and warping. In order that the wall may be plastered behind the panel-back without increasing its thickness, the studs between the floor and the sill are three by four inch, set flatwise. The exterior of the wall is sheathed with matched boards surfaced on one side, and is then covered with waterproof building paper, well lapped and tacked. The surface is then furred with one by two-inch strips placed twelve inches on centers and well nailed. Metal lath is then 168 FRAMING applied, well lapped, stretched, and stapled to each furring strip. To this lath the first coat of stucco mortar is applied, and it should be well troweled under pressure to secure a good "key" on the lath. A good mortar for this coat is made of one part domestic Portland cement, one part shell lime, and five parts of clean sharp sand. This coat should be allowed to dry slowly, and, if neces- sary to accomplish this, should be frequently sprinkled with water through a hose having a fine sprinkling nozzle, for the first twenty-four hours. The surface should be lightly scratched, so as to provide a "key" for the second coat. A good mixture for the second or finish coat is made in the proportions of one part domestic Portland cement, one part shell lime, and five parts of clean white marble dust. This dust should not be the refuse of a marble quarry, but should consist of clean white marble spe- cially ground for stucco work. This coat should be allowed to dry slowly, being dampened if necessary, similarly to the undercoat. It is essential that the casings, cornice, base, and beltings be so made that the plaster shall be keyed to it. Strips of wood for the English half-timber effect are beveled on their edges as indicated in Pigs. 90 and 91. Casings may be similarly beveled on their outer edges except the head, which is tinned so as to turn the water. A more common method of making casings is to run a moulding entirely around the casing, FRAMING 169 allowing it to project over the outer edge about five-eighths of an inch. Such casings have an "apron" similar to that used on the inside. Metal arid Wood Lath. The question of the relative merits of metal and wood lath is one that does not seem to be fully settled. In fact, both metal and wood have their advantages and their disadvantages. Time will tell. At pres- ent both are used in about equal proportion, each having advocates with very decided opinions. The advantage most frequently urged in behalf of metal lath is its rendering the waU fireproof. Its greatest disadvantage is its lia- bility to rust. This disadvantage, it is claimed by manufacturers, is overcome by having the lath back-plastered so that the meshes are com- pletely embedded. This does not fully protect the metal, however; and to overcome the diffi- culty, metal lath galvanized or coated with pro- tective paint is being placed on the market. The advantages and disadvantages of wood lath are too well known to the reader to need repeating. The poor quality of the lath now generally found on the market, which is becom- ing poorer from year to year, and their liability to shrink, warp, and buckle, render them far from ideal. The decrease in their width, with the consequent more frequent clinches, and their cheapness, have served to keep wood lath to the front in the outlying districts where fireproof- ing is not so much insisted upon. 170 FRAMING Cement Plaster — How to Mix and Apply. Many manufacturers of cements provide direc- tions for the proper proportioning of their ma- terials. It is taken for granted that their directions are the results of experiments and observations with their products, and they should therefore be considered reliable. The following, from the annual report for 1904, of the Ohio State Geologist, will be of interest: First coat, one-half inch thick. For best results, the wall should be furred off with strips put on vertically twelve inches apart and well nailed. On these, fasten firmly metal lath. Add fiber to the mortar for lath work. Wet thoroughly the surface to be plastered. Mix one part of non-staining Portland cement with two parts medium sand, one part fine sand and one-half part lime flour. When this coat has set hard, wet the surface thoroughly, and apply the second coat with a wooden float. Second coat, one-quarter inch thick. Mix one part cement as above, one part fine sand, and two parts medium sand or crushed granite. Before the second coat has set hard, it may be "joined" to present the appear- ance of stone work. A small addition of lime flour increases the adhesion of the mortar. The finished surfaces should be protected for at least two weeks with canvas curtains or bagging saturated with water. Defects are liable to appear on cement plastered walls, (1) if too much cement is used ; (2) if not applied with sufficient moisture; (3) if not troweled sufficiently; (4) if not protected from variations in temperature and draughts of air. FRAMING 171 To this a prominent manufacturer of metal lath adds: In some sections a departure from this specification has been found preferable. It is the practice in the New England States, for instance, to staple metal lath directly to the studding, and then plaster with one heavy coat of Portland cement and lime mortar mixed, using one barrel of best Portland cement and three casks of hair and lime mortar made up in the usual manner, as if it were to be applied to wood lath. The lime mortar to be divided into batches so that the Portland cement can be added in small quantities just before using, that the* cement may not have time to harden or set before the plasterer can use it. After this coat has hardened sufficiently, it is back- plastered on the key formed by the first coat, putting this back-plaster coat on with the same kind of mixture as the first coat on the outside, and covering the lath by at least one-half inch. After these two coats have hardened sufficiently and dried out, the second or finish coat can be put on, either by slapdashing, or putting on one heavy coat with trowel finish, or applying any of the various attractive finishes which are possible by the use of cement. The mixture of this final coat depends on the kind of finish desired; but it is usually made with one barrel of Portland cement to two barrels of coarse, sharp sand. If a light color is desired, a hodful of lime putty is added to the mixture ; or, if a very rough finish is wanted, a propor- tion of pebbles or crushed stone is mixed with the sand and cement. It is difficult to give a certain formula for the finishing coat, as nearly every plasterer or architect has his own ideas as to this finish. The specification last mentioned is the one generally used on the cheaper grades of houses, from $5,000 to $7,500. On the higher grade of 172 FKAMING work, the plastering is done in four coats. There is first a scratch coat, which simply fills the meshes of the lath; second, the backing- up coat on the inside; third, what is called the brown coat, which is a heavy coat applied directly to the scratch coat, and which is floated or brought up to a straight, smooth surface, and left somewhat roughened to receive the final coat. The brown coat is often omitted on the cheaper class of houses. It is usually mixed with one barrel of Portland cement to two bar- rels of sand, and a hodful of putty. It may be added that improper gauging of cement and lime often causes an uneven color. Experienced plasterers overcome this easily. One who has done much of this says he thins down his lime putty so that it is so watery as to be used in mixing the cement. The accompanjdng table shows the area which can be covered by one barrel of Portland cement mortar of various mixtures, with coats of various thicknesses. AEEA COVEEED BY MOKTAE. Mortar Produced from One Barrel of Portland Cement Mortar (3.8 cu. ft. Cement Paste). (No Lime) Composition op Moetar Thickness OF Coat Area COTEKED 1 Cement, 1 Sand . 1 inch ^ I! 67 eq. n. 90 " '• 134 •' •• 1 Cement. 2 Sand . 1 inch 104 eg. n. 139 '• •■ 208 '• " 1 Cement, 3 Sand . 1 inch 140 SQ. ft. 187 •■ •• 280 " " FRAMING 173 Finishes and Tinting. A great variety of finishes is possible. The stippled effect is very pleasing; also the effect obtained by throwing small pebbles at random into the plaster before the second coat has set. An effective rough cast is obtained by mixing cement and water at a thick fluid consistency, and then adding fine washed gravel, screened through a %-inch-mesh screen. When mixed it is ready for applica- tion, and may be applied as a third coat on a rough-coated surface, or directly to a scratch coat. The result is most pleasing to the eye, and for a good wearing surface there is none better. The color effects obtained with cement are many and are beautiful. Most of these effects are obtained, however, not as might be sup- posed, by mixing the dry colors in the cement, but by painting the cement after it has become dry and hard. There are two very good reasons for not mixing the colors in the cement. First, it is almost impossible to mix the mass so that it wiU dry with an even or uniform color. Sec- ond, most coloring matters weaken the cement. No coloring containing acids or anything that will act upon the alkalies in the cement, can be used; and vegetable or oil colors impair the strength of the cement. The accompanying table indicates the min- eral coloring materials which may be used for giving various colors and tints to cement mor- 174 FRAMING tar, and the proportions of coloring matter to cement. ItlATEBIALS USED IN COLOBINa MOBTABS. Color Mineral Pounds Color to 100 Pounds Cement Pounds Color to Barbel of Cement Gray Kto^ 2 5 to 6 6 6 to 10 6 6 6 6 6 to 10 2 Black 48 Black iiXcelsior Carbon Black 00 Blue 20 24 Red Iron Oxide 24 Bright Red 24 Sandstone Red-Purple Oxide of Iron 24 Violet 24 Brown Yellow or BufiF Roasted Iron Oxide or Brown Ocher Yellow Ocher 24 24 FRAMING FOR VENEER AND MASONRY HOUSES Various types of masonry veneer construc- tion have frequently been employed in many parts of the country, especially in the East, and have gained much popularity. Brick veneer has been most used, though of late years concrete blocks and tile have come into use for veneer- ing purposes to some extent. The advantages of any of these systems over the solid masonry wall, for residence work, seems to be a lower first cost and a drier wall; while as compared with all-frame construction, the veneer is warmer, more durable, and presents a more dignified appearance. Brick Veneer Wall Construction. In the main, the timber framing to be used with brick veneer construction is identical with the best FRAMING 175 practice for all-frame houses. A number of points, however, require special attention. The relation of the masonry veneer coat to the stud- ding, and tne proper bonding of the masonry and framework, one to the other, is one of these points. Consider a house which is to be constructed of a wooden frame, sheathed diagonally with LHTH ima Plrstcr .IYill Stuos I B C V O I ivooa SHCATHine ♦^b" ^'"^ Anchors ^^muSrua r. ■Face Brich ycNSEn Plan I I III ^ I I I T^ . 5 TONE Course: TT TT -Tzr — cj n ELEi/ATion or VtntzRCD Wall Fig. 94. Brick Veneer Wall Construction, Showing Bonding. inch boards and finished with a brick facing of veneer of 4 inches. In order properly to veneer the wooden or timber work, it is necessary that the frame should be kept at least 6 inches from the outside face of the foundation wall. A water-table course of stone should be carried around above the cellar absolutely level, in order 176 FRAMING to support the upper structure of brick. There- fore the foundation wall must not be less than 20 inches thick. The water-table having been set and the frame erected to the exact measurements, the first five courses of brick may be laid all the way around, as shown in the elevation. Fig. 94. After this is done, wire wall-anchors of the shape indicated upon the plan (which, by the way, can be purchased at any hardware store) are driven into the sides of the studdings 16 inches apart, and laid fiat on the top of the bed recourse so as to tie the brickwork firmly to the wooden frame. At the corners, the anchors should be plentifully used. Should it not be desirable to use the anchors and it is found necessary to make a stronger wall, a course of brick headers, English bond, may be introduced on the sixth course, allowing the headers to pass through the thickness of the studdings and filling up the space between them, as at AB and CD, with the rough brick. This method gives practically an 8-inch wall, and makes a warmer house, as old brickbats can be used to great advantage. Should a Flemish bond of headers and stretchers be employed, then the bricks should be placed as indicated by the dotted lines shown in the plan. The thickness of the anchors desired must not be in excess of the brick mortar joints. Should the building be of concrete, veneered with brick, it will be necessary to lay up the FRAMING 177 brickwork first, before baeking-up of the con- crete. All measurements must be carefuUj' watched so that the sills, lintels, bond courses, etc., may be at their proper heights and levels. The same rules apply to backing-up with rough rubble stonework; but it is better to build the stonework first, and, by driving hook anchors into the variegating joints, obtain a fastening in the brick veneer. Air-Spaces and Bonding. One of the prin- cipal boasts made for the brick veneer type of house is concerning its warmth and dryness. This comes from the ample dead air-spaces. A double air-chamber is made by leaving an air- space between the brick and the sheathing. Fig. 95 shows in sectional detail how this is done. It is a good idea not to crowd the brick close to the sheathing; better set off an inch or the thickness of the blind stop, and make the same wide enough to lap onto the sheathing. However, the building paper should be put on first; and then, after the window-frames are set, it is a good idea to nail a couple of lath an inch or so back of the blind stop, and fill in with mortar, pressing the same in firmly. This can be done at the time the brick are being laid, with practically no loss of time. The hollow space serves a double purpose, as it affords a dead air-space, and at the same time allows some leeway in correcting uneven- ness in the framework. It is also a good idea to cut-in pieces between the joist and studding 178 FRAMING at the different floors, so as to cut off the circula- tion in case of fire, as well as prevent the move- ments of the ever pesky mouse. Fig. 95. Wall Section Stowing Air Spaces and Framing. The anchoring of the brickwork to the sheathing should be done by stapling wire to the FRAMING 179 sheathing opposite the studding and about every sixth course apart. The wire should be left loose enough to reach out half the width of the brick, and to be well bedded into the mortar joint. No. 11 wire should be used. Window-Framing in Masonry Walls. How window-frames are set, and the woodwork finish attached in masonry walls, is well illustrated in Fig. 96. It shows a casement window open- ing outward in a thirteen-inch brick wall. This type of construction is about the cheapest that can well be employed, excepting of course that the moulded work and other features which are provided for appearance only may be greatly simplified. These features are subject to con- siderable modifications as the taste of the archi- tect or builder dictates. The window opening is spanned on top by a flat stone arch, the blocks of which are cut with a camber of one-quarter of an inch and set with a camber of one-eighth of an inch to every foot of span. Plat arches set in this manner give a much better effect than when set per- fectly flat, inasmuch as the arch appears to sag in the center when the soffit is perfectly straight. Back of the stone arch, a rowlock arch is turned over a wood center, and supports the inner two-thirds of the wall over the opening. These rowlock arches are segmental in form, and are built of brick set on edge; and one row- lock is provided for every foot in the width of the masonry opening. All rowlocks should start 180 FRAMING at a brick impost cut to a line corresponding with the radius of the arch; and the key bricks of the lower rings should not be set until the upper rings are ready for -their key bricks. The masonry jamb of the opening is built straight, and the window-frame is secured in place by means of a lug which is left on the jamb of the frame and built into the masonry as the walls are carried up about same. This lug also serves as a wind stop. The stone sill of the^ opening is cut so as to lay up accurately with two courses of brick- work, and is tailed into the masonry under each brick impost. The sill is cut with a wash, and has a lug or raised seat at each end to receive the brick imposts. On the under side of the projecting part, a water drip is cut. The stone sill should extend under the wooden sill at least two inches. At the top, Fig. 96 is a vertical section show- ing the construction at the head of the frame. The trim is mitered, put together with slip tongues, and glued. The head lining is tongued into a piece of finishing wood on the inside of the frame head. Below is a horizontal section showing the construction at the jamb of the frame. The frame is moulded, and, where it abuts the stop bead, a channel is provided to catch any water which may beat in between the sash and frame during stormy weather. This channel conveys the water down, and discharges it on the sill. FRAMING 181 The trim is moulded, built up, and hollow- backed, and has a feather-edged back-band. At the bottom is a vertical section showing TRIK iAiH VERTICAL SECTION AT HEAD j,ATW rrLAiTSfe BRICK WALl Fig. 96. Casement Window in 13-Inch Brick Wall. 182 FRAMING the construction at the sill of the frame. The inside stool is tongued into the wooden sill, extended into the room, and provided with brackets. The apron is moulded, and has returned ends. A small mould is provided in the angle formed by the intersection of the stool and apron. A water nose is cut on the under side of the bottom rail of sash. Furring Strips, Lath, and Plaster. The inside of the wall is furred with one by two-inch strips placed sixteen inches on centers to receive the wood lath. Where expanded metal lath or galvanized wire lath is employed, the furring strips should be set not over twelve inches on centers. The fm'ring and lathing are frequently omitted, and the plaster applied directly to the brickwork. In such cases, the joints of the masonry are raked out about one-half inch, so as to give a clinch to the plaster; and the entire inner surface of the wall, before the plastering is applied, is given a coat of damp-resisting paint so as to prevent moisture from penetrating the wall and staining or discoloring the plaster. When the furring and lathing are omitted, wood bricks are built into the wall for a nailing for the wood finish. Another method employed when it is desired to omit the furring and lathing, is to make the inner four inches of the wall of hollow brick, the hollow spaces in the bricks providing an air space which prevents moisture from pene- trating. FRAMING 183 Framing for Fine Casement Windows. Fig. 97 shows a somewhat better form of construc- tion than that just described, .for casement win- dows opening outward in brick walls. It has been designed with a view to show only a nar- row margin of wood frame about the sashes; and for this purpose the masonry opening is rebated to receive the bulky part of the frame. The wall, which is sixteen inches in thick- ness, is of brick, and the opening is spanned on the top with a fiat arch of brick ground to the proper radius. Back of this face arch, a row- lock relieving arch is turned over a timber back lintel; and the space between the top of the lintel and the soffit of the relieving arch is filled in with brick, and is known as the core of the arch. When the head of a window extends nearly to the ceiling of the room, it is necessary to provide a steel or cast-iron lintel, instead of the timber lintel and relieving arch, to support the ends of the beams. A stone sill is provided at the bottom of the opening, and is cut with a wash so as to pitch off water, and at each end has raised stools or lugs to receive the brick imposts. It is tailed into the masonry four inches at each end, extends under the wooden sill at least two inches, and has a drip cut on the under side of the projecting portion. The window-frame is made from three-inch by three-inch stock, rebated for sash, and plowed for jamb and head linings. It is set 184 FRAMING iu the masonry rebate, and is anchored in place by means of galvanized wrought-iron anchors of the form shown, screwed into the frame and bmlt into the joints of brickwork. The wall is furred on the inside with one- inch by two-inch strips set sixteen inches on centers; and to these strips are nailed grounds for base, trim, etc., and wood lath for plaster- ing. When expanded metal or wire lath is used, the furring strips should be set twelve inches on centers. The trim is moulded and worked out of one- inch by four-inch stock, and has a plain back- band, a face-mould, and a small wall-mould. Wall-moulds should be small enough to be pli- able so as to fit the unevenness of the finished plaster. The trim finishes on a moulded stool, tongued into the wooden sill and finished with an apron. Where deep jambs occur on the inside of windows, paneled head and jamb linings are preferable to the plain linings shown. Use of Temporary Frames during Construc- tion. In important work it frequently happens that the window-frames are not built in as the walls are carried up, because of the danger of damaging them by hauling in materials through the windows. In such cases, rough timber bucks about two inches by four inches are built into the masonry, and the frames are set and nailed to the bucks after all the rough structural work of the building is completed. The heads and sills of the bucks are allowed to project three PEAMING 185 TEin VERTICAU SECTION AT H&AD APEOn Fig. 97. Casement Window In 16-Inch Brick Wall. or four inches over the jamb bucks; and the projecting portions are built into the masonry so as to securely anchor them in place. 186 FRAMING ■ The sashes are channeled at X so that any water which may beat in between the sashes and frame during driving rainstorms will be caught and conveyed to the window-sill. The lower rail of sash has a lip and undercut to pre- vent water from entering at that point. The wooden sill should be well bedded in mortar; and any spaces about frames should be wind-proofed by calking with oakum or filling with mortar. The sizes given for sashes and frames are suitable only for ordinary windows. For larger VN?indows, both frame and sash would have to be increased in size; or, if this would be objectionable, would have to be made of hardwood. In any case, the stiles and rails of casement sashes have to be larger than for the sashes of a corresponding double-hung window, for the reason that there is a greater strain on them, owing to their being hinged on the side. For the same reason, it is preferable to bed the glass in putty and secure it in place with wood beads, rather than to use putty only. A casement window opening outward in a sixteen-inch brick wall is shown in Fig. 98. It is such as would be used in the better class of work, and the dimensions of the members are about right for an ordinary size window. For larger windows, the frame would have to be increased in size, and the sashes made of cherry or other suitable hardwood, rather than the dimensions of stiles and rails increased, which would be objectionable in that it would show too FRAMING 187 much wood. The thickness of sashes, however, should be increased. In any case, the dimen- sions of stiles and rails for casement sashes are greater than for double-hung sashes in win- dows of similar size, owing to the greater strain on them caused by their being hinged on one side. The frame shown is buUt as the masonry walls are carried up, in a rebate formed in the wall, so that too much of the frame wlU not be exposed to view; and is secured firmly in place by means of lugs housed into the jamb and built into the brickwork. All spaces between the frame and the brickwork are calked so as to be wind-proof, the calking consisting of oakum well compacted and plastered over, or scratch- coat mortar slushed in when the plastering work is being proceeded with. Calking should never be omitted in important work. Frames, after being built in, should be well protected with boarding so as to prevent them from being dam- aged in passing materials through the openings. The interior treatment of the window open- ing is, of course, subject to innumerable modifi- cations, as the taste of the architect or owner dictates and purse affords. The architrave shown is quite effective, and not so costly as the finished effect implies. The trim is moulded and worked out of seven-eighths-inch material, and is blocked at the back to make it heavier in appearance. A moulded back-band adds to its massiveness ; and a small flexible wall-mould 188 £>TOrtE '"^MSmMmM^^m^ Tig. 98. Outward-Opening Casement In Biick WalL covers the junction with the plaster work, and is easily bent to follow the unevenness of the fin- ished plaster. The exterior of the window consists of brick FRAMING 189 imposts showing a three-inch reveal, a stone lintel spanning the top of the opening, and a stone sill across the bottom. The sill has a bed of five inches, a projection of two inches, a thick- ness equal to two courses of the face brickwork, and a length sufficient to tail four inches into the masonry at each end. The upper surface has a wash and stools at either end, and the projecting portion has a drip cut on the under side. The inside of the wall is furred with one- by-two-inch strips, indicated by F, to which grounds G and lath are applied. The head of the window has a paneled head lining tongued into the finishing woodwork which is provided to cover the rough frame. At X, on the top rail of the sash, a channel or gutter is provided to catch any rainwater which may beat in between the sash and the head of the frame. This channel is continuous across the head, and con- veys the water to a similar groove on the sash stile. Inward-Opening Casement Windows. Fig. 99 shows a very successful method of construct- ing an inward-opening casement so that it will be proof against wind and rain. The jamb of the frame is set in a rebate in the masonry wall, and has a semicircular groove cut in its outer edge for a corresponding semi- circular tongue on the stile of the sash. The sash tongue fits snugly into this groove, and makes a perfectly weather-tight joint. This 190 FRAMING form of construction requires that the hinges or butts shall be set so that their pins are from one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch inside TSW niH Pig. 99. Storm-Proof Inward-Opening Casement. FRAMING 191 of the inner surface of the sash, so that when the sash is opened it will turn on a center suffi- ciently away from the sash to throw the sash slightly into the room and prevent binding at the tongue and groove. The head of the frame has a double rebate, and the top rail of sash a single rebate, to exclude the weather. The joint of the sill and the bottom rail of the sash in inward-opening casements is a par- ticularly difficult one to make weather-tight, and we know of no better way of constructing it than that shown in the illustration. Windows constructed in this manner have remained tight through driving rainstorms. A moulded member is placed over and tongued into the top inner edge of the wood sill, and is rebated for the bottom rail of the sash. This member for its entire length has a semi- circular groove or gutter in the rebate, as shown, to catch any water which may beat in at the junction of the sash and sill. At intervals of about one foot, reamed holes are provided from the gutter to the outer surface of this strip, as indicated by the dotted lines in the illustration, Pig. 99, to carry away and discharge on the sill any water which may accumulate in the gutter. The holes should be reamed perfectly smooth, and painted; and the joint of the sill and the member immediately over it should be made in white lead. The bottom rail of sash is rebated, and on 192 FRAMING its outer face has a drip-mould let in and joined in white lead. This mould, under ordinary con- ditions, will prevent water from entering under the sash. In driving rainstorms it may not prevent a little water from working in; but any such water will be caught at the undercut drip on the bottom surface of sash, and wiU drop into the gutter in top member of sill. A small moulded staff bead covers the joint of the masonry and the window-frame; and all interstices about the frame are calked with oakum, as indicated, so as to be wind-proof. Jamb and head linings are tongued into the frame, and, where deep inside jambs occur, are better paneled. The trim is worked out of seven-eighths inch material, moulded and hollow-backed, and pro- vided with face-mould, back-band, and small flexible waU-mould. Joints at angles are mitered and put together with slip tongues, glued, and screwed. In the better class of work, the trim is put together at the carpenter shop; and all sur- faces, including backs, edges, ends, splines, and faces, are primed. It may then be brought to the building without risk of damage through the dampness in the atmosphere or at the building. The trim is carried to the floor, and finishes on moulded wood plinths. The inside recess of the window is carried to the floor, the masonry wall being made four inches thinner under the window. A stool and apron are provided, but- ting into the jamb linings; and the base breaks FRAMING 193 around the recess, thus forming a plaster panel- back. This plaster panel-back may be painted or grained to match the adjoining woodwork, and the effect of a wood panel secured. The opening in the masonry wall has a stone sill and lintel, and the inside of the wall is furred with one-inch by two-inch strips. Grounds G are set wherever required for a nailing for the interior finishing woodwork. Framing for Casement, Screen, and Blind. Fig. 100 shows the construction of an inward- opening casement window in a brick wall, with insect screens placed outside of the sashes, and with blinds placed outside of the insect screens. It is also arranged so that when the screens are removed in winter, storm sashes may be installed in their place. The frame is set in a very slight rebate in the masonry waU, and is secured in place by means of the lug on the jamb of the frame. This lug is built in as the brickwork is carried up. The window-frame is rebated for the sash, and is also rebated for a tongue on the edge of the sash. This tongue is quarter-round, to allow for the play of the sash when opened. The jamb lining is tongued into the frame, and should be placed sufficiently back from the jamb of the frame to allow for the window-shades, which, in the case of inward-opening casements, are placed on the top rail of the sash. The top edge of the sash is slightly beveled 194 FRAMING TRIM Fig. 100. Casement, Screen, and Blind in Brick WaU. SO that there will be no chance of it striking the transom bar when being closed. The sill construction is similar to those shown FRAMING 195 previously, with undercuts and drip-mould to prevent the entrance of rain water at the joint of the sash and sill. This joint is usually the weak point of inward-opening casements, but, if constructed in the manner shown, will resist driving rainstorms. The inside stool is rebated over the sill. The transom sash, which is hinged at the bot- tom and swings in at the top, is rebated over the transom bar and provided with a drip-mould similar to the lower sashes. The top edge of the sash is slightly beveled to allow for the up- ward throw of the sash when being opened. The transom bar is moulded, and has an undercur- rent just below the transom sash to cast off any water which may be driven against the joint (see Fig. 101). The meeting rails are. rebated and beveled, and have inner and outer astragals or cover- moulds. At X the sash is grooved to catch any water which may work partly in at the joint. The window-frame is rebated on the outer edge for the mosquito screen frame, which is se- cured in place by means of brass lag screws. These screws are so arranged that they may be used to secure storm sashes in place when the screens are removed in winter. When the storm sashes are in place, the blinds cannot be op- erated from the inside; so they must remain open, unless the blinds are fitted with a device to open them from the inside of the house. There are several of these opening devices 196 FEAMING on the market, and they consist of a worm-gear apparatus which opens the blinds by the turn- ing of a crank within the room, and without the necessity of opening the sashes. These devices are thoroughly practical and very useful, even t>A2>H. HJii<«&, ci^^ren Fig. 101. Section at Tiausom. in cases where they are not absolutely necessary. They permit of opening and closing the blinds in stormy weather without opening the window and subjecting the person and the room to the storm. FRAMING 197 The screens are rebated, and hinged at the side to open in. The opening in the frame at A, bottom of Fig. 100, is covered with netting and allows any water which may come through the screen to pass out over the sill. The transom screen is stationary. Pigs. 100, 101, and 102 respectively show sec- tions through the head, jamb, and sill; transom bar; and meeting rails. 5,c:Ki^^i^. !2>C3?fi:grJf4. Fig. 102. Section at Meeting Rails. Casement Bay Window Construction. Fig. 103 shows a bay window in a stone wall, with sashes of the inward-opening casement type. The bay window is entirely within the thickness of the wall, as shown in the plan. The wall is constructed of random-coursed, roughly squared local stone, with cut quarry 198 FRAMING stone sill and lintel. The sill is cut with a wash and with stools at either end, is tailed into the masonry at each end, and extends to within two inches of the inner face of the stone wall. The masonry jambs of the opening are straight, and the frame is secured in place by means of lugs left on the ends of both head and sill, and built into the stonework as the walls are carried up. This requires very careful calking of all crevices about the frame, so as to make a wind-proof job. The sashes are shown glazed with leaded glass. The figured dotted lines in the elevation of the window indicate the cuts at which the vari- ous detailed sections are taken, the figures on the former designating the detail with the cor- responding number. A vertical section (187) is taken through the head of the window, and shows the top rail of the transom sash beveled on the edge so as to allow for the slight throw upward when the sash, which is hinged at the bottom, is opened. The inside soffit of the window is paneled. The frame is rebated for the sash, and the outside casing is moulded as shown. A vertical section taken through the transom bar of the window is given at 188, and shows the transom sash and bar with a rebated joint, and the sash with an undercut. The transom bar is also rebated for the casement sash, and has an undercut on the projecting portion. A moulded member of finishing woodwork covers the transom bar on the room side. FRAMING 19£ Fig 103. Inward-Opening Casement Bay. A vertical section (189) is taken through the sill of the window, and shows a method of con- struction similar to those already illustrated. The stool is tongued into the sill, and the sill and 200 FRAMING sash are rebated. The sash has two undercuts and a let-in drip-mould, to make it weather- proof. The sill has a channel to catch any water which may beat in under the sash; and this chan- nel discharges the water through the reamed holes, indicated by the dotted lines, onto the sill outside the sash. I li^^ A horizontal section (190) is taken through the muUion of the bay window, and shows it of light construction and rebated for both sashes^ The rough mullion is covered on the room side by a moulded member, and on the outside has beaded edges and a cover-mould which miters with a portion of the outside casing. The hinged stile of the sash is rebated and tongued, and the lock stile of the sash is rebated and grooved. A horizontal section taken through the jamb of the window is shown at 191. The trim is moulded and hollow-backed, and has a back- band and wall-mould. The jamb lining is tongued into the moulded inside casing. The wall, on the inside surface, is furred, lathed, and plastered; and grounds Gt are set as shown. Pivoted Casement Windows. A pivoted casement window in a 16-ineh brick wall is pre- sented in Fig. 104. The sash is pivoted on a horizontal axis. Pivoted casements should not be used in locations exposed to severe driving rainstorms, as it is practically impossible to make them weatherproof, especially at the pivots. Vertically pivoted casements do not of- FRAMING 201 f er SO great a resistance to storms and cold as do the horizontally pivoted casements. The frame is cut out of 2l^-inch stock, moulded, and tongued for inside head and jamb linings. The masonry opening is constructed with straight jambs, and the frame is secured in place by means of lugs on the jamb of the frame, which are built into the masonry as the walls are carried up. The section through the jamb is similar to the section through the head of the window. The lug which is indicated there by the dotted lines occurs only on the jambs and not on the head, and is only shown in the top part of the figure to indicate wherein the head and jamb sections differ. This section at the top (Fig. 104) shows the head lining tongued into the rough frame, and a cover-mould in the angle of head lining and frame. The furring on the inside of the wall is of 1 by 2-inch strips placed 16 inches on centers for the wood lath, or 12 inches on centers for ex- panded metal or galvanized wire lath. Groxmds G are set wherever required for a nailing for the interior wood finish or as a gauge for plastering. The trim is moulded and hollow-backed, and has a back-band and a small wall-mould. This wall- mould foUows across top of base and across top and bottom of chair rails where such occur. The masonry opening is spanned on the ex- terior by a stone Lintel, and back of this a timber lintel. A brick relieving rowlock arch is turned over the timber lintel, one rowlock being pro- ;02 FRAMING TRIM TRIM TRIM rig. 101. Pivoted Casement Window. vided for every 18 inches in the width of the opening, but at least two rowlocks being pro- vided for all openings. FRAMING 203 In the middle portion of Fig. 104 is illustrated a vertical section taken through the window at the axis of the sash; it shows the window closed, by the solid lines; and open, by the broken or dotted Hnes. The outside and inside stop beads, marked and D, are cut at an angle of 45 de- grees at A and B; and half of each stop bead is fastened on the frame, and the other half on the sash, as indicated by the dotted lines which show the sash open. The projecting part of the jamb of the frame between the two stop beads X is cut away be- tween the horizontal dotted lines, shown a little above A and a little below B, to allow the sash to turn. At the bottom in Pig. 104 is shown a vertical section taken through the sill of the window; it shows the joint of sash and sill rebated. The stone sill is cut with a wash, has stools at either end, and extends under the wood sill two inches. The inside is finished with a stool and a moulded panel-back. The furring, lathing, and plaster- ing are carried in back of the panel. The trim extends to the floor, finishing on moulded stools. A pivoted window in a sixteen-inch brick wall is illustrated in Mg. 105. The sash is center- pivoted at top and bottom, and set in a rebated frame two and a-quarter inches thick. The masonry opening is spanned on top with a flat stone arch, the key of which projects be- yond the face of the wall. Back of this arch, a steel lintel consisting of two 3 by 4-inch angles 204 FRAMING is provided to support the masonry. The inside of the wall is furred with two-inch ribbed full porous terra-cotta blocks, to which the plaster- ing is applied. Grounds G for the wood finish are nailed to this furring, which, being full porous, readily receives and holds a driven wire or cut steel nail. The joint of the wood frame and the masonry is covered with a moulded staff bead. The in- side head and jambs are lined with seven- eighths inch material tongued into the frame. Small wood moulds cover the joints between the sash and the frame, both on the outside and the inside, so as to make it weather-tight, form- ing a rebate, as shown. As part of the sash opens outward, and the other half into the room, these moulds are fastened to the frame in some places, and to the sash in other places. At the head, the mould on the outside of the window has half its length fastened to the left side of the sash, as at the dotted lines A; and the other half is fastened to the frame. With the in- side mould at the top of the window, the reverse is the case, the mould having half its length fast- ened to the right side of the sash. ' This is also the case with the inside mould at the bottom of the window, except that this mould is cut as at B, and then slit horizontally as indicated by the dotted lines at C. The projecting member of the frame at D is cut away on the dotted line for the distance in- dicated by P, so that the ends of the mouldings FRAMING 205 tva • Tig. 106. Pivoted Casement Window. which are fastened on the head of the sash and project above it will clear the frame at this point. In Fig. 105, the upper portion is a vertical section, showing the construction at the head of 206 FRAMING the window. The middle part is a horizontal section through the window, and shows the posi- tion of the sash when opened and when closed. The lower part is a vertical section, showing the construction at the sill of the window. A drip- mould is let into the lower rail of the sash to keep water away from the joint at the sill; and, to take care of any water which may pass this obstruc- tion, an undercut is made in the bottom of the sash over a channel cut in the sill. This catches any water which may beat in; and reamed holes at intervals convey the water from the channel to the sill, as indicated by the dotted lines and the arrow. The inside stool of the window re- ceives the trim, is moulded on the edge, and is tongued into the sill. Under this stool an apron is provided. The stone sill is cut with a wash, has lugs at either end, and extends under the wood sill two inches. The joint between the wood sill and the masonry should be well filled with mortar. "Wood Framing for Concrete-Block Houses Since the advent of concrete building blocks for house construction, numerous points have arisen concerning the proper methods of framing to be used with them. How to arrange the window-frames with pockets for weights for a dwelling house built with an eight-inch wall, is one of these points. Also, what is the best way to attach a hip-roofed porch to a building of this kind. FRAMING 201 Fig. 106. How to Arrange Window-Frames and Attach Porch Roof. The thickness of the wall (8 inches) neces- sarily crowds the frame in giving the proper space for the box to contain the weights. lu fact, it is too close for the best class of work, and 208 FRAMING should be used only for the cheaper grade of work. One plan suggests inserting wood blocks in the moulds to form an angle to receive the box and grounds, which, of course, is the better way; but as this will require considerable skill on the part of the operator, Fig. 106 shows how box frames may be used in connection with the common cement block, just as it comes from the moulds. Most blocks are made with a groove at the end, and there should be a strip nailed onto the frame coming opposite this groove, and the remaining space filled with mortar, so as to form a wind-proof joint, as shown at A. The frames should be made to work with the even courses of range blocks, otherwise the result will be a botched job. The best way to attach a hipped-roof porch to a building of this kind, is also a point that frequently gives trouble. This may be done by bolting a timber onto the wall, as shown in Fig. 106, or, as that part of the wall is concealed from view, a timber may be built into the wall, and the remaining space that the range course would occupy be filled in with common brick. Sill Construction and Joist Framing. Fig. 107 shows a mitered 8 by 8 by 24 water-table of a concrete-block residence. B is the same, except it is 6 by 8 by 24; is a common 8 by 8 by 24 water-table; and D a 6 by 8 by 24; E is a 4 by 8 by 14 filler between joists; F is a 1 by 7 string-board nailed to end of floor-joists, which acts as a spacer to hold joists in position till FRAMING 2(» filler blocks are laid, and serves to aid one in getting the tops of the joists exactly level, as the concrete blocks are not always perfectly true. If joists are laid on blocks, their imper- fections cause some places to be lower than others, and you are in trouble, as the joists can- not be raised after the blocks are laid above them. G is the floor-joist; and H is a piece of 2 by 8 gained down level with top of floor- joist, to be used at a door opening onto a porch ; how- ever, on a porch the water-table course should be left off, and plain-faced blocks used instead. The dotted line L is the line of wall under water- table, the water-table projecting two inches over the wall. JJ is the double header to support floor- joists at the basement windows. K is an 8 by 8 concrete lintel over basement window. This figure also shows the style of concrete block used around windows, together with a box window-frame, and the way it is set to the con- crete wall, and the way the inside casing is fast- ened to the frame and also to the concrete wall. There is also a wooden wedge driven in the mortar joint next to the frame; the casing is nailed to this. The window-sills are 8 by 8 concrete and project 2 inches outside of the wall. This leaves a space 2 inches deep under the window, which may be filled with a 2 by 8 with the ends slightly beveled, so as to fit tightly between the blocks on either side of window; this makes a good place to nail the apron to. 210 FRAMING J- • K One of the worst problems connected with concrete block work is to fasten the head casing to the concrete lintels over the windows and doors. A good method is as follows: In making the lintels, prepare some 34-lnch round pins, 2^/^ inches long, and soak them in water for at least forty- eight hours. Be sure they are of the softest wood ob- tainable, and non-resinous, so that they will swell up freely. Now bed these in the lintels while making. They will shrink and drop out by the time the lintel is " ^ H I '1 ' n oi i I ^ Bl i-4-^ l-^...^ Fig. 107. Wood Framing with Concrete Blocks. cured enough to put in the house. Place about two to each lintel at the ends of the head casing to be nailed; and by the time you are ready to FRAMING 211 case the inside, you can drive soft, dry wooden plugs in the holes, and they will hold perfectly well. The reason for wanting the plugs soaked well, is because otherwise they will swell and break the lintel while it is still green. Attaching Woodwork to Concrete. The best method of securing furring to brick or cement- block walls has caused not a little discussion. Some contractors prefer plucks instead of joint strips, as the strips expand when built in the wall, and afterward become loose on account of shrinkage. A good way is to use a heavily barbed nail driven into the mortar joints. This proves durable, and requires no previous prep- aration. The use of small hardwood (well-seasoned) wedges driven into the mortar joints, also serves for attaching casing. Many builders no longer fur on concrete blocks, but apply plaster directly; this saves plaster, and, with proper precautions as to waterproofing to prevent water soaking through or condensing on the inside, will make a good job. Tile Veneer for Frame Buildings As modern buildings supersede the old-style frame buildings, it often becomes a question how to remodel them. An effort to imitate the new is seldom successful; but if the old buildings are improved in their own way, the results may be very good. Designs of this sort have been lack- ing because the new students in art give no 212 FRAMING attention to the work of the old-timers in their own localities. i;ig. 108. Design for Eemodeling and Veneering Old-Style Frame Fronts. The accompanying design, Fig. 108, was made for a typical front in the old style of car- pentry work. The ceilings of the main story FRAMING 213 were very high. The basement was a full story. An outside flight of steps led to the front door on the second-floor level. The new entrance was to be brought down to within a few feet of the grade. A half-flight of stairs was to lead from the vestibule down to the dining room, and another half-flight up to the parlor floor. Heavy mouldings around the windows, of course, had to be removed. It was also neces- sary to see that foundations were good, and the walls and jambs plumb. The design chosen for the remodeling calls for a veneer of glazed or enameled tile. Such a front would lead the fashion for a long time to come. The designer introduced a number of years ago enameled tile on exteriors, since which time it has become very popular. It is durable, always clean and cheerfully light, besides being elegant in appearance. This makes it well worth the expense. The dimensions of the diagrams are suitable also for Roman brick, flatwise, so that that material can be used with terra-cotta mouldings. These mouldings are so constructed that a thin veneer may be used. The veneering may also be of cast concrete blocks of the same sizes. It is this choice of materials and adaptability of these same forms to different dimensions, that makes the design economically practical. The V-shaped vertical members of terra- 214 FRAMING cotta, Fig. 109, stiffen the veneer at the corners and windows. These are anchored to the wall, and overlap the wall covering, holding it in place. This also covers the ragged joint where the tile has to be clipped. This is shown in the section of the first and second story wall. The basement is in Richardson courses; only, instead of stone, the brick is laid alter- nately flat and edgewise. The vacant space is filled with concrete, as shown in the section (Pig. 109). It is not enough to drive spikes into the wall for anchors. They must hook firmly around the sheathing or another spike at right angles. The window head requires a small angle as shown on the diagram. It must be bolted to the frame- work. The space between the veneer and the siding should be not less than an inch, and well filled with cement mortar. The frieze can be made of plain veneer, or constructed of cement plaster on wire lath. A plaster frieze can be modeled with good effect. It should be done offhand while being laid onto the metal lath. The centers and group- ing of the pattern should first be indicated as shown on the elevation. Then the carving can be quickly modeled from a sketch. It is not necessary to have all the details correspond exactly if the symmetrical outline is preserved. Fine detail should be avoided. A tendency to pull down old buildings that FRAMING 215 are substantial, in order to build up new ones, depreciates the value of building improvements, tiunciu TIM r&a"'5T0RY PLAN OF WALL REMOPtLtO FIlOM OLO ENTRANCE ON l^'fLOOR VtSTlBULE E jEiTio« Of Basement entrance ?lan- Pig. 109. Design and Construction for TUe Veneer Eemodellng. for it increases the expense in the long run, enormously. Owners hesitate when such a prob- ability presents itself in considering new work. 216 FRAMING There is the owner's waste of time, incon- venience, and, most of all, the neglect of other affairs to be considered. Hence the most desira- ble mode of building is one which can be easily kept in repair, and improved from time to time. Segmental Arches in Brick Walls. The word segment means a portion or part, and a seg- mental curve is one whose curve is a part of a circle. In point of fact, any arch struck from one center, and being less than a semicircle, is properly termed "segmental." The most common use of the segmental arch is, perhaps, as a relieving arch over the lintel of an opening for a door or window in a brick wall. In such cases no better proportion can be taken than one-sixth of a circle. There is, however, an important point of construction involved, and one that is often neglected. " Pig. 110 shows two relieving arches, one being laid out in the wrong way, and the other correctly. The first is wrong because, in the case of fire, the wooden lintel would be con- sumed, and the thrust of the arch on the burnt end would be bound to cause a failure and endanger the whole of the wall above. A better way is shown. Instead of making the span of the relieving arch equal to the opening between the jambs below, the arch springs from a point over the extreme end of the wooden lintel. In case of fire occurring and the lintel being entirely consumed, the arch would be unaffected, and would continue to carry the weight above. FRAMING 217 Building inspectors and managers should insist on the adoption of this correct methpd, for it costs no more than the incorrect one, and the advantage of it in case of fire is greatly in its favor. Of course, for such arches, no elaborate cen- tering is necessary. The lintel is laid in posi- tion; and a piece of 1%-inch stuff is shaped to the curve of the arch, and laid upon the lintel to form the centering. The arch is then turned 3^^^ RELIEVING RRCH WP,ONC METHOD RELIEVING nacH RfCHT METHOD Fig. 110. Segmental Arches in Brick Walls. upon this centering, which is removed when the mortar is properly set, the core being then filled in with brickwork. For openings up to three feet or thereabouts, a relieving arch of a single ring of half-bricks is aU that is required; but for larger openings, several rings may be used. Fig. Ill shows an arch of three rings, and it will be noticed that each arch is separate and not bonded into its fellows. It will also 218 FRAMING be noticed that the bricks of these rough reliev- ing arches are not cut taper, and thus the joints are slightly more open on the back of the arch than on the under side. In making drawings of such arches, the draftsman draws a ring around the center from which the arch is struck, RELIEVING RRCH. THREE HALT-BRICK R.I WCS Fig. 111. Segmental Arcb, and How to Lay It Out. the diameter of the ring being the thickness of the brick. This thickness is then stepped off on the under side (sof&t) of the arch with a pair of dividers, and the straight edge placed against the ring and one of the divisions on the sofat (see A, Fig. 111). How to Lay Out Arches. The chief prob- lems, however, with which the practical layer- FRAMING 219 out of arches is confronted, arise in connection with the modern use of fine pressed brick for so many first-class structures. Eor while the mere curve is sufficient for practical purposes in rough relieving arches, the arch made of facing bricks, and forming a feature of some fine front, must be set out exactly for the purpose of cut- ting and fitting, or perhaps moulding, the bricks of which it is to be composed. Brick arches in which the bricks have been specially cut or moulded are generally termed gauged arches, and are frequently used nowadays. The radius of the arch is scarcely ever given by the architect, the rise being almost invari- ably denoted instead. The writer has before him an elevation of a brick-fronted building with some eight or ten openings of varying widths, but the same rise is specified for all the arches over them. This means that the layer-out has to find the centers of the several curves from the given particulars of their rise and span. This he does as shown in Pig. 112, the first being the geometrical method of the drafting room; the second, the practical method of the laying-out shop. In both cases, the center from which the arch is struck is found at the intersection of the lines drawn from the center of each half of the arch. As the bricks in gauged arches are used full length, the thickness of the brick is marked off around the back of the arch, and the joints drawn to the center, as in Pig. 113, at left. The 220 FRAMING joints are Terj fine, being usually specified to be not more than % inch, tbe mortar being either fine cement or lime putty. In Europe, special bricks are made for such arches, and are known as red rubbers. When new, they are quite soft, and can be sawed with a handsaw, and rubbed upon a block with sand and water to form close joints. After being Arch T' Centra Fig. 112. To Find the Arch Centers. exposed to the air for a time, the surface of these bricks becomes exceedingly hard and imper- vious to the action of the weather. For the red brick dwellings of "Queen Anne" and ''Colonial" style, now so much in vogue again, such bricks are exceedingly useful. Not only can they be cut for the characteristic flat arches of these stj^les, but mouldings can be worked on the angles, and panels formed to reUcve broad surfaces of wall. More often, however, FRAMING 221 bricks for gauged arches are specially moulded to the builder's drawings' by the makers of the face bricks, with fairly good results in the fin- ished work. The flat arch just referred to is also much used in brick fronts in city buildings, and is drawn as shown in Fig. 113, at right. It pre- sents no difficulty to the layer-out, the joints SEGMENTAL CAUtED ftRCH ^J 1 1 1 1 ri FLAT gAUCED AR-CH Fig. 113. Brick Arches. being found by making a curve above the arch and stepping off the thickness of the bricks upon it. There is one important point to be remem- bered, though, in building such arches — namely, that a perfectly straight soffit will always appear to be sagging. The remedy for this is to allow a trifling rise— say 1/2 inch for every three feet of span— which will be sufficient to make the under side of a flat arch look straight. This can be easily done on the job by laying 222 FRAMING two strips tapering from nothing at the ends to the required allowance at the middle, upon the support or centering on which the mason forms his arch. Of course, flat arches are not very desirable, from a structural standpoint, and should not be used for spans more than four or five feet at the outside. Occasionally, for the sake of uni- formity, a flat arch is used over a larger open- ing, perhaps a broad window or doorway; but in such cases the weight of the superstructure is carried on iron girders, and the brick arch is only a sham or casing toward the street. Arches and Lintels for Fireproof Work. The consideration of relieving arches — or, as they are often termed, discharging arches — over a wooden lintel, naturally brings up a very im- portant question. In these days of fireproof construction, when wood is being eliminated from the structural parts of buildings wherever possible, wooden lintels are not used in the best practice. Instead of wood, iron I-beams and artificial stone lintels are now largely employed in the best class of work. But both of these have one defect — namely, that, from their nature, it is impossible to nail grounds or other wooden finish to them. As the chief purpose of a lintel is, of course, to form a square head for a window or door-frame, this consideration is important. FEAMING 223 One of the best methods suggested for over- coming this little difficulty — and not only sug- gested, but widely used in some parts of Europe — ^is to form the lintel of coke breeze con- crete. Breeze is the English term for the small cinders left from the fires used for burning bricks in a kiln, or from the manufacture of coke in gas ovens. Mixed v^rith cement, it makes a concrete that is fireproof and that possesses another useful quality in that nails may be driven into it with ease. This last property has led to the use of coke breeze in a variety of places where wood was formerly employed. For instance, thirty or forty years ago it was still common to find bond timbers inserted in brick and stone walls at such heights as would render them convenient for fixing the trimrnings and finishing woodwork to afterwards. These bond timbers were certain to shrink and were also very liable to rot; and, as either of these contingencies made them a source of possible weakness to the wall, their use was gradually discontinued, until it has ceased altogether. The substitute at first proposed for the bond timbers, and largely used for many years, was a thin strip of wood built into a joint of the masonry or brickwork, thus reducing the possi- bility of failure from shrinkage. The strips were, however, in a great measure open to the same objections as the larger bond timbers, and many architects refused to allow them to be used. Instead, they specified that hardwood 224 FRAMING rtREPROOr CONSTRUCTiaW RELIEVING HRCH OVER. BREEXE: CONCRETE LI BR£EZE CONCRETE BLOCKS FOR FtXI NC NTEL i i Plan 1 '^ d 1 OLDER. METHODS OF FIXING Bond timbmf .?/r/g in Joint T^i I I I I • I I ' I I ■ ^■- ■ T^^^ u^ Elm fSfu^S ,iu/,i, .1. .L/.i. .1. .i::cn I'^V i I'l I ' ^V i I 'l I' ^Vi II I I I I I ' I I ' I 1^1 I ■ I Fig. 114. Details of Fireproof Brick Construction. (usually elm, on account of its non-liability to split) plugs or wedges should be driven into the FRAMING 225 joints at intervals, after the walls had set, the grounds or other woodwork being nailed to these plugs. The invention of coke breeze concrete has, however, made it possible to substitute bricks and blocks made of it, which can be built into the wall during construction. They neither shrink nor rot, while their property of taking nails readily makes them ideal for the purpose of fixing woodwork. Fig. 114 shows the application of coke breeze in the lintel and fixing blocks around a revealed opening for a doorway in a 12-inch wall. The blocks are also shown at each side, where they would be continued to form a fixing for the grounds for the chair rail and base-board. These blocks should be of the size of the bricks used in the building, and may, of course, be readily moulded in any suitable machine. Long before the use of machines for this purpose,' however, many hundreds of such bricks were made in the roughest of wooden moulds improvised for the purpose. As coke slack or breeze is very often merely a nuisance to the gas manufacturer, its cost is next to nothing in many instances. Fireproof Floors. The question of fireproof construction is by no means a new one, although the builders of the present generation have probably seen more attention devoted to it than did their predecessors. As showing an inter- esting method of dealing with the lintel prob- lem, the upper portion of Fig. 115 is worthy of 226 FRAMING attention. A flat or camber arch takes the place of the wooden lintel, and is supported by means of an iron rod from the crown of the relieving arch above. Por first-class work it would be hard to surpass this scheme, but its cost would prevent its adoption in anything but the very best practice. While on the subject of fireproofing, another useful application, of coke breeze concrete may be given. The many forms of iron and concrete fireproof floors are, in the majority of cases, covered with wood blocks or battens for the sur- face. Wood block floors are usually laid right on the concrete of the fireproof construction, some pitch or tar compound being used as a bed- ding cement. When batten floors are used, however, strips of quartering are usually laid on, or imbedded in the concrete, and the battens nailed to them. Many first-class architects, on the other hand, do not care for this method, and prefer that breeze concrete screeds should be laid in place of the quartering. If the screeds are run when the concrete below is still damp, they become an integral part of the body of the floor, and make a sounder job altogether. The lower portion of Mg. 115 shows a simple rolled iron beam and concrete floor of the type generally known as ''Dennett's," with board floor over. A shows a cross-section through the iron beams; and B, a cross-section through the concrete screeds, the boards being nailed to these as suggested. FRAMING FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTIDN fl ftHU&EO ReUEVINC HRCH OVER B FtnT OR CUMBEr'hRC 227 HRCH , WITH SUPPORTirtc ROD "•"!'•'• ■■; lijh 1 r-f" f"ri p 1 1 i^-^-r^T-rri 1 ! 'TtYtt'.-t^' ' ' " 1 ri 1 1 L. ■1 4 _ (J ITj rj U XWJln hJJI J 1 1 1 1 1 oU If f/y^ 1 1 /iM^ T^^nV\XuV\\^n' ■vin^^^-^f^/-//////!"^ 1 1 i\V\VV-ri 1 1 1 1 i::i 1 1 1 1 1 r-V//// 1 1 W- 1 1 1 1 I; 1 1 i { n Fig. 116. Details, Concrete Fireproof Stairs, The full-length rods all pass over or hook onto the rods in the cross-beams; and the double reinforcing consists of rods about five feet long, passing over the beam, with the ends projecting equally into the stair and floor slabs. 230 FRAMING An examination of concrete stairs built with- out this additional reinforcing, has in several instances revealed the fact that cracks, if any, appear near the ends of the slab; in fact, within ten inches of the supporting beams, most fre- quently at the point marked B, but occasionally at C. Beams of the size shown, for spans less than ten feet between supports, are amply strong if reinforced with two rods of one-inch diameter placed on two inches of concrete; however, for long flights, four rods should be used, as at D, the rods being looped with strap iron every two to four feet lengthwise of the beam. The composition of the coupcrete should not be weaker than one part cement, two sand, and four aggregates. When treads are to be cement finish, the finishing should be done the same as in the ease of sidewalks. When treads are covered with marble or slate, a cinder or light-weight concrete is pre- ferable for the treads only; and when covered with wood, locomotive cinder concrete should be used, as it can be penetrated readily with finish- ing nails. Great care must be used in mixing and tamping concrete for stair work. How to Apply the Wood Trim. There are a number of features in connection with modern fireproof construction that are of particular interest to carpenters, especially to those work- ing in the larger cities where steel, tile, and cement are now so generally used. A question FRAMING 231 DOOQ Fig. 117. Door Training in Plaster Partitions. 232 FRAMING very frequently heard is — ^How do they nail on the finish to make a good job of it? The detail sketches (Figs. 117 and 118) show the answer with special reference to plaster partitions — a type of wall, by the way, which is often very serviceable in small wooden store and office buildings. In order to economize floor space as much as possible in fireproof buildings, thin parti- tions, as a rule about 2 inches thick, are intro- duced. Fig. 117 shows methods of framing for doors in this kind of partition. The rough wood frames are set in place before the partition is erected, and to these the metal studs are secured with screws. The partitions themselves are usually erected by the plasterer. The difference in the various styles of fram- ing shown is principally in the character of the finish. Naturally, those sections which have the widest door jambs will be found the stiffest. Various modifications of these details, to suit the judgment or taste of the architect, may of course be made. Pig. 118 shows the method adapted for secur- ing the base-board. The rough 2 by 3-inch piece is laid on the line of the partition and secured directly to the floor strips, and the partitions built on this piece. After the floor is laid, the base is nailed directly to this strip. For securing picture moulding, strips of wood may be laced to the FRAMING 233 metal lath at the required height, before the plastering is done. These are suflaeiently firm, after the plaster has dried, to hold the picture Fig. 118. Baselioard and Floor Construction. moulding, which should be put up with screws instead of nails. In case close-warp metal lath- ing is used, the screws will engage the meshes of wire work sufficiently to hold the picture moulding without any preliminary strips. 234 FRAMING With slight modifications, the methods shown for door framing could be adapted to hollow tile partitions. Framing for Heavy Roofing — Tile. There are some special features that should be noted in regard to the proper framing of a tile roof and its preparation to receive roofing tile. Rafters should be at least 2 inches by 6 inches, and 24 inches on centers, or closer according to length of span. Sheathing should be securely nailed, and should be either of %-inch common lumber laid tight and well joined together, or of matched and dressed sheathing securely fast- ened. The roof pitch may be as low as one- fourth (provided slope is not of extreme length), and from that to the vertical. Before the tile are laid, the entire roof should be carefully covered with one layer of good roof- ing felt, laid to lap two inches in every course, and to be turned up against the sides of the building at least four inches. If the building has a box or cornice gutter, felt should lap over top of metal at least four inches, and the same at valleys. After felt is so laid, same should be stripped with good white pine plastering lath, laid parallel, true, and straight, to facing board at eaves. The top edge of first line of lath should be 12 inches above the lower edge of facing board or starting strip; and thereafter not less than 12 inches nor more than 121/4 inches space allowed from the top edge of each line of lath to the top edge of the next above FEAMING 235 and parallel. The tile hook over these strips; and each tile is fastened with a seven-penny galvanized or copper wire nail. All ridge-boards should extend three inches above top of sheathing, and hip boards two and one-half inches, and both be of seven-eighths- inch co mm on lumber. Facing board or starting strips at eaves under bottom end of tile will extend up above the top edge of sheathing one and five-eighths inches. In all cases facing boards at gable ends should be flush with the sheathing. In some cases an open roof construction is used — that is, one with no sheathing under the tile. In that case, there must be a space of twelve inches between the lower edge of the lowest purlin to top edge of the purlin next above it, and thereafter a space of not less than twelve inches nor more than twelve and one- fourth inches between the top edge of each purlin to the top edge of the purlin next above it. These purlin strips should be % inch by 2 inches or over, the bottom strip II4 inches higher than the strip next above it — ^that is, 2% inches by % inch. In this construction the hip and ridge strips should be the same as if the building were sheathed. Framing for Slate Roofs. It is the prevail- ing opinion of people not familiar with the use of slate for roofing purposes, that a building should be constructed very much stronger for slate than for other roofing materials. This is 236 FRAMING a mistake, as any building strong enough for shingles, tin, or iron is strong enough for slate. Two-by-six rafters, eighteen feet long, two feet from centers, give all the strength necessary. The writer has seen hundreds of houses roofed with slate where the rafters were two-by-four, two feet from centers, sixteen feet long, with collar beam nailed across one-third of the way down from the top. Slate can be depended upon to make a roof perfectly water-tight on any pitch down to one- fifth. Half -pitch or steeper makes the best roof both for looks and strength, as it throws the weight on the walls more than on the rafters, and causes the snow to slide off clean, thereby never overloading any one part of the roof. Matched liunber is best for sheathing for any roof; but surfaced boards from six inches to ten inches wide make a good job, and are used on a large majority of the buildings now being put up. Sheathing boards, when not matched, should be nailed at both edges on rafters, which should not be over two feet apart. Wide boards, when used for sheathing, are liable to warp and curl up at the edge, thus affecting the slate. While it may not break the slate, it raises the courses, marring the appearance of the roof. Very often a roof that lies well and smooth when done, apparently gets rough and the slates stick up. The roofer is often blamed for this when the cause is really in the sheath- ing. Great care should be used in putting on FRAMING 237 the sheathing, that there are no lumps or uneven thicknesses in the boards, as they will surely show after the slate is put on. This especially applies on curved roofs or round towers, dormers, etc. In all such, the rafters should be close together and the sheathing perfectly solid and smooth. Where the sheathing is not solid it is almost impossible to make a good smooth job, for the reason that in driving one nail it jars the next slate loose. Fig. 119. Proper Construction at Bidge and Eaves for Slate. Lath or strips are often used instead of sheathing boards on which to lay slate; but in such case the lath should be at least one and one-quarter by two and one-half inches, and must be spaced to suit the size of slate used. They should be placed so that the upper end of each slate will rest in the center of the lath. This plan is a good one for barn roofs, as it 238 FRAMING allows some ventilation between the slate; but where a perfectly snow-tight roof is wanted, the slate should be pointed with hair mortar on the under side of the slate at the upper end of each course, also at the joints between the slate. Tarred or other waterproofed paper should be used under slate where the same is laid on sheathing boards. This will insure a roof per- fectly tight against fine snow. Slate roofs require about the same founda- tion as shingles. The better the foundation, the better will be the roof. In beginning at the eaves, a thin cant strip is put on just above the eaves; or, in case of a roof gutter, the strip is put about a foot above the gutter, as in Fig. 119. This strip is usually about two inches wide and three-eighths of an inch thick, nailed across the roof. The first course of slate is made shorter than the other courses; or the usual size is turned and laid horizontally, so that the first two courses may be double, the same as in shingles. The lower part of the slate should project about one and a-half inches. The second course up should lap about three inches over the first or double course. When nearing the peak, the lap may be varied a little to make the slate come out right. Barn Framing Next to house framing of the various kinds already discussed, the branch of construction most important for the practical carpenter, as offering itself most frequently in actual work, is bam framing. There are building contractors who make a specialty of this kind of work; and their advice on numerous special points — which we have been able to gather and here present — may be taken as authoritative. Barn framing, for itself and because of its relation to other kinds of timber framing, should be well under- stood. At the present time there are two general types of timber-framed barns in use. The first are heavy timber bams, all structural members being heavy, squared timbers, with joints tenoned and pinned — a survival of the sturdy construction of earlier days when timber was plentiful and was all hewed out by hand; and the second, plank-framed bams, claimed by many to mark a decided improvement over the other as being more easily erected, just as sub- stantial, and decidedly cheaper, especially where large timber is not easily secured. The principles and important features of these types of barn construction, together with some considerations common to them both, will now be given, 239 P4 c3 111 bo a 240 FEAMING 241 HEAVY TIMBER BARNS General Framing Plan. Fig. 120 shows the general plan of a barn frame of a building 38 by 64 feet, with 16-foot main posts, gambrel roof, basement, and double driveway floors. It is typical heavy timber construction, with boxed mortise-and-tenon joints. One point worthy of note for storage barns such as this, is the effort to get height — not width — to get as much under a given amount of roof as possible. That this is an advantage, has been slowly but well learned; the farmer wiU tell you that the bay or mow is only half- full when filled even with the main plates. The weight of the portion to be stored above keeps pressing the lower part down — an advantage that is lost in the low, wide barn. All the crops are lifted by means of rope and tackle, and carried by means of a steel track and car the full length of the barn just under the ridge of the roof, and then dropped to their proper places in the bays, mows, or the loft, over the drive- way floors, the power being furnished by a horse team. Another important principle in the construc- tion of these buildings is that no timbers sup- porting a heavy load — as beams, cross-sills, etc. — are made to rest on their tenons alone, but all have a shoulder or bearing across the whole end of the stick. The drawing shows the ends of beams boxed 242 - FRAMING into the posts, while the ends of the cross-sills have a bearing on the end of the basement posts below. Q-ood framing requires also that no braces shall hold against the tenon alone, but they should have a boxing of at least one-half inch in depth. Another important principle is that of draw- bore pinning. By this is meant pins that hold the tenons; ordinary drift bolts or spikes would not do, as a pin made of wood is larger than the iron ones would be, and will not side-cut or press into the wood so much as the iron ones would do under a heavy load. Also, the pins must have a long taper, to give draw. The draw-bore holes in the tenon and those through the mortise are given one-eighth inch draw or variation in such direction as will tend to pull the tenon and seizing tighter into the mortise and boxing. That is to say, the distance from the joint to the draw-bore hole is one-eighth inch greater in the mortise than in the tenon. All of the large cross-timbers should be of whole sticks — not spliced — that is, the beams and cross-sills in particular; but the main sills and plates may be spliced at every bent or post if desired. Sometimes long timbers are very hard to get, in which case the width of the barn can be made to conform to length of timbers obtainable, from 30 to 40 feet. Some people have a notion that several planks spiked together will make a stronger stick of timber than a solid one. This is not FRAMING 243 true; after having tried it many times, the writer is prepared to say that you can make a stick fairly stiff one way; but, with all the spikes you can drive, it cannot be made as stiff the other way. The length and number of posts in such a barn are entirely arbitrary, depending on the Fig. 121. Truss for Bam without Basement Posts. size of barn desired. The height of the purlin plates is also variable. This kind of barn is built to best advantage on a gentle hillside, thus allowing an easy drive- way to the main floor of the bam, and giving opportunity for a basement imdemeath to 244 FRAMING afford valuable storage room for implements; this basement space also provides warm stables. WbUe there are other forms of heavy timber construction which afford greater strength than Fig. 122. Details of Heavy Framing. that shown in the drawing, this method has been found to answer every purpose; and the added advantages of other methods of framing seldom warrant the difference in cost. FRAMING 245 At first glance at the construction shown in Fig. 120, one would think such a frame a wilder- ness of timbers. As a matter of fact, however, the system is simple, and the number of names of different members or p^rts is not great. The accompanying list gives the names and sizes of the different numbered parts : FASTS OF A HEAVY TIMEEB BABIT. Name of Part Size 1. Basement sill 10 by 12 inches 2. Basement posts 12 by 12 3. Main sill 10 by 10 4. Cross-sill 10 by 10 5. Main post 8 by 8 6. Center post 8 by 8 7. Main beams 8 by 10 8. Main plate - 8 by 8 9. Purlin posts 6 by 6 10. Purlin beams 6 by 6 11. Purlin plate 6 by 6 12. Upper rafters 2 by 6 13. Lower rafters 2 by 6 14. Purlin girts 4 by 6 15. Purlin braces 3 by 4 16. 3-ft.-run brace 3 by 4 16^. 2i-ft.-run brace 3 by 4 17. 3^-ft.-run brace 3 by 4 18. End girts 4 by 6 19. Side girts 4 by 6 20. Door girts 4 by 6 21. Breast girt 6 by 8 22. Breast girt studs 3 by 4 23. Ladder post 3 by 4 24. Door posts 4 by 4 25. Overlays, top and ends flatted to . . . 6 26. Sleepers 6 by 6 246 FRAMING Details for Heavy Timber Framing. Fig. 121 is a sketch of a barn bent on an eight- foot basement, framed as a simple truss so as to do away with the posts in the basement. The roof and floor loads are supported, the raking members carrying the stress down to the side walls of basement. Fig. 122 shows details of framing; which should be carefully done, as the truss has to bear moving loads as well as the weight of hay, animals, etc., and the roof itself. The sizes of Fig. 123. Bracing to Prevent Outward Spreading. timber given allow for trusses being about 8 feet apart. Special bracing is sometimes necessary to prevent a large bam from spreading in the hay- mow. Some arrangements are all right for out- side pressure, but not to withstand the hay pressure from the inside. Frequently barns FRAMING 247 give out in that way and have been fixed over; but it is not a very desirable job. Fig. 123 is a small sketch which shows how to make a stronger frame than the others, and with less braces. The long braces go in between the 2 by 8-inch braces, and should be well spiked. There should be braces between bents to keep the posts from twisting, in case the foundation should settle. Strong Purlin Post Bracing. Fig. 124 shows a method of framing the center bents of a barn, ^ \ / \ / \ Fig. 124. Center Bent, Showing Purlin Post Bracing. which is especially adapted to barns having flat roofs and equipped with hay carriers. A very strong bond is needed in such barns between the purlin posts, to prevent the excessive weight placed on the top rafters by the hay carrier from spreading them apart. The girder is also low 248 FEAMING enough for the loaded hay carrier to pass over it. There is no girder between the top of the shed post and the purlin; for, when the purlins are framed as described, there is no need of S^A/V Fig. 125. Mortise Jfoint for Cross-Tie. such a girder, as the rafters will hold the shed post to its place if it has a tie at the bottom and a loft tie up some 8 or 9 feet. Of course, where the barn is extremely high, it is well to put in this girder. Fig. 125 shows a section of the purlin post, center girder, and braces, drawn to a large scale FRAMING 249 to illustrate the method of dovetail mortise joint used. Expert advice was asked not long ago con- cerning the best method of construction for a barn somewhat similar to this one. It was to be a barn for 50 acres of land; its dimensions 26 by 46 feet, and 18 feet t9 plate, with a solid concrete wall under the entire barn. Would it be advisable to use big timbers mortised and Caosi Sect/on. Fig. 126. Center Bent of Hay Bam. tenoned together, or a balloon frame with 2 by 4's placed on 2-foot centers and sided with pat- ented siding? How should it be tied together? Would 2 by 8 inches, 26 feet long, be all right with tight mow floor over all except driveway? 250 FRAMING Will 2 by 6-inch rafters be all right for that width to be used with a shingle roof? These were the points inquired about. As this barn is not large, it would not be necessary to use heavy timbers, except for the sills; and for this, not more than 6 by 8 inch, properly \ a- „.. \-- #.: ":;: X J J....... ...id [WllHVr'mW.V.^-f^-«-iz-.,2-.ii- n I I I I r a i 5? ^izsia'Kic — 4eo" — — -^ Fig. 128. End and Side Wall Framins for Hay Barn. 253 FRAMING the hay-mow floor should be tied with braces to the joist to prevent spreading of the walls. Two by six-inch rafters set on 24:-inch centers will be amply heavy for this roof for all that will be required of it. Framing for Hay Barns. What is usually wanted in a general purpose barn on the farm V M^ M7 N Fig. 129. Center Beut of Gambrel Boof Hay Bam. is an abundance of hay room, with as little tim- ber in the mow as possible. A good many carpenters are puzzled when it comes to framing a barn so as not to have much timber in the way, and yet to make a good substantial job. Fig. 126 shows good construction for a country barn that pleases all who see it. It is the center bent to which attention is called. FRAMING 353 Figs. 127 and 128 show three sections of another barn well framed for hay storage. It is a good plan, having no timbers in the way if a fork is used in mowing hay. This is a barn very often built. All floors are of concrete, and the posts rest on concrete blocks. All main posts are 8 by 8 inches; girders, 6 by 8 inches; plates, 6 by 8 inches ; purlin plates, 6 by 6 inches ; purlin posts, Fig. 130. Good Splice for Heavy Timbers. 6 by 6 inches; joist bearers, 6 by 8 inches; cross- ties, 6 by 6 inches; rail ties, braces, etc., 4 by 4 inches; rafters, 2 by 6 inches; joists, 2 by 8 inches, spaced two feet apart. The entire frame should be put together with mortise-and-tenon joints. This kind of barn should be sided with No. 1 barn siding, and cracks battened with bevel batten. The general dimensions are 36 feet by 48 feet. Fig. 129 shows the center bent of a Gambrel roof hay bam, 40 by 80 feet. Splice for Heavy Timbers. It often happens that timbers of proper dimensions for a given 254 FRAMING purpose are not long enough and have to be spliced. Pig. 130 is a diagram of as good a spliced joint as there is. It is strong, durable, and easily made. trio BtriT. I '-'•• I Trum For trio Plate. Fig. 131. Plank-Frame Construction. FLANK-FRAMED BARNS With the scarcity of heavy timbers and con- sequent cost, it is time carpenters who are to erect bams should give some study to the newer methods of framing, where timber is from 6 to FRAMING 255 12 inches wide, and none thicker than 2 inches. The use of modern hay and grain elevating machinery, calls for barns with open centers; hence upper cross-ties, collar beams, etc., are in the way, and they are quite unnecessary. A plank frame of size and construction indi- CeriTER Bepit. Fig. 132. Wind Bracing for Flank-Frame Barn. cated in Figs. 131, 132, and 133, is in every way satisfactory, and is fully as strong as an old- fashioned frame made of timbers 8 to 12 inches square. It is about two-thirds as costly; and less experienced carpenters are required to erect it. 256 FRAMING In this plank frame, there are no timbers larger than 2 by 12 inches, which are doubled and trebled where great strength is required. Where tensile strength is required, two 2 by 8- inch are nearly as good as an 8 by 8-inch tenoned and fastened in the old-fashioned way with a Fig. 133. Side Wall Plank Framing. pin. In this frame there are no tenons, all members being put together with spikes. Fig. 184 shows the method of raising or erecting the bents after they are framed. The posts for this barn are 20 feet high, and are built up of joist spiked and bolted together. The bracing and cross-pieces were framed to- gether in sections before raising to their posi- FRAMING 257 tion. The inner set of posts, set raking, extend up to form the purlin. The rafters, of which there are two sets, are placed on two-foot cen- ters, lapping at this point. This kind of construction is very popular in some sections of the country, and, when well built, makes a very substantial job. The tim- bers, being entirely of joist, are such as can be readily obtained from any lumber yard that is worthy of the name. This is a thing in itself that should not be overlooked, as solid framing timbers are not so plentiful as in years gone by, and in many places are not carried in stock. Fig. 134. How the Bents are Haised. The dealer places the order after he receives the contract to furnish the lumber; and this means that the contractor must wait for the lumber to be shipped from some distant mill, and more zb8 FEAMING than likely to be first cut from the round tim- bers; and when it does finally arrive on the building site, it is yet green and really not fit to frame for the best results. Another thing in favor of the plank frame is that the timbers are light and more easily put together than by the mortise-and-tenon method. Back View Fig. 135. Queen Bafter for Boof Support. Roof Supports. Fig. 135 is a sketch of what is called a queen rafter. It is used for barns up to 34 feet wide, without putting in purlins. FRAMING 259 While it possesses considerable merit for stiff- ening the roof, there is nothing in it to keep the sides of the building from spreading, as it does not form a tie, which is necessary when the loft floor is far below the plate. To secure the additional strength needed, the rafters should be set on 24-inch centers, and Fig. 136. Plank-Framed Truss for Gamt)rel Roof. sheathing put on diagonally toward the center, close and well nailed. The center rafters where the sheathing meet should be doubled and well spiked together. The floor-joist lap onto each gtud, and should be well nailed to prevent spreading. 260 FRAMING Support for Gambrel Roof. To support a gambrel roof on a barn 36 feet wide, having posts 20 feet high, the floor being 11 feet below the plate, requires extra strong bracing. A con- struction using 6-inch studding set on 24-inch CROJ3 3£CTlO/\l Fig. 137. Arrangement of Dairy Bam. centers, and braced as shown in Fig. 136, can be recommended. The rafters should set directly over the studding, and be braced to same. The floor- joist should be tied to each other, either by letting them lap, or by nailing FRAMING 261 a board on the side. All parts should be framed accurately, and well spiked. Fig. 137 is a cross-section of a large dairy- barn; it clearly shows the general arrangement of stalls, mangers, gutters, etc., all constructed out of cement laid on solid ground. The stall partitions are built up out of wrought-iron bars and pipes, leaving nothing to get out of order or decay. The wood superstructure is constructed Fig. 138. Self-Supporting Boof Construction. out of plank; and the roof is self-supporting, without posts or purlins, through each set of rafters being braced, forming a continuous arch from one sill to the other. This roof gives an enormous capacity to the 262 FRAMING hay room, and is well braced against sagging and wind pressure. The framing arrangement for the hay track support is good, since it distributes the stress evenly to all the roof bracing without an undue amount coming on the top rafters. The exterior of the barn is sided with matched siding, and the roof is of shingles, making a very durable and good-looking build- ing, and at the same time a barn that can be built within a reasonable figure of cost. Fig. 138 shows another type of self-support- ing roof construction for use in a very large gambrel roof barn. The hay track is well framed for heavy loads. Bracing to withstand wind pressure — which is a very large factor in the case of such a barn, especially in an exposed location — is amply provided for by this system of framing. Concrete Stable Floors. For the basement story of modern barns where the horses and cows are usually stabled, concrete has been adopted quite generally for the flooring. This is either left bare, or is covered with plank. For a floor built on sandy soil, no drainage or foundation is necessary. If the soil is clay or spongy, however, eight inches of coarse gravel, stone, or cinders should be well tamped and leveled before placing the concrete; but if the soil is porous, then tamp the soil under the center driveway. When a foundation for floor is necessary, FRAMING 263 drainage to conduct the water gathering in the foundation is also required; therefore the foundation must have large stone in the bottom to afford ample air space, and the excavation must have a slope to one or more points. These low points have tile drains leading the water from the building. This will insure dry floors, and prevent cracking from frost. ^^ClASS TOP CAt-" /Ro/v vei^ Flff. 139. Concrete Stable Floor and Partitions. Four inches of concrete for horse and cattle floors is ample ; and five inches for driveway will do, though some are made six inches thick. The proportion of concrete depends on the kind of 364 FRAMING sand and aggregates. One of the following will prove desirable: Cement one, sand two, gravel three, makes very sound work. Cement one, fine sharp sand one, coarse sharp sand two, gravel or crushed stone four parts, will equal in strength the first formula, and save much in cost. Add sufficient water to make a stiff grout, and tamp well into place so that the top will be one-half to one-quarter inch lower than the top of floor; before this has set, apply the top coat, which should consist of one part cement and two parts sharp sand, and trowel smooth. After this has set for one hoiu", tamp with stiff scrub brush or wire foundry brush. This will produce a non-slipping surface. These floors will be uninjured by the sharpest shod horses after four weeks. In large barns, a tile drain is necessary, and an outlet from every other stall to this drain is sufficient; but in small bams the gutter alone is sufficient. This gutter is eight inches wide for horse floors, and six inches wide for cattle, both gutters being two and one-half inches deep. For the mangers, 2 by 4-inch scantlings are bolted to the floor with half-inch bolts eight inches long, embedded five inches into the con- crete. Manger partitions are boarded on both sides and filled between with tamped concrete four feet high, so that when the wood partition has served its purpose a solid concrete wall will remain. Use 4 by 4 timbers for framing stall partitions (see Fig. 139). FEAMING 865 Water- Tight Barn Floors. Sometimes it is desired to construct a floor in a horse barn to catch all fluids and keep them from going through into the basement. One way suggested is to lay a tight floor of %"i^ich matching, then cover that first with asphalt about ^2 to % inch, and on that lay a 1%-inch matched floor. This floor should be properly graded, so as to drain to a trough for carrying off fluids. This method is all right, but it would prove to be expensive in the course of a few years. Another and possibly a better way would be to lay a rough floor on the joists, and put on this floor 4 or 5 inches of good concrete, well laid down, not leaving more than 25 square feet in one block, using 1-inch expansion joints fllled with pitch. This will keep the floor from crack- ing, and will also be water-tight. There should be a gutter just behind the horses, and the floor should have at least i/2-inch fall to each foot. The floor should not be troweled smooth, but left rough, except in the gutter; put on this concrete (after it has been down six or seven days) about 2 inches of clay. Wet it thoroughly and tamp lightly into place. Clay is one of the best ma- terials for horses to stand on. If it seems preferable to have wood for the animals to stand on, lay a floor of rough planks, somewhat open, over the concrete, leaving cracks wide enough so that all liquid will imme- diately run through to the concrete and be drained to the desired points. 366 FEAMING How to Make Barn Doors Large-size barn doors that are strong and rigid, yet do not take up too much room in thick- ness, are the kind most wanted. Fig. 140 shows two sectional drawings with elevations suitable for bam doors. The first is made of three thicknesses of boards as shown. The center is of yg-i^ich boards placed verti- fc ^ fc ;^^ 5^^ m ^ ^ ^, //a' %■%■■ i/a-m 5ECTI0N Section. Fig. 140. How to Make a Heavy Earn Door. cally, and %-inch ceiling placed diagonally on both sides, covering the whole space, and well nailed. This will make a door 21^ inches thick. The second is made of two 1%-inch pieces for the framework, lapped and screwed together. The panel work is made of %-inch ceiling cut in and nailed with a stop-mould to cover- the naU- heads. All the laps and joints should be painted TEAMING 267 with white lead paint. This will make a door 2^ inches thick. Hay-Mow Doors. The best way to hang hay- mow doors for a barn with hay track high up in the gable, the door eight or ten feet wide, and made to swing clear back, is a point that often gives trouble to the barn builder who wants to make a neat job. Fig. 141. Hay Door Hung with Weights. Eigs. 141 to 145 show the various arrange- ments. Fig. 141 is for a single door hung with weights and run in grooved jambs on the outside of the building. With this kind of arrangement, the door is made to slide up and down, and in this way can be made to slide close up to the comb. 268 FEAMING Fig. 142 is for double doors, with small doors from these up to the carrier. With this arrange- ment, the doors can be hung with butts, and will swing clear of the cornice; but there should be a movable cross-bar at the top of the big doors to give a solid bearing to shut against. The bar can be removed when putting in hay, thus leav- ing a clear space down to the larger opening, Fig. 142. DouMe Hay-Mow Doors. as it is not particularly necessary to have the full-sized opening run all the way up to the carrier. Fig. 143 is a sketch of double hay doors for a bam that are very satisfactory. The general instructions for making are as follows: FEAMING 369 Lay off the door in halves to fill the opening clear up to the track. Next begin at the outer upper corner and lay a downward line towards the center of the door at the same angle as the pitch of the roof. Cleat and saw on this line, and put hinges on the inside. This top leaf will Fig. 143. Double Doors to Swing and Fold Down. then fold down as the door opens, and all will swing under the cornice and lie flat against the waU. To fasten the doors open, make a double- ended spiked pole, with which press the outer or top fold of the door up firmly against the fascia, seating the lower end of spiked pole near the bottom of the door. There should be a 2 by 4 or a 2 by 6 bar across the opening to hook the doors to, as well as for safety, while opening or closing. 370 TEAMING Fig. 144 is a sketch of another way of hang- ing large barn doors, which has given good satis- faction wherever it has been used. Fig. 144. Weighted Doors on Inclined Tracks. Any flat barn-door track will do. A %-inch rope is tied to the lower hanger and run through a 5-inch wooden pulley set in rafter; from there it is run down inside of rafter 3 or 4 feet to another pulley; and from there to a small FKAMING 271 weight below, which will run between two studs. Hanging a door this way does not take as heavy a weight as running it up and down the grooves, and it runs more easily. When doors are both closed, they can be fastened together on the inside with a hook. Bumpers on the outside of the barn prevent them from running off the track. Fig. 145. Hay-Mow Door to Fold Down. A practical barn builder writes concerning hay-mow doors as follows : "For some time I thought to hang the door with weights was the only way; but the last one of that kind I put up, two of us worked over an hour trying to get it to work right ; finally we made the guides so loose that the door would nearly fall out. It did not work well then. If the wall springs either in or out, the door will bind. 372 TEAMING "The enclosed illustration (Fig. 145) will give you my plan. The wire, a, has. a hook on the upper end to hook into the pulley, as shown. A pull on the hay-rope will raise the door with ease. The carrier trips the same as with a load of hay. The door is pulled up close, or left open a little for ventilation. Tie the hay-rope any place, and it holds the door,, which, being hinged at the bottom, hangs below the opening, out of the way." Ventilating a Barn. Systems of ventilation are in demand for large barns, without putting on the common roof ventilators, which are often a nuisance on account of the sparrows and insects. This nuisance may be almost entirely avoided by screening the openings of the ven- tilator just the same as for .the windows in a residence. As for ventilation from the stable part, this may be accomplished as shown in Fig. 146. It is simply done by boarding up the space between two studdings, boxing out at the cor- nice to clear the plate, and finishing with turret effect on the roof, with screened openings oh all sides. The interior openings should be as shown, provided with slide shutters. One of these vent shafts should be placed about every eight feet, or opposite every other stall. Barn Windows. As barn windows, as a gen- eral rule, are one-sash windows, it is sometimes difficult to contrive a convenient way to open them. The slide window is not well liked, because it is almost impossible to make it so that rain will not beat in. Besides, it is neces- sary to have a stop outside to guide the sash. PEAMING 873 which at best is a dirt catcher and holds moist- ure, causing the window-sill to rot in a short time. Fig. 147 illustrates, at the right, a type of basement window which has given good satis- faction. It being impossible to raise the base- ment windows on account of the main sill just above '^ it " ""y/ them, the frames are made ^1 X/ as shown. This allows the window to be opened by drawing top of sash back onto the pieces at- Fig. 146. How to Ventilate a Stable. tached to frame and floor above, which will give ventilation without a direct draught; or sash can be raised as far as floor will allow. Some- times the side jambs are made wide at the top, so that there is no opening at the sides, when 374 PKAMING the window is open; but this is not necessary unless the window is close to the live-stock. A gable window is shown also, in Fig. 147, at the left. It is hung just above the center GABLt WlMDOW. Figs. 147 and 148. Barn Gable and Basement Windows. with sash bolts, and can be opened and closed with cords running to. some convenient place, as not everybody likes to climb to the peak of a high barn when it is empty, to open or close windows. Framing of Factories, Stores and Public Buildings When we come to the framing of larger buildings, such as factories, stores, halls, etc., the work becomes more complicated and tech- nical in its nature, falling perhaps more within the province of the structural engineer than the ordinary carpenter and builder. Nevertheless, certain of the fundamental principles of such work should be understood, and may well be considered here. They are, briefly: standard mill construction; strength of timbers; prin- ciples of truss construction; and framing of public buildings for safety and also for archi- tectural effect. STANDARD MILL CONSTRUCTION The succession of heavy fire losses each year is the penalty which this country is paying for the erection of light, cheap, and poorly designed buildings. The cost of fire insurance is a direct yearly tax on the building and its occupants. It is the duty of those responsible for the design of buildings, to plan them so that this tax may be the smallest possible, and this can be done often without any great increase in the cost of the building itself. 275 /yw-..,^f/7'''"^''"''-^''"ifif;ii7#i/i>LfLfiJ-i.rijiiwiJtii]iiili>LR iii ^!!M^:[!!lli!W!lllti}i}imtii lil-HJuWltb illHHl lUhH-to-tuUM a »W'^?!^/'//S /£^^S^2s//sffee^^SE£S|lMfj^SEE3E£S •mHHniiinr irij J^r, h ,-,, ,,,,, l, li . i .-/Vi i.i 1 1 i-i TiiTri M iJ h h i-i I-i HHHHn-llin nn- i ,: r, l-l ,-M ■ , U , » f / 1 1 M H M 1 1 l-l H Iffi N 1-1 H lij-l |-| 1 1 l-l l-l H H H H H H 1-1 H i-nf Mil. 'Ill .l.ibM^ .i|,l 276 FEAMING 377 According to tests made by the Boston Insur- ance Engineering Experiment Station — which only confirm and bear out the experience of years — it has been clearly shown that, all things considered, the mill or slow-burning type of con- struction is to be recommended for most factory and warehouse buildings. In some cases, where the contents will be extra inflanimable, the extra expense of the thoroughly fireproof reinforced concrete structure is warranted; otherwise mill construction should be used. In order that there shall be no misunder- standing of what is meant by mill construction, we shall say that it consists in disposing the timber and plank in heavy solid masses so as to expose the least number of corners or ignitable projections to fire. Also it consists in sepa- rating every floor from every other floor by fire stops. The essential features of standard mill con- struction are illustrated in Pig. 149, and are, briefly, as foUows: 1. The walls should be of brick or concrete block, at least 1 foot thick (16 inches for best work) in top story, and increased in thickness at lower floors to support additional load. The pilastered wall has many advantages, and is often preferred to the plain wall. Window and door arches should be of brick; window and out- side door-sills and underpinning, of granite or concrete. . 2. The roofs should be of 3-inch pine plank, 278 FEAMING spiked directly to the heavy roof timbers and covered with 5-ply tar and gravel roofing. Roofs should pitch i/^ inch to % inch per foot. An incombustible cornice is recommended when there is exposure from neighboring buildings. 3. Floors are best made of spruce plank 4 inches or more in thickness according to the floor loads, spiked directly to the floor timbers ^.■- fin Boards, single or double aEinxM8intoai4in HJoistsH IS m Hoc m:m ^■Girder or truss member Fig. 150. Undesirable Floor Construction. and kept at least % inch clear of the face of the brick walls. Figs. 150 and 151 show bad and good forms of floor construction. In floors and roof, the bays should be 8 to lOi/^ feet wide; and all plank two bays in length, laid to break joints ;lln Boards f or hardwopa splines —■■■ -. ^i n Boaras 3into5ln. Planic 3in.toS'n.Plaftk gi'OBi/ed r — pr. ^ ■b'T " "F^ ' * ■• "^^ Heavy Purlins ]^f Sianfein orlar^r K?J Mam Cinler or Timber. 6fl to lofton centres __ Girder Timber or Main Trvss Fig. 151. Good Types of Floor Construction. every 4 feet, and grooved for hardwood splines. Usually top floor of birch or maple is laid at right angles to the planking; but the best mills have a double top floor, the lower one of soft wood laid diagonally upon the plank, and the TEAMING 379 upper one laid, lengthwise. This latter method allows boards in alleys to be easily replaced when worn, and the diagonal boards brace the floors, reduce vibration, and distribute the floor load even better than the former method. Between the planking and the top floor should be two or three layers of heavy tarred paper, laid to break joints, and each mopped with hot tar or similar material to produce a reasonably water-tight as well as dust-tight . floor. •-Where wall offsets, omit bar Trin.x2 in. Wrought Iron Bar /4in. longer than width .' of beam ^^^*>Floor Boards ■'Floor Plank fe-Floor Timbers La^ Screw Fig. 152. Cast-iron Wall Box for Floor Timtjers, with Lugs for Anchoring to Walls. Eapid decay of basement or lower floors of mills makes it desirable, whenever wood is not absolutely necessary, to provide cement floors for these places. If wooden floors are required, crushed stone, cinders, or furnace slag should be spread evenly over the surface and covered with a thick layer of hot tar concrete, on which is often laid tarred felt, well mopped with hot tar or asphalt. . On this a floor of 2-inch seasoned 280 TEAMING plank should be pressed, nailed on edge without perforating the waterproofing under it, and the hardwood top floor boards nailed across the plank. Cement concretes promote decay of wood in contact with them. If extra support is required for heavy machinery, independent foundations of masonry should be provided. 4. In regard to timbers and columns it should be remembered that all woodwork in standard construction, in order to be slow-burning, must be in large masses that present the least surface possible to a fire. No sticks less than 6 inches in width should be used, even for the lightest roofs; and for substan- tial roofs and floors, much wider ones are needed. Timbers should be of sound Georgia pine; and for sizes up to 14 by 16 inches, single sticks are preferred; but timbers 7 or 8 inches by 16 are often used in pairs, bolted together without air-space between. They should not be painted, varnished, or filled for three years because of danger of dry rot; and an air-space should be left in the masonry around the ends for the same reason. Timbers should rest on cast-iron plates or beam boxes, in the walls, and Fig. 153. Floor Timl)er Rest- ing on Cast-Irton Wall-Plates, with Lugs for Anchoring Timber to Wall. FEAMING 281 on cast-iron caps on the columns, as shown in Pigs. 152, 153, 154, and 155. Beam boxes are of value, as they strengthen Roof Planking- Roof Timber Fig. 154. Eoof Timber Rest- ing on Column Cap — Tim- bers Held Together by 1- Inch Wrought-Iron Dogs. insure a the walls when floor loads are heavy and dis- tance between windows small; they facilitate the laying of the brick and the handling of the beams ; and there is less possibility of breaking away the brick in put- ting the beams in place, proper air-space around They also beams. Columns should be set on pintles, which may be cast in one piece with the cap, or separately, as pre- ferred (see Figs. 156 and 157.) Col- umns of cast-iron are preferred by some engineers; and, when the building is equip- ped with automatic sprinklers, have proved satisfactory, but are not so fire- resisting as timber. £RoofinS Flashi' Roof- Timber Cast Iron Wall Plate Roof ■■■ Anchor Fig. 155. Eoof Timber East- ing on Cast-iron Wall-Plate, Showing Overhanging Open Wood Cornice and Wrought- Irou Ancho' Wrought-iron or steel col- 283 PEAMIIsrG umns should not be used unless encased with at least 2 inches of fireproofing. One of the most important features of sbw- rk-Post Top Flooring Tarred Paper Floor Planks Floor Timber Fig. 166. Cast-Iron Cap and Pintle for Columns and Dogs for Holding Floor Timbers Together. burning construction is to make each and every floor continuous from wall to wall, avoiding Not less •■ than fin. for top floor. .Faced Alternative design, preferred by many, with lip around base of column. Pintle Faced Pintle Cap Pig. 157. Cap and Pintle Cast to Pit Columns. holes for belts, stairways, or elevators, to the utmost extent possible, so that a fire may be confined to the fioor where it starts. No well- informed mill owner, engineer, or builder will FEAMING 283 therefore fail to locate elevators, stairs, as well as main belts, in brick towers or in sections of a building cut off by incombustible walls from all the rooms of a factory. Openings in these walls should be provided with fire-doors, preferably self-closing. These should be hung on heavy, inclined, solid steel rails at least 3^/^ inches by % inch, and balanced by a weight held by a fusible link. In modern practice all belts and ropes which may be used for transmission of power to the various rooms are placed in incombustible ver- tical belt-chambers, from which the power is transmitted by shafts through the walls into the several rooms of the factory. There should be no unprotected or unguarded openings in the inner walls of this belt-chamber. Saw-Tooth Roof Construction. The great ad- vantages and the increasing use of saw-tooth roof construction, together with the lack of fa- miliarity with it in many sections, make it desir- able to outline its important features. Two typical designs are illustrated — one. Fig. 158, a textile weave shed with good basement for shafting for driving looms on main floor above, thus dispensing with the overhead shaft- ing and belting in the weave room; the other, Fig. 159, a design for a light machine shop or foundry. Other designs are applicable, with light wooden trusses or reinforced concrete. The important advantages of this form of roof construction are : 284 FEAMING Uniform diffusion of light throughout the room, thus making all space in it available. With all interior surfaces painted white, and with ribbed glass in the sash, the diffusion of light is almost perfect. Adaptability for lighting large floor areas in wide buildings with low head room, compared with what is necessary in wide buildings with the ordinary form of monitor skylights. They provide the true solution to the prob- lem of excluding the direct rays of the sun and obtaining the very desirable north light in all sections. Economy in lighting, in that they lessen the fixed charges due to the lessened mmiber of hours per day diu-ing which artificial light is necessary. Better working conditions, especially in tex- tile mills, therefore increasing production and encouraging permanency of the help. The saw-tooth form is especially adapted to buildings for weaving and similar processes in textile factories, machine shops, foundries doing light work, and for similar or allied opera- tions, such as assembling and drafting; and in some dye houses, where careful matching of colors is necessary. As to the disadvantages, while testimony of those having had experience with saw-tooth roofs is almost uniformly favorable, more or less difficulty has been experienced. Practically all of it, however, may be summed up as due 286 FEAMING either to faulty design or to poor workmanship. The difficulties in general are caused by leaks due to severe conditions during winter in our northern climate, poor ventilation, excessive heat when roofs are thin, or excessive condensa- tion on under side of roof and glass when the temperature outside is low and there is consid- erable moisture in the rooms. It may here be well to state that the light roof of 2-inch and 3-inch joists and boards should never be used; and that, while the prin- ciples of slow-burning or mill construction, with the heavy timbers, are preferred, the increasing difficulty of promptly obtaining yellow pine Imn- ber of good dimensions, and its increasing cost, often necessitate the use of trussed forms, using rather light timbers. In no case, however, should they be less than 6 inches in width, and of depth sufficient to carry the load — ^this in order that they may be slow-burning. The roof in all cases should be of plank, with wide bays. The adaptability of the light forms of steel for framing trusses, especially when wide spans are needed, often compels their use; and in plants having safe occupancy, such as metal workers, they are not objectionable, provided adequate sprinkler protection with good water supply is available to prevent quick failure of the steel work due to heat from combustion of contents or roof. Similar protection is, of course, needed in shops with wooden trusses, if disastrous fires are to be prevented; but ex- 287 288 FRAMING perience has shown that the steel-trussed roof will fail much quicker than would one of wood under similar conditions. Wooden posts are nearly always available, and should be given preference ; but if light steel columns are neces- sary, they should be well protected by insulating materials if in rooms containing combustibles, as the column is the vital part of the roof support. The following suggestions show the best practice in saw-tooth roof construction to over- come the difficulties and to make this type of roof a thoroughly satisfactory piece of work. What is good engineering from the view-point of the manufacturer can also be good fire pro- tection engineering. Any design should be adapted to both if the best interests of the manu- facturer are to be served. It being desirable to avoid direct sunlight and at the same time obtain abundance of light perfectly diffused, the saw-teeth should face approximately north; and the glass should be inclined to the vertical, to take advantage of the brighter light in the upper sky, and to prevent cutting of the light by the saw-tooth imme- diately in front. This also assures the diffusion of the light upon the floor rather than on the under side of the roof planking. For the glass, an angle of 20 degrees to 25 degrees with the vertical, and an angle of ap- proximately 90 degrees at the top of the saw- tooth, will be about right, the variations to de- PEAMING 289 pend on the amount of light required, and on the latitude. A sharper angle at the top is not needed, as it increases the cost, there being more roof to cover and larger spans. More glass is also required in proportion, and the light is not so good, more sky light being lost and too much thrown on under side of roof. Double glazing, with space between, is pre- ferred on account of its conducting qualities; but is not always necessary, except in the North. oFfcIl DETAIL OF VALLEY Fig. 160. Saw-Tooth Koof Framing— Detail of Valleys. The inside glazing should be factory ribbed glass, with ribs vertical and inside. Shadows cast by trusses are then almost unnoticeable. 390 FEAMIISTG Condensation gutters, as shown in the detail drawing, Fig. 160, are needed inside at the bot- tom of the sash; and they should be drained through inside conductors, and not outside, under bottom of sash, as these latter admit cold air and are liable to freeze. Valleys between the saw-teeth should be flat, 14 inches to 2 feet in width; and should pitch one-half inch per foot toward the conductors, which should be of ample size, and not much over 50 feet apart, preferably less. The neces- sary pitch may be obtained by cross-pieces of varying heights on top of the trusses, thus avoid- ing hollow spaces. Leaks, a common fault, may ordinarily be prevented by careful design of gutters, valleys, and sashes, and by insisting on good workmanship and materials. The roof covering of asphalt or pitch should be contin- uous through the valleys, and extend up to the glass. Experience has demonstrated the advantage of a combination of direct radiation, with a fan sufficient only for ventilation and tempering the room. Heating pipes should usually be placed overhead, and directly under the front of the saw-teeth, and should run the entire length, and in this position assist in preventing condensation. Where there is no moving shafting, some forced circulation is necessary. This is best ob- tained by a fan, often driving air from a dry basement or outside as required, and discharg- TEAMING 291 ing it over heating coils to the floor above. In weave and similar rooms, is this especially necessary and advantageous in promoting health and comfort of employees, making greater efficiency possible. Ventilation and cooling of these large areas with comparatively low stories must not be neglected. Ample vents are needed at top, in shape of large metal ventilators with double walls and tight dampers. They are recom- mended instead of pivoted or swinging sash, which are apt to leak in driving storms, and which, when open, allow dirt to blow in off the roof. Good windows are advised in side walls, and experience has shown their value. Framing of the saw-teeth may be in timber, steel, or reinforced concrete. The design should be such as to obstruct the light as little as pos- sible; strong enough to hold wet snow without sagging; and stiff enough to carry shafting motors, etc., when they are to be overhead. When wood or steel is used, the roof planking should be 3 inches or over, spanning wide bays of 8 to 10 feet. Hollow spaces in roofs should not be per- mitted. They are very undesirable from a fire standpoint, and any condensation which may take place in them during cold weather soon rots both plank and sheathing. Sheathing, even without spaces behind it, is more or less a bad feature, as it is readily com- bustible; but, if used, should be applied directly 392 PEAMIFG to the under side of the roof plank, with only a layer of some insulating material between, so that there may be no concealed space. If 3-inch plank is sufficient for a flat roof, it should be for a saw-tooth; and, with good circulation of air, there should be no trouble, except in wet rooms, where condensation is bound to occur whether under a roof or the floor of the room above, un- less large quantities of dry air are discharged into the room. Saw-tooth roofs necessarily cost more, as there is practically the same amount of roofing as in flat roofs, and in addition there is the cost of windows, glazing, flashing, conductors, con- densation gutters for the skylights, and a some- what larger cost of heating. The addi- tional cost of these items does not, however, fairly represent comparative cost, as there should be considered the total cost of the build- ing compared with that of an ordinary one of suf&ciently high stories and narrow enough to give the required light. When this is done, the slight additional cost is far outweighed by ad- vantages of the saw-tooth type for work where good light is desirable. strength of Timbers strength of Beams Supported at Both Ends. ''Will you decide a little argument which my mate and I have been having?" said a carpenter friend of mine as he and his mate came into the office the other morning. "We want to know which is the stronger of two pitch pine beams we have outside here. One is 9 inches by 6 inches, and the other 8 inches by 7 inches; and both are to be used over openings of 12-feet span. My mate thinks the 9 by 6 is the stronger of the two, but I hold that the 8 by 7 will carry more weight." "I shall be very pleased to work it out for you, and can tell you the result in about a min- ute;" said I, "but if you have half an hour to spare, I should prefer to show you how I arrive at my figures, and thus enable you to make the necessary calculations for yourselves whenever you desire." As work was not very pressing that morn- ing, they readily agreed to take a lesson, and I proceeded somewhat as follows: A piece of wood 1 inch square placed on bearings one foot apart, will break under a cer- tain weight. This wieght varies with different woods and with different specimens of the same wood; but most authorities have agreed to re- 293 294 FBAMING gard certain average weights as standards. These averages were obtained from hundreds of experiments, and are therefore fairly reliable. The following table deals with a few woods only, but is sufficient for our present purpose. Breaking weights of wood beams 1 foot long, 1 inch broad, and 1 inch deep, loaded in the cen- ter and supported at both ends (the length means the span of the opening — ^that is, the dis- tance in clear of bearings), are as follows: Ash 7 cwt. White oak 5^ " Georgia pitch pine 5 " Norway red pine 4 " Spruce 3i " Teak 8 " (1 cwt.=112 pounds.) Referring to the illustration. Fig. 161, we find at A, that, taking pitch pine as our wood, a piece 1 inch by 1 inch, on bearings 1 foot apart, will break with a central load of 5 cwt. Now, it is quite clear that if we increase the breadth to 3 inches, as at B, it will take three times five, or 15 cwt., to break the piece. But suppose that we put this piece of 3 by 1 pitch pine on edge and see what it takes to break it. Instead of 15 cwt., we shall find that it takes no less than 45 cwt. to do so. Or, as the books put it, the strength of a beam is as the square of its depth. That means that instead of saying, as in B, three times five, we square the three, and say three times 3 are nine, and nine times FRAMING 29S 5 cwt. is 45 cwt., which is the breaking weight (approximately) of a piece of 1 by 3 pitch pine on edge over a 12-inch bearing. THE STRCINCTh OrBERMS ^^=^1 I . Ji ■ =^ssa^= T". — -iiF =■■-.'-■ -■■"■■■ .-.-iS.Ti A = 2.0ZI ?e»>t X Jtn X 8in X8 ZtA-0 lift. 12. 186 *(•"■» ^ ^ ^ gcwt. X 9 in X 6 In X 6 lift It cwts = 155 cwts Sew tX Bi n X 7 in X 7 _, 1960 _ , ^ , ^ ,2^ lt>0 7i(o.-i) ta. ft Fig. 161. Ultimate Strength of Beams Supported at Both Ends with Load Concentrated at the Middle. But suppose, further, that instead of the bearings being 12 inches apart the distance be- tween them had been 2 feet. It is clear that the 296 PKAMING beam would only carry half as mucli, and we should have to divide our answer by two. And as the longer the beam, the less it will bear, this gives us another rule which will be referred to later. The diagrams, A, B, and C, represent in a pictorial and striking way one of the most useful formulas or rules which a carpenter can carry in his head. By it he can calculate the strength of any beam in a couple of minutes. "But," objected my friend, the seeker after information, "you haven't answered our ques- tion yet. And, as for making calculations, I haven't done any arithmetic since I left school, and know just about enough of it to reckon up my pay when pay-day comes roimd." While bound to admit that his case was not uncommon amongst many first-class craftsmen, I pointed out that the necessary calculations for finding the strength of a beam do not call for more than the very simplest operations in multi- plying and dividing, and thereupon proceeded to work out, as shown at D and E, the problem propounded by him at the outset of this article. The diagrams explain themselves fairly well; and, as will be seen from them, the 9 by 6 man was the winner, presuming that the beams had been placed (as they should be) with their great- est dimensions upright. But suppose the same beams had been laid flat instead of on edge, how would they work out thenf P and G give the results, which show FEAMING 297 that the 8 by 7 beam is a good deal stronger than the 9 by 6 if used in this position. It must be observed, of course, that these are the breaking weights for beams, and it is ob- vious that the safe load is what is wanted. This is found by dividing the breaking weight by a certain factor (known as the factor of safety) — generally 4 or 5 for a dead load, and 8 or 10 for a live load. It must also be remembered that the forego- ing formula is for a beam loaded in the center. If the load is distributed evenly throughout the length of the beam, it will carry just double what it would if loaded in the center. R:EME^V^BE■R. THE. R.U L E. : WHITE DOWN %. reaJ+K X deptKX depth muUi£ RNSWER 6.W. ; Figure for wood X bi Openiiiq (infect) cwts; Fig. 162. To Find Breaking Weight for Beams Supported at Both Ends — Load Concentrated at the Middle. To sum up the matter, the points to carry in one's head are these: First, the figure given in the table for the particular wood. Second, the way of putting down the simple sum or formula, which must be as shown in Pig. 162. Third, divide your result by figure (factor) of safety, say five for dead load and ten for live load. (This gives safe load for center of beam. If load is distributed, multiply this by two.) 298 TEAMING Thus divested of all formal language, this useful little working formula was easily grasped by my two interrogators; and, in the hope that it may prove similarly useful to many others, the writer begs to present it. Strength of Beams Supported at One End. "More work for the calculator," was the remark which greeted the writer the other day, as his two carpenter friends once more came into the office, "We have been applying your last little lesson on the strength of beams to several cases which have occurred in our work lately, and have found no difficulty in arriving at correct results. In fact, we have been 'showing off' a little amongst our mates, in consequence," con- tinued the spokesman. "But we are up against another little problem now, and shall be glad of another lesson if you can give us half an hour or so." Proud of his apt pupils and their evident ap- preciation of his efforts, the writer was only too pleased to put his services again at their dis- posal, and, after a brief talk, found the problem to be as follows : A wooden beam was to be fixed so as to pro- ject some five feet from the face of a building, for the purpose of hoisting goods from the street level to a warehouse on the upper floor. (The technical term for a beam in this position is cantilever, and such a beam will be referred to by that name throughout this discussion.) A piece of pitch pine 7 inches by 5 inches had been FEAMING 299 selected for the job, and the question arose as to the amount of weight which could safely be hoisted upon it. First of all, we ran over our last lesson on the strength of a beam when supported at both ends, and found out what load a piece of pitch pine, 7 inches by 5 inches, and 5 feet long, would carry if placed on edge, when supported at both ends and carrying a central load. Our rule, or formula, used in the last lesson was of course required. This gave us the result shown in Pig. 163, at A — namely, 245 cwt. as the breaking weight re- quired. It will be remembered that in the previous article it was stated that a beam with a distributed load will carry twice as much as the same beam with a central load, and that there- fore the answer to this sum could be doubled for such conditions. But it is obvious that the strength of a beam supported at both ends is much greater than that of one supported (or fixed) at one end only, and is, relatively, as 4 is to 1. Therefore, to find the breaking weight of our piece of 5 by 7 when fixed as a cantilever, we divided our result by 4, giving us 245-t-4^611/4 cwts. But it was the amount our cantilever would carry which we wanted to find; and that brought in the question of the relation between the breaking weight and safe load — or, as it is termed, the factor of safety — to which reference was made before. 300 FEAMING In this connection, the nature of the load or stress to which the beam is to be subjected is important, and may cause the safe load to vary THE STREINaTH OFBEF^MS 5'-0" > , ^ 1 , J > > J J J J ^ ^j- ^ , ^ ^ J J J 1 J j^ 5 X 5 X 7 X *7 Breaking wefght Whfert I ■ '■ — = ^ 4- 5 cjwts supported at both ends 5 and todded in centre. 4. / 2. 4- 5 Bre.aK.ifiq weight , 8 /S i "fc Safe tive toaA^ G / 4 cwts, as cfln-ttlcv t-r 7'^cwfa fof aame . 5 X 5 f 51 >'5a ■378* cwts. BWwhen Jupport'ed both endtf 4- /378 8i£±*^ 94-Tcwts. I 1 -^ cwts ^ B.W fl5 canttlevfcf S^fe t{v« load Fig. 163. Ultimate Strength of Beams Used as Braced and as Unbraced Cantilevers, Loaded at Outer End. FRAMING 301 from one-fifth to one-tenth of the breaking weight, according as the load is a live or dead one. Our load in this case was, of course, a live one; but another consideration entered into the question — ^namely, the manner of applying the hoisting force. That is to say, we had to con- sider whether the force was to be applied in a series of jerks such as given by sailors in pull- ing on a block and tackle, or to be steadily and continuously applied as by a winch or hoisting drum. If in the first manner, the greatest mar- gin of safety would have to be allowed; and, at most, only one-tenth of the breaking weight should be carried. For the continuous, steady, pull, however, a factor of safety of one-eighth would probably be sufficient. As the power in this case was a drum driven by an electric motor, we decided upon eight as our factor, and applied it to our breaking weight (6I14-J-8), ob- taining approximately 7% cwts. As this was a much greater weight than was generally to be hoisted to the warehouse in ques- tion, my two carpenter friends felt quite satis- fied when our calculations showed that their guess at the size of the cantilever had been on the safe side, and that it was strong enough for any emergency. A Braced Cantilever Beam. On inquiring as to the reason why the point of suspension for the load was so far out, it was explained that bulky packages were carried up and down, and it was therefore necessary that they should swing well 303 FEAMIFG clear of the stories below. That led to the sug- gestion that a strut or brace could be used under the cantilever; and, as this would increase its strength very materially, it was decided to cal- culate just what would be gained by so doing. Taking the sketch of the strutted cantilever (Fig, 163, B), we found that the amount over- hanging the end of the strut was 2 feet. But the under side had been weakened at the joint where the strut had been let into the cantilever, and the effective depth of the beam was thereby re- duced by iy2 inches, the depth of the shoulder. Our sum, therefore, was changed, reading as at 0; and gave us for result 378% cwts, as the breaking weight of a pitch pine beam 2 feet long, 5^/2 by 5 inches. Dividing this by 4 (neglecting the odd % cwt.), we obtained our breaking weight for the cantilever 378^-4^94^ cwts. Again dividing this by 8, we obtained as our safe load 94%-^8=ll% cwts., approximately, thus showing a considerable increase of strength over the cantilever without the strut. The foregoing example of a cantilever used for permanent hoisting purposes is not, perhaps, met with so commonly to-day as formerly, ele- vators inside of buildings having largely super- seded them. For purposes of temporary work, however, such as the raising of some heavy article to the upper floor of a building, the piece of timber projecting from some opening is still frequently in evidence. The nearest carpenter is generally called upon to rig up the affair, and FEAMING 303 the formula worked out here (see Fig. 162) is an exceedingly useful one to have at hand in such cases. For, unlike beams, girders, joists, etc., the sizes of which are calculated in most cases by the designer of the building, these tem- porary rigs are left wholly to the skill and ingenuity of the carpenter, who may be called upon at a moment's notice to supply something upon which the lives of some of his fellows and the safety of some valuable piece of work may depend. Strength of Projecting Veranda. To the craftsman who is desirous of adding a little theory to his practical knowledge, there is nothing, perhaps, so repellant as the apparently difficult arithmetical formulas with which he is confronted in the pages of many of his trade books. The writer's success in making some of these formulas clear to a couple of his crafts- men friends, led to a continuation of the lessons, and he begs to offer an account of the next step taken in helping his two friends past some more little difficulties. It is a well-known maxim in all teaching, that we "must proceed from the known to the unknown," and it seems that the consideration of the strength of a wooden cantilever beam, just discussed, leads naturally to the question of the method of calculating the strength of verandas and similar structures, which are sup- ported by a number of projecting beams or cantilevers. 304 TEAMING The method given by which the strength of the projecting beam used for hoisting goods to an upper story is ascertained, can be easily applied to a series of such beams, and their combined strength readily ascertained. the: strcncth or bcrjvis Proporl'ional 5trertftth_ ^ SupporTed both tnda. ^ Loadad in ccntrfc — 4- -Q — ■ 3'0" — Fftc-d one- end . Loaded at othtr «= I H Part rrotit Elleva-Vion H fflfflWCTyYTyrxT) 5tipportfcd bothends Load distributed YE.R.nNDn Fig. 164. Strength of a Projecting Veranda. FRAMING 305 The first step, then, was to look about for a suitable example of such a structure, the strength of which could be calculated for pur- poses of the lesson. A very short excursion round the neighborhood led to the discovery of a veranda or balcony which suited the purpose admirably; and our two craftsmen pupils soon measured the structure and jotted down the necessary particulars, which were as follows: The veranda, Fig. 164, projected from the second story of a dwelling-house some 3 feet, the house itself being 24 feet in width, with the veranda right across the face. It was carried on 11 spruce beams, each 4 by 6 inches, projecting through the face of the wall, giving 10 bays of flooring. There was a sloping roof to the ve- randa; but, as this was carried on some beams projecting from the floor above, its weight had not to be taken into account. A light balustrade about 2 feet 6 inches high completed the structure. The first proceeding was to calculate the strength of one beam, or cantilever, of the size used in the veranda. Going back to the first lesson, we proceeded to find the strength of such a piece, supposing it to be a simple beam loaded in the middle and supported at each end, the calculation being as shown in Fig. 165, the steps being as follows: Put down the figure for spruce (see table) = 31/2 cwts. Put down the breadth 4 inches, then the depth 6 inches, and, as that was to be 306 FRAMING "squared," 6 again. Put underneath, the length, 3 feet. This sum gave us 168 cwt. as the breaking weight when the piece was supported at both ends. But we had abeady seen that a cantilever loaded at the end is only one-fourth as strong as the same piece is when supported at both ends and loaded in the middle. In the case of the ve- randa, however, the load would not be at the end, but would be distributed along the length of the cantilever, thus bringing in another rule, which is: A cantilever loaded evenly throughout will carry twice as much as a similar one loaded at the end only. (A similar rule applies when the beam is supported at each end.) Accordingly, we divided our answer by 2, giving us 168-v-2^84 cwts. as the breaking weight for a spruce cantilever, 4 inches by 6 inches, project- ing 3 feet from its support, the wall of the house. As the veranda would have to carry a live load, we divided this again by 8, the factor of safety, and obtained 84-e-8=10% cwts. as the safe load for one cantilever. The next step was to find what safe load the whole veranda would bear. As there were eleven cantilevers, the first thought of the pupils was to multiply the safe load of one of them by 11. A little consideration, how- ever, showed them that it was the number of bays of floor which had to be counted; each bearer having to support half the load of the bays on each side of it. As 11 FRAMING 307 bearings gave us 10 bays, our sum was 10^ cwts. multiplied by 10, giving us 105 owts. for the whole veranda. The next consideration was one about which THE CnLCULf\TIOIVS at X 4-" X 6" X S f"r* =168 B 163 cwtt. is Brfcakiaei We.ic)Kt. of piecfc When a 3 in. Fi c) ■ 1 . c 2^168 84- cwts. is BW. when as in Tig. 4-^ \0ie. Safe toad (i B. Weight) e Verandah has 11 bearer or 10 bat}S of floor; 10'^ cwts. X 10 = lOScwfs ^ Verandah is & 4-'- 0"x 3'-o"= 7 2sp.ft Load cannet exceed It cwts. p&r foot. C 72 X |-t o 108 cwts., the greatest loeid loossible for whole verandah. Fig. 165. Steps to be Taken in Figuring Strength and Load of Veranda. 308 FKAMING the craftsmen pupils had no definite knowledge —namely, as to the weight of a number of peo- ple standing on a floor. As this is a very useful thing to remember, it should be noted that numerous experiments have shown that the weight of a crowd of people does not exceed one cwt. per foot super of floor space. "But, sup- pose," said one of the pupils, "that the veranda was filled with people excitedly watching a street procession." ("Or a dog fight," inter- posed his mate.) "Would not that make some considerable difference?" As this was a very proper matter to take into account, it was de- cided to count upon a live load of l^/^ cwts. per super foot. The veranda being 24 feet by 3 feet gave us 24x3=72 feet super, which, at l^ cwts. per foot, gave us 72x11/2^108 cwts. as the greatest possible load which would be likely to be placed on it. As this came marvelously near to the pre- viously calculated strength of the structure, it appeared that the designer of it had been fairly correct, and that it was perfectly safe as long as its members were not weakened by age, rot, or other defects. NOTE — The curved rib or bracket shown under the cantilever in the drawing, Pig. 164, is almost wholly orna- mental and was not considered at all in the calculations. To Determine Width of Beam to Support a Given Load. "Well, how are you getting along with your calculations of the strength of tim- ber*?" was the writer's greeting as his two FEAMING 309 craftsmen friends and pupils came into the office again one day recently. '*0h! we are doing pretty well, and we can now remember the first rule or formula which you gave us without having to turn to refresh our memories. But we struck a small snag yes- terday. We have a sort of solution; but we felt that there was a proper way to work it out, and that is the reason of our visit to-day." The writer having expressed his readiness to help, the spokesman went on to explain the little problem which was worrying him, somewhat as follows : "Up to now we have been finding the strength of some particular piece of timber when fixed and loaded in various ways. But suppose we knew the load that was to be carried by a beam, and wanted to calculate the size of the timber — is there not some way of doing that just as easily as finding the strength of a piece whose size we know?" Having been assured that the calculations for such a problem were only a trifle more diffi- cult than for the one now familiar to them, the speaker went on to state his problem more particularly, "There is an 8-foot driveway to be made through a new brick store, and we want to find the size of the beam that will safely carry the weight of the brickwork in the story above the beam. We want to have the beam of such a depth that it will be equal to so many courses of 310 FEAMING the brickwork, and thus save a lot of cutting for the bricklayer and a poor appearance after- wards. The wall is one brick thick (8 inches), and is to be carried up nine feet above the beam. The bricks are 21^ inches thick, and four courses measure just 10 inches." Having these particulars, we proceeded as follows: First, we found the weight of the brickwork to be carried by the beam. Nine feet high, 8 feet wide, and 8 inches thick, gave us 48 cubic feet. A cubic foot of brickwork weighs about 1 cwt. (112 lbs.) ; so the weight to be car- ried was, of course, 48 cwt. But the roof had also to be considered, and we next proceeded to calculate the weight of that portion of the roof carried on the wall over the beam. From ridge to eaves, the roof slope measured 20 feet; 20 feet times 8 feet gave us 160 square feet. Slates were to be used as cov- erings; and as the weight of a slate covered roof, allowing for wind pressure, is usually taken at l^ cwt. per square foot, we obtained as the weight to be considered, 80 cwt. (160 times y^)- The problem then resolved itself into this: One hundred and twenty-eight cwt. was to be carried as a distributed load on a beam 10 inches deep over an opening of 8 feet span. The load was to be stationary, or "dead." How broad should our beam be to carry the weight safely? It seemed best to follow the plan adopted in the earlier lessons, and to give another rule or formula which could be easily referred to and FEAMING 311 in time remembered. This was written down as in Pig. 166, which is merely a simple way of stating a reversal of our first rule for finding the strength of a given beam. With this rule before us, we put down our particulars as in Fig. 167, Calculation No. 1 — namely, 128 cwts. for our load; 8 as our length; 5 as our factor of safety (dead load) ; 10 times 10 as our depth (squared), equal to four courses of brickwork; 5 as our figure for oak (see table); and 2 because our load was to be evenly dis- tributed along the beam. 7b findfht breadth of a. he.a.m tvhtn the- othci- cfafa. arc fcnenn REMEhABER. THE RULE. Puf" down .-— Load X Length X ractor of Jafefy fl„„ J**/. ,„ ,>,,«.. Oepfi X Otfith' X p'l'yure. for mood X 2. /)^f& rA« fi^uf 2. *i U39d wAe/a th* /oa.a.rrteutafa Are known t- ^ (a)t.£A/crM, (6) LOAO, (c) BUeAOT/y, (e.) NATuae or LOAO. Cf) Position or lqaOj (y) aanT or ivooo PUT DOWN :- i.CNCTH X LOAO X fACTOR. Of SATCTY _. SOUAKC: S. X BK.CAOTH X riCURE fOK. WOOD DEPTH J^ofs. Thof/aurcZ must be Uf I- out for a. centra.! load . Fig. 168. To Find the Depth of a Beam Supported at Both Ends, Eeijuired for a Given Load Evenly Distributed. 6 inches by 8 inches) — say, 90 cwt. as weight to be carried on beam. The method of putting down these particu- lars is shown in Fig. 168, which will be seen to resemble the earlier formulas, although the sev- eral factors are differently arranged. Fig. 169, A, shows the calculations for our present case, which works out in exactly the same manner as earlier ones; that is, all the values above the line are multiplied together, and divided by the product of all the values below the line. 316 FEAMING The only difficulty is in working out the final answer, for the result obtained at first will be the square of the required depth — that is, the depth multiplied by itself. To arrive at the exact depth, it is necessary to extract the square root of the answer, which means to find what number multiplied by itself will give the answer. For all ordinary practical purposes of wooden beam calculations, however, the exact result is not absolutely necessary, and a sufficiently ac- curate one can be obtained by inspection of the first answer. For instance, in the foregoing problem the answer is 561/4. Now, the nearest square of a whole number to this is 49, the square of 7 (7X7=49); therefore the depth of the beam is more than 7. The next square of a whole number is 64, the square of 8 (8x8^64) ; and, as that is greater than our answer, evi- dently our beam should be somewhere between 7 and 8 inches deep. As a matter of fact, it proves in this case to be exactly 7% inches (71/2X71/2=5614); but if the sum had not worked out so exactly as that, a result quite good enough for practical purposes could have been arrived at by the method indicated above — namely, by finding the nearest squares of the whole numbers above and below the answer, and allowing a sufficient amoimt over and above the root number of the square below. As in the pre- vious articles, the nature and position of the load must be considered in any calculations made. The factor of safety used is 5, the usual FEAMING 317 for a dead load. That is, one-fifth of the break- ing weight is considered to be the amount a beam can safely carry when the load is a sta- tionary one. The position of the load is important, for, as shown in the earlier lessons, a beam will carry twice as much if the load is evenly distributed along it, as it would if the load were in the cen- »^V , For disti-ibuted loiid 56i. iO ft. X 90 civ/. X S, fa-etof fof e/^cLt/ loci.f/ 4-SdO The ^^uart. root of S 6"^ /J 7*/ f'-h^ i-coutr'^ef €/eptfy for' ibcOL/n X>. for e'cn.treLt load iO X BO>( 5" The. a^uare. root //^ 2" of //Zt fs n^c*.rty /O^ 8X5" ttit. fftyen. /eacf tf it tvere a /I fiice^ 8 "X /O ^'kvo«/rf -fte rea^u/recf rf ioc^ tvere ccntr^ti Fig. 169. Calculation for Finding Depth of Beam to Support a Given Load. ter only. The figure 2 is therefore placed below the line in the present case. The effect of this is shown by comparing the result at A with that at B, Fig. 169. Trom the several calctilatiohs mad€, it will be seen that if two beams or joists are of the same length and sectional area, the one of greater depth will be the stronger of the two. 318 FEAMING This can readily be seen by taking as examples two joists of the same sectional area, but of dif- ferent dimensions. A piece of 12-inch by 2^^- inch, another 10 inches by 3 inches, have the same sectional area (30 square inches); but their relative strength when placed on edge is as 360 to 300. The rule stated covering this, is that the strength of a beam is as the square of its depth — that is, the depth must be multiplied by itself; 12x12x21/2=360, and 10x10x3= 300, or a proportion of strength between the two as 6 is to 5. There is, of course, a limitation in the prac- tical application of this; for if a beam be made very deep in relation to its breadth, it will buckle and twist when loaded. In the case of floor- joists, the disproportion of depth to breadth is very marked; but their tendency to buckle is overcome by strutting, either with solid blocks the same depth as the joists cut in between each pair, or with herring-bone strutting cut from narrow battens. Many experiments have been made to find the best proportion for the breadth and depth of wood beams, and it has been laid down that a ratio of 5 to 7 gives the best section. This is a useful thing to remember and easily kept in mind. In concluding our discussion of the strength of beams, the writer trusts that some of the readers who may have been deterred from going into the matter of calculating the strength of FEAMING 319 materials will be in some measure led to see that a formula is only a simple way of putting down a rule for some arithmetical process that would take a long time to describe in words. The strength of beams is a question that is so often cropping up that this discussion may be directly valuable in showing how to find it in any given case ; but the writer also hopes that the discussion may lead many readers to take up other lines of calculation equally simple and useful to the practical man. Truss Construction The principle of a truss is theoretically a num- ber of straight bars joined near their ends by flexible joints, and arranged so that all their internal stresses are sustained by its members, and only the vertical pressures (the weights of the truss and its load) are transmitted to its abutments. Trusses differ from solid beams inasmuch as the weight of the truss and its load may be regarded as divided into portions which are concentrated at the joints between the mem- bers, and which act through the centers of gravity of their cross-sections. So placed, the stresses caused by them could not act trans- versely of the members, as in a beam, causing secondary stresses, but must act longitudinally of the members, and must be uniformly distrib- uted over their entire cross-sectional areas. This is the distinguishing feature of all trusses; while in a solid beam, when it bends under its load or its own weight, all the fibers above the neutral axis are compressed, and all those below are extended, the resulting change of length in each fiber being proportional to the distance of the fiber from the neutral axis. Most of the trusses in common use consist of two long members, called chords, extending the entire length of the span, and connected by .■^20 FRAMING 321 web members, which are sometimes all inclined and sometimes alternately vertical and inclined. Inclined web members are called diagonals, such web members being known as ties and struts. A member sustaining tension is called a rod or tie; and one sustaining compression is called a strut or post; while one capable of sustaining both tension and compression is called a tie strut. The simplest form of truss consists of a sin- gle triangle (Fig. 170). Truss a is in com- W Fig. 170. Simplest Form of Truss. pression in the rafters, and in tension in the chord or tie-rod; and truss b is in compression in the chord, and in tension in the tie-rods — ^the reverse of a. This, of course, is in common use for roofs of small span, as in dwellings, and, in practice, is loaded along the rafter, and not alone at the apex as in a; but in calculating the stresses in the members, we commonly first assume that the loads are concentrated at the intersection of the truss members, and the effect of actual distribution along the members is then determined, separately treating the members as 322 FRAMING beams. Other more elaborate and complicated trusses are all built up on this principle of the simple triangle. Simple Roof Trusses. A simple structure which is sometimes misunderstood is a common king-post roof truss, such as is shown at A in Fig. 171. If two rafters are placed as at B, they will, Fig. 171. Simple Boof Trusses. of course, tend to spread at the bottom and push the walls apart. This is prevented by a wooden tie-beam, as at C, or by an iron tie-rod, as at D. But after a certain span has been exceeded, the tie-beam commences to sag and has to be supported either by a king-post or by a bolt from the apex of the rafters, as at A and E. The writer has found many carpenters with FEAMING 333 the impression that the king-post rests on the tie-beam to support the ridge; but a little reflec- tion and a study of these diagrams should con- vince even the beginner in roof framing of the fallacy of that view. As a matter of fact, both the tie-beam and king-post are in tension; that is, they are being pulled, and their work can be, and often is, done equally well with a wrought-iron rod. But, as the span becomes so great as to neces- sitate the support of the tie-beam from above, the rafters will also become so long as to tend to sag in the center, and they in turn must be supported. This is done by struts from the foot of the king-post or rod, as at F. It is clear that these struts are in compression, and that they must be of wood or some other stiff material, such as angle or T-iron, in the case of an iron roof or other roof of heavy construction. There are thus two kinds of stresses in such a truss, the tie-beam and king-post being pulled, or in tension; and the struts and rafters being pressed, or in compression. For the former, a flexible material, such as a wrought-iron rod, is suitable; but for the latter, a stiff and unyield- ing material must be employed, so as to resist the tendency to buckle or bend under the weight of the roof. Light Trusses for Broad Span. Two light timber trusses designed for broad span are shown in detail in Figs. 172 and 173. They are suitable to support the roof of a hall or rink. 334 PEAMING They are designed for a span about 65 feet wide, and are intended to carry nothing but the roof. The top and bottom chords, Fig. 172, will T" i b io I \\\ a , Note - Commencing AT ctN^^R SPACE \\\ 5/ / PANEL POINTS «-« /s" CLOMR TO CENTER "'Ck */ / THAN RADIAL LINES SHOW AND SAIN /s" V (/' AT EACH PANEL. Fig. 172. Strong, Curved Eoof Truss. have to be built up segmental. Use % by 4- inch iron jib strap on bolts, so as to catch all the timbers. Braces and counters can be USE 4«r2" FILLER TO MATCH 4xt" Fig. 173, Cheap Roof Truss for Broad Spaa. dressed, and chord left rough and boxed after- ward. Have all rods fitted with turnbuckle in the center, as the end will not be exposed. Have FEAMING 325 tension on all rods as near the same as possible. Make first panel point % inch closer than radial lines shown, which will make the next one 14, and next %, and so on, to allow for compression in the top chord. Brace bottom transversely to prevent warping. If it is not desired to have finished appear- ance, a cheaper truss for the same use may be made as shown in Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Cheap Plank-Framed Truss. Plank- Framed Truss. A plank-framed truss is very popular where a cheap truss is wanted to support a roof of say 40-foot span, as for a hall. Pig. 174 shows a well-designed built-up truss of satisfactory and at the same time cheap construction, for such a purpose. The wind and snow load on a roof of this kind is a factor that has to be considered. Such trusses will prove amply safe for a 40-foot span. They 326 PEAMING should be set in 16-foot bents. The expensive large-dimension timbers are not used, the differ- ent members being built up of 2 by 10 and 2 by 12-inch pieces, spiked together to break joints as specified on the drawing. Light Truss for 100-Foot Span. In design- ing trusses of wide span such as those used to support temporary roofs of light construction, the same principle of triangulation is carried out as for very small trusses. Carpenters some- times overlook this; and, in their amazement ONE HALT ELEVATION OF A LIGHT TRU3S roR ft HOOF COVERED WITH Cnt-V'P SHEET IRON. Defaif of ap/'ee 4n tie beam TT "^ Jiardtvood Fig. 175. Light Truss for 100-Foot Span. at the width of span, trying to arrange framing adequate to the task, lay out a series of mem- bers not a truss at all, but a number of quadri- lateral panels which offer little resistance to change of form, and which would easily be racked by an extra force acting on one side, such as a gale of wind. TEAMING 337 Mg. 175 shows a good form for a long-span truss. For the bottom chord (tie-beam), two pieces of 9-inch by 4-inch, at least, will be neces- sary. The splicing of the pieces to obtain length enough for the span will reduce the sectional area considerably, and must be allowed for. The system of tension rods and struts must be car- ried out carefully as to joints. The blades or rafters (top chords) should be of two pieces of 8-inch by 3-inch, blocked and bolted together at frequent intervals. The sizes of the other members are shown in the diagram. It is very much better to use iron rods for all the tension members as shown. If wood is used, straps and bolts at top and bottom of each member will be required, to hold up the weight of tie-beam and thrust of strut. If the rods are upset at the ends, and a plus thread cut upon them, slightly smaller iron can be used. It is usual to allow on trusses of this descrip- tion a camber of half an inch for every ten feet of span. Five inches may seem a lot for this truss, but is none too much when the number of joints is considered. A Lattice Truss. A cheap truss for broad spans is the lattice truss, built up out of light timbers which can be had in any lumber yard. It is easily constructed. Fig. 176 shows such a truss of 60-foot span. No unsightly rods are required to keep the side walls from spreading, since in this form of truss, the truss itself acts as a tie, and, when properly anchored, there can 328 FEAMING be no tendency to crowd the walls out. Six trusses, exclusive of the ends, will be sufficient for a building 80 feet long, which would call for a spacing a little less than 12 feet from centers. The covering for this form of roof may be of almost any of the roofing materials, aside from the gravel-coated, as the inclines at the sides are too steep to stand for any great length of time the wind and wash that the gravel roof would be subjected to. Trusses for Flat Roof. A carpenter recently had a typical flat-roof store building to erect. Fig. 176. Cheap Lattice Truss. It was to be 44 feet wide and 100 feet long, the roof to slope from front to rear and to be cov- ered with gravel roofing. The building was two stories high, one room on each floor. The fol- lowing advice was asked: ''How would you frame roof without having columns under second-story ceiling? Second floor is to be used for skating rink. How would you deaden floor*? Joists are to be 2 by 12-inch hard pine." The best way to carry such a roof is by a series of trusses, as shown in Fig. 177. The heights of these trusses vary according to their FEAMING 329 position, a fall of 1 inch to the foot being allowed for the slope of the roof. The truss shown in elevation in Fig. 178 is the lowest of the series; but the rest would be similar in all respects. It is difficult to deaden a floor effectively when used for such a noisy pm-pose as roller and Cra^ct SeelES €JF ROOF TRUSSES - IA» SECTIO/M Fig. 177. How to Support a Plat Roof. skating; but we advise a double deadening as most likely to fill the bill. One method, shown in Fig. 179, consists in nailing strips near the lower edges of joists to support short lengths of boards, upon which is laid a rough mortar either of sand and lime, ashes and lime, or sawdust 5x 6" Joisfy , /8 "o.c, « ' a I I II » ■ Fig. 178. Truss for Flat Koof. and lime. Or one of the special patent composi- tions, such as slag wool, made for the purpose, might be used. The second deadening is applied between the rough floor and the hardwood upper flooring, and consists of heavy deadening felt made for 330 FEAMING the purpose. In the ease of a rink, the felt should be laid on the rough floor; then strips of 1 by 2-inch stuff laid flat, 12 inches apart ; and then the hardwood floor laid to form the skating surface. To Strengthen a Truss. Occasionally, from one cause or another, trusses weaken and sag. It is then necessary to brace or strengthen them in some way. Fig. 180 is a sketch of a truss which settled about five inches. The truss is in Double cfeacf&necf -floor r* Top floor /» /x a' Str/ps Fig. 179. Method of Deadening Floor for Rink. a theater above the gallery, and is used to sup- port same. The trouble with this truss is probably in the spacing of braces at top and bottom, and changing them would be impracticable. To make it perfectly safe, it would do to jack it up in center until it has sufficient camber, and then reinforce the bottom chord with a couple of 2 by 12-inch planks, one bolted on each side, and put a 114-iiich truss-rod on each side, as shown in sketch, with turnbuckle. If ends of rods are not upset, to depth of thread, use heavier ones, FEAMINa 331 SO that the diameter at bottom of thread will be not less than II4 inches. This will result in a change of length of braces, and they should be replaced. As the middle vertical rod carries no part of the load of the truss proper, it is not necessary to have nut and washer under bottom chord; and the rod may pass on down through the gallery. Theoretically the rod serves only to prevent deflection in the two unloaded middle chord panels under their own weight, but in practice it is usually employed for convenience. Fig. 180. strengthening a Truss with Bods. Top chord should be reinforced with a 2 by 10 spiked on flat, between angle washers. See that foot of end brace is held rigidly in place. To Camber a Truss. Pig. 181 is a truss, specification for which says ''frame it so it will have 2-inch camber when tightened up." Now, the question is, how to get the proper location of the holes for the rods, also the lengths of each stick of timber. The method of cambering such a truss in- volves some knowledge of mathematics and drawing. Nearly all engineers are now in the habit of making the necessary calculations and figuring the exact lengths of the braces upon 332 PEAMING the drawings before they are sent out. The proper angle of the east-iron shoes is also worked out, and a full-sized drawing of each casting is made in the drafting room. In theory, when such a truss is cambered, the upper chord becomes longer than the bot- tom. The panels will thus be out of square and the braces slightly longer in consequence. A rule for finding the increase of length has been I— I6' 0' —1 I i—— a' 0- — H A ^i^ 10'- 11' I ^ '/ /> ^ '■^/y^ '^^+•.8- / X '°^^s. ^ 1 ^s 10" Ml- ■ 1 j^-i r Pig. 18X. Simple Wood Truss to te Camljered Two Inches. worked out and is as foUows: To find increase in length of upper chord, put down: Depth of trussxCamberxS (all in feet or inches). Applying this rule to the problem at hand, we have: 7 ft.xl-6 ft.x8 -=g'Vft., or 2 J inches, 48 The figure 8 in the formula is a constant, and is used in all cases. The increase found by working this very simple calculation, is divided amongst the panels. If your drawings have not been figured for camber, you will require to make a full- FRAMING 333 sized drawing of one panel of the truss upon a board platform or convenient floor. The draw- ing should show the panel as much wider at the top as your calculations will direct, and the braces can then be cut to length and bevel on your drawing. Of course, the upper chord is not actually lengthened 2I/3 inches, all that is necessary being to cut your braces to fit the full-sized drawing of the distorted panel. In this case the distortion (out of square) is very small, as the truss is, shallow. It may be taken as one-half inch for each panel; and the braces may be made five-eighths or three-quarters of an inch longer than they would be if panel were square. This applies, of course, not to all cases, but only to the case of a simple wooden truss. It must be noted that in steel trusses, where the braces abut against machined surfaces, very exact calculations are necessary for finding the lengths of braces, and angles of bearing sur- faces. In large wooden trusses, great care is also taken in this respect, although it is easier to adjust the length and cuts of the braces in this material. The positions of bolts are obtained by spacing evenly, as shown, and should present no difficulty. Trussed Partitions. In a four-story build- ing, ground plan 42 by 72 feet, the first floor was to be one large room without posts. Two trusses on the second floor, each in a partition 334 FEAMING running across the building, were desired. THe ceiling on the second floor was ten feet. The diagrams, Fig. 182, show two trussed partitions, 42 feet by 10 feet, with the doors arranged as desired. The studding is omitted for the sake of clearness, but would be cut in between the Fig. 182. Trussed Partitions. ties and braces and spiked to them at proper dis- tances apart. If these trussed partitions were calculated to carry simply their own weight, the dimen- sions of the framing would be as follows: Bot- tom member, 10 inches by 5 inches ; inter-tie and top member, 8 inches by 5 inches; long struts, 4 inches by 5 inches; upright members, 4 inches by 5 inches; tension rods, 114-iiich iron; other bolts, % inch. Index PAGE Air Spaces 177 Arches Laying Out 218 Segmental 216 For Fireproof Work 222 Ashlar Line 13 B Balloon Framing 16 Barns Hay 252 Heavy Timber 241 Plank-Framed 254 Barn Floors 265-267 Barn Framing 239, 246, 301, 308, 313 Barn Ventilation 272 Barn Windows 272 Bay Windows 59 Casement Bays 197 Beams Braced Cantilever 301 Width for Given Load . . . ...'. 308, 314. Depth for Given Load 314 Supported at Both Ends. 293 Supported at One End. .. 298 Blinds 193 Blind Valley 106 Bonding 177, 211 Boxed Cornice 34 Box Sills 17 Box Stairs 139 Braced Framing 16 Bracing, Special 246 Brick Veneer Walls 174 Building Lines 3 Built-Up Sills 21 C PAGE Cellars Cement Floors 11 Drainage 14 Walls 12-13 Waterproofing 12, 15 Cement Plaster How to Mix and Apply.. 170 Finishitig and Tinting. . . . 173 Cement Plaster Houses 159 Window and Door Frames. 162 Metal and Wood Lath... 169 Closed-String Stairs 139 Circular Bays 113 Circular Porch 76 Coloring Mortars . 174 Concrete Block Houses 206 Concrete, Bonding Wood- work to 211 Concrete Foundations 6 Cornice Construction 34 Show Blocks 38 Cripple Jacks 100 Cupboards 85 Curved Eafters 116 Cutting Opening for Fur- nace Pipes 22 Depth of Beams 314 Diagonals 321 Door Frames 162 Doors .^ Door Framing 66 Exterior Doors 69 Sliding Parlor Doors 71 hay Mow Doors 267 Double Hay 268 Door Jambs, Setting ; 66 Dormer Windows 105 Double Hay Doors 268 Drainage, Cellar 14 Draw-Bore Pinning 242 Cantilever Beams 301 E Casement Windows 41, 56, 165, 183, 189 Eave Construction 123 Casement Bay Windows. ... 197 Excavation Line 3 335 336 INDEX FAGE PAGE Face Line 3 Factor of Safety 299 Factories, Stores, Office and Public Buildings 275 Finishing Cement Plaster. .. 173 Fireplaces 83 Fireproof Floors 225 Fireproofing 222 Flat Boofs, Trusses for 328 Floors Cement Cellar 11 Value of Sub-Floors 73 Fireproof Floors 225 Concrete Stable Floors... 262 Water-tight Barn Floors. 265 Foundations, Concrete 6 Foundation Walls 9 Framing, Definition and Di- visions 1, 2 Furring Strips, Lath and Plaster 182 G Gables 37 Gambrel Hoofs 260 Gauged Arches 219 H Hay Barns ,. . .. 252 Hay Mow Doors 267 Heavy Timber Barns 241 Heavy Timber Framing, De- tails for 246 Hip Roof 101 House Framing 16 Housed-String Stairs 135 I Industrial Buildings 275 J Joists and Studding 22 Joist Framing 208 K Kerfing a Riser 152 Lath 182 Metal and Wood 169 Lattice Truss 327 Lintels for Fireproof Work. 222 M Mill Construction, Standard. 275 Mortars, Coloring of 174 Moulding 155 O Octagon Bay Window 59 Octagon Scale 118 P Parlor Doors, Sliding 71 Partitions Double, Trussed 32 Braced 33 Trussed 333 Parts of Heavy Timber Barns 245 Pivoted Casement Windows. 200 Plank-Framed Barns 254 Plank-Framed Truss 325 Plaster 182 Substitute for 30 Cement 173 Porches Screened Porch 75 Circular Porch 76 Projecting Veranda 303 Public Buildings 275 Purlins ^ Strong Post Bracing 247 Q Queen Rafters 258 B Rafters 97 Curved 116 Reinforced Concrete Stairs. 227 Relieving Arch 216 Ribbon or Ledgerboard 26 Risers 139, 152 INDEX 337 PAGE Eoofing , Heavy Eoofing Tile 234 Slate 235 Eoof Construction 282 Eoof Pitches and Degrees. 91 Determining the Pitch... 95 To Find Cut for Eafter. . 97 To Find Length of Crip- ple Jacks 100 Framing Plan for Hip and Valley 101 How to Eoof a Circular Bay 113 Curved Eaftew 116 How to Use Octagon Scale 118 To Frame Degrees with Steel Square 120 To Prevent Eidge from Sagging 122 To Prevent Ice Formation on Eaves 123 Eoof Supports 258 S Sagging Eoofs 122 Saw- Tooth Eoof Construc- tion 282 Screens . . . '. 193 Screened Porch 75 Sheathing 26 Shingling Sides of a Build- ing 87 Short Cuts in Stair Work. . 153 Show Blocks 38 Sill Construction 17, 208 Sills, Box 17 Built-Up Sills 21 Single Sash Windows 40 Slate Eoofing 235 Sound-Proof Walls 29 Splice for Heavy Timber... 253 Squaring a Corner; 6, 8, and 10 rule 4 Stable Floors, Concrete 262 Stairs, Eeinforced Concrete. 227 Stair-Building Head Boom .' . . 129 How to Lay Out Stairs.. 130 Types of Stair Construc- tion 135 Laying Out Stair Strings. 137 Box Stairs 139 PAGE Closed-String Stairs 139 Open-String Stairs 141 Various Stair Arrange- ments 146 Winders 149 Kerfing a Eiser 152 Short Cuts in Stair Work. 153 Paneled Moulding for Stair Finish 155 Picture Moulding under Stairs 158 Height of Wainscoting. .. 159 Simplified 128 To Fit Circular Wall 151 Staking Out 3 Stores 275 Strength of Timbers 293, 308 Struts 321 Studding 22 Sub-Floors 73 Temporary Frames (Win- dows) 184 Ties 321 Tie Struts 821 Tile Eoofing 234 Tile Veneer for Frame Buildings 211 Timbers, Strength of 293 Tinting, Cement Plaster. . . 173 To Find Cuts for Eafters. . 97 Transom Window Frames. . 56 Treads 139, 152 Trusses 320 Simple Eoof 322 Light for Long Span.... 323 Plank-Framed 325 Light for 100-ft. Span... 326 Lattice 327 For Flat Eoof 328 To Strengthen a Truss ... 330 To Camber a Truss 331 Trussed Partitions 333 V Valley Eafters 101 Veneer for Frame Buildings. 211 Veneer and Masonry Houses. 174 Air Spaces and Bonding. 177 338 INDEX Ventilators t. 60 Ventilating a Barn 272 Verandas, Projecting 303 W Wainscoting 159 Walls 174 Cellar 12 Foundation 9 Segmental Arches in Brick Walls 216 Wall Framing 26 Sound-Proof WaUs 29 Wall Construction, Brick Veneer 174 Waterproofing Cellars 15 Water-tight Barn lioors... 265 Window Framing 39, 162 £n Masonry Walls 179 Windows Single Sash 40 Outward-Opening C a s e - ments 41 Inward - Opening C a 8 e - ments 49, 189 Triple Windows 57 Framing for Octagon Bay. 59 Window Ventilator 60 For Open- Air Boom 62 Eoof Dormers 105 Casement Window Con- struction 41, 49, 165, 183 Temporary Frames 184 Casement Screen and Blind 193 Casement Bay Window . . . 197 Sill Construction and Joist Framing 208 Barn Windows 272 Fine Casement Windows.. 183 Winders 149 Wood Lath 169 Wood Trim, How to Apply. 230 THE MOST PRACTICAL BOOKS EVER PUBLISHED .A Complete Up-to-Date Explanation of Modern Carpentry New Special Edition Tl^l^^-!?; Carpentry," is absolutely new, being completed only January 1, 1907. It is written in simple, plain, every-day lan- guage so that it can be easily under- stood. It is the Most Complete ™°^_* rate, most up to date and most prac- tical work upon this subject. It con- tains the best and quickest methods for laying roofs, rafters, stairs, floors, hopper bevels, mitering, coping, splayed work, circular work, and in fact for forming all kinds of joinery and car- penter work. Special Chapters are Devot* pdtoRuildin^ construction, which eu momiumg ^^^^^ ^^^^ carpenter from foundation to roof, with com- plete illustrations of each detail, such as foundation, windows, cornices, doors, roofs, porch work, etc. There are also special chapters devoted to good and faulty construction, and all kinds of framing, geometry, arches, centers, window and door heads, steel square in carpentry, house framing, roofs and roof construction, building construc- tion, covering of roofs, mouldings, joints, straps and other fastenings, stair building and questions and ans- wers on all subjects pertaining to the building industry. 400 Special Illttstrations There are over 400 illustrations, many of them cover an entire page, and they illustrate completely and instructively the text. They show the detail and actual construc- tion down to the minutest point. They enable the reader to understand the text easily and to follow the work in hand without difiiculty. Da|m A]i|f|a]« this work is the latest one published on this extensive subject (issued Jan- ^^^^ I ^^" , uary 1, 1907). Each volume measures 6x9 inches, and is bound in cloth with cover design attractively stamped. Contains more than 300 pages in each vqlume. Printed on an excellent quality of paper. Each volume contains 50 modern house plans. If not satisfac- tory in every way they can be returned after examination and your money will be refunded. "We are fortunate in being able to present a number of full page details, showing the .construction -of cornices, porches, stairs, etc., which were prepared for this work by G. W. Ashby. They show the construction of each part completely, and complete dimensions are given in all cases. Price, per volume, postage prepaid f 1.00 Address The Radford Architectural Co. Chicago — New York The Most Wonderful Books Ever Published A Complete Encyclopedia on the Practical Uies of the Steel Square Just P«lllli«h»ll '^^'° '^"^ valuable ruuiisiicu a„a practical work ;> ; 5TEEL. ' ■^^ QUAKE STEEL SQUARE -■■ ANI> ITS USES . is published for the first time. It is up to the minute, being issued January 1, 1907. This splendid edition is a brand new book ^rom cover to cover, written in simple, plain, every*day language so that It can be easily understood and fol- lowed. Information of value that has appeared in former works appears In this work, together with a vast amount of new, practical, every-day Information, such as is necessary for every progressive and successful carpenter to know. ThisUp-tO'Dateand Practical IXToplC °" ^^® application of the steel ^*"*** square, treats of the laying of the rafters, finding the lengths of Jacks, securing bevels, laying out hopper bev- els, treating of the steel square as a calculating machine, and showing how to measure solids, surfaces and distances. Special Chapters t^l,^%°^,f 1°^ Stair building to which the steel square can be applied. Other chapters treat of the adjustable fence, roof framing, hip roof framing, hoppers and hopper bevels, combination squares, key to the steel square, possibilities of the steel square, polygons and miters, pitches and roof framing, and miscellaneous rules and ex- amples. Practical and Instructive IlltlstiratiAnVi *° ^*^® number of more a«iuai.iqi.wn»i ^^^^ g^g ^^^ scattered through this work. These illustrations are not technical mathematical designs, nor geometrical problems, but are the thoroughly practical Illustrations of a thoroughly practical text, bringing to the attention of the carpenter such points of interest and information as he needs in his every-day business. While the text and descriptive matter are so accurate and easy of comprehension that they could be understood without even the assistance of the illus- trations, nevertheless the book has been thoroughly and profusely Illustrated with diagrams and drawings. RptnPinlieiT ^^^^ work is absolutely up to date (being issued January 1, 1907). Each vol- ** ^ MMP M* j*^ » ^^g measures 6x9 Inches, and contains over 300 pages, being the largest books on the steel square ever published. They are bound in cloth with attractive cover designs, handsomely stamped. Printed on the best quality of paper. Each volume contains 50 house plans. If not satisfactory in every way they can be returned after examination and your money will be refunded. The Department of Questions and Answers ^JT'fnJ^JLl^na'^ns^T. tlve parts of this work. In this part numerous questions, which have been sent the editors by practical carpenters all over the country, have been fully answered. They are questions which come up In your work every day, and the solutions of these practical problems here given will prove a valuable aid to you. Price, per volume, postage prepaid fl.OO The Radford Architectural Co., Chicago — New York Radford Ideal Homes 100 HOUSILS FOR. $1.00 One Cent per House Size of book 8 x 1 1 inches, bound in English cloth, cover embossed and printed in two colors. All houses illustrated with halftone cuts on the very finest enamel paper. The illustrations show the houses exactly as they will appear when built, and no liberties have been taken to make them appear otherwise. All the floor plans are shown, giving the size and location of all rooms, closets, porches, etc., so that ideas are given as to both the interior and exterior of these loo homes. The houses illustrated are medium in price, and such as 8o to 90 per cent of the people of the United States wish to build to-day. ADDRESS The Radford Architectural Company Chicago— New York CEMENT WORLD The Best, Largest and Most Practical Trade Magazine of Cement Construction More Fine Illustrations of Cement Plaster and Concrete Block Houses appear each month than in any other cement paper. Perspectives, elevations, plans and details of moderate priced residences are a reg- ular feature of every number. SPECIAL ARTICLES of Interest and Importance to Builders of Homes make each number of value The contents of the Cement World are exclusive and copyrighted and it is edited by men of practical experience. 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It is a good thing to even sit down and read, as the Icnowiedge so gained will be highly valuable in hundreds of other ways. flf«ASkf Ms%nv of ^^® barn plans ^rcai. xiaMy j^ ^i^jg ^^^^ j^^^^ been contributed by farmers them- selves from all over the United States and Canada, and are therefore the product of practical experience from farmers who have learned by actual necessities the barn that was most practical and best suited to their needs. They are not fancy barns and buildings, but prac- tical barns such as every farmer likes. They contain a great many little advantages that are not usually found in ordinary barns. Each and Every Plan ;"„ ^"^ is accompanied by a lengthy written description explaining and giving: the details of the drawings, and so worded and arranged, numbered and indexed, that it must be readily un- derstood by anyone who reads it. Tour money back if you are dissatis- fied. « M */j AAA QaaIC ot Practical Barn Plans shows Just what every farmer needs. VMT Wcwf «pj,VWV IIWUH jj contains drawings, pictures, plans, specifications and every- thing necessary and up to date for a barn, stock shed, wagon shed, corn crib, poultry house, hog house, horse barn, smoke houSe, ice house, silo, dairy barn or any other conceivable out-building on the farm. Not only one plan of each, but many of each are shown with all the latest inventions and contrivances for saving time, money and labor. Tk:. noolr IVae rAmnilail by Mr. Wm. A. Radford, President of "The Badford iniS liOOH was COmpiiea Architectural Co.," Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," and "Practical Carpentry," and the best authority in the country on all matters per- taining to the building industry. Price, postage prepaid The Radford Architectural Co. Chicago — ^New York .$1.00 Key to the Steel Square The above title is the name given to a new framing device, perfected by A. W. Woods, and is meeting with popular favor among carpenters and builders throijghout the country. Fio. 2. It is of celluloid, three inches in diameter, on either side of which is pivoted at the center a disk, one side giving the lengths and cuts for the common rafter, having a rise from 1 to 24 inches to the foot, also the cor- responding lengths, cuts and bevels for the octagon hip or valley, and for the common hip or valley for roofs of equal pitch, while on the other side is given all the cuts for rafters and braces having a rise from 1° to 90° Price, $1.50, Postage Paid. INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO. 1 6 Thomas Street, NEW YORK BLUB PRINTED WORKING PLANS A MP — : TYPEWRITTEN SPECIFICATIONS The House Flans Illustrated in The Radford American Homes, The Radford Ideal Homes, Modern Carpentry, Steel Square Volume 1, Steel Square Volume 2, and Common Sense Stair Building have for their foundation the best equipped architectural establish- ment ever maintained for the purpose of furnishing the carpenter, contractor and home builder 'with complete working blue printed plans and typewritten specifications at an average price of only $5 00 per set. All elevations and floor plans are drawn to a scale of one-quarter inch to the foot. The regular price charged by others is from $40.00 to $75.00 for the same work. Without this complete and exceptionally well-equipped establishment always at your service, these illustrations of plans would be useless to you. The vrorking plans of any house illustrated by us are held in readiness for you. You do not have to wait a day for them to be prepared. ONLY •^ %= ONLY For a Complete Set of Blue Prints and Specifications. OF WHAT THEY CONSIST We use the best quality Gallia blue-print paper, No. lOOOX. We furnish for a set of plans the front elevation, right elevation, left elevation, rear elevation, all floor plans, cellar and foundation plans, and all necessary details. Our specifications consist of from fourteen to twenty pages of typewritten matter, giving full directions for carrying out the work. Both the plans and specifications are bound in heavy water proof-material, and in an artistic and substantial manner. OUR GUARANTEE If upon receipt of our plans you do not find them as accurate, complete and well drawn as any you have ever used or seen, or if you do not consider them good value, we will refund your money. Cement Houses 52d How to Build Them CONTAINING SEVENTY-FIVE PERSPECTIVE VIEWS AND FLOOR PLANS OF CONCRETE BLOCK AND CEMENT PLASTER HOUSES Illustrated Details of Construction Standard Specifications (or Cement Standard Specifications for Concrete Blocks GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING Waterproofing, Coloring, Paving, Reinforcing Foundations, Walls, Steps, Sewer Pipe Tile, Chimneys, Porches, Floors, Use of Concrete on the Farm, Etc. PRICE 50 CENTS— POSTAGE PAID 2! Radford Architectural Co. Chicago — New York ■SI ''SiiMl\MpM^&,' :.?MiMilM^iMiiffM^iMt ■mmm^mMm