New York ^t^t^ College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library Cornell University Library HD 9049.W5W6T47 The rise and decline of the wheat growin 3 1924 013 862 820 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013862820 INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN JOHN GIFPIN THOMPSON Inetntctor in Political Economy Untversitv of lUinois A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHT UNIVERaiTY OP WISCONSIN 1907 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Entered as second-class matter June 10, 1898, at the post office at Madison, Wisconsin, under the Act of July 16, 1891 COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION Walter M. Smith. Chairman WiLLARD G. Bleyer. Secretarv Charles M. Gillett, Editor John R. Commons, Economics and Political Science Series William H. Lighty, Vniversitv Extension Series William S. Marshall. Scierue Series Daniel W. Mead. Ensineerine Series Julius E. Olson. General Series Edward T. Owen, Philology and Literature Series William L. Westermann. History Series BULLEi<} OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN iJ; NO- 202 Economics and Political Science Series, Vol. ti. No. 3, pp. 295-544 THE RISE AND DECLINE OF THE WHEAT GROWING INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN JOHN GIFFDSr THOMPSON Instructor in Political Economy Universttv of Illinois i. THESIS SUBMITTED FOB THE DEGREE OP DOCTOB OF PHILOSOPHY, UNITEBSITT OF WISCONSIN 1907 MADISON, WISCONSIN May, 1909 CONTENTS PART I— EARLY CONDITIONS CHAPTER I PAQB PBErACB 9 Intkoductoet 13 Wisconein unique in the rapidity of the rise and decline of the wheat industry — Comparison with Illinois — Comparison with Ohio— Object of this study. CHAPTER II Conditions in the Wheat Industry in Wisconsin Before the Advent of the Railroad 15 The wheat area in Wisconsin in 1849 — Markets — Transporta- tion — Distrust of monopolies by early Wisconsin farmer — Break-down of the home market — Effect of, upon attitude toward railroads — Lack of public control in reference to early Wisconsin railroads — Crop failure and decline in yield at 18i9 — Causes of — Early recognition of — Methods of Cultivation — Causes of overspecialization in wheat growing — Race characteristics and economic habit — Organization of the Agricultural Societies for state and counties — Forced tendency toward diversification — Use of improved farm machinery — Part played by, in spread of wheat industry in Wisconsin — Land values at 1849 — Oc- cupation of new lands — Summary of conditions at 1849. PART II.— THE WHEAT INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN AFTER 1850 CHAPTER I The Decade 1850-1860 39 Two other factors besides railroads in the spread of the wheat industry in Wisconsin, vie. : natural adaptability of the soil to wheat and the non-forested character of the southern [297] 4 CONTENTS and western portions of the state — Prosperity in 1854 — Causes of — Effect of, upon land values — Optimism — Speculation — Immigration — Construction of railroads — Rush for land — Activity spelled " wheat "— Relation of wheat cropping to land speculation — Reaction in favor of wheat — Large crop of 1856 — Increased acreage for 1857 — Falling price of wheat in 1857 — Depression — Continued dependence upon wheat crop — Renewed warnings against excessive specialization in wheat — Indifference to other crops — Great spread of wheat area during the decade — Decline in wheat in southeastern counties — Spread in other counties. CHAPTER II The Dbcadb 1860-1870 57 Large crop of 1860 — Causes of — Continued low price of wheat — Strictures on exclusive cropping to wheat — Com- plaints in reference to transportation — Chinch bugs — War prices — Decline in quality of Wisconsin wheat (1868) — High freight rates — The hop episode (1864-1870)— — Return to wheat — Dependence upon the railroads con- sequent to one crop system — Effect of Civil War upon wheat growing in Wisconsin — Scarcity of labor and rapid introduction of labor-saving machinery — ■ Movement of the wheat area during the decade, especially in the river counties — Sheep and wool growing industry — Dairying in Kenosha, Lafayette and Green counties — Tendency away from wheat in southern counties — Wheat holding its own in general. CHAPTER III The Decade 1870-1880 71 Depression in wheat industry — Strained relations between farmers and railroads — Diversification — Wheat growing suffers its first serious decline — Bumper crop of 1873 — Chinch bugs, 1874, '75 and '76— Turko-Russian war, 1877, and price of wheat — Movement of the wheat area — General decline in wheat growing — Stock, growing — Other crops — Tobacco — General farming — Significant but not strik- ing growth in dairying — "Other cattle" — Tendency toward general farming — Better methods of farming. [298] CONTENTS CHAPTER IV PAGE The Decade 1880-1890 82 Great 'decline in wheat growing — Movement of the wheat area — Excessive decline in St. Croix county — Increase in oats — Corn stationary — Increase in potatoes in central and western counties — Increase in rye and barley — Marked increase in the number of milch cows — Decline in swine and sheep — Tobacco — Check or decline in stock growing — Specialization in dairying. CHAPTER V The Period After 1890 91 Further decline in wheat growing and increase in other crops 1890-1900 — Movement of the wheat area — Increase in to- bacco in Crawford and Vernon counties — Live stock — Less rapid increase in dairying — Still further decline of wheat, 1900-1905 — Movement in respect to other crops and live stock — Increased importance of dairying in the wheat counties — No new development in reference to recent wheat growing. CHAPTER VI The FiouRiNG Industry in Wisconsin 103 Centers of flour manufacture before 1849 — In 18i9 — Factors determining localization of milling industry in 1819 — Flour- ing industry in 1869 —Large increase — Concentration in, from 1869 to 1879 — Rapid development of the industry in La Crosse— Decade 1880 to 1890 — Decline — Decade 1890 to 1900 — Increase in number of establishments — Flour- ing industry in Milwaukee, development of. CHAPTER VII Milwaukee as a Wheat Market 112 Development of Milwaukee as a wheat market and the develop- ment of wheat growing within the state — Chicago as a competing market — Competition of other Wisconsin mar- kets — Effect of movement of wheat area westward — Civil War and results — Supremacy of lake carriage — Decline of, works to advantage of Chicago — Decline of Milwaukee market — Discrimination by railroads in favor of Min- neapolis and against Milwaukee and Chicago— Recent un- importance of Milwaukee as a wheat market. [299] b CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII The Goveenmbnt Land Policy and Its Bblation to the Wheat Industry in Wisconsin 121 Cheap lands and the pioneer settlers — Attitude of East and West — Of Wisconsin — Cheap lands and wheat grow- ing in early New York — Characterized in general — Wheat area in 1790 — New York again — Movement of wheat area westward — Cost of growing in New York and in Wisconsin — Methods of cultivation in Wisconsin — Rise in value of land- in Wisconsin — Conditions in 1857 — About 1870 — Depression — Causes of — Further rise in land values — Relation of wheat growing and other farm pursuits to — The land-grant system and the spread of wheat growing — Cheap lands and excessive wheat growing. CHAPTER IX Rblations Between the Wheat Gboweb and the Common Car- bier 139 Early attitude toward railroads — Anticipations — Results — Farm mortgages — Effect of, upon railroad construction — Land grants — Competition among railroads — High rates and discrimination — Consolidation — Falling prices for farm products after the Civil War — High freights — Inade- quate faoilities for transportation — Renewed interest in water transportation, in manufactures and in a "home market' ' — Rise of Granger movement — Intimate relation of, im Wisconsin, to specialization in wheat growing — Decline in wheat growing, 1870-1880, and lessened dependence of farmers upon the railroads — Influence of the railroads in bringing about diversification — Early interdependence of railroads and farmers — Greatly diminished dependence of railroads upon the farmer — Beneficial to both sides. CHAPTER X Other Causes of the Decline in Wheat Gbowino in Wisconsin AND OF the Change to Other Farm Pursuits 159 Exhaustion of the soil and decline in yield overstated — Emphasis rather to be laid upon obtaining about the same yield at a higher cost — Insect pests — Greater profit in diversified farming, with the development of the state — Machinery — Tobacco crop in displacing wheat — Dairying in the dis- [300] CONTENTS 7 PAGE placement of wheat — Influence of the Dairymen's Associa- tion in the rise of the dairy industry — Lack of effective or- ganization among wheat growers — Other advantages of dairying — Influence of agricultural societies, and of other similar organizations, and of the Agricultural School of the State University in the transformation of the agriculture of the state. CHAPTER XI The Future of Wheat Growing in Wisconsin 172 Apparent revival of wheat growing in Ohio and other states — Conditions upon which wheat growing in the future, in Wisconsin, appears to depend — World movement of the wheat growing area — Present tendency of wheat growing area away from the United States — Probable slow response of Wisconsin to a future revival of wheat in the United States and resisons for — Equalization between competing areas and competing farm pursuits, especiallv as to land values and rates of transportation — Asserted revival of wheat growing in Ohio in connection with dairying — Com- parison with New York — Significance of, for Wisconsin — Wheat crop less useful than other farm crops as supplement- ary to dairying — Other reasons for growing wheat, and their validity in Wisconsin. CHAPTER XII Summary and Conci/Usions 181 BIBLIOGRAPHr 185 APPENDIX TABLES Table I. — Per capita production of wheat in Wisconsin, by counties 189 Table II. — Production of wheat per square mile of improved land m Wisconsin, by counties 191 Table III. — Index of specialization in wheat growing in Wisconsin, by counties 193 Table IV. — Yearly total acreage and yield of wheat in Wisconsin 195 [301] 8 CONTENTS PAGE Table V.— Average yield of wheat per acre in Wisconsin, by coun- ties, at census and other periods l" ' Table VI. — Yearly production of wheat in the United States, 1839 to 1904 ^^^ Table VII.— Yearly railway mileage in Wisconsin; yearly receipts and shipments of wheat; and yearly receipts, manufacture and shipments of flour at Milwaukee 199 Tables VIII-X. — Range of quotations for the price of wheat at Milwaukee, Chicago and New York 200 Tables XI-XVI. — Per capita production of barley, rye, oats, corn, potatoes and hay in Wisconsin, by counties 206 Tables XVII-XXI.— Per capita number of horses, milch or dairy cows, "other cattle," sheep and swine in Wisconsin, by coun- ties 212 Table XXII.— Production of tobacco in Wisconsin, by counties, 1869, 1879, 1889, 1899 and 1004 217 Table XXIII. — Cash value of farms, per acre of improved land, in Wisconsin, by counties 218 FIGURES Figures 1-6. — Graphic representation of the importance of wheat growing in Wisconsin, by counties, at the different Federal Census periods 19 Figure 7. — Chart representing the average yield of wheat in Wis- consin, 1862 to 1904 225 Figure 8.— Graphic representation of the price of wheat at Mil- waukee, Chicago and New York facing 226 Figure 9. — Map showing the development of railroads' in Wiscon- sin, by decades, 1850 to 1890 226 INDEX 228 [302] PREFACE It was the original intention to add another chapter, relating to the system of marketing wheat within the state, to this study. Lack of space, however, together with the fact that it is difficult to separate a consideration of the method of handling wheat from a consideration of the methods employed in the moving of other grains seemed to advise withholding this portion for separate publication. The author desires to express his appreciation for many help- ful suggestions from various sources, and for courteous answers to inquiries by letter. His thanks are due in an especial degree to Professor Henry C. Taylor of the Department of Political Economy at the University of Wisconsin, and to Professor Frederick J. Turner, of the Department of American History, at the same institution, for reading the manuscript and for scholarly and pertinent criticism of the same. The unfailing courtesy and eflSicient services of the members of the staff both of the library of the University of Wisconsin and of the library of the Wisconsin State Historical Society merit the warmest acknowledgment. Lastly, acknowledgment is due to the Car- negie Institution for assistance in the preparation of this study. With the hope of stimulating the reader to undertake the entire study for himself rather than with the object of attaining even approximate completeness, a concluding and summarizing chapter has been added, indicating in a general way the trend of the whole .and pointing out some of the main conclusions. The detailed character of much of the descriptive material relating to the strictly agricultural portion of the study and the repetition of general principles and conclusions already occurring therein, seemed to recommend less emphasis upon this part in the concluding chapter, with the result perhaps that un- due prominence has there been given to certain other features — certainly of prime, but not of paramount, importance. June 18, 1908. John G. Thompson. [308] PART I EARLY CONDITIONS THE RISE AND DECLINE OF THE WHEAT GROWING INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In the rapidity of the rise and decline of the wheat industry, and in the extent of that decline, Wisconsin is unique among the states of the United States that have been important in wheat culture. Illinois comes more nearly approximating Wisconsin in this respect than any other state. Illinois, however, main- tained, from 1859 to 1879 inclusive, first place in the number of bushels produced, dropping to third place in 1889 and to four- teenth place in 1899. Wisconsin reached third place in 1859, was exceeded by Illinois alone in 1860, and dropped to fifth place, ninth place, twelfth place and twenty-second place in 1869, 1879, 1889 and 1899 respectively. Illinois has, moreover, always exceeded Wisconsin in the production of wheat per square mile, producing over twice as much per square mile in 1899 as the latter state. Both states stood about on a par in 1899 in respect to per capita production, the figures being 4.35 bushels per capita for Wisconsin and 4.11 bushels per capita for Illinois. The very large population of Chicago, however, is a disturbing element and unduly depresses the per capita pro- duction of Illinois. From 1849 to 1879 Wisconsiu produced a greater number of bushels per capita than Illinois, — exceeding the latter state about 50 per cent, in 1859 and more than 100 per cent, in 1869. Production per capita is in general the index of the degree of specialization and denotes the ability of a producing [307] 14 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN area to export a surplus. Considering the fact that "Wisconsin is primarily an agricultural state, as compared with Illinois, the decline per capita in Wisconsin is much more marked than in Illinois.* In spite of the fact that Ohio was constantly held up before the wheat growers of Wisconsin as an awful example of over- specialization in the cultivation of that crop, conditions have in reality been relatively stable in the former state. In number of bushels produced, Ohio stood second in 1849, fourth in 1859, third in 1869 and 1879, fifth in 1889, and rose to third place again in 1899. In production of wheat per square mile, Ohio stood second from 1849 to 1889 inclusive with the exception of 1859, dropping to fifth place in that year. In 1899 Ohio held first place in this respect. On the other hand Ohio has never stood higher than ninth place in per capita production of wheat, which rank was attained in 1849. She held fourteenth place in this respect in 1859, 1879 and 1889, eleventh place in 1869 and thirteenth place in 1899.^ The present study is an attempt to describe the development of the wheat industry in Wisconsin, and to arrive at a conclusion as to the cause or causes of its meteoric rise and decline. ' or total persons engaged in gainful occupations, according to the Twelfth Census, (2, cxxxt) 36.8 per cent, were engaged in agricultural pursuits in Wis- consin, and only 25.7 per cent, were so engaged in lUlhois. 'Relations of Population and Food Products in the United States in Bulletin of U. 8. Dep. of Agrie., Division of Statistics, No. 24. Washington, 1903. pp. 27-32. [308] CHAPTEE II CONDITIONS IN THE WHEAT INDUSTRY IN WISCON- SIN BEFORE THE ADVENT OF THE RAILROAD.^ From the Seventh Census' of the United States we have com- paratively reliable statistics as to the wheat industry in Wiscon- sin just preceding- the advent of the railroad. We have, further, overwhelming testimony as to conditions in respect to wheat cul- ture in Wisconsin at that time. In the Transactions of the Wis- consin State Agricultural Society for the year 1851^ we have a report on AgHcultural Condition and Capacity that covers nearly all of the more important wheat producing counties of that state. This report is supplemented by numerous references in the columns of the Wisconsin and Iowa Farmer and North- western Cultivator, in the Prairie Farmer, and in the various lo- cal newspapers, local histories, pamphlets, etc. According to the census of 1840, 212,116 bushels of wheat were produced in Wisconsin in 1839,* with an acreage of 15,151t acres. The crop of 1849 according to the Seventh Census amounted to 4,286,131 bushels, and the acreage had increased to 306,152 acres.^ Practically the whole amount in 1849 was produced south of Green Bay and east of the Wisconsin River. Rock and Walworth counties together produced 33 1-3 per cent, of the total. The four counties of Rock, Walworth, Dane and Dodge produced approximately 50 per cent, of the whole crop. > For characterization of the Industry of Wisconsin in 1840-1844, see DeTxno's Bev., 6: 303. » P. 122 ff. 'According to the report of the Secretary of State of Wisconsin there were 306,152 acres sown to wheat In 1849. This amovuits to about 30 per cent, of the whole area of Improred land In Wlsaionsln at that time, according to the U. S. Census. These figures are much more significant when we recall that improved land includes "cleared land used for grazing, grass or tillage, or which is now fallow." Seventh Census of V. 8., XXII ft. * See appendix. Table VI, foot-note reference.t t See appendix. Table IV, foot-note reference.t [309] 16 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Grouped according to regions we would have first, and by far the most important, the region in the southeastern part of the state, which found a market either at home in the local mills or in supplying the stream of newly arrived immigrants or else at the eastern lake ports of Milwaukee, Racine, Southport (Ken- osha) and Port Washington; second, the Green Bay region, which found a market either at home or a little to the north, supplying the demands of the lumbering business, of the fisher- ies, and of the mines on the shore of Lake Superior, a small surplus being marketed east by the lake ; third, the southwestern region, with a market either in the lead mining districts, or up the river at the military posts, Indian reservations and fur- trading stations, or else down the river at St. Louis; and last, the two small areas of production around Chippewa Falls and Hudson. How largely the surplus wheat moved to the lake ports is shown by the fact that Milwaukee, Racine and South- port (Kenosha) exported 2,678,045 bushels of wheat and 183,- 557 barrels of flour, equivalent to a total of 3,504,000 bushels of wheat, during the year 1849.* Transportation to the lake ports was exclusively by team and wagon. There were at this time a few plank roads from the more eastern counties to the lake, but these were only a little less unsatisfactory than the other roads, and the latter were likely to be impassable in the spring season. Reports of the Milwaukee market make frequent refer- ence to this fact. It was said that it cost "18 pence" to send a bushel of wheat from Janesville to Milwaukee by plank road, whereas it was expected to cost less than 5 cents per bushel to send it to Chicago by rail.' The farmers of Marquette county were compelled to haul their grain to either Milwaukee or Sheboygan, 80 or 100 miles. It took a week to make the trip to Milwaukee and back. "With * Prairie Farmer, lo s 70. '^Milwaukee Sentinel, Jan. 30, 1849. How far this expectation came from being realized Is proved by a complaint In the Report on the Improvement of the Rock River (1867) that the usual charge on a bushel of wheat from Janes- ville to New York was 63 cents and to Chicago or Milwaukee by railroad, 13 cents. See below p. 35, note 82 (b), where the shilling is used as equivalent to twelve and one-half cents. The "pence" would thus be valued at a little more than one cent. [310] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 17 desired improvements on the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, a mar- ket was anticipated either at New York or New Orleans." Pre- vious to 1851 the best market for the surplus wheat of Columbia County had been Milwaukee, but on account of the low price at that time the wheat would not bear transportation to that point and was disposed of at better advantage at the ' ' Pinery. ' '''• In 1851 there were eight flouring mills in Dane County.* The surplus wheat went east to the lake ports, or south to Janes- ville which was the ' ' center of a great miUing interest. ' '° Vater- to-OTi was also the center of a considerable flour industry. It was estimated by the Watertown Chronicle that 125,500 bushels of wheat had been purchased and 26,000 barrels of flour manu- factured in that town in the year preceding August, 1850." Manitowoc county farmers did not produce sufficient wheat to supply home demands and hence received Milwaukee and Chi- cago prices with freight, pierage, dockage, drayage and commis- sion added.^^ Walworth coimty surplus wheat was hauled to Milwaukee, Racine and Kenosha, 30 to 40 miles distant. The trip out occupied from one to one and a half days. The teams brought pine lumber and merchandise of various kinds in re- turn. ^^ There has always been a strong sentiment in Wisconsin in favor of a home market. This has often been reflected in a favorable attitude toward a protective tariff and the develop- ment of home manufactures within the state. It found expres- sion again, in a favorable attitude toward immigration into the state, — that producers and consumers might be brought closer together. Again, and especially in periods of stringency, it took the form of hostility toward the bringing in of eastern mer- chandise." Complaint was made that double transportation charges were thus undergone. The home market argument ap- ' Frairie Farmer, »s 369. ' Trcma. of State Agric. Boo., 1851, p. 134. *IMd., p. 151. " Prairie farmer, 11 : 480. " MiVvDWUhee Sentinel and Oassette, Aug. 3, 1850. See also ibid., Mch. 1, 1850. " Trans, of State Agric. Boo., 1851, p. 180 IE. "IWd., p. 2!25 fl. " See Wis. Farmer, 14: 61 ; ibid., 18: 256. [311] 18 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP "WISCONSIN pealed to the wheat grower the more forcibly because when he found a strong demand for his grain at home he received the price at some other poiat plus the cost of transportation and dis- tribution. Wben the time came that the supply exceeded the demand, he, of course, received the outside price less the cost of transportation. Continued immigration put off the evil day when this latter contingency would arise. The newly arrived immigrants had to be fed at first, even though they settled down and went to raising wheat themselves and thus became, later, competitors of the older settlers. In their turn, they depended upon further immigration for a market, or upon the growth cf manufactures and the development of a wage-earning class. It is evident that the market found in immigration was self-de- structive. This was the more true in a region that was peculiarly favorable to agriculture and where a majority of the immigrants, attracted by the opportunity of becoming land owners on easy terms, settled down as cultivators of the soil.^* Not only did the newly arrived immigrant become a farmer, but he became a wheat farmer. Natural conditions of climate and soil favored, and, as we shall see, there were other conditions which lent their mflu- ence in the same direction. Furthermore, the development of manufactures requires considerable labor and capital, two factors that were scarce in frontier Wisconsin, .just as they are scarce in every frontier region.^^ Together with a keen appreciation of the advantages of a "Out of a total male population of 78,139 In professions, occupations and trades in Wisconsin in 1849, there were, according to the Seventh Census, 40,- 865 farmers, 11,206 laborers, 3,639 carpenters, 3,001 miners, etc. " Milwaukee manufactures amounted In value to $1,714,200 In 1849. These Included as the most Important, In the order named, foundries ; cabinet ware ; leather ; carriages and wa'gons ; tin, sheet Iron and copper ware : clothing ; hoots and shoes ; wooden ware and wood turning ; malt liquors. There were one steam and five water flouring mills, with a total capacity of 80 to 100 barrels per day. — American B. R. Journal, 1850, p. 344. Racine was already becoming important in the manufacture of farm imple- ments and machinery. Henry P. Cox and Company manufactured "H. Herdan's Partent Threshing Machine, Cleaner and Stacker." In 1849 Case erected his first shop in Racine and during that year he built nearly one hundred of his threshing machines. (Wis. Parmer and NortJiwestem Cultivator, Feb. 1850; History of Kenosha and Racine Counties, Chicago, Western Historical Company, 1879, p. 459.) The value of home manufactures in Wisconsin Is given by the census of 1850 as ?43,624. [312] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 19 home market and of the losses involved in double transportation, the early wheat grower in Wisconsin combined an instinctive dread and distrust of monopolies, a common enough feeling on the democratic frontier. The interests of the commercial class lie in just the opposite direction. Double transportation, not necessarily in an objec- tionable sense, is bread and butter for that class. It is not sur- prising then that the initiative for an outlet for the surplus produce of the state should have come from that class. Not until the home market broke down did the farmers of Wisconsin as a class come to the support of the movement for railroads. Even then there was a preference for plank roads,^* and when finally they rallied to the support of railroads, it was not that the sentiment of that class agaiast monopoly had disappeared but that it was taken advantage of by shrewd men who pointed out to them that they themselves should subscribe to the stock of the corporations and thus secure control of the roads.^' The farming class thus made the mistake of trying to be interested in both farming and transportation, instead of seeing to it that there was effective control by the state. Notwithstanding the feeling against monopoly, there was no adequate appreciation of the. real nature of railroad transportation. The relations be- tween the wheat grower in Wisconsin and the common carrier, we shall take up in a later chapter. We need only to note here the early distrust of the latter by the farmer, the fact that he felt little interest in the railroads until the failure of the home market forced him to look for a market outside of the state, the further fact that to obtain the railroads he rashly loaned his credit, secured by land already heavily hypothecated, and lastly the fact of his complete and not unnatural ignorance of the prin- ciples involved in the system of transportation by rail.^* " See pamphlet, Plank Roads: Report on their UtiUty and Economy, by a Committee, made to a large Plank Koad meeting In Racine, Jan. 14, 1848, Ra- cine, 1848. " See Meyer, B. H., Hietory of Early Railroad Legislation 1» Wisconsin, Wis. Hist, col., 14: 222 ff. Also Transactions of the Wtseonsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, liSs 354 IT. " See Meyer, History of Early Railroad Legislation in Wisconsin in Wig. Hist. Col., 14:' 206 ff. See also Hlbbard, B. H., History of Agriculture in Dane [313] 20 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Another difficulty, however, beginning about 1847, beset the v^heat farmer in "Wisconsin. Crop failure and decline in yield added to the difftculties of low price aad the breakdown of the home market. It was possible for crop failure and overpro- duction to occur at the same time on account of the ever increa^ ing area cultivated to wheat. Numerous causes were assigned for this decline in yield and frequent crop failure. Among the most common of these were unfavorable seasons for both seeding and harvest, deterioration in seed, insect pests and successive cropping year after year to wheat without rotation. In respect to unfavorable seasons, it seems that to a certain extent this was true. It was noted, how- ever, that there was little difficulty with crop failure on new land. There was doubtless some truth also in the complaint about the deterioration of seed. The possibilities in plant breeding at the present time prove it more than likely that the general sys- tem of culture followed by these early wheat farmers, which was by all testimony extraordinarily bad, would also be deficient on the side of seed selection. Insect pests are now considered to be destructive only where continued cropping is practiced and, therefore, need not be con- sidered apart from that connection. The one great cause assigned almost universally for the series of crop failures was that of so-called soil exhaustion due to con- tinued and successive cropping to wheat. The present theory as to soil exhaustion strengthens our inclination to believe in the Oo-unty, Wisconein, Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 101, p. 134 ff. While making a study of the agriculture of Dane County, which he considers typical, in most respects, of the state, Mr. Hlbbard discusses In an apparentl.v satisfactory manner the general conditions throughout the state in reference to transportation a;bout 1850. I am not disposed to entirely agree with Mr. Hibbard In his disparagement of the home marlcet sentiment among the farm- ers. No doubt the possibilities of a home market were over-estimated by that class, but their later experience with railroads and the fact that after all they were forced into dlvteslfled farming wherein they depended more upon a home marltet and were less dependent upon the railroads seem to justify both their original preference and their suspicious attitude toward the latter. Mr. Hlb- bard himself baa a Uttie later vividly pictured the disappointment of the farm- ers In their hope that the railroads would minister to their interests. (See Wisconsin Palladium, June 26, 1852). 13141 THOMPSON — WHEAT GKOWING IN WISCONSIN 21 cqrrectness of this opinion.^" That such were ordinarily the re- sults was of course familiar to most western people, from their knowledge of the soils in the older parts of the country. As early as 1845 a writer in the Milwcmkee Courier sounded a note of warning. ^° "Wheat has thus far been the staple crop of Wis- consin and will probably continue to be so for some years to come. But we farmers will do well to remember before it is too late that we have hitherto been depending upon the natural fer- tility of the soil for the abundance of our yield rather than upon thorough tillage, rotation of crops, manuring, etc." Attention was called to the fact of declining yield in Ohio and Michigan, and an appeal was made to the farmers of "Walworth, Rock, Jefferson and other counties" for better methods of cultivation and an abandonment of continuous wheat cropping. During the years 1849, '50 and '51, countless references can be cited testifying to the continued failure of the wheat crop and usually ascribing the failure to successive seeding to that crop: "We are confident that very many of our farmers would find it much to their advantage to turn their attention to dairying and let alone the growing of so much wheat. Wheat growing is now pursued greatly to the neglect of other branches of farm business. "^^ "The wheat crop, our great staple, in many por- tions of Illinois and Wisconsin has proved essentially a failure " Many no longer believe in tlie theory that the chief difflculty lies in the removal from the soil of the elements necessary for the growth of the partic- ular plant. Soil analysis of so-called exhausted soils, reveals the .presence of the required elements in quantities but little diminished. (See King, Physics of Agriculture, 80 fC. Also an article in the Popular Science Monthly, Novem- ber 1905, by J. B. Dandeno of the Michigan Agriculture College, on Soil Fer- tility.) The tendency today Is to lay less stress upon the chemical constitu- ents of the soil and more upon its physical condition. That is, plant growth depends as much upon the rapidity with which the chemical elements which enter into combination for the nutriment of the plant are set free, i. e., upon availability, as upon the absolute presence of those elements in the soil. Now the universal testimony Is that continued cropping to one crop brings about such a condition of the soil that under ordinary conditions a decline in yield results. Proper rotation of crops, on the other hand, Induces such a condition of the soil as renders the various elements most easily and rapidly available. (See Trains, of State Agrie. Soc, 1851, p. 191. See, however, HopUns, Cyril, G.. Phosphorus and Humus in Relation to IlUnois Soils, Circular No. 116, Un- iversity of Illinois, Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Feb., 1908.) ™ Mineral Point Democrat, May 2, 1845. ■" Wis. Farmer and NortTvwestern Cultivator, 1: 144. [315] 22 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN for three years in succession. . . . Wheat growing has proved utterly untrustworthy. . . . It is more unprofitable than either of the three great divisions of northwestern agricul- ture, — pork raising, stock growing and dairying. . . . For several years wheat in every stage has been doomed to double risk, labor and expense, while the market has generally been at a low point in consequence of the almost illimitable amount pro- duced and the inferior quality of a large share, and yet here it is all wheat, wheat, wheat, etc. "^^ "While we are reaping an average of 15 bushels of wheat per acre, we can with proper management produce twice or even three times that amount. When the farmers get over the grain mania and turn their attention to the growing of stock, so as to escape the influence of the fluctuations of the seasons and markets, no longer will be heard the cry of hard times, etc."^* "Walworth County Wheat Crop. — ^Winter wheat has been most gloriously uncertain for a long time. . . . Lately spring wheat has been also very uncertain. For several seasons in suc- cession the wheat crop has fallen miserably short either in qual- ity or quantity, causing great loss and embarrassment to our farmers. ' '^* In the repert on the "Agricultural Condition and Capacity" of the various counties of Wisconsin referred to above, testimony is well-nigh unanimous as to the recent failure of the wheat crop. In Iowa county winter wheat had been gradually failing for five or six years. The average yield in 1851 was 15 bushels for winter wheat and 12 bushels for spring wheat.^^ In Columbia county the crop had been short for two or three years. ^^ Dane county had experienced an almost entire failure for four years. ^^ Sim- ilar testimony came from Dodge county.^^ Fond du Lac county '^ Wisconsin and Iowa Farmer and tlorthwestern Cultivator, 2: 216. See ibia., 263. ■"Ibid., 1: 210. !» Wis. Farmer and Northwestern Culti.vator, 1 : 248. See also ibid., 3 s 2 ; Of. a'so Prairie Farmer, 9: 271; Wis. Farmer, 3: 145. 25 Trans, of State Agrlc. Sac, 1861, p. 106. ■" lUd., 133. ■'■•Ibid., 153. ™Ibid., 163. U. S. Pat. Office Rep., AgrUsultv/re, for 1850, p. 8. [316] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 23 reported partial failure of the wheat crop for several years.^* Eeports from Jefferson, Kenosha, Racine, Rock, and Walworth counties vary only in the degree of failure indicated.'" Another fact to be noted in this connection and which added to the seriousness of the situation was that crop failure occurred in respect to winter wheat in particular and at that time winter wheat was worth from 10 to 15 cents, and sometimes from 18 to 20 cents more in the market than spring wheat. With the old milLng processes, the hard, brittle bran of the spring wheat was broken into fine particles and could not be satisfactorily separated from the flour. When winter wheat passed safely through the winter it usually yielded well, but by 1850 it had be- come an extremely uncertain crop in the Northwest generally.'^ Winter wheat was, however, successful in Winnebago county, an average of from 20 to 40 hushels per acre being .secured. This was a comparatively newly settled region and the evil effects of continued cropping to wheat were not yet apparent. What were the causes of this persistent tendency to grow wheat exclusively? To this question we have many contempora- neous answers, and there is a very general agreement in respect to the causes assigned. These were, in general, the scarcity of labor and capital on the one hand, and the great plenty and cheapness of fertile land on the other, together with the fact that wheat has always been a great cash erop.^^ Here again it seems clear that we can endorse contemporane- ous opinion. Of course there were other contributing causes and it is also possible to make a more refined analysis of the causes » Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1851, p. 106. ™ IbiO,., pp. 170, 177, 187, 210, 225, and 230. In reference to the failure of the wheat crop in the Northwest generally, see Prairie Farmer, 9: 271 ; 10; 278, 73. 137, 349; 11: 429-430. 1 But little winter wheat had been sown in the Northwest (crop of 1849-50) on account of continued losses. Pradrie Farmer, 10: 18, 233, 259. 266, 278-9; 11: 56. ''' For a most excellent discu^iRion, Considerations on the causes and effects of the diminution of American Crops, by Gustavus De Neveu of Fond du Lac, wis., see D. S'. Pat. Office Rep., Agriculture, for 18S8, pp. 213-220. The cause is asserted to be sparseness of population. "As long as there shall remain vast tracts of unoccupied virgin soil, of exceeding fertility, to be had for a low price, so long must agriculture be carried on in a loose and careless manner, particularly in the neighborhood of those lands." [317] 24 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN generally assigned as the main causes. At first sight and in consideration of the more evident specialization in wheat after the introduction of railroads, the problem might seem to be one of transportation primarily. This, however, is plainly incor- rect; for we find this specialization existing with all the con- comitants of declining yield, crop failure, and consequent agri- cultural depression before there was a mile of railroad in Wis- consin. As to other methods of transportation, we have seen that early conditions in transportation were not such as to en- courage the production of wheat, notwithstanding the fact that access to Lake Michigan gave an outlet to the East. It can be granted, however, that increased facilities for transportation gave an added impetus to a tendency that had its origin in the other conditions mentioned. It may be argued that overspecialization in the culture of wheat was due to the fact that natural conditions are peculiarly adapted for growing that grain. ^^ But this can hardly be maintained in the face of the fact that other branches of agriculture have been shown to be just as well adapted to natural conditions in Wis- consin as wheat, perhaps even more so.^*; Natural adaptation was, of course, a contributing cause. The tendency to produce wheat exclusively was due primarily to the conditions men- tioned above, and these conditions have always been present to a greater or less extent on the frontier. That these condi- tions should have borne fruit to an unusual degree was due to the fact that circumstances were peculiarly favorable. Most of the settlers who took up land in Wisconsin were persons of small means^° and the opportunity of becoming the possessor of large tracts of fertile land on easy terms, so that one crop would almost pay for the land itself in addition to the expenses involved in the cultivation of the crop, invited an undue extension of credit, to the end that more and more land might be secured. This in its turn put a premium on extensive cultivation and for this '' See Soil Map of Wis., TweiUv-aecond Arm. Rep, of AgHo. Exper. Station of V. of WU., 1905, pp. 262-263. » Dairying and the culture of oats, barley, rye, tobacco ana hops might be mentioned In this connection. 35 Trrnis. of State Agrie. Soc, 1851, p. 133. [318] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 25 sort of culture wheat is peculiarly adapted on the frontier. It required but relatively little labor and capital and with the most careless methods of cultivation yielded large returns at first.*" Further, no commodity that the early farmer in Wisconsin could raise had such a ready sale. It was as "good as money" — actually passed as money in many cases.^' A glance into the files of the newspapers of the period will show how largely wheat passed for a medium of exchange. Not only was it the best cash crop but it could be traded for such articles of merchandise as the farmer needed. The wheat was often stored in private ware- houses and wheat "receipts," "tickets," or "certificates," as they were variously termed, were issued, and passed from hand to hand like money. The phrase "as good as wheat" was a cur- rent expression at this time.*^ In Racine, wheat in the ware- houses served "as a basis of frequent and large business opera- tions" during the months when the lake navigation was closed.^' A writer in the Prairie Farmer ■" says "the wheat crop is the great crop of the Northwest for exchange purposes. It pays debts, buys groceries, clothing, lands, and answers more emphatically the purposes of trade than any other crop. ' ' Again, "Well, we have a wheat crop once more. We can now pay our debts, build us houses, bams, fences, etc."*^ Instances might be multiplied many fold to show to what extent wheat was depended upon as a cash crop for the means to meet interest payments or debts, or to trade for necessities. That land was secured on liberal terms should not deceive us. These lib- eral terms were fully discounted, and, at any rate, the term "liberal" must be interpreted in the light of the financial eir- " See Northwestern Miller, Nov. 8, 1878, for similar case In Minnesota. See also Pat. Office Eep. Agriculture, for 1850, p. 8. " See Governor's Message and Accompanying Documents, 1857, 2: 429. " "Sucli has been the system of barter (In Fond du Lac county) that it would be difficult to say what has been the price." Trams, of State Agrio. Soc, 1851, p. 167. See also SoutJi/port American for June 29, 1843 ; February 7, 1849 ; Mch. 28, 1849. See Prairie Farmer, lOs 165. ^1 Sen. Miscel. Doc, No. 60 (p. 14), 31st Cong., 1st Sess., (Communication from Phllo White, in behalf of the citizens of Racine, Wis., showing the neces- sity of continuing the Improvement of the harbor at that place, Feb. 27, 1850). «> Prairie Farmer, lO: 52. See also TbiOi,., 258 and 278. « Ibid., 266. See Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1851, pp. 133, 161-162. [319] 26 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN cumstances of the purchasers. Interest rates were as high as land was low and the cheapness of the latter merely enticed the settlers to go more deeply into debt in order to extend their pur- chases.*^ The bad conditions in reference to insolvency and indebtedness about 1850 led to the appointment of a judiciary committee by the assembly to investigate and bring in a re- port, with a view to revising the usury laws.*^ Both majority and minority reports agree as to the general distress, though differing as to remedies proposed. Particular mention is made of t}ie farming class. They are said to have borrowed money for improvements, relying upon their crops in order to meet their obligations. When harvest time came their crops failed and as this had been a universal occurrence for two years, the burden kept growing heavier, without any means of relief being found. A committee appointed the same year on "Land Limitation" found** that for at least three years the farmers of Wisconsin had suffered either from short crops or from injuries to grain in harvest or from the difficulty of getting the grain to market because of bad roads. It was suggested that the difficulty was partly the result of land monopoly. "Farmers tilled such large fields that they could not attend to them properly." A mild sort of limitation on the amount of land that could be held by one person was favored.*' The general situation is well set forth by one who contributed frequently to the discussion of farm topics. After noting the "mania among the Northwest upon the culture of wheat" in consequence of which the "health, comfort, happiness and the general interests of the commimity are but secondary considera- tions to the waving field of grain, which in their estimation is « "Another cause of aepresston Is the prevailtog indebtedness. The early s'ettlers had limited means, and good crops and high prices tempted them into Indehtedness. Then pay day and short crops came at the same time and the results were ruinous. Homesteads were involved at rates of interest varying from fifteen to fifty per cent. California seems the only resource and to that glided region many a Walworth county farmer is preparing to flee as to a city of refuge." Trans, of State Agric. Boc, 1851, p. 230. " AppenOiw to Assembly Journal, 1851, pp. 1047-1101. "IMd., 1105-1109. « See Gregory, The Lcmd lAmttaMon Movement in ParJeman Olub Papers, 2t No. 14. [320] THOMPSON WHEAT GBOWING IN WISCONSIN 27 equal to the golden harvest of California," the writer asserted that this specialization was oommon in all new countries and was due to poverty. "The early settlers must resort to the means which promise the most sure and speedy return for their labor; and the cultivation of wheat promises them under ordinary cir- cumstances the highest rewards for their labor, the best in- vestment for their capital. That article always commands cash at some price and necessarily excludes many other productions from the market. This concentration of labor and capital in the production of wheat leads to overproduction and defeats the ob- ject in view, while the community is injured by the withdrawal of labor and capital from other branches of _ agriculture. " An appeal was made to farmers to follow a more diversified sys- tem." W. W. Daniells,* Professor of Chemistry and Agriculture at the University of Wisconsin, summed the matter up as follows: ' ' People are everywhere saving of the costly factor and extrav- agant of the cheap factor; hence the early agriculture in "Wis- consin was mere land skinning. Better tillage, accompanied with the use of manures and other fertilizers, would not, upon the vir- gin soil, have added sufficiently to the yield to pay the cost of applying them. Hence to the first farmers of the state, poor farming was the only profitable farming and consequently the only good farming, an agriculturo-economical paradox from which there is no escape." Still, Professor Daniells maintains that such a system was injurious to the state, and he might have added, ruinous to the farmers themselves in the long run.*^ In a study of the Economic and Social Development of Kenosha County, Robert Hugh Downes finds** that the towns inhabited by foreigners held to the cultivation of wheat, oats and Indian com, while those inhabited by natives went into the dairy busi- ness. He concludes that the decline in the population and the smallness of cash value and total valuation per capita that was *> Wisconsin wnd Iowa Parmer and Narthwestern Cultivator, 2: 263, by Solo- mon Eomlara. " History of Bacine and Kenosha Counties, Wis., Chicago : Western Historical Co., 1879, p. 153. " Trans, of Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 18; 545 fit. •Now Emeritng Professor of Chemistry. [321] 28 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN found at a later period among the former class when compared with the latter was due not so much to the soil as to the nativity of the people and that the Germans, English and Irish evidently lacked the ability to adapt themselves to the economic changes and to agricultural improvements; and that, on the other hand, the native-born took advantage of such changes and improve- ments ajid thus bettered their condition. It is not clear, however, that this attempt to make persistence in the culture of wheat a question of race characteristics can be justified. In the first place the Germans and EngHsh pursued better methods of cultivation at home than those followed by farmers in the eastern part of the United States, whence came the native settlers. Again, there is no contemporaneous testi- mony that foreign "settlers were in general greater sinners than the natives in the constant cropping to wheat alone or that their methods were inferior. On the contrary, direct testimony is borne to the industry and careful tillage of both English*' and German^" settlers. Much is said, however, in disparagement of the "French system" of cultivation. The foreign settlers had even smaller resources than the natives^^ and were, thus, on ac- count of financial reasons less able to adapt themselves to new conditions or to change their methods. ^^ Accordingly, financial difSculties would appear to still remain the tiltimate cause of the one-crop system. On the other hand, the native element was habituated to the growing of wheat. The wheat crop declined 50 per cent, in New England, and 25 per cent, in New York during the decade 1840- 1850,^^ and immigrants from these two sections, and especially from New York, which had been shortly before the center of the » Hlbbard, Hist, of Agrio. in Dane Co., 127. See also Pat. Office Rep : Agricnltwe for 1852, p. 331. ™ Trans, of State Agria. Soc., 1851, p. 234. Also Gregory, Industrial Re- sources of Wis., 1853, p. 62. " Hibbard, 90. See senior theses of the University of Wisconsin referred to just below. "2 See Bulletin No. 60, U. of W. Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 17-18, The Cheese Industry: Its Development and PossiWUties in Wisconsin, which appears to support the position taken here, so far as the cheese Industry is concerned. »» Wis. Farmer, 10: 337. [322] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 29 wheat growing area, constituted a very large proportion of the early settlers of Wisconsin." It is not imreasonable to suppose that there was a close connection between the arrival of these New England and New York settlers and the subsequent special- ization in wheat growLag. This presumption is strengthened by the further fact that the later movement of the wheat area across Wisconsin was accompanied by a similar movement of the New England and New York element. That element declined pro- portionately and to such an extent as to indicate large migration in those counties where wheat growing declined, while the for- eign element, especially the Germans, increased largely."' Further, it is found that the New York and New England set- tlers predominated in the prairie regions, which were best adapted to wheat growing, while the foreign stock was most numerous in the wooded districts.^" This tendency toward wheat growing due to economic habit was, however, strongly reenforeed by economic conditions on the frontier. In fact, the latter decidedly prevailed where the two ran counter. This fact is illustrated by the slow progress made in the attempts by the Ohio settlers to introduce the tobacco growing and the wool growing industries."' The Swiss element, too, yielded to the influence of early economic conditions, until the acquired habit of wheat growing gave away, in turn, before changed economic conditions which induced a reversion to dairying."' In like man- ner, the Scandinavian element in Dane county acquired the habit of wheat growing to such an extent that upon the failure of the crop in that county about 1870, many sold off their farms and " MSS. Senior Theses, UniTersity of Wisconsin : Blaclsburn, A. W.. Some Social and Economic Factors in the Development of Racine County, (1901) ; Sherrill, Jennie Bentley, History of the Eastern Half of ColunMa County, (1902) ; Harrigan, Frank Elwood, The Economic and Social Factors in the De- velopment of Dane County (1901) ; Chamberlain, Alice Emily, History of Dodge County, Wisconsin, for the period, 1850-1870, (1902) ; Fish, Herbert Clay, The Movement of the New Yorh and Neiw Engjwnd Elements of the Population of Wisconsin in the periods, 1850 to 1860, and 1860 to 1870 (1903) ; et at. "■ nm. " Graham. James Blain, An Economic and Social Study of the Population of 8t. Oroiw County, Wisconsin, during the period, 1850-1870. MS. Senior Thesis, Univ. of Wis., (1901). See Hlbbard. ,pp. 107-112. " Hlbbard. 145. « See below, p. 77, notes 18 and 19. [323] 30 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN like the native stock moved on toward the frontier and were replaced by the Swiss, who introduced dairying. After about 1891, however, the Scandinavians succeeded in adapting them- selves to dairying and again increased their holdings of land within the county and in the year 1898 over 80 per cent, of the total cheese product of Dane county was produced in the seven towns which comprised the Scandinavian section in the western part of the county.^" Economic habit and race characteristics are thus seen to have been subordinate factors, but to have ex- ercised a strong influence when reenforced by favorable eco- nomic conditions. We have concrete examples of the financial difficulty in- volved in making the change to a diversified agriculture. One such is given in the Wisconsin and loiva Farmer and North- western Cultivator.'^'' A correspondent, in discussing the com- parative profit of wheat growing and sheep raising, stated that he had made a success of wheat growing from 1837 to 1847. Then followed crop failures for three years, with unsuccessful at- tempts to go at something else, want of success being due to lack of means. In 1851 he succeeded in borrowing money and going into sheep raising, which proved profitable. If indebtedness and lack of capital kept many farmers raising wheat exclusively until crop failure and soil exhaustion ensued, the latter conditions were in their turn instrumental in forcing a system of diversified agriculture. "When the time came that wheat could be no longer raised at a profit, some other means had to be found to get money to meet interest payments and taxes. Declining profits constituted a sufficient reason for in- ducing those in better circumstances to turn away from special- ization in wheat. It appears that this latter class was the first to try something else. The former in many cases merely went into bankruptcy. That the "Wisconsin State Agricultural Society was organized about this time is significant. Farmers were aroused to the fact that something needed to be done. For a long time there had "> Mlchelson, Albert G., The Soandinavians in Western DwiM County. MS. Senior Thesis, Univ. of Wis., 1901. ">e: 247. [324] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 31 been exhortation in favor of diversified farming and crop rota- tion. An organized effort was now to be made to improve con- ditions in general. The direct statement is made in reference to the Rock County Agricultural Society that it was founded in order to overcome the depression which had followed the fail- ure of the wheat crop. This forced tendency to diversification was naturally most marked near the markets in the earlier set- tled portions where soil exhaustion had been carried farthest and where opportunities were most favorable for such change. The rise in the value of land forced a better and more intensive system of agriculture. Land became relatively more valuable as compared with the other factors in production and farm pur- suits that were less expensive of land began to find favor. It was recognized by many that the failure of the wheat crop might prove a blessing in disguise if it compelled a better and more varied system of agriculture. In 1851 a successful attempt was made to grow flax in Dane county ,°^ though results were not favorable in other parts of the state. Attempts were made at sheep raising about the same time in Dane county."^ In Kenosha county the wool growing industry had begun to attract the at- tention of the most enterprising farmers and some attention was also paid to dairying.^^ An Ohio farmer traveling in Wau- kesha county at this time declared that the farmers there had better sow less wheat and grow more wool."* Reference has al- ready been made to individual attempts to grow wool.°° Experi- ments in the culture of tobacco had been made in Rock county about 1840 and now these experiments were renewed in several of the southern counties."" Farmers were abandoning wheat growing as an exclusive crop in Walworth county and large fields were being sown with tame grasses preparatory to a more general rearing of stock."'' In Dodge county a system of rotation " Hibbard, 147. <^ ITnd., p. 145. For hop culture In Wisconsin at this time see ttM., p. 149. <» Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1851, p. 179. See also Pat. Office Report, Agriculture, 1851, pp. 464-465. '*IUd., 235. " Supra p. 30. ""HUbard, 156. '- Trans, 'of State Agric. Soc, 1851, p. 230. [325] 32 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN had produced very satisfactory results,*** and in Racine county the shrewdest farmers were said to be more and more diversify- ing their crops."" In Milwaukee county farms were smaller and better cultivated than on the prairie and diversified farm- ing was followed to a considerable extent.'"' Dane county im- ported, besides agricultural implements and foreign merchan- dise, " cheese, butter and pork frequently, grass seed, cattle and horses.'"^ Evidently there was room for diversification here. The use of improved farm machinery had become important by this time, though the numerous advertisements of cradles and rakes in the local newspapers indicate that the harvester was by no means general. This was especially true in the "oak open- ings" where it was difficult to use machinery on account of the stumps.'^ According to the Ohio traveller mentioned above, the McCormick reaper was in general use in Waukesha county. It was asserted that in five years very little wheat would be cut otherwise than by machinery on the smooth lands of the West.'^^ Complaints were made, however, that the new machines came high in price, that they were not always constructed of good material, and the familiar statement was made that they failed to do satisfactory work in lodged grain. ^* It was estimated that not less than 3,500 new reaping machines would be put into use in <^ lua , 16.3. See also Pat. Office Rep., Agrioulture, 1850, p. 8. ™ ima., 194. '" "Land Is scarce and every reason impels to cultivate it well. Manure Ts made use of. The farmer is obliged to diversify hig crop, as wheat is almost a total loss one year out of five and a failure more or less extensive the other four years. To depend on wheat here would be perfect madness. The farmer here must have a little of everything that will sell — a little mutton, a little wool, Yea,', butter, eggs, potatoes, wheat, stiraw, barley, wood, and. in fact, a multitude of things." — Prairie Farmer, 9s 290. " "This policy is ruinous and will conduct to Inevitable bankruptcy. My ad- vice is to keep out of debt, change and Improve your mode of husbandry, own and cultivate less land and expend your profits on your own farm." — T. T. WhlttleSby, Trans, of State Agric. Soo., 1851, p. 162. " Prairie Farmer, lO: 34. See also Hlbbard, p. 123 ff. '"Prairie Farmer, 10: 30, contains a list of reapers and headers used In Illinois, many of which were probably used in Wisconsin as well. Among these appears Esterly's "heajJer", Invented by George Bsterly of Heart Prairie, Wisconsin. See Pat. Office Rep., Agriculture, 1851, pp. 460-462, for an article by EJsterly on harvesting grain In the West, with estimates of the saving In cost by the use of reapers. ''^Wis. Farmer and Northwestern Cultivator, 1: 249; Prairie Farmer, 10: 34. [326] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 33 1850 in the Northwest, and it was calculated that this would amount to a saving of the labor of 175,000 men. This was of im- portance in view of the fact that the labor supply was being diminished by emigration to California." "Wheeler's "tread machine" threshers had been introduced extensively into Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin about 1850-, and had competed successfully with the larger "sweep machines" of eight horse power and operated by eight men.'° Reference has already been made to the manufacture of the Case threshers in Racine and the advertisement of the Case two-horse power thresher appears in the pages of the farm journals of that period. Bain's thresher was another Racine- product. The introduction of these labor saving machines constituted an important factor in the spread of the wheat area. An indus- try toward which there was already a strong tendency, due in part to the fact that it reauired a relatively small amount of the scarce factor, labor, became now less than ever dependent upon that factor. The effect was decidedly toward more extensive culture, and when a little later the railroad opened up a market for Wisconsin wheat, the grain drill, the harvester, the header and the thresher were all at hand to assist in the phenomenal spread of that industry in the state. According to the census of 1850. there were 1,045,499 acres of improved, and 1,931,159 acres of unimproved land in Wisconsin. Comparison with the corresponding figures for 1900 — 11,246,972 improved and 8,615,755 unimproved — indicates how small a portion of the area of Wisconsin had been brought under culti- vation and pasturage at the former period. Up to this time gov- ernment land had been secured at about the minimum price of one dollar and a quarter per acre, and so long as this land was in the market there was little opportunity for speculative deal- ing. This opportunity had been taken advantage of and the in- crease in population in Wisconsin between 1840 and 1850 was almost unprecedentedly rapid. The editor of the Wisconsin Farmer and Northwestern Cultivator,'''' in an answer to the in- " UMo Cultivator, July 15, 1850. n Prairie Farmer, lO: 21. "a: 44, Feb. 1850. 3 [327] 34 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEBSITY OF WISCONSIN quiries of a prospective inunigrant, stated that lie "knew of no land south and east of the Wisconsin Eiver that could be bought for less than about five dollars per acre.'^* Sales of improved land had been made at twenty-five dollars per acre, while the cheap and fertile lands west of Lake Winnebago proved most attractive to settlers. This latter region was being settled more' rapidly than any other part of the state. "^° A land agent in Milwaukee advertised two hundred thousand acres of choice lands for sale in the State of Wisconsin in 1850 at from one dollar and fifty cents per acre upwards, in lots to suit purchasers and on liberal credit. Fifty thousand acres of this land consisted of lands from one to four miles from the Fox River. One thousand acres were located from one and a quarter to three miles from Milwaukee. In addition, there were one hundred improved farms in Milwaukee county in the lot.'° Hibbard states*^ that it was during the early 50 's that the greater part of the state lands was sold, and calls attention to the detriment to the state treasury, and to the injustice to the later settler in disposing of the lands at such low figures. He might have added, what has already been noticed, that the set- tlers themselves were hardly benefited by these low prices ; that it merely induced them to take up more land than they could readily pay for and cultivate properly, and that it was the prime cause of exclusive cropping to wheat, with all the accompanying evils. In the midst of the general cry of distress, occasional success- ful ventures in wheat raising were announced, and we must remember that not a few persons in poor circumstances took advantage of the opportunity to secure the cheap, fertile lands and by careful management gained a clear title and became pros- ™ This must have referred to Improved landsi, for Ritchie, Wis. cmd Its Re- sources, 1857, p. Ill, stated that bufc one-sixth of the land of Dane county was th'en settled. " Wis. Farmer, suprw. Note 77. See also PraMe Farmer, 9» 288-289. "" Wisconsin and Iowa Farmer and Northwestern Cultivator, 2i 211. "1 Page 104. [328] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 35 perojis and well-to-do citizens.*^ Apparent success was obtained in most cases, however, by compromising the future and by a reckless system of soil exploitation. Whatever may have been the conditions in specific cases it is undeniable that conditions were very discouraging for the Wis- consin wheat farmer in general at the period which we are con- sidering. Low prices, crop failure, high cost of transportation and the break-down of the home market were about to force him into a more diversified system of farmiug. But habit, and fin- ancial difficulties and embarrassments conspired to prevent the change. Under these conditions, the argument for an outside market, to be reached by a system of transportation on the one hand demonstrably effective and on the other adroitly asserted " (a) "Wheat raising in Crawford County. The results are for forty-flTe acres of wheat harvested in this county in the fall of 1849. Cost of preparing the ground, sowing and harrowing .... $80 00 For seed wheat 35 00 For harvesting and threshing 160 00 Total expenses $275 00 One thousand and sixty-five bushels of wheat at 63 cts. per bushel $670 95 Net profits from the crop 395 95 "To the expenses Incurred may he added the expense of drawing to market and some other small items which would probably reduce the net proceeds, If every Item were paid in wages, to about $450" [$350?]. Wis. Farmer One man In Dane comity harvested 45 bnsbels per acre on two acres. IMd., 114. [340] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 47 An increased acreage was sown to wheat in 1856 so that in spite of drouth which poor preparation and cultivation of the soil made the more disastrous, the largest crop in the history of the state up to that time was raised.*^ The wheat produced within the counties drained hy the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad exceeded in 1856 the amount produced in 1855 by 50 per cent.*'' The price of wheat showed a downward tendency, falling as low as 80 cents at the close of navigation in 1856.** Nevertheless an increased acreage was again sowed, though at a greatly in- creased cost,** and, the season proving favorable, a large crop resulted.*" An attempt to market the surplus in the fall of 1857 under the circumstances of the panic then in full sway resulted in a great drop in the price, wheat selling in Milwaukee at the beginning of 1858 at 55 to 60 cents per bushel.** Ship- ments were then held back in the hope of better prices, but the farmers of Wisconsin, on account of their previous speculative operations and on account of general conditions, were not in a situation to hold their wheat from market any considerable length of time, and the price recovering somewhat as it became evident that the crop of 1858 would not be an average one,*^ " "The staple of Wisconsin Is wheat. . So high has Wisconsin spring wheat stood at the eastern and European markets that our merchants have been able to sell for 8 or 10 cents above the prices for Illinois and more southern states. This fact turned the attention of our farmers to raising it to the ex- clusion of otner grains ; and while our crop of wheat since 1850 has Increased at the ratio of 50 per cent per annum, the crops of rye, oats, barley and com have remained stationary or advanced only with the home demand." Bep. of Milwaukee Board of Trade for 1856, p. 12. (Rather an extreme statement as to wheat If taken literally.) *2 Report for 1856. It Is Impossible to secure full and reliable statistics of the production of wheat In Wisconsin during the decade 1850-1860. No pro- vision was made by the state before 1857 to secure such data. The returns secured for that year and for the year previous were very partial and Incomplete (See R«p. of Secretary of State, 1857, pp. 93-94). For the year 1858 the returns are more complete. It may be said that the statistics gathered by the state In reference to farm crops are In general untrustworthy, even up to the present time. ♦-/Sep. of Milwaukee Board of Trade for 1856, supra. "ma., for 1858. « ntd., estimated at 14,000,000 bushels by Wis. Farmer, lOt 61. "See Table VIII. 47 "Tbe wheat crop of 1858 Is generally considered one-third less than 1857." Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce for 1858. See also Wis. Tarmer, 1858, p. 33a [341] 48 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN receipts poured in again and kept the price at a low point. Receipts at Milwaukee for 1858 amounted to nearly five million bushels, and those of the other lake ports were above a million bushels.^^ Notwithstanding the short crop of 1858 and the low price, there seemed nothing else to do but to raise wheat and a further increased acreage resulted.^" If farmers were hard pressed financially, that was a good reason for not going into some- thing which required a greater outlay of capital than raising wheat. ^° If the price of wheat was low, there remained the memory of the high prices and good times of a short time before, and hope bade them believe that the same prosperity might come again. They were not without warning, however. Low prices and short crops had again stirred up the feeling that it was unwise to depend so exclusively on wheat. "Facts should ad- monish farmers not to rely too implicitly upon the wheat crop."" Again, "Our farmers, would be wise to so diversify their operations as not to run entirely into one thing and that wheat. "^^ In regard to an exhortation to farmers to grow more wool, the Wisconsin Farmer continued, "So may it yet be, ere our lands are exhausted with eternal wheat growing and farmers discouraged because they cannot get rich merely doing one and that too often a foolish thing. "^^ The reports of the Agricultural Society, too, assume a slightly more doubtful tone and in the report for 1856 there was complaint of methods of «i?ep. of Chamber of Com. lor 1858. " "While s!iecu!ative property has heen greatly reduced in value, the pro- ductive industry of the state of Wisconsin has greatly increased. Many have left cities and villages and instead of deipending upon the rise in value of town lots have turned their attention to agricultural pursuits and the number of acres sown to wheat much exceeds that of former years." — Report of Directors of Fox nnit Wisconsin Improvement Co., 1859. ™ Wool growing was declining during this time, caused, according to some, by destructioij by dogs. (Wis. Farmer, 10: 362.) This merely meant that there were more people Interested in dogs than in sheep. •' Wfs. Farmer, 10: 475. "JMd., 11: 71. ™ Tbid., 396. "Less land and better culture." . . "It must cease to be the policy of our farmers to grasp all the land they can pay and run into debt for, scrape 11; over until they have exhausted it of its fertility, etc." — nid.. 111. — "How many intend to grow nothing but wheat?" "We are anxious to know whether the wheat mania has subsided, or whether the recent fair prices have not had the effect to seriously aggravate the disease." — Ibia., 115. [342] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 49 cultivation."* The crap of 1859 was aJso not up to the standard of the crop of 1857,°^ but the increased acreage resulted in an increased total yield for the state."" But little is heard of other crops. They continued to be grown by a few, but there was little further tendency toward making them relatively more important. The potato crop was said to be growing to be one of precarious cultivation on account of the rot. Eeports on attempts at raising flax were not very encourag- ing. There was complaint of lack of barns for dairying and also of a lack of green feed."'' Of course all this spells indiffer- ence to other crops. During the decade 1849 to 1859 the wheat crop of the United States as a whole increased from 100,485,944 bushels to 173,104,- 924 bushels."' During the same time, the crop of Wisconsin in- creased from 4,286,131 bushels to 15,657,458 bushels, or an in- crease of 11,371,327 bushels. The increase in Wisconsin was thus 15. 6 per cent, of the total increase for the United States as a whole."' A comparison of the charts'" representing the wheat areas for 1849 and 1859 reveals the great development during the decade. Whereas in 1849 but a trifling amount of wheat had been raised north of the Wisconsin river, by 1859 a number of the counties in the western part of the state had sprung into importance. There had likewise been greatly increased importance in wheat growing in every other part of the state except in the extreme southeastern portion. This increase was particularly marked in the south central part of the state. Rock county which ranked first in importance in 1849 showed, apparently, a remarkable •^ Trans, of State Agrio. 8oc., 1854, '55, '56, '57, p. 257; also p. 486. Also tUa., 1858-59, p. 74. "' This must be kept in mind when us'ng the year 1859 as a standard. '"'ihe yleia given in the census of 1860 for the year 1859 was 15,657,458 bushels. " Trama. of State Agrio. Boc, 1851, p. 197 ; 1853, pp. 51-3, 238, 255 £f ; 1870, pp. 28-9. =»See Table VI. " If we calculate tt. 1860 when Wisconsin produced perhaps the most re- markable crop of wheat ever produced In- the state, the proportion of the total increase to be attributed to Wisconsin Is over 30 per cent. The crop of 1860 was. however, exceptional. "' Sne Figures 1 and 2. [343] 50 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN stability during the decade since in 1859 both the yield per capita,*^ the yield per square mile of improved land°^ and con- sequently, the index of importance or degree of specialization"' remained almost exactly the same as in 1849. In live stock and in the production of hay the same stability obtained, and almost the same stability in reference to "other crops."** It appears that the influences favoring wheat growing in this county during the decade were on the whole just about counteracted by the operation of opposing influences so as to leave conditions about unchanged. It is clear, however, from what we have already seen that there had been a great tendency toward wheat growing in Eock county about the middle of the decade,"^ followed by a decline in the latter part of the decade, and that stability was the net result. Relatively, however, Rock county as well as " See Table I, showing the per capita yield ol the different counties at the different census periods. " See Table II, showing the yield per square mile of improved land for each county at the different census periods. " See Table III, indicating the degree of specialization or importance of each county in wheat at the different census periods. This index of importance is obtained by extracting the square root of the product chained by multiplying the number representing the yield of wheat per capita in each county by the number representing the yield of wheat per square mile of improved 'and in the same county. In this way importance is given to both yield per capita and yield per square mile of improved land in estimating the actual importance of any county in the production of wheat. (See Ninth Census of the United States. 3: 367-68.) If dependence were placed upon the per capita yield alone, the existence of a large city within a county would for example unduly depress the importance of that county. Th's can be corrected in part by making the yield MS estimated according to the amount of improved land in the county a factor in the result. On the other hand the yield per capita exercises a modifying influence on the yield per square mile of improved land. The yield per square mile of improved land rather than the yield per square mile of total area is chosen as a factor in the result, as being more significant and more accurate. The yield per square mile of improved land is not worted out for crops other than wheat ; but when it is necessary to take both factors into consideration in respect to oilier crops it should be noticed that a proportional relation exists between the yield of wheat per capita and the yield of wheat per square mile of Improved. land on the one hand and the yield of any other crop per capita and (he yield of that crop per square mi'e of improved land on the other hand. That is, for any county the yield of wheat per capita is to the yield of wheat per square mile of improved land as the yield per capita in any otter particu- lar crop is to the yield per square mile in that crop. Three terms of the propor- tion are thus given and the fonrth term. i. e. . the yield per square mile for any other particular crop, can easily be found. »8ee Tables XI-XXI. «5 See above pp. 40-1, note 9. [344] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 51 Walworth and Kenosha counties, had declined in rank. Rock declined from first to fifth place, "Walworth from second to eighth place and Kenosha from third to seventeenth place. Ra- cine county had declined from tenth place to thirty-second place. All of these counties, except Rock, show absolute decline, also, in the importance of the wheat crop. This decline was largely in yield per square mile of improved land and indicates in part that improved land had increased faster than population."" There was slight chfinge in these counties also in respect to other crops. The tables for live stock,"^ however, show an important increase in that industry."^ Kenosha showed a notable increase in the number of milch cows, an indication of the early movement to- ward dairying in that county. In these three counties, there- fore, stock raising was increasing at the expense of other branches of agriculture, especially at the expense of wheat growing. Marquette county showed an apparent decrease but this was due to the setting off of Green Lake county from that county during the decade, the effect of which was to deprive the former county of that part of the original county which was most important in wheat growing."" Green Lake county stood first in 1859 among ™ This may be stated in another way Ijy saying that improved harvesting machinery enabled a larger acreage lo he sown to wheat per capita and there- fore a larger per capita yield to he secured than would Bkve otherwise Ifeen the case. "TSee Tables XVII-XXI. "The increase In total live stock appears larger than Is really the case since the figures falling below a certain standard are omitted entirely and thus more were omitted In 1849 than In 1859. " Chippewa presents a similar case, having lost to several counties newly formed. The parcelling out of this county during the following decades as well, makes comparisons for it at the various census periods diflScu.'t. Brown and Washington present somewhat similar eases. The statistics for Adams and Sauk counties are combined for 1849, though appdrently representing Adams county alone. This fact makes comparisons difficult In those two counties tor the census years 1849 and 1859. The various coimtles In the northern half of Wisconsin have since 1850 undergone nnmerons changes In ref- erence to their respective boundaries. This makes comparisons between those counties difficult. Close study of these changes, however, proves that they constitute a disturbing element to ai very much less exent than at first appears. The method of estimating by yield per capita and per square mile of Improved land rather tlfan by total acreage or by tofal yield avoids the essential difficul- ties of the situation. It will be found, too, that the changes pertain almost entirely to those counties which have been relatively unimportant in the growing of wh?at. [345] 52 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITY OF WISCONSIN the counties that had increased in importance in the growing of wheat. Marked increase was also shown by that county over Marquette county in 1849 in respect to other crops and in respect to live stock. It would thus appear that this county, notwith- standing the high yield in respect to wheat, was not so special- ized in the culture of that crop as might at first appear, but was rather an extremely productive county in which there ap- peared at an early date very considerable diversity in agricul- ture.^" Dane, Columbia, and Dodge counties, which are next in order of importance, may be grouped together. The tendency toward wheat was marked in each of these three counties. The first and last doubled and Columbia more than doubled, the amount ot wheat produced per capita in 1859 as compared with 1849, while all three counties also increased greatly in yield per square mile of improved land.''^ This was especially marked in Dodge county. Dane and Columbia counties increased considerably in the production of corn and oats,'^ while Dodge showed little increase in that respect. Columbia showed a small increase in the number of milch cows per capita and a moderate increase in the number of "other cattle" per capita. Further than a marked decline in the number of swine per capita in all three counties, there was no noteworthy change. On the whole, we must conclude that the tendency toward wheat had been over- whelming during the decade and that the small increase in other crops and other pursuits was incidental and probably confined in a large measure to those older areas which in 1849 had already reached the point of exhaustion ia wheat growing. The northeastern group of counties showed a very considerable increase, in general, in the importance of the wheat crop. This was especially true in respect to Pond du Lac" and Kewaunee ™ Reference to the figures for this county during the following decades serves to strengthen this presumption. ■" Probably due in part to greater fertility of the new land which had been brought Into cultivation and In part to Improved harvesting machinery. " These crops were apparently either grown for the market or as incidental to wheat growing. Note the decline In the number of swine. " Fond du Lac county is comparable In many ways with Dane, Dodge, Colum- bia, and Gre'en Lake counties. [346] THOMPSON ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 53 counties. The latter county produced a considerable yield of rye and potatoes as well. Stock growing was unimportant. Fond du Lac county raised considerable oats, and had increased moderately ia number of sheep, and in number of "other cat- tle.'"* In the remaining counties of this section the tendency toward wheat was more moderate. Rye, to a considerable ex- tent, and barley, to a less extent, were competing crops. Stock growing was unimportant. This section represents, in general, the influence of the forests in retarding the tendency toward wheat. Jefferson and Waukesha must be discussed separately. The former county doubled its population and more than quadrupled the amount of improved land during the decade. There was, however, considerable apparent loss of importance in wheat grow- ing, and only a small per capita increase in other crops com- bined. It is thus evident that the loss was not. due to farming to other crops. Neither does reference to the table for live stock show importance in that respect, though there was some increase in sheep and in "other cattle." The explanation probably lies in the great increase in "improved land," much of which was likely improved only in name. This seems the more probable because, while there was a large decline in the yield of wheat per square mile of improved land, there was a small increase in the yield per capita.''^ In "Waukesha county there was consider- able increase in importance in wheat growing, together with a noticeable increase in the number of sheep and a moderate in- crease in the number of milch cows. Both Jefferson and "Wau- kesha counties are unlike the south central counties in that they never went to such extremes in wheat growing, and unlike the other southeastern counties, in that wheat continued to increase in importance for a time. In Waukesha county, the railfoads probably had little influence upon conditions in agriculture on account of the fact that it had always had a market close at hand in Milwaukee. Milwaukee county presents a similar case. " Increase per capita Is always meant, not absolute Increase. ™ It is possible that the wheat crop in Jefferson county in 1859 suffered more from the flrougjit than neighboring counties. [347] 54 BUIjLETIN of the university of WISCONSIN Though raising twice as many bushels of wheat in 1859 as in 1849, the relative importance of the crop remained unchanged.''" The southwestern group of counties showed a marked in- crease in the importance of the wheat crop," expept in the case of Green county where the increase was only moderate. The absolute importance of wheat was less, however, than in the south-central group of counties. This is explained by the much greater importance of com and oats in the southwestern coun- ties. Reference to the tables for live stock shows why Green county failed to make such a large increase in wheat as the other counties. Stock growing had obtained a much better start there, while the character of the country is such as to especially encour age that industry. A very considerable increase in the number of milch cows indicated the coming importance of dairying. The most striking increase, however, was in the number of "other cattle, ' ' in which the other counties of the group shared. Horses also increased considerably. In the face of a general decline in the number of swine in the state as a whole, that branch of ani- mal husbandry held its own in this section during the decade. The importance of the com crop of course constitutes the ex- planation. Buffalo, St. Croix, Pierce, La Crosse, Trempealeau, Vernon, Crawford, Pepin, and Polk form a group of counties along the Mississippi river. The first five attract attention at once by their comparatively high rank, and all of them by the fact that not one of them was important in wheat growing in 1849. All were unimportant in stock raising except for a considerable num- ber of swine.'* Although these counties were less important in the culture of wheat than the south-central group of counties, they produced about the same amount per capita of other crops. In this respect they are analagous to the southwestern group. Com, oats and potatoes were the other crops raised besides wheat. '" The city of Milwaukee constitutes a disturbing element in Milwaukee county, tnrougliout tlie entire period. " Iowa and Lafayette quadrupled the per capita yield of wheat during the decade. Granv a little less than trebled the per capita yle'ld during the same time. In general, the per capita yield of the other crops combined Jnst about doubled. These counties were very little developed in 1849. "Amounting to 1.1 per capita in ButCalo county, it the census figures can be trusted. Trempealeau also showed a considerable number of "other cattle." [348] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 55 These counties represent a case where there had not been an outlet to a market for a sufficient length of time to enable wheat growing to take holdJ* The remaining important counties lie in the central portion of the state and may be treated together. Ban Claire, the most important, ranks nineteenth in importance. Only Richland and Adams were of any importance in wheat growing in 1849, and these in but a small way. In general, it may be said that these interior counties represented the tendency toward wheat as mod- ified by forest conditions and in part by lack of transportation facilities. The importance of wheat was relatively low in com- parison with other crops,*" the apparently rapid tendency toward wheat in some cases being due, as in Richland, to the very small absolute importance of that crop in 1849. Sauk county, so far as comparison is possible, shows similarity, as might be expected, to the other interior counties and to Green Lake, Dane, Columbia, and Dodge counties. "Within this entire region stock raising was almost altogether lacking. The increase in the per capita yield for the state as a whole was from 14.03 to 20.18 bushels, and the increase per square mile of improved land was from 2,624 to 2,675 bushels. The small increase in the yield per square mile of improved land means a low yield per acre and points in connection with the in- creased yield per capita, to heightened extensivity in the methods of cultivation. That the per capita yield of other crops com- bined increased less rapidly than wheat, although com, oats and potatoes usually yield a higher number of bushels per acre than wheat, proves that the acreage did not increase in respect to these other crops at the expense of wheat.*^ The small in- crease in the amount of hay*^ produced together with the very " Buffalo county IiaB just begun to export wheat a short time before. Kes- ginger, Hist, of Buffalo County, 1887, p. 368 ff. Polk and Pepin were comparatively unimportant as yet. It will be remem- bered that I/a Crosse had been reached by rail only In 1858, and Prairie du Cbien in 185T. " It must not be forgotten that wheat was nevertheless by far the most Im- portant single crop. »i The per capita yield of wheat increased 43.8 per cent, while the per capita yleW of, other crops combined Increased but 32.6 per cent. " The Increase was from .90 tons per capita, in 1849 to 1.10 tons per capita In 1859. [349] 56 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN slight increase in the total number of live stock per capita'* proves that a relatively small amount of the improved land was turned into meadows and pastures. Consequently it must have been devoted largely to wheat; and cheap land, dear labor and the utilization of improved harvesting machiaery made it most profitable to cultivate a large acreage at a comparatively low yield per acre. In some of the southeastern coimties there was a tendency toward stock raisiag and away from wheat, but iu the state as a whole there was an increased tendency to specialize ia wheat. This tendency is probably concealed ia part by the fact that the wheat crop for the census year was a little below an average crop.^* ^■* The increase for tlie decade was from 1.46 to 1.50 per capita, chiefly milch. cows, "other cattle'' and horses. " See above p. 49. If we calculate the per capita yield for some of the more important counties for the crop of 1860, estimating the increase in the popula- tion to have been one-tenth of the total increase for the decade, and compare the figures with those for 1859, we get the following results : Counties 1859 1860 Columbia 42 . 3 50. 1 Dane 40.0 67.0 Dodge 34.1 53.1 Fond du Lac 36.1 50.2 Green 26 . 8 31 . 1 Green Lake 43 . 6 67 . 3 •Tcfferson 13 . 7 29 . 2 Kenosha 25 . 3 41 . 8 Lafayette 22 . 5 33 . 8 Marquette 5.2 2T.3 Racine 14.5 43.5 Rock 37 . 9 59 . 2 Sauk 19 . 1 39 . 6 Walworth 30. 5 63 . 5 Waukesha 21 . 7 46 . 3 Winnebago 18 . 9 32 . 1 [350] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 57 CHAPTER II THE DECADE 1860 to 1870 In the first year of this decade one of the largest, if not the largest, wheat crop in the history of the state was raised.^ It was one of those years when every condition was favorable. The crops of 1856, 1858, and 1859 had in consequence of unfavorable seasons not been good. The net result was that available fer- tility had increased faster than it had been removed. Under the favorable conditions of 1860 the soil brought forth most bounteously.^ The price of wheat was moderately high in 1860 but broke so soon as the heavy crop of that year began to be put on the market.^ Inadequate facilities for transportation resulted in the western markets being clogged with wheat. In December, 1860, the pric.e of wheat in Milwaukee went as low as 63 and 65 cents.* These prices were far from remunerative" and robbed the farmers of their anticipated large income from the crop. The crop of 1861 was not so large as that of 1860, but the acre- age was said to have been little, if any, short.* The price con- ' See above, p. 56, note 84 ; see also Table IV. ^ "The year 1860 was a golden year in the history of Wisconsin, with a yield of over 27,000,000 bushels of wheat." Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1861-68, p. 28 ff. See iMd., 1860, p. 4.5. "The wheat crop in Sauk county Is estimated at 24 bushels per acre, and the acreage at 50 per cent, more than last year. Shou'd present prices continue, this year's wheat crop will put most of the farmers firmly on their feet, free them from debt and render them Independent." The average the year before had been 12 bushels per acre in Saulj county. Wis. Farmer, 12: 207; ISs 33-5. See ibid., pp. 254, 290, 2i95, 314, for unusual yields of wheat. See also iiid. 14: 1. = See Table VIII. * Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. for 1860, p. 21. " Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1861-68, p. 84. See, however, note 2 above. Enough of the crop of 1860 must have been sold at a price sufficiently remun- erative to induce further sowing to wheat. " The estimate in Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. was 15,000,000 bushels. [351] 58 BUUjETIN of the university of WISCONSIN tinued low but in spite of this there were 1,221,517 acres sown to wheat in 1862.'' Low prices and poor crops again brought out strictures on the exclusive reliance upon wheat: "The wheat crop, unfortunately the sole reliance of a large proportion of our farmers, has been in some parts a serious failure owiag to bad management, unf avorableness of weather and deficiency of work- ing force. In addition to the low price for grain, the farmer suffered from the high cost of what he had to buy. ' '* Two rem- edies were suggested: first, increased facilities of transportation from the lake eastward, and, second, certain material modifica- tions of agricultural practice. Complaint was also made of the "large and unlimited proportion of the market-price of grain, charged for carrying it from the interior of the state to the lake shore" and the regulation of railroads was advocated.* In 1863 there came a good crop and higher prices once more. The next year, however, on account of the drouth and the chinch bugs, the wheat crop was unusually deficient. The chinch bugs had been accumulating for several years, though their ravages had not heretofore been serious. The methods of cultivation fol- lowed by the farmers of Wisconsin encouraged the multiplication of the insects. Now they made almost a clean sweep in some parts of the state, and contiuued their depredations for a year or two, though to a diminished extent.^" The wheat crop of 1865 was a good average crop and of good quality and war prices ruled. The acreage had declined^^ after 1864 but in response '' Bep. of U. S. Dept. of Agrlc, which In 1862 for the first time undertook the gathering of statistics each year in reference to farm crops. « Trans, of State Agrlc. Soc, 1861-68, pp. 99-100. 'Hid. — "Wheat growing doesn't pay. The experience of the past two years has protably brought over many converts to the doctrine that wheat growing is not to be relied upon exclusively as a source of prosperity among farmers. Still there are many who cling to it as the safest way to gain a livelihood, and are at the same time on the brinlc of poverty from this very cause ; this is but a legitimate result, etc." Then follows a plea for diversified farming. Wis. Farmer, 15: 172. lUA., 14: 61, 74, 282-83. " See Hibbard, Bist. of Agrio. in Dane Co., p. 131. See BuUetin of the U. B. Dept. of Agrlc, Dlvia. of Entomol. No. 15, for history of the ravages o( the chinch bug. See also Seoond An. Rep. of State Entomologist of Illinois, 143- 144. Also Report of U. S. Commissioner of Agric, 1887, p. 56 for later rav- ages in Wisconsin. See Trans, of State Agrlc. Soo., 1876-77, p. 140 tt; Fbid., 1861-68, p. 33. See Wis. Farmer. 17; 7. » Report of the V. 8. Dept. of Agrlc. for 1865, pp. 54, 59, 61. See Table IV. [352] THOMPSON— WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 59 to high prices, the loss was largely recovered in 1866, and, as the price of wheat continued to mount upward in 1867, there was a large increase in acreage in that year. After the decline in prices again in 1868, there was a corresponding decline in acreage. The crop of 1866 when almost ready to harvest suf- fered great loss from heavy rains,^^ though the total yield equalled the yield of 1865 on account of the increased acreage. The crops of 1867 and 1868 seem to have been medium to aver- age crops, though the total yield was not what might have been expected from the large acreage. The quality of "Wisconsin wheat had been deteriorating for several years,^' however, and after about 1868, quotations for No. 1 spring wheat disappear from the Milwaukee market. The farmer thus suffered another diminution of his profits on account of the lowering grade of his grain. The wheat crop in Wisconsin in 1869 was, like that of the remainder of the country, somewhat above the average. But falLng prices again intervened to keep the wheat grower from reaping the rewards of a bounteous yield. There was a similar decline in the price of other grains which prevented turning to other crops. Facilities for transportation were inadequate, and freight rates remained high,^* though the movement toward lower prices was general as the premium on gold diminished. The farmers of Wisconsin participated in the general distress, and the situation there was aggravated by the failure of the hop crop and by the ruin consequent to the break-down of that in- dustry. The wheat farmer of Wisconsin was indeed in a bad way. He had staked his last dollar and his last acre on wheat. In this game of chance, good crops and high prices alternated with poor crops and low prices in such a way as to induce him to keep in the game and pay his forfeits in the hope of winning once again. Habit, too, kept him from turning to other means of livelihood. It was another such game of chance that attracted the attention " One-third to ono -half of the crop was destroyed according to the estimate of the Milwaukee Chamtier of Commerce, but this appears to he an extrav- agant assertion. "Rep. of UnwoMkee Chamber of Com. for 1868, p. 19. " See Chapter on Relations between the Wheat Farmer and the Common Carrier. [353] 60 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN of the farmer for a brief period. As a result of a combination of circumstances including the ravages of the chinch bug, fail- ure in the wheat crop and particularly the rise in the price of hops, the first real episode in the wheat period took its start." The cultivation of hops, which had been persisting in a small way for some years, now took a sudden bound and spread over portions of the state with great rapidity. In 1864, 358,583 pounds were produced, almost exclusively in Sauk county. In the following year the crop amounted to 829,377 pounds, Sauk again producing 63 per cent, of the entire crop.^® Under the stimulus of high price the industry continued to spread and increase up until 1868. In that year Sauk county had one acre of improved land out of every seven and one-half acres in hops. For a time the crop was an exceedingly profitable one though expenses of production were high. But it came the losing turn again. During 1868 the price of hops dropped as low as it had been high before and many of the participants, having lost all their winnings and having no capital to start in a new business, went back to the game of wheat again. Wheat quickly recovered its supremacy, which had indeed hardly been threatened consid- ering the state as a whole. There was less disposition than ever to make new ventures and it is probable that the hop craze had more effect in discouraging the efforts toward diversification than it had toward substituting some other crop for wheat.^^ The movement toward a better system was painfully slow and - aroused far less popular enthusiasm than the agitation against railroads. There was much justice in the movement in favor of lower rates and more effective control of railroads by the state; but it must be acknowledged that for many of the dif- ficulties of the farmer's situation, he was either to blame him- self or else the blame attaches to general conditions. To a cer- tain extent then the railroads were made the victim of unde- served hostility. "> See Hibbard, 149-54 where so good an account of the hop craze is given for the entire state that It is superfluous to take it up here. See also Trans, of State Agrlc. Boo., 1863-68, pp. 36-8. •"Jefferson county produced 97,772 pounds and Winnebago county, 69,183 pounds. Thirteen counties produced over 4,000 pounds each and eighteen over 1,000 pounds each. — Rep. Seo. of State for ISCS. " Trans, of State Agrlc. Sac, 1861-68, pp. 36, 299, 419-20 ; 1869, pp. 17- 18; 1870, p. 28. \B5i] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 61 On account of the inadequacy and unreliability of the statis- tics,^^ it is difficult to accurately determine the effect of the Civil "War upon the wheat growing industry in Wisconsin. Further difficulty arises in isolating the results due to the war from those due to other causes, such as changes in the price of wheat and the depredations of the chinch bugs. According to the reports of the United States Department of Agriculture, the acreage increased from 1860 to 1863, remained about constant in 1864 and fell off very considerably in 1865 though still re- maining at a higher figure in the latter year than in 1860.^* According to the figures furnished in the reports of the Secre- tary of State, however, the acreage in 1864 was slightly less than in 1860 while a large decline was reported for 1865.^" The decline in acreage in 1865 can, however, be largely ac- counted for as a result of the ravages of the chinch bug during the preceding year, when the average yield for the whole state was reduced to 8.4 bushels peir acre.^^ It is probable, too, that the heavy decline in the price of wheat in the spring of 1865 had considerable effect in diminishing the acreage sowed to that crop in that year.^^ It appears that the effect of the war upon the acreage cropped to wheat was in general manifested in a slower increase of the wheat area than would otherwise have been the case, though even this is doubtful in view of the higher prices ajid of the introduction of labor-saving machinery due to the war. The prevailing current opinion of the time was also to the effect that the war had little effect in diminishing the area sown to wheat.^' Up to December 31, 1864, "Wisconsin furnished 75,000 " See Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1861-68, pp. 26-30. " See Table IV. 21 See Table V. ^ See Table VII. ==In the General Report (1868) accompanying the Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1861-1868, p. 25, it is said that the women and children, led by the patriots who were either unable or were not needed to wield the weapons of war, had "carried forward the arts .of peace with undiminished results;" see also ibia., p. 84 (Report for 1861). See IMd., 1887, p. 39. See, however. ma., 1861-68, p. 100 (Report for 1862) where a serious failure In the wheat crop in some parts of the state was attributed in part to a partial de- ficiency of the working force by reason of the large numbers of farmers who had enlisted In the ranks of war. [355] 62 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN men for the federal service,^* and by the end of the war this number had increased to 91,379 men or one man for every nine of the inhabitants of the state.'^^ The withdrawal of so large a proportion of the working force of the state without serious detriment to industry was due in part to the remoteness of Wis- consin from the scene of conflict, but most of all to the extra- ordinary introduction of labor-saving machinery in response to the higher prices for wheat and the scarcity of labor. Even by 1860 the use of improved farm machinery had increased greatly and it was estimated in that year that the farmers of the state would expend not less than $2,000,000 in the purchase of im- plements and machinery alone.^^ Upon the breaking out of the war, however, the movement was greatly accelerated^^ and latent ingenuity was awakened to bring forth numerous inven- tions, while capital was soon diverted for the manufacture of the improved machinery now made more necessary than ever.^* In 1862 an "unprecedented quantity of reapers and mowers" were sold within the state,^° and the movement gathered impetus with the progress of the war. Numberless improvements in im- plements and machinery were exhibited at the state fair in 1864 and in the following years.'" Reapers that did satisfactory work were constructed by a man named Warner of Prairie du Sac, and by E. W. Skinner of Madison, and John F. Appleby of Mazomanie was led to turn his attention, while performing the duties of a soldier, to the problem of evolving a self-binding at- tachment for the harvester, until he finally succeeded in perfect- ing the famous binding attachment which bears his name.*^ The ingenuity of the mechanic and of the inventor in the north- ^Qua/rt. Jourl. Econom., SO: 276. 2= Wisconam State Census Report, 1895. Part III., p. t1. 2« Wis. Farmer, 12: 293-95. Regret was expressed that tally seven-eighths of this expenditure would be made outside of the state, Including from ©00 to 1,000 threshing machines at $400 to $475 each from Ohio and New York, and from 5,000 to 10,000 reapers from various points without the state. ^ Trans, of State Agrtc. Soc, 1861-68, p. 84 (Rep. for 1861). » See Hlbbard, Hist, of Agrle. In Dane Oo., p. 131 ft. Also Wis. Farmer, ISt 196. ™ Wis. Farmer, 14: 282-83. «> Trans, of State Agric. Soc., 1861-68, pp. 199, 220, 221, 257, 258, 288, 323- 24. " Hlbbard, supra. [356] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 63 em workshop in the creation of labor-saving machinery for the farm doubtless had as much to do with the successful issue of the war as the valor of the soldier in the northern army.*^ The introduction of improved machinery in the state did not, how- ever, cease with the war. An automatic wire grain binder, per- fected by S. D. Carpenter of Madison, received special notice at the exhibition of the State Agricultural Society in 1867, as dis- pensing with the services of five field hands and having numer- ous useful attachments.^' George Esterly, the inventor of the Esterly "header"'* had directed his ingenuity toward the per- fection of the Esterly Seeder and Cultivator, of which he manu- factured in 1868 not less than 5,000 valued at $400,000. During the same year, the J. I. Case Company at Raciae was marketing threshers, horsepowers, truck wagons, straw stackers and other implements, to the value of $1,000,000 annually in all parts of the United States. Reapers and mowers were extensively manu- factured at Beloit, Janesville, Madison, and "Whitewater, while various other farm implements were manufactured at the latter place as well as at Berlin and Horieon.'^ The unfortunate as- pect of all this activity in the introduction of improved farm machinery was that it stimulated the extensive cultivation of the soil so that efforts for a thorough and systematic management were relaxed and, in many portions of the state, exclusive crop- ping to wheat with its ruinous results went on more assiduously than ever.'* Examination of the chart representing the wheat area in 1869 reveals how the wheat crop continued to envelop the state." Toward the northeast and in the western part of the state, wheat had extended its sway and increased its hold. In the south-central part of the state, too, the close of the decade found ^ See Trans, of State Agric. 8oc., 1861-68, p. 38 ; 1887, p. 39. Also article In tbe Quart. Jour. Boon., 20: 258-78, on TJie agricultnrai development oj tfie West during the civil war, by Emerson D. Fite. M Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1861-68, p. 324. « See above, p. 32, note 73. s" Trams, of State Agrio. Soc, 1861-68, pp. 53, 54 "lUa., pp. 38-40. See also, Kessinger, L., Hist, of Buffalo County (1887) p. 372. See below Part II, Chapter IX, note 12. " See ngnre 3. [357] 64 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN wheat apparently more completely dominant than in 1859. Only in the southern part of the state had wheat begun to yield its sway. The river counties, St. Croix, Buffalo, and Trempealeau, now held first, second and third place, respectively, in importance, having displaced the south-central group. The other river coun- ties. Pierce, La Crosse, Vernon, Pepin, and Crawford, had also increased greatly in importance, though still outranked by the south-central counties, and by others of the forested region. St. Croix, Buffalo, Vernon, Pepin and Crawford showed a consider- able increase in the per capita yield of "other crops" combined but not comparable to the increase in wheat. Trempealeau, Pierce, and La Crosse on the other hand showed actual losses in the per capita yield of "other crops" taken as a whole. This section illustrates during the decade the extremest tendency toward specialization in wheat in the history of the industry within the state.**^ St. Croix, Buffalo and Trempealeau counties showed a per- capita yield of 74.6, 51.0 and 48.1 bushels respectively. In yield per square mile of improved land, the four river counties, Buf- falo, St. Croix, Trempealeau, and Pierce stood at the head with 6,131, 5,072, 4,869 and 4,790 bushels respectively. Tne yield per square mile in these counties is more significant as there was a considerable population engaged in lumbering, thus add- ing to the total population without adding to the amount of im- proved land, and consequently to the amount of wheat raised. Oats constituted the largest item in "other crops" in this sec- tion, but showed important gain only in St. Croix and Buffalo counties. Potatoes showed a marked decline siuce 1859. On the whole, little tendency toward stock growing was apparent. St. Croix county revealed a most marked absence of live stock, ex- cept in reference to horses.'' All of the counties of this section, except St. Croix and Polk, reflected in a moderate way the gen- eral increase in sheep, — Vernon showing a little more and Trem- " See above, p. 56, however, for table of per capita yields in 1860 In Green Lake, Dane, Walworth, and Rock counties. The year 1860, however, represents an unusual yield, rather than extreme specialization. "" Significant as reflecting the extreme specialization in the growing of grain, especially of wheat. [358] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 65 pealeau a little less than the average number per capita for the state as a whole. There was a decline in the number of swine, except in Crawford county. Buffalo and Trempealeau counties showed a rather important increase in the number of milch cows. Buffalo, Crawford, Pepin, and Vernon showed some increase in "other cattle," the increase being marked in the ease of Buf- falo. The dominance of grain farming in this section is re- flected in that the number of horses was in general a little above the average for the state.^' The south-central group of counties consisting of Dodge, Co- lumbia, Dane, and Green Lake are next in importance. They had increased in absolute importance in wheat growing, but not to such an extent as some counties of the previous group, and had thus been displaced in rank. Dodge, however, retained fourth place. Columbia dropped from third to fifth place, and Dane*" from second to sixth place. Green Lake had suffered the greatest relative decline of all, dropping from first to seventh place. In each ease, these counties had increased more rapidly in the per capita yield of other crops combined than in that of wheat, but not to such an extent as to indicate that the acreage devoted to those crops had increased faster than the acreage devoted to wheat. Green Lake county had made quite a small increase in per capita yield of wheat as well as of "other crops. "*^ The other coun- ties showed an increase in per capita yield of wheat amounting to 20 per cent, to 40 per cent., and an increase in respect to other crops of 40 per cent, to 60 per cent. There was no net increase of milch cows in the section as a whole, though Dane and Dodge showed some increase in this respect. The number of swine had declined generally. The increase in the number of sheep was, however, marked, particularly in Columbia and Green Lake counties. There was a net loss in the number of "other cattle," while there was a marked increase in the number of " In general, the Increase in live stock In this section was only such as might be expected from the recent settlement of the country. "Dane county suffered a reduced per capita yield partly on account of the growth of Madison. " It will he noticed that Green Lake county reached the maximum of wheat growing a little earlier than the other counties of the group. 5 [359] 66 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN horses." On the whole, little tendency toward a more diversi- fied agriculture is apparent and even that was confined to the in- crease in "other crops''*^ and the increase in the number of sheep. Iowa county should be grouped with the (south-eeiatral counties in 1869. There was similar increase in wheat and in other crops. The increase in live stock was, however, much more important. The increase was considerable in milch cows, and marked in "other cattle" and in horses. Jefferson county showed considerable increase in the importance of wheat during the decade, and can, perhaps, be included with the other south- central counties ; but there was a stronger tendency toward other crops, the per capita yield having doubled during the decade.** The movement in reference to stock growing was entirely com- parable to that in the other south-central counties. Waukesha county may be grouped with the southern counties, Rock, Walworth, Kenosha, Racine, Green, Lafayette, and Grant, as having decliaed both absolutely and relatively in the culture of wheat during the decade ; but the decrease was slight in that county and in Grant county. The increase in the production of ' ' other crops ' ' was marked in this section, ranging from 50 per cent, to 100 per cent. Potatoes, corn and barley showed the largest increase. Oats replaced barley in the southwestern counties, in ra- pidity of increase. Except in Eacine county, there was a marked increase in the total number of live stock per capita. The increase in the number of sheep was large, especially in Kenosha and Walworth and the other southeastern counties. Swine increased to a moderate extent, especially in the southwestern counties. Except in Racine county, there was a marked increase in the number of horses.*^ In the southwestern counties there was an « Bee Hlbbard, Hist, of Agric. in Dane Co., 130. *' This increase was large'.y confined to corn, potatoes and oats. The in- crease in potatoes ts most significant. The increase in wheat and other crops together with the increase In live stock seems to contradict the statement of declining productiveness of the soil. In Dane covmty the tobacco crop was be- coming important, 229,568 pounds being produced In 1869. See TaKe XXn. ** Particularly com and potatoes. Jefferson county also produced 14,055 pounds of tobacco in 1869. See Table XXII. *" It does not seem' probable that this increase in horses was entirely in- cidental to grain growing as appears to be the case In other sections. [360] THOMPSON ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 67 important increase in "other eattle," in which Kenosha county also shared.** There was a general increase*^ in the number of milch cows, Kenosha, Lafayette, and Green being noteworthy in this respect. There appears to have been no general movement, however, toward dairying. It is plain that in this section there was a strong movement away from the exclusive culture of wheat, but a movement which as yet had taken no special direction.*^ Nevertheless, wheat re- mained in general the most important single crop and wheat growing continued to be the most important single pursuit; and it must be acknowledged that where wheat continues to be raised to the extent of from 22 to 24 bushels per capita, there still ex- ists considerable specialization in respect to that crop. The east- em counties, in general, showed a strong tendency toward in- creased importance in wheat growing. Pond du Lac, however, remained almost stationary in respect to wheat, as also in refer- ence to "other crops." There was considerable increase in the number of sheep, but other live stock remained stationary. Li fact. Fond du Lac county showed great stability in every respect during the decade. Winnebago county is entirely comparable in most respects to Fond du Lac county. Kewaunee county suffered a marked decline in wheat growing, as the total number of bushels of wheat raised in 1869 was less than in 1859, though population had doubled and improved land more than quadrupled. With the exception of these three counties, the eastern counties resemble the river counties. There was similar proportional increase in the cultivation of wheat and the same indifference to "other crops." The increase in the number of milch cows in Calumet, Ozaukee and Washington counties was comparable to that in Buffalo and Trempealeau counties. ' ' Other cattle" and horses were leas important in the eastern counties, while sheep were more numerous. The absolute importance of the wheat industry was much smaller in the eastern counties. " Walwortli county also increased to some extent in "other cattle" *' Racine must be again excepted. " The tobacco crop was becoming Important in Rock and Walworth countira. The former county produced C45,508 pounds in 1869 out of a total produetion of 960,813 pounds for the entire state. Walworth produced 46,136 pounds during the same year. (See table XXII). [361] 68 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN though the tendency toward wheat was quite as strong. The land was being sowed to wheat, apparently, as fast as it was cleared. We find a diversity of movement in the interior counties. Rich- land and Sauk showed a slight loss in wheat, probably due in part to the cultivation of hops, as "other crops" increased but slightly. There was considerable increase in the number of- sheep in both counties and of "other cattle" in Richland county.*' The same general stability appeared in the case of Waupaca and Waushara counties, and the increase in wheat was slight. Potatoes were comparatively unimportant as yet, while considerable rye was raised in Waushara county. The re- maining interior counties showed considerable gain in wheat, the increase being most marked in Monroe and Jackson.^" The mod- erate increase in "other crops" in the counties of this section consisted of an increase in oats in the northern counties, and of an increase in potatoes and rye in the southern counties of the group. Milch cows were unimportant except in Marquette county. Sheep had increased in number generally, but were especially numerous in Adams, Marquette, and Waushara coun- ties. "Other cattle" were important in Adams and Marquette counties. On the whole, the tendency toward wheat was general and well defined, but was modified by the cultivation of other crops and by the live stock industry in some counties. Lumber- ing was an important industry at this time in this section and agriculture was slowly increasing in importance as compared with the non-forested region to the south. To summarize, we may say that in general the eastern and the river counties were tending strongly to wheat, — ^the river coun- ties being far more important in the culture of that crop, and near their maximum ; while the eastern counties were less impor- tant but destined to increase in the future. In the south-central portion there was high specialization in wheat, but evidence of a change about to take place. The situation was somewhat simi- " Swine were quite numerous In both counties. =" Other counties showed a greater proportional Increase, e. g., Marquette county. During the decade a railroad had been opened through Jackson and parti; through Monroe and Eau Claire counties. (See Ffgnre 9.) [362] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 69 lar in the central counties, thougli wheat was of far less abso- lute importance. In the southern counties the wheat industry maintained considerable importance, but had decliaed greatly. Stock raising, together with the growing of com, barley and po- tatoes in the southeast, and of com and oats in the southwest was taking the place of wheat. The most noticeable increase in stock growing in the state as a whole was in sheep and horses, — the number of sheep having increased from .40 to 1.00 per cap- ita, and the number of horses having increased from .15 to .24 per capita. Taking the state as a whole, the increase in swiue, milch cows and "other cattle" was slight. Dairying was thus of small importance as yet, except in a few counties to which refer- ence has already been made.°^ There was a comparatively small increase in oats in the state as a whole. The increase in the com crop was more important. Potatoes increased from 4.9 bushels to 6.3 bushels per capita. Barley made a good gain, but was still quite unimportant. The per capita yield of "other crops" combined increased about 37 per cent, while wheat increased from 20.18 bushels to 24.28 bushels, an increase of 20 per cent. This would indicate that wheat came very nearly holding its own in the state as a whole, as compared with other crops.^^ Improved land increased 57.5 per cent, during the decade. The acreage in wheat in 1859 was probably about 1,000,000 acres.^' The estimated acreage for 1869 was 1,568,627 acres,^* a considerable decline from the pre- vious two years. This would give an increase in acreage amount- ing to about 57 per cent., thus indicating that wheat had de- clined little in importance and strengthening the conclusion de- rived from comparing the increase in per capita yield of wheat and the similar increase in respect to other crops. This conclu- sion seems also to agree with the position taken in the Trcmsac- '1 The cultivation of flax was of some importance In Iowa and Kenosha coun- ties. (Eighth Census). Pulse was an important crop In Manitowoc, Marathon, and Sheboygan counties. (Ibid.) ^' Equal Increase in acreage planted to wheat and to "other crops" combined ought to produce double the increase of total yield in the latter case. "The estimate for the year 1860 contained in the Rep. of Milwaukee Cham- Iyer of Com. for that year, was 1,062,097. « Rep. of U. S. Dep. of Agrie. for 1869, p. 30. [363] 70 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN tions of the State AgricvM-wral Society for 1868, that while the "old rule of wheat, wheat, wheat" seemed to be giviag away at that time to a more rational practice, yet that during "aU the past years since 1860" wheat had scarcely lost prestige with the farmers, who because of the scarcity of labor essential to the cultivation of all hoed crops, the increase of mechanical facil- ities for harvesting and a steady increase in price had cultivated it with even more than former zeal and energy.'' "iSep. for 1861-68 p. 33. [364] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 71 CHAPTER III THE DECADE 1870 to 1880 The decade 1870-1880 opens with depression in the wheat in- dustry in Wisconsin,^ and with strained relations between the farmers and the railroads.^ Between these two sets of cir- cumstances there was a significant connection. Would the farmers be able to force such an increase ia facilities of transportation and decrease in freight rates as would enable them to market their wheat with profit, or would they be compelled to substi- tute other farm pursuits, in which transportation played a minor part, in the place of wheat growing? Facilities of transportation increased greatly during the decade and rates declined, though not equitably.^ But these advantages were shared by the re- gions farther west* and tjompetition thus robbed the wheat grow- " In an article by W. D. Hoard in The Tenth Ann. Rep. of fhe Wis. Dairy- men's Assoc, p. 63 ff., tile statement is made that the average yield of wheat had fallen oft fully fifty per cent, from 1850 to 1870 (probably an exagger- .ation) on account of wasteful methods of agriculture; that the price, too, was fast lessening at the latter period, while habits of extravagance had been en- gendered by the war, and that there thus resulted a general awakening to the fact that an increasing rather than a declining revenue must be had on the farm. See also Farmers' Inst. Bulletvn., Wis. No. 2, p. 196. Also Bparta Herald, May 4, 11, and 18, 1869. See Jefferson Bamner, Aug. 4, 1869 ; July 13 and Aug. 24, 1870. See Historical Atlas of Wisconsin, p. 161, — Snyder, Van Vechten and Co. : 1878. For «. description of conditions in the various counties of the state at the beginning .of this decade, see Trans, of State Agile. Soc., 1870. p. 375 If. 2 See Madison Democrat, May 31, 1869 ; Aug. 18, 1869. Trans, of State Agrie. Soc. 1809, pp. '81. 82, 138 £E. " See below pp. 147-96. ■* See Northwestern Miller, Apr. 18, 1879 for an article on Tfte New North- west, where reference is mad!> to the thousands and tens of thousands pouring into western Minnesota and eastern Dakota as a result of the extension of rall- roa'd facilities into those regions. See lUa , Nov. 29, 1878. See Trans, of State Agric. Soc. 1878-79, p. 213 ff : 1881-82, p. 181 ; Rep. of the Industrial Commission, 10: 37, 86, 180, 188, 266, 366, 843, et al. (1900). See J. L. Coulter, History of Agriculture in the Red River Valley (In course of prepara- tion as a doctor's thesis. University of Wisconsin). [365] 72 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN ers of Wisconsin of the expected benefits. In the meantime the more enterprising farmers had turned their attention from wheat growing to other pursuits which promised according to their no- tion a larger and more certain revenue. Great but not insur- mountable difficulties were encountered. Slowly but surely a new order of things began to prevail and by the close of the decade the agriculture of many portions of the state was transformed." It is thus within the decade 1870-1880 that wheat growing suf- fered its first serious decline in the state as a whole; and, no longer offering exceptional advantages, gave way to farm pur- suits in which peculiar advantages were afforded on account of natural and social reasons. The wheat crops of the years 1870 and 1871 were below the average on account of rust, drought and the ravages of insects. The crop of 1872 was, however, a full average crop, and that of the year 1873 was a bumper crop. Prices were fairly good, but advantage was taken of the heavy movement of traffic to push up the rates of freight, until the farmer complained that it cost him all his wheat was worth to get it to market. During 1874, 75 and 76, the chinch bugs again ravaged the wheat fields in the southern and central parts of the state. The north- em and eastern parts of the state were exempt from the pest and there good crops were secured.* The crop of 1877 was again a good one, of large yield and good quality, and on account of the war between Russia and Turkey, the foreign demand was good and prices were better than for several years. This was suffie'.ent to encourage the wheat growers again and an increased acreage was sowed in 1878.'^ Unfavorable weather conditions greatly injured the crop when near being matured, and as there was an immense crop in the United States as a whole," the price ' See below pp. 80-1. See Trans, of State Agric. 8oe., 1875-76, p. 374 IT ; 1877-78. p. 100 ff ; 1888, p. 180. -\lso Second Ann. Rep., Wis. Dairymen's As- soc, pp. 9-12. Tbid., Seventh Ann. Rep., p. 29. Also Trans. Northern Wis. .igric. and Mechnnics Assoc, 1880-81, pp. 68-70. " Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1874-75, pp. 23. 133-35 ; 1875-76. pp. 23. 328 ; 1876-77, pp. 140-44. See Rep. of MilicauTcee Chamber of Com. for 1877. ' See Table TV. See Trans, of State Agric. Boo., 1876-77, p. 227 ff ; 1877-78, pp. 41-2: 1878-79, p. 1. " See Table VI. [366] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 73 declined, so that the iinf ortunate wheat grower , in "Wiscon- sin lost, both coming and going. The crop of 1879 seems to have been a good average crop as far as total yield was concerned, but the yield per acre had been declining and the average for the state was low.* The relation of the facts concerning the wheat crops of the decade is thus painfully similar to that of previous decades. There was the same alternation of short crops, average crops and bumper crops; the same story of drouth, of rust, of insect rav- ages. There were the same assertions of declining yield and the same statement of high yields. There was much condemnation of exclusive cropping to wheat and an occasional acknowledg- ment that it was still the staple of the state and likely to so con- tinue so long as there was so much money in it. There was the same old complaint about the extortions of the railroads, though competition was so keen in 1879 that in some places wheat was carried for nothing.^* These apparently contradictory assertions are probably all true if said of a particular place at a particular time. Conditions varied so much in different parts of the state even during the same year that general statements can hardly be made with any degree of accuracy. Inspection of the wheat chart for 1879 and comparison with that of 1869^^ show the partial withdrawal of the wheat indus- try- from the central and southern portions of the state. The wheat area in "Wisconsin had divided into two parts, which the rapid decline of the following two decades was to diminish and leave as remnants on the eastern and western borders. For the present, though, there had been further extension in the ex- treme northeast, and in the far northwest, and wheat had in- • Sec T^ble V. '"Hist, of Fond du Lac County (West Hist. Co., 1880). p. 694. For failure in wheat cnltnre see Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1871, p. 241 ; 1874-75, pp. 23, 141, 375 : 1S75-76, pp. 305, 343, 377 ; 1877-78, p. 101 ; 1878-79, p. 1. See also ma.. 1870. p. 11 ff. and 1872-73, p. 159. For view that wheat Is the "great staple" and must so contlnne, see Ibid., 1872-73, p. 388 ; 1873, crop snmmary ; 1875-6. p. 336. For complaint of Inadequate facilities of trsinsportatlon and high freights, see Ihid., 1872-73. p. 159: 1873-74, pp. 55, 93, 174, 196, 233, 297, 429-35: 1875-76, pp. 73, 377. " See Figures 3 and 4. [367] 74 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN creased in importance around Green Bay, and in Polk, Barron, and Burnett counties. By referring to Table III, it is seen that the numerical index of specialization is smaller than in 1869 in the case of every order of rank from the first to the last place. By reference to Table IV, however, it is seen that in the case of particular counties w'heat was more important than in 1869. The river counties, St. Croix, Buffalo and Pierce, held first, sec- ond and third places respectively, with Trempealeau fifth, Polk eighth and Pepin eleventh. That section thus maintained its dominance in wheat growing. St. Croix, Buffalo, Trempealeau counties, together with the other older river counties, had, how- ever, decreased considerably in absolute importance, while the newer counties. Pierce, Polk and Pepin, had increased. Still, all the counties of this group uniformly showed a moderate gain in "other crops," though to a greatly varying extent. Buffalo and St. Croix showed but small increase in this respect, while Pierce and especially Trempealeau showed considerable gain. In Vernon and Crawford counties the gain in "other crops" was large. Generally speaking, this gain in "other crops" repre- sented decline in wheat growing. Inspection of the tables for "other crops" shows that the increase was pretty well distributed among all the different crops. This indicates that the farmers of this section, finding the growing of wheat less profitable than formerly, were casting about for a substitute crop, without hav- ing decided on any particular crop as yet. Further increase in the number of milch cows in Buffalo, Crawford, Trempealeau and Vernon counties shows how some farmers were solving the prob- lem. Crawford and Vernon counties particularly reflect the gen- eral increase in the number of swine. Sheep had scarcely held their own during the decade. "Other cattle" had increased most of all. Buffalo and Pepin showed a moderate decline in this respect, while in Crawford, Pierce and Trempealeau counties the increase was marked. There was a general increase in the num- ber of horses, which was marked in Vernon and Crawford counties.^^ So far, then, as there was a change from wheat cul- ^2 It would appear that the Increase In horses is too marked to be consid- ered as merely incidental to grain growing. [368] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 75 ture to tlie live stock industry in this section, it was in general in the direction of "other cattle" and horses, though dairying was increasing in a few counties in an important way. Wheat remained, however, by far the most important single crop and its cultivation the most important pursuit. When we turn to the south-central group of counties we find a very striking decline in wheat growing.^' Dodge county pre- sented a partial exception to this statement, having declined only from fourth to seventh place, while Green Lake held sev- enteenth place, Columbia, twenty-sixth, and Dane, thirty-seventh place. Jefferson retained thirty-third place, though showing an absolute decline in importance. All these counties showed large gain in other crops. Inspection of the separate tables for other crops proves that this increase was especially in com, oats and barley, — the latter crop showing the most noteworthy in- crease.^* Turning to the tables for live stock, we find here a notice- able increase. Foremost in significance if not in actual num- bers was the increase in the number of milch cows. This in- crease was marked in Jefferson county. This tendency repre- sented the growth of the dairy industry in this section and was really the index of the displacement of wheat, as corn and oats are crops largely supplementary to dairying. There was a con- siderable increase in th« number of swine, however, and this helps to account for the increasing amount of corn grown. Sheep showed considerable increase in Columbia and Green Lake coun- ties. "Other cattle" had in general almost doubled in impor- tance, while horses shared to some extent in the general gain. By referring again to Table III, it is seen that the decline in wheat growing was much more marked in Dane than in the other counties of this group. This is explained by the marked in- crease in the tobacco crop in Dane county, that county produc- ing 5,371,242 pounds in 1879 or a little over 50 per cent, of the. entire crop of the state for that year. Jefferson also produced a considerable amount of tobacco.^' '" See Blgure 4. " In Columbia and Green Lake counties, rye showed a similar decrease. " See Table XXII. See Hibbard, Rift, of Agrio. in Dane Go., 155-75. [369] 76 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN We may sum up the facts in reference to this section by say- ing that there had been a great decline in wheat growing and that general farming had taken its place preparatory to the more specialized industry of dairying, which showed a most signfiicant, but as yet, not striking growth. In Dane county, the tobacco crop had to an important extent added to the general displace- ment of wheat. The eastern and northeastern counties showed uniform in- crease in the importance of the wheat crop, except Calumet, Sheboygan and Winnebago counties, which had suffered a mod- erate decline. The continued influence of the forest environment in causing a more gradual and more prolonged development of the wheat industry was the most characteristic feature. Other crops had increased as well as wheat, — had, in fact, almost doubled in per capita yield in the three counties in which wheat had decliued.^" One gets the impression in respect to this section that wheat had never been the one overwhelming crop. It re- mained, however, by far the most important single crop. Barley was the only other crop showing noteworthy increase, though small in absolute importance as yet. The small though, in general, increasing importance of the live stock industry in this section was characteristic, though Calumet, Fond du Lac, and Washington counties present a par- tial exception to this statement. The most general increase in live stock was in milch cows and in "other cattle." In Calu- met, Ozaukee, Sheboygan, and Washington counties the increase in mUch cows was noteworthy. Fond du Lac, Kewaunee, and Manitowoc counties also showed some gain in milch cows. ' ' Other cattle" showed the most general increase. Sheep had remained about stationary. There had been a moderate increase in the number of horses in most of the counties of this section. In Calumet, Ozaukee, Sheboygan, and Washington counties this increase was important. The general tendency away from the wheat crop in the state as a whole was in this section reflected rather in its more slowly increasing importance. Undoubtedly the large home market for "Outagamie also had a llttie more than doubled "other crops." [370] THOMPSON WHEAT GEOWING IN WISCONSIN 77 bread-stuffs and the importance of the milling industry in this section had contributed to the stability of the wheat industry." The southern tier of counties had almost abandoned wheat growing. Iowa and Walworth constitute partial exceptions, the decline there being comparable to that of the south-central group. In ftock, Kenosha, Green, Lafayette, and Grant (to a less extent), the decline in wheat growing was excessive. The ravages of the chinch bug had been an important factor in this displacement of wheat. What had taken the place of wheat in this group? "Other crops" coimbiaed show a marked increase, amounting to from 60 per cent, to 100 per cent This increase was most marked in com, which had increased about 100 per cent, in most of the counties. Oats showed the next largest increase, — from 50 per cent, to 100 per cent. Potatoes had declined, while Rock and Walworth counties showed important increase in the amount of barley raised. In Rock county, tobacco had displaced wheat to an extent comparable to that already noticed in reference to Dane county, though the increase in the tobacco crop was a little less marked. Several of the other counties of this group had also turned to tobacco, though in a much less important degree. It is when we turn to examine the tables for live stock, how- ever, that we get a full comprehension of the great change in agriculture in the southern counties during the decade. Milch cows had increased to a striking extent, — especially in Green, Iowa, Lafayette, Rock, and Walworth counties. Green county^* now held first place among the counties of the state both in the number of milch cows and in the rapidity of increase during the decade.^' The increase in ' ' other cattle," in swine, and in horses, together with a moderate in- " See below p. 105. " "The worn-out wheat fields of Green county are being refertilized by the thousands of cows which find pasture where poor crops of grain and big crops of chinch bugs us'ed to flourish, and the whole community saved from distress the past year by the great change In husbandry." Quoted from the Monroe Sentinel in the Seventh Ann. Rep. of the Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 125. " Here natural and social factors combined In an especial way to favor dairying, and It is proof of the strong Influences tending to retain wheat aa the staple crop that dairying did not displace that industry at a much earlier period. See Bulletin of the Agric. Exper. Station, Univ. of Wis., No. 00, p. IS. [371] 78 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN crease in the number of sheep showed, however, that the move- ment toward dairying was accompanied by a movement toward general stock raising. In the marked tendency away from wheat growing, dairying occupied a growing but as yet not a domin- ant, position. Waukesha comity remained just about constant during the decade in reference to the wheat crop. Stability characterized the development of its agriculture during the decade. The ia- crease iu the per capita yield of other crops combined amounted to nearly 50 per cent., and was distributed among the various crops, with the exception of potatoes, which showed a decline. The increase in. the amount of barley grown was noteworthy. There was a general increase in all kinds of live stock, includ- ing milch cows as representing dairying. In this general in- crease wheat shared to a very trifling extent. It remained, however, the most important single crop. The interior group of counties showed diversity in respect to the development of the wheat industry during the decade. Eau Claire, Richland, and Burnett counties showed increased importance in wheat growing, Dunn and Clark remained about constant, while the remaining counties had decUned in that re- spect.^" On the whole, this section showed a very considerable decline in wheat growing. Other crops showed very consider- able increase. Adams, i\Iarquette, and Waushara counties had to considerable extent substituted rye for wheat. Juneau, JMarquette, Portage, Sauk, Waupaca, and Waushara counties showed a tendency toward potatoes. Oats, in a general way, shared in the displacement of the wheat crop. Adams, Marquette, Rich- land, and Waushara counties reflected in an especial way the general tendency toward dairying, by a considerable increase in the number of cows. The general movement in the state as a whole in reference to swine and sheep was reflected by an increase in the number of swine and stationary conditions as to sheep. As in other sections of the state, there was a noteworthy increase in the number of "other cattle" and a moderate in- crease in the number of horses. '° Barron is indeterminate, but shows considerable absolute importance In wheat growing. [372] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 79 The characteristic feature in this section is that there was already a strong tendency toward rye and potatoes, which were in the fmture to replace wheat to an increasing extent. That is, there was a growing specialization in reference to particular crops other than wheat. Peculiarities of soil afford the ex- planation of this tendency. On the other hand, there was no particular tendency toward specialization in the live stock in- dustry. The wheat crop was still one of much importance in many of the counties, and the whole section presented the case of a general increase in the importance of agriculture in which wheat failed to share to the same extent as other crops and other pursuits. In the state as a whole, the per capita yield of wheat declined from 24.28 bushels to 18.92 bushels, or about 22 per cent. The yield per square mile of improved land declined from 2,778 bushels to 1,709 bushels, or about 38J4 per cent. The per capita yield of oats increased during the decade from 19.1 bushels to 25.0 bushels, or a little more than 30 per cent. Com increased from a per capita yield of 14.2 bushels to 26.0 bushels, — an in- crease of about 83 per cent. In the state as a whole, the in- crease in the importance of the potato crop was small. Rye and barley were unimportant crops as yet in the state as a whole, but barley increased from 1.6 bushels per capita in 1869 to 3.8 bushels per capita in 1879, — an increase of 137)4 per cent. On the whole, the movement away from wheat was not marked by specialization in the growing of any particular crop though oats and rye had increased less rapidly than com and barley. In particular sections, however, there was some evi- dence of such specialization. Attention has already been called'^ to the tendency toward barley in the eastern and southeastern counties and to the tendency toward rye and potatoes in some of the central counties. A further exception must be made in reference to the tobacco crop in Dane and Rock counties. In a like manner there seems to have been a tendency toward general stock raising in the state as a whole rather than to specialization in any particular line.^'' This statement also » See above pp. 76, 78. '^ The growth of the live stock industry Is paralleled hy an Increase from 1.22 tons of hay per capita to 1.45 per capita. Other forage crops Increased as well. [373] 80 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN holds good for the individual counties. The number of swine had increased from 0.5 per capita to 0.9 per capita, — or nearly- double the number in 1869. Sheep had remained stationary at 1.0 per capita. Horses had increased from .24 to .27 per capita, the increase being general except in the southeastern part of the state, and most important in some of the newer counties where there was a gain in agriculture at the expense of lumber- ing. The most general and most important increase in live stock, however, seems to have been in "other cattle" which in- creased from .31 per capita to .47 per capita, — a larger increase than that of all the other decades since 1850 combined. The in- crease in the number of milch cows from .29 to .36 per capita was well distributed over the state, every county with at least .30 per capita in 1879, showing increase during the decade. The increase in milch cows was particularly important, however, in those counties of the southern part of the state which had declined most rapidly in the growing of wheat. The dairy in- dustry had made an important place for itself in the farm economy of the state; but it was not yet dominant and shared with other pursuits the tendency away from wheat. "Wheat still remained the most important single crop in the state as a whole and, according to the Tenth Census, the acreage in wheat in the state as a whole was about equal to the acreage in com and oats combined. But even this was a great change and a great improvement. It meant the cessation of fanning to wheat year after year and the possibility of rotation in wheat culture. It meant the raising of other crops which formed the basis of the live stock industry and thus the retention on the farm of the elements of soil fertility. It meant a partial solu- tion at least of the problem of transportation as it affected the farmer. Not the least of all it meant a better and happier life for the farmer, — more stable and more prosperous conditions and a larger sphere for the exercise and cultivation of all his faculties. The situation at the end of the decade is thus summed up in the TransactiorCs of the State Agricultural Society.^ "As our herd increase, our acres of grass multiply and a « Trans., 1879-80, pp. xxl and xxH. [374] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 81 better system of farming is being pursued in Wisconsin. Sec- tions of wheat are a thing of the past. Mixed husbandry is universal and our people are wiser, happier and richer there- for. ... It may be truthfully said that the farmers of Wisconsin have reached the time and laid hold of the principles promulgated by the order of the Patrons of Husbandry 'that they would sell on the hoof and in the fleece and not from the half -bushel. ' It may safely be said that Wisconsin has passed that period of speculation, heavy loans, and exhorbitant in- terest, incident to the settlement of a new state and has now entered upon a career of stability and solid, permanent growth. ' ' 82 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN CHAPTER IV THE DECAI>E 1880 to 1890 If it was during the decade 1870-1880 that wheat growing suffered its first serious decline ia Wisconsin, and if it was dur- ing the same decade that the other crops and other pursuits which were to displace wheat first took firm hold, it remained for the following decade to see these tendencies, under the in- fluence of the varying conditions that prevailed, work out their full effect in almost completely driving wheat growing from the state. Comparison of the charts for 1879 and 1889 reveals the extraordinary extent to which this occurred. It was as if some mighty power had brushed to right and to left, leaving but a few patches of wheat on the outside 6dges of the state. The acreage sowed to wheat declined during the decade from 1,948,160 acres to 744,080 acres, — a decrease of 62 per cent. The total yield declined from 24,884,689 bushels in 1879 to 11,698,922 bushels in 1889, — a decrease of 53 per cent. The per capita j'ield declined from 18.92 bushels to 6.94 bushels, — a decrease of 63 per cent., while the yield per square mile of improved land declined from 1,709 bushels in 1879 to 764 in 18S9, — a decrease of about 55 per cent. Whereas in 1879 the acreage ia wheat amounted to as much as that in com and oats combined, in 1889 the acreage in com alone was one and one-half times and the acreage in oats alone two and one-fifth times as great as the acreage in wheat. Even barley now exceeded wheat in yield per capita, the relative yields for the whole state being 9.0 bushels and 6.94 bushels respectively. By referring to Table III, it will be seen that the county that ranked first in 1889 was of no greater absolute importance than the county that ranked fourteenth in 1879. Every county without exception had declined in importance in wheat culture [376] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 83 and every section shared in the decrease. The decline was so extreme as to ahnost blot out differences between different sec- tions and disarrange the method of grouping previously fol- lowed.^ Buffalo, one of the river counties, held first place, but St. Croix which occupied that place in 1879 had by an un- paralleled decline dropped to forty-fiflih place. Pepin stood fifth. Pierce tenth, Vernon twelfth, Trempealeau twentieth, and Polk twenty-second. The northeastern group of counties held together better, — evidence of the greater stability in that sec- tion — and stood well up toward the top. Calumet ranked second, Washington third, Manitowoc sixth, Kewaunee seventh, Outagamie tenth, — the others standing fairly well up on the list. Of the south-central group of counties. Dodge and Green Lake alone retained any considerable importance. Dodge ranked fourth as against seventh in 1879, but with great absolute de- cline. Green Lake ranked ninth as against seventeenth in 1879. Columbia, Dane, and Jefferson had also declined upwards. At the bottom of the list were the southern counties together with some from the interior group. Monroe ranked eighth, having risen from nineteenth place in 1879. The extraordiaary de- cline of a few counties like St. Croix and Chippewa caused many of the other counties to advance in rank, though having declined greatly in absolute importance. St. Croix and Buffalo counties having stood side by side in rank at every previous census period since they were important enough to be considered at all, a comparison of the two now so widely separated in rank may prove interesting. Other crops — especially oats and potatoes — ^had increased to a considerably greater extent in St. Croix county, during the decade, than in Buffalo county. The same statement holds true with reference • Inspection of the table giving the total yield of wheat in the state for each year shows that It was not until about the middle of the decade that the de- cline in wheat growing in the state as a whole set in seriously. Inspection of the statistics furnished In the reports of the Secretary of State also show how the acreage and total yield for the yarlous counties began to fall off about that time. Reference to the tables giving the ptice of wheat In New York, Chicago, and Milwaukee shows that beginning with about 1884 there was a considerable and prolonged decline Jn the price of wheat. This fact, together with the de- pression already existing in the wheat industry and the further fact that dairying and tobacco growing had already taken a stronig hold, must account in the main for the rapid decline In wheat. [377] 84 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN to live-stock other than milch cows and horses.^ This explains in part the extreme reaction from wheat growing in the former county. Apparently the farmers of St Croix county took ad- vantage of the depression in wheat growing to substitute other crops, and to stock up their farms inasmuch as there had form- erly been an almost entire absence of live stock in that county. Previous excessive specialization in wheat growing in St. Croix county was now followed by a general rush to get out of that and into something else. Apart from the low price of wheat, however, the extraordinary ravages of the chinch bugs consti- tuted an additional very important cause of the decline in the growing of wheat in that county. As the wheat crop afforded the best nurse for the pest, other crops were likewise endangered by the cultivation of that crop and this constituted a further reason for its discontinuance. Later, however, the expedient of sowing other grains with wheat was adopted with considerable success. The chinch bug ceased its depredations to a consid- erable degree, and, after all, the withdrawal from wheat, to so extreme an extent, in St. Croix county proved temporary as that county held second place in wheat growing in 1899.^ Since there was a general decline in wheat and a consequent disarrangement of groups, it is preferable to take up the diff- erent crops and the different branches of live stock and examine to what extent each was instrumental in displacing wheat, rather than to take up the counties by groups. The large increase in the oats crop has already been noted. This increase was gen- eral except in the southeastern counties. The actual increase in aerea^re amounted to 70 per cent. ' Cows increased in number per capita about equally In the two counties, while horses Increased considerably in Buffalo County and decreased slightly in St. Croix county. The decline in horses in St. Croix county was doubtless in- cidental to the decline in wheat growing. " By rererring to the statistics furnished in the report of the Secretary of State it Is seen that the decline In wheat growing In St. Croix county had been going on for seyeral years. The rural population was, however, propor- tionally smaller in St. Croix county and account must be taken of this fact. The above information was obtained In conversation with a man who was engaged in farming in St. Croix county at that period. See also references, p. above, as to the ravages of the chinch bugs In 1887 and proximate years in Wisconsin. [378] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 85 It has been seen that the acreage in corn increased relatively to wheat during the decade. There was practically no actual increase in acreage, however, and the yield, partly on account of a poor crop, declined. Some of the western and interior counties, however, increased considerably in com, — particularly Adams, Buffalo, Dunn, Pepin, Pierce, Portage, Trempealeau, and Waushara. Potatoes increased about 50 per cent, in per capita yield dur- ing the decade. This increase was most marked in the interior and in the western' counties. Adams, Barron, Pierce, Portage, St. Croix, Waupaca, and Waushara were most noteworthy in this respect. Ozaukee, Washington, and Waukesha counties were important in the eastern section. Rye also increased about 50 per cent, in per capita yield in the state as a whole. The increase was distributed to every part of the state except the southeastern counties. Adams, Marquette, Pierce, Polk, St. Croix, Kewaunee, and Manitowoc were among the most important. Barley increased 137 per cent, in per capita yield. The increase in cultivation of this crop was strongly localized and was con- fined chiefly to the eastern, south-central and southeastern counties. Pierce in the west also showed exceptional increase in barley. Milch cows again increased in every county in the state dur- ing the decade. The per capita increase in the state as a whole amounted to .11 per capita, the largest increase for any decade in the history of the state. The increase was not confined to the counties which had declined excessively in wheat growing, but was most important in those counties; it was most marked in the southern and in the eastern sections. Buffalo, Trempeal- eau and Richland counties were especially noteworthy in other parts of the state. Swine declined in the state as a whole from .9 to .8 per capita. In the southwestern counties and in the northern river counties there was some increase. Sheep declined from 1.0 per capita to .6 per capita. There was a slight increase, however, in the western counties. "Other cattle" increased but slightly in the state as a whole, — from .47 to .49 per capita. Not a few counties [379] 86 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN showed a per capita decline in this respect. Grant, Iowa, Lafay- lette, and Trempealeau counties, however, showed very large in- crease in number of "other cattle." Buffalo, Crawford, Jack- son, and Richland counties showed large increase in the same respect. Horses remained at .27 per capita as in 1879. A decUne in horses in the eastern, south-central and southern counties was balanced by a gain in the interior and western counties. The tobacco crop had nearly doubled within the state during the decade. Dane county produced almost as much tobacco in 1890 as was produced in the whole state in 1880. Rock county also showed large increase in this crop, while Jefferson county produced more tobacco in 1890 than Rock county did in 1870, and Rock county in 1870 produced two-thirds of the entire crop of the state. Columbia, Vernon, Greeti, Crawford, Grant, Wal- worth, Lafayette, and Pierce counties also showed large gains in the tobacco crop.* Though the increase in the tobacco crop was by no means so regular and uniform as appears from the figures given at the different census years' there can be no doubt that tobacco was fast displacing wheat in those sections where the soil was best adapted to the former crop, and the fact that the crop after all showed a large net increase at the close of each decade is proof that, on the whole, it was found profit- able. Unlike dairying, the tobacco crop was largely localized and hence displaced wheat in a merely local way. As has been already noted, however, the extent to which it displaced wheat was out of all proportion to the acreage which it occupied. In 1889 but 428,547 pounds of hops were produced in the entire state. Juneau and Portage counties produced together about 57 per cent, of the entire crop of the state, each produc- ing about equal amounts. Sauk county produced less than one- third as much as either of these counties. Calumbia, La Crosse, and Milwaukee counties produced the most of the remainder." It thus appears that wheat was being largely displaced by •See Table XXII. » See Hibbard, Hist, of Agric. in Dane Co., 159-60 for a aiscussion of the ups and downs In the tobacco producing industry. ' Eleventh Census of the United States. [SSO] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 87 oats in every part of the state except in tjie Southeastern and in a few of the eastern counties; that potatoes were to an in- creasing extent being substituted for wheat in the interior counties and in the western counties ; that rye was increasing in the state generally, except in the southeast; that barley was gaining largely at the expense of wheat, and perhaps of com also, in the eastern, southeastern and south-central counties. Com, on the other hand failed to increase with the increase of population and improved land, although losses in some sections were balanced by gains in other sections. It is legitimate to conclude that ia the western and in the interior counties the in- crease in com was at the expense of wheat. The general and marked tendency toward stock-growing in all of its branches, except sheep hiosbandry, noted at the close of the last decade, had spent its force and there were either declines or only small increases during the decade in all branches of that industry proper.' In dairying, however, there was a ' At the beginning of the decade attention was called to the high price of land where dalry'ing was pursued and it was pointed out that on such land Wisconsin could not compete with the cheaper lands of Texas and Kansas for the production of beef cattle and other Uye stock. (Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1879-80, pp. 210-11.) The following table shows the relation between the value of land in various counties in 1879 and 1889 and the increase or decrease of neat cattle during the decade in the same counties. In a general way it shows important in- crease of neat cattle in the counties with low,ev priced land, and a decrease where land was comparatively high in value. In some cases there was large increase in the number of milch cows with comparatively low value of land. This, however, does not invalidate the generail principle. (From tables XXIII, XIX and XVIII.) The total per capita increase In '"other cattle" from 1880 to 1890 in Kan- sas, Nebraska, and Texas combined — states in which the value of lahd may be supiwsed to have been considerably less than in Wisconsin, was from 1.64 to 1.94 or .30 per capita. The corresponding per capita Increase in the number of mllch cows In these three states was from .39 to .47. These figures may be cotnpared with the corresponding increase in Wisconsin for the decade — from .47 to .49 in respect to "other cattle" and from .36 to .47 In respect to mllch cows. (See Tables XVIII and XIX). It thus appears that milch cows were just as numerous per capita in these three states taSren together in 1890, as In Wisconsin, though the rate of Increase had bfeen somewhat smaller during the previous decade. It Is probable, however, that equal numbers of mllch cows were much more significant for dairy purposes in the latter state tBan in the former three states. On the other hand .both in absolute number of "other cattle" per capita and In the per capita rate of Increase during the decade in respect to ffle same, Wisconsin was very much less important than the three other states [381] BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN marked increase, which, like the decline in the culture of wheat, was exceptional in that it affected every county in the state that had ever heen important in the wheat growing industry. "We are accordingly warranted in concluding that dairying had most of all displaced wheat growing, but that it had also gained at the expense of other pursuits in some sections of the state. Dairy- ing by 1889 had become the great dominant industry of the state. Wheat was no longer the staple. The dairy product was supreme. On the whole then the development of agriculture during the decade was toward specialization. But it was the kind of specialization that profits, — ^the specialization that assigns cer- tain pursuits to sections to which they are best adapted, and best of all. which maintains the proportion of diversity that gives balance to a well ordered agricultural economy. In this decline in the production of wheat within the decade, which was accompanied by a turning to other farm pursuits and especially to dairying, the ravages of the chinch bugs, al- ready noted in reference to St. Croix county, played no incon- siderable part. It was estimated that the loss in the wheat crop in Wisconsin, due to this source, in 1887, amounted to 3,004,490 bushels, while the menace to other crops by a con- taken coUectlTely. (The per capita figures for Kansas, Nebraska and Texas are worked out from the statistics of the Tenth and Eleventh Censuses of the United States.) Counties. Value of land. Per acre. Neat Cattle. Per capita. Milch Cows. Per capita. 1879. 1889. 1879. 1889. 1879. 1889. Buffalo $87.59 53.50 23.33 28.27 34.53 29.58 45.98 33.55 30.99 4«.76 25.50 44.71 60.U $28.96 64.79 25.31 36.73 47.68 33.54 65.82 55.61 42.91 60. .33 23.35 62.30 90.88 .65 .48 .58 .84 1.21 1.09 .58 .67 1.25 .70 .65 .62 .42 .90 .58 .88 1.37 1.19 1.65 .49 .51 1.85 .65 1.04 .58 .39 .43 .44 .35 .45 .87 .57 .57 \66 .46 .44 .56 .47 71 .81 Crawford Grant .56 74 Green 1 33 .95 Jefferson .89 .76 Lafayette .92 .52 Trempealeau Walworth Waukesha .93 .92 .58 [382] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 89 tinuation of wheat growing was shown by a further loss of 1,804,- 250 bushels in the com crop and 1,742,750 bushels in the oat crop from the same cause.* The most general and most immediate cause of the decline in wheat growing during the decade, however, was the persistently low level in the price of wheat which, after the fluctuations of the previous years, was reached about 1884.^ This decline in price was decisive in making wheat growing improfitable in "Wisconsin and thus reenforeed those other more ultimate causes of decline which had long been in operation and which have been taken up below for discussion.^" "While conditions in "Wis- consin necessitated a higher price for wheat in order to meet increasing cost of production, a growing surplus of wheat in the markets of the world resulted in declining prices. This surplus had its most important source in the increase of the wheat growing area west of the Mississippi river in the United States — especially in Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Kan- sas. This expansion which had been going on steadily for a num- ber of years increased greatly after 1878 and in 1884 reached a maximum for the decade of about eighteen and one-half million acres, at which figure the acreage remained for the rest of the decade, with the exception of a temporary decline in 1885.^^ The volume of wheat shipped from the United States to Europe dur- ing the three years 1878-79 to 1880-81, "amounted to nearly five hundred million bushels or more than double the greatest quantity exported in any triennial period prior to 1878-79," and thereafter the price of wheat was downward "in aU the markets free to American grain. "^^ The wheat growing area in the Dakotas increased from 720,000 acres in 1882 to nearly 5,000^000 acres in 1892, while the railway mileage within the same territory increased from 1,225 miles in 1880 to 3,556 miles 'Rep. of the Com. of Agrio., (U. S.) for 1887, p. 56. » See Tables VII-IX. See a so Jounial of Pol. Econ.. 1: 372. See lUd., pp. 68-103 for an article — The Price of Wheat since 1867 — by Professor Thorstein B. Veblen. •° See Chapter X. " See "table of the acreage of wheat In the United States" in Journ. of the Roy Statist. 8oc. vol. 58, between pp. 82 and 83. "Itia., 83. [383] 90 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN in 1886, and to 4,705 miles in 1890. The wheat area continued to increase in Minnesota also throughout the decade notwith- standing the decline in price.^^ The significance of these facts is that wheat grown on these cheap, fertile lands came into com- petition with the wheat grown on the higher priced, exhausted lands of Wisconsin.^* Further, exports of wheat from Russia which had increased only about seventy millions of bushels from 18^9 to 1883, in- creased nearly one hundred million bushels from 1884 to 1888 and stiU more rapidly thereafter.^^ Still further, exports of wheat from India, which had been comparatively insignificant previous to 1880-81, averaged over thirty-one million bushels per annum for the following ten years.^* Under the influence of the large supplies thus thrown upon the markets of the world, the average price of wheat declined in Great Britam from 5s. 5 3-4d ($1.33) in 1879 to 3s. 8 l-2d ($1.00) in 1889, while the average price of No. 2 spring wheat declined in Chicago from $.975 (4s. Od)' in 1879, to $.74 (3s. l-2d.) in 1887, and to $.848 '(3s. 5 l-4d.) in 1889." It was this decline in the price of wheat which in part compelled and which in part afforded the opportunity for the marked change to dairying and other farm pursuits more profitable than wheat growing. "Itncb., S4. " See Tbld., 98, where the cost of production in the Dakotas, the center of the most rapid expailsi«>Ji in. the wheat area, as compared with the cost In the western states, in general, (including all the rest of the wheat growing states west of PennsylTauia and east of the Rocky Mountains) Is given as 5' to 70. '^JUa., 89. •"Ihid.., 93-4. " IWa., 86, 101. Comlpare with Tal)le IX. [384] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 91 CHAPTER V THE PERIOD AFTER 1890 The decade 1890-1900 need not detain ns long. The same agencies continued to operate in the displacement of wheat in the state as a whole. The yield per capita for the entire state declined from 6.94 bushels to 4.35 bushels, — or approximately 37 per cent. "Wisconsin no longer raised sufficient wheat for her own needs. The decrease per square mile of improved land was from 764 bushels to 512 bushels, — or 33 per cent. The acreage in wheat had declined to 555,614 acres, — a decrease of 25 per cent. The acreage in corn increased 34 per cent., and was now almost treble the acreage sowed to wheat. The acreage in oats increased 45 per cent, and now amounted to more than four times the acreage in wheat. The acreage in barley equalled, and the acreage in rye amo anted to more than 65 per cent, of the acreage in wheat.^ The per capita yield of oats increased from 36.0 bushels to 40.6 bushels; of com from 20.2 bushels to 25.8 bushels; and of potatoes from 9.9 bushels to 11.9 bushels. In rye and in barley the per capita yield remained at 2.5 bushels and 9.0 bushels respectively as in 1889.^ Inspection of the chart of the wheat area in 1899' shows what a slender foothold wheat growing had come to have in the state at that time. Two small areas in the neighborhood of G-reen Bay and Lake Winnebago in the east and near the great bend of the Mississippi river on the west were all that remained of the great field of wheat that once covered the southern half of "Wisconsin from lake to river. By 1899 the upper river counties had again ■ Twelfth Ce>nsus bf the United States. "See Tables XI-XIV. » See Figure 6. [385] 92 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN asserted their supremacy in respect to the relative importance of the different sections in wheat growing. Buffalo retained the lead secured in 1889, but showed considerable decliae in the ab- solute importance of the wheat crop. St. Croix by as sudden, and by almost as extreme a change as had occurred in the previous decade when a great decline was shown, again stood next to Buf- falo county, but holding second place. A very large absolute gain since 1889 was thus shown in the former county, though still not one-third as important as in 1879. Polk held third place and Pierce fifth. Trempealeau and Pepin held tenth and eleventh places respectively, while Vernon and Crawford ranked fifteenth and eighteenth respectively. The importance of the eastern sec- tion was represented by Calizmet in fourth place, — a decline from second place in 1889. Kewaunee, Door, Manitowoc, and Brown follow in order, holding sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth places respectively. The remaining counties of the state were so unim- portant that discrimination in rank is almost entirely without significance. Buffalo, however, produced in 1899, 27.1 bushels of wheat per capita, which was higher than the average for the state when wheat culture was at its height. St. Croix, Calumet, Pierce,, and Polk follow with 21.4, 17.5, 16.7, and 16.3 bushels per capita respectively. Polk and Pierce as well as St. Croix showed an absolute increase in the importance of the wheat crop, the in- crease being considerable in Polk. Trempealeau remained almost stationary. There thus appeared a general though moderate re- action in favor of wheat growing. A similar return to wheat ap- peared in the eastern group of counties, though to a smaller ex- tent. A few other counties in the western part of the state and in theinterior showed a similar tendency. The partial reaction in favor of wheat in the river counties was, generally speaking, ac- companied by either a decline or a small increase in other crops, with the exception of barley, which showed a large gain. Buf- falo, Pepin, and Trempealeau, however, made quite large gains in oats, and the first two showed a moderate increase in com. The potato crop had declined most of all, and in all of the coun- ties of the western group. In the eastern counties there was a general increase in oats. [386] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 93 potatoes, corn, and especially in barley. The increase in barley was large and in oats, potatoes and corn moderate. Corn was, of course, of small absolute importance in this section. Rye about held its own. This general increase in other crops in the eastern section signifies in part the more moderate extent of the reaction in favor of wheat in some of the counties of that section, and in part the further moderate and prolonged growth of agriculture as a whole. In the river counties, the loss in the number of milch cows in Pierce and Trempealeau counties and the fact that milch cows showed little or no increase in Pepin, St. Croix, and Vernon counties indicate that the change from wheat growing to dairying during the previous decade had been too rapid and extreme to be, permanent in those counties.* Buffalo, Crawford, and Polk * If we take "dairy cows 2 years old and over" and "other cows, 2 years old and over" as together equivalent In the Twelfth Census to "milch cows" In the previous censuses, there would still be a decrease from .52i milch cows per capita to .51 per capita during the decade in Pierce county, and a decrease from .93 to .81 per capita In Trempealeau ; while the Increase in Pepin would be only from .50 to .56, In St. Croix, from .60 to .53, and In Vernon .59 to .66. If It be objected that the population of the state was becoming urban to such an extent as to vitiate the per capita figures for mi.'ch cows, it can readily be answered that the per capita figures for other live stock and for grains would be vitiated in an equal proportion, so that for purposes of comparison the figures would still remain valid and significant. Further, while milch cows (including both classes of cows 2 years old and over) Increased In actual number only 7 per cent. In Trempealeau county and only 15 per cent. In Pierce county, Improved land increased 24 per cent, in the former and 21 per cent. In the latter. In Bulletin of the Agrie. Emper. Stat., Univ. of Wis., No. 88, Dairy Industry in Wisoonsin, (Sept. 1901), p. 9, it Is pointed out that according to the growth in the number of cheese factories, creameries, and combined factories there had been a "remarkable development" of the dairy industry in the north-central and the northwestern portions of the state during the previous five years. By referring to p. 10 of the same bulletin, however, It will be seen that In spite of the failure of milch cows to increase as fast as as improved land In Trempealeau and Pierce counties, the former county gained four cheese factories, two butter factories and one combined butter and cheese factory, and the latter gained three cheese and fifteen butter factories!, while In Pepin and Vernon counties where milch cows increased faster than Improved land there was a loss of two butter factories in the former, and a loss of one cheese factory and five butter factories as against a gain of one "combined" factory in the latter. In St. Croix county, too, milch cows Increased in actual numbers 21 per cent, while improved land Increased 23 per cent, and there was an Increase of one cheese factory, two skim stations and five butter factories. Accordingly It appears a doubtful method to 'estimate the growth or decline In dairying by the Increase or decrease in the number of dairy factories. The relative size of the factories and the relative Importance of dairyinig on the farm must also be considered. (See Bulletin of the Agric. Bxper. atat., Univ. [387] 94 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEBSITY OF WISCONSIN counties, however, showed further important increase in the number of milch cows. It is significant that three of the former counties^ had either increased or remained constant in wheat growing during the past decade, while all but one of the latter counties had declined to a further extent in that respect.* The very great increase in. the tobacco crop in Crawford and Vernon counties must also be noted in accounting for the decline in wheat in those counties. The acreage in tobacco in Crawford county in 1899 amounted to 1121' acres and the amount of to- bacco produced was 1,509,830 pounds. In Vernon county the area in tobacco for the same year was 3,833 acres, and the crop amounted to 4,759,520 pounds. This constituted an enormous increase in both counties. The northeastern counties gave further proof of stability and of the absence of any marked tendency toward wheat growing again, by a moderate but general increase in the number of milch cows and thus in the importance of dairy- ing.'' There is nothing further in reference to the live stock indus- try in these two sections that does not seem to be common to other sections of the state, and' that does not thus appear to be irrelevant to the wheat industry, since in the remaining sec- tions of the state that crop had so completely disappeared. Of the counties adjacent to these two sections and which were of considerable importance in 1889, some few remained moderately important in wheat growing, though in general having declined to a greater or less extent. The most important of these are Shawano, Jackson and Monroe. Shawano county seems to show nothing at variance with the conditions in the northeastern counties just discussed unless in the more rapid increase in the number of milch cows. This fact has no special significance in of wis.. No. 140, [Sept. 1906] p. 4) On the other hand, the total number of gallons of milk produced Increased more rapidly than the total number of mllcb cows. Indicating better dairy cows, while the Increase In the numtyer of factories probably indicates an Increased amount of capital Invested In the Industry as a whole. ' St. Croix, Pierce, and Trempealeau. See Table III. ' Polk alone Increased In wheat growing. ' If, as suggested above, we Include both classes of "cows 2 years old and over" as equivalent to "milch cows" of the previous censuses, the increase In dairying appears much more marked. [388] THOMPSON' — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 95 relation to the wheat industry. Jackson county had remained nearly constant in the production of wheat during the decade, the decline being small. The yield of wheat per capita had even increased slightly. In common with the other western counties there was a considerable increase in the number of sheep, but this is also true of the southwestern counties. In the remainder of the state sheep had declined in number per capita. The in- crease in the number of horses was also large but this appears to be without special significance in reference to the wheat crop. Monroe county had declined in wheat during the decade. Prob- ably this fact can be connected with the great increase in the tobacco crop,* though the smallness of the area* planted to to- bacco in that county in 1899 precludes laying too much stress upon this point. Unlike Jackson county the increase in the num- ber of milch cows was large. It is legitimate to assume that the increase in dairying was to a certain extent at least at the ex- pense of wheat growing. Burnett, Eau Claire, Barron, and Dunn counties all showed a moderately increased importance in the wheat industry during the decade, but no one was of much more importance than sufficient to meet its own needs. Burnett, Barron, and Dunn differed from the other northwestern eoimties in the large increase in the amount of potatoes produced. The increase, however, in Eau Claire was slight. Undoubtedly the adaptability of the soil to potatoes, except in Barron county, af- fords the explanation. The increase in the potato crop probably dimiaished the area that would have otherwise been sown to wheat. Burnett showed especial increase in the number of milch cows.^" Further decline in wheat in Dodge county seems to have been balanced by an increase in com, oats and barley,^^ while the number of milch cows increased to a marked extent. A similar "See Table XXII. ' The area planted to tobacco amounted to 126 acres. '" The city of Eau Claire works somewhat to the dlsadvantag'e of Eau 'Claire county in this respect. Inspection of the census figures shows, however, ab- solutely tew milch cows or other llye stock in the county. " Dodg'e county produced 61.1 bushels of barley per capita In 1889 and 73.8 bushels per capita la 1899 and was at both periods the most important county lu the production of barley. In the state. [389] 96 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITY OP WISCONSIN increase in dairying accompanied the further decline of wheat growing in Green Lake county. There was a large increase in oats and com, and a considerable increase in potatoes in this county, while barley continued of considerable importance as before. Columbia county during the decade quintupled the amount of tobacco produced. This was at the expense of both wheat and barley, apparently, as the latter crop declined almost as rapidly as the wheat crop. An increase in the potato crop was probably partly instrumental in displacing both wheat and barley. The considerable decrease in wheat in Washington county was balanced by an increase in all other crops except in rye. Barley was particularly important. "Washington county also showed a very considerable increase in the number of dairy cows. Ozaukee presents a situation similar to that in Washing- ton. The further decline in wheat growing in Fond du Lac county presents no features different from the other counties adjacent.^^ In Eichland county there had been an increase in the tobacco crop and in dairying almost exactly parallel to that in Monroe county. The large increase in com probably had more effect than the tobacco crop in displacing wheat. The in- crease in com, oats and potatoes seems to have been responsible for the decline of wheat in Sauk county. The potato crop ap- proximately doubled in per capita yield. The number of dairy cows also increased largely. The considerable decline in wheat in Outagamie county was replaced by an increased amount of oats and com. The number of dairy cows also increased con- siderably.^' Wheat had become so unimportant in the remaining counties of the state by 1889^* that it is unnecessary to discuss in detail the further decline or slight increase during the following decade. The potato crop continued to increase largely,— especially in the interior counties. Adams, Juneau, Marquette, Portage, Wau- " The city of Pond du Lac reduces the apparent Importance of Fond du Lac county in reference to all crops and live stock. " Com and oats being In part the basis of dairying cannot exercise their full Influence in addition to that of dairying in replacing other crops. " See Figure 5. [390] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 97 paca, and Waushara^^ counties are especially noteworthy.^* The tobacco crop again more than doubled in the* state during the decade.^' In many of the south-central and southern counties, the further increase in tobacco was instrumental in the added dis- placement of wheat. The spread of the tobacco crop into some of the newer counties and its probable influence in displacing wheat there has already been noted.^* Dairying continued to increase in the state as a whole during the decade, but by no means so rapidly as during the previous decade. The number of dairy cows increased from .47 per capita in 1889 to .48 per capita in 1899.^' This increase in the number of milch cows was not so general as during the previous two decades; considerable increases in some counties were offset by moderate declines in other counties. The connection between the further increase or decline of wheat growing and the in- crease or decline in dairying during the decade has been so far as it is important already considered in discussing individual coun- ties or sections. It need only be said here that in a general way an important decrease in wheat growing was apt to be accom- panied by a considerable increase in the number of dairy cows " The yield of potatoes per capita in Waushara county increased from 49.9 hushels in 1889 to 119..3 bushels in 1899. The yield per capita in Waupaca county was 49.7 hushels in 1899, but had increased but little during the decade. It is to be noted that the decline in wheat was much greater in Waushara than in Waupaca county during the decade. "See Table XV. " See Table XXII. '' See aboTe pp. 94-5. " See Table XVIII. It both classes of "cows 2 years old and over" be In- cluded as together equivalent in the Twelfth Ccntus to "milch cows" of the previous censuses the per capita increase in milch cows in the state as a whole for the d.ecade is somewhat larger, i. e. from .47 to .52. The following table presented on p. 5 of Bulletin of the Agric. Exper. Stout. Vniv. of Wis. No. 88, (S'ept. 1901) shows that the increase in dairying was, however, absolutely as well as proportionally much greater during the decade 1879-1889 than during the following decade : No. of pounds of dairy products made in Wisconsin. Butter Cheese 1850 3.633.750 400.280 1890 1.3.611.328 1,104,300 1870 22,473.036 13,288,581 1880 33.842.336 19,5'35.324 1890 60.355.499 54.614,861 1900 80.000.000 60.000,000 7 [391] 98 BITLLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN and vice versa.^° But quite often an increase in wheat growing was accompanied by an increase in the number of dairy cows,^^ and a decrease in respect to the former by a decrease in respect to the latter.^'^ The reason is plain: wheat growing had in most sections of the state become so unimportant by 1889 and dairying so important that changes in the latter industry were quite liable to be independent of changes in the former indus- try. Further, large declines were for the same reason no longer possible in wheat except in a few instances and large increases did not occur. Much the same thing can be said about the live stock industry and its relation to the wheat industry. The in- stances where that connection appears to exist have already been pointed out. There was a considerable increase in the per capita number of swine in the state as a whole, while sheep de- clined to some extent and horses again remained stationary. According to the census figures there was a marked and general decline from .49 per capita to .33 per capita, in respect to ' ' other cattle" in the state as a whole, but it is very probable that this decline is to some extent only apparent, and arises in part from a change in the method of classification of cattle in the Twelfth Cens-m.^^ Inspection of the table of prices for wheat shows that the price declined to even a more marked extent than during the previous decade. Reference to the table giving the average cash valua- tion per acre in different counties shows a marked increase in that valuation. Under these circumstances wheat could not re- 2° Compare Monroe, Pierce, Green Lake, and Richland counties. " e. g., Polk County. 22 e. ;/., Manitowoc county. 2» See above, notes 4 and 7. On p. 55 of Bulletin, V. 8. Dept. of Agric., Dtv. of Btat. No. 24, Relations of Population and Food Products, etc. (1903) appears the following statement : "The weight of evidence Indicates that calves were not counted, at the censuses prior to 1900. Calves should therefore he omitted from comparative statements of resources in- the different census years." This suggestion has been followed, but seems to be only partially valid as applied to Wisconsin. If "other cows 2 years old and over" be Included among dairy cows and excluded from "other cattle," the decline in the latter class appears still more extreme. The statist- ical evidence of a very considerable decline In the number of "other cattle" during the decade 1889-1899 Is corroborated by the general opinion of personi best qualified to speak in that respect. [392] THOMPSON — WHEAT GEOWiNG IN WISCONSIN 99 main in cultivation to any considerable extent, and gave place to more profitable crops and pursuits. "Wheat growing has shown further decline since 1899 accord- ing to the statistics furnished by the Wisconsin Census Report of 1905, although the year ending June 1, 1905, was unusually unfavorable from an agricultural point of view.''* The acreage in wheat declined from 555,747 acres in 1899 to 210,010 acres in 1904 — a decline of 62 per cent. The total yield declined from 9,005,170 to 2,700,813 or 70 per cent., while the per capita yield for the state as a whole .declined from 4.35 bushels to 1.21 bushels, or 72 per cent. The same sections remained dominant in wheat growing in 1904 as in 1899, but with greatly diminished absolute importance. Buffalo county retained first place both in per capita yield (7.9 bushels) and in yield per square mile of improved land. Kewaunee followed next in order in per capita yield (6.8 bushels) but on account of low yield per square mile of improved land gave precedence to Trempealeau county (5.9 bushels per capita) in degree of specialization. Door, Burnett, and Jackson coun- ties each produced between 4 and 5 bushels per capita; Pepin, Shawano, Pierce, Monroe, and Dodge each produced between 3 and 4 bushels per capita. Eau Claire, Polk, Vernon, Calumet, Dunn, "Washington, Green Lake, Oconto, and Crawford each pro- duced between 2 and 3 bushels per capita ; the remaining counties of the state all produced less than 2 bushels of wheat per capita in 1904.=" What other crops or farm pursuits were instrumental during the five years 1899-1904 in the further displacement of wheat growing? Of the counties that were most important in wheat growing in 1899 those of the western section showed in general "* "It may lie properly stated tliat the year ending June 1, 1905, was a very unfortunate year for taking the census. The crops were, on the whole, ex- ceedingly light and the prices low." Wisconsin Census Report, 1905, part I, p. vUl. Barley, potatoes and hay are the only Important farm crops showing a greater yield in 1904 than In 1899. There was also an increased acreage In respect to each of these three crops. For the state as a whole there was a decline In hoth acreage and yield In respect to rye, com and oats. The decline In the acreage of oats was small, amounting to about 6 per cent. » see Table I. [393] 100 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN an increased acreage in oats in 1904, while those of the eastern section showed generally a reduced acreage as well as a reduced per capita yield in that crop. The per capita yield of oats in Buffalo, St. Croix, Polk, Pierce, Trempealeau, Pepin, Jackson, and Monroe was 113.0, 122.4, 66.6, 84.2, 112.0, 66.0, 94.2 and 59.8 bushels respectively — an increase in each case. Inspection shows a decline in the potato crop in many of the wheat counties, — Door, Shawano, Monroe, Jackson, Eau Claire, and Brown coun- ties being exceptions. There was a general decline' in com and rye. All of the counties important in wheat growing in 1899 showed a large gain in barley in 1904 except Calumet where there was a reaction from that crop. Notwithstanding the de- cline in the tobacco crop in the state as a whole, — ^both in acre- age and in the number of pounds produced — most of the western wheat counties showed a large gain in that crop as a partial off- set to the loss in wheat.^* Both eastern and western sections shared in the general in- crease in the hay crop — the increase being marked in the eastern counties. This increase in the hay crop was attended by very considerable increase in the number of sheep in the western sec- tion, by considerable decline in sheep in the eastern section gen- erally,^' and by a considerable increase in horses in both sec- tions.^* Owing to the differences in classification in respect to neat cattle, in the Siate Census of 1905 and in the Twelfth Cen- sus of the United States the movement in respect to other cattle than dairy cows can not be accurately determined. It seems, how- ever, that there was a heavy loss in that respect in all of the east- em Wheat growing counties while in most of the western wheat counties "other cattle" either held their own or showed consid- erable gain. This gain was . partietdarly marked in St. Croix, Monroe, and Vernon counties. All of the counties that had been important in wheat growing in 1899 showed a large increase in the per capita number of milch cows. The western counties '" See Table XXII. " The number of sheep declined in the state as a whole. " That Is, In "horses and muleb" as compared with "horses" In the Twelfth Census of the United States. There was a general loss in the number of swine in nearly all parts of the state. [394] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 101 showed the most marked increase.^' This increase in the num- ber of milch cows represented the growing importance of the various branches of the dairy industry.^" It thus appears that various other farm crops and pursuits of which dairying was probably the most important had shared in the further reduction of the wheat area during the period 1899 to 1904. Further, there had been more tendency toward "" The increase in the per capita number of milch cows for the state as a whole was from .48 to .55. In Bulletin of the Agrio. Bwper. Stat., Univ. of Wis. No. 140, (Sept. 1906) p. 17, attention is called to the fact that there was an "extended tier of counties on the western boundary of the sfate In which the erection of new factories appears to have stopped," though it is acknowledged that "in many cases the number of cows tributary to the creameries is much higher than the average." This lack of factory growth in the case of Pierce, St. Croix, and southern Polk counties is attributed as possibly due to the fact that these counties "have been and still are great grain-raising counties." Though th's last statement may be accepted as partially valid, reference to the large per capita Increase in the number of milch cows in these three counties and in the other western counties will serve to further emphasize the ac- knowledged danger in estimating the growth or decl'ne of dairying by the num- ber of dairy factories. The increase in the number of milch cows in the wesfSm counties was attended by an increase in the number of gallons of milk pro- duced, such that the amount of milk produced per cow was higher in each of these three counties than in Shawano where "a most phenomenal extension" was noted (p. 15). The comparative figures for these four counties are as follows ; Counties Per capita Per capita Increase Pounds of Milk 1899 1904 per cow, 1904. Pierce 46 .69 .23 4117.4 St. Croix 50 .71 .21 3936.1 Polk 70 .94 .24 3280.3 Shawano 50 .67 .17 3097 . 5 The slower increase per capita in Shawano county can scarcely be attributed to the large increase in population in that county as improved land increased in that county between 1899 and 1904 while Improved land declined in area in the other three counties taken together, for the same period. On the other hand the final product was In general more valuable in the cheese-making east than in the butter-making west, and doubtless required the investment of a larger amount of capital. In several of the eastern counties a large increase in the number of milch cows was partially concealed by the growth of city population, as in Brown and Door counties. 1900 1905 Increase ™ Farm butter 25,000,000 lbs. 34,500,000 lbs. 38ft Factory butter 55,000,000 lbs. 88,500.000 lbs. eOMay 11, 1877. [From the La Orosse Daily Democrat] The North/iDegtern Miller was published by the same parties who published the Farm and Factory. in "Three-fourThs of all the wheat raised in Minnesota, whether shipped in the berry or as flour, passes through La Crosse on its way to eastern markets," [400] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 107 1879 the offices of the Northwestern Miller were removed to Minneapolis/^ on the grounds of the preeminence of that city in the milling industry. It is unfortunate that after 1880 the federal census fails to give stat .sties for the milling industry by counties. For the state as a whole, however, there was a loss in every respect ex- cept in the amount of capital invested, — ^the loss being marked in respect to the number of establishments.^* This decline was parallel with the general depression in the milling industry of the northwest that set in following the expansion due to the in- troduction of the patent process.^* As the wheat area moved still farther to the north and west and still greater dependence was had upon the railroads to supply the necessary wheat, the smaller centers of production found themselves unable to compete with the more important centers, especially as the railroads either chose to discriminate in favor of the latter or were compelled to do so. Milwaukee, on the other hand, showed a great expansion in the flouring industry during the decade. From the figures of the State Census for 1885, the most im- portant centers of the milling industry can be pointed out, though the figures bear such evidence of untrustworthiness that they are worthless so far as absolute amounts are concerned.^" In 1885, outside of Milwaukee and La Crosse counties, the counties adjacent to the Fox River and Lake Winnebago were most important. Here the cultivation of wheat still persisted to a considerable extent. A considerable decline is indicated in the northwestern counties, though wheat growing retained some- thing of its former importance here also. Dane, Jefferson, and Rock counties still manufactured considerable quantities of flour, though showing a decline since 1880. In general, it may be said that by 1885 the distribution of wheat growing within the state " See the iBBue of March 7, 1879. "Note the continued tendency toward concentration. '" See Northwestern Miller for Feb. 1, and Nov. 28, 1884. " According to the figures of the State Census for 1885, the milling Industry In Wisconsin fell oft nearly one-half In value of product as compared vrith the U. 8. Census figures for 1880. This Is plainly ImproBahle. In the State Census for 1895, the columns are not correctly footed up, the totals being almost twice as large as the figures In the columns warrant. [401] 108 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN had ceased to exercise any considerable influence upon tlie local- ization of the milling industry. The State Census for 1895 shows the great importance of Douglas county in the manufact- ure of flour and grist mill products.^ The increase had heen most striking there during the decade, but was in no way re- lated to the wheat industry in Wisconsin. A decline in the im- portance of La Crosse county is indicated. By 1900, according to the Twelfth Census, the milling industry iu the state as a whole had nearly recovered what it had lost during the decade 1880 to 1890. The number of establishments had increased to 717, or 12 more than in 1880. This" increase in the number of establishments was probably due as in other parts of the coun- try, to the establishment of many small mills for the grinding of other grist mill products than flour. The' city of Milwaukee, as a flouring center, merits special attention on account of its importance. In 1854 there were five flour mills in Milwaukee, with a total output of 130,000 barrels. The hydraulic power of the river was used exclusively, at that time,^^ but two years later one of the largest mills was equipped with new machinery and an "immense steam engine."^' By 1860 the number of flour mills in the city had increased to four- teen and the individual mills had succeeded in establishing a market for their flour in New York and New England.^* The output in 1862 was reduced by the burning of two of the mills of the city and continued low until 1866, on account of the fact that wheat was worth relatively more than flour.^' In 1866 there began a rapid increase in the ouput, so that for a time Milwaukee produced more flour than any other western city.'" The abroga- tion of the reciprocity treaty vnth Canada which excluded Cana- " According to the Btate Census of 1885, there were 36,000 barrels of flour, worth .$252,000, manufactured In Douglas county. These figures had Increased In 1895 to 3,019,200 barrels, worth .$9.2!09,140. The city of Superior includes almost the whole of the Industry in fEe county. = S'ee Rep. of Board of Trade for 1854. ''litd., for 1856. "Rep. of Chamber of Com. for 1860. '' This was brought about in part by the relatively higher freights on flour as compared with wheat, and In part by the decline in foreign demand. See Reps, of Chaniber of Com. for 1862-65. ^'Ibia., for 1'866. [402] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN, 109 dian flour from our markets was said to have been one of the causes of this increase, but the failure of the wheat crop in other parts of the country was probably a more important cause. ^^ At any rate the increased demand resulted in more mills and greater capacity, and ultimately in overproduction of flour and in depression in Milwaukee as elsewhere. While the output in- creased somewhat in the years 1873-1875, there was another de- cline in production during the following three years.^* So far from Milwaukee being the most important center of flour produc- tion in the west, St. Louis produced nearly 1,000,000 barrels in excess of that city in 1871.^' Up to this time the precedence attaching to St. Louis represented in part the superiority of win- ter wheat flour over spring wheat flour. By 1874, however, the "new process" had been introduced into all the larger mills in Milwaukee, and a largely increased output might have been ex- pected in consequence of the preference for spring wheat flour. That the increased output was neither large nor permanent was due to several causes. We have seen that Milwaukee county, during the decade 1870-1880, declined relatively to the total pro- duction of the state, and it was pointed out that the "milling-in- trans.t" system worked to the advantage of the smaller produc- ing centers and perhaps also of Minneapolis.'" Another prob- able reason for the small increase in output of flour in Milwau- kee during the decade was the deterioration in the quality of the wheat after about 1865. Wisconsin wheat was noted for its high quality in earlier days, but as the wheat industry de- clined the quality of wheat depreciated.'^ A still further cause for the small increase in output was that during the time of Milwaukee's preeminence as a wheat market much speculative business was done and while Milwaukee millers had a large stock of wheat to select from they came into competition with the de- mands of many other buyers in various parts of the country and ^ Ibid. ^ According to the Rep. of Chamber of Com. tor 1876. the reduction in the output of flour that year was due to the closing of two mills for repairs. ■'" IWd., for 1871. 2' See above, note 13. See also Report of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. for ISSfi. 2> Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. for 1868. See above p. 59. [403] 110 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITT OP WISCONSIN were forced to pay high prices for their wheat.'^ The constant fluctuations^^ in the price of wheat in afi important speculative market constitute another serious drawback, and it is significant that Milwaukee miUs did not begin to increase their output to any marked extent until after that city had become unimportant as a wheat market.^* It appears further that steam motor power had been found more expensive than the water power of the smaller milling centers.^^ In 1879 the foreign demand for bread-stuffs again came to the rescue and the output of flour increased to a considerable ex- tent. Lower prices for wheat probably stimulated the foreign demand in turn. Notwithstanding the competition with Minne- apolis and Duluth for the necessary wheat,'® the output of flour in the Milwaukee mills increased with more or less regularity until 1893. During the four years 1889-li892, the increase amounted to nearly 50 per cent. In consequence of the depres- sion following the financial disturbances of 1893 the fiour out- put fell off over 260,000 barrels in that year. Insufficient re- ceipts of wheat in the foILowing year forced the mills of Mil- waukee to draw upon Duluth and Chicago for supplies to meet the deficiency. The mills of Minneapolis experiencing a similar shortage, there resulted competition to an unusual degree for the stock of wheat in territory more or less tributary to both. The greater importance of the industry at Minneapolis, together with the more favorable situation of that city with respect to competing lines of transportation, enabled her millers to wrest concessions from the railroads in the struggle for possession of this wheat. This was the more easily accomplished at a time when the railroads were struggling desperately for traffic at any ^See Reports for 1862-1865. "A frequent complaint among millers. ^ In like manner Chicago has never become greatly important as a milling center, while Minneapolis has never been important as a speculative wheat marliet. "= Rep. of Milvauliee Chamber of Com. for 1869. " "The crop of spring wheat in 1881 proved largely deficient in quantity, while the production of flour near the sources of supply, probably reached its highest capacity in that year, almost absorbing the whole crop." Rep. of Mil- waOttee cnamZer of Com. for 1882. [404] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 111 rate however low.^^ To secure a supply of wheat on equal terms the Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce went before the Interstate Commerce Commission with their complaint. In 1897, a favor- able decision was secured but discrimination went on as before. Accordingly further proceedings were instituted in 1898, but with little avail, as the commission declared itself without power to remedy the situation, while one of the offending roads asserted its inability to stop the discrimination.'* In spite of the improvements in the methods and in the cost of handling grain and flour, and in spite of the improvements in transportation directly across Lake Michigan, the disadvan- tage' which Milwaukee suffers in being at an ever increasing dis- tance from the sources for the supply of wheat, with the added disadvantage in rates which this situation tends to bring about, works both against a restoration of her former commercial im- portance and the growth of her milling interests. The high water mark of 1892 has never since been reached. The output in 1904 amounted to 1,320,611 barrels.^" '" A comparison of the increase o£ the flour output of Minneapolis and Mil- waukee is made In the Rep. of Milwa/ukee OJiwmber of Com. for 1894, and the moJe rapid growth of the former city in that respect is said to he wholly due to the inequitable differences in rates on wheat to MUwatikee and to Minneapolis. =* See Reps, of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. for 1894-98. See also Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1897, pp. 23^ ; IMd., for 1898, pp. 24, 33-4 ; for 1900, pp. 212-13. ■" Rep. of Chamber of Com. for 1904. [405] 112 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVEKSITY OP WISCONSIN CHAPTER VII MILWAUKEE AS A WHEAT MARKET The development of Milwaukee as a wheat market was closely related to the growth of the wheat growing industry wirhin the state. The same rapid rise to even greater relative importance and the same quick decline to comparative unimportance is to be noted in the former as in the latter ease.^ However, while the opening up of the new and cheap wheat lands to the west and north subjected the wheat growers of Wisconsin to ruinous com- petition, on the other hand, every mile of railroad tliat was pushed out into the region west of the Mississippi river and that continued tributary to Milwaukee contributed to the im- portance of that city as a wheat market. But just as the farmers of Wisconsin discovered that they could not control the railroads of the state to their own interest, so Milwaukee was to see the railroads which her business men had projected and which had ministered to her growth and prosperity in her earlier history, contribute later, under the influence of various economic causes, to the development of her rivals. Her merchants were to see the city sink from the position of a great railway terminus, with thousands of miles of tributary lines, to the position of a way- station, through which wheat and flour were billed to other markets. Her lExchange was destined to sink from being the business center of the greatest primary wheat market in the world to the position of adjunct to the commercial organization of her great rival at the foot of the lake. Nor was it in the p.ower of her citizens to avert this consequence, though by no means lack- ing in enterprise or resourcefulness. It was the resistless oper- ' Compare the yearly receipts of wheat at Milwaukee with the yearly produc- tion of wheat within the state of Wisconsin. See Tables IV and VIII. [406] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 113 ation of the economic causes that set up and pull down cities, that swiftly, in this case, and surely worked out their results. In the spring of 1841 the first shipment of wheat was made from Milwaukee. The amount was 4,000 bushels and the destina- tion Canada.^ There had been much competition between Mil- waukee and Chicago for the wheat of southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois and it was the wheat of this region that first gave Milwaukee her reputation as a wheat market.^ When the Galena and Chicago Union railroad was built, Chicago succeeded in diverting the grain to that point. The Beloit and Mississippi railroad was projected with the view of bringing this grain back to Milwaukee. The wheat growers of the southern part of the state were threatening to establish railroad connections with Chicago, and it was felt that something must be done if their trade was to be held for Wisconsin markets.* We are thus early introduced to the competition of markets which played so important a part in the development of rail- roads within the state. During the year 1851 the Milwaukee and Waukesha railroad was built to Eagle Center and by 1857 to Prairie du Chien. In 1858, La Crosse was reached and Milwau- kee was put in a favorable position for the grain trade of the re- gion west of the Mississippi river.° In the meantime, the whole southeastern portion of the state had been covered with a net- work of railroads tributary to that city, thus insuring her pre- 'Rep. of Chamber of Com. for 1858. ' lua., for isse. ' That Milwaukee had no very great lead in commerce over some of the other lake ports in the state in 1850 is shown by the following table, taken from the American Railroad Journal, 1^51, p. 64 : Total Expoets Impoets Poets. and Imposts. alone. M'lwaukee 5.927,119 3,828,650 Racine 2,108,700 1,452,750 Southport 1,213,399 629,791 Sheboygan 583,991 517,800 Port Washington 326,576 278,311 Green Bay 232.367 151,537 Manitowoc 62, 848 49, 129 = Milwaukee had sufflered damaging competition from Chicago at La Crosse previous to the completion of the railroad to that point. Rep. of Ghamier of Com. for 1858. [407] 114 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN eminence as the commercial emporium of the state.* Attention was early called to the fact that Milwaukee enjoyed a differen- tial of 156 miles from Prairie du Chien as compared with Chi- cago^ and it was pointed out that on account of the depth of the lake, uninterrupted navigation existed throughout the year across to Grand Haven, Michigan.* It was thus claimed that with de- monstrable superiority over Chicago in respect to transportation by both land and water, Milwaukee could successfully compete for the wheat of Iowa and Minnesota. In 1855, some wheat came north from Illinois, via Beloit and Janesville, to Milwaukee.' Whitewater was in 1856 the market for thirty miles around — grain having come from as far as Mc- Henry county, Illinois. The wheat was stored there until it could be shipped east at the opening of navigation.^" In 1858, of 2,317,000 bushels of wheat transported on the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad, only 350 bushels went to Chicago.^^ In 1859 the same road brought over 450,000 bushels of wheat and 14,674 barrels of flour from Prairie du Chien to Milwaukee. The larger portion of this was delivered to the road by the steam ferry boats and represented the trade of the trans-Mississippi region. ^^ Chicago had not been idle, however. The Chicago, St. Paul and Fond du Lac railroad was completed throughout, from Cary, Illinois, to Oshkosh in 1859 and became the Chicago and North- western railroad in that year. Much difficulty was experienced iu ' See map of railroads In Wisconsin for the decade 1850-1860 (Figure 9). See also above p. 42. ' rtep. of Hoard of Trade for 1855. 'IhUI., for 1856. » Itep. of Mil. and Mux. R. R. Co. for 1855. •» Governor's Message and Accompanying Documents, 1857, 2: 427-34. '' "Nlneteen-twentleths of the business of the country tributary to the road have been done with Milwaukee." Rep. o/ Mil. and Miss. R. R. Oo. for 1858. It was asserted, however, that the road had hpon forced on account of financial reasons to discriminate in favor of Chicago. Rep. of Milwaukee CThamber of Cum. for 1858. The growTng imnortancp of Milwaukee as a wheat market was due in part to the superiority of thf wheat marketed there. The wheat of Illinois had deteri- orated while that of Wisconsin was of prime quality. Wls'consln wheat was said to have brought from 8 ets. to 10 cts. more per bushel than Illinois wheat. See Rep. of Board of Trade for 1856. See also Rep. of Milicatikee Chamber of Com. for 1858. "Bep. of Mil. and Miss. R. R. Co. for 1859. [408] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 115 preventing this road from diverting the wheat from Milwaukee to Chicago.^^ In 1855 the Green Bay, Milwaukee and Chicago railroad was built from Milwaukee to the Illinois state line to meet a road at that point built from Chicago. This road, while at first tributary to Milwaukee, was later, in connection with the trunk lines east from Chicago, a formidable competitor of the lake lines, and in this way served to bring about the downfall of Milwaukee's preeminence as a wheat market. Milwaukee profited chiefly, however, during the first decade by the great development of the wheat area within the state it- self. Even in 1858, out of total receipts of 4,876,117 bushels, 750,000 bushels were brought in by team." Minnesota did not begin to export wheat until 1859, while exports from Iowa, via Milwaukee, had not yet attained the importance of later years. Racine, too, continued to be a market not to be despised. In 1858 there were 913,376 bushels of wheat and 10,136 barrels of flour shipped from that point as compared with exports of 3,994,213 bushels of wheat and 298,129 barrels of flour from Mil- waukee for the same year.^° Milwaukee quickly recovered from the eifects of the panic of 1837 and the next year the Chamber of Commerce was organ- ized. In the same year "grades of wheat" were first established and the first warehouse and elevator was erected at the depot of the La Crosse railroad." In 1849 out of total exports from Milwaukee amounting in value to $2,098,469.36, shipments of wheat and flour constituted $1,949,731.29." By 1859 notwith- standing the growth in other branches of commerce, it could still be said that the ' ' chief feature in the commerce of Milwau- kee was the large and rapidly increasing trade in grain. "^^ In 1860 one-third of the total receipts of wheat and flour at Mil- waukee came from Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota, two-thirds of which (about 2,400,000 bushels) came from the latter two states, " "Chicago . . . put forth every effort fair and unfair to divert the trade from this city." iSep. o/ Milwaukee Chamber o/ Com. for 1858. " ma. '» lua. "Am. R. R. Journal, 1850, p. 344. I'iJep. 0/ Chamber of Com. for 1859. [409] 116 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN constituting the "entire grain trade of the upper Mississippi,"^' and the prediction wa5 soon made that Chicago could not long compete with Milwaukee as a market for wheat."" The interrup- tion of navigation on the Mississippi river by the breaking out of the Civil War also operated to the advantage of Milwaukee. Owing to the competition between the Detroit and Milwaukee, and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railroads, Milwaukee at this time enjoyed the same all-rail rates east as Chicago. This gave Milwaukee a further advantage for the time being. The pro- duction of wheat increased largely in Minnesota and in north- western Wisconsin, territory that was naturally tributary to Milwaukee,^^ so that by 1862 receipts of wheat at Milwaukee were for the first time larger than those of Chicago, and the former became the "greatest primary wheat market in the world. "22 Waukesha county increased her production of wheat and 1,086,716 bushels of wheat were brought into Milwaukee by team in 1862. On account of the ravages of the chinch bug and the consequent short crop in Wisconsin in 1864, receipts in that year fell off considerably, but recovered to a considerable extent in 1865. Nearly one-half of the receipts of the latter year came from Minnesota.^^ In 1866, a noteworthy feature was the increasing proportion of flour and wheat carried via Chicago by the all-rail lines, which were becoming more and more able to compete with the lake carriers. The latter method of trans- portation involved extra loading at Grand Haven. As it had always been recognized that Milwaukee's supremacy depended upon the ability of the lake carriers to compete successfully with the all-rail lines, the possibility of the future decline of that city as a wheat market began to be considered by her own citizens, and the incoming president of the Chamber of Com- merce in 1870 pointed out the fact that it was impossible to longer rely upon commerce alone, and advocated the establish- " IBia.. for 1860. ■'"IMd., tor 1861. ^'See< wheat charts for 1859 and 1809 (Figures 2 and 3). 22 Rep. of Chamber of Com. for 1862. "IMd., for 1865. [410] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 117 ment of manufactures. The construction of the Northern Pacific railroad, and the growth of the milling industry at Minneapolis and of the wheat trade of the city of Duluth were undoubtedly further significant facts of which the far-seeing took note. As if to forestall the competition of these rising centers of the flour and grain trade, the Report for 1871 calls attention to the preeminent facilities and other advantages of Milwaukee for the grain trade, and notes that steps had been taken to guard against unfavorable discrimination by the rail- roads. In response to the general demand for cheaper trans- portation, the Chamber of Commerce lent its aid to that cause and succeeded in securing a considerable reduction of tolls and other charges. As a result of the large wheat crops of 1872 and 1873, re- ceipts of wheat at Milwaukee reached the high total of 28,457,- 937 bushels,* while the receipts for the next two years were al- most as large. Naturally there was much complaint of lack of storage facilities, of which the railroads were said to have a monopoly. A further result of the increased receipts was the stimulus given to speculative dealing in wheat and in 1875 transactions "on change" amounted to 197,000,000 bushels.^* Receipts in 1876 fell off one-third as a result of deficiency in the wheat crop that year. The railroads with their greatly in- creased mileage entered into a life and death struggle with each other and with the lake carriers for a share of the diminished traffic. All-rail rates declined to the basis of transportation by water, and the winter movement of grain from the interior was greatly enlarged.^^ To a considerable extent this grain merely passed through or around Milwaukee and did not enter into the real trade of that city. Renewed apprehension was excited as to the effect of this movement upon the business of the Ex- change.^° "When receipts increased in 1878 to the extent of nearly two million bushels this apprehension was allayed and Vice-President Britt expressed himself as no believer in the '^Beps. of Ohamier of Com. for 1872-75. ■■"■ iwa., for 187e. ^^ See address of Vice-President N. P. McLaren, ilep. for 1877. *i. e.. In 1873. [411] 118 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN idea that "we have reached the climax of our grain trade. "^^ Such proved to be the case, hovrever, as Milwaukee never again equalled the receipts of wheat for the year 1873. The suprem- acy had already passed from that city, as the receipts of wheat at Chicago in 1878 were nearly 8,000,000 bushels ia excess of the receipts at Milwaukee the same year. The shortage was said to be due to the deficiency in the spring wheat crop, and a similar assertion was made the foUowing year. As the federal census showed a wheat crop in Wisconsin in 1879 but little ber low the maximum this must be accepted as but a partial ex- planation. Minneapolis was, however, becoming more and more a competitor of Milwaukee for the wheat in territory common to both, while examination of the wheat chart for 1879 shows the great decline in the amount of wheat being produced in the part of the state directly tributary to Milwaukee.^* Much of the wheat that formerly came to Milwaukee, now came as flour, and even then came in large part via Milwaukee on through bills of lading and did not enter into the busiaess "on change" there at aU.^^ Eeeeipts declined still further ia 1881 and, the business of the city continuing prosperous, it was asserted that the prosperity of the city and of the northwest generally was no longer wholly dependent upon the profitable cultivation of wheat.'" The city was indeed becomiag more a center for manufactures and less a merely commercial center. The manu- facture of flour in the city was just entering upon the great expansion which was to continue for a decade or more.^^ Less and less wheat was exported and an increasing proportion was 2'i2ep, for 1878, p. 15. "The fact Is clearly illustrated that the minlmnm cost of rail-transportation will afford a" good margin for profit In favor of the water rate. Herein we find the chief element that has In the past contributed to make a great commercial city of Milwaukee, as well as the best assurance of her future prosperity." Itid., p. 18. The significance of this lies In the fact that the competition of the railroads had forced the building of larger and more economical vessels on the lake, and In consequence the lake carriers were more nearly holding their own again. 28 Minneapolis had produced 1,551,798 barrels of flour In 1879, while Milwau- kee produced but 752,133 barrels during the same year. =» Reps, of Ohamher of Com. for 1877-80. "Ibid., for 1881. "' See Table VII showing the amount of flour manufactured to Milwaukee. [412] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 119 ground into flour.*^ Parallel with the decline in receipts, there occurred a great decline in speculative dealings in wheat. This was by no means a disadvantage to the millers of the city. The receipts of wheat at Chicago were now nearly three times as large as those of Milwaukee, while by 1883 Duluth almost equalled the latter city in this respect. Increased shipments from 1884 to 1887 were in large part merely through shipments and accordingly were of minor significance. This is brought out clearly by the drop in receipts in 1888 when the railroads discontinued reporting through shipments. By 1886, it was acknowledged that Milwaukee was no longer important as a wheat market."' Reductions in rates of storage had been made in 1885 and further reductions were made in 1887, but without avail. Complaint was also made that the railroads failed to operate the elevators so as to best serve the interests of the city. The elevators of the city were becoming less and less public in their character, — a circumstance quite in keeping with the de- cline of IMilwaukee as a speculative wheat market. President Wall ascribed the decline of Milwaukee as a primary grain market to the decline in the trading in futures and urged the restoration of future options.** This was mistaking effect for cause. The recommendation was carried out, but receipts con- tiniied to steadily decline during the following three years. Reference has been made in dealing with the flour industry in "Wisconsin to the discriminations on wheat in favor of Minne- apolis and Dnluth as against Milwaukee. These discriminations also existed against Chicago. As a result, the commercial or- ganizations of the latter two cities, formerly rivals, now drew closer together and made common cause in their struggle for more equitable treatment by the railroads.'' It was suggested that Chicago make the "receipts of Milwaukee grain elevators that comply with the regulations of her Board of Trade as to "On'y '-'.in.'?.539 bushels wore export;^ In 1882. while 6,0!i9.290 bushels were used for local consumption unci" niauufncture. ■•"ifcp. of Chamber of Com. for 1886, "ffep. for 1900. » "The fnct that rail freishts on sraln are relatively lower to Lake Superior than to Lake Michigan ts the cause of the decline of Milwaukee as a shipping center. Chicago faces the same proposition." Bep. tor 1903. [413] 120 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN inspection and storage deliverable on contracts in the Chicago market."^'' In 1904, there was the usual complaint, however, of unfair discrim.nation in rates, and the grain trade was said not to be in a satisfactory condition. In order to avoid the expense of unloading and reloading cars for shipment directly across Lake Michigan, and to pro- vide for shipment during the winter season, in competition with the all-rail routes, a system of car ferries was devised whereby a train of cars is transported bodily across the lake. This is a return to the old theory that the commercial importance of the city depends upon the movement of traffic directly across Lake Michigan.^^ The successful carrying out of the plan is asserted.^* It remains to be seen how effective this scheme wiU be in restoring the former importance of the trade in wheat. The indications are that the time is past when such a plan could prove effective. The present trend is in favor of the northern markets in the spring wheat region, and of the markets south and west of Chicago in the winter wheat region. The same causes that brought about the decline of Milwaukee as a wheat market are in operation for the accomplishing of the same re- sult for Chicago.'* Increasing distance from the centers of wheat production, the increasing effectiveness of transportation by rail as compared with transportation by water, and the more favorable rates which the increasing importance of other mar- kets enables them to secure, all combine to work against the wheat trade of both Milwaukee and Chicago.*" " See Rep. for 1891 for other improvements in transfer facilities. " lUd., for 1905. " Witness the constant complaint at Cliicago of unfavorable conditions in the grain trade, and the recurring disputes hetween the Board of Trade and the ral'roads as to differentials. " "It has been the unchangeable rule, where it was possible, that the grain crop of the grain belt should seek the nearest and therefore the cheapest route to market from the nearest inland lake or other water point. Aided by their superior advantages in this res,nect. Chicago and Milwaukee became the natural eastern terminals of the first railroads into this territory, and as naturally be- came the primary grain markets. . . . Changes have quite natnrally occurred, however, and the growth of railroads, of cities, lake ports, banks, local mills and elevators, and other facilities which tend to disturb and shift the ordinary paths of commerce have diverted much of the grain trade of Chicago to other places more advantageously situated as to producer and con- .snmer." Rep. Ind. Com. (1900), 4: 404-5. [414] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 121 CHAPTER VIII THE GOVBENMBNT LAND POLICY AND ITS RELATION TO THE WHEAT INDUSTRY IN WISCONSIN It is 'of course impossible ia this connection to undertake any complete discussion of the public land policy. The attempt is made to merely point out the part it played in the development of the wheat industry in Wisconsin and to pass judgment from that point of view. The question assumes two aspects: first, cheap lands and the pioneer settlers; and second, the land grant system to the rail- roads. Though these two phases of the public land policy were in part antagonistic,^ ultimately the effect in each case was to stimulate the production of wheat. It would be difficult to find any great amount of opposition in Wisconsin in early days to the preemption and homestead laws. The policy of cheap lands met with universal favor. Even those who inveighed against the policy of adding acre to acre until the settler was land poor had no word of criticism for the public land policy which made that course possible. The careless and wasteful methods of cultivation did not go unrebuked ; but no one pointed out that land ought to be made more costly because people are naturally wasteful of that which costs little. The part played by the factor of cheap land in the excessive and harmful extent to which wheat culture was carried was set forth plainly by more than one thoughtful person; but no one seriously thought of taking the position that the government ought to make it ' Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railroads. Bulletin of the TJniv, of Wis., No. 30, pp. 31, 45-7. Considerable opposition developed in Wis- consin at fir^ to the land grant system. [415] 122 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN more difficult to obtain land.^ Land was desirable property to own and to get it as cheaply as possible was, like any other bar- gain, to be desired. The attitude of the people of Wisconsin toward cheap land at the beginning of the wheat period and for a number of years thereafter was the traditional attitude of the frontier — the attitude of the newer western states as op- posed to that of the older eastern states.^ It was not until the farmers of Wisconsin themselves began to suffer in their turn from the competition of the cheaper and more fertile lands in the West that opposition developed to the policy of cheap lands.* An insatiable land himger prevented them from realizing the injurious effects of cheap land and extensive cultivation upon their own agriculture directly. A half century before wheat growing became important in Wisconsin, the close eonnecfion between cheap land, the culture of wheat, and bad methods of agriculture were set forth in reference to New York:° "New York is at least half a century behind her neighbors in New England, New Jersey and Pennsylvania in point of improve- ment in agriculture and manufactures. Among other reasons for this deficiency, that of want of enterprise in the inhabitants is not the least. Indeed their local advantages have been such as that they have grown rich without enterprise. Besides lands have hitherto been cheap and farms of course large, and it re- quires much less ingenuity to raise 1,000 bushels of wheat upon 2 See p. 26, however, in reference to the land limitation movement In Wiscon- sin. "The opposition of the older eastern states to a liberal land policy and the ardent advocacy of the same policy by the frontier states is a commonplace of Amer'can history. "The government of this country could not advance the interest of the state more effectnally than to hold out still greater inducements to foreigners and others living in distant states, by giving all the disposable land in the state, free to actual settlers, charging only the bare expense of the survey and transfer." Gregory, Industrial Resources of Wis., p. 12. See also the Mineral Point Democrat, June 6, 1845, quoting from the Washington Union. See also Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land, etc., pp. 12, 17, 20, 27, 35, 38 ff. Compare the present hostile attitude in the West toward a more strict enforce- ment of our already liberal laws governing the disposal of the public domain. < Trans, of State Agric. Soc., 1873-74, pp. 109, 429-31. See below, notes 41 and 43. See Farmers' Inst. (Wis.) Bulletin No. 2, p. 181. " Jededlah Morse, American Geography, [Elizabeth town, (N. J.) 1789,] p. 261. Compare Pat. Office Rep. Agriculture, 1858, pp. 213-20, article by Gustavus De Neveu. of Fond du Lac, Wis. [416] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 123 60 acres of land than to raise the same quantity upon 30 acres. So long, therefore, as the farmer in New Tork can have 60 acres of land to raise 1,000 bushels of wheat, he will never trouble himself to find out how he can raise the same quantity upon half the land. It is population alone that stamps a value upon lands and lays a foundation for high improvements in agriculture." This description is characteristic of specialization in wheat, growing on the frontier throughout the movement of the wheat area across the country from east to west, with the reservation that it describes an area in which the stage of serious soil ex- haustion had not yet been reached. From an early period in the history of wheat growing within the present boundaries of the United States,^ the chief features in the early stages have been cheap, fertile land, sparse population, scanty capital, and large yields with the most primitive methods of cultivation. Then, later, with successive cropping to wheat, came soil ex- haustion, declining yield,^ the necessity of more expensive meth- ods of cultivation, higher land values consequent to an increas- ing population and to the improvements necessitated by an advancing standard of living,* resulting ultimately in- wheat growing becoming unprofitable and being discontinued in part at least, and being replaced by other crops and farm pursuits less costly of the increasingly expensive factor, land, and more dependent upon the application of the relatively cheaper fac- tors, labor and capital.' Wheat growing on the frontier not only requires a limited amoiuit of labOr and capital, but it re- quires only labor of a low degree of skill and capital of minimum efficiency.^" The all important factor is fertile land adapted ° "It [wheat] was introduced into tlie Elizabeth islands of Massachusetts in 1602, and in 1611 Into Virginia. In 1718 It was brought into the valley of the Mississippi, and In 1746 flour was first shipped from the Wabash riyer to New Oilcans'." nep. of Com. of Agric. (TJ. S.) for 3862, p. 66. '"The English colonies on the Pacific, where land is cheap, foUow the ex- haustiTe practice of the United States, rather than the restorative system of the mother country, and the result Is shown in a yield of cereals not exceed- ing our own rate of production." UeD, of Com. of Agrio. (U. S.) for 1868, p. 19. " See below, note 42. "See Rep. of Com. of Agrio. (U. S.) for 1868, p. 18. " See below p. 170, note 42. [417] 124 BUIJL,ETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN to its culture, and since it is a grain directly used for human subsistence and thus a cash crop, and since specialization in its culture implies a market and thus a sensitive relation to the phenomena of price, the value of the land becomes a factor of prime importance and the growing of wheat on cheap, fertile lands becomes a pursuit of extraordinary competitive strength not only in relation to other pursuits less adapted to that environ- ment, but also in relation to wheat growing itself in a more ad- vanced agriculture. In addition to other peculiarities and char- acteristics already pointed out which make wheat growing pre- eminently a frontier crop ,^^ it may be worth while to emphasize more particularly a circumstance already noted,^^ which has in- creased the adaptability of wheat growing to cheap fertile land in the United States, viz : that the early wheat farmer was half speculator. He looked largely to a rise in the value of land for his profit and expected to dispose of his land when that rise in value came. In the meantime, the growing of wheat was not " See above p. 23 ff. As compared with other grains, wheat has a high specific value, a low degree of perishability and may be handled with a high degree of facility both by hand and by machinery. It thus has an advantage over comDetiDg crops wherever the factor of transportation plays an important part as is true on the frontier. Further it is directly available for human consumption while other grains are in general incidental to the live stock in- dustry and are thus available for human consumption only indirectly and through the agency of a more or less prolonged round of operations involving the intervention of considerable amounts of labor and capital, which are proverb- ially scarce on the frontier. There was sa'd fo have been no market for oats or barley in Grant county in 1852 (See Pat. Office Rep., Agriculture, 1852-53. p. 327 ff.i Wheat was said to have been the princi»)al article raised in Fond du Lac county in 1*54 for exl)ort because other grains would hardly bear transportation to eastern markets. (Fbicl.. 1854, p. 148 ft. See also Adams, Commercial Geography, 59, 60. G^.) "Wheat Is a convenient pioneer crop, and particularly spring wheat. It can be put into all ground one can have ready and he trusts to his opportunities in a later month to harvest." BuUetin U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. of Stat., No. 24. (Blodgett) : Relations of population and food products in the United States, (1903) p. 32. " See above p. 40 £f. Ritchie, Industrial Resources of Wis., 172 ; see Trans. of State Agric. Soc, 1886, p. 226, for the statement that of the two great sources of profit in farming (1) rise in the value of land and (2) profit on the produc- tion of farm crops, — the first had thus far been tha chief source. This is prob- ably a little over stated, however ; see Rep. of Ind. Com. for 1900, 10: 789-90, for similar statement in reference to the early farmers of Dakota ; see Register's Report, State Land Office, Oshkosh, Jan. 2, 1852. There was an Increase of 100 per cent, in the value of farm lands In the surveyed district, in Minnesota, from 1850 to 1860. — Rep. of Com. of Agric. (U. S.) for 1867, p. 108. [418] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 125 only often profitable in itself, but it involved the minimum ex- penditure for permanent improvements. For this anticipated rise in land values and consequent speculation, the low price at which the public lands were disposed of, afforded abundant opportunity. In 1790, the wheat country of the United States lay in Vir- ginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and the westernmost parts of Connecticut, of the two Carolinas and perhaps of Georgia for home consumption.^* Captain Williamson^^ stated a few years later that it had been found by repeated experience that when wheat was about one dollar per bushel, an acre of ground taken from a state of na- ture and well timbered would require with great economy four- teen dollars per acre to put into a crop of wheat or rye, includ- ing every expense. Forty acres of such ground near Geneva, N. Y., was depended upon to yield at least 1,000 bushels of wheat,^^ and after deducting two-tenths or 200 bushels for reaping and threshing, a balance of 800 bushels was left to defray the expense and "as a profit for the value of the land used." The land was left in complete order for a second crop without further expense than the "trifling one of plowing and sowing." Thus, notwithstanding the expense of clearing in a "well tim- bered" region, the cultivation of wheat was found to return a high profit the first year.^' This was possible because of the minimum outlay for the cost of the land. Even in 1804, the price of the best unimproved lands in the Genessee country was commonly from $2 to $4 per acre, while a farm of lOO acres with 20 or 30 acres improved and having a house and bam sold f or from $6 to $20 per acre.^' Methods of cultivation, as might be " Coxe, Tenche, A View of the United States, Dublin, 1795, pp. 73-4. ^<' Documentary History of New York, 2: 667 (1850). IB Tjie yield of wheat In tlie Genessee country about 1797 amounted to from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. — Tbid. '" Attention has already been called to the extraordinary spread of the wheat area over the non-forested part of Wisconsin, and its slower conquest of the wooded portions. Much of Wisconsin was thus more favorable for frontier wheat growing than the famous wheat country of western New York. See above pp. 39-40. " Uoc. Hist, of N. r., 2: 687. 126 BULDETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP _ WISCONSIN expected, were far from being thorough.^* DeWitt Clinton in 1810 described an estate of 2,400 acres located eight miles from Geneva, where 8 acres produced 50 bushels of wheat each, while the average yield of that section was said to have been 30 bushels per acre, and the wheat the best produced in the state.^" Under similar conditions, the "internal lands" on the large rivers of New Hampshire were raising from 40 to 50 bushels of wheat per acre about 1820,^° but in 1860 New England pro- duced only eleven quarts of wheat per capita.''^ At the former period a yield of 25 bushels per acre was said to be a fair estimate on the tract in Ohio extending from the Muskingum to the Scioto and Great Miami rivers.^^ It was just about this time that improved means of transportation afforded access to this fertile region and Ohio was soon the center of the wheat pro- ducing area;^^ and yet in less than thirty years Ohio was held up before the farmers of Wisconsin as a striking illustration of over-specialization in wheat growiug.^* In 1845, the average yield of wheat per acre in eastern New York was but 8 bushels to the acre, and its cultivation had been almost abandoned. ^° In the Mohawk-Hudson district the yield of wheat for the same year was but 9% bushels per acre, and the crop was no longer profitable except for "family consumption."^" The western district or northern half of the western part of the state was said to be unsurpassed for wheat grovnng, as to soil and climate, " "Grain Is frequently put into the ground without ploughing, the ground heing only broke with a heavy harrow, and often yields, with this cultiyation upwards of twenty bushels of wheat per acre." Ibid., 682. See also Prairie Parmer, lO: 172-73. "Campbell, Life and Writings of DeWitt OUnlon (y. Y. 1849), 153. '" Oommercial Directory, J. C. Kayser and Company, (Phila. 1823). 118. ^Rep. of Com. of Agric. for the year 1868. (U. S.) p. 20. It Is significant of changed conditions of production that in 1860 yields of 30 to 35 bushels of wheat per acre were reported In Massachusetts, but at a cost of from $45 to $55, of which from $25 to $30 had been expended for manure. Careful and liberal cultivation was also required. Hid., pp. 480-81. 22 Commercial Directory, J. C. Kayser & Co.. 153. =» See Bep. of Milwaukee Ohamier of Com. for 1871, p. 148. 2* See above pp. 14, 20. " Wlnden, Julien- — The Influence of the Erie Canal upon th,e Population along its Course, mss. Senior Thesis, Univ. of Wis., 190O. [Quoting from Emmons, yatural History of New Torlc.'i ''Itid.; see also Wig. Farmer, 10: 337. [420] THOMPSON WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 127 but the average yield had declined by 1845 to 15^ bushels to the acre and this was to be regarded as the "spontaneous growth of the fields rather than the result of high cultivation.^^ It was pointed out in 1848 that land in this same region so treated as to yield 20 bushels per acre cost for cultivation $11.25 per acre, or about 56 J4 cents per bushel; and that it could be put down in Liverpool at a cost of 15 cents, or a total cost of 71 cents per bushel, where it came into competition with the Eng- lish wheat which had cost $1.10 per bushel.^ This calculation reveals both the possibilities of the English market for the American wheat farmer in general and at the same time the superior advantages of the frontier wheat farmers on the cheap, fertile lands of Wisconsin over the older New York wheat r^on. Attention may be directed again to illustrations already given of the production of wheat at a low cost in the former state — ^in- cluding the original cost of the land — for the purpose of de- monstrating both the smaUness of the cost per bushel and the low proportion of the whole cost included in the original pur- chase of the land. In one of the above illustrations, the total cost per bushel, including the entire original cost of the land, was about 50 cents. The cost of the land amounted to but 12j4 per cent, of the total cost of purchasing the land and producing and marketing the wheat, and was exceeded 25 per eait. by the single item of "breaking," as well as equalled by the item of "harvesting and stacking." Exclusive of the cost of the land, the cost per bushel was about 44 cents.^' In another case in "Wisconsin, represented as typical, the en- tire cost of "buying and settUng a farm of 160 acres, with a comfortable log house and 40 acres of prairie fenced with ditch" and incidentally "breaking" the 40 acres and raising thererai LOGO bushels of wheat, amounted to only $735, or at a cost of only 73j4 cents per bushel for the wheat, with a farm of 160 acres and a house thrown in. In this case, the cost of the land amounted to but 27 per cent, of the whole expenditure and was "Hunt's Her. Mag., ZSs 323. ^ See above p. 35, note 82 (b) . In tbe other caae, the analogous cost was about 30 cents per bnshel. See Ibid., note 82 (a). [421] 128 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN exceeded 40 per cent, by the combined cost of fencing and break- ing only one-fourth of the land. Inspection of the itemized state- ment shows that to raise the same amount the second year, which was, on the average, possible,'" would require less than one- third the outlay, omitting the cost of the land, of the house, of the fencing, and at least one-half the cost for plowing, which in this case is above the average: "Cost of 160 acres of land $200.00 House, 80.00 Fencing, 160.00 Ploughing 40 acres, 120.00 Seed for sowing, 25.00 Sowing and harrowing, 50.00 Total $635.00 Crop, 25 bushels per acre, 1,000 bushels $500.00 Deduct for harvesting, markets, etc., 100.00 Leaves the net proceeds, $400.00 Deduct ($400) from $635 leaves balance of . . $235.00."'^ The yield in these instances was not extraordinary. Much higher yields were often obtained.'^ The price received for the ™ See Pat. Office Rep. Agriculture, 1850-51, p. 8. 3' Hazard, United States Com. and Stat. Reg., 4: 69, (1841) quoted from the Southport, (Wis.) Telegraph. See also Wis. Farmer, 1; 44. See Trans. Am-er. Inst., 1858, p. 100 for another estimate for a more ad- vanced stage in the occupation of land in Wisconsin, where the total cost of putting 120 acres to wheat, including the cost ol the "raw land" at $5 per acre was $1,362. The proceeds including the 120 acres of farm land, now "Improved" and worth $10 per acre, amounted to $2,370. Estimating, more properly, the raw land lower and the Improved land higher the real profits were calculated to amount to fully $1,600. See Ellsworth — Valley of the Upper Wo6a«ft, 1838, pp. 58-9 for an entirely analogous estimate for Indiana in 1838. " One man raised 3,950 hushels of wheat on 100 acres near Green Lake, ahout 1842. The following year he raised 3,650 bushels on the same land at a cost of less than 20 cents per bushel. The wheat was cut with a cradle and threshed at a cost of 3 cents per bushel. After the first two years, however, he never succeeded in raising any wheat at a profit. Trans, of State Agric. Soc., 1879-80, pp. 220-22. [422] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 129 wheat was also low, when compared with that which stimulated wheat growing in the state shortly after the introduction of rail- roads.^^ Nor were the crude methods of cultivation that were inci- dental to the growing of wheat on cheap lands elsewhere wanting in Wisconsin.^* After the first breaking of the land plowing was often very shallow, or even dispensed with entirely.^" Imple- ments of the most primitive character were often used.'° The same fields were in some cases cultivated continuously to wheat for a generation or more.^' Methods of rotation if followed at aU were often imperfect^^ and no effort was made to return to the soil the elements withdrawn from it and which made for available fertility.'* In short, nature did much, and man, little. How this system of wheat growing had by 1850 wrought out its normal, disastrous results over the area of which it had taken possession in Wisconsin at that time has been already described; and it has been shown how a rise in the price of wheat and the introduction of improved means of transportation revived that system and spread it with extraordinary rapidity over the remaining available wheat lands of the state, to repeat on a scale many fold greater its course of exploitation and in- cipient ruin. "But westward the star of grain growing takes its way."*" The same causes that had diminished the succes- =» See above p. 46, note 38. ^ See Hist, of Crawford, County, Wis. (Union Publ. Co., 1884), pp. 409-10. See Rep. of Com. of Agric. (U. S.) for 1868, p. 19. Also Trans, of State Agrlc. Soc, 1871, pp. 241 ff. '^ See above p. 48. ™ "I see men every day who say tUey wish they could raise wheat as they did 25 or 30 years ago, tnrn the sod over and shake on the seed. I recollect of sowing wheat and raising 30 bushels to the acre, and harrowed It with two pieces of rail with wooden teeth." Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1875-76, p. 429. "Ibid., pp. 305 and 431. Sixth Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Association, 104. " On new soil in Fond du Lac county, about 1850, farmers usually raised two or three crops of wheat in succession and then alternated with oats or maize or fallowed with weeds. — Pat. Office Rep., Agriculture, 1852-53, p. 834. "The statement is a common one that the stables, were often moved in order to avoid the taslj of clearing away the barnyard manure. Trcms. of State Agric. Soc, 1853, p. 53 : 1800, p. 75 ; 1861-68, p. 32 ; 1870, p. 456. Also Farmers' Inst. (Wis.) Bulletin, No. 5, p. 45. "The New York PuMic, quoted in the Northwestern Miller, April 5, 1878. Also Jan. 4, 1878, Suppilement. "What were once the great wheat producing States of the conntry are becom- ing less and less so, each succeeding year. The uncertainty of the crop dis- courages its cultivation in those States and the growing demand for shipment 9 [423] 130 BUMjETIN op the university of WISCONSIN sive areas farther east and had brought half of Wisconsin under the sway of that grain now operated in turn to almost drive wheat growing beyond the confines of the state. The cheap, fertile lands of Minnesota and Dakota became the new sphere of the operations of the wheat grower, and the land-grant rail- road made his operations possible.*^ In the wake of the disappearing wheat area in Wisconsin there reappeared in an acute form the depressing conditions of the period of 1850, and wheat growing became unprofitable on land that had risen in value*^ while its capacity to produce wheat had in general either declined or was neutralized by the to western Europe must be supplied from other sources. I venture the predic- tion that the wheat granary of this continent will yet be found in the valley of the Red River and Saskatchawan." Governor Jayne's Message, Dakota Ter- ritory, 1862. "The progress of wheat growing westward is a significant feature of our agriculture. In nine years since 1859 it has been out of all proportion to the increase of population In the same section. West of the Mississ'ppi 1859, the quantity harvested was 25,000,000 bushels ; In 1867 it had increased to 65,- 000,000 bushels ; and in 1868 the product was 70,000,000 bushels. Nine years ago the proportion produced was but 14 per cent ; now it is 30 per cent, of the total product." Rep. of the Com. of Agric. (U. S.) for 1868, p. 17. "He (the pioneer wheat farmer) knows there is danger of reducing the pro- ductive value of his land, but its original cost was an Insignificant fraction of its Intrinsic value, which is more than repaid by the net proceeds of a single crop. He cares little for a small diminution of productive capacity while he can fence and stock his farm, and place money in bank, from the sale of suc- cessive crops of wheat, and then sell the naked land for tenfo'd Its original cost. Immediate returns with the least labor and capital, are the objects of the pioneer. As an expedient, for a poor man, the present practice may be tolerated ; as a regular system of farm management, it is reprehensible and ruinous. It will doubtless continue in vogue till our virgin wheat lands are run over by pioneers, who will ultimately be succeeded by scientific farmers who will practice rotation, draining, Irrigation, in certain sections, and fer- tilization from home resources, when the yield will be greatly Increased and crops will be surer. "The relative area of wheat must therefore continue Its decrease eastward, and its increase westward, till our agriculture changes from its chrysalis state to its development as a complete system." /bicJ., 18. «Bep. of the Com. of Agric. (U. S.) for 1868, p. 16; see above p. 89 ff. "The grand land craze caused by the immense yield of wheat in Minnesota, according to the Piboneefr Press, dotes not abate, but on the contrary increases dally. Parties went out on Friday over the Northern Pacific, the St. Paul and Pacific, and the Sioux City roads to hunt for farms. People appear to be coming from all parts of the TInion to get a slice of Minnesota lands." North- western Miller, Nov. 9, 1877. " This rise In the value of land was due to a complex of causes. In part It represented the profitableness of wheat growing at an earlier i)erlod. which had been capitalized — and in some cases over-capitalized as a result of spec- ulative activity. In large measure it represented the cost of fixed improve- [424] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 131 competition of other farm pursuits better adapted to the new conditions. A more general recognition of the evils of a too extensive method of cultivation and of the tying up of capital in an undue amount of land was accompanied by a less favorable attitude toward the government land policy in general when the farmers of Wisconsin themselves began to suffer from the com- petition of these new and fertile areas.*' "When some of these ments — ^better houses, tetter barns, drainage, fences — and those numberless conveniences which people are willing to forego while taking up land on the frontier hut which come to be considered indispensable with an advancing stand- ard of living and which are yet of minimum utility in the growing of wheat. (See Trans, of State Agric. Boo., 1853, pp. 151-52.) Of lilte character are those advantages which attach to older communities for residence purposes — oppor- tunities for the amenities of life — society, culture, education — which are In large measure incidental to the growth of urban life, and which are of much more significance in the rise of land values than is usually recognized. [Lands in Hock county in 1870 were said to be worth from $10 to $100 per acre, and were soSght for "not so much by emigrants seeking cheap lands as by those desiring beautiful homes where they may at once enjoy all the comforts and conveniences to be found in the, older and more wealthy portions of the coun- try." Trcma. of State Agrio. Soc, 1870, p. 456.] The growth of cities, the pressure of population and the exhaustion of cheap government land within the state were other causes. The construction of railroads was another cause. If it can be considered separate from the other causes mentioned. The more rapid fall In interest rates on capital Invested in land was another cause of higher land values. See History of Crawford County, Wis. (Union Publ. Co., 1884,) 409-10. " In 1870 in Pond du Lac county good. Improved farms were worth $45 to $75 per acre — $75 to $100 near cities — and wild lands $10 to $45. It was said that there had been great changes in the system of farming recently ; that farmers had begun to realize the folly of wearing out their land raising wheat at an average cost of $1 and selling it for 85 cents ; that the time "was passed" when wheat could be raised for 50 cents at a large profit ; that only new and cheap lands could do this and that other pursuits were found more profit- able. Trans, of State Agrio. Boo , p. 407 tf. [The average cash valuation of farms in Fond du Lac county had increased from $30.19 In 1859 to $48.04 in 1869^ See Table XXIII.] See speech of Pres. West, of Mil. Ch. of Com., Apr. 8, 1871, in Ttep. of Milioaukee Chamber of Com. for 1871, p. 144. "We are menaced on the north and west with a large area of rich, cheap land that will soon send its products into our markets at prices far below the cost of production here, at all consistent with the present price of Wisconsin farms. Just now we are protected by what we please to call railroad extor- tions on freights : but when forty-five cent wheat from Dakota and twenty-five dollar four-year-old steers from Kansas, are freighted to Chicago as cheaply as they now are from Chicago to New York, we shall have to adopt some more productive farming than that now prevailing among the majority of farmers." Trams, of State Agrio. Soc, 1879-80, p. 197. "Changed conditions in soil and climate, deterioration of the soil and last and greatest the competition of the new and great wheat fields of the far north- west, where lands are chieap and organized labor on a large scale reduces the cost of production to the lowest figure, have all combined to render the pro- duction of small grain alone a discouraging task if not a ruinons failure." ma., 1881-82, p. 181. [4251 132 BULLiBTIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN same fanners, disposing of their own land, migrated to the new wheat areas in Minnesota and Dakota, the parallel between Wis- oonsia and the older wheat areas to the east was complete." It was asserted in 1857 that a revulsion in commercial aJEairs, even if it came, could not affect the farmers of Wisconsin, who had purchased lands at $1.50 to $2 per acre, inasmuch as the first crop generally paid for both farm and improvements." But the price of land under those circumstances does not re- main at that figure, and, as a result of the wild speculation that followed, land rose enormously in value within a brief period. The cost of labor and of materials also rose greatly and it thus happened that with a declining market the wheat crop of 1857 cost from 25 cents to 30 cents per bushel more than was re- ceived for it,*° and the revulsion came notwithstanding. So great was the reaction caused by the depression, which was emphasized by unfavorable crops for two or three years, that it was seriously questioned whether, after all, the Northwest was in the real wheat belt.*'^ The next period of marked general depression occurred dur- ing the years that followed the Civil War*' when conditions were again changing from a speculative to a more stable basis. It was asserted that the time had come for important changes in ** See Northwestern Miller, for April 18, 1879, relative to the "steady ex- odus" from tlie eastern part of Minnesota and from Wisconsin and other states to the new region to the north and west. The statement is also made that the exports of wheat from that region had already materially "changed the grain markets of the old world." This migration was not without its advantages for the agriculture of the state as those who went were usually those who had learned to raise nothing but wheat and who were unable to adapt themselves to the new conditions, but went west again "to begin anew their frontier farming upon virgin soil." They were then replaced by immigrants accusrtomed to better methods of cul- ture. IJist. of Crawford County, Wis. (Union Publ. Co., 1884) 409-10. See Trans, of State Agric. Boc, 1871, pp. 243-44 ; Northwestern Miller, Nov. 8, 1878 ; Tenth Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 65. " Ritchie, Wisconsin and Her Resources, 174. "Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Com. for 1858, p. 9. The elCect of this rise in the value of land upon the cost of producing wheat was due to the fact that much land changed hands at these fancy prices. Had the land remained in the hands of the original owners the Increase in Its value would not have directly increased the cost of producing the wheat. See Hlbbard, Bist. of Agric. in Dane Co., pp. 130, 195-96. "Wis. Farmer, 1.3: 33-5. " See above p. 71 ff. [426] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 133 the La Crosse valley and that too much time, labor, and money were expended in raising wheat nnless a price of $1.75 to $2 per bushel could be depended on.^' In Jefferson county, it was said in 1870 in reference to the "hard times" that though the crops might be as abundant as in more prosperous years yet the farmers in very few instances had anything left after paying the expenses of production and living and in many instances did not realize enough on their crops to meet expenses."" Land is said to have sold at $20 per acre in that county a little later,"^ and it is asserted that the farms were mortgaged up to 60 per cent, of their value.'"' The statement has also been made that "the farms of Wisconsin were all blanketed with mortgages" about the same time."' The reason given for this depression was the decline in the yield of wheat. This may be accepted as valid in part, but the statis- tics in reference to yield per acre do not indicate so extreme a decline as is claimed, either in Jefferson county or in the state as a whole."* The great fall in the price of wheat about that time,"" coupled with the high cost of production"" and the com- petition — just then becoming serious"^ — of the new wheat areas to the west, would seem to indicate that inflated land values played no small part in making the wheat crop unprofitable, and that the phenomena of depression represented in part a "Sparta Herald (Monroe Co.) May 4 and 18, 1869. "» Jefteraon Banner, July 13, 1870. The blame was laid upon the tariff. «i Trans, of State Agrie. Soo., 1895, p. 265. This fligure can fiardly be ac- cepted as Indicating the value of land generally in that county at that time. See Table XXIII. "2 /Wrt. "lUa., 1888, p. 180. » The yield of Jefferson county was said to have been reduced to 8 bushels per acre. This seems Improbable, as Jefferson county In 1869 shows the high- est per capita yield of any census period. Further the yield per acre In that county for the year 1869 calculated on an acreage of 50,000 acres (very con- siderably above the acreage for 1877) amounts to more than 12 bushels per acre. See also Jefferson Banner, Aug. 4, 1869 ; July 13 and Aug. 24, 1870. Inasmuch as the per capita yield for the whole state was also at the max- imum in 1869, the statement of a greatly diminished yield for the whole state at that time can scarcely be accepted. " See Tables VIII-X. "' See above note 43. " See above pp. 4, 89-90, 129 41. [427] 134 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN readjustment to more normal values."' This is borne out by referring to the figures for the average cash valuations of farms in the state in 1870.^° A majority of the counties that were important in the production of wheat in 1869 show declines in the cash valuation of land for the decade 1869-1879. That this decline in land values may have been due to depression in the wheat industry does not invalidate the hypothesis that land values were too high to raise wheat, but serves to strengthen it. Neither would it be valid to assume that with the decline in the value of land the growing of wheat might have been ex- pected to regain the ground that had been lost. There was naturally a tendency to introduce other farm pursuits better adapted to the changed conditions and which might be expected to produce a larger income even than wheat had formerly done. The higher standard of living demanded an increased income and not merely the same income that had been formerly en- joyed.*" The unprofitableness of the wheat crop proved a favorable opportunity for experiment in a more diversified agriculture, and, this experiment proving successful, the fall in the value of land was checked and did not proceed far enough to place wheat growing on the same competitive level in Wis- consin as on the cheap lands of Minnesota and Dakota. So far from that, land values, responding to the profitableness of the new pursuits, moved up to a point higher than before and wheat growing in Wisconsin, was as a result not only not able to com- pete with the growing of wheat on the cheaper lands of Minne- sota and Dakota, but weis also unable to compete with the more profitable farm pursuits at home. It is not surprising then that under these circumstances the growing of wheat continued to M It was said that in 1872 some thought 75 cents per bushel for wheat would pay ; others that not less than ?1.00 per bushel could be made to pay. One man, was of the opinion that to pay all expenses and 7 per cent, interest on the value of the land required $15 per acre and that a crop of 15 bushels to the acre accordingly brought no profit. In 1872 with a yield of 18 bushels per acre there was a profit of $3 per acre. In ordinary years, however, with a yield of 14 bushels per acre, there was a loss on the investment though the majority of the farmers did not keep booljs and went on at a loss — not realizing it. Martin, History of the Grange Movement, 385-86. »» See Table XXIII. «» See above p. 71, note 1. [428] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 135 decline in "Wisconsia. This substitution of more profitable farm pursuits for wheat growing and the resulting upward tendency in land values was evident in many of the counties by 1880 though much more marked during the succeeding de- cades."^ Green, Jefferson, Eock, Sheboygan, and Walworth counties afford illustrations.®^ That the conditions in refer- ence to wheat growing were yet on the whole dominant in re- spect to the movement of land values is proved by the decrease in the cash valuation of land which accompanied the great falling off in the production of wheat during the decade 1869- 1879 in Columbia, Dane, Dodge, Grant, Green Lake, Iowa, La- fayette, and Vernon counties and the increase in the value of land which accompanied the increased importance of wheat growing in Door, Kewaunee, Manitowoc, Ozaukee, and "Wash- ington counties, as well as in some of the western counties.'^ During the following two decades, however, marked declines in the production of wheat, accompanied by the substitution of other farm pursuits, have gone hand in hand with greatly in- creased land values, while wheat growing has persisted longest in those counties where land values have been, in general, moder- ate." The effect of the land grant system upon the introduction of railroads and thus upon the spread of wheat growing in Wis- consin need not detain us long in this connection. It has been seen °i see Table XXIII. '^ IMd. See also Bulletin of the Agrid. Exper. Stat., Vniv. of Wis., No. 60, p. 17 for the early development of the cheese Industry in Sheboygan and Jef- ferson counties. Recall the growth of tobacco growing in Bock county. <" Compare Tables III and XXIII. Manitowoc, Ozaukee, and Washington counties present exceptions to the general tendency of wheat growing to de- cline on high priced land. It 19 asserted that the culture of wheat is liest adapted to putting the heavy red clay soils of the eastern counties Into cultiv- able condition. This may afford a partial explanation. See Martin, History of the Chrcmge Movement, 333, (1873) for the statement that the effect of a change in price of one cent per 100 lbs. of wheat amounted to $1.16 per acre upon the value of land in Wisconsin. " Compare again Tables III and XXIII, and note the comparatively low cash valuations in Buffalo, St. Croix, Polk, Pierce, Kewaunee, Door, Trempeal- eau, Pepin, Shawano, Jackson, and Monroe counties. Calumet, Manitowoc, and Brown present exceptions, but the higher average in the cash values of land in these counties may be due to the influence of the cities in this section upon the value of the lands In their immediate neighborhood. [429] 136 BULLiETIN OF THE trNlVERSITT OF WISCONSIN already that the first effect of the introduction of railroads was toward more excessive specialization in the culture of wheat as well as toward its rapid spread into regions previously inac- cessible."^ It is here proposed merely to point out the connec- tion between the existence of a great body of cheap land which was disposable at a nominal price, and the system of land grants by which the construction of railroads and other internal im- provements was stimulated. No one can follow the history of internal improvements in the United States and not be im- pressed with the significance of this connection. One argument advanced on the part of the government was the familiar one that internal improvements would increase the value of the public lands as a whole and hence that it was desirable to en- courage internal improvements by granting a portion of the public lands in aid of the various projects. The settlers who took up the lands on the frontier had on their part a double object in the promotion of railroads. In the first place they desired an outlet for their surplus product, so soon as they had a surplus product, and in the second place as land speculators they favored internal improvements for the increment of value which would thereby be added to their land. As we have al- ready seen,"* the break-down of the home market in Wisconsin led to the abandonment, by the early settlers of the state, of their hostility toward railroads on account of the supposed monopolistic features connected therewith, together with what- ever of opposition they may have had to the system of land grants on the ground that it removed a portion of the public lands from settlement as well as raised the price of the desirable lands."' Having thrown their scruples to the winds, the people of Wisconsin were thereupon as eager for the construction of railroads as they had been hostile to them before. On the same principle as that advocated by those who determined the public "= See aboTe p. 40 £E ; also below p. 140 ff. •« See above pp. 17-19, 35. "' See Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railroads, pp. 31, 37, 46-7. It seems clear that the effect of the railroads in opening the new areas to cultivation, and in adding to the value of the lands ol the settlers them- selves far outweighed these opposing tendencies. See, however, below p. 144. [430] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 137 land policy, they were willing to aid the railroads for the sake of the effect upon the value of their own lands. Further, in addition to their role as speculators in land, they now essayed to speculate in railroad stocks. In the latter capacity they soon came to grief and the effect was to diminish both their ability and their inclination to make permanent improvements or to adopt an improved system of falrming and get out of the rut of wheat culture, which they found peculiarly suited to their situation. Cheap land was thus a main factor in the introduc- tion of railroads into Wisconsin, which in turn reacted favor- ably upon the cultivation of that same land to wheat. It is not argued that the policy of cheap lands led to wheat growing, but that it led to the excessive cultivation of wheat; nor that the extension of that policy to the new lands beyond Wisconsin, alone led to the decline of wheat growing within that state, but that that policy was the maia factor in both cases in respect to Wisconsin just as it had been in respect to the former wheat areas to the east of that state, and as it has been in the case of the newer areas to the west.^* If it be argued that the policy provided homes for the homeless and lands for the landless, it may be answered that there will stiU be the homeless and the landless.'* If it gave many In the older portions of the country a new start in life,'"' it may be M For aescriptlon of how the same conditions have heen or are being repeated in Minnesota and the Dakotas see the following : C W. Thompson, The Move- ment of Wheat Cfrowing. A Study of a Leading State, in Quart. Joum. Econom. 18: 570; Hon. C. C. Andrews, Conditions and Needs of Spring Wheat Oulture in the Northwest in Special Report of the Dep. of AgrVo. (U.S.), Vol. IV, No. 40 (1882) ; Hagerty, Statist, and Polit. Abstract of the Territory of Dakota, (1889) p. 72 £f ; Wheat Raising in the Red River Valley in Minn. In Bist. Soc. Coll., 10: 1-33 ; J. A. Wheelock, Second Ann. Rep. of Com. of Statist. (Minn.) for 1860 and 1861, pp. 56, 66, 71, et al. ; First Ann. Rep. of the Assist. Sec'y of State, Minn., Dec. 30, 1869, p. 10 ft. ; Report of the Second Ann. Farmers' Inst, at Le Seur, Minn. Meh. 9-11, 1887 ; Second Ann. Report of Com. of Stat. (Minn.), Jan., 1871, p. 11 flf. ; Northwestern Miner, Jan. 4, Jan. 26, Feb. 1, May 3, July 5, Sept. 6, Oct. 4, Nov. 8, 1878 ; Jan. 24, May 30, June 6, 1879. See various county histories of Minnesota, especially by NelU. See also Munsey's 25! 17-30; Nineteenth Century, 6i 10. See Rep. of Ind. Com., (1900) Vol. X., Index. " Riep. of Ind. Com,, for 1900, 10« 10-11, testimony of Assist. Sec. TJ. S. Dep, of Agric, Joseph H. Brlgham. ""IWd., 171, testimonjr of Ve Grand Powers, Chief of IMt. of Agrlc. U. S. Census. [431] 138 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN answered that it injured those who remained behind and in a vicious circle of reaction drove them, too, to sacrifice their own lands and seek the cheaper and more fertile ones farther west.'^ It accentuated the natural .tendency to that undesirable eco- nomic instability which always characterizes the frontier region. If justified at all, it must be justified on other than on economic grounds, and it may be questioned whether it can be justified on any grounds. For fields that were slovenly and impoverished and that ran to weeds, for homes sold under foreclosure, for class antagonisms begotten of financial distress, for lives, narrow and imlovely, bom of the shiftless monotony of continuous crop- ping to wheat— for this the prodigal system of cheap govern- ment land was in large measure responsible. ■"lUd., 37, 86, 175 ff, 266, 366 et al. (See index). [432] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 139 CHAPTER IX RELATIONS BETWEEN THE WHEAT GROWER AND THE COMMON CARRIER It has been shown that the railroad came just in time in Wis- consin to prevent the cultivation of wheat from being relegated to a rational and scientific coordination with the growing of other farm crops and with other farm pursuits. The early distrust of railroads by the farmers and the slow acceptance by the latter of the belief in their apparent necessity has been referred to, and attention was called to the extremes to which the farmers went in order to secure the construction of rail- roads when once considered necessary and advantageous, and to the bright anticipations that some at least held in respect to them.^ It remains to follow the subsequent relations between the wheat grower and the common carrier. The farmer in Wisconsin was interested in the railroads just as he was interested in immigration, — ^because both furnished him a market and both tended to increase the value of his land. Cheap lemd meant the possibility of great rise in the value of land, provided railroads gave access to a market and provided immigration could be kept up. The rise that actually occurred was in part speculative and in part a legitimate and natural ' See above p. 40 ff. "When the railroad penetrates our fiordera and gives us at all times access to the Atlantic Seaboard, what more can the farmer ask or need but well directed industry to crown his efforts." Thomas T. Whittlesby, at the meeting of the Dane Co. Agricultural Society, 1852. Trans, of State Agrie. Boo., 1852, p. 104. See Tuttle, Bistory of Wisoonain, 1875, p. 270. [433] 140 BT TT.T.TJI TTN OP THE UNTVEKSITT OF WISCONSIN increase of values.^ The prediction of the chief engineer of the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad* that "every acre of land which comes within the influence of this road wiU. be doubled and trebled in value as soon as it is completed" was not far from being realized. Wherever the railroad reached or where- ever there was the possibility of its reaching, the effects were magical. The southern part of the state was the first to ex- perience the buoyant effect of the new order of things. Good crops and high prices for farm produce combined with the in- fluence of the railroad to bring about the "good time."* As railroads were rapidly pushed into other portions of the state, depression was there, too, succeeded by prosperity and stagna- tion gave way to the most active and feverish speculation." The land booms of a hundred other American communities were repeated -in various parts of Wisconsin, with all their extrav- agant accompaniments." Confidence reigned supreme and the " See Gregory, Industrial Resources of Wisoonsin, pp. 236-37, for an estimate of the comparative value of farm crops to the farmer when marketed via common road and via railroad. (See Hihbard, .w. 140, note 27.) See also the quotation in the Milwawkee Sentinel for September 27, 1850, from the Madison Argus to the effect that the extension of the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad Into Dane county would add $2.60 value to every acre in the county. ^Report, June 1, 1852. See Periam, The Oroundswell, p. 446, for the state- ment (by J. W. Midgeley, President's Secretary, North-Westem Ry.) that care- fully prepared statistics showed that every additional mile of railroad to 100,000 acres of farm land yielded an average Increase of $1.00 per acre. In the West. The Increase in the value of farm lands in Wisconsin during the decade 1850-1860 is given as $7.02 per acre. Compare with Table XXIII. • "It Is but comparatively a short time since Rock county was a wild and uncultivated waste. Now It is teeming with civilization and refinement. But when the Chicago, St. Paul and Fond du Lac on the north and the Southern Wisconsin on the west shall be completed together with other public improve- ments ... Its latent resources will begin to be developed." Annual ad- dress before the Rock County Agricultural Society and Mechanic's Institute, by Colonel Z. P. Bnrdlck, In Trans, of Btate Agric. See., 1854, '55, '56, '57, pp. 151-60. See above p. 40, note 9. ' "The completion of the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad to this point (Whitewater) In 1852 made a perfect revolution, in not only the village, but In the surrounding country also; nor did the change cease when the road was built beyond us." Governor's Message and Acoonvpamying Documents, 1857, 2i 427-34. ' See above p. 45. "I purchased land In 1856 near Rlpon for $1.25 per acre. In 1857 the railroad was completed to Rlpon and in the fall of the year I gold the same land for $32.50 per acre. That was because we had the means of sending our produce to market." Trams, of Btate Agric. Boo., 1879-80, p. 222. [434] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 141 possibility even of a reaction, in Wisconsin, at least, was scouted.^ Many a f aim was sowed to wheat not merely because at was profitable, but because men bought land to sell again at an ad- vance and the securing of a crop of wheat involved no outlay of capital for permanent improvements.* Instability thus set its stamp on the economic development of Wisconsin, and the subsidized railroad was one of its chief agents. The effect of farm mortgages in stimulating the construction of railroads in Wisconsin is very hard to estimate. The entire amount "was relatively small when compared with the total cost of the railroads.^ But it must be remembered that these mort- gages were given at the inception of the railroads and would thus have a greater influence than the absolute amount might seem to indicate. They were largely confined, too, to certain limited sections of the state and to certain railroads. There can be no doubt that the effect was very great in making these early railway enterprises tangible propositions, in actually setting the construction on foot. If it happened that in many cases the original promoters failed of success and the farmers who had given their mortgages in return for stock in the railroad found ' Ritchie, Wisconsin and Us Resources, 172, 174. ' See above p. 34, note 9 ; see also p. 46. ' See Meyer, Early Railroad Legislation in Wisconsin, in Wis. Hist. Col., 14: 361, 362. "The farm mortgages lii 1874 amounted to about one per cent, of the total valuation ... by the State Board in 1875." See Hist, of Fond du Lac County (West. Hist. Co., 1880), 185, where an es- timate of $4,079,433 is given for total farm mortgages; Gary, Organization and History of C. U. and St. P. R. R., 17 ; also. Second Ann. Rep. of the La- crosse and Milwaukee R R., Dec. 31, 1853 ; also fbid. for 1854 and 1857 ; First Ann. Rep. of Mil., Wamhesha and Miss. R. R. Co., Dec. 31, 1849. Over 2,- 000 farmers and other citizens residing along the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad had contributed over $1,000,000 to that road In bonds and mortgages by 1857. Memorial of that Company to the Legislature against the extension of the Madison and Watertown R. R. to the Mississippi river., Feb. 21, 1857. The farmers of Ozaukee county made private suhscriptlons of $200,000 to the Milwaukee and Superior railroad. Ann. Rep. for 1856. Fbr an estimate by counties, of the aid extended to railroads In bonds, farm mortgages, etc.. In Wisconsin, see Wisconsin Mlsvel. Pamph. Vol. 15, No. 6, (Mb. of Wis. His. Soc.), (From the Madison Democrat.) See Hist, of WasMngton and Ozwukee Counties (West. Hist. Co., Chicago: 1881), 356; Btst. of Wa/ukesha County, (West. Hist. Co., Chicago: 1880), 389; also Holford, Hist, of Orant Co., (1900) 72; Hist, of Green Co. (Union Publ. Co., Springfield, 111., 1884,) p. 385 ft for history of farm mortgages and of the extension of the railroad from Janesvl'lle to Monroe ; Ellis, Hist, of Portage Co., read at Centennial Celebration at Steven's Point, July 4, 1876. See various other county histories. [435] 14:2 BtTLLETlN OP THE UNIVEESITY OF WISCONSIN that stock aad the guarantee of the company to pay the inter- est on their mortgages equally worthless, the enterprises, never- theless, often went into the hands of eastern capitalists who carried the railroads to completion. The scheme would certainly have done justice to the times of John Law," and brought its full complement of ruin and disaster, besides being a fruitful source of irritation between the farmers and the railroads.^^ ""'The modus operandi was for the farmer to subscribe to the stock, give his note for the amount of his subscription, payable to the order of the com- pany, secured by a mortgage on his farm bearing from 8 per cent, to 10 per cent, interest. The company then attached to said note and mortgage its bond guaranteeing the payment of the note and mortgage, principal and interest, and in and by the terms of the bond, the note and mortgage were assigned to the holder, and such note, mortgaige and bond were sold in the market together as one security, and not separately, the note not endorsed. An agreement was also given to the farmer by which the company agreed to pay the interest on the note until it became due, in consideration of which the farmer made an assignment of his prospective dividends on the stock so subscribed, for suffic- ient to pay said interest. "It is needless to say that this stock proved worth! ess and that the farmers were compelled to pay their morgages and in very many cases lost their farms." Cary, Organization and History of the C. M. and Bt. P. R. B., 17-18. See Hid., 13, 201, 326 fE. "Many still living have a recollection of the ease with which they could mortgage their homes to aid that enterprise. Many who had so mortgaged their farms will remember the hardships and difficulties encountered in re- deeming their homes." Bist. of Dodge Co., (West. Hist. Co., 1880), 521. "A careful estimate of the amount of mortgages taken in Wisconsin dis- closes the fact that over $2,000,000 were raised and put into railroads by farm- ers' mortgages for which these men never got a cent." Chicago Times, Aug. 7, 1875. See also Monroe Sentinel, Sept. 6, 1854. " See Martin, History of the GroMge Movement., 377-78. See Rep. of Select. Committee appointed under Resolution No. 128, Assembly, to investigate the affairs of the Milwaukee and Superior R. R., Jtf ay 12, 1858. Fraud was re- ported in connection with that Company and the Fond du Lac Air Line Company, in reference to the farm mortgages given by German farmers. Spec- ial action of the Legislature was recommended in order to prevent the fraud from being consummated, and the farmers from losing their land. See Letter (Oct. 3, 1861) from the "Farmers' General Home League," .lanes- ville, Wis., in reference to farm mortgages, and the Answers of the Mil. and Prairie du Chlen Ry. Co., and of the trustees of the creditors of the Mil. and Miss. Ey. Co. (Pamphlet, Lib. Wis. State Hist Soc.) The farmers had or- ganized to prevent the foreclosure of the mortgages. See Reply to the Address of the Farmers' General Home League, of the Mil. and Miss. R. K. Co. (Pam- phlet, Milwaukee, 1861.) See Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land in aid of RaUwwys, 99-100, In reference to the Wisconsin Farm Mortgage Land Company, created by act of legislature in 1808 to manage "the lands patented to the state on account of the line between Portage and Tomah, . In the interest of the farmers along the line who had subscribed for stock in the La Crosse and Milwaukee Company and mortgaged their land as security." See Sec'y of State's Rep. for 1877, pp. 60, 61, 63. See speech of Hon. Geo. B. Smith, before the Southern Wis. Agric. Soc, JanesvlUe, Oct. 2, 1874, In Trans, of State Agric. Soc., 1874-75, pp. 480-95. [436] THOMPSON — ^WHBAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 143 The effects of the railroads were by no means universally re- garded as entirely beneficial. The part they played ia the restoration of the excliisive culture of wheat was noted and oondemned,^^ as was also their tendency to divert the capital of the fanner from the more legitimate channels of agricultural en- terprise into doubtful investment in railroad stocks.^* The ef- fect of the building of railroads upon the cost of farmmg must also be noted. It drew upon the labor supply and by opening up new lands enabled some who had formerly been farm labor- ers to take up land for themselves.^* It was said that the wheat crop of 1857 had cost the farmers of Wisconsin from seventy- five cents to one dollar per bushel ,^^ and in this increased cost the railroads had a considerable part. Then, too, in most cases the effect of railroad construction was to accelerate' the settlement and bringing of new land into cultivation with undesirable rapidity. The railroad thus multiplied the number of the farm- er's competitors, as against giving him a better market. In the annual report of the Milwaukee and Mississippi River railroad for 1857, attention was called to the building of the McGregor, St. Peter and Missouri River railroad from McGregor, opposite Prairie du Chien, westward, and that region was said to be al- ready occupied to a large extent and under cultivation for 150 ^- "Wisconsin Is being skinned — not slowly either, as steam and telegraph have quickened the spirit of the age. The easier and faster modes of cultiva- tion, the Reaper, the Threshing machine, the Railroad are only so many ad- ditional helpers and accessories to the more rapid depletion of the soil of the fertile yirgln prairies of the west." Wii. Parnwr, 9: 381. " "Many of our farmers are mortgaging their farms and paying ten per cent. Interest, td Invest In ra'lroad stock, and are receiving on those Investments ten and fifteen per cent, stock dividends, including Interest. How much better It would be for the farmer to resort to the same means to get money to In- vest in sheep and have the satisfaction of controlling his own property and realizing over and above Interest, twenty or thirty per cent, cash dividends. They will say that their farms are enhanced in value by building railroads which I will admit, and will add — your farms are equally enhanced in value by keeping sheep. And so far as transportation is concerned, a grain farmer In this State Is farther from a market with a depot at his door, than the wool grower Is without a railroad." IMd.j 7! 73. _ " See Martin. History of the Orange Movement, 380^81. See WU. Farmer, 6> 3, for the statement that there were probably more than sixty or seventy thousand men engaged ttoon railroads alone in the states west of the Ohio river. "Bep. of Mitwauleee Board of Trade for 1858. [437] 144 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN miles west of the Mississippi river by fanners who were sub- scribing and paying liberally towards the construction of their road." The home market had there, too, been found iusufiS.- cient and an outlet had to be secured for the constantly increas- ing surplus. How this grain came directly into competition with that of the Wisconsin farmers is shown by the statement in the report of a committee of the same company a few years later that the country west of the Mississippi river from Du- buque to St. Paul furnished 10,000,000 bushels of wheat for ex- port, — as well as considerable quantities of flour; and that of this wheat about 3,000,000 bushels annually had passed over that road and that double that quantity could be obtained if necessary facilities were offered.^^ This was highly pleasing to the railroads and to the grain dealers of Milwaukee, but it sent millions of bushels into competition with Wisconsin wheat, first at Milwaukee and later in the markets of the world. Occasionally the railroads were instrumental in holding back laud from settlement. This occurred in connection with the "land grants."^* It must be acknowledged, however, that the evil effects of the opposite tendency were much more extreme and far-reaching.^° It has been asserted that the land grants had little or nothing to do with the construction of railroads in Wisconsin inasmuch as the latter were built before the land be- " Bev. of Mil. and Miss. R. R. for 1857. " See Report of Committee, May. 1863, ^ relative to the securing of a con- trolling interest in the railroad from McGregor to St. Paul. OJ. p. 115 above as to diversion of entire grain trade of upper Mississippi in 1860 to Milwaukee. See Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1880-81, p. 43 ft, for the view that this bring- ing in of cheap land by the extension of railroads meant not decay but ,progress In the agriculture of the areas farther east, as it resulted in mixed husbandry there. " See Wis. Farmer, 8: 421. Also Hist, of La Orosse Co. (West. Hist. Co., 1881), pp. 403-4. Also Kesainger, Hist, of Buffalo Co., 369. Also Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1870, p. 379. See pamphlet on the Renewal of the St. Orotw and Lake Superior Land Grant, Hudson, Wis., 1872. Also Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land in aid of Railways, 46. '» As a result of the land grant from Tomah to St. Croix and the proposed railroad, "speculation was rife" in Eau Claire county, and "some of the wild- est and most visionary schemes ever generated In the mind of man owed their births to this land grant ..." Hist, of the Chippewa Valley, (Geo. Forresteir, Ed.). 1891-92, p. 202. See also Rep. of La Crosse Board of Trade for 1879. See Rep. of La Crosse and Mil. B. B. for 1856. [438] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 145 came available as an asset. It is further claimed that the land grants proved more expensive than they were worth.'"' This view is plainly incorrect for the state as a whole. It is im- possible to go far into the history of the early construction of railroads in Wisconsin and not be convinced that the land grants did play an important part in their promotion and initiation, at least. These lands constituted an asset upon which money was borrowed and by means of which capitalists were interested.^^ The fertility and productiveness of Wisconsin lands and the rich- ness of the forests had been heralded far and wide, and it was a perfectly sound proposition that at some future time those lands would be valuable and that the building of railroads would make them valuable. No doubt there were extravagant ideas in reference to the possibilities of thus realizing upon the lands within a brief period, but this consideration serves to emphasize rather than minimize the influence of the land grants upon the initiation of railroad construction.^'' The early wheat growers of Wisconsin anticipated with the advent of the railroad a lower cost in the marketing of their grain.^' For a brief time this anticipation was realized in most '" See Rep. of La Crosse wnd Mil. B. R., for 1856 and 1857. ^ See Cary, Organization and History of the C. M. and St. P. R. R., 197, 325. ^^ See above, pp. 135-7 for a consideration of the effect of the stimulation of the construction of railroads upon the spread of wheat growing within the state. For an account of land grants to railroads In Wisconsin, see Meyer, History of Early Railroad Legislation in Wisconsin, in Tra^s. of Wis. Acad, of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 12: 360 ft. Also Cary, Organisation a/nd History of the C. M. and St. P. R, R., 9, 10, 19, 194, 325 ; Sanborn, Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railways. ^See above p. 16. See Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1879-80, pp. 220-1 for a statement by Hon. Sat. Clark of Horicon that in early days Ke hafl known a great many of his neighbors to go to Milwaukee with a load of wheat and re- turn without a cent, the expense taking the whole ; and that he himself had over three thousand bushels of wheat in his baru which he had been unable to sell at any price but which he sold for 82 cents per bushel as soon as the railroad was completed to Rlpon. See Ibid., 1880-81, p. 42 for a similar statement as to hauling of wheat 40 to 100 miles to market — requiring four to ten days — and receiving 35 cents to 50 cents per bushel, and, after paying hotel bills and getting a few necessaries, having scarcely enough money to ■ pay the expenses of returning. See Martin, History of the Orange Move- ment, 377, for the statement that farmers were promised the carriage of wheat to Milwaukee, after the construction of the proposed railroads, for 5 cents to 10 cents per bushel Instead of the 25 cents to 50 cents they were then paying. The cost of transporting wheat from Whitewater to the lake In 1851 averaged 10 [439] 146 BULLETIN OF THE UNIYEESITY OF WISCONSIN parts of the state.^* The railroads, ia their turn, had early emphasized the improbahility of competition between the various lines that were being built, asserting that there was enough traffic for all.^" Almost immediately, however, in consequence of the panic of 1857 there was serious competition involving low rates at competitive points and on through traffic and discrimina- tion against local traffic and non-competitive points.^" On the other hand, complaints soon arose among the farmers about high rates and discriminations. As early as 1856 it was asserted that the low price of wheat at Madison was due in part to "high prices of inland freight. "^^ The promised control of the rail- roads by the farmers never materialized to the slighest extent. They found themselves unable to control even the grain deal- ers,^' and renewed attention was directed toward securing the 15 cents to 20 cents per busliel and it was asserted tbat the actual cost of carriage by railroad would not exceed one cent per bnsliel — tbus leaving a profit of 6 cents at a charge of 7 cents per bushel. Exhibit, Mil. and Miss. R. R., April 16, 1851. ^* See above, p. 46, also Hibbard, Hist, of Agrie. in Dane Co., 140 ; and Rep. of Board of Trade for 1857, and of Chamber of Com. for 1858 and- 1859, Milwaukee, for low rates for carriage of grain on the lalijes during those years. '''' "In no part of the West can the construction of Railroads outstrip the Pants of the people or -their ability to supply them an abundant traffic." Quoted in the Annual Report of the Milwaukee and Miss. R. R. for 1853, from the American Railroad Journal. See Ibid., Report for 1855 : also Rep. of the La Orosse and Milwaukee R. R. for 1855. 20 "The local business of railroads must mainly be relied upon for support as through business is generally competed for and does not afford much profit." Rep. of Mil. and Miss. R. B., 1858. See also Report for 1857. In 1859 there was loss of revenue and decrease of freight traffic due to competition, to the open- ing of new lines and to the desire In a depressed /period, by rival lines, to se- cure business at any rate. . . "The local freight is the only encourag- ing feature exhibited by the operations of the year. . Only a vigorous effort or an arrangement preventing competition or a revival of business can enable the road to be retafaed by the stock-holders." Rep. of the Mil. and Miss. R. R. for 1859. ^''Wis. Farmer, S: 556. Upon the completion of the Milwaukee and Missis- sippi railroad to the Mississippi river, that road was compelled In consequence of competition by way of the river, to carry wheat from Prairie du .Chleu to Mil- waukee for 9 cents per bushel, — ^whlch was very little, If any, more than from Madison to Milwaukee, half the distance. Hist, of Oreen Co. (Union Pub. Co., Springfield, 111., 1884), 393. ™ See Hibbard, Hist, of Agrio. in Dane Oa., 140, for an account of the op- position to the extortions of the railroads and grain dealers. The Dane rounty Farmers' Protective Union was organized and built an elevator at Madison. But the opposition ended in a fiasco. The La Crosse road had in- curred the hostility of the State Agricultural Society in 1857 by refusing to grant lower rates on stock and articles for exhibition at the annual fair, and on account of general disposition to be "unobliging". Trans., 1854, 55, 56, 57, p. 518. [440] THOMPSON W TTF.A T GROWING IN WISCONSIN 14:7 improvement of the interior water ways. Competition and loss of revenue begat a tendency toward combination among the railroads and the farmers were not slow to voice their disap- proval.^* During the high prices of the war period, the opposi- tion to high freights in a measure declined.*" The instinctive dread of monopoly had again been aroused, however, and was not to down. "When at the close of the war the prices of farm products began to fall while rates on the railroads did not dim- inish accordingly, the storm of opposition broke out anew,*^ and " "The railroad companies of this State have a scheme for consolidation which should receive the attention of every man interested in the welfare of the State. If a company of perfect men could he found, such an arrangement would he more economical than the present. But, unfortunately, the people of Wisconsin have had some experience which must incline them to distrust the perfection of railroad men, if of nobody else, and it is presumable that they will not willingly put themselves in the power of so stupendous a monopoly as the one proposed." Wis. Farmer, 16:' 41. See Trans, of State Agric. Boc, 1861-68, pp. 99-100. See TMrd Annual Rep. of Mil. and Prairie du CMen B. B., 1863, for argu- ments for consolidation ; see IWd., 1866 for actual consolidation. See Wis. Farmer, 14: 74, for complaint of high freights; also IMd., 61. =» See Periam, The Oroundswell, 222-23, 225-26. In an article In the Quar- terly Journal of Economics, 20: 259-78, by Emerson D. Flte, it is ipointed out that prices for agricultural products in the West in 1864 and the first part of 1865 were from 100 per cent, to 200 per cent, higher than in 1861 while freight rates for grain from Chicago via Buffalo to New York city were less than in 1861, when freights had imdergone a sharp advance only to decline again. It is further assertea that this rise in the price of farm products was thus not only greater than the advance in freight, but lasted longer, to the resulting prosperity of the farmers. It must he remembered, however, that local rates on the grain-gathering roads west of Chicago and Milwaukee were not subject to the restraint of water comipetition and manifested a strong upward tend- ency. See Martin, Bistory of the Orange Movement, 316-17 ; see below, note 31, reference to Grosvenor. " Periam, The Groundaicell, 223 ff. Also Wis. Farmer, 14: 61 ; Martin, History of the Grange Movement, Chs. XVII and XX. In an article in the Atlantio Monthly, Nov. 1873, pp. 591-610, by W. M. Grosvenor, it Is pointed out that while through rates and charges for long distances — in general from Chicago eastward — were not higher In 1873 than the rates of 1860, on the other hand, the published rates on the grain gather- ing roads west of Chicago and Milwaukee, where water competition did not exist and .where Inter-rallroad competition was also at a minimum, which averaged only 1% cents per 100 miles between western cities In November, 1860, aver- aged fully 2 cents for similar distances in 1873. The average charges on these western roads are said to have been 82 per cent higher than the average on the great competing roads eastward — a difference dlsproportional to the difference In tonnage, and which had led to very great complaint in the West. [441] 148 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN agitation for control by the state began to take shape.'^ In- terest was again aroused in reference to transportation by water within the state and canal conventions were held at Prairie du Chien in 1868 and at Portage city in 1869, and a memorial presented to Congress in reference to the proposed public im- provements centering at Green Bay.'' It is significant that at this time attention was directed anew toward the possibility of building up manufactures and a home market,'* and prophets again arose who taught that the way to solve the question of transportation was to transform the agriculture of the state.*' In respect to complaints about inadequate facilities of trans- portation,'^ it may be noted that railroad construction had al- most entirely ceased in "Wisconsin during the period of the Civil "War. During the decade 1859-1869, an average of only a little over 25 miles of railroad per year was built,'^ while the amount of grain to be transported had increased greatly on account of the development of Iowa and Minnesota. The railroads had ^ See Hibbard, 141, 142, with footnote references ; see Trans, of State Agrio. Sac, 1869, pp. 133, 139; 1870, pp. 142, 145: 1873-74, pp. 55, 93. See also Wis. Farmer, March 21, 1868, for an article on Railroad Reform. For complaints of discrimination see the Sparta Herald, June 15, 1869 ; Feb. 20, 1870 ; also the Beaver Dam Argus, May 29, 1869. See also Martin, His- tory of the Grange Movement, 1873, p. 379-. " Trans, of State Agrio. Soo., 1869, p. 73 £E. See also Report on the Im- provement of Rock River, by legislative committee in 1867. and Wilson's Report on the Survey of Book River, 40th Cong. 1st Sess., E5x. Doc. No. 15 ; see Commercial and Financial Chrondole, 16: 207-8 (Feb. 15, 1873). ^ Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1861-68, pp. 452-59; 1873-74, pp. 58--9, 359-- 65; 1875-76, pp. 380-81; 1876-77, p. 37. Wis. Farmer, 18: 256. ''Trans, of State Agrio. Soc, 1872-73, p. 159; 1874-75, pp. 333-46. "The farmers of Green county have settled the question of railroad monopoly Railroad charges ate up profits and the farmer was no better off than before. Then came the cry for cheap transportation and the subject of additional lines of railroads was agitated. Some of the farmers did not worry about transinortation as they engaged in cheese making, and the cost of trans- portation of a pound of cheese Is inslgniflca'nt as compared with the cost of production, etc." Hist, of Green Co. (Union Pub. Co., Sprinfleld, 111., 1884), 414. '« See Table VII. In the article quoted by Grosvenor, referred to above (Note 31 ) the high cost of operating the railroads is said to have been due to the tariff — particularly in reference to the high price of iron — and that this led to high rates on local non-competltlve traffic. The cure prescribed was more comipetitlon in transportation and this was to be secured by lowering the tariff and thus stimulating the construction of more railroads. " "High prices of labor and material havfe neciessarlly retarded the building of railroads." Rep. of Milwaukee Chamber of Com., for 1865. [M2] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 149 gotten the situation yet more effectively under their control by "arranging their differences" and by actual consolidation.** High prices had stimulated the production of grain in the West in general, wheat in particular in Wisconsin, and the farmers with a great surplus of grain were absolutely dependent upon the railroads for transportation to furnish them the means of livelihood. Under such conditions, as these hx the West generally, arose the "Granger" movement, the aims of which, apart from the desire for closer association among farmers, were the more specific ones of cheaper and more adequate transportation, opposition to railroad monopoly and to other combinations inimical to the interests of the farmer, and regulation and control of the rail- roads by the state.^' Although the movement did not originate in Wisconsin, it is interesting in this connection because the Wis- consin phase of the general situation is intimately related to the system of exclusive cropping to wheat. In 1869, the farmers of Wisconsiu produced 24.28 bushels of wheat per capita, — ^the highest yield per capita for any census period in the history of the state. The 42.5 bushels per capita of com, oats, rye, barley and potatoes could bear transportation to a less extent even than wheat.*" Of the 2.34 per capita of live stock in the state at the same period, 1.00 denotes the number of sheep. Of other live stock there had been no very considerable per capita increase since 1849 except in horses, and horses represented largely grain farming.*^ Mjlch cows had increased from 0.21 per capita in 1849 to 0.29 per capita in 1869, but as yet dairying had scarcely made a start in Wisconsin and was of less significance because of the existing depression in that industry. It thus happened that the only dependence of the Wisconsin farmer to any con- siderable extent for cash sales apart from wheat was upon the very moderate development of the wool growing industry. It * In 1866 the Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien railroad was absorbed by the Milwaukee and St. Paul railway. Third Ann. Rep. of Mil. and 8t. Paul By. Co. (for 1866). ••See PeMam, The Cfroundgteell, 196 ff, 223 ff, 236, 246, 260. Martin, Bia- tory ef the Oranger Movemetit, CliB. xxill-xxx. « Set Tables XI-XV. « See Hibbard, 130. [443] 150 BULUBTIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN must be granted that the fanners of a state which grows a sur- plus wheat crop amounting to nearly twenty bushels per capita, with practically no other industry to depend upon except a limited development of wool growing, are of necessity at the mercy of the railroads. By referring to the table for the price of wheat at Milwau- kee,*^ it is seen that wheat dropped from a maximum of $2.85 per bushel in April, 1867, to a maximum of $1.10 in April, 1869, and to a minimum of 73 cents in April, 1870.*' By referring to the tables showing the average yield of wheat for the various years we note that the average for the state was lower just about this time than at any other period in the history of the wheat in- dustry. When we recaU still further that it was just at this time that the hop episode was ending with its round-up of ruin and disaster,** and that the tobacco crop amoimted to less than one million pounds in the entire state in 1869 and was confined practically to Rock, Dane, and "Walworth counties,*" it begins to appear how absolute was the dependence upon the wheat crop, in a large portion of the state,*' and how serious a situation high rates and inadequate facilities for transportation presented to the "Wisconsin wheat farmer. "We must conclude, then, that the Granger movement in "Wiscoiisin had its ultimate origin*^ « See Table VIII. See also Tables IX and X for Chicago^and N. Y. "Note that the production of wheat in the U. S. Increased from 173,000.000 bushels in 1859 to 269,000,000 bushels In 1869. See Table VI. " See above pp. 59-60. « See Table XXII for the production of tobacco. •" Some of the older counties in the southern part of the state had developed a much more diversified agriculture. See above pp. 66-7. " In an address by President West, of the Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce. April 8, 1871, (Rep. for 1871, pp. 143-144) the Idea was set forth that it was impossible to get transportation cheap enough to make exchanges of corn for eastern merchandise cheap. There was too much transportation and the remedy was to get producer and consumer closer together. Protection for manufac- tures was wanted, but it was protection from excessive transportation. In an article by Charles Francis Adams, .Jr., in the North Amerlean Rev., April 1875, p. 404 ft., the position was taken that the ultimate source of all the woe of the western farmers was that they had gone too far west ; and that for this they were thems'elves chiefly responsible, as the "steady, reliable Bllles of that wretched land-grant and subsidy policy which did so much to stimulate the mania for railroad construction." It was asserted that this "hurtful forcing process" brought about over-production at remote points, and eventually the Granger movement, and that chea,per transportation would result to the benefit [444] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 151 in the government land policy and in the excessive culture of wheat, and we are prepared, after having thus examined the situation, to understand the animus of the Wisconsin farmer against the railroads and to make some allowance for the ex- tremes to which that opposition was carried.*' In the flush times that preceded the panic of 1873,*° the rapidly increasing facilities for transportation were relatively not more ample than they had been before. On the contrary, there was especial complaint in reference to the wheat crops of 1872 and 1873 which were among the greatest ever produced in Wisconsin. High rates and discriminations continued as before.'"' With the decline in business after 1873, transportation facilities, in the meantime largely increased, were once more super-abundant and a demoralizing struggle for traf&c took place among the railroads themselves, and between the trunk lines and the lake carriers, and while rates were lower, discrimination existed as before." of the consumer and not of the producer, since the area from which production was possible was for all practical purpioses unlimited. See also Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1874-75, p. 333 tf. for a similar view ; also Atlantic Monthly, 1873, (July-Dec.) pp. 508-12, 708. On the other hand, the position was taken by W. M. Grosvenor (in the article referred to above, note 31), that the outcry about a surplus of grain in the West was mere folly, and that the agriculture of the western and espec- ially the northwestern states was of necessity confined to grain, as it was Im- possible for manufactures to be so developed in that section — without regard to natural facilities and resources — as to afford a sufBclent home market. The surplus of cereals in the northwestern states was said to be due to the In- creasing population and cost of land which steadily drove the larg'er operations of agriculture to regions more remote from the centers of population, manufac- tures and commerce and to fresher and cheaper lands. It was accordingly as- serted that the cost of moving the ever-increasing surplus of the agricultural states over a steadily Increasing distance to points where it was needed to supply an ever-Increasing deficit was a condition of agriculture in this country which It could not escape. The real truth lies somewhere between these two positions. See Atlantio Monthly, Sep. 1872, pp. 345-51 for a view somewhat different from either of the two presented above. " See Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1875-76, p. 72 ff. for a strong arraignment of the railroads. " To the same government land policy working out its effects in the farther Northwest can be ascribed in large measure the panic of 1878. ■» "In 1872 somebody raised the rates from the West 5 cents per cental. His act cost the farmers millions of dollars. Is it strange that our greatest in- dustry grows restive under fluctuations which it can neither foresee nor comprehend?" Grosvenor, supra. See also Firsit Animal Rep. on the Internal Commerce of the United States, (1876-76) pp. 180-82. » See Trana. of State Agrio. Soc, 1880-81, p. 809 ft. Also Hibbard, 142. [445] 152 BXJLLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Under the influence of various causes"^ of which the ques- tion of transportation was not the least, the agriculture of the state underwent a marked change during the decade. The area of improved land increased nearly 60 per cent, and population increased about 30 per cent., while the acreage sown to wheat increased but slightly.^^ The per capita yield of wheat de- creased to 18.92 bushels, while other crops increased to a com- bined per capita yield of 63 bushels, — chiefly com, oats, and barley. Live stock increased to a combined total of 3.00 per capita, — the largest at any census period in the history of the state." The number of sheep remained unchanged, so that the increase was in other kinds of live stock entirely. The de- velopment of the dairy industry was reflected by the increase in the number of milch cows from 0.29 to 0.36 per capita, but the increased yield per cow must also be taken into considera- tion. There was a large increase in the cultivation of tobacco, particularly in the southern part of the state, where wheat de- clined markedly, and especially in Dane and Rock counties."' The tendency away from wheat and toward diversification in agriculture was thus marked"^ and if under these circum- stances the agitation in reference to transportation was less strenuous as time went on, the inference is plain that under the changed conditions the farmers of Wisconsin were to a less extent at the mercy of the railroads, and largely so because they had turned their attention to pursuits in respect to which trans- portation was not so important a factor."" '^ See Chapter X. "' See Table IV, for estimates of V. S. Dep. of Agrlc. °* Sheeio have declined since and stock worth more per capita hara taken their place. The number of liye stock in Wisconsin was greater per capita In 1900 If we Include cattle under 1 year. »=See Table XXII. »> See Trans, of State Agrie. Boc, 1879-80, pp. 21, 22, for a statement of the changed conditions. "' See, however, for later complaint in reference to railroads the speech of Senator H. A. Taylor, March 20, 1889, on Senate BUI No. 19, to regulate rail- road traffic. See Arguments before the Railroad Committees of Wisconsin State Legislature, haying under consideration Bill No. 196, to regulate railroad traf- fic. [Published in accordance with Joint Resolution, No. 16, Senate (1889)]. Later agitation in reference to railroads In Wisconsin hag had to do in general rather with public control and matters of taxation, than with Inadequate facil- ities and high freights. [446] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 153 In this growth in diversification of industry which placed the farmer in a more strategic position in reference to the rail- roads, what part did the railroads, apart from other assignable causes, play? We have more than once had occasion to note the fact that, according to all testimony, the first efifect of the railroads was to give an impetus to the excessive culture' of wheat.''* Exploitation of the soil of Wisconsin was greatly accelerated by the improved system of transportation, al- though that excessive culture had its origin in other causes."* Inspection of the railroad map, showing the construction for the different decades, and comparison with the charts repre- senting the development of the wheat area and with the table denoting the degree of specialization, prove that for the state, as a whole, the railroads had little influence after 1869 in in- creasing the tendency toward excessive culture of wheat. The increase in total mileage of railroads in Wisconsin from 1869 to 1879 was the largest of any decade in the history of the statCj^" and was confined chiefly to the newer portions of the state. But we have just seen that there was a decline in wheat and a marked tendency toward diversification in the state, as a whole, during the decade. In the central portion of the state, where railroad construction was large for the first time, there was a considerable decline in the growing of wheat. In St. Croix and Buffalo counties there was a decline in wheat grow- ing, though there, too, for the first time railroad construction was important. In Polk, Barron, and Eau Claire counties, with similar railroad construction, wheat increased in impor- tance with the advent of railroads, while Chippewa and Dunn counties, under similar circumstances, about held their own. In the eastern section of the state, the large increase in rail- road construction during the decade was attended by a general increase in the importance of wheat. " See above, note 22. Compare again the chart of the wheat area In 1859 with the railroad mnp ; also compare the tables denoting the degree of speci- alization in wheat In the varlouu counties at the diHerent periods, with the railroad map showing the construction of railroads during different decades. " For a discussion of the Influence of rmlroads on wheat producing, see V. S. Agrlo. Hep. for 1862, pp. 68-9. ™ See Table VII. [447] 154 BUIiUETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN The explanation seems to be somewhat as follows: railroad transportation had already exercised its influence in the south- ern counties, and in the river counties, which had enjoyed the advantages of the railroads farther south by means of the river. In the northern, interior counties, which were more isolated, the clearing away of the timber and the advent of the rail- roads, together gave an impetus to wheat growing."^ In the interior of the state, the soil was unfitted for wheat growing and the tendency during the decade was toward rye and pota- toes rather than towards wheat.^^ In the eastern section, the timber had been cleared away to a considerable extent and rail- roads for the first time exercised their full influence upon wheat growing. In all of these counties where wheat increased with railroad construction, there was marked decline in wheat in the following decade, though the construction of railroads contin- ued at th^ same time important. The conclusion to be drawn from all this is that the effect of the railroad upon the wheat industry was two- fold: in the first place, directly and imme- diately toward specialization in wheat; in the second place, the effect was ultimately and indirectly toward diversification. The indirect and ultimate influences remain to be discussed. In the first place, the added impetus given to specialization in wheat accelerated the exploitation of the soil and, consequently, hastened the time when rotation of crops and diversification had to be taken up. This is shown by the fact that the rise and de- cline of the industry was most extreme in those counties where, on account of the absence of forests, the railroads could have their full and immediate effect.*' In so far as railroads re- duced the cost of transportation, their effect was to bring back into cultivation land upon which the yield had so declined or on which the cost of production had become so high that it was " In many of the Interior counties, a home market is spoken of as absorbing all the wheat, but an Inspection of the table for per capita yield shows that this Is Improbable. Compare, for example, Eau Claire county. «^ See above p. 79. " Of., for example, Richland and St. Croix, neither of which had rallroada within their boundaries previous to 1870, but both of which had similar ad- vantages of transportation near at hand. Compare Dane with Calumet ; or compare Monroe and Pierce. [MS] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 155 no longer profitable for the culture of wheat. Exhaustion of the soil could thus he carried farther. Undoubtedly, the influ- ence of the railroads in this respect was very great in the older counties. In so far as railroads caused a rise in the price of land, their effect was to ultimately favor the pursuit of some other industry less expensive in land than the culture of wheat. Such an effect was probably very considerable, though not im- mediate. It would not ordinarily come into operation until the land had passed out of the hands of the original holder who would, of course, capitalize, in the selling price, any added earning power which the building of the railroad might give to the land. There is yet another way in which the railroad tended to encourage and bring about diversified industry. We speak here of the educational and broadening influences of the railroad. The railroad brings newspapers and the telegraph. It encourages travel and makes men more intelligent, more thoughtful and less satisfied to move in the old ruts. Anything that tends to overcome habit, inertia, and indifference to one's condition must make mightily for a change to a better condition. Such an influence is the railroad and that iufluence in Wiscon- sin, as elsewhere, has been very great. If the wheat "farmers of Wisconsin were disappointed in the extent to which the rail- roads served them, yet it is largely due to the civilizing agency of the latter that a class of farmers was developed sufficiently intelligent to create an agricultural industry so rich and varied as that of the present.** The railroad ultimately brings the farmers closer together, too, and enables the latter to wage a more equal contest with the former. Railroads combine, because combination is easy, — is, in fact, unavoidable. Farmers do not combine, because, for them, combination is almost impossible. "" In this fact lay one reason why the dairyman succeeded where the wheat farmer failed. The •« Periam, The Oroimdawell, 443-46. =» See editorial In the Northwestern Miller, Sept. 18, 1885, (p. 268) for the statement that farmers could not hold their wheat, as they had no organiza- tion and could not form one ; that one-half, or even more, of the farmers of this country and Europe would be compelled to sell before Dec. 1, and that fully nine-tenths must sell not later than January. [449] 156 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN former not only produced a product that would stand transporta- tion for a long distance, but organization was possible to the dairymen, on account of their fewness of number, superior ia- telUgenee, and the co-operative nature of their industry, and necessary to them on account of the obstacles to be overcome. No one can follow the development of the dairy industry in Wisconsin and not recognize how much organization, both in reference to production, transportation, and markets, has had to do with the success of' that industry."' On the other hand, no one can study the wheat industry and not be impressed with the almost utter inability of the wheat farmers to asso- ciate themselves for their common interest. If the wheat farmer depended upon the railroads in the early period of the wheat industry, it is no less true that the early railroads were almost absolutely dependent upon the farmer, and, particularly, upon the wheat farmer. The early rail- roads in Wisconsin were at first simply devices for getting wheat to market. A failure in the wheat crop meant serious, almost total loss of revenue; it meant the loss of the revenue on the wheat itself and it meant, further, the loss of the freight upon the commodities for which the wheat farmer exchanged his commodity. The following table shows how largely the railroads depended on wheat for their traffic. Koad. Total Wheat Date. Tonnage and Flour Bast. Tonnage j i^e 11,869 10,723 1852 12,905 8,528 1858 35,000 25,408 1854 63,828 41,089 1855 81,780 63,523 1856 63.216 48,474 ISST 71,824 54,307 1858 98,576 76,948 1859 97,198 76,800 Per cent Wheat. Mil. and Horicon,* Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi Mil. and Mississippi * lOS months. " See below pp. 168-9 73 64 78 77 76 78 78 [«0] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 157 Koad. Date. Total Tonnage East. Tonnage Wheat and Flour. Per cent Wheat. La Crosse division of Mil. and St. P Ry Prairie du Chleu division Mil. and St. P. Ry. (MU. and Mlas. By.). Iowa and Minn. Division MU. and St. P. By MU. aiid St. P. By. as a whole.... Chicago, MU. and St. P. Ry Chicago, MU. and St. P. Ry 1869 1869 188S 1900 398,854 839,188 208,817 8,168,809 17,767,419t 816, 256* 274,049' 189,267* 725, 678* 1,295,875* 2,310,788* 79.8 80.8 66.5 77.1 87.4 13.0 In 1858, 79 per cent, of the entire revenue on the Milwaukee and Missisippi railroad was derived from the carriage of wheat and flour, and in 1859, the proportion was 77 per cent. This was largely in excess of expectations."'^ The following table shows the number of bushels of wheat produced to every mile of railroad at the different census periods in Wisconsin : 1859 18,618 bushels of wheat produced to 1 mile of railroad. 1869 22,442 bushels of wheat produced to 1 mile of railroad. 1879 8,651 bushels of wheat produced to 1 mile of railroad. 1889 2,171 bushels of wheat produced to 1 mile of railroad. 1S99 1,890 bushels of wheat produced to 1 mile of railroad. These figures'* show the extent to which the railroads must have depended upon the wheat industry within the state in • Total wheat, flour, and mill feed. t Total tonnage, east and west, as tonnage east Is not given separately. The proportion of the tonnage of wheat, flour and mill feed to the total tonnage on the C. M. and St. P. R. B., in 1885 was 20 per cent. ; on the Milwaukee and St. Pdul Ry., In 1869, the similar proportion was 63.9 per cent, and on the MUwauUee and Mississippi in 1859, 47.5 per cent. The increase In the propor- tion of wheat and flour (mill feed is negligible) to Total traffic, from 1859 to 1869, was probably due to the fact that a large proportion of the wheat came from Minnesota and Iowa and does not necessarily indicate an increasing de- pendence of the railroads upon wheat growing In Wisconsin. Of the 9,077,591 bushels carried on the La Crosse Division In 1869, over 52 per cent, was ship- ped from the city of La Crosse, and on the Prairie du Chlen division, of the 4,851,875 bushels carried, over 64 per cent, was shipped from the city of Prairie du Chlen. Statistics for the La Crosse and Milwaukee R. R,, In 1859, are not available. •' It was estimated in the Report for 1851 that wheat would furnish as much revenue as all other exports of any kind whatsoever. " If we accept the state statistics of a crop of 27,316,306 bushels In 1860, then there were produced in that year 31,016 bushels of wheat to every mile of railroad in the state. [451] 158 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVEESITT OP WISCONSIN their early history and the marked extent to which that de- pendence has disappeared. That this almost complete depend- ence of the early railroads upon wheat was a bad thing for the railroads as well as for the farmers is easy of demonstra- tion. Upon the fickleness of flie season, and that in respect to one crop, rested the prosperity of the railroads. Further, the movement of wheat was seasonal, demanding extraordinary facilities at certain periods, with a great decline in traffic at other periods. This resulted in uneconomic use of equipment. Fluctuations in the price of wheat emphasized this unsteady movement of traffic. This unreliability and irregularity in respect to the wheat crop and its transportation was an impor- tant cause of unstable financial conditions in the state during the wheat period. "Wisconsin is still preeminently an agricul- tural state and between the farmers and the railroads there is very great mutual dependence."' But thanks to a diversified agriculture, both the farmer's activities and the railroad's equipment are more economically utilized and no single vicis- situde of season or of market can threaten the prosperity of either farmer or railroad. * See Tliird Ann. Rep. Mil. and Prairie dw OMen R. R. (1863) ; also, Trant. of State AgHc. Boo., 1881-82, pp. 49-50. [452] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 159 CHAPTER X OTHER CAUSES OP THE DECLINE IN WHEAT GROW- ING IN WISCONSIN AND OF THE CHANGE TO OTHER FARM PURSUITS In the preceding two chapters, the position is taken that the most important and most ultimate of the causes operating both in the rise and in the decline of the wheat industry in Wiscon- sin, as elsewhere, was the existence of cheap, fertile lands — first, within that state, and then beyond its bordera — supple- mented by the introduction of railroads — first, into Wisconsin, and then into the new regions beyond. Of the other causes operating in the same direction, the most potent and that most commonly asserted to be the primary cause of the decline of wheat growing in Wisconsin was ex- haustion of the soil, induced by exclusive cropping to wheat with little or no rotation and by other reckless and wasteful methods of cultivation, and leading finally to declining yield such that wheat growing became unprofitable. The early ac- counts of agriculture in Wisconsin make frequent reference to the great productivity of the soil. Extraordinary yields of wheat and other crops were reported and an impression creajted that the soil was of inexhaustible fertility. By about 1845, however, as a consequence of the methods of soil exploitation followed, there began to be heard general complaints of de- clining fertility and lessened yield. Warnings against the sys- tem of land skinning which was practiced were disregarded, and as a result there were continued complaints which called forth further warnings. It is significant that these complaints and warnings thus began in Wisconsin before the wheat indus- try had really commenced to assume great importance, and con- [4!53] 160 BUXiIiETIN OP THE UNIVEKSITY OF WISCONSIN tinued throughout the whole period during which wheat was dominant.^ It is very difficult to criticise the correctness of this assertion of declining yield. There can be no doubt that new land generally yielded more than land that had been cropped to wheat for a series of years.^ How great that decline in yield was and how soon the high yield on new land began to decline materially is, however, difficult to determine. It would seem that if decline in yield had taken place universally to the extent asserted, the wheat industry must have been driven from the state before it was fairly started. If one can judge by the average yields for the different counties and for the state as a whole at the various periods for which the data are available, the conclusion is irresistible that, excluding the abnormal years 1860 and 1864,^ the decline in yield has been somewhat overstated. Reference to the chart with the curve representing the trend of the average yield for the state as a whole shows no such extreme decline as is generally asserted.* Nor is a decline in yield in the older portions of the state over- balanced by the influence of higher yields in the newer sec- tions of the state, for inspection of Table V shows that the average yield in the newer counties has not been higher than " Within recent years there has been a concensus of opinion that crop yields have increased and this increase is usually ascribed to the improvement of the soli due to better methods of cultivation and to the introduction of the live fftocli industry — especially dairying. ' See Trans, of State Agric. Soe., 1853, pp. 151-52, where It is stated that in 1853 the yield of wheat on new land had been twenty-five to thirty hushels per acre, while in the same neighborhood farms that had been cropped contin- ually for ten or twelve years and with buildings attached valued from $5,000 to $10,000 had yielded not more than one-half the quantity of grain that the new farms did. A similar assertion is made in the Pat. OfHce tCep., Affrtcul- ture, 1850-51, p. 8, in reference to Walworth county, that the yield was twenty-five to thirty bushels on new land and "after the first crop usually less except on clayey land which yields more the second and third crop than the first crop." " The crop of 1800 was abnormal in yield, while chinch bugs and drouth in- jured the crop of 1864. ♦ See Figure 7, with curve, based on the figures given for the average yield of the state by the U. S. Dep. of Agric. ; see also Table V. [454] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN IBl in the older counties." It may be further objected, however, that the average yield for a particular county represents the result obtained by combining the high yields of the land newly brought into cultivation with the low yields of the older and more exhausted lands. This may to a certain extent be ad- mitted, but the more rapid increase of improved land in the newer counties ought, on that theory, to be reflected in a higher average yield in the new counties as a whole, which, as we have just seen, is contrary to the facts. A further objection may be raised that the land in the older counties falling below a certain minimum yield would be successively withdrawn from cultivation to wheat, thus continually relieving the average yield for that county from the minimizing influence of very low yields. This objection must be deemed in part valid. Dur- ing the decade 1850-1860, wheat declined in importance in Walworth, Kenosha, and Racine counties while there was an increase in live stock, but no general increase in other crops. Accordingly we are warranted in assuming, in consideration of the complaints in that section in reference to declining yield in the wheat crop, that it was the lands aifordiag less than the average yield in wheat that were in general withdrawn from cultivation and devoted to stock raising. It would be a fallacy, however, to conclude from this that it was always the poorest land, absolutely speaking, that was withdrawn from wheat; for this involves the assumption of the absence of other, and under the then conditions, more profitable competing crops or farm pursuits, to which the better as well as the poorer land might be devoted. "We have seen too that it was just as likely to be " Compare, for example, the average yields In Buffalo and in Rock counties. Wheat has persisted in a remarkable way in the former county, while it was replaced by other crops in the latter county at a comparatively early" date. Or, comparison may be made between Kenosha and Iowa counties. The first decade, it has been seen, showed a considerable decline in wheat growing in the former county and this was succeeded by further decline during the fol- lowing decades. Iowa county, on the other hand, did not attain the maximum Importance in wheat growing until 1860. But on the whole average yields were not higher in Iowa than in Kenosha county. Comparison of Dane and St. Croix counties, however, is in favor of St. Croix. 11 [455] 162 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN the owner of the poorer soil who was not in the financial posi- tion to make the change.' On the whole, however, and in view of these considerations just mentioned, we are not justified in running counter to al- most universal contemporaneous testimony and concluding that there was small decline in the per acre yield of wheat and that that decline could therefore have had little influence in dis- placing the growing of wheat. On the other hand, it does not seem possible to assign to that cause the amount of impor- tance usually given to it.' The real state of the case seems to be as follows : there was an actual and very considerable de- cline on new lands, after the first few crops, due chiefly to the crude methods of cultivation that were followed. This decline was so rapid that the new counties did not long show a higher average yield on the whole than the older counties. Thereafter the yield per acre was not essentially larger in the new than in the old counties, but was secured with less expense for two rear sons: first, because the land being newer was relatively more productive, and involved less expense for cultivation, dnd in the second place, because of the low cost of the land itself. On account of these two reasons, there might be more pros- perity and growth in the wheat industry on the newer, more fertile and cheaper lands, while in the older sections where land was higher and an equal yield was obtained only at a higher cost on account of the higher value of the land and the greater expenses of cultivation, depression and decline might exist; and this might occur and probably did occur with the average yield per acre not generally higher on the comparatively new than on the old lands. As suggested above, the more rapid increase of improved land in the newer counties would be offset in part by the w'ithdrawal from cultivation to wheat of the lands giving on the whole lower than the average yields in the older coun- ties and their disposal to the uses of some other farm pursuit. In a word, not so much declining yield, as the obtaining of » See Trans, of State Agric. Boo., 1877-78, p. 101. ' This suggestion has already been made above in reference to the asserted great decline in yield in some parts of the state about 1870. See p. 133. [4156] THOMPSON ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 163 about the same yield only at a greater cost on the older lands was the immediate cause of the depression in certain sections that finally led to the abandonment of wheat growing.* This is the only way we can explain the confusing and contradic- tory expressions that were uttered almost in the same breath, of soil exhaustion and decliae in yield on one hand, and of large yields on the other. It enables us to understand why we hear, on one hand, that wheat growing doesn't pay, that it costs more to grow than it will bring in the market and, on the other hand, that it is the staple of the state, and brings in more money than any other crop, that it is profitable, and that so long as it continues so profitable there is little hope of induc- ing farmers to abandon it. On this supposition we can har- monize the maledictions hurled at exclusive cropping of wheat, with the grateful acknowledgment that the wheat crop has built bams, paid off mortgages and purchased the necessities of life.® And all this is consistent with the fact that the average yield was not materially different in different parts of the state. While the yield was not ordinarily much smaller in the older parts of the state, the devastation wrought by insect pests, par- ticularly by the chinch bug ia the more southern counties, must be given due weight in the displacement of the crop in that section. The chinch bug was in especial evidence in Wisconsin in 1864^66, 1874r-77 and in 1887 and succeeding years. Inspec- tion of Table V shows the effect in the greatly lessened yield in many counties in 1864, 1877, and 1889.^° Not only on ac- count of the actual losses did the depredations of the chinch bug tend to drive wheat out of cultivation, but also because " Note that average yields in Minnesota and the Dakotas were not high after the first tew years. It is not far wrong to say that any great wheat produc- ing region is a region of low yields, and that not because of low fertility but because extensive cultiTatlon under the condition of cheap and fertile lands is found profitable. See an article in the Quart. Journal of Econom., 18: 570, by C. W. Thompson, The Movement of Wheat Growing: A Study of a Leading Btate, in which the author similarly concludes from a study of wheat grow- ing in southern Minnesota that not to loss of fertility but to diversified agri- culture, to greater profit In dairying and to greater profit in wheat growing by extensive cultivation on cheap or low rent lands, is due the westward move- ment which carried that industry out of that section of the state. » See above pp. 25, 73. "See above pp. 58, 72, 84, 88-9. [4i57] 164 BUIiLBTIN OP THE UNIVBESITT OF WISCONSIN it was necessary to pursue a system of crop rotation and cessa- tion of wheat growing in order to stamp out the pest.^* The chinch hug was a factor together with the recurrence of bad seasons and low prices, that tended to make the wheat grow- ing industry less certain of affording remunerative returns. It has been pointed out above'^^ that when the first great break in wheat growing came in Wisconsin, in the decade 1870- 1880, there was a tendency toward general farming rather than toward specialization in any particular branch of farming. This tendency was partly a cause and partly a result of the decline in wheat growing. Decreasing profitableness in the wheat crop was accompanied by increasing profitableness in a more diversified agriculture. As has been pointed out over and over again frontier conditions of cheap land, scarce labor and dear capital favored wheat growing and rendered diver- sified a^culture unprofitable. With the passing of these early conditions, the situation was reversed. It is almost an axiom of political economy that round-about methods of pro- duction are more profitable so soon as sufficient labor and cap- ital can be commanded for such operations. But for a people to pursue such methods successfully requires much capital, highly intelligent labor and directive capacity, and favorable conditions in industry generally. In the most concrete way, these requirements and conditions were lacking in the early history of wheat growing in Wisconsin but began to be more and more present as frontier conditions passed away. A sim- ple frontier economy has few wants and thus presents narrow market opportunities, andi this constitutes a reactive cause » Inquiry o( several residents of Dane county as to why wheat growing had been discontinued brought the reply "Chinch bugs." A similar answer was received In St. Croix county, as a partial reason for the discontinuance of wheat growing. It was asserted that wheat growing Imperiled other grain crops, since the chinch bug sepmed to need sotoe wheat to persist, but when once present was destructive of other grains too. The method of sowing wheat and oats or some other crop together was found more or less effective In avold- ■ Ing the ravages of this pest. See above, note 10, for reference to the ravages of the chinch bug In the latter part of the eighties, which In connection with the declining price almost drove wheat growing from the county. See Trans, of State Agric. 8oc., 1882-83, p. 272 for reference to chinch bugs to Green county; also nitt. o) Fond du Lac Co. (West. Hist. Co., 1880), 418. « See p. 79. [458] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 165 operating against diversification. With a higher standard of living and more complex wants, the industry of a people is re- adjusted and becomes more complex, and this is the more apt to be true if some great industry upon which dependence was formerly placed becomes unprofitable, as was the case with wheat growing in Wisconsin. The introduction of live stock afforded an opportunity for the raising of other grains and farm crops, which would not stand transportation except when converted into beef, mutton or pork. Rotation of crops be- came possible with resulting benefit to the soil, and when fol- lowed to a rational extent made the more economical use of labor and machinery possible by distributing the former throughout the year and the latter over a longer season.^' The keeping of live stock also enabled the farmer to make profit- able use of otherwise waste land and waste products,^* as weU as to raise larger crops per acre on land the fertility of which had been thus restored." It was no small matter either that the farm income no longer depended upon a single crop and that an uncertain one. Great gains and great losses were both less frequent and agriculture thus became less speculative and more planful. The part played in the spread of the wheat industry by im- proved harvesting and other machinery has already been pointed out.^' The great profitableness of the wheat crop on the new and fertile lands of the West, together with the scarcity of labor there, stimulated the early improvement of machinery for the growing of wheat beyond that for the growing of other "Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 20, p. 21. Trwna. of State Agric. Boc, 1886, p. 227; 1875-76, pp. 330-31; 1876-77, pp. 23-24. Wis. Farmer, 15t 177. See minth Annual Rep. Wis. Daymen's Assoc, p. 38 ff., for unfavorable attitude toward mixed farming. The fact of better utilization of farm labor and machinery in diversified agriculture was brought out In conversation with a man who had been aquainted with conditions on the farm for thirty years in St. Croix county. The use of the same machinery In the harvesting of crops which mature In succession was given as an Illustration. On the other hand excessive diversification requires too much machinery. See Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 19, p. 57. '* Trans, of State Agric. Boo., 1886, p. 227; 1887, p. 1. ^' Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 6, p. 46. " See above pp. 62-3 ; also Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1874-75, p. 181 ff ; Kes- slnger, History of Buffalo County, Wi»., p. 372 ; Wis. Farmer, 9: 381. [469] 166 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN crops/' Later more rapid improvements ia machiaery for the raising of other crops have tended to reduce the relative ad- vantage which wheat held over the latter ia that respect.^* Im- proved harvesting machiaery for wheat was throughout the wheat period also often bought recklessly and cared for scantily with consequent flnancial difficulties, which, as we have seen, tended to keep the farmer ia the rut of wheat raisiag.^' After a time the tendency toward diversified agriculture which had in large measure displaced wheat growing ia Wis- consin, gave way in its turn to a reaction toward more special- ized forms of farm iadustry again. The growing of wheat, however, continued to decline as before, since the newer condi- tions were more and more unfavorable for that crop.^" Of these specialized forms of iadustry, the growing of tobacco and dairying were the most important.^^ The early attempts to introduce the culture of tobacco have been already referred to.^^ The slow progress ia this direction for many years was due simply to the fact that the conditions that favor wheat growiag are unfavorable for the cultivation of tobacco. The briefest attention to the essential differences ia the character of the two industries shows why this is so; for 1' TroMs. of state Agric. Soc, 1887, ipp. 38-49 : 1882-83, p. 27. Farm. Inst. (Wis.), Bulletin No. 10, p. 243. " Compare cultivators for hoed crops, in general, machine corn, tobacco and potato planters ; com cutters, huskers and shredders, potato diggers, etc. The silo method of utilizing corn and other Torage crops may be cited as a some- what analogous later improvement and has particular significance in a state where the season is neither sufficiently long nor the climate sufficiently warm in large areas to bring the com crop to full maturity. " Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 19, p. 57 fE. ; Trans, of State Agric. Soc., 1874-75, pp. 18f>-96; Martin, History of the Orange Movement. 385. For a discussion of the relation between harvesting machinery and the size of the most economical wheat farm see the article referred to above [note 8], by C. W. Thompson. =° See above pp. 87-8 ; also ibid., note 7, where the inability of the farmers of Wisconsin to raise cattle in competition with the cheaper range lands to the west and southwest was pointed out. [See Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1879-80, p. 211.] A similar statement may be made with reference to the sheep industry. Further, a large part of Wisconsin lies too far outside the great com belt to en- able the farmers of that state to participate largely in the production of corn- fed beef and pork. " The raising of potatoes, barley and sugar beets constitute other less im- portant examples. ^ See above p. 31. also Hibbard, Hist .of Agric. in Dane Co., 160-75. [460] THOMPSON ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 167 the successful cultivation of tobacco requires, relatively, a min- imum amount of land, highly intensive culture, considerable in- telligence of a special kind and much labor and capital. Quan- titatively speaking, nature does little and man, much, in the culture of tobacco. These considerations are sufficient to ac- count for the late development of the tobacco growing indus- try in Wisoonsin.^^ Somewhat similar conditions prevented the rise of dairying to importance in earlier days, though instances are not want- ing in which unfavorable conditions were overcome under the stimulus of the early failure in the wheat erop.^* Capital, how- ever, was lacking for the purchase of cows of good quality and for the erection of barns and fences.^'* The quality of the early butter and cheese was very inferior, on account of lack of proper facilities for making and on account of lack of skill.^" Further, the chief markets in the lake cities were already supplied by dairy products of approved quality — particularly from Ohio.^' In the interior portion of the state at least, facil- ities for transportation were lacking; for it must be remem- bered that if dairy products on account of high specific value can bear transportation a long distance at relatively low cost, nevertheless that transportation must be rapid and afforded imder such conditions as will insure arrival without deteriora^ '^ See Hibbard, supra. The most hasty reference to the facts set forth by Hib- bard in reference to tobacco culture shows how impossible it was for that crop to occupy any place in the early agriculture of Wisconsin. =♦ See above p. 31. See Hibbard, 176-77 ; Pat. Office Rep., Agriculture, 1852-53, pp. 327-.35., including a statement by a man in Rock county that he had milked thirty-five cows during the previous season and had been In the dairy business for the preceding seven years. See Prairie Farmer, 10: 74-5. 2° See above p. 49. These difficulties were doubtless partly imaginary, but Hibbard [p. 177] goes too far in their disparagement. See Sixth Arm. Bep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 97. 2» The quality of the early wheat in Wisconsin was on the contrary very superior. Good butter or cheese does not make itself, as good wheat grows itself on rich adaptable soil. "Few that are handling cows know their business." Ex. Governor W. D. Hoard, Fifth Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc., 32. " Seventh Ann. Bep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 29. "Then (1850) we had to peddle our products to such purchasers as could be found or induced to huy — five or six cents a ipound being thought a good price for it." Second Ann. Bep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 9. [4161] 168 BUXJjETIN of the university of WISCONSIN tion in quality.^* Still further, there was a general impression that Wisconsin lay outside of the dairy region — due in part to misapprehension and in part to the evil reputation of Wisconsin butter and cheese.^' Most of all, the profitableness of wheat growing and the characteristic conservatism, and indisposition of the wheat grower to change the nature of his operations pre- vented the earlier growth of the dairy industry.^" The extreme depression in the wheat industry, however, which followed the war, and the high prices for dairy products during the same period finally resulted for a time in a considerable development of dairying, in certain parts of the ?tate, which was also made possible in large measure by the introduction of refrigerated transportation about the year 1868.^^ Resulting overproduction led to depression and this in turn to the organ- ization of the Wisconsin Dairymen's Association iu 1872, from which time dates a new era in dairying within the state.*^ The Association at once took steps to secure a better quality of pro- duct, to extend the breadth of the market, to secure more favor- able rates of transportation and, in a word, to secure the coopera- tion of dairymen in general for the good of the industry as a whole.^' A good illustration of this policy was afforded when at the annual meeting of the Association in 1879, a resolution 28 Trans, of State Agrie. Soc, 187&-80, pp. 220-21. ™ See Seventh Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 27. "The climate was not auspicious, the wild grasses resulted In a disagreeable flavor and the soil would not produce tame grass successfully. Further the water was bad." See Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1852, w- 228-37; 1851, pp. 178-79. ^ "It is harder and takes longer to convert the farmer than it does the farm to dairying." Fifth Ann. Bep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc., 30. See also Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1882-83, p. 272. Indifference toward dairying near Columbus, Columbia county, a few years previous to 1890 was said to have been due to the ability to raise twenty to twenty-five bushels, and above, of wheat to the acre. Eighteenth Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 50. '1 See above p. 67. See Hibbard, Bist. of Agric in Dane Co., 178 ; Second Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 22 ; Eighth Arm. Rep., 32-4. ^ Second Ann. Rep., 9 ; Seventh Ann. Rep., 128 ; Tra/ns. of State Agric Soc, 1871, p. 4. iB Seventh Ann. Rep. Supra. "Dairymen have an advantage on freights . . . When a car-load of wheat in New York would be worth from $500 to $600, a car-load of cheese would be worth nearly $3,000, and a car-load of butter $7,000 to $8,000." Second Ann. Rep., 12. See Ihid., 2. Also Trans, of State AgHc. Soc, 1888, p. 181. [4)62] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN. 169 was passed recommendiiig to the dairymen of the state that in view of the overcrowded state of the cheese market and the higher relative price of butter, they defer making cheese in the coming spring as late as possible in order to relieve the market to that extent at least.^* The Association also lent its active influence toward extending the dairy industry into new regions within the state where conditions were ripe for a change from wheat growing.'^ It is not too much to say that a large measure of the prosperity which followed in dairying was due to the intelligent and persevering efforts of the Association, and their activities have been thus referred to at length in order to em- phasize the contrast between the absence of effective organiza- tion among the large mass of plodding wheat farmers and the part played by the compact organization of a few intelligent dairymen in reviving their industry from the depression into which it had fallen and lifting it to a new plane of progress. The dairymen, to be sure, had a great advantage: they labored in behalf of a live industry while the wheat farmers clung to a pursuit fast falling into decadence.^* These elements of decadence in the wheat industry have been sufficiently set forth. It remains to point out the remaining superior advantages of dairying. One of the most important of these is the great natural adaptability of a large part of "Wis- consin to dairying. Partly as a result of the united efforts of the dairymen of "Wisconsin for a higher standard of quality and partly as a result of the development of refrigerated transportation, their products were soon recognized to be as good as the best." There is no longer any question of the highly favorable natural advantages for dairying in "Wisconsin.^* On the other hand. ^ Seventh Ann. Bep. 101. 3= See Farm, Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 6, p. 153. " Hibbard, H%st. of Agric. in Dane Co., 178. "See Bep. InA. Com. (1900), lO: 187; testimony of Mr. Ije Grand Powers, Chief, Dlvls. of Agrlc, 17. S. Census. The reputation of the dairy products of Wisconsin for high quality suffered some decline a decade or more ago with a consequent loss of marlset, on account of the deterioration caused by the manu- facture of "filled cheese." See discussion In Bepa. of Dairymen's Assoc, 1894-96. M See Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1886, p. 83 ; Fifth Arm. Bep. Wis. Dairy- men's Assoc., 29-33 ; Bulletin of Agric. Emper. Stat, Univ. of Wis., No. 88, (Sept., 1901) pp. 4-6; rbid.. Bulletin No. 140 (Sept., 1906) pp. 10-17. Also Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 9, p. 219. [«63] 170 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN large portions of Wisconsin are for reasons already pointed out no longer adapted to specialized wheat growing. Continuous cropping to wheat has been seen to be destructive to the fertil- ity of the soil while dairying is a restorative industry in that respect, and is thus self-perpetuating.^" Dairying also affords a more certain revenue, while in respect to wheat grovsdng the profits of good crops are often overbalanced by the losses in- volved in a succession of poor crops.*" In the long run, there- fore, dairying proves the more profitable pursuit. This fact, together with the restorative influence upon the fertility of the soil, results in higher values for land where the latter industry is followed.*^ Wheat growing is thus not able to compete with dairying for possession of the land in Wisconsin. Wheat suffers further from the competition of those grain and forage crops which are subsidiary to dairying and which thus reflect in a measure the strong competitive character of the latter industry. Again, dairying results in the more even distribution of labor throughout the year and thus in its more economical utilization. Further, dairying requires both labor and directive capacity of a higher order and of a more systematized quality than does wheat growing, and naturally affords a larger remuneration.*'' 3» Trans, of State Agric. Boc, 1880-81, p. 46 ; 1881-82, p. 181. Seventh Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 125 ; IlHd., Eighth Ann. Rep., 108 ff. «• Sixth Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 22. "There has not been a bad failure in the dairy in the last fifteen years." Ihid., Eighth Ann. Rep., 29. " "A comparison of farm -values betw«en Sheboygan and Jefferson counties and the two non-dairying counties Vernon and. St. Croix, on the basis of the cemsus of 1885 shows a difference in farm values of land and products of from three to five hundred per cent, in favor of the dairy counties." Trans, of State Agric Soc, 1890, p. 1.30. See Ibid., 1879-80, pp. 210-11 ; also Fifth Ann. Rep. Wis. State Board of Agric. for 190.3, p. 2.35. By 1900, dairying had become so gen- eral over the state as to constitute an important factor In land values In most of the counties. As has already been pointed out above, however, land values are in general lower in the counties which still raise wheat. See Table XXIII. ""The wheat raiser has but few and simple things to think of. He may plow, sow, reap and market five hundred acres of grain and still be a man of few ideas and of narrow mental culture. But the dairyman is compelled by the very necessity of his business to be a man with eye open and active mind " Seventh Ann. Rep. Wis. Dairymen's Assoc, 24. See also Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 4, p. 62. [464] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 171 Dairying thus tends most of all, directly and indirectly, to- ward the displacement of wheat and onr analysis here is found to agree with the ascertained facts above.** " Reference has been made to tlie important part played by the Wisconsin Dairymen's Association In the development of the dairy industry and thus in the displacement of the unprofitable wheat crop. Great credit is also due to other organizations in a similar way. The State Agricultural Society, the various county agricultural societies, the farmers' Institutes, the Grange and other kindred organizations have all labored toward the same end. See Pat. Office Rep. for 1858, AgHeultwe, pp. 210-13. To the Agricultural School of the State University, however, perhaps more credit is due for the improvement of the agriculture of Wisconsin than to all other similar agencies combined. Always a center of experiment, of discus- sion, of agitation for and training In better methods, and of the development of valuable technical processes, it hag contributed immeasurably to that high Intelligence and skill which have enabled the farmers of Wisconsin to reap the corresponding rewards of intelligence and skill. See Saturday Eveniny Post, June 22, 1907. [4165] 172 BULUETIN OF THE UNIVKESITY OF WISCONSIN CHAPTER XI THE FUTURE OF WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN What of wheat growing in Wisconsin ia the future? May we look for a revival of that industry in that state, comparable to its apparent revival in the state of Ohio?^ To essay the role of prophet would be hazardous; but the conditions upon which wheat growing in Wisconsin in the future appears to depend may be set forth iu a provisional way. The problem constitutes in part one phase of the world movement of the wheat area which involves the future of wheat growing in the United States as a whole. On the other hand, it constitutes a ^ See above pp. 14, 21, for reference to the early decline in wlieat growing iu Oblo. Ohio raised a greater number of bnshels of wheat (50,376,800 bnshels) In the year 1899 than at any other census period In the half century closring with thai year. Further, Ohio ranked first among the states In the United Startea in that year In the prodnction of wheat per sgaare mile of area, having pro- duced 1,235.94 bnshels per square mile. This figure has been surpassed bat once during the census periods Included in the fifty years 1850-1000, Indiana having produced 1,316.76 bnshels per square mile of area in the year 1879. Further, the per capita yield of wheat in Ohio rose to 12.12 bnshels in 1899, after having fallen from 14.39 bushels In 1879 to 9.68 bushels In 1889. Iowa presents, apparently, a somewhat analogous situation but the total yield In that state In 1899 was considerably less than In either 1869 or 1879, while the per capita yield In 1899 (10.20 bushels) was but little more than half that of 1879 (19.18 bushels) and was considerably less than half that of 1869 (24.65 bushels). The increase In the yield iper capita from 1889 to 1899 was. how- ever, greater in the case of Iowa than in the case of Ohio — the per capita yield for the former state being 4.31 bushels for 1889. Delaware, Kenlncky and Tennessee, both In respect to the production of wheat per capita and p-r square mile of area, are comparable to Ohio. Indeed, the per capita prodnc- tion of wheat In Delaware and Tennessee and the prodnction per sgnare mile of area in Delaware in 1899 were the largest of any census period from 1850 to 1900. [See BulleUn of U. B. Dept. of Agric, Divia. of Stat., No. 24: Bela- Uona of Population and Food Products in the United Btates, etc., Washington, 1903, pp. 27-32]. In the year 1900, however, Ohio was said to have snflered the greatest failure in the wheat crop ever experienced by any state to the United States. BarpeVt Weekly, 44: 823. [466] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 173 phase of the production of wheat within the boundaries of the United States. These two phases of the question are not in- dependent but may be separated for purposes of discussion. The problem may be stated in another way by saying that wheat growing in Wisconsin must compete with wheat growing in the world at large and with wheat growing in the United States in particular. In addition it must compete with other crops and other farm pursuits in Wisconsin. For a number of years, the future of wheat growing in the United States has been debated pro and con by experts in both hemispheres. One side claims that the importance of the Unitid States in the production of a surplus for the world's wheat sup- ply must soon diminish on account of the increase in population and the exhaustion of the area of cheap lands within that coun- try and the opening up of new cheap lands in other countries; while the other side claims that the withdrawal of much of the land in the United States from cultivation to wheat is merely temporary, and that steadily higher prices would result in the bringing of it again into cultivation for that purpose.'' In this discussion there are the widest and most irreconcilable esti- mates as to the possibility of increasing the wheat area in other countries, considering adaptability to the culture of wheat, com- peting crops and pursuits, competing foods, transportation and social factors.^ The whole problem is a complex and difficult ' See Northwestern Miller, Dec. 30, 1887, and F«b. 3, 1888, for reference to a review of the Investigations of a number of men in respect to American com- petition in wlieat growing, by Dr. Rudolph Meyer (1883), and also a review of similar investigations by Dr. Max Serlng. See Nation, 39! 259 ; Qtiart. Rev., 164: 445; Arena, 3: 641; Pop. Sci. Month., 54: 145, 759; 55: 760-67; Sat. Rev., 96! 506; No. Amer. Rev., IBS: 191, 511; Qua/rt. Jour. Boon., 18: 570; Rev. of Rev., a5i 588; Jour, of Pol. Boon., 1: 68, 365. » In reference to Canada, see Mavor, Wheat in the Canadian Northwest ; also Canaa. Mag., 3: 468; 14: 137; 22: 561; 26: 29: Pop. 8oi. Mo., 55: 76©; Cent., 65: 481 ; Chicago Record Herald, Oct. 9, 1905. In reference to Argen- tina, see Landwirthschaft und Koloniaation im Spanlachen Amerika von Mr. Kaerger in Set. Amer. Sup., 54: 22339; Rev. of Rev. 26: 227; Outlook, 64: 119 ; Jour, of Pol. Econ., 10: 206, 333. In reference to Siberia, see Bci. Amer- 8up. 43: 17681-2. In reference to various countries in general, see Cham- ber's Journail, 64: 837: 72: 419; Crookes, The Wheat Problem, N. T. and Lon- don, 1900; Nation, 41: 544; 66: 356, 4175; 67: 237; Forum, 24: 173; 27 101 : Pop. Sci. Mo., 52: 760; 53: 1-9, 351-63; 54: 759; Rev. of Rev., 16: 598 Bankers' Mag. (N. Y.) 50: 26, 782; Sat. Rev., 58: 142; 61: 265; 64: 662 96: 506; Nature, 61: 109; Nineteenth Cent., 43: 879: 53: 670;Joumal Roy al Statist. Soc, 68: 75; Rep. of Ind. Com. (1900) Vol. 6 [Index]. [467] 174 BULIjETIN of the university op WISCONSIN one and perhaps nothing more can be safely done here than to point out tendencies. In the first place, the tendency of the wheat industry to seek new and cheap lands is unmistakable; consequently we may look for a future relative decline of the culture of wheat in this country as a whole while these new and cheap lands are being added to the wheat growing area of the world. That the same causes that operated to drive the wheat area across the country from east to west are now operating to drive it into British North America and into South America is a commonplace statement today. Even though there has been a*revival of wheat growing in some of the older states of the United States, stiU that revival is small when compared with the increase in population, and may be taken as an indication of the relative strength and persistence of the movement of the wheat area out of the country. In Minnesota, there has long been a movement toward the displacement of wheat growing by diversified agriculture. In a great part of the state this already amounts to an accomplished fact.* The live stock industry is yearly becoming more important in South Dakota, while even North Dakota is making progress in that direction.^ But even should we grant the probability of a permanent rise in the price of wheat and a future revival of wheat culture in those other parts of the United States where it has become un- important, it seems probable that Wisconsin would be one of the last states in the Union to respond to that movement. The reasons for this assertion lie partly in the strong hold that the dairy industry already has within the state, together with the special adaptation of Wisconsin to that industry, which has its basis in favorable conditions of climate, in social and race factors and in the production of grass, hay, corn and, to a less extent, oats. Wheat must compete with these crops as grown for dairy purposes, as well as vnth other crops,' if it is to re- gain something of its old importance in the state. To this com- * See Thompson, C. W., The Movement of Wheat Growing; A Study of a Leading State In Quart. Jour. Eo6n., 18: 570. » See Bulletin of U. 8. Dep. of Agric, D(i;»«. of Stat., No. 24, pp. 31, 32. ' Especially with potatoes, barley, tobacco, sugar beets, and market garden- ing. [468] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 175 petition we have seen that wheat has become unequal and so it will probably remain as long as it is a frontier crop and con- tinues to be grown according to the extensive system/ An additional reason against the probability of an early return to wheat growing in "Wisconsin is found in the bad repute into which that industry has fallen and the prejudice against it among the farmers of the state. No doubt the demand for bread is paramount and must be satisfied; while a considerable and permanent rise in the price of wheat would work wonders in removing the present day prejudice in Wisconsin against that crop. Still, the demand for bread is not inexorable, be- cause it is capable of being replaced, to a certain extent, by competing foods, and among these competing foods dairy pro- ducts hold an important place. Further, for dairying, "Wiscon- sin has comparatively greater exclusive advantages than for raising wheat. There are relatively many possible areas for the revival of wheat growing in the United States, and, if we can judge from past experience, relatively few areas exception-, ally favorable for dairying — particularly in its specialized forms." The conclusion then seems to be warranted that under these conditions the wheat crop in "Wisconsin will continue to be unable to compete with that crop as grcwn in other sections of the United States, as well as with other crops and other farm pursuits within the state itself. There are those, however, who insist that "Wisconsin enjoys no overwhelming natural advantages in reference to dairying and that large areas to the west and to the south, and presum- ably in other sections of the country now unimportant in re- spect to that industry, may with the proper amount of well directed effort be reasonably expected to become important centers, in the future, for the production of milk, butter and cheese. It is doubtful, however, whether the combination of favorable conditions that has been seen to exist in "Wisconsin in ' See above p. 162 ff. and footnote references. i»Seei BuUetm oj Agric. Exper. Stat., Univ. of Wis., No. 60. The Oheeae In- dustry: Its Development and PossiliUties in Wisconsin [1897], together with the accompanying map of the distribution of cheese and butter according to the Census of 1890. [4J69] 176 BXJUUETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN respect to the dairy industry, either exists naturally, or can be reproduced artificially in any considerable portions of these other areas at a cost which will permit effective competition vidth dairying in the former state. On the other hand, some of the superior advantages enjoyed by Wisconsin dairymen ia the past tend to diminish. Ex-Gov- ernor Horatio Seymour of New York, when addressing the Wis- consia State Agricultural Society in 1870,^ expressed the opioion that Wisconsin ought to do well ia dairying because in that in- dustry the cost of land plays so important a part and the latter state is well situated in that respect as compared with New York. It was pointed out a decade later that producing dairy pro- ducts had been sustained on land worth $150 an acre and that Wisconsin dairymen were "protected by the organizations of those that rule the market upon these products upon high priced land."^° With the rise in the value of land consequent to the introduction of dairying into Wisconsin, due in part to the capitalization of those same superior advantages for that in- dustry, conditions as between New York and Wisconsin in this respect have tended toward equalization, while the cheaper lands beyond the Mississippi river, and elsewhere, that are adapted to dairying have in turn a similar advantage in that respect over the higher priced lands of Wisconsin. Further, it was noted above^^ that the Wisconsin Dairymen's Association was able to secure freight rates on dairy products to the eastern markets so liberal that it cost scarcely more to ship from Wisconsin than from many parts of the dairy region of New York. But there is no reason why this process of the equalization of market con- ditions by the neglect of distance in making freight tariffs on dairy products should not apply equally well as between Wis- consin and territory still more remote from market. As a matter of fact "The Wisconsin Dairy Manufacturers and Milk Producers' Association" has been recently organized for the purpose of bringing pressure to bear upon the Interstate Com- merce Commission in order to secure the maintenance of dis- • Tram., 1870, p. 133 IT. >°/Md., 1879-80, p. 211. " P. 168. See also Fifth Ann. Rep. Wia. Dairymen's Assoc, 30-31. [4470] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 177 tance tariff rates on dairy products from competing territory to the west of Chicago.^^ This equalization both in reference to land values and in reference to rates of transportation has also manifested its influence in respect to other farm pursuits, and, as we have seen, explains, in part, the westward movement of both the wheat area and the center of the production of live stock. The significance of these facts for our immediate pur- pose lies in this : that in so far as natural conditions are meas- urably adaptable, dairying tends to follow wheat growing and stock-raising westward and either to displace both — and es- pecially the former — or to force different methods in both pur- suits. Partly as a result of the operation of these causes, the live-stock industry in the great com belt to the west and south of "Wisconsin has been reduced to an intensive system for the production of corn-fed meat products, with the further result that land values are quite as high as in the dairy regions of Wisconsin." "Wheat growing must in like manner either be car- ried on according to the intensive system or be driven from those regions open to competition from dairying or from other more highly organized farm pursuits — that is, from a large propor- tion of the present wheat area within the United States. "When in this process of competition and equalization the price of wheat rises to a sufficient extent to make intensive wheat grow- ing profitable, wheat may, with the reservations noted above in reference to other competing areas in the United States, be again grown in "Wisconsin, but it will be grown in due subordination " See Chicago Record Herald, Aug. 2, 1907. " Compare the stall-fed meat products of English farmers on the high priced lands of that country. In some parts of the great central grain belt of the United States — espec- ially in the state of Illinois — the live stock Industry suffers serious competi- tion from the production of cash grain crops. This Is made possible by the disregard of soil exploitation which the latter method of farming In- volves. Land values in those sections are sustained In spite of declining yield by the general upward tendency in the price of lands. ■it is to be noted that while the dairy region also moves westward, that in- dustry docs not tend to disatPpear in the older sections as did wheat growing. The reasons for this have been stated In pointing out the essential difference between the two industries. For a discussion of Dairy Development im the United States by Henry B. Alvord, Chief of Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, see Tear Book of the Dept. of Agric, 1899, pp. 381-402. See also Tmelfth Census, S: 165-86 and »: 433-459. 12 [471] 178 BTJLIJETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN to a diversified system of agriculture and not to the exclusion of other farm pursuits as in early days. Some light may be thrown upon the future possible situation in Wisconsin in reference to the growing of wheat in connec- tion with other farm pursuits by turning, for a closer examina- tion, to those regions of the United States to which reference has already been made as affording an illustration of the appar- ent revival of wheat growing.^* It was asserted a score of years ago that the farmers of the Western Reserve in Ohio had been following dairying too exclusively in the past and that they were at that time turning their attention to the growing of wheat in connection with dairying and were getting good results, while they kept just as many cows as before and secured just as good a return from dairying. The wheat crop was said to be prof- itable in itself, while the straw was valuable for feed and for other purposes in connection with dairying. Further, the wheat crop was found to be the best crop with which to seed down to grass. With careful cultivation, average yields of as high as thirty-five bushels per acre had been secured in some eases for several years in succession and this had been done by the use of improved machinery and without other labor than that result- ing from the fuller utilization of the help already employed in dairying.^' Examination of the statistics of the wheat crop for the year 1899 in Ohio does not, however, seem to fully justify this point of view. The wheat growing and the dairying regions remain to a large extent separate and distinct.^" Of eleven counties^' in Ohio producing over one million bushels of wheat each in 1899, but three had over ten thousand dairy cows each and all of these three had less than fifteen thousand each. On the other hand, of the ten counties^' having over fifteen thousand " See aboTe p. 172, note 1. ■"Farm. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No, 1, pp. 126-29. " Tweljth Census. See also Bulletin V. 8. Dept. oj Agric., No. 55, Bureau of Animal Industry: Statistics of the Dairy, [with accompanying charts] by Henry E. Alvord. Chief of Dairy Division. " Darke, Seneca, Pickaway, Butler, Hancock, Fayette, Miami. Madteon, Preble, Green, and Putnam counties. '■ Ashtabula, Trumbull, Hamilton, Stark, Geauga, Columbiana, Lorain, Port- age, Cuyahoga, and Summit connt'es. [4,72] THOMPSON ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 179 dairy cows each, but one'* produced much more than a half mil- lion bushels of wheat, while seven produced less than that amount each. A similar examination of the statistics relating to dairying and wheat growing in the state of New York for the year 1899 shows an even greater separation between these two branches of agriculture.** Similar reports of good yields of wheat over a series of yeara, where grown with proper rotation, have been made occasionally in Wisconsin,-' but in the meantime wheat growing in general has continued to dedine rapidly in that state. The conclusion then seems to be, as already pointed out,^^ that the wheat crop is, on the whole, found less useful than other farm crops as a crop supplementary to dairying, and is accordingly unable to compete with those crops on that account. Accordingly, the prospects for the growing of wheat in connection with dairying in Wisconsin do not seem encouraging. The more complete separation between wheat growing and dairying in New York, where the latter industry is much more important than in Ohio, is significant in this connection. The other reasons set forth above in reference to the utility of the wheat crop are probably more valid than that of its im- portance in connection with dairying, and these reasons doubtless explain in large measure its appar^it revival in Ohio and other states. This is especially true with reference to the utility, of the wheat crop as contributory to successful seeding to grass."* As that result is, however, largely due to the fact that wheat is a winter crop in those sections, while winter wheat can be grown " stark comity. Even in this county, however, dairying is largely confined to the eastern portion. " See same references as for Ohio, above, note 16. " Farm. Ingt., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 2, p. 24 ; No. 5, p. 45 ; No. 6, p. 53. See also Trans, of State Agric. Soc, 1892, pp. 246, 252. " See above p. 170. " Personal acquaintance with conditions In Ohio for a number of years serves to strengthen belief In this point of view. The high yidd of wheat per capita m some counties of Ohio, in 1899. however, proves that in those sections the wheat crop has been found profitable for its own sake. Pickaway, Darke. Seneca, Hancock, and Butler connties raised 44, 35, 32, 26 and 20 hnshels per capita respectively in that year. [473] 180 BTILDETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN only to a limited extent in Wisconsia, it follows that there is less reason for growing wheat on that account in the latter state.** On the whole, then, an early return to wheat growing iu any considerable degree of importance seems improbable in Wiscon- sin unless in those few counties where it still persists in a small way. There are certaialy no indications of such a revival at present.*" The age of economic revolutions is, however, not past, and unexpected developments have brought many a prediction to grief. » See, however, Form. Inst., (Wis.) Bulletin No. 18, p. 58. See also Ibid., No. 2, pp. 24-5. 2= See above p. 102, note 32. [4^4] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 181 CHAPTER XII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Adaptability of the soil, adaptability of wheat as a crop suit- able for frontier conditions, and economic habit on the part of the early settlers of Wisconsin led to the rise of wheat growing within the state. With crop failure and decline in yield and with the breakdown of the early home market for wheat, a tend- ency toward diversification appeared as early as 1850. This tendency was, however, soon checked by the construction of rail- roads, which gave access to outside markets and which led to the spread of the wheat area over a much larger portion of the state aud to an even greater specialization in the growing of that crop than before. The introduction of improved farm machinery for the production of wheat — especially during the period of the Civil War — emphasized the tendency toward that crop and facilitated the rapid exploitation of the soil. Another important factor in producing excessive specializar tion in the growing of wheat was the favorable public land policy — federal and state — which led to the opening up of the cheap, fertile lands of the state on easy terms and to their settlement with extraordinary rapidity. Men are wasteful of that which costs little and cropping to wheat according to the extensive method afforded the most evident opportunity of tak- ing advantage of the situation. Abundance of cheap land also indirectly facilitated the growing of wheat by affording a basis for the land-grant railroad. Moreover, the combination of cheap lands and railroad construction created a situation preeminently favorable to speculation in land and to this speculation wheat- growing lent itself with peculiar adaptability, as it required a minimum amount of permanent improvements. A continusr [475] 182 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITY OF WISCONSIN tion of the same policy on terms increasingly favorable to pro- spective settlers was, in turn, largely instrumental in tKe move- ment of the wheat area out of Wisconsin and into other sections, and the state thus became entirely typical of the movement of the wheat area across the country, as a whole, from east to west. Whatever may have been the net political and social effects of the cheap land policy, it is very questionable whether it can be justified economically, as it has been the chief factor leading to reckless soil exploitation and undesirable extensivity in agri- culture. The distrust of railroad corporations by the early settlers of Wisconsin gave away with the break-down of the home-market and the wheat farmers became as eagerly desirous for railroads as they had formerly been hostile. The farmers were led to believe that they might themselves own and control the railroads, and when this hope proved without foimdation they were still willing to encourage their construction by granting mortgages upon their land. High anticipations of the benefits to be de- rived from the construction of railroads were held by the farm- ers, while the projectors of the railroads were on their part con- vinced that sufficient business would exist to occupy all the roads that could be constructed to the West, and scouted the idea of competition. Such competition, however, soon developed and was accentuated by the depression of 1857. Local dis- crimination in rates at once appeared and produced dissatis- faction on the part of the farmers. The situation was the more difficult because of the almost absolute dependence of the wheat farmer upon the railroad, while the latter was on the other hand subject to all the unfavorable conditions incident to an almost entire dependence upon a single commodity for traffic. Com- bination among the railroads, together with the deficiency in transportation facilities, due to limited construction during the Civil War period, led to higher rates, which were largely main- tained after the close of the war and which the wheat farmer was the less able to bear on account of declining prices for wheat, and on account of higher cost of production due to de- pleted fertility and higher land values. Under these eiroum- [4r76] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 183 stances the Granger movement developed in Wisconsin and re- lations between the railroad and the wheat farmer reached an acute stage. Additional forces, to which the railroad itself had contributed as an educative and economic agent, were, however, already in operation, leading to a marked change in the agricul- ture of the state, in consequence of which the dependence of farmer upon the railroad became less absolute. The railroad in its turn came to have less complete dependence upon a single industry and benefited accordingly. Largely on account of these circumstances the struggle between the railroads and the farmers in a measure subsided. In the early movement away from specialization in the grow- ing of wheat, the tendency was at first toward general diversi- fication in grain farming and stock raising. Later a reaction set in toward specialized farming — especially as represented by dairying, which became the characteristic farm industry of the state. Contrary to early opinion, natural conditions in Wis- consin were found to be exceptionally favorable for dairying — particularly for the manufacture of cheese. The changed con- ditions which made the growing of wheat unprofitable at the same time contributed to the success of dairying. The latter industry in its turn now felt the stimulus of racial and economic habit long dormant because of unfavorable environment. Those who failed to adapt themselves to the new conditions moved out of the state with the wheat area and continued to grow wheat. Dairying required the exercise of a far more discrim- inating intelligence and unremitting care than the growing of wheat and afforded a much larger sphere for the application of technical knowledge. The compact organization of the dairy farmers, which the cooperative nature of the industry and the high range of intelligence among dairymen furthered, afforded another telling advantage over wheat growing as a pursuit. Favorable rates of transportation were secured for dairy pro- ducts and a permanent market insured by the development of a high-grade product of uniform quality. Dairying led to the renovation of the soil and to greatly increased values for land and these conditions reacted still more against the growing of wheat, until the latter industry was almost entirely driven from [4/77] BULLiETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN the state. The tobacco crop played a similar, though far less important, part in the displacement of wheat growing in certain sections of the state, while insect pests and other causes con- tributed to the same result. A considerable revival of wheat growings — at least according to the extensive method — appears unlikely in Wisconsin because of the relatively more exclusive advantages in that state for dairy- ing than for the growing of wheat. Neither does investigation of the important dairy and wheat growing districts of New York and Ohio warrant the opinion that wheat growing may be again taken up in an important way, as incidental to dairying, since the two industries appear to be largely confined to separate regions in these two states. Other farm crops appear to be re- latively more useful in that connection. Lastly, it appears that, in accordance with past experience, we may expect a continued movement of the wheat growing area of the world generally, into the relatively less developed regions that are adapted to that crop, until the tendencies that operate toward the equalization of economic conditions between com- peting areas have worked out their ultimate effects ; and such a consideration probably points to a relative decline in the extent of wheat growing within the United States as a whole for an indefinite period in the future. t4f78] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 185 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Reports, Bulletins, etc. WISCONSIN Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wiscon- sin, Bulletins and Annual Reports, — especially Bulletins No. 60, No. 88, No. 140, and Twenty-second Annual Report, Board of Immigration, Reports. Bulletins of the University of Wisconsin. [See Hibbard and Sanborn, Section III.] Farmers' Institutes of Wisconsin, Bulletins. Fox and Wisconsin Improvement Company, Reports. La Crosse and Milwaukee Railroad, Reports. Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien Railroad (previously Milwau- kee and Mississippi), Reports. Various other railroad re- ports. Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce (Board of Trade, previous to 1858), Reports. Secretary of State, Reports. Transactions of the State Agricultural Society. Various legislative reports and documents. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, Trans- actions. Wisconsin Dairymen's Association, Annual Reports. Wisconsin Historical Collections. Wisconsin State Census Reports. FEDERAL Census Reports. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports of the Commis- sioner (Patent Office Reports, Agriculture, before 1862), [4)79] 186 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITY OF WISCONSIN Special Reports and Bulletins, especially Bulletin No. 24, Division of Statistics, — Relations of Population and Food Products in the United States, by James H. Blodgett, A. M., Division of Statistics, Washington, 1903. Industrial Commission, 1900, Report, especially Volume 10. Interstate Commerce Commission, Annual Reports, 1897, 1898, and 1900. II. Books Cabt, John W., — The Organization and History of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. Milwaukee, 1893. County Histories of Wisconsin, various. Donaldson, Thomas, — ^Public Domain, Washington, 1884. Governors' Messages and Accompanying Documents, especially 1857, Volume II. Gregory, John, — Industrial Resources of Wisconsin. Chicago, 1853. HiBBARD, Benjamin Horace, — The History of Agriculture in Dane County, Wisconsin. Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 101. Martin, Edward Winslow, — History of the Grange Movement. Philadelphia, 1873. Periam, Jonathan, — The Groundswell, A History of the Origin, Aims and Progress of the Farmers' Movement, etc. Cin- cinnati, 1874. Ritchie, James S., — Wisconsin and its Resources. Philadelphia, 1857. Sanborn, John Bell, — Congressional Grants in Aid of Rail- ways. Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 30. TuTTLE, Charles Richard, — History of Wisconsin. Boston, 1875. III. Newspapers and Periodicals American Railroad Journal, New York, 1849-1851. Atlantic Monthly, 1872 and 1873. Journal of Political Economy, Volumes 1 and 10. [480] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 187 North American Review, April, 1875. Northwestern Miller (previously Farm and Factory), La Crosse and Minneapolis. Prairie Farmer, Chicago. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volumes 18 and 20. Various local newspapers. Wisconsin Farmer ("Wisconsin Farmer and Northwestern Culti- vator, — ^Wisconsin and Iowa Farmer and Northwestern Cultivator), Racine and Madison. Note. — With the exception of the census reports, Federal and State, upon which the statistical part of the study Is based, the mosrt important original source of material is the Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, which constitute a mine of information illustratlTe of the agricultural derelopment of the state. Next In importance come the Reports of the Mil- waukee Chamber of Commerce. The Armual Reports of the Wisconsin Dairy- men's Association and the Bulletins of the Farmers' Institutes of Wisconsin are especially valuable for the later period. The Bulletins of the Agricultwral Expeiiment Station of the University of Wisconsin,, especially thos'e relating to the development of the dairy industry in Wisconsin, have been found of much use. The Annual Reports and the Special Reports and Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture have been found highly valuable for the purpose of comparison with respect to other parts of th'e United States. Especial mention should be made of the early bound volumes of the Wisconsin Faa-mer and the Praimie Farmer, the former being valuable for the local point of view and the latter for the West in general. Frequent reference has been made to Bulletin No. 24, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Statistics, from which the suggestion for this study was originally received. Hibbard's History of Agriculture in Dane County, Wisconsin, has been of constant assistance, especially In respect to the re- lations between wheat growing and other farm pursuits, and as a more In- tensive study of a particular section. Sanborn's Congressional Grants in Aid of Railways and Gary's Organization and History of the C. M. amd St. P. Railway Company, are valuable in reference to the land grants and farm mort- gages made to the railroads within the state. The works of Martin and Perlan) in reference to the farmers' movement are written with a strong bias. Both sides of the controversy are presented more satisfactorily in the columns of the Atlantic Monthly and the North American Review to which reference is made above. A history of the grange movement in the United States Is in course of preparation by Mr. Solon J. Buck, as a Doctor's thesis. University of Wisconsin. The works of Gregory and Ritchie, relative to early condi- tions In Wisconsin, need to be used with care, and the same warning may be uttered with reference to some of the miscellaneous reports and to some of the county histories of Wisconsin to which only general reference has been made above. It has been thought unnecessary to make especial mention in the bibliography of a great number of the less important sources to which reference has been made In the text. [481] Appendix 190 BULLETIN OP THE UNIYEESITT OF WISCONSIN o !& S S .— . I- S 5" g «> 'B » s- « o a El pq =Q s ^ i ^ 00 s « •5 u CO o P S o u o t~ CO U3 -id^ -^ -^ 04 00 m M 00 e^ M Di e] oa eci M rH T-( *H iH iH ^ i-i i-i 1-f i-i' T-i 1-t « to (B C 0)^- ! §9 as go's 3 ■u : »J . - S.2 . . . - ""at: I ^ £ § S bo Oioi s H " gii tirt aaioajs .>-35 oio a = co ^ s 3.? SO 3 a ja-S ° o a o a; « S^i o u"^ a a" " » 35 " "i2 pql4-pcQ>^aimaiacpii(i,t»oO>cBOoaa)a3a!acai^i-jaooS CL, t>. r-) Q S rh on S rn m r« H CO *X^-, a ri r iS i-('dC000^000»U7iH00C0C400t-i-(Q»«0CDU3lAOO0000'^O : c ■2-ML :SSJ^-|,|J PNii l-t|iiili lip^iiliilipl 34j' a.S o o £ (0 5 ^tHinWs:,OMo>?OoOmCM>^S?a:^^San >r3CD"*i:-eaw3mcOTHOt-oocoooo«5-^0'*c>aoo-*-*c*a'*THOMXi:-Ni:- N O t^ ■* "^ oi ^H oi OS oi CO t- CO «D «D ■* ■* ■*' oo OQ ^ -H T-H iH OS 0» oi od c- 1- 1- «o D-»r3-*-^-*mCOeiCgWIoaclCMNW©aWe«3WC>J.-HrHiHi-t — i-frHi-l Uigag - 1h P © 2-^ sJllliiiiiM ] & t< s ■SSoS . B| £ ggl-3 S| g|| o S I S3 S| S I =-2 0.^:3* 8 0&tl!i.Ew!:;a«4aoatnMOSjSM>?n «DMO0S«DC-«De-«Di-aOj9arq :ss S5 OS'S J is ed O meoc^oooat-co-rXNoaaaooaooooocooaoo'^-^ocmcj CDinu304ciedede'=cocof«&^ococootnot-i/30cocoo C^ I- 5D ira in ^-t ■* eo N N W W W QO ir^ SD CD lO eiQ M N W N sSjgS :'a'g :«Ti :so 3li-3| § ss s|l=3|5 § s3 s« si ij 10 ■ :SS dg 3B|3gSa.2-5g'^-3i-3 sills' [485] 192 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVEESITT OF WISCONSIN S 8 o "^ S oj kH s CI o t." S s a. cq s < ■» EH '« S o a « -w i. I*) '« w 1 s •ca u "5" e s s s o 0^ cq m® to m BOW i-IOl ■3-3M^^3a>D-«oot-t-cor- ao OS OS i^ QQ (» M> w 1-1 c- og "2 £3 53 S S s S Er 52 S 9? 2° 'S K SS 2? 28 ' O) o " '■•3 S'o 01 9 o!"2 a.S ■IS llii|2is;^g:J^I|l^g^i|i|l|||i|iS SiS teS-S'S g^-s a g g S § = g-^'S oj^JSq g-S g 3 a .n ".1 ffaao»ni:-cooT-(cocoy?OTHtHi-ci:-'^koeoi:-ot-o^ eoc-«OOicoeDca-Tf-it— ooirapaiHOOTiHOMe^ogjcQ-^geDiom THO«OD-c-ir;ooooooot-co?DiO'^i-<^Hi-iooiO»asira-*^*eoooooeocv]Mcaao^ait40 t-'Ht-^M-ttOOOHOeOUBOOC MM^OAOOOOtDCMOQEr-C-Ci' . , ,_ , iHOOaoO^COtAtma-f^-^v^errHOOSOaaOt-COUOlO-^OOOOMMO ■* ■* oo eo eo eo eo eo co eo co co to eo eo c>.Tm M ©f M^c«f m ea m c«a m cTM^oa^oJeM m c^T 5ifiQeo3^0Q'*"*o^iHOO»'^aQTHoeoo -^eoeoeoeocOMMMCMMM»li •JtUBH a| ■3 O 4A a 1* d.- OJ5 ■J • o ■s :s ||.i|.||i|||Pa|i|||i I il [486] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 193 opiAao-«MQ^-4< ^^iHiHOOsoSwaot-t-t-eoeoiO'^-^cQpaoioooo cacaeaoaT- wSiiS S9 : w— « IDA "■5 1 3 S g 8 «w 3^ « gal's S g 2 § § «| DOc-eoH0'HP3CO-*lOCOlr-OOOSQ^ — 1 31 C ^ » rh •^ DO > '-H »o „ OB S'W 5£ O » SA, ^ s •S s « « s •« s. s "« ^ s o u s "W o i^ lA sa •<; "S' o u o o iH-rH0O-^-*CMOOeD(DQOeD— "*01»Hao«D"*000*C-«OW3«)>-(-*OiQOMOt-00 cDeoiHOt->raMmo3c^tr-eDift-*-*«oo«oco»aTHTHi-Hi-HOOoaooooootr-eD>n »t3-«it-^-^coeoOTeoNiWNCiwcvii-Hi-^^-^THCoci?mi>3cr:cocQeocoe>acMC>ac.OJd a -, 5 S a g s J :3 . a • a " • " - S-Zi S OJ «> S ail's £ S-Sl § gjg'g^ |.2iS « £ g g-3 g| £ S S § §,9 J S&oi ac S COCOCQ^ie^Nr-li-lvHi-li-IWi-ll-ll-ltH-HiH 'l""**! -HiH.-2 S f 3 £ 2 s iooi^oaH03i,589 483,006 1,794,919 1,539,008 1,612,932 1,445.650 1,798,647 1,775,665 1,737,921 1,343,011 1,101,463 "i,'l09.72ii "i;6i2,579 ""753,iil ""726,458 707,157' ""464,512» ""397,631 366,732 566,668 510,572 473,259 432,758 ■"210,010 11.5 14.0 9.0 15.0 12.4 12.6 9.5 11.3 14.4 12. S 14.0 11.5 11.5 10.3 11.5 14.2, 12.2 13.5 11.5 13.3 16.5 15.5 13.3 12,5 18.0 15.5 IP 5 16.1 18.1 15.6 15.5 1875.. 1876.. ■26',596,74i' 20,921,373 21,040,238 15,606,200 14,172,841 1877.. ■24;88i,689 14.2 1878.. 1879.. 1880.. "i,m,ieb' "n.'i 1881.. 1882.. 1883.. 1884.. 15,493,219 21,033,008 12,955,456 "l7.2 1885.. 1886.. 1887 "ii;698;922 9,943,487 1888.. 1889.. 1890.. 9,866,322 744,080 15.7 1891.. 9,457,132 1893 8,063.627 8,565.071 4,343 008 4.542,263 5,463,800 9,072.168 7,206.338 6,084,506 1894.. 18.2 1895.. 1896 . 1897 . . ""556,614' 1898 . . 1899.. 1900.. 9,005,170 16.2 1901.. 1902.. 1903 1904.. 2,700,813 12.9 1 1,221,313 according to the State Oensus. 'Report, No. 120, New Series (Oct. 1894) U. S. Dept. of Agric, Division of Statis., II : 629 for estimate of yield of wlieat per acre in Wisconsin in 1894. Report No. 122, Doc, 1894, ibid. 723, for estimate of acreage and total yield in Wisconsin in 1894. "471,163 according to the State Census. [4©1] 198 BULLiBTIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE V. Average yield of wheat per acre in Wisconsin, by counties ; Report of Secretary of State of Wisconsin, for the years 1856, 1860, 1864, and 1877; federal Census for 1879, 1889 and 1899; State Census for 1884, 1894 and 1904. COTJNTIEB. Adams Barron Brown BnSalo Burnett Calumet Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Bane Dodge Door Buna Eau Claire Fond du Lac . . Grant Green Green Lake.. . . Iowa Jackson JeSerson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee .... La Crosse Lafayette Langlade Lincoln Manitowoc Marathon Marinette Marquette Milwaukee Monroe Oconto Outagamie Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Racine Richland Rock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan Trempealeau. Vernon Walworth Washburn Washington . . Waukesha . Waupaca Waushara Winnebago . . Wood State 16.7 24.5 Bushels . 1856* 1860 1864' 1877 1879 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 15.4 19. 52 20.5 17.2 12.4 17.1 16.1 25 .0» 14.5 19.1 15.9 17 8 16.9 15.1 16.8 16.5 17.8 18.6 14.7 is'.s 15.9 14.3 16.8 15.1 7.5 19.9 19.7 16.0 16.8 16.7 12.7 17.4 19.4 26.3 17.1 13.7 23.7 22.0 19.1 23.1 24.3 17.6 21.0 24.5 23.2 21.2 22.4 26.0 19.9 25.0 23.9 22.3 27.0 22.0 12.5 19.8 17.6 19.9 26.0 19.8 21.1 11.1 22.2 19.9 23.4 16.8 20.0 31.3 17.6 23 7 21.7 24.1 18.0 21.4 23.4 26.3 27.2 22.5 25.6 20.4 17.7 24.6 4.7 7.6 13.0 25.0 10.1 11.6 12.8 7.6 7.4 6.1 9.9 16.2 10.1 11.3 10.6 6.7 5.1 8.9 4.2 10.4 9.5 6.5 6.7 15.0 4.0 10.9 7.0 4.5 8.5 11.9 11.6 8.3 isi' 12.3 11.1 6.5 6.0 10.8 5.7 12.7 6.4 14.8 11.0 13.8 10.7 6.4 9.1 6.5 6.2 6.0 6.4 8.3 16.6 12.3 14.5 15.6 15.8 20.5 12.6 13.7 12.9 12.0 13.1 21.7 15.0 15.8 14.7 8.9 9.6 11.7 12.0 13.5 12.2 9.5 7.9 11.4 12.0 7.7 14.8 8.3 13.5 12.8 11.1 48.9' 21.2 11.2 17.4 4 10.3 11.7 15.6 14.5 16.5 12.5 4 14.5 15.0 12.5 11.8 13 3 12.7 11.2 10.3 15.4 7.1 14.2 10.3 12.2 13.5 12.1 13.5 12.4 11.5 12.6 10.5 12.7 9.8 13.3 16.1 10.9 12.4 12.2 11.5 16.4 11.2 15.5 10.2 16.0 15.0 14.0 13.5 11.3 14.5 12.2 11.7 13.2 10.4 16.8 10.1 16.2 13.1 13.8 13.5 13.3 12.0 13.0 14.4 9.4 15.6 15.2 14.7 12.4 15.2 13.1 13.4 11.2 12.8 12.8 15.7 16.B 11.6 10.4 14.4 9.0 12.8 13.4 14.6 17.3 15.4 14.5 19 5 16.2 18.4 17.1 13.8 17.5 18.4 17.9 15.5 15.2 18.7 14.4 17.5 14.8 15.4 15.5 19.7 15.5 19.2 17.8 14.9 16.2 17.0 20.1 17.0 17.8 18.5 11 4 21.2 14.1 18.2 20.3 20.2 16.7 19.0 18.3 14.9 19.3 13.6 18.8 18.2 17.2 17.0 18.3 15.3 15.0 19.7 20.0 18.4 20.2 17.2 12.8 17.6 16.5 17.; 13.1 12.9 15.6 16.6 14.2 19.2 14.7 18.8 15.1 13.2 13.5 16.6 12.9 15.4 15.6 16.3 11.6 11.7 14.4 12 8 17.8 16.4 16.1 13 5 13.4 17.5 9.9 16.3 16.0 15.1 15.3 13.5 11.4 17.9 17.5 14.3 19.6 15.6 16.8 18.6 16.3 12.6 14.6 14.4 11.6 15.6 17.5 15.2 16.4 17.1 16.3 10.9 16.8 14.3 16.9 14.6 18.2 17.1 15.7 12.4 12.1 14.0 19.1 9.8 19.6 11.8 19.5 17.9 16.1 16.0 22.7 14.7 16.4 13.7 21.9 15.7 22.4 16.5 17.0 23.1 24.2 17.1 17.1 13.8 19.1 18.6 18.7 17.0 16,6 13.7 18.0 11.5 20.4 18.5 17.5 20.8 18.3 17.0 17.0 10.1 12.0 16.3 16.6 19.2 10.6 19.5 23.4 21.5 20.0 19.4 18.2 20.8 19.4 20.7 13.2 18.9 18. S 18.2 13.1 17.2 15.0 16.1 17.0 19.2 16.7 16.6 16.7 14.1 16.3 20.0 14 4 16.4 14.8 19.2 13.0 18.3 14.4 13.2 16.9 19.0 15.8 19. U 14.2 16.7 15.2 17.7 15.4 16 14.0 15.0 13.8 21.2 17... 15.3 14. S 19.5 17.2 It.S 15.5 13.5 18.6 13.1 19.9 15.4 14.8 16.1 17.9 17.3 15.3 15.4 17.2 17.0 19 8 14.4 18.2 15.0 16.2 8.8 16.8 10.5 11.2 13.5 10.8 15.4 15.0 12.0 9.4 13.9 13.9 10.1 15.4 14 1 13.2 11.2 15.0 11.3 13.2 12.6 15.1 14.8 17.3 9.7 13.1 14,4 19.5 12.7 11.9 15.6 13.6 10.4 18.3 13.3 12.4 11.2 14.2 15.3 It. 6 18.9 9.9 17.5 11. ( 15.8 15.4 12.9 12.5 11.9 13.4 11.9 20.1 15.1 12.2 17.7 IS. 5 20.8 11.8 IS.t 12.8 ' "So imperfect as to be almost worthless ;" Rep. Sec. Stale. ' The report forl856glves the figures 1.95 but as this appears to be a typrgraphical error, the figures 19.5 are substituted. ' The entire yield for this county for thin year was 200 bushels. * Census detective. ' It is questioned whether or not this number is a misprint. * Dejectlve. [492] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 199 TABLE VI. Total production ot wheat in the United States, 1839 to 1819, 1853, 1859, and 1862 to 19M [calendar years] . 1810 1811. 1812. 1813.. 1841. 1815. 1817t 1818||. 1819. 1853. 1859. 1862. 1863. 1861. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. . 1871.. 1872. 1873.. 1871.. 1875,. 1876.. 1877. . Bushels. j 81,823,272* 91,612,957 102,317,310 100,310,856 95,607,000 106,518,000 114 245,500 126,361,600 100,185,914* 110,000,0001 j 171,183,381" ! 173,104,921* 169,993,500= J 191,068, 239< i 173,677,928' 160,695,823« 148,552,829' 151,999,9068 212.111,100 224,036,600 ) 260.116,900 i 289,745,626* 235,881,700 230,722,400 219,997,100 281,251,700' 308.102,700 292; 136, 000 289,356,500 361,191,116 1878.. 1879 1880. . 1881. 1882. 1883. 1881. 1885 1886. 18S7. 1888. 1889 1890. 1891, 1892, 1893. 1891. 1895 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1901. Bushels. 120,122 (118,756 } 459,183, 198,549 383,280 504,185, 421,086, 512,765 357,112 457,218 156,329, 415,868 ( 190,560 J 168, 378 399,262 611,780 515,949. 396,131 460,267 467,102 127,684 530,149, 675,148, j 547,303 1 658,534, 522,229. 748,460 670,063 637,821 552 — ,400 ,630 137* 868 090 470 160 ,000 ,000 ,000 1,000 000 ,000 968* ,000 000 ,000 725 ,416 947 ,318 1«8 705 816 252* ,505 ,218 ,008 ,835 ,517 t The figures opposite are from the Siwth Census^ but It is uncertain whether they are for the crop of 1839 or for the crop of 1840. See History and Growth of the United States Census, by Carroll D. Wright and William C. Hunt, p. 32 [Washington, 1900]. For alleged gross inaccuracies in the Sixth Census, see House Reports, 28th Cong., 1st Sess., vol. Ill, No. 580. * XJnited States Census. JNO estimates were made for the year 1846. See Patent Office Report for 1846 [House Exec. Doc, 29th Cong. 2nd Sess., vol. 8, No. 52, p. 8]. II The estimates for the years 1841 to 1848 incltislve are from the Patent Office Reports for those years. In reference to the lack of similar estimates for the years 1849 to 1861 inclusive (except 1853),, see Report ot the Commissioner ot Patents, Part II, Agrioulture, 1849 pp. 14-15. 1 Pat. Office Rep., Agrioulture, 1853, p. 129. ^Rep. of Com. of Agric. (U. S.) for 1862, p. 10. 'lUd. for 1863, p. 3. 'Itid. for 1864, p. 577. *md. for 1864. ^ma. for 1865. • Statist. Abstract of the United States, 1905, p. 516, for statistics of years 1866 to 1904. •Given 281,254.700 in the Statist. Abstract of the United States, 1878, p. 153, and In the Rep. of the Com. of Agrio. for 1873, p. 26. [493] 200 BTILlJiETIN OF THE UNIVEESITT OP WISCONSIN TABLE VII. Mileage of railroads ia WiscoDsia by years [Wisconiin Blue Book tot 1905, p. l,,20O 2,217,57s) 2,163,346 2,654,028 2,286,426 2,680.022 2,983,439 2,805,878 4,034,288 4,248,054 3,990,596 4,601,267 4,354,144 5,078,614 4,912.843 3,410,289 3,233,426 3,201,813 3,812,211 4,310,065 3,061,275 3.163,2il 3,375,553 4,568,013 3,924,800 3,824,152 3,978,0f-8 3,788,658 4,034,928 4,409,899 4,112,794 3,098,421 Manufac- ture of flour at Milwaukee, [Barrels,] 130,000 116,000' '"isoaof 142,500 202,810 250,256 221,729 185,813 187,339 212,829 328,730 346,000 625,000 4»l,5n 530, 049 .367,893 .560,206 634, 102 735,481 746,126 647,581 61,201 535,049 752,133 637,157 859,388 1,346.509 879,512 1,070,860 961,152 «.'i2,802 1.214,648 1,421,258 1,266,226 1,397,039 1.826,758 2,117,000 1,850,823 1,576,064 1,532,510 1,628,140 1,733,020 1,741,347 1,737,826 1,866,501 1,939,966 1,755,051 1,443,420 1,320,611 ' ExclusiTe of custom milling. [494] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 201 TABLE VIII. Bange of qnotations for the price of wheat at Milwankee, daring the months of January, April, July, and Gotober, 1858-1904, [No. 1 spring, 1858-1868 ; No. 2 spring,* 1869-1897 : No. 1 northern spring, 1898-1904 {Forty-teven'h Annual Report of the Trade and Commerce of Milwaukee,, 1904, pp. 80-82)]. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1881. 1862. 1863. January 55-60 60-66 66-75 65-88 77-112 100-113 59-95 72-85 99-102 98-115 90-112 85-94 75-82 83-84 74-83 7S-81 70- 75 77-86 81-97 89-104W 100-131 April 115-122 July October 100-116}^ 102-118 January April . . . . July October. 1864. 115i4-121i4 114V4-I34 202 -226 137 -186^4 1865, 142 -177 98 -121V4 101 -131i^ 1321^14SH 1866. 121M-132 126 -166V4 198 -229 1867. 2C5-221 245-285 205-240 185-200 1868. 199 -20734 196 -209!4 180J^-1963S 12Syt-U9ii 1869. 110 -118« 1023i-110 124 -140 91H-107 January October. 1870. KU- 84iii 73 - 94^ 106!i-135 963li-110>i 1871. 108Jli-132 121M-132 106J>;-1243li 117 -127 1872. 1203i-124 119ai-137 118H-127H 106(4-122 1873. 119-127 !i 116-129!^ 118-127 100-112 1874. 117 -126>i 124M-131 84 -96>4 1«75. 88H- 90X 94 -105^ 104H-1SS 108 -115 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. January . . April 97»6-102K 99?li-108>4 90 -106 107 -118 126H-133Vi 134}i-190 124 -158}^ 108!4-116 102Vi 110^ 106V4-115>t 94 -13U n%- 895!i 82H- 87 86H- 93H 88}i-102M 104 -121H 102 -113 893i-100>4 9Sii-102H 95V4- 98X 98J(-10SK July 110*i-117i£ 130 -145 * With the disappearance of qnotations for No. 2 spring wheat after 1897, the price statistics are of less siirniflcance for the purposes of this study than would otherwise have been the case, as No. 1 northern spring wheat represents a grade of wheat superior to that grown in Wisconsin in recent years. [495] 202 BXIUJETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE VIII.— Continued. January April July. October. 128 -140J4 126 -135 106 -129i!iC 92%- 965^ 18S3. 93 -103J4 lOlM-lIO^ 90 -95% 1884. Sli4-95yi 79?i-96 789^-85H 1885. 74X-915i 85;|-89H 85 -91J^ 1886. 77 Siii 76 -gO=!i 73 -81Ji m%-UH. 1887. 77H-a)!4 76«-78X 68 -72X January April ... July.. October. 1888. 759^- 77Ji 73 - 80!4 74%- 84 98^-115i4 87 -94X 77H- 88^4 16%- 81 7154- 7i% 1890. 69%-72J^ 72!i-84M 83 -91V4 9254-98% 1891. 82y2- 9354 98^-1141^ 86)4- 93H 875i- 94 1892. 80%-85i4 76Ji-843i 72 -77J4 64 -69l£ 1893. 6l}i-6VA 62K-66« 55 -64H 57H-61K 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1899. January April July ... October. 58H-6154 55Ji-61M 50 -56 52H-55 50M-55?« 55?4-«5M 62K-73!i 56!^-603i 565^-63 61H-67% 54?4-59Ji 64 -77 735^-79!^ 68 -80 70 -81 98 -117 86-90 62!^- 70J^ 68)^76)4 701^75 715i-7« 69 -74W January April July October . 1900. 63J^-69 66 -68^ 75 -83 1901. 74 -78 K 71 -76 66 -73 68%~ny, 1902. im-sia 72 -78 76 -80 72 -75?i4 1903. 75>^25C 77 -81H 85K-90 82)1-87 1904. 86>^- 91 94 -102 98 -103 112 -lao [496] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GEOWING IN WISCONSIN 203 TABLE IX Raag:*^ vf quotations for the price of wheat at Chicago during: the months of Janu- ary, April, July, and October, 1840-1904. [No. 2 Spring, 1840 to April, 1858, inclusiTe, (Senate-Aldrich-Committee, Report on Wholesale Prices^ Wages and Transportation, 1893, Pt. II, pp. HO-61) ; No. 1 Spriai;, July, 1858 to 1868, inclusive, and No. 2 Spring, 1869 to 1878, inclusive ^Tradeand Commerfe of Chioarjo, Reports 1858-1878) ; No. 2 cash (con- tract) wheat,' 1879-1904, (Report of the Trade and Commerce of Chicago tor 1904. p. 9.)] 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 38-50 37-44 50-56 20-35 40-44 70-75 April 38-50 38-50 5M3 50-58 July 52* 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851 January 65-70 75-82 85-90 50-68 55-58 ■'36^65'" 60-90 45- 55 55-63 90-100 46-53 50-60 50-58 July 40t 40^55 50-66 October 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. January 31-42 34-40 37-39 48-56 70- 76 55-65 66- 75 94-100 92- 9i 100 95-100 90-105 108-120 135-145 150-155 129-130 115-120 85-87 April July 84- 88 100 102-103 ' 126-127 October 73- 77 January April . . . July October 1858. 53H-55 6m-63 66 -73 71 1859. 75-105 100-105 70-107 76-88 1860. 1861. 99 -102 103)^115 83 -96 92 -110 I 58 -Kii 81-89 70H-80 1862. 70^- 12% 74 W- 79 81 - 93H 88 -101 1863. 100-120 116-11954 100-114 103-118J4 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 116-120 115-131i<5 196-220H1 150-182 148-179 102-120 104-129 137-146i!i 119-131 125-162 138-195 208-222 >4 212-221 257-300 198-235 185-203 193 -215 202 -220 180 -200 117^-150 112 -11^ April July lOlK-115 119i 73 - 79M 84H- 91J4 6934- 74% 1887. 77%- mi 76%- 8354 67%- 7m 69%- 72% 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Jannary 75M- ISVi 71 - 81^ 79%- 85i4 102%-117)4 92 -102% 79%- 98^ 7634- 85 77%- 82)4 74y,- 78% 77%- 90 85-94 96%-103% 87%- 96% 102 -11234 8434-94% 92%- 99 84%- 90% 76%- 85)^ 76-80 69)4- 74^ 72 -78M 70%- 88 54%- 66)4 60>«-66J^ April July October.. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 59)4- 63 57%- 63K 50%- 58% 50!^- 52M 48%- 55 5534- 68% 73 - 81 66%- 77% 68)4- 7834 83-97 89%-110 101 -123% 6534-88 62 - 70M 66%- 76 70 - 76% 68%- 7534 68%- ua April July October 53%- 63% 61%- 71M 5734- 61% 61)4- 71 54)4- 62)4 65V 81^ January April — July... October. 1900. 61%- 67% 6434- 6734 74 -81M 71%- 77% 1901. 71%- 76% 69%- 74% 63%- 7134 6634- 71% 1902. 74 -80^ 70 - 7634 71%- 79 67M- isa 1903. 7034- 79)4 71%- 7f» 75 - 84 763^- 88 1904. 81)4-98% 85%-96X 94%-U2 10934-122 THOMPSON — WHEAT GE0WIN6 IN WISCONSIN 205 TABLE X Price of wheat' at New York City for the meaths of January, April, July, and Octsber, 1840-1901 [No. 2 spring, 1840-1861 iDcluaive (Senate— Aldrioh— Committee, Report on Wholeanle Prices, Wanes and ZVaniiportaMjn, 1893, Pt. H, pp. 62-63) ; Milwaakee Clnb, 1862-1882 inclusive (Reports New Tork Produce Exchange); So. 2 spring, 1883-1891 inclusive CAldrich report as above) ; No. 1 northern spring, 1892-1904 (.New SSttTork Produce Exchange.)] 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. January April 108-110 107-108 98 100 98-100 90-100 117 140 125 125 123 75-85 87K- 89 90 - 95 102 -108 90-93 96 101 97-100 87-90 95-98 97-100 July 100-105 October 90- 96 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. January 124 110-115 85-95 85-90 115 135-140 160-180 114-119 120-130 125-129 115-iao 112-115 108-112 100-102 100-103 95-112 95-112 100-112 115-120 88-105 105-109 Anil... 95-100 93-97J« 78- 85 July October. January April July. .... October, 1852. 100-105 106-110 97-100 1853. 132 120-122 120-122 146-150, 1854. 187H-195 180 -195 175 -210 160 -170 i855. 230-237^ 228-230 200-210 168-177 1856. 177 165-176 145 140-145 1857. 170 158 157 105-112 January April.. . July.... October. 1858. 110-115 115 80-90 108 1859. 120 138 109 125 1860. 130 122 128 115-118 1861. 118-122J6 125-127^ 72-89 115-119 1862. 132 126K 113 124 1863. 146 1521^ 122^ 134 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 153M 171 242(4 190 220 161 136^ 176W 176 177 219 239 ■ 246 264 241 231 249 257 199!li 174 165 AprU July 147K 156 140!i 'The quotations from 1862 to April, 1875, represent a ueraore prices; from July 1875 to 1882 inclusive, the,minimum and maximum quotatioas are average minimum and maximum quotations. In comparing New York City prices with Chicago and Hilwan- kee prices, account jnust be taken of the fact that the former are thus, in part, avermge prices. Satisfactory quotations for Milwaukee Club or for Milwaukee-or Chicago No. 2 spring wheat at Mew York City are not available after 1882. The quotations for No. 1 northern s'pring from 1892 to 1896 are for wheat "de- ivered" ; fromU897 to 1904 the prices are for wheat "f . o. b." [4Q9] 206 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE X.— Continued. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. January April July . 122 117 UM 132 152}^ 158 142/! 133« 15514 158% 151}^ 176% 1675i .166y7 1627^0 1591/8 135% 113V4 130J^-130%o October 130H-131H January . April ... July October . 1876. 123Ji-124 125^4-126 103 -106V4 125%-12ft^ 1877. 144M-146% 187M-169 163:^-16314 132^-133 54 1878. 131 127H -127%6 105%o-1973£ 97%o'' 1879. 101%6 lOSVs 11014-llS 134 -135%o 1880. 141>4-142)4 1251/5-128 UOM llZiyze 1881, 116H-117 123% 121^-122% 140 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. January April July October 140 142% -142i%6 12815^6-129 %6 1063i -112 110 102-113 108 104 107 98'/. 90-90J^ 85% 86 90)^ 94k-95 90 -91 9m 815i 831/, 91 -93 915^-93^ 83)4-8^ 80 -81 January April July October. 1888. 87M- 92!^ 8^-84% 89H- 891^ 105 -1075i 1889. 108 -11014 95 -100 89%- 90 77 - 89 1890. 78V4- 86 89 -91 91 100 -103J^ 1891. 104% 111 103H-103>i 104%-105 1892. 1015i-108^ 92%-101% 84M- 90}^ 795i- 84Jli 1893. 82!^-87 80^-85% 65-!i-73J^ 68H-7^ January April,... July October. 1894. 68M,-74 «2%-69^ 62%-66H 1895. 65J£-72^ 67?i-76H 70 -79?i 645i-68% 1896. 66K-74% 71%-76H 61%-67i4 72:4-86% 1897. 8S?ii- 96% 7514- S9% 78^-90 94%-lOS 100 -11254 105 -134 82 -95 69M- 80!4 1899. 77^-8754 81?^ 87« 76X-83H 77%-83}4 January April July October . 1900. 75 -80% 7514-8O 81 -92 80^-88^ 1901. 8Ui-90^ 72M-80% 1902. 8S5l£-909^ 79%-86H 79^-84% 78 -84H 1903. 85 -91M 85!^-90i4 90H-96% 88%- 93% 1904. 96%-lOlJK 96J8-106Ji 993C-110VI 118H-131 *Thig quotation is for September, 1878. [500] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 207 TABLE XI. Per capita production of barley In the counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin, producing one bushel or more per capita. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899.] Counties. 1849. Bushels. 1859. Bushels. 1869. Bushels. 1879. Bushels. 1889. Bushels. 1899. Bushels. 1.3 4.4 1.4 3.3 9.4 2.6 1.9 1.6 4.4 34.1 3.1 2.1 4.0 1.0 1.4 68.3 Chippewa 1.6 Clark 1.9 1.3 1.8 6.3 1.8 9.0 9.4 1.3 2.7 1.1 6.7 1.4 24.3 1.3 14.9 81.1 1.5 9.8 Dane i.i 1.4 i.g 2.8 2.0 5.8 Dodge 73 8 Door 3 3 Dunn 2.1 i.r 1.3 1.1 3 4 Bau Claire 1.0 34.1 1.0 1.6 17.5 3 Fond du Lac 1.4 49 Grant 3 5 Green 3 5 Green Lake iJ' i.4 1.6 1.9 1.5 2.4 1.7 4.9 8.1 16 1 Iowa 1 8 Jackson * 1 8 Jefferson 21.8 15 1 1.5 1.0 a.i 2.5 3.4 2.4 1.5 1.7 1.0 7.1 3.4 2.0 3.3 Kewaunee 7 1 1.3 3.3 3.7 Laf avette 2 1 1.5 Manitowoc 3.2 7.3 14 8 2.5 Milwaukee 1.5 2.3 2.7 8.9 1.5 3.0 1.6 1.6 1.5 2.7 3.1 39.1 6.1 13.2 1.5 5.0 Monroe 3 6 6.3 Ozaukee 1.3 2.3 1.6 2.4 47 7 Pepin 24 1 Pierce 20 3 Polk 3 9 Racine 1.0 1 4 Richland 3 3 Rock 2.8 5.2 2.5 13.7 1.6 1.6 19.9 1.0 1.4 10 8 St. Croix 7 3 Sauk 3 3 Shawano 2 8 Sheboygan l.S 1.9 1.8 4.4 3.8 2.0 7.0 4.1 4.0 8.9 8.7 10.8 1.6 1.1 18.5 1.9 5.3 28.4 47.3 35.3 1.1 3.8 25 8 Trempealeau 4 8 Walworth 1.8 l.« 2.3 10 9 Washington 85 2.7 Waupaca 1 9 Winnebago 6 8 Wood 1 6 State 0.7 0.9 l.S 3.8 9.0 9.0 [501] 208 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE XII. Per capita production of rye in the counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin, producing one bushel or more per capita. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899.] Counties. 1849. Bushels. 1859. Bushels. 1869. Bushels. 1879. Bushels. 1839. Bushels. 1899. Bushels. Adams ».7 9.2 1.1 16.4 26.8 24 9 Barron 2 2 1.3 4.9 2.7 3.3 3.9 1.0 2 1 Calumet 1 7 Chippewa 1.3 1.7 e.s 3 1 Clark 1.4 2.3 1.3 1.6 4.9 2.2 1.3 1.1 2.7 2.6 2.2 2.8 2.9 S.6 2.0 1.6 2.5 4.1 4.4 Dane 1.9 1.1 1.0 5.3 3.3 3.8 2.4 1.8 5.1 2.3 6.8 2.2 4.4 1.3 Eau Claire Grant 1.7 2.3 3.3 X.l 1.3 1.4 Iowa 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.0 2.1 1.1 1.0 2.0 2.9 1.0 2.9 1.7 1.2 Kenosha Kewaunee 10.9 6.3 1.9 1.8 7.0 1.4 1.1 1.0 8.3 2.3 1.0 21.8 3.6 1.9 1.1 3.2 5.7 5.5 2.7 La Crosse Lafayette Langlade Manitowoc 1.6 2.8 2.3 6.1 1.3 Marathon Marinette Marquette 8.5 9.6 14.6 1.3 18.9 3.9 1.1 2.2 3.7 4.1 8.7 3.9 7.6 Monroe Oconto Outagamie 8.9 4.6 1.0 3.1 2.6 Pepin Pierce Poili Portage 1.1 5.5 6.3 1.1 Baclne 1.0 1.4 1.6 6.5 3.1 3.5 Blehland 1.6 1.6 4.1 4.9 1.9 3.7 3.6 BocJs 3.1 3.2 St. Croix Sauk 1.0 1.0 2.9 2.3 2.3 2.4 Shawano Sheboygan 3.2 Trempealeau 3.3 Walworth 1.6 S.2 2.3 1.6 S.7 1.3 3.7 3.3 3.3 12.6 Washington 2.2 S.3 2.2 1.1 *.4 3.8 1.9 4.2 1.6 1.8 2.1 Waukesha Waupaca Waushara Winnebago 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.8 State 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.5+ 2.5— [502] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 209 TABLE XIII. Per capita production ol oats In the counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899.] Counties. 1849. Bushels. Bushels. 1869. Bushels. 1879. Bushels. 1889. Bushels. Bushels. Adams Barron Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Dane Dodge Door Dunn Hau Claire . . Fond du Lac Grant Green Green Lake .. Iowa Jackson Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee La Crosse . . . Lafayette Langlade Lincoln Manitowoc . . . Marathon Marinette Marquette Milwaukee . . . Monroe Oconto Outagamie . . . Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Eaclne Richland Bock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan . . . Trempealeau . Vernon Walworth Washington . . Waukesha — Waupaca Waushara Winnebago . . . Wood State .... 10. a "2.9 1.8 27.0 12.5 U.6 10.6 12.6 17.8 11.5 '2i!5 15.2 7.6 4.0 2.7 11.5 2.7 23.5 1.1 4.4 21.1 5.3 12.9 11.3 2.2 S.4 9.0 11.2 5.8 21.7 4.3 20.5 15.5 1.8 11.5 13.0 18.2 22.8 18.1 21.5 200 27.2 10.3 9.1 17.4 11.7 16.1 34.0 2.7 2.7 7.0 3.4 11.1 0.9 5.9 14.0 5.7 15.3 10.7 11.2 10.5 6.3 25.0 18.2 17.4 1.6 9.8 16.3 20.8 20.3 13.0 14.9 3.9 6.9 11.9 1.2 14.3 13.4 28.8 6.1 28.4 1.9 14.2 20.1 10.1 23.5 12.8 28.0 19.3 4.5 24.6 27.3 19.0 37.7 31.4 22.8 32.7 35.2 13.8 15.9 27.3 7.2 14.1 67.0 11.6 13.0 17.6 3.0 10.8 16.6 17.0 17.2 15.3 14.4 14.7 11.7 30.0 40.5 21.3 8.7 13.1 22.5 23. S 26.8 17.2 17.7 7.1 9.4 9.7 4.4 19.1 19.4 23.6 10.3 84.1 6.S 18.9 31.5 13.7 30.9 28.9 43.1 25.3 10.8 34.6 23.9 23.4 4S.S 621.1 22.1 56.3 30.9 19.4 25.6 45.4 16.5 15.9 80.8 8.1 6.4 18.6 10.9 3.2 14.7 3.6 26.8 6.3 17.5 26.4 21.7 22.8 18.8 12.7 23.2 19.9 45.5 38.4 32.8 13.0 19.7 39.0 35.7 38.8 24.5 28.0 13.0 19.6 13j0 6;o 25.0 36.9 23.1 25.1 64.4 11.5 89.2 48.4 25.7 64.4 49.6 61.6 41.3 15.8 51.9 29.9 45.7 82.6 80.5 50.7 105.7 65.6 32.8 44.9 46.3 24.4 23.8 114.0 7.4 3.9 27.8 19.6 5.6 82.3 2.8 50.5 21.1 34.4 84.9 85.8 56.5 37.5 29.8 27.6 40.8 45.8 100.6 59.8 24.6 27.1 84.3 68.0 40.4 37.7 39.9 31.6 45.1 26.6 11.2 36.0 33.3 33.8 , 33.6 96.3 13.3 62.2 45.8 30.7 75.9 53.5 71.4 64.3 23.4 63.0 43.3 65.1 87:5 93.1 79.1 103.3 79.6 58 2 46.9 50.4 34.9 24.9 108.1 15.8 5.7 ' 37.8 19.6 8.9 44.5 2.9 57 6 32.0 46.1 54.0 56.5 59.3 49.7 24.9 30.2 50.4 51.5 91.6 75.4 31.1 34.0 105.6 66.8 75.3 37.5 41.6 33.8 12.8 40.6 14 [503] 210 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE XIV. Per capita production of corn in counties of the wlieat area In Wisconsin. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899.] Counties. 1849. Bushels. 1859. Bushels. 1869. Bushels. 1879. Bushels. 1889. Bushels. 1899. Bushels. Adams Barron Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Dane Dodge Door Dunn Eau Claire ... Fond du Lac Grant Green Green Lake .. Iowa Jackson ■Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee La Crosse . . . Lafayette Manitowoc . . . Marathon Marquette Milwaukee . . . Monroe Oconto Outagamie . . . Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Hacine Bichland Rock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan Trempealeau . Vernon Walworth Washington ... Waukesha Waupaca , Waushara Winnebago State 1.8 6.0 15.1 8.1 7.3 6.6 5.1 13.4 15.6 8.5 5.3 9.3 7.9 3.0 4.9 1.8 5.2 12.3 14.5 1.7 O.S II.O 1.8 4.0 3.4 6.6 7.7 0.7 13.3 5.2 1.7 5.0 10.9 7.9 12.9 5.7 1.7 7.9 8.0 4.4 27.9 27.3 12.4 16.2 8.7 8.3 6.5 11.3 4.2 14.1 25.6 0.1 1.1 10.6 1.4 9.9 0.6 4.6 1.9 11.6 12.9 6.8 5.1 6.7 23.4 15.6 8.6 18.7 2.2 2.6 18.1 15.4 12.2 3.4 7.2 7.6 16.7 6.0 9.7 17.3 1.8 0.5 17.5 0.7 3.4 3.9 2.7 18.3 20.0 17.6 13.3 0.3 7.5 e.6 6.2 45.9 40.1 19.1 28.7 8.9 17.0 9.3 20.4 9.4 57.1 14.4 1.8 11.0 0.3 3.0 1.8 23.2 8.1 3.1 6.0 14.1 21.9 28.1 3.8 17.2 2.6 2.3 13.1 15.6 81.9 9.0 18.3 S.6 12.7 5.1 14.2 2.7 2.2 19.1 2.1 9.7 9.1 6.6 44.2 36.4 56.0 24.3 0.» 18.8 12.8 15.8 90.0 100.6 34.9 70.8 19.6 30.8 21.1 46.2 0.1 14.0 117.7 0.5 1.1 37.8 1.8 19.1 2.6 11.9 7.2 26.4 17.6 4.6 16.7 17.9 48.0 85.8 9.8 S3.S 5.8 9.8 25.7 30.4 59.9 18.7 28.1 14.3 81.8 13.5 2«.0 50.4 6.1 1.8 34.3 5.7 9.9 12.4 5.1 46.6 33.3 39.6 23.5 0.7 31.3 14.3 18.5 78.2 70.2 38.2 56.8 27.0 32.6 17.6 27.8 0.4 16.8 98.0 0.8 0.7 46.1 0.7 22.3 2.1 9.1 6.2 38.7 24.5 13.2 16.2 12.1 40.6 48.4 21.0 33.3 6.3 7.9 39.8 36.8 42.2 14.1 21.4 16.2 48.7 12.3 20.2 63.1 4.8 3.3 4S 2 6.9 17.8 8.6 7.1 74.6 48.2 68.7 45.1 2.3 29.8 14.6 29.2 100.9 118 5 53.3 84.9 29.8 .51.9 26.9 33.8 0.4 17.9 136.3 2.1 2.1 64.1 1.1 34.2 8.4 15.6 12.1 44.8 26.3 9.9 13.1 18.8 64.7 67.3 11.8 53.2 3.6 12.8 36.9 33 1 83.9 29.2 31.2 15.5 48.4 16.8 1S.8 [504] THOMPSON — ^WHEAT GEOWING m WISCONSIN 211 TABLE XV. Per capita production of potatoes In counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Counties. 1349. Knshels. 1859. Bushels. 1869. Bushels. 1879. Bushels. Bushels. 1899. Bushels. Adams Barron Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Dane Dodge Door Dunn Ban Claire ... Fond du Lac Grant Green Green Lake .. Iowa Jackson Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee . . . La Crosse Lafayette Langlade Lincoln Manitowoc . . . Marathon . . . . Marinette Marquette .. . Milwaukee ... Monroe Oconto Outagamie . . . Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Bacine Bichland Bock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan . . . Trempealeau , Vernon Walworth Washburn Washington Waukesha Waupaca Waushara Winnebago ... Wood , i.O 6.2 M.l 6.3 6.4 8.2 S.» 2.8 1.9 8.0 1.9 4.0 State 4.2 2.3 1.0 3.9 S.l 4.9 2.1 5.6 6.3 6.2 S.S 4.0 4.3 2.5 15.5 5.2 6.1 11.2 4.8 3.0 2.9 4.3 8.1 10.9 9.0 4.3 4.8 8.7 5.2 4.5 8.7 8.5 4.5 5.9 15.2 8.4 5.1 2.0 7.8 7.3 2.3 4.9 3.3 7.3 6.0 8.2 11.0 12.1 6.4 4.5 5.2 4.5 10.4 5.8 4.8 6.5 13.1 5.4 4.5 4.9 7.0 6.9 7.1 4.6 9.S 4.S 9.7 3.4 2.7 5.9 2.7 3.3 8.1 5.0 7.0 6.1 6.5 7.5 8.3 4.7 2.7 5.2 7.5 7.8 6.9 5.9 5.0 8.7 7.9 10.2 5.8 3.2 8:8 3.2 3.7 3.5 2.4 5.5 4.3 3.5 5.4 5.8 4.7 4.5 10.6 6.1 6.9 11.3 5.6 8.8 6.4 4.3 4.4 4.4 11.3 8.0 14.3 6.2 8.1 2.3 7.8 6.3 8.3 6.0 4.7 7.7 4.7 4.8 7.0 9.2 7.0 8.9 5.4 6.4 6.6 7.0 3.7 5.8 8.4 6.5 6.3 6.9 4.9 5.9 U.7 6.5 5.3 4.3 8.3 15.8 6.6 4.8 7.1 5.5 9.9 2.7 7.8 9.2 7.3 9.7 7.6 7.4 6.6 12.4 5.5 6.6 6.6 7.6 10.2 6.5 5.7 6.4 6.4 6.3 8.0 U.5 11.0 9.4 4.S 0.8 6.6 28.3 17.8 5.9 14.7 15.0 5.9 16.1 9.4 13.9 9.3 5.9 8.3 8.0 16.6 9.1 S.S 10.1 6.9 9.3 8.1 10.9 7.3 18.7 8.8 7.1 6.2 8.4 7.0 3.8 6.3 8.9 5.5 16.9 2.2 15.7 8.1 6.9 10.0 18.9 20.2 16.2 53.4 7.2 8.7 6.4 25.8 12.9 8.2 5.7 12.2 12.6 7.9 S.S 10.4 18.7 47.1 49.9 6.0 8.4 9.9 77.1 23.S 4.4 U.9 34.0 6.8 18.5 10.3 24.8 7.9 7.5 11.4 12.6 25.6 B.9 11.8 9.9 6.7 17.3 7.3 10.9 7.9 25.6 7.1 7.7 4.6 7.7 7.4 4.7 6.5 10.4 8.7 36.9 3.1 10.5 10.1 9.4 17.4 10.1 10.8 13.7 67.1 8.1 6.9 6.1 11.0 23.6 U.4 9.1 9.9 8.8 7.4 9.4 16.0 n.i 49.7 119.3 5.2 10.6 11.9 [505] 212 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE XVI. Per capita production of hay in counties of tlie wheat area in W^isconsin, producing 0.90 tons or more per capita. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Counties. Adams Barron Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Dane Dodge Door Dunn Eau Claire ... Fond du Lac. Grant Green Green Lake . Iowa Jackson Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee La Crosse Lafayette Langlade Manitowoc Marathon Marquette Monroe 'Oconto Outagamie Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Racine Richland Rock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan — Trempealeau . . Vernon Walworth Washington . . . Waukesha Waupaca Waushara Winnebago — Wood Tons. 2.11 1.30 1.33 1859. Tons. 1.75 1.43 1.49 1.39 1.31 0.93 State S.S6 0.97 1.25 1.11 1.62 1.17 0.97 0.S3 1.44 1.07 1.97 2.09 1.49 0.95 1.18 1.03 2.64 1.29 1.26 1.66 1869. Tons. 1.84 0.98 1.35 0.97 1.11 1.24 l.Sl l.BO 1.62 1.56 1.07 0.S9 1.11 1.63 0.94 1.36 1.50 1.30 1.64 1.03 1.83 2.B5 1.55 0.90 1.47 1.25 1879. Tons. 1.71 2.51 1.23 1.01 0.95 1.40 0.90 0.92 1.61 1.10 1.3S 1.24 1.24 1.75 1.09 2.03 0.86 1.43 0.93 1.19 1.B7 0.97 1.72 1.64 1.03 1.79 2.66 1.29 2.04 2.03 1.83 1.66 3.09 2.85 2.29 1.82 2.23 1.60 0.90 2.92 1.80 0.92 1.51 1.34 1.25 1.09 1.68 1.72 1.96 1.00 1.72 1.39 2.06 1.60 3.00 1.40 2.19 1.29 2.04 1.S9 1.D6 l.«6 1889. Tons. 2.45 1.68 1.09 2.76 1.87 2.11 1.88 1.92 2.93 1.83 2.54 2.81 1.78 1.92 1.16 2.59 2.82 3.90 2.61 8.25 2.29 2.86 1.74 3.84 2.09 1.12 3.65 0.93 1.85 1.29 3.05 2.17 1.18 1.12 2.78 1.85 1.88 1.79 1.22 1.62 2.65 2.38 2.09 2.01 1.15 1.75 3.44 2.86 3.65 2.35 2.55 1.66 2.42 1.48 1.29 Tons. 2.58 2.38 1.23 2.98 2.42 1.71 1.88 2.54 2.17 2.50 1.79 2.72 2.01 2.35 1.45 1.78 2.38 2.82 2.49 8.55 2.57 2.46 2.23 2.58 2.18 1.17 2.96 1.38 1.66 1.70 5.67 2.44 1.70 1.22 1.93 1.76 2.15 2.76 1.57 1.20 8.51 1.15 2.61 2.12 1.44 1.36 3.38 2.70 2.14 1.66 2.06 2.09 2.74 1.22 1.53 l.Sg THOMPSON ^WHBAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 213 TABLE XVII. Per capita number of horses In the counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin haying twenty or more horses per hundred of population. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Counties. 1849. 1859. 1869. 1879. 1889. 1899. Adams 0.25 0.34 0.47 0.59 .28 .22 Buffalo .27 .36 .45 .52 .28 .23 .33 .37 .28 .28 .40 .43 .43 .43 .32 .30 .46 0.38 .27 Clark .36 Columbia o.ai .34 .84 .37 .29 .39 .36 .42 .36 .45 Crawford .44 Dane .80 .38 .41 .33 .86 .40 £jaii Claire .23 .^5 .37 .41 .31 .40 .28 .25 .29 .42 .46 .37 .44 .27 .30 .81 .35 .82 .50 .25 .35 .54 .54 .41 .52 .32 .35 .31 .42 .31 .65 .30 .35 Grant .24 .23 .20 .21 .65 .81 .51 .40 .54 .44 .33 .35 Kenosha .87 .36 .89 Kewaunee .38 Laf avette .31 .46 .63 Manitowoc .29 .22 Marauette .27 .36 .31 .43 .36 .48 Monroe 39 .27 Outagamie .21 .38 .87 .89 .80 .81 .36 .35 -.36 .85 .88 .23 .45 .48 .32 .40 .81 .24 .42 .48 .49 .43 .39 .29 .45 .83 .84 . .21 .38 .40 .41 Polk .28 .38 .37 Racine .20 .80 .24 .36 .27 .25 .22 .36 .36 .33 .33 .46 Bock .26 .34 St. Croix .36 Sauk .41 .28 Shebovaran .80 .26 .25 .43 .24 .34 .87 .35 .37 .37 .37 .35 .?1 .83 Treznnealeau .46 Vernon .46 Walworth .28 .42 Waahinflrton .41 Waukesha .28 .35 .33 .51 state .10- .15 .84 .87 .87 .87 [507] 2l4 BULLETIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE XVIII. Per capita number of milch or dairy cows In the counties of the wheat area In Wisconsin having thirty or more cows per hundred of population. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] CountleB. 1849. 1859. 1869. 1879. 1889. 1899. O.Sl 0.58 0.03 .34 .33 .71 .47 .SI .30 .42 .59 .56 .68 .77 .43 .47 .67 .74 1.32 .48 .95 .60 .89 .42 .76 .65 0.62 .39 .38 Buffalo .35 .43 .85 Burnett .58 Calumet .30— .34 .44 .81 .39 .32 Clark .30- .48 .36 .49 .48 .56 Columbia .34 .33 .62 .62 Dane .30 .32 .31 .34 .35 .75 .98 Door .47 .30- .31 .35 .49 .33 .41 .35 .36 .45 .87 .39 .57 .35 .57 .33 .58 .36 .53 Fond du Lac .30 .72 .80 Green .81 1.49 Green Xtake .67 Iowa .30 1.23 Jackson .63 Jefferson .34 1.06 Juneau .52 Kenosha .45 .54 .64 Kewaunee .73 .32 Lafayette .33 .60 .36 .45 .66 .39 .92 .68 1.24 .59 .36 .42 .42 .49 .85 .56 .49 .69 .85 .38 .31 .51 .42 .80 .50 .52 .55 .30 .37 .72 .52 .50 .60 .34 .74 .93 .59 .92 .71 .58 .44 .75 .32 .48 .31 .36 .72 Pepin 52 Pierce 46 Polk 70 .35 Racine .33 33 Klchland .41 .46 .30- .41 .30 .66 .44 .39 .56 .46 .47 .34 .50 86 JEtock .31 .33 56 St. Croix Sauk .30 76 .66 .38 .38 .30- .89 .36 .87 .34 .31 .86 .81 .80- .79 36 Winnebaso Wood 33 1 State .21 .28 .29 .86 .47 .48 [508] THOMPSON — ^WHBAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 215 TABLE XIX. Per capita number of "other cattle?' In the countleB of the wheat area In Wis- consin havlngr thirty or more cattle per hundred of population. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Counties. Adams Barron Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet' Chippewa Clark Columbia Crawford Dane Dodge Door Dunn Fond dn Lac. Grant Green G-reen Lake .. Iowa Jackson Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee La Crosse Lafayette Manitowoc Marathon Marquette Monroe Oconto Outagamie — Ozaukee Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Racine Bichland Bock St. Croix Sauk Shawano Sheboygan Trempealeau . . Vernon Walworth Washington ... Waukesha Waupaca Waushara Winnebago — Wood State .m .87 .30- .35 .45 .25 1359. .31 '.sk' .81 .44 .36 .44 .55 .55 .45 .47 .30 .54 .33 iss' .37 .37 1869. 0.51 ira' .34 .40 .34 .34 .65 .54 .81 isi' .53 .30 .30- .31 1879. 0.83 .45 '.eh' .39 .48 .34 .43 .72 .53 .63 .56 '"49' .45 .84 l.Zl .53 1.09 .50 .52 .47 .67 .41 .37 .32 .72 .50 !42' .48 .45 .50 .40 .37 .70 .43 .65 .55 .62 .49 .42 .44 .68 .47 1889. 0.91 .46 .30 .90 .57 .58 .34 .55 .87 .88 .78 63 .47 .63 .60 1.37 1.19 .66 1.65 .74 .49 .57 .51 .61 .30 1.85 . 45 .36 .85 .72 .37 .42 .49 .51 .68 .71 .31 "91' .65 .57 .67 .68 .88 1.04 .93 .58 .61 .39 .31 .49 1899. 0.51 .61 .33 .57 .30 .49 .65 .60 .49 .46 .46 .37 .37 1.01 .92 .51 1.38 .47 .36 .35 .30 .5? .35 .71 .38 .36 .31 .31 .65 .41 .41 .47 .57 .49 [509] 216 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TABLE XX. Per capita number of sheep in the counties of the wheat area in Wisconsin having forty or more sheep per hundred of population. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Conntles. 1849. 1859. 1889. 1879. 1889. 1899. Adams 1.2 0.7 0.8 .5 .7 .6 6 Barron Q Buffalo .5 .6 I X Burnett Calumet .8 .5 .5 2.6 .6 1.5 1.6 .5 1.9 Clark .4 1.9 .7 .6 1.0 .7 1.5 • 8 .5 1.7 .6 1.8 1.3 .4 1.4 .7 1.7 2.4 .6 .4 1.4 .7 ■ 3.7 1.5 .S .5 .7 .6 .4 .6 Dodge Dunn Fond du Lac .7 1.2 .7 .8 1.9 .8 .6 Grant .8 .5 .8 2.3 3.4 .8 .8 2.7 .5 Iowa Jackson Jefferson .7 1.5 .6 4.S .6 .5 3.1 .4 Juneau .5 1.0 .4 Kenosha 1.3 1.5 Kewaunee La Crosse .5 .8 .5 Lafayette 1.0 .4 .6 1.2 Manitowoc Marathon .4 1.4 .8 Marquette .7 2.6 .7 .6 .6 .6 1.9 .7 .7 .6 1.5 .9 Monroe Outagamie Pepin .6 1.0 .8 .7 1.3 .4 Pierce Polk Portage .8 1.4 1.3 1.6 .7 1.6 1.8 1.5 Racine .7 .6 .7 1.9 .6 .6 .8 .5 Richland 2.5 Rock .6 .7 St. Croix .6 .9 .5 Sauk .8 1.0 .4 Shawano Sheboygan 1.0 .9 1.1 3.7 .7 2.5 .7 1.0 1.0 Trempealeau .7 1.1 4.5 .7 3.8 .9 1.5 1.0 .7 1.5 2.8 .7 1.7 .6 i.e .5 1.0 1.5 Vernon Walworth 1.3 1.5 Washington Waukesha .6 1.3 1.1 .4 .9 Waupaca Waushara Winnebago .5 State .4 .4 1.0 1.0 .6 .5 [510] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN 217 TABLE XXI. Per capita number of swine in the counties of tlie wheat area of Wisconsin having fifty or more swine per hundred of population. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899] Counties. 1849. 1S59. 1889. 1879. 1889. 1899. Adams 1.0 .7 .5 0.9 1.5 .S 1 Buffalo 1.1 .e .8 .6 2.8 .9 .7 1.5? Chippewa Clark .6 (.40 Columbia .6 1.5 1.6 1.8 .8 .8 1.2 i;6 1.0 .8 2.S Crawford .7 .6 1.8 Dane .8 .7 (.4) (.4) .5 2 8 Dodge 1.8 1.3 Bau Claire .6 Fond du Lac .5 .9 .9 .e" .5 a.6 2.5 1.2 2.4 .6 1.0 .8 .9 .8 8.7 2.1 l.S 2.8 .7 1.1 .8 .7 .5 1.1 Grant .8 .9 (.4) .8 1.8 1.5 4 1 Green 4.4 Green Lalie ...- 1.8 1.1 3.0 Jackson 1.1 Jefferson 1 6 Juneau 1.0 .5 .5 .5 .5 .9 .6 Lafayette .5 .5 .9 1.8 .5 2.9 1.1 .9 3.5 1.0 1.0 .5 .5 1.0 .8 5 1 Marquette 1.5 Monroe .5 .6 .5 .6 .6 14 Outagamie .8 Ozaukee .5 1 .5 6 Pepin .6 1 8 Pierce 9 Polk .5 Portage .5 .5 1.9 1.8 .5 .6 1.3 1.7 .8 1.8 .5 5 Racine 5 Richland .7 .8 .6 Rock .7 1 8 St. Croix 5 .5 .6 1.3 Shawano 9 .5 .6 .S .5 .5 .7 1.4 l.T .8 1.0 1.3 1 3 .8 .7 .5 .6 1.5 Walworth .7 .5 .5 if 1.0 .8 1.0 2 7 1.1 Waukesha .9 .7 Waushara .5 .9 1 2 .6 State .5 .4 .6 .9 .8 1 [511] 218 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. TABLE XXII. Production of tobacco in the Important tobacco-prodnelng counties of tlie wlieat area in Wisconsin. [Federal Census, 1849 to 1899; State Census, 1904.] Counties. 1869.1 Pounds. 1879. Pounds. 1889. Pounds. 1899." Pounds. 1904. « Pounds. Chippewa 6,520 2,960,540 1,509,830 21,233,200 7,810 166,300 as, 470 130,560 597,422 59,822 10,040,199 3,142,475 14,645 5,371,242 2,209,447 Dane 889,568 14,902,296 425,853 34,350 117, 9ri 48,990 277,703 294,350 238,400 284,434 14,055 263,501 679,134 847,860 16,900 38,850 25,340 165,700 5,680 167,140 13,049,700 305,324 293,575 158,650 Lafayette 13,800 18,385 6,750 Monroe ,..., 653,729 Pierce 18,365 26,150 Richland 9,126 645,508 11,814 4,643,870 423,322 Boclj 7,069,986 6,264,005 211,446 35,170 9,360 458,750 44,062 4,769,620 41,250 7,433,223 Walworth 46,136 9,000 State 960,813 10,608,423 19,389,166 45,600,480 37,651,498 iThe total production of tobacco in 1859 was 87,340 lbs., of which Rocl£ and Walworth counties produced 23,340 and 26,400 lbs., respectively. Only 1,268 lbs. of tobacco were produced in Wisconsin in 1849. 'Dodge, Racine, and Sauk counties produced 29,770, 21,590, and 12,700 pounds respectively. ' Barron, Buffalo, Dodge, Bau Claire, St. Croix, Shawano, and Waukesha counties produced 34,940, 39,130, 30,400, 21,140, 26,800, 10,000 and 15,000 pounds re- spectively. [512] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN. 219 TABDB XXIII. Cash Talne of fanaa, per acre of improved land, in connties of tbe wlieat area In Wisconsin at the Federal Census periods, 1849 to 1899. Counties. 1850. 1860. 1870.1 1880. 1890. 1900." Adams $25.59 $15.92 $21.31 20.18 40.94 32.60 22.79 49.90 26.58 57.43 33.11 89.12 42.53 52.93 29.98 27.98 30.57 48.04 34.06 32.72 46.29 39.25 26.53 41.08 27.24 34.18 34.95 36.41 35.70 $17.85 31.50 34.38 ZI.B9 27.14 53.50 30.96 32.30 31.79 23.33 34.10 50.40 36.20 26.93 26.97 48.11 28.27 34.53 32.06 29.58 23.18 45.98 25.85 33.55 39.35 35.90 30.99 51.00 52.18 53.87 46.34 31.64 19.88 121.75 31.19 35.81 48.52 66.82 31.21 37.92 41.28 81.22 43.78 31.09 46.76 34.68 33.24 36.87 59.74 25.50 27.69 44.71 $26.02 35.19 42.31 28.96 48.16 64.79 41.17 54.50 39.41 85.31 49.06 61.87 34.73 26.49 86.18 54.18 36.73 47.62 49.74 33.54 26.86 65.22 32.22 55.61 39.04 33.84 42.91 77.04 64.42 56.71 51.09 53.21 21.69 262.88 89.22 53.30 51.36 81.77 25.59 36.41 34.95 29.44 88.36 35.26 60.33 31.46 38.56 44.56 74.04 23.35 27.97 62.30 51.23 74.72 90.82 38.85 26.51 57.19 51.16 $26. W 43.47 Bftrron Brown 48.39 30.06 33.82 64 53 Buffalo 41 44 Burnett 37.81 Calumet 4«.U 15.83 34.98 ai.72' 49.25 30.52 33.93 33.76 36.45 39.76 28.64 34.50 30.19 30.58 26.61 37.67 34.83 30.89 26.67 28.32 32.14 42.70 59.64 28.83 80 56 Chippewa 36 72 Clark 69.34 Columbia 34.04 55 97 Crawford 37.18 Dane ai.85 25.10 70 41 Dodge 87 81 Door 44 94 Dunn 32 02 E3au Claire 33 56 28.58 20.67 22.08 78.88 Grant 52 41 Green 60 26 61.55 Iowa 20.68 50 38 Jackson 33 39 Jefferson 28.27 94 43 Jnneau 44 02 KpnoBha 38.97 77 28 Kif WRIlTlftP 46 99 TjSl Crosse 48 98 Lafayette 21.17 57 45 Liang'lade 56 61 Lincoln 59 20 Manltnwor 44.16 21.86 30.60 38.05 42.83 39.02 70 25 MnratlioTi 59 16 Marinette 48 39 27.89 51.82 22.60 94.61 39.41 22.68 45.92 37.10 43.40 38.15 36.36 29.63 31.33 43.38 42.56 34.99 34.02 53.34 35.29 31.91 33.15 31.84 21.61 91.05 37.93 39.00 47.23 49.83 29.96 34.90 45.67 24.01 38.71 35.26 42.02 28.21 36.49 35.73 44.66 26.59 30.83 42.8? Milwaukee 263 91 Monroe 43 66 Oconto 51 91 Outag'amie 71 03 Ozaukee 94 47 Pepin 33 39 Pierce 45 80 Polk • 43 53 13.78 28.13 41.36 21.82 17.03 36 10 St. Croix Sauk 45.05 83 58 35.72 Washburn 40 24 30.76 23.69 34.05 45.50 39.64 25.79 45.94 40.48 50.9!- 52.01 34.42 26.74 49.40 30.38 62.41 60.11 30.37 23.64 50.56 30.65 95 64 37.76 State $27.29 $35.00 $40.73 $38.36 $48.76 $61.01 1 Eednced one-flfth to allow for depreciation of currency. ' Inclnding the value of bnlldlngs. [513] 220 BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF "WISCONSIN. too \o ^^9 gg^^^ 300 \o "aaa I I AOO \0 A;9% 500 OCCV&. 6>OOM2. I yiOTJBB 1. — Specialization Density in the Pbodijotion of Wheat m Wisconsin in 1849. (Based on Table III.) [514] THOMPSON — WHEAT GROWING IN WISCONSIN. 221 \00 \o \?)« t:yz-=;::-J SLOO \0 2.80 fcy^^>;^ 300 \0 39* 1 I AOO \0 ■^S9 500 oxxa. oJooMt I FiQUBE 2. — ^Spbciauzahon Density in the Peodttction of Wheat nr Wisconsin in 1859. (Based on Table III.) [515] 222 BtJLLETIN OP THE UNTVBESITT OF 'WISOONSIN. \oo \o \«ft j--:-.---Aj 1.00 \0 i„Qo> R^^ 50O O.-0.&. ck:oo\«|UBB FiODBE 3. — Specialization Density in the Pbodugtion of Wheat nf ■Wisconsin in 1869. (Based on Table III.) [516] THOMPSON — WHEAT GEOWING IN WISCONSIN. 223 \O0 ^O \99 l-::^::-::| ZOO \o zsa R^^ ^00 Q.-. Amer. : wheat growing In, 174. Britt, Vice Pres. : cited, 117, 118. Brown Co., Wis. ; its territory cur- tailed, 51 ; rank as wheat producer, 92 ; potatoes in, 100 ; growth of pop. in, 101 ; land valuations in, 135. Buck, Solon J. : cited, 187. Buffalo Co., Wis. : location, 54 ; crops in, 54 ; exports wheat, 55 ; rank as wheat producer, 64, 74, 83, 92, 99 ; wheat yield in, 64, 92, 153 ; wheat growing persists in, 161 ; flouring industry in, 105 ; animal husbandry, etc., in, 65, 74, 84, 85, 86, 93, 94; e. co.'s com- parable to, 67 ; "other crops" In- crease in, 74 ; com in, 85 ; oats In, 92, 100 ; low cash land valuation in, 135. Burdick, Col. Z. P. : cited, 41, 141. Burnett Co., Wis. . wheat growing in, 74, 78, 95, 99 ; potatoes in, 95 ; milch cows in, 95. Butler Co., O. : wheat growing and dairying in, 178, 179. Butter : Dane Co. imports, 32 ; fac- tories, 93, 101 ; in Wis. inferior in early days, 167, 168 ; value of car- load, 168 ; price, 169 ; may be pro- duced in many places, 175. See also StatistlSs. California : Wis. farmers emigrate to, 26, 33. Calumet Co., Wis. : animal husbandry, etc., in, 67, 76 ; wheat growing in, 76, 83 92, 99 ; "other crops" gain in, 76 ; barley, declines in, 100 ; land valuations in, 135. Calves : riot counted in census prior to 1900, 98. Campbell, William W. : Life and writ- ings of DeWitt Clinton, cited, 126. Canada : reciprocity treaty with, abro- gated, 108, 109 ; wheat shipped to, 113 ; wheat growing in, 173. Canad. Mag., cited, 173. Capital : scarce among Wis. settlers and farmers, 18, 23-26, 30 ; id. on fron- tier, 123, 124, 164 ; wheat offers good returns for outlay of, 27 ; croppmg to wheat, requires no outlay for permanent improvements, 46 ; little required for wheat growing, 48, 123, 130, 141 ; lost by low prices In hops, 60 ; investment of, in dairying, 94, 101 ; Id. in milling industry, 103, 104, 105 ; tied up in land, 131 ; de- cline of interest rates on, affects land valuation, 131 ; farmers' deflected by railroad, 143 ; considerable, needed In tobacco culture, 167. Capitalists : interested in Wis. lands, 145. Carey, Mr. — : rept. of wheat grown by, 35. Carnegie Institution : Thanked, 9. Carpenter, S'. D. : inventor, 63. Carpenters: no. in Wis. (1849), 18. Carr, — :) Sketch of La Crosse, cited, 43. [524] INDEX 231 Cary, 111. : railroad at, 114. Cary, John W. -. Orgcmisiation and JiiBt. of C. U. and St. P. B. R., cited, 141, 142, 145, 187. Case, J. I. : manufactures farm ma- chinery, 18 ; amount of trade of the company, 63. Cattle : imported Into Dane Co., 32 ; land prices affect Increase in, 87, 88 ; price of Kansas steers, 181 ; competi- tion in raising, 166 ; fed on wheat straw, 178 ; "Other" — decrease in various Wis. co.'s, 65, 85, 86, 98; au apparent decline, 98 ; Increase in various Wis. co.'s, 66-69, 74-78, 80, 85 ; less important in no. e. co.'s 67 ; impossible to estimate, 100. Neat- decrease in various Wis. co.'s, 87. See also Cows, milch ; Dairying ; Livestock ; Statistics ; Stockraising ; and the several dairy products. Century: cited, 173. Chamberlain, Alice Emily : Hist, of Dodge Vo., cited, 29. Chamber's Journ.: cited, 173. Cheese : made in Dane Co., 30 ; imported Into Dane Co., 32 ; factories, increase in vVis., 93 ; development and produc- tion of, 97, 101, 135 ; specialization toward making of,' 101, 102 ; of Wis., Inferior in early days, 167, 168 ; over-production of, 169 ; filled, 169 ; may be produced in many places, 175 ; Wis. favorable for mfre. of, 183 ; value of car load, 168. See also Statistics. Cheese Industry: cited, 28, 175. Chicago, 111. : its pop. a disturbing factor, 13 ; transportation rates to and from, 16, 147 ; rate discrimina- tion in favor of, 114 ; loses by dis- crimination in rates, 119 ; as wheat center and market, 90, 116, 119, 120, 202, 203 ; competes with Milwaukee as grain center, 113-118 ; not Im- portant as milling center, 110 ; rises in importance, 112 ; its Board of Trade, 119, 120. Chicago Record Herald: cited, 173, 177. Chicago Times: cited, 142. Chinch bugs : injure wheat fields, 58, 60, 61, 72, 77, 84, 88, 89, 116, 160, 163, 164 ; affect wheat growing, 77, 88 ; flourish best on wheat, 84 ; cease depredations, 84. Chippewa Co., Wis. : Its territory cur- , tailed, 51 ; wheat growing in, 83, 153 ; flouring industry in, 105. Chippewa Falls, Wis. : wheat growing near, 16. Cities : effect of, on land valuation, 131, 135. Civil War : affects prices, 58, 147 ; difiBcult to determine Its effect on wheat growing, 61 ; Wis. contingent in, 61, 62 ; Induces use of farm ma- chinery, 62 ; many inventions during 62, 63 ; causes extravagance, 71 ; in- terrupts navigation of Mississippi E., 116 ; followed by depression, 132 ; affects railroad construction In Wis.. 148, 182 ; wheat growing de- clines after, 168 ; farm machinery in- troduced during, 181. Clark Co., Wis. : rank as wheat pro- ducer, 78. Clark, Sat. : statement cited, 145. Clinton, DeWitt: cited, 126. Columbia Co., Wis. : its wheat market, 17 ; wheat growing in, 22, 52, 65, 75, 83 ; other grains in, 52, 75 ; flour in- dustry in, 104 ! dairying In, 52 ; at- titude toward Id. In, 168 ; sheep-rais- ing in, 65, 75 ; tobacco culture in, »6, 96 ; hop culture in, 86 ; compared to Sauk Co., 55 ; land values decline in, 135. Columbiana Co., 0. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Columbus, Wis. : railroad reaches, 42. Oommeroial Directory: cited, 126. Commerce and trade : in wheat, 89-91, 103, 114, 115, 117, 144; of Wis. lake p6rts, 113, in flour, 114, 115 ; amt. in farm machinery, 63 ; total, of Milwaukee (1849), 115; in grain, chief trade in Milwaukee, 115 ; ex- ports, 16, 46, 55 ; imports, 32 ; its character in id. changes, 118 ; factors in growth of, 120. Common carrier. Bee Kallroads ; and Transportation. Competition : in wheat industry (grow- ing and selling), 71, 72, 90, 109, 110, 112, 118, 127 (Am. and Eng. wheat), 131, 134, 144, 173; reasons for, In wheat industry, 131 ; In various kinds of grain, 170 ; between wheat and other farm products, 173-175 ; in transportation and among railroads, [525] 232 INDEX 73, 110, 111, 117, 146, 151, 182; ef- fect of on r. r., 146 ; between r. r. and lake lines, 115-118, 147; be- tween various cities, 113-118 (see also Chicago ; and Milwaukee) ; cheap and fertile land a factor In, 122 (see also Land) ; heightened by r. r., 143 ; In cattle raising, 166. See also Com- merce. Connecticut: wheat area in (1790), 125. Corn, Indian. See Maize. Coulter, J. L. : Bist. of agHo., cited, 71. Cows : land fertilized by, 77. Milch and dairy — increase in number in various co.'s and regions in Wis., 51- 54, 65-67, 69, 74-78, 84, 85, 87, 93- 97, 100, 101, 149, 152; id. in Wis. as a whole, 69, 80, 85, 97, 213 ; gen- erally unimportant in interior co.'s, 68 ; decline in various co.'s in Wis., 93, 97 ; Increase tn various states, 88 ; breed improved, 94. See also Cattle; Dairying and Its several products ; and Statistics. Cox, Henry P., and Co. : Mfrs. farm machinery, 18. Coxe, Tenche : View oj U. S., cited, 125. Crawford Co., Wis. : cost of wheat pro- duction in, 35 ; crops raised In, 54 ; wheat growing in, 64, 92, 99 ; ani- mal husbandry, etc., in, 65, 74, 86, 93, 94 ; gains in "other crops" in, 74 ; tobacco culture in, 86, 94. Creameries ; remarkable Increase In, 93. See also Dairying. Credit : secured by land, 19 ; extended by cheap land, 24. Crookes, Sir William : Wheat prot., cited, 173. Crops : failure of, 20, 26 ; effect of ro- tation of, 21. See also the several agric. products. Cultivation. See Agrlc ; amd Wheat. Cuyahoga Co., 0. : dairying and wheat growtag in, 178, 179. Dairying : recommended for Wis., 21 ; Wis. adapted for, 24, 169, 174-176, 183 ; few regions fitted for In U. S'., 175 ; many regions said to be fitted for, ]75, 176; native settlers engage in, 27, 28; by Swiss and Scandi- navians, 29, 30; progress and devel- opment in Wis., and various regions thereof, 31, 54, 69, 75, 78, 80, 88, 93, 96, 98, 100, 101, 149, 152, 167, 168, 174-176, 183; rea- son for its late development, 167 ; barns lacking for, 49 ; no general movement in, 67 ; displaces wheat growing, 75, 77, 78, 83, 87, 88, 96, 97, 98, 163, 168-171, 177; affected by wheat prices, 90 ; vs. wheat grow- ing, 168-170, 183, 184 ; regions and conditions of, generally distinct from those of wheat growing, 178, 178, 184 ; accompanied by general stociv raising, 77, 78 ; relations to agric. prod, and yields of crops, 96, 160, 170; relation to land, 87, 170, 176, 183 ; benefits soil, 170, 183 ; not lo- calized, 86 ; difflculiy of estimating its importance, 93 ; factories not true index of, 101 ; specialization in, 166, 170, 178 ; over-production in, 168 ; labor distributed more evenly in, 170 ; requirements in, 170 ; favorable fac- tors in, 174 ; tariff rates west of Chicago asked for, 176 ; west : move- ment of, 177 ; social factors in, 188, 184. In Ohio, 178, 179; in N. Y., 179. Map, cited, 175. Dairy farms : more valuable than wheat farms, 170. Dairy Industry in Wis.: cited, 93. Dairymen : effect of organization among, 155, 156, 168, 169, 183; contrasted with wheat growers, 170. Dairy products : of Wis., Inferior in early days, 167, 169 ; price, 167. See also the several products. Dakota (Dakotas) : emigration to, 71, 131, 132 ; r. r. facilities extended to, 71 ; id. Increase in, 89, 90 ; wheat growing in, 89, loO, 131, 134, 163. Dand'eno, J. B. -. Soil fertiUty. cited, 21. Dane Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 15, 22, 46, 52, 64, 65, 75-77, 83, 161, 164 ; milling industry in, 17, IO4, 107 ; flax grown in, 31 ; other grains in, 52 ; tobacco culture in, 66, 75-77, 79, 86, 150, 152; dairying In, 30; animal husbandry, etc., to, 31, 65; its settlers and pop., 29, 30, 34, 44, 45, 65 ; per capita yield In, reduced by Madison's growth, 65 ; imports Into, 32 ; land valuations decline, 135 ; r. r. extended Into, 140 ; Sauk Co. compared to, 55. [526] INDEX 233 Dane Co. Agric. Soc. : meeting of, 13i». Dane Co. Farmers' Protective Union : created, 146. Danlells, Prof. W. W. : cited, 27. Darke Co., O. : wlieat growing and dairying in, 178, 179. Deiow's Rev.: cited, 15. Debts : incurred by farmers, 25, 26, 30, 48. Delaware : wlieat growing in, 125, 172. Demand and Supply : working of law of, 18, 47, 48; in wlieat, 108, 109, 129, 130; in flour, 110; in dairy- ing, 168, 169. See aUo Wheat and Wheat growing. De Neveu, Gustavus : Considerations of Amer. crops, cited, 23, 122. Detroit, Mich. . competes with Mil- waukee, lie. Dodge Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 15, 22, 52, 65, 75, 83, 95, 99 ; milling in- dustry in, 104 ; rotation of crops in, 31, 32 ; other grains in, 95 ; animal husbandry, etc., in, 65, 95 ; improved land increases in, 52 ; land valuations decline, 135 ; compared to Sauk Co., 55. Dogs : sheep destroyed by, 48. Door Co., Wis. ; wheat growing in, 92, 99 ; potatoes in, 100 ; pop. in, 101 ; land valuations, 135. Douglas Co., Wis. : milling industry in, 108. Downes, Robert Hugh : Soc. ami econ. development of Kenosha Co., cited, 27. Drouth : its effects on Wis. crops, 58, 72, 73, 160. Duluth, Minn. . competes with Milwau- kee in milling Indus., 110 ; as wheat center, 117, 119 ; benefits by discrimi- nation in rates, 119. Dunn Co., Wis. : wheat growing In, 78, 95, 99, 153 ; com in, 85 ; potatoes in, 95. Eagle Center^. Wis. : r. r. reaches, 42, 113. Eau Claire, Wis. ; influence of its pop. on agric. showing of. its co., 95. Eau Claire Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 55, 78, 95, 99, 153, 164; milling indus. In, 105 ; potatoes In, 100 ; few milch cows In, 95 ; r. r. facilities ex- tended lo, 68 ; affected by growth of city po^., 95 ; speculation In, 144. Elevators, grain : operated by r. r., 119. Elizabeth Islands : wheat introduced into, 123. Ellis, Albert Gallatin : Eist. of Portage Co., cited, 48, 141. Ellsworth, Henry William : Talley of Upper Wabash, cited, 128. Emigration. See Population ; and Set- tlers. Emigration Commissioner : Kept., cited, 42. Emigration Travelling Agent : Rept., cited, 42. Emmons, Ebenezer : Hat. hist, of N. Y., cited, 126. English, as farmers, 28. Esterly, George : inventor, 32, 63. Europe : wheat export to, 89. Exchange : wheat, as medium of, 25. Wheat, at Milwaukee, 117. Exports. See Commierce and trade. Farm and Factory: cited, 105, 106. Farmers: No. in Wis. (1849), 18; source of their credit, 19. Attitude toward r. r., 19, 20, 35, 86, 71, 73, 112, 136, 139, 141, 142, 147-152, 182, 183 ; aid r. i. construction, 36, 42, 141-144 ; complain of high freight rates, 72, 146 (see also Transporta- tion) ; speculate in land and r. r. stock, 136, 137 ; their capital deflected by r. r., 143 ; do not gain control of r. r., 146 ; at mercy of r. r., 150 ; their losses by high freight rate, 151 , rendered more intelligent by r. r., 1 55 ; depend on r. r., 156. Use poor methods, 20, 21, 58 ; early, profit by poor farming, 27 ; foreigners, good, 28; English, 177; should diversify crops, 27, 48; they do this, 72, 80; change methods, 80, 81 ; reason for raising wheat, 30; sow exclusively to wheat (9. v.), 47, 58; lose benefit of large wheat crop, 57 ; wheat maintains credit with, 70; seek substitute for wheat, 74 ; grow id. at loss, 134 ; de- pend mainly on cash wheat sales, 149 ; prejudiced against wheat, 175 ; should raise wool, 31, 48 ; Increase their live- stock, 84 ; enter dairy industry, 148. Use wheat as money, a5 ; incur debt, 26 ; status, 26, 35, 36, 47, 48, 58, 59, 149, 160 ; their farms too large, 26 (»ee also land) ; increase land hold- [m] 234 INDEX Ings, 41 ; suffer from cheap land, 122 , attitude toward govt, land policy, 131, 136; emigration of, 26, 28, 131, 132, 139, 140 ; make effort to improve con- dition, 30, 31 ; suffer from high price of necessities, 58 ; invest in farm ma- chinery, 62, 166 ; injured by compe- tition, 71, 72 ; early wheat, speculate, 124 ; attitude of pioneer, 130 ; or- ganize, 142, 149, 150 («ee also Granger movement) ; themselves to blame for their condition, 150 ; need organization, 155 ; unable to compete with w. in cattle, 166 ; conservative, 168. Farmers' General Home League : Letter^ cited, 142. Farmers' Institute of Wis. : Bulletin, cited, 71, 129, 137, 165, 166, 169, 178- 180, 187. Farmers' Institutes : their work, 171. Farming. See Agrlc. ; Farmers ; Land ; and Wheat. Farms : etEeci of too large, 26 ; sold be- cause of wheat failures, 29, 30 ; should be improved, 32 ; settlers take up new, 43 ; many opened up In Wis., 43 ; revenues of, decrease, 71 ; largi in N. Y., 122 ; prices and values, 125, 127, 128, 131, 160, 170, 219; imple- ments used in Wis., crude, 129 ; mort- gages (g. i;.) on, 133, 142; tendency in change of farm pursuits, 161, 162 ; dairy and wheat compared, 170. See also Agrlc. ; Farmers ; Land ; and the several pursuits and products. Farwell, Gov. Leonard J. : Message, cited, 44. Fayette Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178. Ferry boats : used in wheat trade, 114 ; car, devised for Lake Michigan, 120, Fertilizers : not of great use on virgin soil, 27 ; farmers use, 32 ; cost in Mass., 126. See also Manure. Fish, Herbert Clay : Movement of N. Y. and If. E. elements oj pop. of Wis., cited, 29. Fisheries : of Wis., how supplied with wheat, 16. Fife, Emerson D. : Agrio. development of West, cited, 63, 147. Flax : grown in Dane Co., 31 ; repts. of not encouraging, 49 ; Important crop in various co.'8, 69. Flour : export of Wis., 16, 114 ; shipped to Milwaukee, 115 ; Id. from West of Mississippi Eiv., 144 ; made from spring wheat, 23 ; new process in mfre. of, 105 ; output in Milwaukee, 108 ; over-production in id., 109 ; winter wheat, superior to spring wheat, 109 ; prices, 46 ; value com- pared to that of wheat, 108 ; Canadian excluded from markets of TJ. S., 108, 109 ; freight rates on, higher than on wheat, 108 ; production (1881) ab- sorbs most of wheat crop, 110 ; cost of handling, lessened. 111 ; takes place of wheat at Milwaukee, 118. See also Milling Industry and Mills. Fond du Lac, Wis. : Its effect on its CO., 96. Fond du Lac Co., Wis. : Wheat grow- ing in, 22, 23, 40, 52, 53, 96, 124, 129 ; other crops in, 53 ; its agrlc. importance decreased by growth of cities, 96 ; as mlUtng center, 104 ; mUch cows in, 76 ; growth of pop. in, 45 ; its status, 67 ; comparable with other co.'s, 52, 67. Forage crops : lack oj., 49 ; increase in, 79. Foreigners : cultivate grains, 27, 28. See also Settlers ; and the several nationalities. Forests : relation to wheat growing, 53, 55, 76, 154. See also Lumbering. Forum: cited, 173. Fox River, Wis. : improvements on, 17 ; value of land near, 34 ; valley of, set- tled, 44 ; milling industry near, 107. Fox and Wis. Improvement Co. :' Rept. of director, cited, 44, 48. Freight rates. See Transportation. French : as farmers, 28. Frontier : attitude toward land on, 122 ; wheat growing on, and its conditions, 123-125, 127, 164, 187; labor and capital scarce on, 124 ; transportation an important factor of, 124 ; r. r. de- sired on, 136 ; characterized by ecoa. instability, 138 ; few wants on, 164, 165. See also Pioneers; and Settlers. Geauga Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Genessee Co., N. T. : price of unim- proved land in (1804), 125. Geneva, N. T. : wheat yield on land near, 125 ; estate near, 126. Georgia: wheat area in (1790), 125. [528] INBEX 235 Germans : aa farmers, 28 ; settle in Wis., 29, 43. Gold : premium on, 59. Governor's Message and accompanying doc: cited, 43, 114. Graham, James Blaln : Econ. and soo. study of pop. of 8t. Oroix Co., cited, 29. Grains : injured in harvest, 26 ; abundant crops bring prosperity, 40 ; prices de- cline, 59 ; specialization in, 64 ; tend- ency to diversification In, 183 ; re- lation to livestock Industry, 66, 124, 177 ; subsidiary to dairying, 170 ; Wis. a center for, 101 ; area West of Mis- sissippi, 113 ; area moves west, 129, 130 ; rates on, 111, 147 ; winter move- ment of, stimulated, 117 ; trade of Chicago greatly diverted, 120; effect of pop. on growing of, 151 ; chinch bugs Injure, 165. See also the sev- eral varieties. Grand Haven, Mich. : has lake connection with Milwaukee, 114 ; extra loading required at, 116. Granger Movement (the Grange) : rise and object, 150 ; in Wis., 150, 151, 182, 183; Its work, 171. Grant Co., Wis. : wheat growing In, 40, 54, 66, 77, 124; flouring industry In, 104 ; tobacco culture in, 86 ; "othei cattle" in, 86 ; land valuations decline, 135. Grass : tame varieties cultivated, 31 , seed imported into Dane Co., 32 ; re- lation to dairying, 174. Great Britain : wheat prices decline In, 90. Great Miami River : wheat growing near, 126. Green Bay, Wis. : wheat region about, 15, 16, 74, 91 ; soil characteristics near, 39 ; water improvements du- sired at, 148. Green Co., O. : wheat growing and dairy- ing in, 178. Green Co., W19. . wheat growing fa, 54, 66, 77 ; soil exhausted by wheat, 77 ; milling Indus, in, 104, 105 ; tobacco culture in, 86 ; livestock' Industry to, 54, 67, 77 ; suitable for dairying, 64 ; land values rise fa, 135 ; chfach bugs fa, 164. Green Lake Co., Wis. : set off from Mar- quette Co., 51 ; wheat growing to. 51, 52, 64, 65, 75, 83, 96, 99, 128; decltae in flouring tadustry, 105 ; rye growfag fa, 75 ; diversified agric. fa, 96 ; sheep raising fa, 65, 75 ; dalryfag in, 96 ; land valuations dectae, 135 ; compared to other co.'s, 52, 55. Gregory, Jolin : Land limitation move- ment, cited, 26 ; Indus, resources of Wis., cited, 28, 46, 122, 140, 187. Grosvenor, W. M. : cited, 147, 148, 151. Hagerty, Frank H. : Statia. and poUi. abstract, cited, 137. Hamilton Co., O. . dalryfag and wheat growing fa, 178, 179. Hancock Co., O. : dalryfag and wheat growing fa, 178, 179. Harper's Weekly: cited, 172. Harrigan, Frank Elwood : Econ. and soo. factors in development of Dane Co., cited, 29. Hay: in Wis., 50, 55, 56, 79, 99, 100, 211 ; subsidiary to dalryfag, 174. See also Statistics. Hazard, — : U.S. com. and statis. reg., cited, 128. Hibbard, B. H. : Hist, of Agric. in, Dane Co., cited, 19, 20, 28, 29, 34, 36, 39, 44, 45, 58, 60, 62, 66, 71, 75, 86, 140, 146, 148, 149, 151, 166-169, 187. Hist. Atlas of Wis.: cited, 71. Hist, of Chippewa Co.: cited, 144. Hist, of OolumWa Co.: cited, 43, 44. Hist, of Crawford Co.: cited, 129, 131. Hist, of Dodge Co:: cited, 142. Hist, of Fond du Lao Co.: cited, 73, 141, 164. Hist, of Oram,t Co.: cited, 141. Hist, of Oreen Co.: cited, 141, 146, 148. Hist, of Kenosha and Racine Co.'s: cited, 18. Hist, of La Crosse Co.: cited, 144. Hist, of Washington and Ozaukee Ca.'a.: cited, 141. Hist, of Waukesha Co.: cited, 141. Hoard, W. D. : cited, 71, 167. Holford, — : Hist, of Orant Co., cited, 141. Hopkins, Cyril G. : Phos. and humus, cited, 21. Hops : succeed in Wis., 24 ; culture ana yield, 31, 60, 68; failure of crop, 54, 150 ; expense of production, high, 60 ; prices, 60. [529] 236 INDEX Horicon, Wis. . r. x. reaches, 42 ; farm machinery made at, 63. Horses : imported into Dane Co., 32 ; raised In Wis. (various regions named), 64-67, 69, 74-78, 80, 84, 86, 95, 98, 100, 149 213 ; increase in Iowa Co., not entirely incidental to grain growing, 66. See also Statistics. Hudson, Wis. : wneat region near, 16 ; land office opened at, 44. Hunt's Mer. Mag.: cited, 127. Illinois : wheat conditions in, similar to those in Wis., 13 ; wlieat growing in, 1.3. 21, 22 ; Wis. wheat brings better price tlian that of, 47 ; competition for wheat of, 113 ; wheat shipped from, 114, 115 ; wheat of, deteriorates, 114 ; per cent, of its pop. engaged in agric, 14 ; farm machinery used in, 32, 33 ; competition in between live- stock industry and cash grain crops, 177. 111. Ltate Entomologist : Bept., cited, 58. Immigration and immigrants. See Population. Imports. See Commerce and trade. India : wheat exports from, 90. Indiana: status (1838), 128; wheat growing in, 172. Indians : reservations for, 16. Influence of r. r. on wheat producinff: cited, 153. Insects : injure crops, 20, 72, 73, 163, 164, 184; See also Chinch bugs. Interest': met by payment in wheat, 25 ; rates, high, 26 ; rates on mortgages, 41. See also Money. Investments : estimated of farmers In machinery, 62. See also Capital ; and Speculation. Iowa, state : farm machinery used in, 33 ; Milwaukee competes for wheat of, 114 ; its wheat shipped, 115, 157 ; wheat growing in, 148, 172. Iowa Co., Wis. : wheat growing In, 22, 54, 66, 77, 161 ; milling Industry In, 104, 106 ; flax in, 69 ; livestock in- dustry in, 66, 77, 86 ; land valuations decline in, 135. Irish : as farmers, 28 ; settle in Wis., 43. Jackson Co., Wis. . wheat growing In, 68, 94, 95, 99; oats in, 100; potatoes in, 100 ; livestock industry in, 86, 95 ; r. r. extended into, 68 ; land valuation in, 135. Janesville, Wis. : cost of transportation from, to Milwaukee, 16 ; milling cen- ter, 17, 103 ; wheat shipped through, 114; r. r. extended to, 42, 141; growth of pop., 45 ; farm machinery made at, 63. Jayne, Gov. — : Message, cited, 130. Jefferson Banner: cited, 71, 133. Jefferson Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 2:3, 53, 66, 75, 83, 133; milling in- dustry in, .104, 105, 107 ; hop grow- ing in, 60 ; tobacco culture in, 66, 75, 86 ; milch cows in, 75 ; cheese In- dustry in, 135 ; growth of pop. In, 53 ; improved lands increase in, 53 ; land values increase in, 135 ; farm values in, 170 ; drought in, 53 ; de- pression in, 133. Journ. of Pol. Boon.: cited, 89, 173. Journ. of Boy. Statis. Soc: cited, 89, 90, 173. Juneau Co., Wis. . potatoes in, 78, 96 ; hop growing in, 86. Kaerger, Karl : Landwirtschaft, cited, 173. Kansas : livestock industry in, 87, 88 ; wheat growing in, 89. Kenosha, Wis. : wheat market, 17. See also Southport. Kenosha Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 23, 50, 51, 66, 1 7, 161 ; flax, an im- portant crop in, 69 ; livestock in- dustry In, 31, 66, 67, 161 ; dairying in, 31, 51. Kentucky : wheat growing in, 172. Kessinger, L. : Bist. of Buffalo Co., cited, 63, 144, 165. Kewaunee Co., Wis. : wheat growing In, 52, 53, 67, 83, 92, 99, 104; rye In, 85 ; milch cows in, 76 ; growth of pop. in, 67 ; land valuations in, 135. King, Franklin Hiram : Physics of Agrio., cited, 21. Labor : scarce, 18, 23, 33, 62, 70, 124, 164, 165 ; wheat offers good returns for, 27 ; limited, necessary for wheat growing, 123-130 ; machinery saves, 33, 63 ; agrlc. less dependent on, 83 ; land sold for, 44 ; fall in price of, pre- dicted, 45 ; dear, in Wis., 56, 148 ; [530] INDEX 237 cost of, increases, 132 ; c. r. monopo- lize supply of, 143 ; much, needed In tobacco culture, 167 ; distributed more evenly by dairying, 170. La Crosse, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 42, 55, 113 ; land office opened at, 43 ; Im- portant milling center, 106 ; compe- tition at, 118 ; wheat exports, 157 ; lumbering industry in, 106 ; Board of Traue, Rept., cited, 106, 144. La Crosse Co., Wis. : crops in, 54 ; wbeat growing in, 64 ; milling in' dustry in, 105, 107, 108 ; favorably located for wheat markets, 106 ; hops produced in, 86. La Crosse Daily Democrat: cited, 106. La Crosse Valley : change of industry needed in, 132, 133. Lafayette Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 54, 66, 77 ; milling industry in, 104 ; tobacco culture, in, 86 ; livestock in- dustry in, 67, 77, 86 ; land valua- tions in, 135. Land: improved, 15, (defined), 33, 34, 44, 45, 50-52, 53, (term misleading), 55, 60, 69, 79, 82, 87, 91, 93, 99, 101, 128, 152, 161, 162; unimproved (raw, wild), 33, 125, 128, 131; credit of farmers rests on, 19 ; various con- siderations regarding fertile, 23, 34, 52, 90, 123, 124, 127, 131, 159, (see also telou; values and price) ; how re-fertilized, 77, 80, 165 (see also Fertilizers ; and Manure) ; wheat fertilized in Mass., 126 ; fertility de- pleted, 182 (see also Soil-exhaustion) ; various considerations regarding cheap, 23, 24, 26, 33-35, 87, 121, 123-125, 127, 130, 137, 151, 159, 168, 164, 165, 173, 174, 181 ; values and price, etc., 31, 41, 43-46, 87, 88, 90, 98, 121-125, 127, 1-^, 130-137, 139-141, 159, 162- 165, 170, 173, 176, 177, 181-183 (see also item immediately preceding) ; easily secured in Wis., 24 ; paid for in wheat, 25 ; limitation in, 26, 122 ; monopoly in, 26 ; skinning, in Wis., 27, 159 ; Scandinavians increase hold- ings in, 30 ; good, becomes scarce, 32 , speculation in, 33, 41, 45, 124, 125, 182, 136, 137, 139-141, 181; boom, in Wis., 140 ; agents and agency, 34, 43 ; officers, 41, 42 ; rush for. In Wlsi., 43 ; mortgaged, 36 (see also mort- gages) ; easily cleared In Wis., 40; easily cultivated In Wis. non-forested region, 40; amt. of sales (1850-60), 43, 44 ; school, swamp, and pine, 44 ; policy, of farmer, 48 ; relation of dairying to, and its effects on, 87, 170, 176, 183 ; id., live stock industry, 165 (waste, utilized by), 177; Id., wheat growing, 90, 121-138, 159, 160, 162-165, 170, 173, 174, 181, 182; cheap, necessary for grain cultivation, 151 ; of Wis., exhausted, 90 ; in U. S. id., 173 ; grants to r. r. opposed in Wis., 121, 144, 145, 181 ; homestead law, 121 ; hostility in w. to enforce- ment of laws, 122 ; attitude toward, on frontier, 122 ; relation of pop. to, 51, 128, 185 (influence of cities), 139, 181; Internal, of N. H., 126; capital tied up in, 131 ; relation to r. r., etc., 136, 144, 145, 155, 181 ; effect of In- ternal improvements on, 136 ; con- nection of Granger movement with, 150, 151 ; clayey, better after first crop, 160 ; relation to cost of produc- tion, 162. See also Agrlc. ; Farmers ; Farms ; Soli ; Statistics ; and Wheat and other products. Land policy, Govt, public : Its relation to pop. and wheat growing, and criticisms on Its practical results, 121-138, 150, 151, 181, 182. Livestock industry : Its relation to agric, 124, 160, 165, 177 ; relation of dairy- ing to, 177 ; production and increase, 149, 152, 161 ; effect of Its introduc- tion, 165 ; center of production moves west, 177 ; present, in Wis., 177. Bee also Cattle ; Cows ; Sheep ; and Stock- raising. Lorain Co., O. : dairying and wheat grow- ing in, 178, 179. Lumbering : how regions of, supplied with flour, 16 ; wheat exchanged for lumber, 17 ; wheat not much grown in regions of, 40 ; In various Wis. Co.'s, 64, 68 ; little land taken for, 43 ; agric. gains at expense of, 80. McGregor, Iowa : r. r. center, 143. McHenry Co., 111. : wheat shipped to Wis. from, 114. Machinery, farm : where manufactured, 18, 63 ; use increases, 32, 33, 70 ; complaints of, 32 ; Its influence In agric. (espec. wheat growing), 40, 46, [531] 238 INDEX 51, 52, 56, 63, 124, 165, 166, 181; Introduced during civil war, 61, 62 ; reason for Increased use, 62 ; prices, 62 ; diversified agrlc. requires more than wheat growing, 165 ; bought recklessly, 166. Various kinds named : binders, 63 ; Bain's machinery, 33 ; Case's machinery, 32, 33 ; corn cut- ters, 166 ; corn huskers, 166 ; com shredders, 166 ; cradles (farm Imple- ment), 32, 128; cultivators, 63, 166; Esterly's machinery, 32, 63 ; grain drills, 33 ; harvesters, 32, 33, 62 ; headers, 32, 33 ; Herdan's machinery, 32 ; horsepowers, 63 ; McCormlck's ma- chinery, 32 ; mowers, 62, 63 ; rakes, 32; reapers, 32, 33, 62, 63; planters, 166 ; potato diggers, 166 ; seeders, 63 ; straw stackers, 63 ; threshers, 33, 62, 63 ; truck wagons, 63. McLaren, N. P. : Address ly, cited, 116. Madison, Wis. ; r. r. constructed to, 42 ; growth in pop., 45 ; farm mach. made at, 63 ; Its effect on per capita yield of Dane Co., 65 ; wheat prices at, 146 ; grain elevator at, 146. Madison Argus: cited, 140. Madison Argus and Democrat: cited, 43. Madison Co., O. : dairying and wheat- growing to, 178, 179. Madison Democrat: cited, 71, 141. Maize (Indian Com) : Its cultivation in Wis., 27, 47, 52, 54, 55, 66, 69, 75, 79, 82, 85, 87, 89, 91-93; 95, 96, 99, 100, 149, 152, 210; displaces wheat, 69, 87, 96 ; supplementary to dairying, 75, 174 ; displaced by barley, 87 ; alternated with wheat, 129 ; Wis. largely outside district of, 166. llanitowoc Co. : wheat Imported Into, 17 ; pulse an Important crop in, 69 ; wheat growtog to, 83, 92, 135 ; rye gains In, 85 ; milch cows to, 76 ; land valua- tions to, 135. Manufactures : developed in Wis., 17 ; at Milwaukee, 18, 116-118 ; value to Wis., 18 ; fall to price, predicted, 45 ; lum- ber, at La Crosse, 106 ; backward In N. T., 122; desired to Wis., 148; Im- possible to stimulate in Wis., 151. See also Machinery, farm ; and Milltog todUBtry. Manure : not of great use on virgin soils, 27 ; barnyard, formerly not used in Wis., 129. See also Ferti- zers ; and Land. Marathon Co., Wis. : pulse an Important crop to, 69. > Markets : wheat, 16, 17, 48, 53, 72 (for- eign), 76, 77, 108-110, 112-120; home, 17-20, 35, 76, 77, 124, 127, 136, 144, 148, 151, 154, 181 ; of Mtan., con- trolled by La Crosse, 106 ; at Milwau- kee (g. v.), 108, 110, 113, 115, 116, 117, 131 ; at Ractoe, 115 ; at Chicago ((/. v.), 119; at Duluth, 119; foreign, 110 ; immigration destructive to, 18 ; failure of, 19, 20, 136, 181 ; Wis., to danger, 113 ; affected by poor roads, 26 ; diversified agrlc. most marked near, 31 ; break down of home, forces diversification of agrlc, 35 ; effect of r. r. on, 33, 112, 114, 115, 139, 140, 143, 156, 181 ; affect value of land, 46, 140 ; rates to, high, 72 ; surplus to, 89, 90, 144 ; relation to milltog ta- dustry, 103, 105 ; Canadian flour ex- cluded from U. S., 108, 109; for breadsttiffs, dear, 110 ; competition (g. V.) to, 110, 144 ; Implied by specialization to wheat, 124; needed for mfres., 151. See also Prices; Transportation ; amd Wheat. Marquette Co., Wis. : markets for, 16 ; wheat growing to, 51, 68, 78; rye to, 78, 85 ; potatoes to, 78, 96 ; livestock todus. in, 67, 68, 78; divided, 51; compared to Green Lake Co., 52. Martto, Edward Wtoslow : Bist. of Qranger Movement, cited, 134, 135, 145, 147-149, 166, 187. Maryland: wheat area to (1790), 125. Massachusetts : wheat totroduced Into, 123; yield per acre to (1860), 126. Mavor, James : Wheat »» Oanod. W. W., cited, 173. Menasha, Wis. : ptoe lands sold to, 44, Menasha Advocate: cited, 44. Merchandise : fall to prices, predicted, 45. See also Commerce and Trade ; and Prices. Meyer, Dr. B: H. .- Hist, of early B. R. Legist, in Wis., cited, 19, 36, 141, 146. Meyer, Dr. Rudolf : cited, 173. Miami Co., O. ; dalrymg and wheat growtog to, 178. Mlchelson, Albert G. : Soandinovton* in W. Dane Oo., cited, 30. Michigan : wheat yield dlmtolshea In, 21 ; Agrlc. College, 21. Michigan, Lake : offers access to wheat markets, 8t; transportation across. 111. [532] INDEX ^9 Midgley, — : cited, 140. Milk : production, in Wis., 94, 101 ; may be produced in many places, 175. Milling industry (generally wheat flour) . in Wis., 103-111 ; how localization de- termined, 103 ; important centers, 104, 106, 108-111, 118, 119; in St. Louis, 109 ; relation to wheat growing, 104, 105, 107-109; affected by pop., 104; increases faster than pop., 105 ; brings prosperity, 105 ; patKit process causes expansion in, 107 ; new process introduced into Milwaukee, 109 ; re- sults of milling-In-transit system. 109 ; financial depression affects, 110. See also Flour ; and Wheat. MiUlng-in-transit : defined, 105 ; results of, 109. Mills : fiour — Wis. wheat taken to local, 16 ; in Dane Co., 17 ; importance of, in east, and n. east Wis., 77 ; no. in Wis., 103, 108 ; no. in Milwaukee, 108 ; increase of, 105 ; steam used, for power in, 108 ; output decreased by fire, 108. Grist— in Wis., 108, 108. Wind — used in flouring industry, 103. See also Flour ; and Wheat. Milton Junction, Wis. : i. i. extended to, 42. Milwaukee, Wis. : wheat market in, 16, 17, 48, 53, 59, 112-120, 144; price of wheat in, 57, 201, 202 ; source for its wheat siipply, 1(T4 ; its location as to wheat area, 111 ; first wheat ship- ments from, 113 ; superior grade wheat marketed in, 114 ; wheat from other states shipped to, 114, 115 ; loses preeminence as wheat market, 115, 117 ; benefits from extension ot wheat area, 115 ; well located for grain trade, 117 ; wheat receipts (1873), 117; they increase (1878), 117 ; passes climax In wheat trade, 118 ; competes in wheat trade with Cfhicago, 113-118 ; its prosperity not dependent on wheat, 118 ; exports less wheat, 119j flouring industry in, 103, 105, 107-111, 118 ; flour shipped to, 114 ; freight rates to, 16 ; value of its mfrs. 18 ; center for mtrs., 118 ; value of land near, 34 ; r. r. center, 42 ; growth of pop. in, 45 ; its effect on its CO., 54 ; declines in importance, 112, 116, 117 ; reasons tor its econ. decline, 112, 113, 119; its chamber of com. organized, 115 ; gains by outbreak of Civil War, 116 ; competes with De- troit, 116 ; id. with Minneapolis, 118 ; enjoys all-rail rates, 116; discrimina- tion of rates against, 119 ; reasons for its econ. importance, 120. Milwaukee Board of Trade : Bept$., citea, 47, 103, 108, 114, 146, 196. Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce : its sec'y cited, 42 ; Bepts., cited, 47, 48, 57, 59, 69, 72, 105, 108-111, 113-120, 131, 146, 148, 150, 151, 187, 200. Milwaukee Co., Wis. : farming In, 32 ; wheat growing in, 53, 54 ; milling in- dustry ta, 104, 105, 107, 109 ; hops in, 86 ; improved farms in, offered for sale, 34. Mihvaulcee Courier: cited, 21. MUwaukee Sentinel: cited, 16, 140. Milwaukee Sentinel and Gazette: cited, 17. Mineral Point Democrat: cited, 21, 122. Miners: no. In Wis. (1849), 18. Mines : in Wis., 16. Minneapolis, Minn. : milling industry In, 106, 107, 110, 117, 118; milllng-In- transit system beneflts, 109 ; compe- tition with Milwaukee, 110, 118 ; shortage of wheat in, 110; benefits by rate discrimination, 119 ; Northwest- ern Miller moves to, 107. Minnesota : immigration into, 71, 131, 132 ; 1-. 1. facilities extended to, 71 ; wheat growing in, 89, 90, 106, 116, 130, 134, 148, 163, 174; studies ot wheat growing in, cited, 163 ; its wheat markets controlled by La Crosse, 106 ; Milwaukee competes for wheat of, 114 ; exports wheat, 115, 116, 157 ; id. flour, 115 ; land values In, rise, 124 ; Rept. of ass't sec'y of state of, cited, 137. Minnesota Junction : r. r. extended to, 42. Mississippi River : character ot soil along, 39 ; r. r. eftended to, 42 ; Wis. co.'s along, 54 : wheat area west of, increases, 89, 130 ; id., along, 91 ; a factor in securing cheap rates, 108 ; grain region west of, 113 ; Civil War interrupts navigation on, 116. Mississippi Valley : wheat introduced into, 123. Mitchell, Martin : Bist. of Fond du Lao Co., cited, 45. Money : wheat used as, 25 ; farmers bor- row, 26, 30; plentiful In Wis., 41; [533] 240 INDEX premium on gold, 59. See also Banks ; and Interest. Monopolies : dreaded in Wis., 19 ; land, 26 ; r. r. propose, 147 ; opposed by Granger Movement, 149. Monroe, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 42, 141 ; early mfres. in, 104. Monroe Co., Wis. : wheat growing to, 68, 83, 94, 95, 99 ; tobacco culture in, 95 ; potatoes in, 100 ; livestock industry In, 95, 100 ; r. r. extended into, 68 ; low cash land valuation fa, 135. Monroe Sentinel: cited, 77, 142. Morse, Jededlab : Amer. Oeog., cited, 122. Mortgages : on land, to aid r. c, 36, 141, 142, 182 ; cancelled, 41 ; period of beavy, past, 81 ; on farms In Jef- ferson Co., 133 ; estimate of, in Fond du Lac Co., 1841 ; foreclosed, 142. Mules : increase in Wis., 100. Munaey's: cited, 137. Muskingum Elver : Wheat yield neai, 126. nation: cited, 173. nature: cited, 173. Nebraska : "other cattle" tocrease It, 88. Neill, E. D. : Hist, of Freeborn Co., Minn., cited, 103, 137. New England : wheat growtog in, 28, 29, 126 ; market for Milwaukee flour, 108 ; more advanced in agrlc. than N. Y., 122. New Hampshire : its internal lands, 126 ; wheat growing in, 126. New Jersey : more advanced m agric. than N. T., 122 ; wheat area in (1790) , 125. New Lisbon, Wis. : r. i. extended to, 42. yew northwest. The: cited, 71. New Orleans, La. : wheat market de- sired at, 17 ; wheat first shipped from Wabash Eiv. to, 123. New York, state : rates to, 16 ; wheat growing in, 28, 29, 125-127, 184; market for Milwaukee flour, 108 ; agric. backward in, 122, 123 ; dairy- ing in, 176, 179, 184 ; farm machinery made to, 62 ; land cheap to, 122. New York CKy : desirable wheat mar- ket, 17 ; Immigrants land at, 43 ; price of wheat to, 205, 206. yew York Prod. Exchange: cited, 205. new York Public: cited, 129. yineteenth Century: cited, 137, 173. north American Review: cited, 150, 173, 189. North Carolma: wheat area to (1790), 125. North Dakota : growth of livestock in- dustry to, 174. See also Dakota. Northern Wis. Agric. and Mechanics Ass'n. . Trans., cited, 72. Northwest, the : mania for wheat grow tog to, 26 ; farm machmery used in, 32, 33 ; milltog todustry to, 107 ; its prosperity not dependent on wheat, 118 ; cheap lands of, compete with other districts, 131 ; depression to, 132 ; surplus of grato to, 151. yortliicestem Miller: moves to Minne- apolis, 107; cited, 25, 71, 106, lOi, 129, 130, 137, 155, 173. Norwegians : settle m Wis., 42, 43. Oats : succeed m Wis., 24 ; foreign set- tlers cultivate, 27 ; progress of culture to Wis., 52, 54, 64, 66, 68, 69, 75, 77, 79, 82, 84, 89, 91-93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 149, 152, 208; yield compared to that of wheat, 55 ; displace other grams, 66, 69, 78, 86, 87; supple- mentary to dairytog, 75, 174 ; find no market to Grant Co., 124 ; alter- nate with wheat, 129 ; sown with wheat, 164. O'Callaghan, Edmund Bailey : Doe. hist, of n. Y., cited, 125. Oconto Co., Wis. : wneat growtog in, 99. Ohio : wheat growtog in, 14, 21, 126, 172, 178, 179, 184; settlers from, try to totroduce tobacco culture, 29 ; farm machmery made to, 62 ; dairytog to, 167, 179, 184. Ohio Cultivator: cited, 33. Oshkosh, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 114. Outagamie Co., Wis. : gato to "other crops" to, 76 ; wh. grow, to, 83, 96 ; milltog todus. decltoes in, 104 ; status (1890-1900), 96. Outlook: cited, 178. Ozaukee Co., Wis. : livestock todustry, to, 67, 76 ; potatoes to, 85 ; wheat growtog to, 125; status (1890-1900), 96 ; land valuations rise to, 135 ; r. r. aided to, 141. Panics : Wh. prices to, 47 ; Milwaukee recovers from, 115 ; of 1857, 115, 146 ; of 1873, 151. [534] INDEX 241 Parkman Cliib Papers: cited, 26. Pasturage : increase in Wis., 33, 56, 80, 81. Patrons of Husbandry : their principles adopted, 81. Pennsylvania ; aliead of N. Y. in agric, 122 ; wheat growing In, 125. Pepin Co., Wis. : crops in, 54 ; wh. grow- ing in, 55, 64, 74, 83, 92, 99 ; other grains in, 85, 92, 100 ; livestock in- dustry in, 65, 74, 93 ; low cash land valuation in, 135. Periam, Jonathan : Chroundswell, cited, 140, 147, 149, 155, 187. Pickaway Co., O. . wheat growing and dairying in, 178, 179. Pierce Co., Wis. ; location, 54 ; crops In, 54 ; wheat growing In, 64, 74, 83, 92, 99, 101 ; other grains in, 85, 100 ; potatoes in, 85 ; tobacco culture in, 86 ; live stock industry in, 74, 93 ; milk produced in, 101 ; improved land increases in, 93 ; low cash land valua- tion, 135 ; reason for few dairy fac- tories in, 101. "Pinery" [i. v., lumber region]. Wis.: wheat market in, 17. Pioneer Press: cited, 130. Pioneers : attitude toward farming, 130. See also Farmers. Plank Roads: cited, 19. Polk Co., Wis. : location, 54 ; crops In, 54 ; wheat growing in, 55, 74, 83, 92, 94, 99, 101, 153 ; other grains in, 85, 100 ; livestock Indus, in, 64, 93, 94 ; reason for few dairy factories in, 101 ; milk produced in, 101 ; low cash land valuation in, 135. Population : In various cities, 13, 45, 101 ; in various co.'s, 27, 28, 45, 53, 67, 84, 101 ; export of produce based on, 13, 14 ; Immigrants and Immigra- tion, 16, 17, 19, 28, 29, 41-43, 139, 140 ; leave Wis., 33 ; of males, 18 ; a sparseness, a cause for poor farm- ing, 23 ; id., a feature in wheat grow- ing in U. S., 121 ; how distributed In Wis., 29, 30; growth (generally in Wis.), 33, 40-45, 56, 103, 152; move- ment of, in Wis., 43 ; wheat growing increases, 45 ; improved land In creases faster than, 51 ; rural, 84 ; of Wis., becoming urban, 93 ; maize fails to Increase with, 87 ; effect on stockraising, 93 ; Influence on, and re- lation to, milling industry, 103-105 ; relation to land values, 123, 131 ; Id. to agric, 123, 151 ; influence on, and relation to, wheat growing, j.30, 173, 174. Popalar Sci. Mo.: cited, 21, 173. Pork : imported into Dane Co., 32 ; pro- duced at Monroe, 104 ; little corn-fed in Wis., 166. Portage, Wis. . i. r. extended to, 42, 142 ; waterways convention at, 148. Portage Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Portage Co., Wis. : potatoes in, 78, 85, 96 ; hops in, 86 ; maize in, 85 ; milling industry in, 106. Port Washington, Wis. : wheat market in, 16. Potatoes : failure in, 49 ; grown in various col's, 53, 54, 95 ; decline, b4, 77, 78, 92, 100 ; increase, 66, 68, 78, 79, 85, 9i, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99; reason for increase, 95 ; not important in some regions, 68 ; yield compared to that of wheat, 55 ; displace other crops (principally wheat), 69, 87, 0li, 96 ; tendency toward, 79 ; specializa- tion in, 79, 166 ; must compete with wheat, 174. See also Statistics. Powers, Le Grand : testimony, cited, 138, 169. Prairie du Chlen, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 42, 55, 113 ; flour and wheat shipped from, 114, 157 ; waterways convention at, 148. Prairie Farmer: cited, 15-17, 22, 23, 25, 32-34, 46, 126, 167, 187. Prairies : In Wis., 39. Preble Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178. Prices : decline in, predicted, 45 ; effect on wheat growing, 48, 57-59, 89, 124, 129, 149 ; break to wheat, 57 ; of necessities high, 58 ; during Civil War, 58, 147 ; durtog Franco-Prussian war, 72 ; eliect of high, 58, 59 ; move- ment toward lower, general, 59 ; ef- fect of land, on livestock industry, 87, 88 ; reason for decline In wheat, 89 ; Sffect method of agric, 90 ; to Gt. Brit., 90 ; In Chicago, 90 ; speculation causes high, 109, 110 ; effect of lower, on foreign market, 110; land affected by 1. r., 155. Of various things (figures given to some) transporta- tion (q. v.), 16; wheat, 17, 18, 20, 23, 36, 40, 46, 47, 58, 59, 61, 71-73, [535] 242 INDEX 83, 84, 98, 128, 129, 131, 138, 145, 150, 179, 182, 201-204, 226; farm machinery, 32, 62; land, 38, 34, 41, 43-46, 87, 88, 90, 125, 127, 128, 131, 133, 176; flour, 46; grain, 59; hops, 60 ; crops, 99 ; fuel, 106 ; farms, 125 ; farm products, 147 ; dairy products, 167, 169. Production : land moat valuable factor in, 31 ; costs of, bring diversified agric, 31 ; id. lowered by machinery, 32 ; cost of wheat, 35 ; round-about, becomes most profitable, 164. Bee also Prices; and Transportation. Profits : in wheat growing, 35, 127, 128, 163 ; invested in land, 41 ; Important factor in agric, 124 ; fall in wheat growing, 128 ; r. r. take all, 148. Property : total valuation of, in Kenosha Co., declines, 27, 28 ; boom in real, 41. Quar. Joum. of Econ.: cited, 62, 63, 147, 163, 173, 174. Quarterly Rev.: cited, 17, 31. Racine, Wis. : wheat market in, 16, 17, 115 ; mfrs. in, 18 ; harbor improve- ments needed , at, 25 ; business con- ducted on wheat basis in, 25 ; farm machinery made in, 33 ; r. r. extended to, 42. Eacine Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 23, 51, 66, 161 ; milling Industry in, 104, 105 ; livestock industry in, 6ft, 67, 161. Railroads : conditions in Wis. wheat growng before advent of, 15-36 ; how obtained in Wis., 19 ; attitude ol farmers toward, 19, 20, 35, 36, 60, 71, 73, 112, 136, 139, 141, 142, 147- 152, 182, 183 ; aided by farmers, 141, 143, 144 ; id. Invest in stocks of, 142, 143 ; promise low rates to. Id., 14b, 146 ; id., do not gain control of, 146 ; id., oppose monopoly of, 149 ; Id., at mercy of, 150 ; effect on, and rela- tion to, wheat growing, 24, 40, 46, 107, 129, 137, 143, 145, 163, 1B4, 156-159, 181, 182 ; effect on general agric, 53, 156, 183 ; Minneapolis mil- lers gain concessions from, 110 ; In- fluence on markets, 33, 112, 114, 115, 145-149 ; amt. of wheat carried by, 114 ; operate elevators, 119 ; discon- tinue to report through wheat ship- ments, 119 ; affect cost of farming, 143 ; construction and development, 39-42, 68, 71, 106, 113, 114, 117, 131, 136, 137, 140 (effect), 141, 143, 145, 148, 153, 182; projected by MU- waukee business men, 112 ; failure of enterprises, 141, 142 ; completed by e. capitalists, 142 ; business stimulated by extension of, 40 ; effect on, and relation to, land, 44, 131, 136, 13'. 140, 144, 145, 156 ; importance of land grants in construction of, 121, 136, 145, 181 ; aided by mortgages on farms, 141, 142, 182 ; early In Wis., 56 ; competition among, 73, 117, 146, 161, 182 ; compete with lake lines, 116-118, 147 ; heighten com- petition, 143 ; discrimination in rates by, 107, 114 ; unable to prevent It, 111 ; unfair discrimination guarded against, 117 ; refuse to grant lower rates, 146 ; high charges of, destroy profits, 148 ; map of Wis., 114, 153, 228 ; have monopoly of storage facil- ities, 117 ; effect of introduction, 130, 136, 139 ; speculation In, 137 ; sub- sidized in Wis., 141 ; stocks become worthless, 142 ; effects not universally beneficial, 143 ; absorb labor supply, 143 ; effect on settlement, 143 ; rely on local business, 146 ; combine, 147, 149, 155 ; agitation for state control of, 147, 148 ; Id., favored by Granger Movement, 149 ; cost of operating, high, 148 ; recent agitation in Wis. against, 152 ; educative effect, 155 ; object of early in Wis., 156 ; better methods in, 158 ; where their pros- perity rests, 158 ; as a social factor, 183. Various lines and sub-lines named — Beloit and Mississippi, 113 ; Chicago and Galena Union. 42 ; Chi- cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 157, Chicago and Northwestern (formerly Chi., St. P. and Fond.), 114; Chicago and St. Paul, 157; Chicago, St. Paul and Fond du Lac, 42, 114, 140; Green Bay, Milwaukee and Chicago, 115 ; Galena and Chicago Union (tee above), 113; La Crosse, 115, 157; La Crosse and Milwaukee, 42, 142, 157 — Its reports, cited, 141, 144, 146 ; Lake Shore and MIculgan Southern, 116; McGregor, St. Peter and Missouri River, 143 ; Madison and Watertown, 141 ; Milwaukee and Horicon, 42, 156 ; [536] INDEX 243 Milwaukee and La Crosse, 104 ; Mil waukee and Mlsalesippi, 42, 47, 104, 114, 140-142, 146, 156, 157— Its re^ ports, cited, 114, 140-144, 146, 157 Milwaukee and Prairie du Chlen, 142, 149 — Its reports, cited, 147, 15S ; Milwaukee and Superior, 141 Milwaukee and St. Paul, 149, 157 Milwaukee and Watertown, 42 ; Mil waukee and Waukesha, 42, 113 Northern Pacific, 117, 130; North western, 140; Prairie du Chien, 157 Racine, JanesTlUe and Mississippi, 42 Rock River Valley Union, 42 ; St. Paul and Pacific, 130; Sioux City, 180 Southern Wisconsin, 140. Real estate : boom in, 41. See also Property. Red River Valley : predicted as wheat district, 130. Renewal of St. Croix and L. Sup. Land Grant: cited, 144. Relations of pop. and food prod, in V. 8.: cited, 14, 172. Rept. of Emigration Commissioner: cited, 45. Rept. on improvement of Rook Riv.: cited, 16, 148. Rept. of Trade OMd Com. of Milwaukee: cited, 201. Rev. of Bev.: cited, 173. Richland Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 55, 78, 154 ; livestock industry in, 78, 85, 86; status, 68, 96. Ripon, Wis. : land values near, 140 ; r. r. extended to, 140, 145. Ritchie, James S. : Wis. and its re- sources^ cited, 34, 43, 44, 124, 141, 187. Roads : plank, 16, 19 ; affect market, 26. Rock Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 15, 23, 35, 49-51, 64, 66, 77, 105, 161; milling industry in, 104, 105, 107 i tobacco culture m, 31, 67, 77, 79, 86, 135, 150, 152; barley In, 77; mUch cows in, 77 ; dairying in, 167 ; land values in, 135 ; status, 140. Rock Co. Agrlc. Soc. : Why founded, 31. Rock Co. Agrie. Soc. and Mec. Inst. ; address before, cited, 41, 140. Russia : wheat exported from, 90. Rust : attacks wheat, 72, 73. Rye : succeeds In Wis., 24 ; crop re- mains stationary, 47, 91, 93 ; In various regions, 53, 68, 75, 79, 93 ; displaces wheat, 78 ; yield unimpor- tant (1870-80), 79; specialization tendency toward, 79 ; increase in, 85, 87, 91; declines, 99, 100; cost of production, 125. See also Statistics. Sanborn, John Bell : Cong, grants of land, cited, 121, 122, 136, 142, 144, 145, 187. St. Croix Co., Wis. . location, 54 ; crops in, 54 ; wheat growing in, 64, 74, 83, 84, 92, 101, 153, 154, 161; milling industry in, 105 ; other crops in, 74 ; oats in, 83, 100 ; potatoes In, 83, 85 ; rye in, 85 ; livestock industry In, 64, 84, 93, 100 ; reason for few dairy factories In, 101 ; milk produced In, 101 ; pop. rural, 84 ; ravages by chinch bugs in, 88, 104 ; land values in, 135, 170. St. Louis, Mo. : market for Wis. wheat in, 16 ; milling center, 109. Saskatchewah : predicted as future wheat center, 130. Sat. Evening Post: cited, 171. Sat. Rev.: cited, 173. Sauk Co., Wis. : agric. in, 51 ; wheat growing in, 55, 57 ; milling tndustry in, 106 ; hops in, 60, 86 ; potatoes in, 78 ; status, 68, 96. Scandinavians : their occupations, 29, 30 ; settle m .Wis., 42, 43. Sot. Amer. Sup.: cited, 173. Scioto River : wheat growing near, 126. Seneca Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Sering, Dr. Max. : cited, 173. Settlers : status of Wis., 24r-26 ; mort- gage lands, 26 ; specialize In wheat growing, 27 ; grain culture, by for- eign, 27, 28 ; native, engage In dairy- ing, 27 ; source of Wis., 27-29 ; for- eign, good farmers, 28 ; native, ac- customed to wheat growing, 28, 29 ; emigrate to Cal., 33 ; settle about L. Winnebago, 34 ; low land prices an injustice to, 34 ; many in Wis., 40 ; open farms in Wis., 43 ; govt, land policy for, 121 ; how they become land poor, 121 ; attitude toward r. r., 136 ; abandon Wis., 136 ; follow west, movement, 182. See also Farmers. Seymour, Horatio (ex-gov. of N. Y.) : address, cited, 176. Shawano Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, ■ 94, 99 ; potatoes in, 100 ; milch cows in, 94 ; milk produced in, 101 ; [537] 244 INDES growth of pop., 101 ; low cash valua- tion in, 135. Sheboygan, Wis. : wheat market at, 16. Sheboygan Co. : pulse crop important in, 69 ; wheat growing in, 76 ; "other crops" gain in, 76 ; livestock industry in, 76 ; cheese industry in, 135 ; land and farm values, 135, 170. Sheep and sheep-raising : profitable, 30 ; settlers from O. try to introduce, 29 , farmers urged to engage in industry of, 48 ; in Kenosha Co., 31 ; attempted in Dane Co., 31 ; reason for decline of, 48 ; increases in various localities, 53, 64-69, 75, 78, 85, 87, 95, 100; no growth in, 74, 76, 78, 80 ; declines in various localities, 85, 95, 98, 100, 152 ; wool-growing yields cash sales, 149 ; among farmers' resources, 150. Sherrill, Jennie Bentley : Hist, oj E. half of Columbia Co., cited, 29. Siberia : wheat growing in, 173. Silos : for forage crops, 166. Skinner, E. W. : inventor, 62. Smith, George B. . speech, cited, 142. Soil : fertilizers not of great use on virgin, 27 ; peculiarities of, account for crops, 79 ; benefited by rotation of crops, 165. See also land ; and the two following items. Soil exhaustion : defined, 21 ; wheat growing induces, 30, 48, 77, 123, 170 ; forces change in agric. methods, 31 ; apparent contradiction in, 66 ; causes rise in land valuations, 131 ; r. r. aid in, 155 ; effect on wheat growing, 159 ; evil effects of, 159 ; in Wis., 163 ; ef- fects of various factors in, 181. Soil exploitation : lands exhausted 'by, 35 ; accelerated by r. r., 153 ; warn- ings against in Wis., 159, 160 ; aitr regarded in 111., 177 ; effect of public land policy on, 182. Soil Map of Wis.: cited, 24, 39. South America : wheat growing in, 174. South Carolina: wheat area in (1790), 125. South Dakota : livestock industry Jn, 174. See also Dakota. Southern Wis. Agric. Soc. : speech be- fore cited,' 142. Southport, Wis. : wheat market at, 16. See also Kenosha (city). Southport American: cited, 25, 36. Southport Telegraph: cited, 128. Spa/rta Herald: ciljed, 71, 133, 148. Specialization, wheat. See Wheat. Speculation : cause and effect of, 41, 45 ; Wis. passes period of, 81 ; in flour, 109, 110 ; in wheat, 117, 119 ; in agric, declines, 165 ; in land, 125, 132, 136, 137, 139, 141, 181 ; in c. r. stocks, 137 ; in Eau Claire Co., 144 ; early farmers engage in, 124. Stark Co., O. : dairying and wheat grow- ing in, 178, 179. Statistical Aistr. gf V. S.: cited, 198. Statistics : agric. in Wis. untrustworthy, 47 ; method of compiling, 51 ; stated on per capita basis, 53 ; gathering of, for farm crops begun, 58 ; vary greatly for different sections, 73. For wheat — explained, 50 ; unreliable, 61 ; acre- age in Wis., 15, 58, 69, 91, 102; in- crease in, 33, 89 ; decrease, 82 (rate per cent and no. of acres), 101, 196; yield in bu. for various districts, 15, 22, 23, 35, 46-49, 57, 102, 130, 172, 178, 179, 196, 199, 226 ; yield per acre, in bu., 22, 23, 40, 46, 57, 61, 125-129, 134, 160, 168, 196, 198; per capita yield, in bu., 56, 64, 67, 92, 99, 149, 172, 190, 191 ; id. in qts., 126 ; per sq. mi. of improved land, 64, 172, 192, 193; per mi. of i. r., 157; Index of specialization, by co.'s, 194, 195 ; specialization density, 220-225 ; rate of increase, in % and in bu., 47, 49, 150, 152 ; increase in per cap- ita yield (% and bu.), 54, 55, 65, 66, 69 ; increase in bu. per sq. ml. of improved land, 55 ; decline in aver- age yield ( % ) , 71 ; decline per cap- ita in bu. and %, 79 (per sq. ml.), 82, 91, 99 ; id. In total yield hi bu. and %, 82; id. in acreage and %, 99 ; amount lost by chinch bugs, 59, 88, 89 ; cost of production, 35, 127, 128 ; ratio of expansion in area to cost, 90 ; amount shipped and ex- ported, 46, 89, 90, 115-117, 119, 144; transportation rates on, 16, 127, 145, 146 ; amount carried by r. r. and other carriers, 114, 115, 157, 158 ; price (in money value), 46, 47, 57, 114, 200- 205, 227. For milling industry — un- trustworthy, 107 ; no. of mills, 103- 105, 108 ; ; capital invested in, 103, 104 ; value of raw material used in,' 103, 104 ; id. of finished product, 103, 104 ; output of flour in bbls., 108, 108, 111, 114, 115, 118; decrease in [538] INDEX 245 "70, 105, 107. Barley — per capita yield in bu., 82, 91, 95, 149, 152 (with other products), 207; Increase per capita, in hu., 79 ; increase per capita in 'Jo, 85. Maize — per capita yield in bu., 79, 91, 149, 152 (with other products), 210; increase in "lo of acreage, 82, 91. Oats — Increase in yield in %, 77, 79, 82 ; per capita yield in bu., 79, 100, 149, 152, 209; increase in acreage in %, 84, 91; loss from chinch bugs, in bu., h9. Rye — per capita Increase in %, 85 ; yield per capita in bu., 91, 149, 152 (with other products), 208; acreage as compared with wheat, in %, 91 ; cost of production per acre, 125. Hay — yield per capita in bu., 55, 56, 79, 212. Hops— yield in lbs., 60, 86; proportion of improved land let to, 60. Potatoes — per capita yield, in bu., 69, 91, 96, 97, 149, 152 (with other crops, 211 ; id., in %, 85, 96, 97. Tobacco — yield. In lbs., 66, 67, 75, 94, 150, 218; gain. In %. 86, 96; acreage planted to, 94, 95. Livestock — per capita in Wis., 149, 152. Cattle, neat — decrease per capita, 87, "Cat- tle, other" — impossible to estimate, 100; per capita in Wis., 80,. 85, 98, 215. Cows, milch or dairy — no. per capita and increase, 80, 85, 87, 88, 9.3, 97, 101, 149, 152, 178, 179, 214; decline per capita 93. Horses — no. and increase per capita, 69, 80, 86, 213. Sheep — no. and increase per capita, 69, 80, 149, 216 ; decltae per capita, 85. Swine — no. and increase per capita, 80, 217 ; decrease per cap- ita, 85. Dairying — production of but- ter, cheese, and milk, 93, 97, 101 ; see also above Cows. Land — propor- tion of improved in Wis., 15 ; amount of id. in Wis., in acres, 33 ; increase of id., in %, 44, 69, 152; proportion of Dane Co., settled, 45 ; unimproved land in Wis., in acres, 33 ; prices and values (generally per acre), 43-46, 87, 88, 128, 131-133, 140, 176, 219. Transportation and r. r. — cost, 35 ; tonnage of products carried, 156, 157 ; mileage In Wis. (1845-1904), 200. Pop. — increase in no., in Wis., 42, 43, 45 ; increase in Wis., in %, 56 ; in- crease in no.'s in various cities and co.'s, 45 ; increase in various co.'s, in %, 53, 67. Stevens Pouit, Wis. : land office opened at, 43; centennial at (1876), 141. Stock raising : recommended for Wis., 22 ; promoted in Wis., 31 ; In various regions of Wis. (condition, etc.), 50, 51, 53-56, 66-68, 74-78; little in Wis., 64'; Increases in Wis., 65 ; shows no great tendency to increase, 87 ; supplants wh. growing, 68, 69, 98 ; accompanies dairying! 77, 78 ; does not tend greatly to specialization, 79 ; depends on certain crops, 80 ; affected by pop., 93 ; lands devoted to, 161 ; tendency toward diversified, 183. See also Cattle ; Cows ; Horses ; Live- stock Industry ; Sheep ; and Swine. Stocks : fall in price of farm, 45. See also Railroads. Stoughton, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 42 , wheat competes with, 174. Sugar beets : specialization in, 166. Summit Co., O. : dairying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Sun Prairie, Wis. : r. r. extended to, 42. Superior, Lake : mines along shore of, 16. Superior, Wis. ; land office opened at^ 44 ; flouring industry in, 108. Supply. See Demand and supply. Swedes : settle in Wis., 42, 43. Swine : decline in Wis., 52, 54, 65, 85, 100; increase, 66, 69, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 85, 98 ; raised along Mississippi Rlv., 54 ; numerous in interior co.'s, 68. See also Statistics. Swiss : in Wis., 25 ; introduce dairying, 30 ; displace Scandinavians, 30. Tariff : protective, favored in Wis., 17 ; high cost of operating r. r. due to, 148. Taylor, Prof. Henry C. : thanked, 9. Taylor, Sen. H. A. : speech, cited, 152. Tennessee ; wheat growing In, 172. Texas : livestock industry in, 87, 88. Thompson, C. W. : Movement of wheat growing, cited, 137, 163^ 166, 174. Tobacco and tobacco culture : succeeds in Wis., 24 ; settlers from O. try to Introduce, 29 ; attempts made in cul- ture, 31 ; yield Increases, 67, 75, 77, 86, 94, 96, 97, 100, 135, 152; de- clines, 100 ; relation to wheat grow- [539] 246 INDEX ing, 76, 77, 83, 86, 94-97, 100, 166, 174 ; displaces barley, 96 ; specializa- tion in, 79, 166 ; localized, 86 ; ele- ments favoring, 1,66, 167 ; reason for its late development, 166, 167. Tomah, Wis. . r. r. extended to, 142. Trade. See Commerce. Trade and Commerce of Chicago: cited, 202. Transportation : by team and wagon, lb, 115; by water, 111, 114, 116, 118, 120, 146-148; ferry, 114, 120 (car ferry), lake vs. r. r., 116, 118; rail more effective than water, 120 ; losses of double, 18, 19 ; Ignorance of farmers regarding, 19 ; relation of wheat grow- ing to, 24, 120, 124, 126, 129, 139- 158, 173 ; increased facilities urged, 58 ; inadequate, 59, 73, 150, 167, 182 ; facilities increased, 71, 72 ; better promised by diversified agric, 80 ; re- lation to agrlc. pursuits, 176, 177 ; competition in, 110, 115 ; Milwaukee favorably located for, 114 ; important on frontier, 124 ; improvement of water-ways desired, 146, 147 ; de- pends on r. r., 148, 149 ; becomes less important factor to farmer, 152 ; et- fect of, reduced^ 154, 155 ; dairy products easily transported, 155, 156 ; of wheat In Wis., cause of unstable condition, 158 ; elements entering Into that of dairy products, 167, 168 ; re- frigerated, 168, 169. Rates — wheat, 16, 35, 108, 127, 145, 146, 167, 168; surplus grain, 151 ; for dairy products, 108, 167, 168, 176, 188 ; complainod of, 17, 73, 146-148, 151 ; high, din- courage farmers, 35 ; remain high, 59 ; lower demanded, 60, 148, lower, ob- ject of Granger Movement, 149 ; de- crease, 71, 117, 150, 151 ; cheaper ob- tained for Milwaukee, 117; lake, low, 146 ; dairymen secure favorable, 168, 176, 183; increased, 72, 151, 1S2 ; extortionate, 131 ; fixed for milUng- in-transit system, 105 ; discrimination, 107, 114, 119, 120, 146, 147, 15l, 182 ; Minneapolis benefits by, 110, af- fect growth of pop., Ill ; all-rail, 116, 117; distance tariff, asked west of Chicago, 176, 177. See aUo Rail- roads. Treaty : reciprocity with Canada, 108, 109. Trempealeau Co., Wis. : location, 54 ; [540] crops In, 54 ; livestock industry in, 54, 64, 65, 74, 85, 86, 93; wheat growing in, 64, 83, 92, 94, 99; other grains in, 85, 92, 100 ; improved land in, 93 ; low cash land valuation in, 135 ; co.'s comparable to, 67. Trumbull Co., O. : dlalrying and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Turner, Prof. Frederick J., thanked, 9. Tuttle, Charles Richard : Hist, of Wis., cited, 43, 44, 139. United States : wheat growing in, 49, 59, 72, 123, 125, 150, 173-175, 178, 184, 199 ; few regions adaptable for dairying in, 175. Publications of govt., cited — ^Bureau of Census, RepU., 14, 15, 18, 33, 40, 45 (statistical at- las), 49, 50, 69, 80, 86, 88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103, 107, 108, 118, 177, 178, 190 192, 194, 198, 199, 209- 219 ; Dept. of Agrlc. (various divi- sions), Bulletine and Repts., 14, 15, 58, 61, 69, 89, 98, 123, 124, 126, 129, 130, 137, 153, 172, 174, 175, 178, 187, 196, 199; id., yearbook, 177; First Amer. Rept. on Internal Com. of V. S., 151 ; House of Rep., Rept. of Committee on Naval Affairs, 44; Industrial Commission, Repts., 71, 120, 124, 137, 169, 173; Interstate Commerce Com''n, Repts., Ill, 176, 177 ; Patent Office, Repts. (on agr:cul- ture), 22, 23, 25, 28, 32, 40, 122, 124, 128, 129, 160, 167, 171, 199; Senate Z>oc.j 25 ; Rept. on wholesale prices, 203, 205. University of 111. : Circular, cited, 21. University of Wis. : 9, 27, 71 ; Bulletins, cited, 19, 20, 121; theses of, cited, 126. Work of Agrlc. school of, 171 ; Repts. and Bulletins of agrlc. ex- perimental station, cited, 24, 28, 29, T7, 88, 89, 93, 94, 101, 102, 169, 187. Values: of Milwaukee's mfrs. (1849), 18; of Wis., id. (1850), 18; cash, small in Kenosha Co., 27, 28 ; land, 31, 87, 98, 128, 130-132, 160 (farm), 170 (farm), 176, 177, 182, 183; of wheat, 40; of raw milling material, 103, 105 ; of finished product, 103 ; of export farm machinery, 63 ; of Mil- waukee exports, 115 ; affected by r. r. and immigration, 189, 140; de- pression of, precedes readjustment of normal, 188, 134 ; of various products compared, 168. See also Prices. INDEX 247 Veblen, Prof. Thorsteln B. : Price of Wheat, cited, 89. Vegetables : abundant crops bring pros- perity, 40. Vernon Co., Wis. : location, 54 ; crops in, 54 ; wheat growing In, 64, 82, 92, 99 ; tobacco culture In, 86, 94 ; "other crops" in, 74 ; livestock industry In, 64, 74, ■93, 100; land valuations, 135, 170. Virginia : wheat growing In, 123, 125. Wabash River : wheat first shipped to N. Orleans from, 123. Wages : paid In wheat, 35. Wall, Pres. — : cited, 119. Walworth Co., Wis. : wheat growing in, 15, 22, 23, 31, 50, 51, 64, 66, 77, 160, 161 ; its wh. market, 17 ; barley in, 77 ; milling industry in, 104 ; to- bacco in, 67, 86, 150 ; farmers emi- grate from, 26 ; livestock industry in, 66, 67, 77, 161 ; land values rise in, 135. Warner, — : inventor, 62. Wars : affect wheat prices, 72 ; Russo- Turkish, 72. Sen also Civil War ; and Franco-Prussian War. Washington Co., Wis. : its territory cur- tailed, 51 ; livestock industry In, 67, 76; wh. growtag in, 83, 96, 99, 135; milling industry to, 105 ; potatoes in, 85; Agrie. status (1890-1900), 96; land valuations in, 135. Water power : in milling industry, 103, 105, 108 ; less expensive than steam, 110. Watertown, Wis. : milling tadustry at, 17, 103 ; r. r. extended to, 42. Watertown Ohronicle: cited, 17. Waukesha Co., Wis. : location, 66 ; farm mach. used in, 32 ; wheat growing In, 40, 53, 78, 104, 116 ; milling industry In, 104 ; barley in, 78 ; potatoes In, 85 ; milch cows In, 78 ; r. r. have lit- tle effect on agric. of, 53. Waupaca Co., 'Wis.: status (1860-70), 68; potatoes to, 78, 85, 96, 97. Waushara Co., Wis.: status (1860^70), 68 ; livestock industry In, 68, 78 ; rye displaces wheat in, 78 ; potatoes in, 78, 96, 97 ; maize in, 85. Wealth : some Improvement stimulated by, 41. Sec also Farms ; and the several kinds of wealtn. Weeds : wh. land allowed to run to, 129. West, Pres. — : address by, cited, 131, 150, 151. Western Reserve, O. : dairytag and wheat growing in, 178, 179. Wheat : export of, based on pop., 13, 14 ; exports and shipments of, 16, 46, 55, 90, 91, 113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 129, 130, 144; markets and marketing, 16, 89, 110, 112-120, 144- 146, 181 ; speculation in, 109, 110, 114, 117; competition, 114, 127; transportation and rates, 16, 46, 73, 108, 146; prices, 23, 36-40, 46, 47, 57-59, 61, 62, 71-73, 83, 84, 88, 90, 98, 109, 110, 128, 129, 131, 133, 145, 150, 179, 182, 201-206, 226; value compared to flour, 108 ; id. of car- loads, 168; things exchanged for, 17; standard of exchange, 25 ; quality, 22, 59, 109, 114, 115, 167; wintei, 22, 23, 35, 109, 120, 179, 180; sprmg, 22, 23, 47, 59, 90, 105, 110, 118, 120 ; milling of, 23, 105 (see also MlUtog industry) ; warehouses and elevators, 25, 114, 115, 146. See also two fol- lowing items. Wheat growers : among natives and for- eign bom, 27-30 ; sustain losses, 73 ; reason for their failure, 155, 156 ; threaten to trade with Chicago, 113 ; conservative, 168 ; lack organization, 169; contrasted with dairymen, 170; dependent on r. r., 182. See also Farmers. Wheat growing : its rise and decline in Wis., 1-227 ; reason for rise in Wis., 181 ; reasons for decline, 83, 84, 131, 133, 159-171 ; most important factor in rise and decline in Wis., 159 ; in- crease in various regions, 64, 73, 74, 76, 78, 92-95, 104, 152 ; revival m, 92, 93, 172, 174, 178, 179; remafas stationary, 104 ; retains some im- portance in various co,'s. 94 ; unim- portant, 96, 98 ; discouraging, 35, 36 ; declines in various regions, 64, 72-75, 77, 78, 80, 82-84, 94-96, 98, 99, 104-106, 118, 129-131, 133, 152, 159-172, 179, 183, 184; decline temporary, 104 ; Id. exaggerated, 133 ; contradictory reports regarding, 163 ; future to Wis., 172-180 ; no revival likely in Wis., 184 ; future in D. S., 173, 174; likely to declme to TJ. S., 184. By periods— to 1850, 15-36; after 1850, 37-185; 1850-60, 39-56; 1860-70, 57-70; 1870-80, 71-81; [541] 248 INDEX 1880-yO, 82-90; after 1890, 91-102. Area, and regions of — location of Wis. lands in 1849, 15, 16; In various co.'s, and conditions ruling in, 22, 31, 35, 52-55, 65, 67, 68, 74, 75 (see also above, increase, decrease, etc., in) ; early centers for, in U. S., 28, 29 ; movements of areas, 28, 104, 106, 107, 163 (reasons for w. move- ment;, 172, 173 (world movement), 174, 177, 181, 182, 184 ; prairie best adapted to, 29 ; grown largely in non- forested region, 40, 125 ; two areas in Wis., 73, 74 ; proximity to areas, determine localization of milling in dustry, 103 ; centers in Wis., 107 ; de- velopment in Wis., 115 ; centers in Ohio, 126 ; when introduced into various districts, 123 ; factors on frontier, 3 23-125; wh. country in U. S., 125 ; many regions fitted for in U. S., 175 ; where it has persistea longest, 135 ; central Wis., unfitted for, 154, 170 ; decline and revival In O., 172 ; id. in some of older states, 174 ; increases in other countries, 173. Acreage, 15, 20, 33, 47-55, 58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 69, 72, 80, 89-92, 99, 101; yield (statistics, and conditions). 15, 20-25, 35, 36, 40, 46-49, 52, 53, 55- 73, 79, 82, 89, 91, 92, 99, 116, 117, 123, 125-127, 129, 133, 149, 150, 157, 159, 160 (on new lan3), 163, 179, 190-192, 196-199 (see also the vari- ous other parts of this caption ; and Statistics) ; of Wis. and other states compared, 13, 14 ; in various states. 172, 178, 179 ; failures in crop, and injuries to, 21-23, 29-32, 35, 58, 59, 71, 72, 88, 89, 109, 110, 116-118. 163, 164. Methods of, 121, 125 (see also .4gric.)'; excessive cropping to and specialization in, and result, 20, 21, 2.3-30, 33, 34, 36, 39-40, 46-48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 67, 68, 73-74, 123, 124, 126, 129, 136, 137, 149-151, 153, 154, 159, 160, 170, 181, 194, 195, 220^225 ; (see also Soil ex- haustion) ; advantages of, 46 ; over- specialization, 24, 126, 136; limit of specialization in, in Wis., 64 ; exces- sive culture causes Granger Move- ment, 150, 151 ; over-production, 27, 150; extensive cultivation on fron- tier, 24, 25 ; disadvantage of exten- sive system, 175 ; must become in- tensive or be driven out, 177 ; how tendency toward modified, 68 ; other grains sown with, 84 ; good pioneer crop, 124 ; easily handled, 124 ; pros- perity of n. w. not dependent on, 118 ; dependence on, in Wis., 150 ; factors of prosperity and depression in, 162 ; conditions favoring, 164. Staple crop, 21, 47, 73 ; strong tendencies to re- main staple crop, 77 ; most important single crop, 55, 67, 75, 76, 80 ; good cash crop, 23, 25, 27, 124 ; requires little capital, 48, 141 ; requires little of permanent improvements, 181 ; over-capitalized, 130 ; cost of pro- duction, 35, 90, 125-128, 131, 132, 134, 143, 154, 155 (basis of cultiva- tion), 162 (on new land), 163; profits and losses in, 30, 35, 58, 74, 123-125, 130, 132, 159, 163, 165, 168; material prosperity of Wis. due to, 46 ; land valUes too high for, 133- 135 ; competition in, 71, 72, 173, 174, 175. Condition of, before ad- vent of 1. r., 15-36 ; relation to, and effect on, of r. r., 33, 107, 129, 135- 137, 139-158, 181 ; relation of trans- portation to, 46, 71. Compared to other agrlc. Indus., 22 ; hop farmers resume, 60 ; displaced by general farming, 76, 82, 98, 99, 174; id. by tobacco, 77, 86, 94-97, 100; id., by rye, 78 ; id., by oats, 78, 86, 87 ; id., by potatoes, 79, 87, 95 ; id., by bar- ley, 87, 100 ; Id., by maize, 87, 96 ; relation to seeding to grass, 179 , other causes of decline in Wis., and change to other farm pursuits, 159- 171 ; efifect of farm mach. on, 181 ; relation to milling Indus., 104-108 ; relation of wheat market to, 112 ; relation, etc. to pop., 45, 130, 173, 174 ; effect of cities on, 50 ; rela- tion, etc. to prices, 47, 48, 59, 89, 129, 149 : effect on land values, 170 ; relation to, and effect on, dairying, 51, 75. 77, 78, 87, 88, 95, 97, 98, 100, 168-171, 177-179,. 183, 184 ; de- cline In no. of horses due to de- cline in, 84 ; relation of stock rais- ing to, 98 ; relation to forests. 53, 55, 76, 154 ; effect of govt, land pol Icy on, 121-138, 181, 182; re- lation of land to, 52, 122, 135, 170, 173, 174 ; relation to soil of east. Wis., 135 : affected by Civil War, 61 ; affected by chinch bugs, («. v.), 77, 88, 89, 116, 163, 164; almost driven [542] INDEX 249 from Wis., 82 ; disappears in some sections, 94 ; factors that Influence, 129, 130. See also Agric. ; Farmers ; Farms ; Land, Machinery, farm ; and Statistics. Wheelock, J. A. ; Second orm. rept. of com. 0} atatis., cited, 137. White, Philo : cited, 25. Whitewater, Wis. . farm machinery made at, 63 ; its wheat market, 114 ; r. r. extended to, 140. Whittlesby, Thomas T. : cited, 32, 139. Wlllard, Hon. J. T. . cited, 41. Williamson, Capt. — : cited, 125. Wilson, — : Rept. on survey of Rock Riv., cited, 148. Wind Mills. See Mills. Winden, Julien : Influence o/ Erit Canal, cited, 126. Winnebago Co., Wis. : comparable to Fond du Lac Co., 67 ; wheat grow- ing in, 23, 76 ; milling industry in, 104, 105 ; hops in, 60 ; "other crops" in, 76. Winnebago, Lake : region of, quickly settled, 34 ; character of soil near, 39 ; wheat growing near, 91 ; milling industry near, 107. Wisconsin : location, 62 ; changes in territory of co.'s of, 51, 52 ; its pop. (settlement, growth, etc.), 14, 24, 25, 28-30, 33, 40, 42-46, 56, 93, 136, agrlc. state, 14, 24, 158 ; rise and re- cline of wheat growing In, 1-227 ; wheat conditions of 111. compared to those of, 13 ; unique in Its wheat culture. 13 ; rank as wheat producer, 13 ; wheat acreage in, 15, 58, 196 ; yields and crops of wheat In, (and conditions of), 15, 21, 22, 36, 49 55, 57, 61, 99, 150, 190-196, 220-225; wheat areas in, 16, 49-55, 65, 67, 73, 115, 116 ; wheat, a staple in, 21, 47, 73 ; wheat growing before advent of r. r., 15-36; id. after 1850, 37-185; future of id. in, 172-180 ; -favorable influences toward wheat growing in, 39, 125 (frontier), 127, 165, 166; wheat of, brings better prices than that of 111., 47 ; tendencies and con ditions of wheat growing In, 68, 6h 175 ; wheat lands exhausted, 90 ; wheat exported from, 91 ; quality of wheat of, 114, 167; relation of govt, land policy to wheat growing in, 121-138 ; competes with other wheat growing districts, 131 ; reasons for decline of wheat growing in, 181, 159-171 ; little winter wheat grown in, 179, 180 ; wheat growing almos,. driven from, 183, 184 ; flour ex- ported from, 16 ; flouring Industry to, 103-111 ; other grains In, 47, 164, 207-210 (see also the several va- rieties) ; largely outside of maize district, 166 ; tobacco culture in, 31, 97, 166, 167, 218 (see also Tobacco) ; potatoes in, 211 (see also Potatoes) ; hay (q. v.) In, 212 ; "other crops" In, 55, 64, 74 ; agrlc. in, by co.'s (1850-60), 49-55; agric. changes In, 72 ; early tendency toward diversifi- cation in, 181 ; crude agric. methods in, 129; dairying («. v.) In, 88, 97, 167-170, 174-177, 183; livestock In- dustry In, 31, 65, 88, 177, 213-217 (see also the several kinds of live- stock) ; farm machinery used in, 33 ; lands (g. i;.) In, and various factors affecting, 15, 27 (land skinning), 33, 34, 45, 52, 90, 121-138 (public pol- icy), 144, 145, 165; character of soil in, 39, 159 ; prices and sales, 33, 34, 43, 44, 88, 127, 132, 140, 219; boom m, 140. Markets in, 17, 19, 20; mfres. in, 17, 18 (see also Machinery, farm) ; protective tariff favored in, 17 ; labor and capital scarce In, 18 ; monopolies dreaded in, 19 ; maps oi. cited, 24, 39, 40 ; assembly of, ap- points judiciary committee, 20, state treasury injured by low prices, 34 ; econ. status, 40, 41, 45-47, 130- 133, 1»1, 164 ; productive industry in, increases, 47 ; elements making for profits in, 56 ; state fair, 62 ; passes through period of speculation, 81 ; I. r. (g. v.) in, 113, 114, 153, 200, and map at end; Granger Movement In, 182, 183 ; soldiers fur- nished by during Civil War, 61, C2. Message (1851) of gov. cited, 43, 114, l40. Wis. Acad, of Sciences : Trans., cited, 19, 145. Wis. amd Iowa Farmer wnd N. W. Cultivator: cited, 15, 22, 30, 34. Wis. Asseflibly : Appendix to Journal, cited, 26. Wis. Dairy Manufacturers' and Milk Producers Ass'n. : object of its crea- tion, 176, 177. Wis. Dairymen's Ass'n. : created (1872), 168; Its work, 168, 169, 171, 176; [543] 250 INDBX Bepts., cited, 71, 72, 77, 129, 165, 167-170, 176, 187. Wis. Farm Mortgage Land Co. ; Its creation, 142. Wis. Farmer: cited, 17, 22, 28, 34, 44- 48, 57, 58, 62, 126-128, 144, 146- 148, 165, 187, 196. Wis. Farmer and N. W. Cultivator: cited, 18, 21, 22, 32, 33, 35. Wis. Legisl. Manual: cited, 44. Wis. Miscel. Pamphlets: cited, 141. Wis. Palddium: cited, 20. Wisconsin River : wheat lands east of, 15 ; id. north of, 49 ; Improvements desired on, 17 ; value of lands near, 34 ; valley of, settled, 44. Wis. Sec'yT of State: Bept., dted, 15, 47, 60, 84, 142, 198. Wis. State Agric. Soc. : organized, 30, 31 ; its work, 171 ; Trams., cited, 15, 17, 21-26, 28, 31, 32, 40, 41, 46, 48, 49, 57, 58, 60, 69, 70-73, 80, 81, 87, 124, 128, 129, 131, 133, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 151, 158, 160, 162, 164-166, 168-170, 176, 179, 187. Wis. State Census: Bepts., cited, 99, 100, 101, 107, 108, 190, 196, 198, 218. Wis. State Hist. Soc. : staff, thanked, 9; Collections, cited, 19, 44, 141; Proceedings, cited, 44. Wis. State Land Office: Register's Bept., cited, 43, 124. Wis. State Legisl., E. E. Com. ; Argu- ments before, cited, 152. Wool growing. See Sheep. [544] Bconomlcs and Political Science Series VOLUME I (Complete in three numbers, with title-page and table of contents.) No. 1. The decline of landowning farmers in England, by Henry Charles Taylor. 1904. 66 p. 25 cents. No. 2. History of agriculture in Dane County, Wisconsin, by Benjamin Horace Hibbard. 1904. 148 p. 75 cents. No. 3. A history of the Northern Securities case, by Balthasar Henry Meyer. 1906. 136 p. 60 cents. VOLUME n (Complete in two numbers, imth title-page and table of contents.) No. 1. The labor contract from individual to collective bargaining, by Margaret Anna Schaffner. 1907. 182 p. 50 cents. No. 2. The financial history of Wisconsin, by Raymond Vincent Phe- lan. 1908. 294 p. 50 cents. 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Chester Ou MoND, coMMisstoNER ALBANY 1 howard r. waugh Secretary September 26, 1944, Mrs, B, E. Beasley Agricultural Boon, Library N.Y.S. College of Agriculture Ithaca, N. Y. Dear Madam; The Department did not publish a 1939 edi- tion of the Law, but I am forwarding a copy of the 1940 edition. We did not issue a 1941 edition. I am sending bulletin 342, Agriculture and Markets Law for 1942 with 1943 supplement. We have not published a 1944 edition. Very truly yours, elc Secretary On pag'* 306-9 ia .ynopaia of Rules and Regulations promulgated under Agriculture and Markets Law AGRICULTURAL BULLETIN ALBANY, N. Y. MAY, 1943 Bulletin 342 AGRICULTURE AND MARKETS LAW 1942 With Supplement Incorporating 1943 Amendments (Chapter 48 of th6 Laws of 1922, with amendments) I ^ -^i -7«f- /y"^ ■ On pages 269-305, inclusive, are given provisions of Cooperative Corporations Law (Chapter 231 of the Laws of 1926 as amended.) On pages 306-9 is synopsis of Rules and Regulations promulgated under Agriculture and Markets Law ^■'iJji^N-H^