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COMMERCIAL OILS 
 VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 
 
 ORIENTAL OILS 
 
 BY 
 
 I. F. LAUCKS, BS., M.S. 
 
 Member American Chemical Society, American Inslilule oj Mining Engineers 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 
 
 London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
 
 1919 
 
 1.1^ 
 

 Copyright, 1919, by 
 I. F. LAUCKS 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 BRAUNWORTH & CO. 
 
 BOOK MANUFACTURERS 
 
 BROOKLVN, N. Y. 
 
TO 
 
 l^roftssat (Elfadca Jff. JUabcirg 
 
 IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 OF EARLY TRAINING 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book is intended primarily for the non-technical 
 man in the oil trade. The writer has attempted to 
 give in it the technical data and information required in 
 every-day dealings in the oil trade, without mixing in a 
 great mass of more or less purely scientific matter. 
 
 Trade rules and specifications have been given where- 
 ever such exist. The characteristics of the various 
 oils (or constants as they are sometimes less properly 
 called) which are given, are the maximum and minimum 
 values within which most of the samples of oil that will 
 be met with in practice will lie. In general, values which 
 represent what might be termed " freaks " have been 
 omitted. The idea has been to show what values can 
 reasonably be expected, rather than to show the widest 
 variations that can exist. In preparing these maximum 
 and minimum values, determinations of many chemists 
 have been compared, as published in standard text 
 such as Lewkowitsch and Allen, in the technical 
 press, and other sources. 
 
 The data on Oriental oils, which are now being im- 
 ported at Pacific Coast ports, are for the most part 
 results of work in the author's laboratory. Characteris- 
 tics of these oils have been given separately from the 
 above-mentioned average characteristics. This has been 
 done because it has been found in many cases that a 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 so-called Oriental oil will differ from the same oil from 
 other parts of the world, to which the oil trade has been 
 more accustomed in times past. In some cases this is 
 due to difference resulting from cHmate, soil, and other 
 natural conditions. In other cases it is due to the hand- 
 ling the oil receives, sometimes the result of careless- 
 ness, and sometimes due to unavoidable commercial 
 conditions. 
 
 The result in some cases is an oil different in some 
 respects from the oil that commerce is used to. Objec- 
 tion is often made by buyers to such differences. But 
 these Oriental oils have filled a great need in a crisis 
 in the United States, and have won a place for them- 
 selves, and £ts such must be accepted by the oil trade. 
 Buyers must not attempt to make Oriental oils conform 
 to the standards of oil from other countries, but should 
 rather draw new standards for these oils, which will 
 fit their special characteristics. 
 
 There is a constant demand for closer grading of 
 these oils. This demand will gradually be met as 
 methods for obtaining and shipping these oils improve. 
 In a commercial movement as new as this is, too much 
 must not be expected at the start. The grading is 
 now probably as close as can be under present methods 
 of handUng. Cooperation between buyer and seller 
 will be the best means of improving conditions, and of 
 holding this new trade for the United States in years 
 to come. 
 
 I. F. Laucks. 
 
 Seattle, Sept., igiS. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Definition— General Properties— Rancidity and Free Fatty 'Acids 
 — Oil Cake — Refining— Physical and Chemical Properties and 
 Reactions of Oils — Moisture or Water— Insoluble Sediment, 
 Dirt, Foreign Substance— Specific Gravity — Melting-, 
 Solidifying-, and Freezing-points — Refractive Index — Color — 
 Viscosity — Saponification Value or Number (Koettstoerfer 
 No.) — Iodine Number — Reichert-Meissl, Reichert-Wollny 
 Number — Acetyl Value — Free Fatty Acids and Acid Value 
 or Number — Unsaponifiable Matter — Qualitative Tests — 
 Color Tests — Examination of the Fatty Acids — Cholesterol 
 and Sitosterol (Phytosterol) —Examination of Oils for Purity i 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Perilla Oil — Linseed Oil, Flaxseed Oil — Proportion of Oil in 
 Seeds — Boiled Linseed Oil— China Wood Oil, Chinese Tung 
 Oil, China Nut Oil — Heat or Coagulation Test for China 
 Wood Oil — Japanese Tung Oil, Japanese Wood Oil — Candle 
 Nut Oil, Lumbang Oil — Stillingia Oil, Tallow Seed Oil — 
 Hemp Seed Oil — ^Walnut Oil — Soya Bean Oil — Poppy Seed 
 Oil — Sunflower Oil — Corn Oil — Cottonseed Oil — Sesame Oil, 
 Rape Oil, Colza Oil— Almond Oil— Peanut Oil— Tea Seed 
 Oil— Olive Oil— Castor Oil— Animal Oils— Fish Oils— 
 Menhaden Oil — Japanese Sardine Oil, or Fish Oil — Sardine 
 Oil— Salmon Oil— Herring Oil— Li\'er Oii-s— Cod Liver Oil 
 — Shark Liver Oil — Dogfish Liver Oil — Blubber Oils — 
 Whale Oil— Turtle Oil— Porpoise Oil— Dolphin Oil— Ter- 
 restrial Animal Oils — Silkworm Oils, Chrysahs Oil — 
 Egg Oil— Neat's-foot Oil— Palm Oil— Cacao Butter- 
 Chinese Vegetable Tallow— Palm Nut Oil, Palm Kernel 
 Oil — Cocoanut Oil — Japan Wax— Animal Fats — Bone 
 Fat— Tallow— Beef Tallow— Horse Fat— Butter Fat- 
 Butter Substitut3 — Renovated Butter — Waxes — Sperm 
 Oil — Solid Waxes — Carnauba Wax — Wool Wax or Wool 
 
 Grease — Beeswax — Spermaceti — Insect Wax 30 
 
 vii 
 
Vlll CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Uses of Oils— Edible Oils— Salad Oils— Edible Fats— Oils for 
 Medicinal Purposes — Burning or Illuminating Oils — Paint 
 Oils — Lubricating Oils — Wool Oils, Cloth Oils — Hydrogen- 
 ated or Hardened Oils or Fats — Boiled Oils — Varnishes — 
 Enamels — Paints — Blown Oils, Oxidized Oils — Rubber Sub- 
 stitute, Vulcanized Oils — Nitrated Oils — Sulphonated Oils — ■ 
 Candles — Fatty Acids — Soap Stock Fatty Acids — Soap — 
 Glycerin — Polishes — Foots, Soap Stock — Greases — Sod Oil, 
 Degras ic3(5 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Sampling — Tank Cars— Barrels — Cases — Storage Tanks— Seeds, 
 
 Cake iig 
 
COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Vegetable and animal oils, and fats (as distinct from 
 mineral oils, or petroleums), are compounds of carbon, 
 hydrogen and oxygen which are found naturally in all 
 plants and animals. 
 
 The word oils is generally applied to the varieties liquid 
 at ordinary temperatures, and fats, to those solid at 
 ordinary temperatures. Oils and fats are chemical 
 combinations of glycerin as a base with the so-called 
 fatty acids. 
 
 The combination forms the so-called neutral oil or 
 fat. There is a large number of different kinds of fatty 
 acids. The different kinds of oils found in nature are 
 due to the number of fatty acids. Any one oil gen- 
 erally has some one kind of acid predominant in it, 
 and along with this predominant acid it will have 
 besides a number of the other acids in smaller amounts. 
 The different acids each have different properties, and 
 impart these differences to the oils in which they occur. 
 No one oil, however, has any fixed combination of the 
 different fatty acids present in it, but the proportions 
 of these will vary with the locality, soil, season, food 
 (in the case of animals), and various other factors. 
 This accounts for differences between the same species 
 
2 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 of oil from different places, or harvested at different 
 times. 
 
 Examples of the fatty acids, with their occurrence 
 are as follows: 
 
 Butjric acid, butter. 
 
 Valeric acid, porpoise. 
 
 Laurie acid, cocoanut, palm nut. 
 
 Palmitic acid, palm, and other vegetable and animal 
 fats. 
 
 Stearic acid, animal and vegetable fats. 
 
 Arachidic acid, peanut. 
 
 Oleic acid, most vegetable and animal oils and fats. 
 
 Erucic acid, rape, fish. 
 
 Linolic acid, drying oils. 
 
 Linolenic acid, linseed and other drying oils. 
 
 Ricinoleic acid, castor. 
 
 It must not be supposed that any of the above acids 
 are the only acids in the oils named. Thus cocoanut 
 oil, besides lauric acid, will contain stearic, palmitic, 
 oleic, etc., in varying proportions. 
 
 General Properties 
 
 All oils are lighter than water. When pure they are 
 colorless, but most commercial oils are yellow, or even 
 of darker colors due to impurities. Oils are odorless 
 and tasteless when pure, the taste and odor of commercial 
 oils being due to impurities. 
 
 Oils are insoluble in water, but readily soluble in 
 ether, chloroform, benzene, carbon bisulphide, carbon 
 tetrachloride, turpentine, petroleum oils and spirits. 
 They are only partially soluble in alcohol (except castor 
 oil). 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 3 
 
 They do not give off inflammable vapors unless they 
 are quite hot. They will burn with a wick. They will not 
 distill like petroleum, but decompose under strong heat.^ 
 
 If kept from the action of air, light and moisture, 
 oils will remain unaffected for great lengths of time. 
 Oils have been found unchanged which were buried for 
 several thousands of years in ancient tombs. 
 
 Oils absorb oxygen from the air. The oils classified 
 as drying oils rapidly absorb oxygen, becoming thick 
 and forming hard films. Linseed oil is an example. 
 The non-drying oils absorb oxygen at a slower rate, and 
 become rancid in the process (see later discussion of 
 rancidity). Moisture and light also cause formation 
 of rancidity. 
 
 Rancidity and Free Fatty Acids 
 
 The property of an oil developing rancidity and free 
 fatty acids is so important commercially that it is 
 worthy of special attention. Rancidity means prac- 
 tically a disagreeable smell and taste in an oil. When 
 an oil turns rancid the free fatty acids increase. Ran- 
 cidity and free fatty acids are not, however, synonymous 
 terms, as rancidity is not due to the free fatty acids, but 
 to other substances formed from them. 
 
 An oil is a combination of glycerin and fatty acids. 
 When moisture and ferments are present in an oil, the 
 combination of glycerin and fatty acid is gradually 
 broken up, so that part of the glycerin^ and part of the 
 fatty acids are present in a free state. This part of the 
 
 ' From 400 to 600° F. 
 
 ' Glycerin being soluble in water, when free is generally in the water 
 portion of an oil, except when present in large amount. See p. 87. 
 
COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 fatty acids is called the free fatty acid of the oil. This 
 action increases with time. Some oils turn rancid much 
 quicker than others. As an example of what increase 
 may occur in storage of oils the following results ob- 
 tained in the author's laboratory are quoted: 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Fish . . . ( 
 
 Whale 
 
 Castor 
 
 Peanut 
 
 Extracted bean 
 Refined rape. . . 
 Shark liver . . . . 
 
 Turtle 
 
 Cocoanut 
 
 Free Fatty Acids. 
 
 February. July. Increase, 
 
 Per Cent. 
 II . 
 9- 
 
 28 
 02 
 
 7-47 
 
 7.19 
 
 I. 20 
 
 •63 
 
 •63 
 
 ■52 
 
 •14 
 
 •35 
 
 ■14 
 
 .14 
 
 ■ 14 
 
 4- 23 
 
 553 
 
 6.63 
 
 3-74 
 
 Per Cent. 
 11.70 
 
 9S9 
 7.90 
 8. II 
 I. 20 
 1.62 
 
 ■ 99 
 1.20 
 
 .21 
 ■35 
 
 ■ 14 
 .21 
 
 ■ 14 
 4.30 
 6.13 
 9.24 
 4.02 
 
 Per Cent. 
 .42 
 
 .57 
 ■43 
 .92 
 .0 
 •99 
 ■35 
 .68 
 .07 
 .0 
 .0 
 .07 
 .0 
 .07 
 .60 
 2.61 
 .28 
 
 The above samples were stored in tight tin cans at 
 an average temperature of 65° F. 
 
 From these results it will be seen that there is con- 
 siderable variation in the increase of the acids, both 
 between different oils and, also, between different sam- 
 ples of the same oil. These differences depend largely 
 on the degree of refining and care in preparation, and 
 also on the amount of moisture present. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 5 
 
 The free fatty acids when acted upon by oxygen of 
 ths air and light develop other compounds of bad smell 
 and taste. It is these latter compounds that cause ran- 
 cidity in an oil. Of course the higher the percentage of 
 free fatty acids the more opportunity there is for the 
 formation of the substances causing rancidity. 
 
 Perhaps the most common fatty acid in oils is oleic 
 acid, which is present in some amount in practically 
 all oils. For this reason the percentage of free fatty 
 acid as determined by analysis is usually expressed as 
 oleic acid. 
 
 The free fatty acid of cocoanut oil is sometimes ex- 
 pressed as lauric acid, as this acid is present in cocoanut 
 oil in large amount. Percentage of oleic acid is con- 
 verted to lauric acid by multiplying by 0.71. To con- 
 vert percentage as lauric to oleic multiply by 1.41. 
 Likewise the free fatty acid of palm oil is sometimes 
 expressed in terms of palmitic acid. To convert per- 
 centage as oleic acid to percentage as palmitic acid, 
 multiply by 0.91. To convert palmitic to oleic, multi- 
 ply by I.I. 
 
 Classification 
 
 Lewkowitsch classifies fats and oils according to the 
 readiness with which they absorb oxygen, i.e., their 
 "drying" properties, and, according to whether they 
 are of animal or vegetable origin, as follows: 
 
 I. Liquid Fats or Oils: 
 A . Vegetable oils. 
 
 I. Drying oils: linseed, perilla, tung or Chi- 
 nese wood, soya. 
 
6 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 2. Semi-drying oils: cottonseed, corn, sesame, 
 
 rape. 
 
 3. Non-drjdng oils: peanut, olive, castor, 
 
 almond. 
 
 B. Animal oils. 
 
 1. Marine animal oils. 
 
 a. Fish oils: menhaden, salmon, sar- 
 
 dine, herring. 
 
 b. Liver oils: cod, shark. 
 
 c. Blubber oils: whale, porpoise, seal, 
 
 turtle. 
 
 2. Terrestrial animal oils: neat's-foot, silk- 
 
 worm oil. 
 
 II. Solid Fats: 
 
 A . Vegetable fats. Palm, cacao butter, cocoanut, 
 
 Japan wax. 
 
 B. Animal fats: 
 
 1. Drying fats: icebear, rattlesnake. 
 
 2. Semi-drying fats: wild duck, horse, rabbit. 
 3 Non-drying fats: lard, tallow, butter. 
 
 The waxes which are related to fats are classified as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Liquid waxes — sperm oil. 
 
 2. Solid waxes. 
 
 1. Vegetable — ^carnauba, raphia, palm. 
 
 2. Animal — beeswax, spermaceti, Chinese wax, 
 
 wool wax. 
 It will be noted that sperm oil and spermaceti are 
 properly classed as waxes. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 Preparation of Oils and Fats from their Raw Ma- 
 terials 
 
 In general the methods of obtaining oils and fats are 
 simple. Only the general methods will be discussed 
 here. Any special methods affecting the commercial 
 properties of an oil will be mentioned imder the descrip- 
 tion of that particular oil. 
 
 The general methods are the following: 
 
 (i) Rendering — that is, heating the oil-containing 
 material with water or steam, until the oil exudes from 
 its enclosing cells, and collects on top of the water. 
 It may then be separated. This may be carried out 
 in tanks heated by coils, or in digesters, i.e., boilers 
 into which live steam is injected. 
 
 Rendering is chiefly used for animal fats, as lard, 
 tallow, whale oil, and is of little importance for vege- 
 table fats. (See cocoanut oil.) 
 
 (2) Expressing. This process is chiefly used for 
 vegetable oils. The machines used have been gradually 
 improved from primitive trituration in mortars or wedge 
 presses, to the modern hydraulic press. The process 
 consists simply of forcing the oil out of its cells by 
 pressure. The hydraulic press is the common means 
 of applying the pressure, though crude native methods 
 are still used in some countries. 
 
 Practically all edible vegetable oils are obtained by 
 expression, and expression of such oils is done at as low 
 temperature as possible. Oils for technical uses are 
 expressed hot. More oil is obtained from seeds when 
 expressed hot. The quaUty is, however, poorer. The ■ 
 
8 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 first oil expressed is the lowest in free fatty acids and 
 of the best quality.^ 
 
 The quality of the oil expressed also depends on the 
 quality of the seeds. The oil in the seeds may become 
 rancid, just as it does after it is pressed. Seeds should 
 be kept dry, well ventilated and out of bright light. 
 Moisture especially will cause the formation of free 
 fatty acids in the seeds and the development of ran- 
 cidity. 
 
 (3) Extracting. In this process the oil is dissolved 
 out from other accompanying material by some solvent, 
 in which the oil only dissolves. Such solvents are 
 gasoline (or petroleum ether which is a hght gasoline), 
 carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride, benzol, chloro- 
 form, acetone, ether. Only gasoline and carbon bi- 
 sulphide are used on a large scale, the other solvents 
 being too expensive. Extraction processes cannot be 
 used for obtaining oils for edible purposes, as a bad 
 tait2 will be left in the oil, no matter how carefully or 
 thoroughly the solvent is afterwards separated. Such 
 oils can only be used for technical purposes. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the natural odor and flavor 
 of a crude oU prevent the determination by smell and 
 taste whether the oil is extracted or not. If, however, 
 such an oil be refined and deodorized for edible use, 
 the taste and smell of the solvent remaining would be 
 detectable. Chemical methods will give the final 
 answer as to whether an oil is extracted or not. 
 
 The solvent used in extracting the oil is,, of course, 
 
 1 Two, three, and sometimes more expressions are often made, the 
 first cold, and succeeding ones at liigher temperatures. Often expressing 
 is followed by extraction with solvents. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 9 
 
 used over and over again. It is separated from the dis- 
 solved oil by distillation. A small loss of solvent occurs.* 
 
 Oil Cake 
 
 The residue left after the oil has been extracted by 
 Dne of the foregoing methods is called the cake. Cake 
 from expression processes still contains considerable 
 oil; in some cases as much oil is left in the cake as has 
 been obtained. The amount of oil left in the cake de- 
 pends on the raw material, temperature, pressure and 
 type of machine used. Cakes from extraction proc- 
 esses contain very little oil. 
 
 Cakes are used for stock food and fertiUzing purposes. 
 Not all cakes can be used for stock food. Some, as for 
 example castor seed cake, contain poisonous substances. 
 Cakes from extraction processes are sometimes used as 
 cattle food, but generally are not favored for such use, 
 and find their main outlet as fertilizers. The oil left 
 in the cake becomes of value when it is used as a stock 
 food, but has no value when used as a fertilizer. 
 
 A stock food is valued on the following components: 
 (The last three being more or less detrimental.) 
 
 1. Oil or fats. 
 
 2. Carbohydrates, including starch and sugars. 
 
 3. Proteids, or nitrogen containing substances. 
 
 4. Indigestible matter, called " crude fiber." 
 
 5. Mineral matter, or ash. 
 
 6. Moisture. 
 
 A fertilizer is valued differently, as follows: 
 
 ' Extraction yields higher amounts of oil than expression. Extrac- 
 tion by laboratory methods yields practically 100 per cent of the con- 
 tained oil. Commercially the yields are somewhat lower. 
 
10 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 1. Nitrogen (or ammonia). 
 
 2. Phosphoric acid, or bone phosphate. 
 
 3. Potash (as K2O). 
 
 4. Moisture. 
 
 Nitrogen is the chief fertihzing value in oil cakes. 
 
 Refining 
 
 Oils, as first obtained, generally contain impurities 
 in the form of fiber and mucilaginous matter, moisture, 
 dirt or insoluble sediment, free fatty acids, etc., and in 
 order to make the best grade, need refining. Refining 
 is done by a number of different methods. 
 
 Standing for some time settles out much of the sedi- 
 ment, water, fiber, mucilaginous matter. Standing 
 cold is especially efficacious as some of the impurities 
 are only slightly soluble in oil at low temperatures. 
 Washing out the oils with boiling water is another method 
 of getting rid of some of the mucilaginous matter. 
 Free fatty acids are removed by treatment with alkalies. 
 
 Filtration through such substances as fuller's earth, 
 charcoal, etc., is used to clarify and decolorize oils, 
 especially for edible purposes. Treatment with sul- 
 phuric acid is used for rape and linseed oils. There 
 are a number of bleaching processes using chemicals. 
 Chlorine, bleaching powder, bichromates, sulphites have 
 been used, along with a number of others. Bleaching 
 by oxygen is done either by exposure to air and sunlight, 
 or the oxygen is introduced as a gas or as ozone. 
 
 Edible oils are, in general, the best grade of any oil 
 produced, and need special attention in their prepara- 
 tion and refining. The raw material must be fresh 
 and of the best grade, and the oil extracted as quickly 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 11 
 
 as possible after harvesting. The oil of first expres- 
 sion, being of the best quality, is. used for edible oil. 
 Refining is done by clarifying by fuller's earth* or animal 
 charcoal, and free fatty acids are removed by alkalies. 
 Aside from this, however, no chemical processes of 
 bleaching or refining can be used for edible oils. The 
 clarifying and refining takes out, besides the free fatty 
 acids and insoluble matter, any substances such as fer- 
 ments which would cause later development of free 
 fatty acids and rancidity.^ 
 
 It is not desirable that edible oils should congeal at 
 low temperatures, that is, they should not deposit a soUd 
 fat. The oil is therefore cooled by refrigeration, where- 
 upon the " stearine " settles out or is filtered out. The 
 oil which remains Hquid will not deposit any further 
 sediment. This is " winter oil," so-called because it 
 used to be held over wintertime in order to separate out 
 the " stearine." 
 
 , " Stearine " is the name applied to fats which settle 
 out of liquid oils. These fats are of higher melting- 
 point than the bulk of the oil in which they occur. 
 
 Practically any vegetable oil may be used for edible 
 purposes, except certain ones which contain poisonous 
 substances, such as China wood or tung oil, castor, 
 candle-nut and croton. Aside from such considera- 
 tion then the judgment as to whether an oil is edible or 
 not rests on its taste and smell. 
 
 ' Fuller's earth is a mineral product resembling clay in its chemical 
 compoaition. It has a great absorbent power for coloring matter, 
 hence its value in clarifying and decolorizing. 
 
 ^ The loss in weight due to taking out all these substances by refining 
 is called the refining loss. It may be determined in the laboratory 
 approximately. See also specifications for cottonseed, peanut, etc. 
 
12 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Some oils may contain a much liigher percentage of 
 free fatty acids than others, and still be edible. Also 
 an oil with no free fatty acids may not be desirable 
 because of a flat taste. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to deodorize fish oils 
 to render them fit for edible uses, but so far without 
 much success. Cod Hver oil seems to be about the only 
 fish oil that is taken internally, and that without much 
 pleasure. 
 
 Oils should be stored at as low a temperature and be 
 kept as free from moisture as possible. If kept from 
 air, light and moisture, oils will keep indefinitely, as 
 has been shown by oils buried with mummies in Egyp- 
 tian tombs, which have not developed free fatty acids 
 in several thousand years. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Properties and Reactions of Oils 
 
 Under this head will be discussed briefly a number of 
 technical methods which are used in the examination 
 of oils to determine their quality and purity. 
 
 It must be understood that there is no absolute method 
 of determining the purity of an oil, all of the methods 
 used being comparative. For instance, if a chemist is 
 called upon to determine the purity of a sample of table 
 salt, he can determine absolutely the percentage of 
 sodium chloride present, and also the percentage of 
 impurities. Such absolute and exact methods are not 
 applicable in the case of oils unfortunately. 
 
 In Judging the purity of an oil we have to depend on 
 past experience. Certain properties of oils, which are 
 called "constants" or "characteristics" have been 
 found to have always the same values (within certain 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 13 
 
 limits) for the same oil. Whenever then, a sample of oil 
 is examined, these characteristics are determined. If 
 their values correspond to the values which the oil in 
 question has been found to possess by past experience, 
 then we conclude it is pure. If the values of the char- 
 acteristics differ radically from past experience, sus- 
 picion is at once thrown upon the purity of the oil. 
 Various special tests are then used to confirm the pres- 
 ence of adulteration. 
 
 Other properties are called " variables." The values 
 of the variables vary with the purity, rancidity, age, etc., 
 of the oil. Still other methods of examination are used 
 for accidental impurities. 
 
 Important characteristics of oils are: iodine number, 
 saponification number, refractive index, viscosity, speci- 
 fic gravity, titer. 
 
 Variables are free fatty acids, color, unsaponifiable 
 matter, acetyl number (except in the case of castor 
 oil where it is a characteristic). Accidental impurities 
 are water, insoluble matter. 
 
 Moisture or Water 
 
 The determination of water is important from the 
 buyer's standpoint, because he does not wish to pay for 
 water at the same rate as oil. The presence of water 
 also causes oil to become rancid more quickly. Some oils 
 can hold up to about § per cent of water and still be 
 clear. Above that amount the presence of water is 
 shown by turbidity. Various crude methods are used 
 for estimating water, but their results cannot be depended 
 on for all oils. Special apparatus and care is necessary 
 for the exact determination of water. 
 
14 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Insoluble Sediment, Dirt, Foreign Substance ^ 
 
 Includes solid non-fatty matter, remains of animal or 
 vegetable tissue, sand. The determination is important 
 in the case of crude oils which have been prepared 
 without much care. 
 
 Specific Gravity 
 
 The specific gravity of any one oil will always be very 
 nearly the same. For instance, the specific gravity of 
 soya bean oil from many sources will vary from .922 to 
 .926 at 15.5° C, but will seldom, if ever, fall outside 
 these limits. 
 
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given 
 volume of oil (or any other substance) to the weight of 
 the same volume of water, the specific gravity of which 
 is arbitrarily called i.oo. For example, the weight 
 of a gallon of soya bean oil is .922 the weight of a gallon 
 of water, and so on.^ 
 
 Specific gravity also varies with the temperature, and 
 is less, the hotter the oil. (This, of course, is due to 
 expansion of volume by heat.) For this reason, to be 
 comparable, specific gravities always have to be deter- 
 mined at some one agreed-upon temperature. This 
 temperature, whenever possible, is 15.5° C, or 60° F. 
 To change specific gravities taken at any other tempera- 
 ture to that at 15.5° or 60° F. the factor of .00064 for 
 each degree Centigrade, or for each 1.8° F.^ is to be 
 
 ' Also Called impurities. 
 
 " See p. 133 for weight per gallon of various oils. 
 ^ One degree on the Centrigrade thermometric scale is equivalent 
 to 1.8 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. See p. 134. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 15 
 
 either added or subtracted, depending on whether the 
 oil is hotter or cooler than the standard temperature. 
 
 If a chemist should report to you a gravity taken at 
 25.5° C. and you wished to change it to compare with 
 one at 15.5° C, multiply .00064 by 10 = .0064, and add 
 the product .0064 to the specific gravity determined at 
 25.5° C. The sum will be the specific gravity at 15.5° C. 
 Specific gravity of all oils is less than i, ranging from 
 .910 to .965 with some of the waxes above or below 
 (sperm oil) these limits. The determination of specific 
 gravity is important in establishing purity. 
 
 Specific gravity is also sometimes expressed by certain 
 empirical scales as degrees. Such a scale is Baum6's 
 scale, which is sometimes used for oils, and very com- 
 monly used for petroleum oils. For liquids lighter than 
 water the Baumd degree number increases, the lighter 
 the liquid becomes. A table showing the comparison 
 between the Baume scale and specific gravity is given 
 on page 133. 
 
 Melting-, Solidifying-, and Freezing-points 
 
 Neither of these properties is very important in the 
 examination of oils to determine purity. The freezing- 
 point is important in the examination of lubricating oils. 
 
 The melting-point of oils and fats is not of much value 
 as an indication of purity, as it is hard to determine by 
 an invariable method, and also the melting-point of 
 natural oils and fats varies considerably. 
 
 The melting-point of the fatty acids prepared from an 
 oil is more constant, and is used especially on hard fats. 
 
 The solidifying-point of an oil is rarely taken. The 
 same remarks apply as for melting-points. The solidi- 
 
16 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 fying-point of the fatty acids is more definite. The 
 titer test is one way of determining the solidifying- 
 point of the fatty acids. It is done under certain 
 standard conditions, that may be exactly dupHcated by 
 two chemists working independently. 
 
 When the fatty acids solidify, a thermometer immersed 
 in them drops to a certain point at which there occurs 
 a small rise as solidification commences. After this the 
 thermometer again drops. The top point of the rise 
 is taken as the " titer " or " titre." Titer is expressed 
 in degrees Centigrade. This test is much used on lard 
 and tallow to detect foreign admixture. It is also 
 valuable in the examination of fats for candle-making 
 purposes.^ Titer is a characteristic of the fatty acids 
 of an oil or fat, and as such may be used to establish 
 purity. 
 
 The pour test, used for lubricating oils, is used to 
 determine the temperature at which the oil remains 
 liquid, as this point is of considerable importance for 
 such oils. It is carried out under standard conditions. 
 
 Cold tests^ or cloud tests are used to determine the 
 temperature at which solid matter or stearine separates 
 out of an oil, or the temperature at which an oil will 
 remain clear without such separation. They are used in 
 the case of cottonseed, neat's-foot and sperm oils. 
 
 Refractive Index 
 
 This is a characteristic of liquid fats or oils which is 
 based on certain properties of the oil in deflecting a 
 beam of light passing through the oil. This deflection 
 
 ' See p. 113. 
 ^ See p. si. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 17 
 
 can be measured (by an instrument called a refrac- 
 tometer) and affords a method of determining whether 
 an oil is pure or not. Refractive indices should be 
 taken as a standard temperature (which is usually 
 40° C). The temperature at which the determination 
 is made should always be stated.^ 
 
 Color 
 
 Color in vegetable and animal oils is generally judged 
 by the eye, except in the case of cottonseed oil and sonic 
 other refined edible oils. Color is determined by an 
 instrument called the Lovibond tintometer. This is 
 an apparatus for matching definite shades of color 
 with the oil under examination, so that its color may be 
 definitely stated. 
 
 Cottonseed has for a long time been bought and sold 
 on definite color determinations.^ At the present time 
 the tendency is to specify definite colors on other edible 
 oils as soya, cocoanut and peanut. 
 
 The Interstate Cottonseed Crushers Association has 
 adopted a standard bleaching test, which determines 
 the color to which an oil, first refined by alkali, can 
 be afterwards bleached by a standard fuller's earth. 
 
 Viscosity 
 
 Viscosity may be defined as the internal friction of an 
 oil, or its resistance to flow. Oils vary in this property 
 and it may be used in the examination of oils to detect 
 adulteration. It is especially valuable in the examina- 
 tion of lubricating oils. Viscosity is usually measured 
 
 * Refractive index is especially used in the case of china wood oil. 
 
 • See various specifications under cottonseed oil. 
 
18 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 by the time taken by a certain volume of oil at a certain 
 temperature to flow through a small orifice. Several 
 styles of apparatus are used, as for instance, Engler's, 
 Saybolt's, Redwood's, Tagliabues'. Each of these gives 
 different results, so that the kind of apparatus on which 
 the determination is made (as well as the temperature), 
 should always be stated. The time of flow is expressed 
 in seconds. The time of flow of the oil in seconds, 
 divided by the time of flow of the same volume of water 
 under the same conditions, is called the " specific 
 viscosity." The higher the temperature the lower 
 is the viscosity. (Which is the same as saying an oil 
 becomes thinner when heated.) The U. S. Bureau of 
 Standards has worked out a table comparing several 
 different viscosimeters, which enables results obtained 
 in one apparatus to be converted to terms of 
 another. 
 
 See page 285, Volume XV (1915), Part I, Proceedings 
 American Society of Testing Materials. 
 
 It is unfortunate that some one of the various viscosim- 
 eters cannot be adopted as standard, thus eliminating 
 the confusion attendant upon converting readings of 
 one to leadings of other instruments. 
 
 In the following table the oils are arranged in order 
 of their viscosity, castor oil being the highest. 
 
 Castoi. 
 
 China wood. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Rape. 
 
 Neat's-foot. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 19 
 
 Peanut. 
 Linseed. 
 Cottonseed. 
 
 Saponification Value or Number (Eoettstoerf er Number) 
 
 This is a characteristic value of oils and fats, capable 
 of exact determination, and indicating their purity. 
 It is expressed as the number of milligrams' of potassium 
 hydrate (caustic potash) required to completely saponify 
 I gram of oil, or in other words, it represents the per- 
 centage of caustic potash (expressed in tenths of a 
 per cent) required to saponify an oil. Thus an oil hav- 
 ing a saponification number of 200 requires 200 tenths 
 per cent, or 20 per cent caustic potash to completely 
 saponify it. 
 
 Besides identifying an oil and establishing its purity, 
 this constant is used by the soap maker to determine 
 the amount of alkalies necessary to combine with a given 
 fat to form a soap, and also as a rough measure of the 
 glycerin content. (See page 116.) 
 
 The saponification number of most oils Ues between 
 190 and 200. Exceptions to this statement are rape, 
 castor, fish and liver oils, which are below, and cocoanut 
 and palm nut above these figures. 
 
 It must be remembered that unsaponifiable matter 
 in an oil will lower the saponification number, so that 
 the two determinations should always be made together. 
 Likewise large amounts of free fatty acids will raise the 
 saponification number. 
 
 1 A milligram is 77^ gram. A gram is about -^g ounce avoirdupois. 
 
20 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Iodine Number 
 
 This is perhaps the most important smgle characteris- 
 tic or constant of oils as far as determining puiity is 
 concerned. It was noted above that the saponification 
 numbers of most oils varied between 190 and 200, with 
 a few exceptions. Iodine numbers on the contrary 
 run all the way from i to over 200. The determination 
 of the iodine number at once therefore places an unknown 
 oil, approximately at least. 
 
 The iodine number is defined as the number of milli- 
 grams of iodine absorbed by i gram of a fat or oil. 
 The determination is carried out by several different 
 methods, (Hiibl, Hanus, Wijs) which may give some- 
 what varying results. It is well, therefore, to state the 
 method employed in making the determinations. 
 
 The iodine value and the absorbing power for oxygen 
 run parallel. High iodine values therefore denote 
 drying oils, valuable for varnish, paint, etc. 
 
 The table on page 21 gives the commoner oils classi- 
 fied according to their iodine values: 
 
 Bromine Value 
 
 This is similar to iodine value and is sometimes sub- 
 stituted for it. 
 
 Reichert-Meissl, Reichert-Wollny Number 
 
 is the number of cubic centimeters of decinormal caustic 
 potash solution required to neutrahze the volatile fatty 
 acids distilled in a certain way. In other words, this 
 number is a measure of the fatty acids of an oil which 
 are capable of being distilled. Not many oils contain 
 volatile fatty acids, so that this determination is not 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 21 
 
 Drying oils . 
 
 Semi-drying oils. 
 
 Non-drying oils. 
 
 Fish oils. 
 
 Liver oils. . . . 
 Blubber oils . 
 
 Vegetable fats. 
 
 Animal fats. 
 
 Waxes. 
 
 Perilla , 
 
 Linseed 
 
 Tung, Japanese and 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Soya 
 
 Poppy seed 
 
 Maize or com 
 
 Cottonseed 
 
 Sesame 
 
 Ravison 
 
 Rape 
 
 Almond 
 
 Peanut or arachis. . . 
 
 Rice 
 
 Teaseed 
 
 Olive 
 
 Castor 
 
 Menhaden 
 
 Sardine 
 
 Japanese sardine . . . 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Herring 
 
 Seal 
 
 Whale 
 
 Pahn 
 
 Cacao butter 
 
 Vegetable tallow . 
 
 Palmnut 
 
 Cocoanut 
 
 Lard 
 
 Beef tallow 
 
 Mutton tallow . . 
 
 Butter 
 
 Sperm oil 
 
 Camauba wax . . 
 
 Beeswax 
 
 Spermaceti ..... 
 Insect wax 
 
 Iodine Number. 
 196-206 
 173-201 
 
 150-170 
 130-143 
 133-143 
 III-130 
 io8-iio 
 103-108 
 
 IOI-I22 
 94-102 
 
 93- 97 
 83-100 
 91-106 
 8s- 90 
 79- 88 
 83- 90 
 
 139-173 
 
 161-193 
 
 100-187 
 
 1SS-16S 
 
 123-142 
 
 130-170 
 
 127-193 
 
 1 21-146 
 
 51- S7 
 
 32- 41 
 
 19-38 
 
 13- 17 
 
 8- 10 
 
 46- 70 
 
 38- 46 
 
 35- 46 
 
 26- 50 
 
 81- 90 
 
 12- 14 
 
 8- II 
 
 3- 4 
 I- 2 
 
22 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 very important. It is chiefly used in the examination 
 of butter fat, which has a Reichert number of 26-33. 
 Cocoanut has 7, porpoise oils 23-65, dolphin 6, turtle 5, 
 croton 12-14, maize or corn 4-10. These are the 
 only common oils, however, which have considerable 
 numbers. 
 
 Acetyl Value 
 
 Certain of the fats on being treated with acetic anhy- 
 dride combine with a so-called " acetyl " group. After- 
 wards from such combination, acetic acid can be ob- 
 tained. The acetyl value is a measure of the ability 
 of oils to react with acetic anhydride. This is especially 
 important in the examination of castor oil, as it has the 
 highest acetyl value of any oil. A number of the other 
 oils have considerable acetyl values, but it happens 
 in the other oils that the acetyl value increases with the 
 age of the oil, so that it is not such a valuable character- 
 istic in the examination of other oils than castor. 
 
 Free Fatty Acids and Acid Value or Number 
 
 The free fatty acid is that portion of the fatty acid of 
 an oil which is uncombined with glycerin (or other base 
 in the case of waxes) (see page loi). The free fatty 
 acids are not a constant or characteristic of an oil, but 
 change according to age, method of preparation and treat- 
 ment. Their determination is very important as 
 showing the quality of the oil. For most oils the free 
 fatty acids are expressed as per cent in terms of oleic 
 acid, since oleic acid is the most common of the fatty 
 acids in oils. (See also page 5.) Sometimes the free 
 fatty acids in lubricating oils are expressed in terms 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 23 
 
 of sulphuric acid, or sulphuric anhydride (SO3). This 
 does not necessarily mean, however, that sulphuric acid 
 is present in such an oil.^ 
 
 The acid value is merely another way of expressing 
 the free acidity. Acid value is converted to percentage 
 of free fatty acids (as oleic) by multiplying the acid num- 
 ber by one-half, or twice the free fatty acids gives the 
 acid number. 
 
 Unsaponifiable Matter 
 
 Strictly speaking this is all matter in an oil which is 
 not capable of uniting with alkali; that is, saponifying. 
 The glycerin would be included under unsaponifiable 
 with this definition, however, and so the further proviso 
 is added, that so-called unsaponifiable matter must^ 
 also be insoluble in water. Most oils or fats include 
 some small quantities of naturally occurring unsaponi- 
 fiable matter, but these rarely exceed 2 per cent (except 
 in liver oils). Larger quantities than this, therefore, 
 at once raise the suspicion that mineral oils are present. 
 Mineral oils are completely unsaponifiabj e. Sperm oil 
 also naturally contains up to 30 per cent unsaponi- 
 fiable matter, but sperm oil is properly classed as a 
 wax. The determination of unsaponifiable matter in 
 an oil is especially important to the soap maker, as all 
 unsaponifiable matter in an oil is loss to him as far 
 as soap making is concerned. 
 
 Mineral oils, rosin oils, paraffin, ceresin and coal tar 
 oils are looked for in unsaponifiable matter, if this is 
 
 ' Sulphuric acid is sometimes left in oil from refining processes, to 
 the detriment of the oil, hence the origin of this method of expression 
 of the acid content. 
 
24 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 unnaturally high in an oil. Special tests are applied 
 for each. 
 
 Qualitative Tests 
 
 Various tests, for distinguishing certain oils or classes 
 of oils, which do not give results capable of exact 
 measurement, are called qualitative tests. Some of 
 these are as follows: 
 
 Elaidin Test. Based on behavior of oils with nitric 
 acid. Non-drying oils give solid products while semi- 
 drying and drying oils give liquid products. This test 
 might be used, for example, to distinguish between a 
 dr}dng and non-drying oil. 
 
 Sulphur Chloride Test. When treated with this 
 chemical, drying oils give solid bodies, insoluble in 
 carbon bisulphide, while non-drying oils give soluble 
 products. 
 
 The absorption of oxygen may also be used to dis- 
 tinguish between drying and non-drying oils. 
 
 Other such tests are heat reactions such as the 
 Maumene test, etc., but these are not much used at 
 present. Formerly much reliance was placed on the 
 Maumene test, which consisted of measuring the rise 
 of temperature due to mixing sulphuric acid with an 
 oil. This method is susceptible to so many errors and 
 uncertainties that it is Uttle used nowadays. It may 
 be used to distinguish between drying and non-drying 
 oils, in a qualitative way. 
 
 Color Tests 
 
 Formerly various color tests were held to be of much 
 importance. These were especially used to detect small 
 amounts of one oil mixed with another. It has been 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 25 
 
 demonstrated that most of these tests are not reliable, 
 and they are now little used. Exceptions to this 
 statement are Baudouin's test for sesame oil, Halphen 
 test for cottonseed, Lieberman-Storch for rosin oil. 
 
 Examination of the Fatty Acids 
 
 Sometimes it is desirable to determine the constants 
 or characteristics of the fatty acids, as some determina- 
 tions are more exact and reliable when made on the fatty 
 acids than on the original oil. For such determinations 
 the fatty acids are prepared from the oil by saponify- 
 ing and then setting free the fatty acids from the 
 soap. 
 
 In general the same characteristics as previously 
 described may be determined for the fatty acids. It 
 was noted on page i6 that the titer test there described, 
 was the solidifying-point of the fatty acids, and that it 
 was more exact than the determination of the solidify- 
 ing-point of the original oil. The fatty acids of most oils 
 are insoluble in water. Butter fat, cocoanut oil, cotton- 
 seed, lard and tallow, however, contain some amount 
 of fatty acids soluble in water. 
 
 Aside from the titer test, however, the examination 
 of the fatty acids is not very important in the commercial 
 examination of oils, but is used in special examinations 
 to detect adulteration, etc. 
 
 Cholesterol and Sitosterol (Phjrtosterol) 
 
 These are substances occurring in the unsaponifiable 
 matter of oils and fats. Cholesterol occurs only in 
 animal fats and oils, while sitosterol (or phytosterol) 
 occurs in \'egetable oils. The presence of sitosterol 
 
26 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 therefore in an animal fat, would indicate admixture of 
 vegetable oil, and vice versa. 
 
 Examination of Oils for Purity 
 
 The foregoing properties and reactions of oils are 
 largely used in determining the purity of a sample of 
 oil. The common determinations made for this purpose 
 are specific gravity, iodine, and saponification numbers, 
 per cent of unsaponifiable matter. Along with these are 
 generally made special tests for each individual oil. 
 These special tests will be enumerated under the de- 
 scription of the individual oil. If the constants as hsted 
 above are found to be within the limits as defined by 
 past experience for the oil in question, and the special 
 tests are satisfactory, it is pronounced pure. 
 To illustrate, a few examples will be given: 
 A sample of rapeseed oil is analyzed and the constants 
 are found to be 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9151 
 
 Saponification number 174 
 
 Iodine number 100 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter i , 2% 
 
 By reference to tables it is found that past experience 
 nas shown the following limits for these constants: 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 913-.917 
 
 Saponification number 170-179 
 
 Iodine number 97-106 . 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 5-1 . 5% 
 
 It is noted that the characteristics of the sample 
 under examination fall well within these limits. The 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 27 
 
 presumption is that it is pure. Besides these tests, 
 however, the following special tests are often made on 
 rapeseed oil: viscosity, freezing-point, Halphen test for 
 cottonseed, Baudouin test for sesame, titer. If the 
 viscosity, freezing-point and titer arc within the limits 
 of past experience, and the Halphen and Baudouin tests 
 give negative reactions, then the chemist is warranted in 
 saying that the sample is pure. 
 
 But suppose the Halphen test for cottonseed had given 
 a positive reaction. Then regardless of the fact that 
 the specific gravity, iodine number, saponification num- 
 ber, etc., were within the limits for rapeseed oil, the 
 chemist would pronounce the oil adulterated. 
 
 It will be noted by reference to cottonseed oil that 
 its average saponification number is 194, its iodine 
 number 11 1. 
 
 The average constants for rapeseed and cottonseed 
 oil are as follows: 
 
 
 Rapeseed 
 
 Cottonseed. 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 ■91S 
 
 lOI 
 
 175 
 
 •924s 
 
 
 Saponification number. . . 
 
 194 
 
 A mixture of 90 per cent rapeseed with 10 per 
 cent cottonseed would then have the following values, 
 if we assume the above values in the original con- 
 stituents : 
 
 Specific gravity 915 
 
 Iodine number 102 
 
 Saponification number •. 177 
 
28 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 It will be noted that these values are still within the 
 hmits for rapeseed oil. Hence the value of the special 
 Halphen test for the presence of cottonseed oil. Ten 
 per cent cottonseed would also diminish the viscosity 
 of the mixture enough to be noticeable, unless the 
 viscosity of the original rapeseed oil had been specially 
 high. 
 
 Suppose now that it had been attempted to mix lo 
 per cent of a fish oil having an iodine number of 170, 
 with go per cent rape oil. The iodine number of the 
 mixture would be 108, which is above the high Umit 
 for rapeseed oil, and would at once throw suspicion upon 
 it. The specific gravity and saponification numbers 
 would still, however, be within the limits for rapeseed. 
 In this case the presence of chlolesterol in the unsaponi- 
 fiable, the yield of bromides and viscosity, would give 
 confirmatory evidence of the adulteration. 
 
 As contrasted with the above method of examination 
 may be cited the case of castor oil, whose characteristic 
 solubility in alcohol and petroleiun ether is a quick 
 and easy method of establishing its purity. China 
 wood oil is also tested by a special heat test (see page 
 38), which affords a quick method of determining 
 admixture of other oils; 
 
 Such cases as these, however, are the exception in 
 the examination of oils, and most opinions as to the 
 purity of the oil in question must be based on examina- 
 tions similar to the first example. It is seen, therefore, 
 that such an opinion can rarely be based on the results 
 of any single determination. Practically always con- 
 firmatory evidence must be obtained by the determina- 
 tion of several characteristics and by various special tests. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 29 
 
 It must also be remembered that the same oil from 
 different localities will vary considerably in its proper- 
 ties. Also an oil-bearing plant may be introduced into 
 a new country, with new climatic conditions, soil, etc., 
 and the oil produced may have somewhat different 
 characteristics than 'have been determined by past 
 experience, based on oil from the plant in its native 
 country. 
 
 With animal fats the food of the animal often influ- 
 ences the nature of the fat. For example, lard from pigs 
 fed on cottonseed meal has a higher iodine value than 
 other lard. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 In the following descriptions of oils, the characteristics 
 and properties given in standard texts such as Lewko- 
 witsch, Allen, etc., and various articles in technical 
 journals have been given. Afterwards any deviations 
 from such pubUshed results, as a result of the author's 
 experience on Oriental oils as imported at Pacific Coast 
 ports, have been noted. 
 
 Perilla Oil 
 
 China, Japan (Hokkaido), Eastern and Northern 
 India, Southern Manchuria. Sown in April. Ripens 
 in September. Several species are known. Attempts 
 have been made to raise in United States, but were 
 abandoned on account of unsatisfactory cake, which 
 has peculiar aromatic taste and smell. 
 
 Has highest known iodine number of any oil, but 
 drying power (oxygen absorbing) is not as high as lin- 
 seed. Used as substitute for linseed in printer's inks, 
 varnishes, paints. In its native countries used for edible 
 purposes. Also in Japan in preparation of artificial 
 leather, paper goods, etc. It has a property of forming 
 drops when spread on surfaces, so that it is inferior to 
 linseed for varnish purposes. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 928-. 936 
 
 Saponification number 188.6-190.6 
 
 Iodine number 196-206 
 
 Refractive index 40° C 1-4753 
 
 Melting-point — 5° C . 
 
 30 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 31 
 
 Perilla oil from China and Japan runs as high as .935 
 in specific gravity. Acids will run as high as 6 per cent. 
 Saponification number may be as high as 195. Some oil 
 shows cottonseed oil admixed. The oil is generally 
 dark colored. On heating it bleaches, and most samples 
 do not deposit sediment on heating. Not a great deal 
 of perilla oil is imported. 
 
 Linseed Oil, Flaxseed Oil 
 
 Argentine, United States, Canada, India, Russia 
 China. Russian Baltic seed gives the best oil. Cana- 
 dian oil is about the same. Argentine, Indian and 
 United States seed give poorer grade oil. Argentine, 
 Russia, India, United States, and Canada were chief 
 producers in the order named before the war. 
 
 The carefulness with which the seed is harvested 
 influences the character of the oil. Hemp, ravison, 
 rape and cameline are the commoner foreign seeds present 
 in linseed. 
 
 Proportion of Oil in Seeds 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Russian linseed 32-38 
 
 Indian linseed 37-43 
 
 River Plate linseed 35-36 
 
 N. American linseed 36-38 
 
 Levant linseed 37~42 
 
 Hungarian linseed 36-38 
 
 Morocco linseed 36-40 
 
 Sicilian linseed 41-42 
 
 Chinese linseed (yellow-brown) .... 31-38 
 
 Specifications of Chicago Board of Trade for flaxseed 
 are as follows: 
 
32 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Section i. — The weight per measured bushel designated for each 
 grade shall be that of commercially pure seed. 
 
 No. I Northwestern Flaxseed. — Flaxseed to grade No. i Northwestern 
 shall be mature, commercially sound, dry and sweet. It shall be North- 
 ern grown or have the usual characteristics thereof. The maximum 
 quantity of field, stack, storage or other damaged seed intermixed shall 
 not exceed twelve and one-half per cent. The minimum weight shall be 
 fifty-one (51) pounds to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 1 Flaxseed. — No. i flaxseed shall be commercially sound, dry and 
 free from mustiness, and carrying intermixed not more than twenty-five 
 per cent of immature or field, stack, storage or other damaged flaxseed, 
 and weighing not less than fifty (50) pounds to the measured bushel. 
 
 Rejected Flaxseed. — All damp and must flaxseed and that carrying 
 intermixed, immature or field, stack, storage or other damaged flaxseed 
 in excess of twenty per cent, and weighing not less than forty-six and one 
 half (46!) pounds, shall be graded "Rejected." 
 
 No Grade Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is wet, mouldy, warm or in a heat- 
 ing condition, or is in anywise unfit for temporary storage, or weighs less 
 than forty-six and one-half (465) pounds, shall be graded "No Grade." 
 
 Flaxseed that is smoky, burnt, or intermixed with burnt seed, shall 
 not be known by any grade, but shall be inspected in the usual way to 
 determine percentage of impurities, and shall be posted as "Burnt or 
 Smoky Flax." 
 
 Seeds are either hot pressed, cold pressed or extracted 
 by solvents. Hot pressing yields the best oil for tech- 
 nical purposes, extracted oil not being considered as 
 good. Cold pressed oil is used for edible oil in Russia, 
 Germany and India. Hot pressing also gives the best 
 cake for cattle food. Only hot-pressed cake should be 
 fed to cattle, as cake pressed at too low a temperature 
 is liable to develop poisonous prussic acid, while hot 
 pressed cake is not liable to this danger. Cakes not 
 suitable for cattle food are used as fertilizers. Cake 
 contains on an average: 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Oil 4-8 
 
 Albuminoids or crude protein 30-40 
 
 Crude fiber 8-12 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 33 
 
 Twenty-three to 28 per cent by weight of the seed 
 is obtained as oil. Nearly 10 per cent of oil remains 
 in the cake. Cold pressing gives pale edible, and 
 also good drying oil. Hot pressing gives dark oil. 
 Oil extracted by carbon bisulphide has garlic odor and 
 is dark red. 
 
 Linseed oil is much improved by standing in tanks 
 and by exposure to light allowing the foreign sub- 
 stances to settle out. Some is refined by sulphuric 
 acid, and some by alkali, the latter being used to 
 bleach dark oils. Best grade of linseed made by sun 
 bleaching is called " artists' " oil. 
 
 Raw oil is the original oil obtained from the seeds. 
 Refined oil is oil obtained from the raw by one of the 
 foregoing processes. Boiled oil is oil that has been 
 heated and to which has been added certain substances 
 known as " driers." Manganese and lead compounds 
 are commonly used. A substitute boiled oil called 
 "bung oil" is obtained by adding a drier to the oil but 
 not heating it. Boiled oil is red-brown in color, darker 
 than raw oil. " Double boiled oil " is heated longer 
 or with more drier added. It is darker in color. 
 
 Linseed oil is used chiefly in the paint and varnish 
 industry, for which it is preeminently suited, as its 
 properties make it the best drying oil known. Its use 
 in putty, oil cloth, leather cloth, Unoleum and printer's 
 ink depends also on its drying properties. In general 
 the higher the specific gravity and iodine number the 
 better will a linseed oil be for the above uses. It is 
 also used for soap, and rubber substitutes. Linseed oil 
 is hydrogenated to a sohd fat which is used in soap. 
 Substitutes for linseed oil are perilla, Chinese and Japan- 
 
34 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 ese wood, or tung oil, cottonseed, soya, fish, and other 
 semi-drying oils. 
 
 The " drying " property of linseed, and other drying 
 oils, is their ability to take up oxygen from the air, 
 forming a hard coating when a thin film is exposed to the 
 action of the air. Good hnseed oil should " dry " thus 
 in less than three days. It should not be "tacky" (or 
 sticky) to the fingers, and should form a good elastic 
 coherent skin. Samples of linseed are compared with 
 known good oils by coating glass plates and leaving 
 them stand under similar conditions. 
 
 The important characteristics to be determined in 
 judging the purity of a sample of linseed oil are: Specific 
 gravity, iodine number, oxygen absorption, unsaponi- 
 fiable matter and saponification number. Halphen test 
 is appUed for presence of cottonseed oil. Yield of hexa- 
 bromides and their melting-point is used to detect 
 adulteration by fish oils. 
 
 Low iodine number indicates adulteration. Presence 
 of fish oils can be detected by behavior of hexabro- 
 mides in melting, also by cholesterol test. Adultera- 
 tion with mineral and rosin oils is detected by unsaponi- 
 fiable matter and saponification number. 
 
 A test for the suitability of hnseed oil for the paint 
 and varnish trade is as follows: Heat a small amount 
 of the oil in a test tube until it begins to boil up, about 
 600° F. Good oil remains clear on cooling and gen- 
 erally becomes lighter in color. From inferior oils 
 insoluble matter or foots will separate out and settle 
 to the bottom of the test tube. In still poorer oils 
 this matter does not settle, but remains suspended in 
 the oil. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 35 
 
 The U. S. Government Specifications for linseed oil 
 are as follows: 
 
 The oil must be strictly pure, well-settled linseed oil, perfectly 
 clear, and not show any deposits of "foots" or a loss of more than 
 0.2 per cent, when heated for one-half hour to a temperature of 
 from 103° C. to 105° C; it must show on examination the following 
 characters: 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 
 
 Specific gravity at 25° C 
 
 Iodine value (Hanus) 
 
 Saponification value 
 
 Acid value' 
 
 Refractive index at 25° C 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, per cent 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 0.932 
 0.927 
 
 178 
 
 189 
 
 1-479 
 
 The oil, when poured on a glass plate and allowed to drain and dry in 
 a vertical position, guarded from dust and exposure to weather, must 
 dry free from tackiness in less than 75 hours at a temperature of from 
 15.5° C. to 26.5° C. 
 
 The specifications of the American Society for Testing 
 Materials are as follows: 
 
 Specific gravity at „ " 932 to . 936 
 
 25° C. 
 Specific gravity at % 927 to .931 
 
 25 ^' 
 
 Acid number" not over 6.0 
 
 Saponification number 189 to 19s 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter not over 1.50 
 
 Refractive index at 25° C 1.479 to 1.4805 
 
 Iodine number not less than i',rf 
 
 > Free fatty acids, 1.5 per cent. 
 
 'This manner of expressing temperature at which specific gravity 
 is taken, means the specific gravity of the oil at 15.5° C. is compared to 
 that of water at 15.5° C. 
 
 • Free fatty acids, 3.0 per cent. 
 
36 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Characteristics: 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C. . .931-.941 
 
 Solidifying-point Stearine deposits 
 
 at -25° C. 
 
 Melting-point - 16° to —20° C. 
 
 Saponification number 188-195 
 
 Iodine number 1 70-205 
 
 Refractive index 20° C i. 480-1. 482 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 1-2%. Usually solid 
 
 Titer 19.0-20.6° C. 
 
 Bromides (on fatty acids) . . . 29-42% 
 
 Melting-point of bromides. . 175-180° C. 
 
 Flash-point (closed cup) .... 450-500° F. 
 
 Boiled Linseed Oil 
 
 Linseed oil heated to a temperature of 210 to 260° C. 
 in presence of substances called driers, such as lead and 
 manganese compounds, undergoes a change in color, 
 specific gravity and drying properties. Boiled oil dries 
 in twelve hours, where raw linseed oil takes three days. 
 The characteristics of boiled oil are different from raw 
 linseed oil. For example the iodine number varies 
 from 70 to 160. The specific gravity is higher and the 
 yield of bromides lower. The color is darker. The 
 mineral matter (lead, manganese) easily distinguishes 
 a boiled oil. It may be adulterated with rosin, rosin^ or 
 mineral oils, fish or tung oils. Adulterations are harder 
 to detect in boiled than in raw oils. 
 
 ' Rosin oil is the heavier part of the distillate obtained by distilling 
 pine resin. Rosin is the residue left from such distillation. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 37 
 
 China Wood Oil, Chinese Tung Oil, China Nut Oil 
 
 From the nuts of two varieties of a tree native of 
 China, Indo-China, Tonkin, Annam, the tung yu shu 
 and mu yu shu, the first being the most important. 
 Provinces of Szechwan, Kweichow, Hunan and North- 
 ern Hupeh are most important in the order named. 
 Szechwan oil has the palest color. The tung yu tree 
 grows in the above provinces. The mu yu tree grows 
 in Kwangsi. This gives the South China oil and its 
 principal market is Wuchow; while the oil from the first 
 named provinces is marketed from Hankow, by which 
 name this grade is often called. 
 
 The two trees yield practically the same oil chemic- 
 ally. The difference between the grades appears to be 
 mainly due to differences in methods of handling. It 
 is obtained in a crude way by small producers and col- 
 lected at Hankow by middlemen, where it is clarified 
 and shipped. Cakes are poisonous and only used for 
 fertilizer. By some it is claimed that the oil itself is 
 poisonous. Cold pressed oil is pale; hot pressed, 
 dark. It has a peculiar smell, said to be absent from 
 fresh pressed oil. On keeping, the oil jellies or solidifies 
 or polymerizes. Crystalt> form which increase with time. 
 
 While wood oil dries more quickly than Unseed oil, 
 it does not give an elastic film, but a waxlike opaque 
 skin. When heated to 500° F. for a short time it 
 solidifies to a jelly-like mass.' This property forms the 
 basis of heat tests of China wood oil, which are very 
 useful in determining its purity. 
 
 On account of the high price of this oil it is often 
 adulterated. Soya bean, sesame, cottonseed, etc., have 
 ' Called polymeruation. 
 
38 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 been found. The New York Produce Exchange has 
 adopted the following specifications: 
 
 CHINA WOOD OIL 
 
 Sec. 25. — Pure China wood oil shall answer the accepted chemical 
 requirements. 
 
 Sec. 26. — Commercially prime China wood oil shall be pale in color 
 (according to season's production), merchantably free from foots, dirt 
 and moisture; the total impurities shall not exceed i per cent; but, 
 unless otherwise provided for, impurities not plainly adulterations, up 
 to s per cent, shall not justify rejection, but allowance shall be made by 
 sellers for such impurities in excess of i per cent. The oil shall stand 
 the heat test, herewith subjoined. 
 
 HEAT OR COAGULATION TEST FOR CHINA WOOD OIL' 
 One hundred grams of the oil is heated in an open metal pan, six 
 inches in diameter, as rapidly as possible, to a temperature of 540 degrees 
 F. The time required to heat the oil from room temperature to 540 
 degrees should be, as nearly as possible, the same each time, four minutes 
 being usually sufficient with gas burners. Hold the oil at or as near to 
 540 degrees as possible, stirring until it begins to solidify. Note the 
 time required after the oil reaches 540 degrees and until it begins to 
 solidify. This should not exceed yi minutes for any commercially 
 prime wood oil. When the oil has solidified in the pan, turn it out, 
 while still hot and cut with a knife. Commercially prime wood oil 
 gives a product that is pale, firm and cuts under the knife like dry bread, 
 not sticking. If the oil requires more than 75 minutes after reaching 
 540 degrees until beginning to solidify, or if the product is dark, soft or 
 sticky, the oil may be rejected. 
 
 Other heat tests are Bacon's, Browne's and the 
 Pratt and Lambert tests. In Bacon's test the oil is 
 heated nine minutes and compared in behavior with a 
 known pure sample of oil. In Browne's method the 
 oil is heated in test tubes and must set within twelve 
 minutes.^ 
 
 These heat tests, together with determination of 
 
 ' Known as the Worstall test. 
 
 * Browne's test has been adopted by the American Society for Testing 
 Materials. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 39 
 
 specific gravity, iodine number, saponification number, 
 refractive index, etc., ordinarily determine the purity of 
 China wood oil.^ The specific gravity is higher than in 
 any oil save castor. 
 
 China wood oil is largely used as a substitute for 
 linseed oil in varnish, waterproofing for cement, lino- 
 leum and paint, because of its rapid drying properties. 
 It is used extensively in China for waterproofing fabrics, 
 paper, for varnish, putty, lacquer and ink. The fatty 
 acids are used as a substitute for shellac. 
 
 Attempts have been made to introduce the tree into 
 California and Southern States in the United States, 
 where it is said to thrive. 
 
 Charackristics 
 
 Specific gravity atis.5°C 9406-.9440 
 
 Solidifying-point 2-3° C. 
 
 Saponification number 190-197 
 
 Iodine number 150-176 
 
 Refractive index 20° C i .511-1 . 5207 
 
 Viscosity (Redwood 60° F.) 850-1430 sees. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter up to .8 per cent 
 
 Free fatty acids up to 5.30% (Oleic) 
 
 Titer 37i°C. 
 
 Japanese Tung Oil, Japanese Wood Oil 
 
 From fruits of tree grown in Japan. This oil does not 
 gelatinize in the heat test like China wood oil, but 
 becomes thicker. It is not as good drying oil as China 
 wood oil, but is a cheaper substitute for it, and for lin- 
 seed. The cake is poisonous, but is said to lose its 
 
 ' Often the heat tests are used alone to determine purity, but this is 
 not good practice, and often gives misleading results. 
 
40 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 harmful properties when hot pressed. Not much of 
 
 this oil is exported. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity ati5.5°C 9330-.9400 
 
 Saponification number 185-197 
 
 Iodine number 149-161 
 
 Refractive index 25°C i. 5034-1 . 5099 
 
 The presence of this oil in China wood oil v/ould be 
 
 detected by the heat tests given under China wood oil. 
 
 Candle Nut Oil, Lumbang Oil 
 
 From the seeds of a tree widely distributed through- 
 out the tropics, Pacific Islands, Florida, Brazil, West 
 Indies, Africa, India, China. Cultivated in Hawaii 
 and the Philippines. It is used there for soap, paints 
 and varnish. Seeds contain over 60 per cent of oil. 
 
 The oil cannot be used for edible purposes on account 
 of its purging properties. Used to some extent in 
 paints or varnishes on account of its drying properties, 
 which, however, are not so good as linseed. Linseed 
 oil may be adulterated with it. Also used in soap, 
 especially for soft soaps. The natives use it as a burning 
 oil, as its name indicates. Experiments show that it 
 may have good value as a varnish oil. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 920-.930 
 
 Saponification number 191-195 
 
 Iodine number 158-165 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter up to o . 53% 
 
 Bromides (fatty acids) 11-12% 
 
 Refractive index 25° C i .465-1 .475 
 
 Titer 17-18° C. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 41 
 
 Stillingia Oil, Tallow Seed Oil 
 
 Obtained from seeds of the same tree from which 
 vegetable tallow is obtained in China. 
 
 It has drying properties and is used as adulterant 
 for China wood oil. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 939-. 946 
 
 Saponification number 203-210 
 
 Iodine number 145-160 
 
 Titer test 12.2° C. 
 
 Hemp Seed Oil 
 
 Hemp is cultivated in Europe, North America, India, 
 Japan, China and Manchuria. Used as paint oil, in 
 varnishes, soft soaps, and for edible purposes. Oriental 
 hemp seed comes mainly from Manchuria. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 925-. 931 
 
 Saponification number 190-193 
 
 Iodine number 140-166 
 
 Titer 15.6-16.6° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point thickens at —15° C. 
 
 " solidifies at —27° C. 
 
 Hemp seed oil has good drying properties and it would 
 seem that it should have a future in this use. Not a 
 great deal has been imported from China or Japan. 
 The oil is dark green as a rule, and rather cloudy and 
 with some sediment. Acids are low, i to 2 per cent. 
 Iodine number runs above 160. Unsaponifiable matter 
 .5 to .7 per cent. Titer around 10° C, saponification 
 
42 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 number 193. Refining loss for 1.2 per cent acid oil, 
 is 8.5 per cent, giving a yellow oil with a tinge of green. 
 On heating the crude oil becomes somewhat Ughter in 
 color. 
 
 Walnut OU 
 
 From common walnuts. Nuts are kept several 
 months before pressing, as fresh nuts give a turbid 
 oil. Nuts contain up to 65 per cent oil. Cold-pressed 
 oil is nearly colorless. The oil has good drying proper- 
 ties and is used in special grades of paints for artists' 
 use. Such paints are less liable to crack than linseed 
 oil paints. Walnut oil is generally high priced and may 
 be adulterated by Unseed, poppy, etc. High acid oil 
 is unsuitable for paints and is used for soft soap. Good 
 grade oil is used in Europe for edible purposes. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9256-. 9265 
 
 Saponification number 192-197 
 
 Iodine number 143-151 
 
 Solidifying-point thickens at — 12° C. 
 
 solidifies at —27° C. 
 
 Viscosity at 70° F. (Redwood) 232 sec. 
 
 Soya Bean Oil (Soja bean, Soy bean, bean, Chinese bean 
 oil) 
 
 Obtained from several plants native in China, Man- 
 churia, Japan, Formosa, Korea, Indo-China. Oil and 
 cake have been used for edible purposes in these coun- 
 tries for thousands of years. 
 
 The beans average as follows in composition: 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 43 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Oil l8 
 
 Water lo 
 
 Albuminoids 40 
 
 Carbohydrates 22 
 
 Crude fiber 5 
 
 Ash S 
 
 Some varieties contain nearly 23 per cent oil. The 
 pressed cake is specially valuable as a cattle food on 
 account of the high content of albuminoids (or proteids). 
 It has been found that the milk from cows fed with 
 soya bean cake is richer in butter fat. The cake is also 
 used largely for human food, and there are a number of 
 different ways of preparing it. Certain fermented liquors 
 are also made from it. The extracted meal is only 
 used for fertilizer, although it has been used in cattle 
 foods. 
 
 Crude native processes of expression yield up to 
 13 per cent of oil, while some modern mills only obtain 
 10 per cent. Further amounts are obtained by an ex- 
 traction with solvents. Many mills use extraction by 
 solvents as the only process, naphtha being most com- 
 monly used. 
 
 The expressed oil from sound beans is low in acid. 
 Higher acid oil may be refined in a similar way to 
 cottonseed oil. For edible purposes the oil is bleached 
 with fuller's earth, for technical purposes by chemicals. 
 
 The oil is used for soap making chiefly. It makes a 
 softer soap than cottonseed. Good grades of oil are 
 also used for edible purposes. A considerable quantity 
 goes into the paint and varnish trade. Soya bean is 
 considerably slower in drying than Unseed. 
 
44 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 It is considerably used in boiled oils for paints. 
 Tungate and cobalt driers are said to be most suitable 
 for soya bean oil. Varnishes of soya bean oil do not 
 give good skins. 
 
 For paint oil a sample should stand the following 
 tests: (i) It should become pale on heating to 500° F. 
 and remain so. (2) When blown with dry air for 
 five to seven hours the specific gravity should be 
 .960 or more. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C. . . . .922-. 928 
 
 Saponification number 190-194 
 
 Iodine number 114-143 
 
 Solidifying-point —15 to —8° C. 
 
 Titer 21° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter .... less than i per cent 
 
 Grades for soya bean oil suggested by the New York 
 Produce Exchange, April 15, 1918, are as follows: 
 
 SOYA BEAN OIL 
 
 Sec. 6. — Fair average quality crude shall be oil obtained from the 
 soya bean by pressure, not extraction, and shall be fair average quality 
 of the season, provided, however, that the free fatty acids shall not 
 exceed 2 per cent (calculated as oleic acid), nor moisture and impurities 
 one-half of i per cent. 
 
 Sec. 7. — Prime crude soya bean oil shall be free from water and set- 
 tlings, and shall refine to a color not deeper than 35 yellow and 9 red, 
 and with a loss not to exceed 5 per cent with the use of caustic soda. If 
 not prime, the buyer may reject. 
 
 Sec. 8. — Crude soya bean oil, sold "basis 7 per cent refining loss," 
 shall be free from water and settlings, and refine to a color not deeper 
 than 35 yellow and 11 red and with a loss not to exceed 7 per cent with 
 the use of caustic soda; provided that any oil that refines with a greater 
 loss than 7 per cent shall not be rejected, but price shall be adjusted as 
 per rule 7, section i. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 45 
 
 Sec. 9.— Extracted soya bean oil shall be sold on sample or guarantee 
 with the designation of the country of origin. 
 
 The Interstate Cottonseed Crushers Association rules 
 are as follows : 
 
 SOYA BEAN OIL— Grades 
 
 Rule 25. Section i. — Prime Soya Bean Oil shall be pressed, and not 
 extracted from Soya Beans, free from water and impurities, and shall 
 refine with a color not to exceed 35 yellow and 9 red, and with a loss not 
 to exceed s% with the use of Caustic Soda by methods adopted by the 
 Chemists' Committee to which it is referred. Provided that any oil 
 that refines with a greater loss than 5% shall not be rejected but shall 
 be reduced in price by a corresponding per cent in the Contract price of 
 the oil. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Crude Soya Bean Oil sold basis 7% refining loss, shall be 
 pressed and not extracted from Soya Beans and shall be free from water 
 and impurities and refine with a color not to exceed 35 yellow and 11 red, 
 and with a loss not to exceed 7% with the use of caustic soda by methods 
 adopted by the Chemists' Committee to which it is referred. Provided 
 that any oil that refines with a greater loss than 7% shall not be rejected 
 but shall be reduced in price by a corresponding per cent in the contract 
 price of the oil. 
 
 Most of the soya bean received from the Orient is 
 low in free fatty acids, less than 2 per cent. The 
 extracted oil contains generally less than 0.5 per cent 
 acids. The latter oil is yellow, while the pressed oil 
 is more of a brownish color. 
 
 The following table shows the character of oils im- 
 ported at Seattle: 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 Pressed Oil, 
 
 Under 
 1% 
 
 1-2% 
 
 a-4% 
 
 4-6% 
 
 Tanuarv— Tune. 1018. 
 
 72 1 
 76 
 
 100 
 
 21 
 10 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Extracted Oil. 
 Tanuarv— Au2ust. 1018. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 * 72% of samples analyzed contained under 1% free fatty acids, and so on. 
 
46 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Averages of a number of determinations on Seattle 
 imported oil are as follows: 
 
 Extracted Oil. 
 
 Specific gravity at IS-S° C 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, per cent . . 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Refining loss, per cent 
 
 Solvent left in oil, per cent 
 
 Pressed oil passed the heat test described above. ^ 
 Soya bean oil is imported in the largest quantity of any 
 individual oil. Up to the present time it has been sold 
 as f.a.q. (fair average quality) .^ Several proposals have 
 been made lately tending towards establishment of 
 grades, as above mentioned. 
 
 Poppy Seed Oil 
 
 From poppy plant. Grown largely in India, Egypt, 
 Persia, Asia Minor, Russia, France. Also Manchuria, 
 but latter oil is low quaUty. It is an important oil in 
 Europe. 
 
 Used as edible oil, also as adulterant of oKve oil, 
 for fine artist's paints. (See walnut oil.) 
 
 Commercial oil generally contains accidental admix- 
 ture with sesame. The cold-pressed oil is the grade 
 known as " white " oil, while hot pressing gives the 
 " red " grade. 
 
 ' P. 44- 
 
 2 This means fair average quality of the season's production for any 
 given district. As a matter of fact, just what this faii- average quality 
 is, would be a very difficult matter to determine. It is a very poor 
 way to grade oil. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 47 
 
 CluircKleristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 924-. 927 
 
 Saponification number 189-197 
 
 Iodine number i37~iS7 
 
 (Low values due to mixture of sesame.) 
 
 _Solidifying-point — 18° C. 
 
 Titer 15-16° C. 
 
 Sunflower Oil 
 
 Used extensively in Europe. Cultivated in Russia, 
 Hungary, India, China. Seeds contain up to 53 per 
 cent oil. It is a slow drying oil, but is used neverthe- 
 less in some varnishes; also for soap, and edible purposes. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C .924-. 926 
 
 Saponification number 188-194 
 
 Iodine number 119-135 
 
 Solidifying-point - 16 to — 18.5° C. 
 
 Corn Oil 
 
 From the germs of corn, separated in making of starch 
 and glucose, and in alcohol distilleries. The germs u,re 
 separated from the starch and pressed. The edible 
 oil is refined and deodorized by superheated steam. 
 If it stands in contact with albuminoid matter, it 
 undergoes fermentation with resultant high acids and 
 dark color, so that it has to be bleached for light soaps. 
 The crude oil can be identified by a taste similar to 
 corn meal. It is a semi-drying oil, with better drying 
 properties than cottonseed. Used for salad oil, often 
 mixed with cottonseed or other edible oils. Also in 
 manufacture of margarin and compound lard, and for 
 
48 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 baking use. Oil not fit for edible use is used for soft 
 soap. It is not fitted for hard soap. It is not suitable 
 for paints or lubrication, although it is sometimes used 
 for paint. Also used in rubber substitute. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 921-.928 
 
 Saponification number 189-192 
 
 Iodine number 121-131 
 
 Solidifying^point — 10 to —36° C. 
 
 Stearin deposits at ordinary temperature on standing. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter i . 4-2 . 3% 
 
 Titer 19° C. 
 
 Cottonseed Oil 
 
 From seeds of the cotton plant in United States, 
 Egypt, India, Brazil, Peru, Russia, W. Africa. 
 
 The seed is crushed with or without removing husk, 
 depending on whether fiber adheres or not. Whole 
 seeds yield from 16 to 24 per cent oil, kernels alone yield 
 from 34 to 39 per cent. In Europe seeds are usually 
 crushed whole, that is, husks and kernel together. In 
 the United States the seed is usually decorticated. 
 Husks remaining in the cake are not harmful to cattle, 
 but fiber adhering causes stomach troubles. Cake 
 averages about 10 per cent oil. 
 
 Cottonseed cake is graded as follows by the Inter- 
 state Cottonseed Crushers Association: 
 
 COTTON SEED CAKE 
 
 RuLF- 9. Sec. I. — Cotton Seed Cake is a product of the Cotton Seed 
 
 only, composed principally of the Kernel, with such portion of the fiber 
 
 or Hull and Oil as may be left in the course of manufacture, and shall be 
 
 graded and classed as follows: 
 
 Sec. 2. — Choice Cotton Seed Cake must be bright yellow in color, 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 49 
 
 sweet in odor, friable in texture, not burnt in cooking, free from excess of 
 lint, and shall contain not less than either eight per cent of ammonia, 
 or forty-seven per cent of combined protein and fat. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Prime Cotton Seed Cakes must he of good color, yellowish, 
 not brown or reddish, sweet in odor, firm but not flinty in texture, 
 free from excess of lint, and shall contain not less than either seven and 
 one-half per cent of ammonia, or forty-three per cent of combined pro- 
 tein and fat. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Sound Cotton Seed Cake must be of good color, not brown 
 or reddish, sweet in odor, firm but not flinty in texture, free from excess 
 of lint, and shall contain not less than either seven per cent of ammonia 
 of forty per cent of combined protein and fat. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Cotton Seed Cake not coming up in analysis to that specified 
 or implied by grade mentioned in contract shall be a good delivery if 
 within one-fourth of one per cent of ammonia content, or one and one- 
 quarter per cent of combined protein and fat, if sold in this way, but the 
 settlement price shall be reduced at the rate of one-eighth of the contract 
 price for each per cent of ammonia, or proportionately for fractions 
 thereof of deficiency. But when sold for export the basis of contract 
 shall be protein and fat combined, and the settlement price shall be 
 reduced at the rate of ,'„ or -^, as the case may be, of the contract price 
 for each one per cent of combined protein and fat, or fraction thereof, 
 deficiency. 
 
 Where Cake is sold on sample, to be a good delivery it must reason- 
 ably conform to the sale sample in color and texture and analysis. 
 
 Sec. 6. — On contracts for Cotton Seed Cake, either loose or in sacks, 
 shipment of i per cent more or less than the weights specified shall 
 be taken as fulfillment of contract. 
 
 Sec. 7. — No claim for deficiency of protein and fat combined, or of 
 ammonia shall be made by buyers, unless the deficiency shall exceed 
 one-half of one unit of protein and fat combined, or one-tenth of one 
 unit of ammonia. 
 
 Sec. 8. — Screened Cracked Cake shall be made from Cotton Seed 
 Cake according to grade as provided and sold; shall be reasonably 
 free from Meal, and be well prepared and screened in pieces ranging 
 in size from that of a grain of corn to two inches in diameter, and shall 
 be reasonably free from large pieces or slabs of Cake which cannot 
 be fed to cattle without further preparation. 
 
 The crude pressed oil takes up coloring matter from 
 the kernel, and may be very dark, almost black in color, 
 
50 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 depending on the freshness of the seed. Crude oil is 
 graded by the Interstate Cottonseed Crushers Asso- 
 ciation as follows: 
 
 COTTON SEED OIL— Grades 
 
 Rule 4. Sec. i. — Choice Crude Cotton Seed Oil must be made 
 from sound decorticated Seed; must be sweet in flavor and odor, free 
 from water and settlings, and shall produce, when properly refined, 
 Choice Summer Yellow Oil at a loss in weight not exceeding six per cent. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Prime Crude Cotton Seed Oil, must be made from sound 
 decorticated Seed; must be sweet in flavor and odor, free from water 
 and settlings, and must produce Prime Summer Yellow Oil with the 
 use of caustic soda by the official methods adopted by the Chemists' 
 Committee, with a loss in weight not exceeding nine per cent; Pro- 
 vided, that any Oil that refines with a greater loss than nine per cent, 
 but still makes Prime Summer Yellow Oil, shall not be rejected, but 
 shall be reduced in price by a corresponding per cent of the contract 
 price of the Oil. 
 
 Sec. 3. Off Crude Cotton Seed Oil. — Oil neither Choice nor Prime 
 shall be called "Off Oil." When Off Oil is sold by sample, any Oil 
 tendered shall equal sample, but if it should refine at a loss exceeding 
 the loss of the sample by not over five per cent, but otherwise equal, 
 it is still a good tender at a reduced price in proportion to the excess loss. 
 
 The buyer shall have the right to reject the Oil outright if it tests 
 beyond five per cent refining loss as compared with the sale sample. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Where claim is made for excess refining loss, the value of 
 the excess Soap Stock, less any excess cost of handling such Oil, shall 
 be taken into consideration in settlement by the parties at interest. 
 
 Sec. 5. — OU produced by Cold Presses or expeUer process is tender- 
 able on contracts for the above three grades when such product will 
 refine within the requirements of this Rule, but when Cold Pressed Oil 
 is intended to be delivered it must be so stated at time of sale. 
 
 Crude oil up to i per cent free fatty acids is refined 
 for butter oil. From i to 2 per cent acids in the crude, 
 produce prime yellow oil when refined. Above 2 per 
 cent acid oil is difficult to decolorize, and is not suitable 
 for edible purposes. 
 
 The crude oil is refined by treating with caustic 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 51 
 
 soda, which takes out most of the color, and the free 
 fatty acids. The soap thus formed, which also contains 
 mucilaginous matter, is called soap stock (or foots 
 soap). The loss in weight which the crude oil under- 
 goes in this refining is determined in the laboratory 
 on samples, and is referred to in the above-quoted 
 specifications as refining loss. The refining loss depends 
 largely on the freshness of the crude oil, and usually 
 runs from 7 to 10 per cent. 
 
 Refined oil is graded by the Interstate Association as 
 follows: 
 
 REFINED OIL— Grades 
 
 RwLE 7. Sec I.— Choice Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil must be 
 sweet in flavor and odor, prime in color, clear and brilliant in appear- 
 ance and free from moisture. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Prime Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil must be clear, sweet 
 in flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and of no deeper 
 color than 35 yellow and 7.1 red on Lovibond's equivalent color scale. 
 
 The color scale examination shall be made as follows: The Oil is 
 placed in a pure white four-ounce sample bottle; the depth of the 
 Oil in the bottle shall be 5} inches. The bottle shall be placed in a 
 tintometer which is protected from any light except reflected white light 
 and the reading made at a temperature of about 70 degrees Fahrenheit 
 or by such methods as may be recommended by the United States 
 Bureau of Standards, provided the same be approved by the Chemists' 
 Committee and provided that the color determined shall be expressed 
 in Lovibond terms. If the Oil is of deeper color than the glass standard 
 35 yellow, 7.1 red, it sliall not be classed as Prime. 
 
 Sec 3. — Prime Winter Yellow Cotton Seed Oil must be brilliant, 
 free from water and settlings, sweet in flavor and odor, and of Prime 
 Summer Yellow color as described above, and must stand limpid at a 
 temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit for five hours. 
 
 The cold test shall be made as follows: A regular four-ounce sample 
 bottle shall be filled full of the Oil to be tested, a thermometer shall be 
 inserted through the cork of the bottle, and hermetically sealed. The 
 Oil shall then be heated slowly to a temperature not exceeding 80 
 degrees Fahrenheit, and remain at that temperature not exceeding fif- 
 
52 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 teen minutes. It shall then be chilled until it stands at 32 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, at which point it must stand for five hours, and must 
 be clear, brilliant and limpid at the expiration of that time. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Good Oft Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil may be off in 
 flavor and / or odor, but must be prime in color and free from water 
 and setthngs and shall not contain more than J of i per cent of free 
 fatty acid. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Off Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil shall be free from 
 water and settlings, oflE in flavor or odor, but of no deeper color than 
 35 yellow and 12 red on Lovibond's color scale and shall not contain 
 more than J of i per cent of free fatty acid. 
 
 Sec. 6. — Reddish Off Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil, designated 
 as such, may be of inferior flavor and odor and of no deeper color than 
 35 yellow and 20 red on Lovibond's equivalent color scale, shall be 
 free from water and settlings and shall, not contain more than f of 
 I per cent of free fatty acid. 
 
 Sec. 7. — Bleachable Prime Summer Yellow Cotton Seed Oil must 
 be clear, sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and 
 when bleached shall be of no deeper color than 20 yellow and 2.5 red, 
 on Lovibond's equivalent color scale. The bleaching test shall be 
 made by the official methods of the Chemists' Committee. The 
 color examination shall be made in the manner provided for Summer 
 Yellow. 
 
 Sec. 8. — Prime Summer White Cotton Seed Oil must be clear, free 
 from water and setthngs, sweet in flavor and odor, and the color of 
 the Oil shall not be darker than the combined standard glasses, 20 
 yellow, 2.5 red, Lovibond's color scale. 
 
 Sec. 9. — Prime Winter White Cotton Seed Oil must be brilhant, 
 sweet in flavor and odor, free from water and settlings, and the color 
 of the Oil shall not be darker than the combined standard glasses, 20 
 yeUow, 2.5 red, of Lovibond's color scale, and must stand the cold 
 test as prescribed in Section 3. 
 
 Oil for edible purposes is bleached by fuller's earth, for 
 technical purposes by bleaching powder, acid, etc. De- 
 odorizing is done by superheated steam. 
 
 The grades established by the New York Produce 
 Exchange are practically the same as those of the Inter- 
 state Cottonseed Crushers Association, both for crude 
 and refined oils. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 53 
 
 Soap stock is defined by the Crushers Association, 
 as follows: 
 
 SOAP STOCK 
 
 Rule 8. Sec. i. — Soap Stock must be a product of the refining of 
 Crude Cotton Seed Oil, and all sales thereof, unless otherwise agreed 
 upon by seller and buyer, are made upon a basis of 50 per cent fatty acid, 
 not to fall below 40 per cent; if containing less than 40 per cent fatty 
 acid, Soap Stock shall not be considered merchantable and may 
 be rejected; delivery to be made in merchantable packages or tank 
 cars. 
 
 Soap Stock shall be drawn for at 80 per cent of the invoice, unless 
 analysis of the seller accompanies invoice; said analysis to be signed 
 by the chemist; in which case draft shall be made for the amount indi- 
 cated by the shipper's analysis. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Acidified Soap Stock must be a product of completely 
 acidified Soap Stock, thoroughly settled, and all sales thereof, unless 
 otherwise agreed upon by buyer and seller, are to be made upon a basis 
 of 95 per cent total fatty acid, and not to fall below 85 per cent; if con- 
 taining less than 85 per cent fatty acid, acidified Soap Stock shall not be 
 considered merchantable as such, and may be rejected; deliveries to be 
 made in merchantable packages or tank cars; when in tank cars, said 
 cars must be equipped with steam coils. 
 
 Acidified Soap Stock shall be drawn for at 90 per cent of the invoice 
 unless analysis of the seller accompanies invoice; said analysis to be 
 signed by the chemist; in which case, draft shall be made for the amount 
 indicated by the shipper's analysis. 
 
 Winter or demargarinated oil has the stearine removed 
 by standing cold, or filtering. Such oil will not deposit 
 further stearine. Winter oil has a lower titer test than 
 summer oil. The stearine as obtained above is used in 
 lard and butter substitutes, and margarine. 
 
 The best grades of cottonseed oil are used for edible 
 purposes. It gums and dries too much to be used as 
 a lubricating oil. It has some use as a paint oil, and for 
 other minor purposes. A good deal of cottonseed oil 
 is hardened by hydrogenation to form lard substitutes, 
 
54 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 etc. The oil treated with sulphur is used as rubber 
 substitute. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 923-. 926 
 
 Saponification number 191-196 
 
 Iodine number 101-121 
 
 Solidifying-point +4 to — 1° C. 
 
 Titer 28-38° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 7—1 . 6% 
 
 Cottonseed stearine: 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 918 
 
 Saponification number 194-195 
 
 Iodine number 89-104 
 
 Solidifying-point 16-32° C. 
 
 Titer 16-22 
 
 Oriental cottonseed oil varies in color all the way 
 from light yellow to nearly black, with acid content 
 corresponding. Most lots are less than 5 per cent in 
 free fatty acids. No definite grades have been estab- 
 lished. The character of importations is shown by the 
 following table: 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 
 
 
 Below 1% 
 
 1-2% 
 
 2-4% 
 
 4-6% 
 
 January-June, 1918, per cent, . . 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 SO 
 31 
 
 2 
 69 
 
 
 
 Sesame Oil. 
 
 From seeds of sesame plant. Grown in China, 
 Japan, Java, E. Indies, Egypt, Brazil, Mexico. Seeds 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 55 
 
 contain 50 to 57 per cent oil, and yield 42 to 48 per cent. 
 Press cakes used for cattle food, contain 8 to 10 per cent 
 oil, 36 per cent proteids. 
 
 Best grades are used for edible purposes, especially 
 in manufacture of margarine. Several European coun- 
 tries require a percentage of sesame oil to be mixed 
 in butter substitutes to facilitate their detection if used 
 to adulterate butter, as sesame is easily detected by the 
 Baudouin color test. Also used in drugs, perfumes, 
 soap and to adulterate almond and olive oil. It does 
 not readily become rancid. 
 
 Characterisiics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 923-. 926 
 
 Saponification number 188-19 3 
 
 Iodine number 103-117 
 
 Solidifying-point — 4.to —6° C. 
 
 Titer 2 1-24 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 9-1 . 4% 
 
 An average of a number of analyses of importations 
 of sesame oil at Seattle is as follows: 
 
 Free fatty acids i . 13% 
 
 Saponification number 190 -3 
 
 Iodine number 112 . 2 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 7% 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9245 
 
 Titer 17.4° C. 
 
 Refining loss 6.5% 
 
 Generally the Halphen test gives no reaction for 
 cottonseed oil. Color is medium yellow. A small 
 amount of stearine is present at ordinary temperatures. 
 
56 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 A good majority of the importations contain less than 
 I per cent acids. Not a great deal of this oil has been 
 handled so far through Seattle. 
 
 Rape Oil, Colza Oil 
 
 From seeds of rape of which there are several varieties. 
 Grown in Europe, India, Japan, China. 
 
 The seed contains 33 to 45 per cent oil. Expressed 
 seed makes good cattle food, extracted seed is used as 
 fertilizer. 
 
 Crude oil is dark colored and has a peculiar charac- 
 teristic smell, sometimes compared to that of " bed- 
 bugs." It is refined by treatment with sulphuric acid, 
 or by treatment with fuller's earth. Oil refined by sul- 
 phuric acid may contain more free fatty acid than 
 the original oil, free fatty acid being formed in the 
 refining process. It is necessary very carefully to wash 
 out the sulphuric acid used, if the oil is to be used for 
 lubricating purposes. 
 
 Rape oil is largely used in lubricants, both the 
 refined oil and as blown oil.^ Its high viscosity and 
 sHght tendency to become rancid fit it especially for 
 this purpose. It should be an expressed oil to be used 
 for lubricant. An extracted oil would have a low flash- 
 point due to the small amount of solvent left in the oil. 
 Rape oil is exceeded in viscosity by only a few oils as 
 castor, olive, etc., outside of the drying oils which, of 
 course, would not be suitable for lubricants. 
 
 It is used as an edible oil in Europe and India, as a- 
 wool oil, burning oil, for soft soap, steel quenchinc 
 purposes and rubber substitute. 
 ' See p. 112. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 57 
 
 As rape oil is generally high priced, it is sometimes 
 adulterated with other cheaper oils, such as linseed, 
 cottonseed, mineral and fish oils. Allied seeds such as 
 ravison and mustard sometimes are mixed unavoid- 
 ably with rape seed. Such seed yields an inferior grade 
 of oil. Both of the above-mentioned oils have greater 
 drying properties than rape and have a greater tendency 
 to gum on exposure to air. 
 
 Most oils which might be used as adulterants will 
 either raise the iodine and saponification number, or 
 lower the viscosity. Mineral oils would raise the 
 unsaponifiable matter. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C. . . .913-. 917 
 
 Saponification number 170-179 
 
 Iodine number 97-106 
 
 Solidify ing-point — 10 to — 16° C. 
 
 Titer 12-20° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o. 5-1 . 5% 
 
 Viscosity, 100° F 230-250 sec. Saybolt 
 
 Viscosity, 100° C 60-70 sec. Saybolt 
 
 Viscosity, 70° F 370-465 Redwood 
 
 Oriental rape seed is chiefly grown in China. It may 
 have ravison and mustard growing along with it. Two 
 grades are produced: refined (sometimes called Shira- 
 shime or " water white ") and crude or brown grade, 
 sometimes called semi-refined. 
 
 The refined grade generally contains less than | per 
 cent acids, often running below 0.2 per cent. The 
 crude grade is darker in color and contains up to 2 and 
 3 per cent acids. Other properties are: 
 
58 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Viscosity, Saybolt, at ioo° F 235-260 sees. 
 
 Viscosity, Saybolt, at 100° C . . . . 60-70 sees. 
 
 Flash-point open cup 500-625° F. 
 
 Pour test (solidifying) — i to +7° F. 
 
 Titer 15-20° C. 
 
 Iodine number is most often between 100 and 102. 
 Only 4 per cent of samples analyzed over a period of 
 time had a higher iodine number than 104, and several 
 of these were plainly adulterated. 
 
 Saponification number is rarely under 170 or over 
 176; with unsaponifiable up to 1.5 per cent. Specific 
 gravity is generally between .914 and .915. Occa- 
 sional samples give positive reaction in the Halphen 
 test for cottonseed, and occasionally an oil will show 
 admixture of mineral oil. As a rule the viscosity is 
 higher than that called for by ordinary specifications 
 for rape-seed oil. Also the pour test is liable to be 
 higher. 
 
 Presence of ravison- and mustard-seed oil is difficult 
 to detect with certainty. Both tend to raise the iodine 
 number and to lower the viscosity. The specific 
 gravity of either is somewhat higher than rape. 
 
 Almond Oil 
 
 From bitter almonds generally, sometimes from sweet 
 almonds. In southern Europe, Morocco, Syria, Persia. 
 Bitter almonds yield more oil than sweet almonds, 
 but the oil is practically the same. 
 
 Used in drugs and high-class soap. It is frequently 
 adulterated. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 59 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9175-. 9195 
 
 Saponification number 188-195 
 
 Iodine number 93-101 
 
 Solidifying-point — 10 to — 21° C. 
 
 Titer 9-12° C. 
 
 Peanut Oil (Arachis, Earthnut, Groundnut) 
 
 Japan, China, Africa, United States, South America, 
 W. Indies, E. Indies, India. 
 
 Decorticated nuts undergo fermentation if shipped 
 considerable distances, and as a result do not yield edible 
 oils, but are used for soap, lubricating, wool oil, etc. 
 Nuts from different localities vary in their yield of oil. 
 Whole nuts contain around 35 per cent of oil, the ker- 
 nels containing 40 to 60 per cent oil. Yield of oil is 
 30 to 45 per cent of oil on a large scale. 
 
 Expression is carried on in two or three stages, with 
 increasing temperature. The first cold-pressed oil gives 
 the best grade of oil for edible purposes. Oil of second 
 expression is of lower quality, but may still be used for 
 edible purposes, while that of third expression is used 
 for soap. 
 
 Press cakes are very good for cattle food, being higher 
 in protein than any other oil cake. Cake from whole 
 nuts contains 33 to 35 per cent proteins; from kernels 
 only, 45 to 52 per cent, with over i per cent phosphoric 
 acid. Cakes from mouldy nuts are used as fertilizer. 
 The cake is also used for human consumption in vary; 
 ing forms. 
 
 The oil may be bleached nearly water white by 
 fuller's earth or charcoal. On standing cold, peanut 
 
60 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 oil deposits a stearin. Oil from hot pressing will do 
 this even at ordinary temperatures. 
 ! The chiet uses are for edible purposes (margarines) 
 and soap. It is sometimes used to adulterate more 
 expensive edible oils, such as olive oil, which it resembles 
 very much in characteristics. It contains arachidic 
 acid, which is comparatively easy of detection in mix- 
 ture of other oils. Adulterations of peanut oil by other 
 vegetable oils which might be used at present prices will 
 generally raise the iodine number. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9165-.926 
 
 Saponification number 186-196 
 
 Iodine number 83-105 
 
 SoUdifying-point 0-10° C. 
 
 Titer 28-29° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter around , . o. 5% 
 
 Oriental peanut oil is graded as edible (less than 2 
 per cent acids), and off grade (over 2 per cent acids). 
 Most of the importations are of edible grade. Some of 
 the oil remains clear at ordinary temperatures, but 
 most of it contains stearin. Color of edible grade light 
 yellow, off grade darker. Refining loss on 1.5 per cent 
 acid oil will run about 6 per cent, on 4 per cent acid 
 oil nearly 9 per cent. The low acid oil bleaches with. 
 6 per cent fuller's earth to less than 20 yellow and 
 3 red. 
 
 The specific gravity will often run as low as .916. 
 The iodine number generally does not go over 100, 
 while the titer may be as high as 30° C. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 61 
 
 Other characteristics are: 
 Viscosity at icx3° F., Saybolt, around 190 sees. 
 Pour test, 33-34° C. 
 Flash-point open cup about 600° F. 
 Grades of peanut oil suggested by New York Produce 
 Exchange April 15, 19 18, are as follows: 
 
 PEANUT OIL 
 
 Sec. 10. — Fair average quality, crude, shall be filtered, or well settled, 
 and be obtained by pressure, not extraction. It shall be fair average 
 quality of the season, provided, however, that the free fatty acids shall 
 not exceed 2 per cent (calculated as oleic acid), nor moisture and impuri- 
 ties one-half of one per cent. 
 
 Sec. II. — Choice crude peanut oil must be sweet in flavor and odor 
 free from water and settlings, and shall produce, when properly refined, 
 choice yellow oil with a loss in weight not exceeding 3 per cent. If not 
 choice buyer may reject. 
 
 Sec. 12. — Prime crude peanut oil must be sweet in flavor and odor, 
 and free from water and settlings, and must produce prime yellow oil 
 with the use of caustic soda, with a loss in weight not exceeding 5 per 
 cent; provided, that any oil that refines with a greater loss than 5 per 
 cent, but still makes prime yellow oil, shall not be rejected, but price 
 shall be adjusted as per rule 7, section i. 
 
 Sec. 13. Basis Prime Crude Peanut Oil. — Crude peanut oil sold as 
 "basis prime" cannot be rejected outright even if it does not produce 
 prime summer yellow refined oil. In that case, however, in addition to 
 allowance for excessive refining loss, if any, an aUowance shall be given 
 for deficiency in quality representing the difference in value between 
 prime summer yellow refined oil and the quality produced by the crude 
 oil delivered. 
 
 Sec. 14. Crude peanut oil, when not sold on any of the preceding 
 grades, but when sold by sample, or, in absence of sample, by description, 
 must conform in quality to description or sample. 
 
 If tlie refining loss does not exceed 3 per cent beyond that of sample or 
 contract description, price may be adjusted under rule 7, section i. If 
 the refining loss does exceed 3 per cent beyond that of sample or contract 
 description, buyer may reject. 
 
62 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 REFINED PEANUT OIL— Grades 
 
 Sec. 15. — Choice peanut oil must be sweet in odor and flavor, prime 
 in color, dear and brilliant in appearance, and free from moisture, 
 and shall not contain more than one-tenth of i per cent of free fatty 
 acids. 
 
 Sec. 16. — Prime yellow peanut oil must be clear, sweet in odor and 
 flavor, free from water and' settlings, and of no deeper color than 50 
 yellow and $ red on Lovibond's equivalent color scale, and shall not 
 contain more than one-fifth of i per cent of free fatty acids. 
 
 Sec. 17. — Good off yellow peanut oil may be off in flavor and odor, 
 but must be prime in color and free from water and settlings, and shall 
 not contain more than one-fourth of i per cent of free fatty acids. 
 
 The following are the Interstate Crushers Association 
 Grades: 
 
 PEANUT OIL— Grades 
 
 Rule ig. Sec. i. — Choice Crude Peanut Oil must be pressed and 
 not extracted, from sound Peanuts, must be siweet in flavor and odor, 
 free from water and settlings, and shall produce, when properly refined. 
 Choice Yellow Peanut Oil with a loss in weight not exceeding 3%. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Prime Crude Peanut Oil must be pressed and not extracted 
 from sound Peanuts, must be sweet in flavor and odor, free from water 
 and settlings and must produce Prime Yellow Peanut Oil with the use 
 of caustic soda by the official method adopted by the Chemists' Com- 
 mittee with a loss in weight not exceeding 5%; provided, that any Oil 
 that refines with a greater loss than 5%, but still makes Prime Yellow 
 Oil shall not be rejected, but shall be reduced in price by a corresponding 
 per cent in the contract price of the Oil. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Off Crude Peanut Oil, neither Choice nor Prime, shall be 
 called "Off Oil." When Off Oil is sold by sample any Oil tendered 
 shall equal sample but if it shall refine at a loss exceeding the loss of the 
 sample by not over 3%, but otherwise equal it, it is still a good tender at 
 a reduced price in proportion to the excess loss. The buyer shall have 
 the right to reject the Oil outright if it tests beyond 3% refining loss as 
 compared with the sale sample. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Where claim is made for excess refining loss, the value of the 
 excess Soap Stock, less any excess cost of handling such Oil shall be taken 
 into consideration in the settlement by the parties at interest. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 63 
 
 REFINED PEANUT OIL— Grades 
 
 Rule 21. Sec. 1. — Choice Peanut Oil must be sweet in odor and 
 flavor, prime in color, clear and brilliant in appearance and free from 
 moisture, and shall not contain more than one-tenth of one per cent of 
 free fatty acid. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Prime Yellow Peanut Oil must be clear, sweet in odor and 
 flavor, free from water and settlings, and of no deeper color than fifty 
 yellow and five red on Lovibond's equivalent color scale. 
 
 The color scale examination shall be made as follows: The Oil is 
 placed in a pure white four-ounce bottle; the depth of the Oil in the 
 bottle shall be five and one-fourth inches; the jottle shall be placed 
 in a tintometer which is protected from any light except reflected white 
 light, and the reading made at a temperature of about 70 degree P., 
 or by such method as may be recommended by the United States Bureau 
 of Standards, provided the same be approved by the Chemists' Com- 
 mittee, and provided that the color determined shall be expressed in 
 Lovibond's terms. If the Oil is of deeper color than the combination 
 standard of fifty yellow, five red, it shall not be classed as Prime. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Good Off Yellow Peanut Oil may be off in flavor and odor 
 but must be prime in color and free from water and settlings, and shall 
 not contain more than one-fourth of one per cent of free fatty acids. 
 
 Character of importations at Seattle is shown in the 
 
 following table: 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 Jan. to June, 1918, 
 per cent 
 
 June to Aug., 1918, 
 per cent 
 
 .25-50 
 
 .5-1.0 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-4 
 
 f.;? 
 
 6-10 
 
 Pc? 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 48 
 
 26 
 
 IS 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 under i 
 
 63 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Over 
 10 Per 
 Cent. 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Insoluble Matter 
 
 
 0-.5 
 Per Cent. 
 
 .5-1.0 
 Per Cent. 
 
 0-.2 
 Per Cent. 
 
 ■ 2--5 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Jan. to June, 1918, per cent 
 
 June to Aug., 1918, per cent. . . , 
 
 91 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 Under o.s 
 
 100 
 
64 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Importations of peanut oil are next in importance to 
 soya at Seattle. Its use as an edible oil in the United 
 States is fast increasing. 
 
 Tea Seed Oil 
 
 From the seeds of a shrub related to the tea plant 
 (not from the tea plant cultivated for its leaves), 
 expressed on large scale in China. Expressed oil contains 
 saponin, which renders it dangerous for edible purposes, 
 although it is so used in China. Extracted oil is free 
 from saponin. Allied to this oil are Tsubaki oil and 
 Sasanqua oil, Japanese oils which are used as hair oils 
 and for lubricating delicate machinery. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 917-.927 
 
 Solidifying-point —5 to —12° C. 
 
 Saponification number 188-196 
 
 Iodine number 89-94 
 
 Importations of this oil have not been important as 
 yet. 
 
 Olive Oil 
 
 From the fruit of the ohve tree. Western Asia, 
 Southern Europe, Northern Africa, California, S. Africa, 
 Australia. 
 
 Ripe fruit contains 40 to 60 per cent oil. Fruits vary 
 considerably in their yield of oil, some districts of 
 California yielding much lower than these amounts, 
 as low as 10 per cent. Best oil comes from fruit not 
 quite ripe. Quality of oil varies considerably, depend- 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 65 
 
 ing on care with which fruit is picked and handled, 
 age of fruit, storage before pressing. 
 
 Best grades of " virgin " oil are obtained from hand- 
 picked fruits, by peeling and removing the kernels and 
 then hght pressing. The second pressing cold will give 
 edible oil of somewhat lower grade. Technical grades 
 are made from later pressings hot, the " marc " (cor- 
 responding to press cake) going through a number of 
 treatments before the last oil is extracted by solvents, 
 usually carbon bisulphide. 
 
 The cake becomes rancid very rapidly, and is only 
 used locally for cattle food. The extracted cake is 
 used for fertilizer. 
 
 The crude oil is washed with water and filtered, and 
 then any stearine is allowed to settle out. Best grades 
 will remain clear at io° C. The color varies from water 
 white to yellow and green. Olive oil is valued largely 
 on taste, which varies according to the district and 
 treatment. Free fatty acids in good oil are less than 
 0.5 per cent. 
 
 The chief use is for edible purposes, as salad oil, etc. 
 Sardines are largely put up in olive oil. Other uses for 
 lower grade oils are for burning, soap, lubrication, wool 
 oil, special soaps for textile uses, as for silk, calico, 
 wool, etc., leather. Olive oil has a higher viscosity 
 than rape, and less tendency to gum, hence is a very 
 desirable lubricating oil. Some lower grades of oil have 
 large amounts of free fatty acids. These are used for 
 soap, wool oils, and in dyeing. 
 
66 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 915-.920 
 
 Saponification number 185-203 
 
 Iodine number 77"~9S 
 
 Solidifying-point 2-io°C. 
 
 Viscosity 70° F. (Redwood) ...."... 312 sec. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter up to 2>-Z% 
 
 Titer 17-26° C. 
 
 Olive oil is quite often adulterated, sometimes very 
 cleverly. In order to detect adulteration by analysis, 
 it is often necessary to know the district from which 
 the oil originated, as oils from different districts vary 
 considerably in their characteristics. 
 
 Grades of the New York Produce Exchange for 
 technical oil are as follows: 
 
 OLIVE OIL 
 
 Sec. 23. — Olive Oil for manufacturing purposes, commonly known as 
 the commercial grade, shall not contain over 2 per cent of moisture 
 and or sediment, and not exceed 7 per cent of free fatty acids. 
 
 If sold as yellow, must be yellow or slightly green, and not red. 
 
 If sold as green must be green in color and not turn brown when saponi- 
 fied' with the solution of 20 deg. Baume caustic soda in the proportion of 
 8 c.c. to 10 grams of oil, hot. 
 
 Castor Oil 
 
 From the beans of the castor plant. Grown in India, 
 Java, China, Japan, Mexico, United States, Mediter- 
 ranean, S. America. 
 
 Beans contain 45 to 55 per cent oil and yield about 
 40 per cent. 
 
 Best quahty of oil for medicinal purposes is obtained 
 from the first cold pressing. Two later expressions are 
 made which give technical grade of oil. The press 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 67 
 
 cakes contain a poisonous alkaloid " ricine," which 
 renders them unfit for use as cattle food, but they are 
 used as fertilizer. Some castor is extracted by solvents 
 after the last pressing, as the press cakes after final 
 pressing still contain almost 8 per cent oil. Inferior 
 seeds are also extracted instead of being pressed. 
 
 Refining is done by steaming the oil. Albuminous 
 matter is thereby coagulated and filtered out. Properly 
 refined oil is veryslow to turn rancid. Thecolorvariesfrom 
 almost colorless to yellow. Some crude varieties are green. 
 Stearine deposits on standing cold. Castor oil has the 
 highest gravity and viscosity of any fatty oil. It also 
 differs from other oils in its solubility in alcohol, and 
 its insolubility in petroleum ether. These properties are 
 made use of to detect adulterants in castor. Castor 
 oil will not mix with mineral oil. If a third oil, however, 
 is present as rape, lard, etc., a clear mixture of the three 
 if obtained. 
 
 Castor oil is used In medicine, for Turkey red oils 
 used in dyeing, transparent soap, lubrication, leather 
 industry, fly paper. Large amounts are used in internal 
 •lubrication of aeroplane engines. 
 
 The British Pharmacopeia limits medicinal oil to 2 
 per cent free fatty acids. 
 United States Pharmacopeia specifications are: 
 
 Specific gravity 958-. 970 
 
 Saponification number 177-187 
 
 Iodine number 83-90 
 
 Acid number not over 4.0I 
 
 Refractive index 40° C i .4695-1 .4730 
 
 Soluble in 3.5 parts 90 per cent alcohol 
 ' Free fatty acids, 2.0 per cent. 
 
68 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Turkey red oil is formed by treating castor with 
 sulphuric acid, that is, it is a sulphonated oil. Similar 
 products called olive and cottonseed Turkey red oils are 
 made by treating these other oils. The treated oil is 
 used in the preparation of calico before dyeing or 
 printing with ahzarin colors. It is valued by the amount 
 of fatty matter contained which varies from 40 to 
 65 per cent. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 959-. 968 
 
 Saponification number 177-187 
 
 Iodine number 81-91 
 
 Solidifying-point — 10 to — 18° C. 
 
 Acetyl number 145-155 
 
 Viscosity, 100° F., Saybolt 1406-1430 sees. 
 
 Soluble in all proportions in absolute alcohol. At 
 15° C. one volume oil dissolves in two volumes of 90 
 per cent alcohol. At 17.5° C. one volume dissolves in 
 five volumes alcohol of 0.829 specific gravity.^ Turbidity 
 shows presence of foreign oils. As Httle as J per cent 
 of foreign oil may be thus detected. It is miscible in 
 an equal volume of petroleum ether. Any excess of 
 this amount is not miscible. 
 
 The solubiUty tests give a quick way of estimating 
 adulterations. Any foreign oil will lower the specific 
 gravity and viscosity of castor and would generally 
 raise the iodine and saponification numbers. The acetyl 
 number is a valuable characteristic also in determining 
 the purity, as any other oil would lower the acetyl 
 number. 
 
 1 Sometimes called Finkener's test. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 69 
 
 Oriental castor oil contains from i to 6 per cent or 
 more free fatty acids. Color varies from very light 
 yellow to green. Specific gravity from .960 to .965. 
 A considerable portion of it shows adulteration with 
 some other oil, but this is generally less than 5 per cent 
 and must be considered accidental. 
 
 The viscosity of Oriental castor oils at 15° C. varies 
 from 6500 to 7400 seconds on the Saybolt instrument, 
 at 100° C. from 97 to 99 seconds. The lower viscosities 
 are those of oils containing around 7 or 8 per cent 
 free fatty acids and up to 5 per cent of other oils than 
 castor. Flash-points (open cup) range from 495° to 
 540° F., the lower one being high acid oils. All samples 
 tested have had a pour test of some degrees below 
 0° F. 
 
 The character of importations at Seattle is seen from 
 the following tables: 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 1-2 
 Per Cent. 
 
 2-4 
 Per Cent. 
 
 4-6 
 Per Cent. 
 
 6-10 
 Per Cent. 
 
 January to June, 1918, per cent 
 June to August, 1918, per cent. 
 
 29 
 23 
 
 48 
 SS 
 
 10 
 19 
 
 13 
 3 
 
 W.\TER 
 
 0-5% 
 
 .5-1.0% 
 
 1-3% 
 
 S9% 
 
 35% 
 
 6% 
 
 About 90 per cent of the oil is clear, balance turbid or 
 cloudy, irrespective of whether it contains water or not. 
 
70 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Castor beans are mostly cultivated in a small way in 
 China and Manchuria, and the beans may become 
 admixed with other beans. The refined grade undergoes 
 a partial purification. It is generally handled in small 
 batches in the mills. 
 
 United States Army Signal Corps Specification No. 
 3SOO-A for Castor Oil for Aircraft Engine Lubrication, 
 is as follows: 
 
 General. 
 
 I. This specification is drawn to cover the requirements of the Signal 
 Corps in all purchases of castor oil for rotary engine lubrication. The 
 oil must be a high-grade vegetable castor oil suitable for this purpose. 
 Both cold-pressed vegetable castor oil and hot-pressed vegetable castor 
 oil which has been refined so that it will meet the requirements of this 
 specification may be subihitted for purchase. 
 
 2. The castor oil must be free from adulteration, other oils, suspended 
 matter, grit and water. 
 
 Physical Properties and Tests. 
 
 3. The castor oil must meet the following requirements: 
 
 4. Color. — When observed in a 4-oz. sample bottle, the castor oil must 
 be colorless or nearly so, transparent, and without fluorescence. 
 
 5. Specific Gravity. — The castor oil must have a specific gravity of 
 0.950 to 0.968 at 60 deg. F. (Baum6 gravity must be from 16.05 to 14.70 
 at 60 deg. F.). 
 
 6. Solubility. — The castor oil must be completely soluble in four (4) 
 volumes of ninety (90) per cent alcohol (specific gravity 0.834 at 60 deg. 
 F.). This test shall be made on a 2 c.c. sample. 
 
 7. Acid Number. — It must not require more than three (3) milligrams 
 of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or 2.14 milligrams of sodium hydroxide 
 (NaOH) to neutralize one (i) gram of oil. This is equivalent to 1.5 
 per cent oleic acid. 
 
 8. The test for acidity shall be made on samples weighing five (5) to 
 ten (10) grams. Samples shall be heated for one-halt (I) hour with fifty 
 
 (50) c.c. of neutral alcohol and then titrated with fifth normal ( — ) 
 
 sodium or potassium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 71 
 
 9. Iodine Number. — (Hanus method). The iodine number must be 
 between 80 and go. Samples used for this test shall weigh 0.2 to 0.25 
 gram and shall be treated for one (i) hour. 
 
 10. Saponification Number. — The saponification number must be 
 between 176 and 187. 
 
 11. This test shall be made on samples weighing two (2) to three (3) 
 
 grams. Samples shall be saponified with half normal j — 1 alcoholic 
 sodium or potassium hydroxide for one (i) hour and shaken at least five 
 (s) times. Titrate with fifth normal ( — | acid, using phenolphthalein 
 
 as an indicator. 
 
 12. Unsaponifiable Matter. — ^The unsaponifiable matter must not 
 exceed one (i) per cent. Samples used for this test shall weigh five (s) 
 to ten (10) grams. 
 
 13. Rosin. — (Lieberman-Storch test). The castor oil must not give a 
 reaction for either rosin or rosin oil. 
 
 14. Cotton Seed Oil. — (Halphen test). The castor oil must not give 
 a reaction for cotton seed oil. 
 
 15. This test shall be made on samples measuring one (i) to three (3) 
 c.c. Dissolve the oil in an equal volume of amyl alcohol, and then add 
 a volume of Halphen reagent (r per cent solution of sulphur in carbon 
 bisulphide) equal to the volume of oil used. 
 
 16. Viscosity. — ^The castor oil when tested in a Saybolt Universal 
 Viscosimeter must have a viscosity of not less than 450 seconds at 130 
 deg. F. and 95 seconds at 212 deg. F. 
 
 17. Flash-point.— The flash-point must not be less than 450 deg. F. 
 in a Cleveland open flash cup. 
 
 18. Cold Test. — The castor oil, in a 4-oz. sample bottle one-quarter 
 (J) full, must not congeal at a temperature of zero deg. F. The ther- 
 mometer bulb shall be inserted in the oil during the test. 
 
 Sampling, Analysis and Inspection 
 
 19. The inspector shall take a sufficient number of samples to fairly 
 represent each lot of oil submitted. In case of doubt as to the proper 
 method of sampling, instructions may be obtained from the Equipment 
 Division Laboratory of the Signal Corps. 
 
 20. Individual test samples shall not be smaller than eight (8) fluid 
 ounces. Samples on which check analyses are to be made, as pro- 
 vided in paragraph 22, shall not be smaller than sLxteen (16) fluid 
 ounces. 
 
 21. The Seller shall furnish, at his own expense, the necessary samples 
 
72 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 and make the analyses and tests required by this specification. The 
 Seller shall furnish a report of all tests and analyses to the inspector. 
 
 22. As a check upon the analyses made by the Seller, the inspector 
 shall select a certain number of samples and send them to the Equipment 
 Division Laboratory for test. 
 
 23. When a check analysis is required the inspector shall divide one 
 of the samples provided for in paragraph 20 into two (2) equal parts. 
 One part shall be the Seller's sample and the other part shall be sent to 
 the Equipment Division Laboratory, Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
 D. C. The inspector shall mark such samples clearly with the name 
 and address of the Seller, the date, the Signal Corps order number and 
 any additional information helpful in identifying the lot of oil which the 
 sample represents. Check analyses shall be made without cost to the 
 Seller. 
 
 Communications regarding all technical matters pertaining to specifica- 
 tions should be addressed to the Specification Section, Signal Corps, U. S. 
 Army, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Animal Oils 
 
 Divided into two classes: 
 
 (i) Marine animal oils. 
 
 (2) Terrestrial animal oils. 
 The marine animal oils absorb oxygen and correspond 
 to the vegetable drying oils ; while terrestrial animal oils 
 are mostly non-drying. 
 
 Marine animal oils are further subdivided into: 
 
 {a) Fish. 
 
 (6) Liver oils. 
 
 (c) Blubber oils. 
 
 Fish Oils 
 
 Obtained from all parts of common fish. The bodies 
 of fish yielding liver oil contain only small amounts of 
 oil as a rule, while the livers of the fish from which body 
 oil is obtained yield only small amounts of liver oil. 
 
 Fish oils are characterized by a special odor. They 
 are usually darker colored than vegetable oil. The 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 73 
 
 color and smell depend largely on the condition of the 
 fish as regards putrefaction, before the oil is obtained. 
 The oil is usually obtained by rendering with water 
 or steam and separating the oil. Many attempts have 
 been made to deodorize fish oils. It is stated that at 
 present fish oils are being used in Scandinavian coun- 
 tries for edible purposes. 
 
 The residue, after extraction of the oil, is a valuable 
 fertilizer. It is dried and ground and sold as fish scrap 
 or fish waste. It is also used in poultry food. 
 
 On standing most fish oils deposit stearine. They 
 absorb oxygen from the air and " dry " like hnseed 
 oil, the skin formed being somewhat sticky. They 
 are sometimes used to adulterate linseed and other 
 drying oils, but the admixture of fish can be detected 
 by special methods of examination. Most of the fish 
 oils are used in the leather industry. 
 
 Menhaden Oil 
 
 Menhaden is caught off the Atlantic Coast of the 
 United States from April till November. The fish 
 have been used by farmers for a long time as fertilizer. 
 Now the oil is recovered by rendering or pressing and 
 the waste is dried and .sold as fertilizer. 
 
 Oil from fresh fish is light colored, but. the longer the 
 fish are kept before obtaining the oil, the darker will be 
 the color of the oil. Four grades are: A, extra pale; 
 B, pale; C, brown; D, dark brown. The southern 
 oil contains more stearine, which separates out on 
 standing cold. Winter oils are obtained by standing 
 for some time in the cold, and then separating the 
 deposited stearine. 
 
74 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 The oil is refined by filtering, giving strained oil, and 
 also by bleaching with fuller's earth, etc., giving bleached 
 oils, yellow and white. 
 
 It is used principally in currying leather, for making 
 sod oil,i in soap making, tempering steel, rubber sub- 
 stitute, waterproofing, in paint oils, linoleum, etc. 
 Sometimes cod liver oil is adulterated with it. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 928-. 931 
 
 Saponification number 188-193 
 
 Iodine number 139-193 
 
 TJnsaponifiable matter o . 6-2 . 1% 
 
 Solidifying-point — 4° C. 
 
 Japanese Sardine Oil, or Fish Oil 
 
 Obtained in Japan principally from a fish belonging 
 to the sardine family, but is also liable to have other 
 fish oils admixed. 
 
 The crude oil contains 30 per cent stearine. This is 
 sold as " fish tallow " and is used in currying leather. 
 
 Color ranges from light yellow to very dark red. 
 The oil is used in the soap and leather industries. 
 
 Owing to other fish oils being admixed, the character- 
 istics of this oil as it comes on the market, vary widely. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 915-.934 
 
 Saponification number 179-196 
 
 Iodine number 104-187 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 5-2 . 3 
 
 Titer 28° C. 
 
 ' See p. 118. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 75' 
 
 Japanese oil is graded thus: 
 
 No. i,.up to 6 per cent free fatty acids. 
 
 No. 2, 6 to 8 per cent. 
 
 No. 3, over 8 per cent. 
 
 The character of these grades is shown by the following 
 averages of a number of samples analyzed in the author's 
 laboratory: 
 
 No. 
 
 No. I 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Free fatty acids, per cent. . 
 Saponification number . . . 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, %. 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Color 
 
 Stearine at 60° F 
 
 190 
 162 
 
 0.4S 
 .9269 
 
 253 
 
 Brown 
 
 Small 
 
 70 
 188 
 
 145 
 0.4 
 .9247 
 22.8 
 Reddish br'n 
 Small 
 
 8.S 
 190 
 
 94 
 0.6s 
 
 .9283 
 24.9 
 Darker brown 
 Small 
 
 Sardine Oil 
 
 From heads and other waste of sardines in canning, 
 in Spain and France. 
 Used in leather and soap industries. 
 
 Salmon Oil 
 
 A by-product of salmon canning on the Pacific Coast, 
 Fish waste from canneries is gathered and brought to 
 plants, where the oil is obtained, the refuse being dried 
 and used as fertilizer. Some oil is extracted by gaso- 
 line. This gives a very dark colored oil, which so far 
 has not been bleached. Several per cent of the solvent 
 is generally left in the oil. 
 
 The color ranges from yellow to dark brown, depending 
 on freshness of oil. 
 
 It is used in leather and soap. 
 
76 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 This oil is graded as follows : 
 
 No. I, up to 5 per cent free fatty acids. 
 No. 2, from s to 7 per cent free fatty acids. 
 No. 3, from 7 to 15 per cent free fatty acids. 
 
 A typical analysis of No. i grade is as follows: 
 
 Free fatty acids 3 . 1% 
 
 Saponification number 185 
 
 Iodine number 133 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 76% 
 
 Titer 20° C. 
 
 Color Reddish-brown 
 
 Stearine at 60° F None 
 
 Herring Oil 
 
 From Japan, Scandinavia, etc. 
 
 Japanese oils deposit stearine. Color ranges from 
 yellow to dark brown. Used in leather industry. 
 Japanese herring oil is graded as follows : 
 No. I, up to 6 per cent free fatty acids. 
 No. 2, 6 to 8 per cent free fatty acids. 
 No 3, over 8 per cent. 
 Characteristics are shown by the following table of 
 average analyses made in author's laboratory: 
 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Free fatty acids, per cent. . . . 
 Saponification number 
 
 SS 
 
 187 
 
 ISO 
 0.43 
 24.7 
 
 Small 
 Red 
 
 7.S 
 189 
 
 ISS 
 0.87 
 
 243 
 
 Small 
 Red-brown 
 
 II. 7 
 
 187 
 144 
 
 0.84 
 25.2 
 Small 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter per cent 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 
 Color 
 
 Dark-Red 
 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 77 
 
 Japanese Fish Oil 
 
 Common grade contains 12 to 14 per cent acids. 
 This is a name for fish oils imported from Japan which 
 may comprise fish oils which do not fit in any other 
 classification. Consequently the characteristics may 
 vary considerably. So-called 5-grade contains above 
 14 per cent acid. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a composite sample 
 representing a number of shipments sampled at Seattle: 
 
 Free fatty acids 8 . 2% 
 
 Saponification number 189 
 
 Iodine number 155 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 73% 
 
 Titer 24.5° C. 
 
 Color Brown 
 
 Stearine and foots Considerable 
 
 Liver Oils 
 
 Obtained from livers of certain fish as whiting, trout, 
 sawfish, ling, tunny, ray, hake, eel, cod, shark, dog- 
 fish, skate and haddock. As a rule the bodies of these 
 fish do not yield oil in any amount. Liver oils in 
 general have larger amounts of unsaponifiable matter 
 (cholesterol) than fish body oils. 
 
 Cod Liver Oil 
 
 From livers of the cod, Newfoundland, Norway, 
 Japan, Pacific Coast. 
 
 Best medicinal oil is prepared from fresh livers, and 
 kept away from action of fight and air. The Uvers 
 decompose easily, and great care is necessary to produce 
 best grades. Color varies from pale yellow to brown. 
 
78 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Lower grades of oil are used in the leather industry, 
 but a low acid oil is desirable even here. 
 
 The oil settles out stearine on standing. Oils free from 
 stearine are called raked oils. Dark tank cod oil from 
 Newfoundland contains around 14 per cent acids. 
 
 For characteristics see page 80. 
 
 The British Pharmacopoeia limits acids to 1.25 per 
 cent. The United States Pharmacopoeia says the oil 
 shall be " only slightly acid to htmus paper." The 
 complete specifications are as follows: 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 Saponification number. 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Color 
 
 Odor and taste 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter. 
 Exposed 3 lirs. to 0° C . 
 
 U. S. Pharm. 
 
 9i8-.g22at 25° C. 
 
 180-igo 
 
 140-180 
 
 Pale yellow 
 
 Slightly fishy not rancid 
 
 British Pharm. 
 
 .920-. 930 
 179-192 
 
 ISS-173 
 Pale yellow 
 Same. 
 
 Not over 1.5% 
 No solid fat separating 
 
 Most of the Japanese cod oil imported at Seattle 
 is low acid oil, much of it containing less than 2 per cent 
 acids. It is graded as No. i, with less than 5 per cent 
 acids. No. 2 from 5 to 7 per cent. 
 
 Average of a number of analyses of No. i grade are 
 as follows: 
 
 Free fatty acids 4 . 4% 
 
 Saponification number 177 
 
 Iodine number 151 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter i . 18% 
 
 Titer 20.9° C. 
 
 Stearine Small 
 
 Color Yellow-brown 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 79 
 
 Shark Liver Oil 
 
 Iceland, Japan, Pacific Coast. 
 
 Used in leather, oiled cloth, rubber substitute, often 
 in cod liver oil as adulterant. 
 
 For characteristics see page 80. 
 
 Character of Seattle imports of Japanese No. i 
 shark oil is as follows: 
 
 57% contains less than 1% free fatty acids. 
 20% contains from i to 2% free fatty acids. 
 23% contains from 2 to 4% free fatty acids. 
 
 Th" oil is graded as No. i, up to 5 per cent acids; 
 No. 2 from 5 to 7 per cent acids. Most of the oil on 
 this market is of No. i grade, and very low in acids. 
 Average analyses of this grade are as follows: 
 
 Free fatty acids per cent 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter per cent, 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Stearine at 60° F 
 
 Color 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.S 
 
 170 
 
 169 
 
 130 
 
 132 
 
 1.72 
 
 2-9S 
 
 23.2 
 
 22.8 
 
 Small 
 
 None 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Reddish-yellow 
 
 Dogfish Liver Oil 
 
 Washington, British Columbia, and Oregon Coasts. 
 Sometimes mixed with cod oil. Bodies of fish are dried 
 and sold as fertilizer, dogfish scrap. It is high in nitro- 
 gen. Attempts have been made lately to use the dog- 
 fish for food, under the name of grayfish. Its preserva- 
 tion is difficult. 
 
 Character of oil produced is shown by the following: 
 
80 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 
 
 
 Under I 
 Per Cent. 
 
 1-2 
 Per Cent. 
 
 6-8 
 Per Cent. 
 
 June to August, 1918, per cent 
 
 SO 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 The oil is graded as No. i, under 2 per cent acids; 
 No. 2, from 2 to 5 per cent acids. Analyses of a number 
 of samples of No. i and No. 2 grades are as follows: 
 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. z. 
 
 Free fatty acids per cent 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 1. 10 
 15s 
 
 112 
 1.62 
 22.7 
 
 Small 
 Reddish-yellow 
 
 3-45 
 165 
 128 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter per cent. . . 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Stearine at 60° F 
 
 Color 
 
 2.35 
 22.9 
 Small 
 Light brown 
 
 Livers of coalfish, haddock, whiting, hake, skate and 
 ling are also used for oil. Often mixed with cod oil. 
 Presence of these in cod oil cannot be detected. 
 
 Characteristics of Liver Oils 
 As given by standard text. 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Shark. 
 
 Dogfish. 
 
 Specific gravity at 1 5 . 5 ° C . 
 Saponification number . . . 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Solidifying-point, deg. C. . 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter % . 
 
 ,92 2-. 941 
 
 168-190 
 
 13S-198 
 
 o to — 10 
 
 13- 24 
 
 .6-4-6 
 
 .910-. 928 
 140-197 
 
 .918-. 930 
 170-225 
 126-154 
 
 1.0-9.0 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 81 
 
 Blubber Oils 
 
 Obtained from the blubber (or fat) cf number of marine 
 animals, including seal, whale, turtle, dugong, dolphin, 
 porpoise and brown fish. Last three, as well as sperm 
 whale oil, contain spermaceti. 
 
 Whale Oil 
 
 A number of species of whale yield oil. The whales 
 nowadays are generally brought to a " whaling station " 
 where the carcass is worked up. The character of the 
 oil obtained depends on the time that it takes the whale 
 to reach the station, and on the temperature of the water. 
 
 The yield of various whales is given as follows by 
 Lewkowitsch : 
 
 Right 
 
 Right 
 
 Bowhead 
 
 Humpbaclc 
 
 Humpbaclc 
 
 Finbaclc 
 
 Finback 
 
 Sulphur bottom . 
 
 Pacific. . 
 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Pacific . . 
 Atlantic. 
 Pacific. . 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Yield in Gallons. 
 
 750-7600 
 7SO-4SOO 
 900-7600 
 300-3400 
 300-3100 
 300-2100 
 600-1900 
 1500 
 
 The oil is extracted by rendering and pressing. The 
 meat is dried and sold as fertilizer. The bones are 
 ground and also sold as fertilizer. 
 
 Whale meat, when fresh, is sold for edible purposes. 
 It resembles beef, and has no objectionable taste. 
 
 Train oil is an old name for northern whale oil, but 
 is also used to include all blubber oils. 
 
82 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Grades of whale oil are Nos. i, 2, 3, 4. No. i is 
 pale yellow in color and has a faint fishy smell. Nos. 2 
 
 3 and 4 are correspondingly darker and stronger in smell. 
 All grades deposit large amounts of stearine on standing. 
 This is sold as whale tallow or stearine, for soap making 
 and lubricants. The above grades vary considerably, 
 in their qualities, depending on their source. Common 
 Pacific Coast practice is as follows: 
 
 No. I, up to 2 per cent free fatty acid. 
 No. 2, from 2 to 5 per cent free fatty acid. 
 No. 3, from 5 to 15 per cent free fatty acid. 
 No. 4, above 15 per cent free fatty acid. 
 
 No. I oil is made from blubber only. Nos. 2, 3 and 
 
 4 from flesh, bones, etc. No. 2 being generally from 
 flesh and residue of No. i, while 3 contains bone oil, 
 and 4 is the oil from decomposed flesh. Considerable 
 water is sometimes found with the lower grades of oil. 
 European practice recognizes a No. o grade, containing 
 up to I per cent acids. This is simply a choice grade 
 of our No. I. 
 
 The pale grades of oil are used for burning and soap, 
 lower grades for leather, also as " batching " oil for jute, 
 for steel terapering, as lubricant on lathes, etc., sheep dip. 
 
 Hydrogenated oil is used for edible purposes and soap. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 917-.927 
 
 Saponification number 184-194 
 
 Iodine number 1 10-146 
 
 Titer 23-24° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 6-3 . 7% 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 83 
 
 Flash-point (No. i) 570° F. 
 
 Flash-point (No. 3) 380° F. 
 
 Viscosity (No. 1), 100° F. (Saybolt) i56 sec. 
 
 Analyses of composite samples of domestic grades of 
 whale oil made in author's laboratory are as follows: 
 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. 3- 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Free fatty acids, per cent. . . . 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 o.8s 
 184 
 109 
 
 1.06 
 
 233 
 
 Much 
 
 Nearly white 
 
 9.38 
 192 
 106 
 
 1.02 
 
 273 
 Much 
 Brown 
 
 35-0 
 183 
 
 124 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, per cent 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 1,67 
 
 22 4 
 
 
 Much 
 
 Color . . . 
 
 Dark brown 
 
 
 
 One grade of Japanese whale oil is imported at Seattle, 
 called No. i, acids below 3 per cent. 
 Composite analysis is as follows: 
 
 Free fatty acids i . 13% 
 
 Saponification number 190 
 
 Iodine number 120 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter o . 95% 
 
 Titer 21.7° C. 
 
 Stearine Much 
 
 Color Light brown 
 
 Turtle Oil 
 
 From body fat of species of turtle. 
 
 CharacierisHcs 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 919-.933 
 
 Saponification number 193-2 11 
 
 Iodine number 111-127 
 
 SoUdifying-point 10-20° C. 
 
84 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 A sample from Hawaiian Islands contained 0.14 
 per cent free fatty acids and 0.78 per cent unsaponifiable 
 matter. 
 
 Porpoise Oil 
 
 Body oil is intermediate between blubber oils and 
 liquid waxes such as sperm oil. It contains up to 4 
 per cent unsaponifiable matter. 
 
 The jaw oil of both the porpoise and dolphin is used 
 for lubricating fine machinery, such as watches. It 
 contains up to 16 per cent unsaponifiable matter. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Unsaponifiable, per cent, 
 Solidifying-point, deg. C 
 Volatile acids, per cent. . 
 
 Jaw. 
 
 .926 
 
 253-272 
 
 21- 77 
 
 Up to 16.0 
 
 47-65 
 
 Dolphin Oil 
 
 Both body and Jaw oil are similar in characteristics 
 to porpoise body and jaw oil respectively, and are 
 similarly used. 
 
 Terrestrial Animal Oils 
 
 Silkworm Oil, Chrysalis Oil 
 
 Obtained by extraction of chrysalis of silk worm. 
 Has dark color, very bad smell, high in acids, some as 
 high as 50 per cent. Contains up to 10 per cent unsapon- 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 85 
 
 ifiable matter. May also be prepared by steaming and 
 pressing. 
 Importations so far have been unimportant. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 9I--93 
 
 Saponification number 190-194 
 
 Iodine number 1 16-132 
 
 Solidifying-point 7-10° C. 
 
 Egg Oil 
 
 From hard-boiled hen eggs, by pressure or solvents. 
 Used for tanning leather. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 914 
 
 Saponification number 185-190 
 
 Iodine number 68-82 
 
 Solidifying-point 8-10° C. 
 
 Neat's-foot Oil 
 
 From the feet of cattle. By-product of slaughter 
 houses. Obtained by boiling and skimming. The 
 shin bones yield the genuine neat's-foot oil, but in the 
 United States the feet are generally used with the 
 shin bones. The fat of the marrow is kept separate. 
 
 Feet of sheep and horses are sometimes mixed. Also 
 the oil may be adulterated with bone oil, and other 
 foreign oils, fish and vegetable oils being used for this 
 purpose. Most of the latter can be readily detected. 
 
 The oil is valued on its smell, color, low-freezing- 
 point and acidity. In its use in leather a low freezing- 
 point is specially desirable. It is used largely in dressing 
 leather. Also for lubricant of fijie machinery. 
 
86 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C. . . .915-. 9175 
 
 Saponification number 194-199 
 
 Iodine number 66-76 
 
 Solidifying-point — 3 to — 10° C. 
 
 Titer 16-26° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter i-. 65% 
 
 The oil is graded commercially on the cold test, e.g., 
 20°, 40° oil. These are the temperatures in degrees 
 Fahrenheit at which stearin settles out. Most adul- 
 terants will raise the iodine value, or can be detected by 
 examination of the unsaponifiable matter. 
 
 Palm Oil 
 
 From outside fleshy part of the palm tree. West 
 coast of Africa, Philippines. A South American palm 
 yields much smaller amounts of oil. This oil is differ- 
 ent from palm nut oil, which comes from the kernels. 
 West coast of Africa is the important source. 
 
 The oil is prepared mostly by natives in various crude 
 fashions. They then bring it oftentimes long distances 
 to the coast where it is collected by traders, and starts 
 on its way to the final markets. The quality depends 
 on the care with which it has been handled. It is said 
 that the natives only obtain about one-third of the total 
 oil extractable. 
 
 The oil is used by the natives for cooking, when fresh. 
 It has a sweetish taste and pleasant odor resembling 
 violets, which persists even after it has been made into 
 soap. When leaving the coast of Africa it has 10 to 
 15 per cent free acids, but on arrival at destination 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 87 
 
 these have increased to 20 to 50 per cent. Free glycerin 
 is present in such oil. " Soft " oils are the low acid 
 oils, while " hard " oils are high in acids. Consistency 
 varies from that of soft butter to tallow, color dark 
 yellow to red. It is bleached by chemical processes. 
 Some red oils resist bleaching. 
 
 It is used for soap and candles, also to coat iron sheets 
 before tin plating. Palm oil grease used in the tin 
 plate industry has cottonseed and mineral oil admixed. 
 It is also used in lubricants, as railway axle grease, and 
 in coloring butter substitutes. For lubricating, the free 
 acid must be neutralized. The crude oil is sometimes 
 adulterated by mixing with earth, and also generally 
 contains water. 
 
 Characieristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 920-.924 
 
 Saponification number 196-205 
 
 Iodine number S3~S8 
 
 Solidifying-point 31-39° C. 
 
 Titer 41-49° C. 
 
 In the candle industry palm oil is valued on the 
 titer test. 
 
 New York Produce Exchange rules that " palm oil 
 shall be sold upon designations of the districts of 
 origin, allowance to be made for dirt and water in excess 
 of 2 per cent." 
 
 Cacao Butter 
 
 From cacao beans or seeds of cacao tree. West 
 Indies, Central and South America, West Africa. 
 By-products of cocoa and chocolate industry. (Must 
 
88 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 not be confused with cocoanut oil, which comes from 
 an entirely different tree.) 
 
 Beans are first roasted, and shells removed. Shells 
 contain 3 to 6 per cent fat, which is sometimes recovered 
 as cacao shell butter. Otherwise the shells are usvd as 
 cattle food. 
 
 Kernels are ground and pressed hot. Alkali car- 
 bonates are added before pressing, so that the fat as 
 obtained is free from acids. A certain ainount of fat 
 must be left in the press residue, from which cocoa, 
 etc., is prepared. 
 
 Cacao butter is white, has a chocolate smell, and is 
 somewhat brittle at ordinary temperatures. It is often 
 adulterated by so-called " chocolate fat " made from 
 cocoanut or palm nut oil stearine. It is used in manu- 
 facture of chocolate, confectionery, pharmacy and 
 perfumes. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 964-. 976 
 
 Saponification number 191-202 
 
 Iodine number 32-42 
 
 SoUdifying-point 21-26° C. 
 
 Melting-point 28-33° C. 
 
 Titer 48-49" C. 
 
 Chinese Vegetable Tallow 
 
 This is the hard fat, coating the seeds of the Chinese 
 tallow tree. The kernels contain StiUingia oil. The 
 best vegetable tallow is prepared with precaution not 
 to obtain any of the oil admixed, as admixture of the 
 oil makes the tallow of lower melting-point and softer. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 89 
 
 When the whole crushed seed is used in preparation, 
 the product contains the oil, and is much softer. The 
 pure tallow, with no admixture of oil, will not leave a 
 grease spot on paper. Most of it is shipped out from 
 Hankow, where it is purified. It is cast in blocks for 
 shipment. Used in soap and candles. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5° C 915-. 918 
 
 Saponification number 179-231 
 
 Iodine number 19^38 
 
 Solidifying-point 24-32° C. 
 
 Melting-point 36-53° C. 
 
 Titer 40-56° C. 
 
 Palm Nut Oil, Palm Kernel OU 
 
 From the kernels of the fruit of the palm in West 
 Africa. The kernels are expressed hot and yield 40 to 
 45 per cent oil. Pressed cake has little value. Oil is 
 used for soap making. This oil, like cocoanut, will make 
 soap by the cold process. It is also used in chocolate 
 fats, butter substitutes. Well refined palm nut oil is 
 said to have as good keeping qualities as cocoanut. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 40° C. . 912 
 
 Saponification number 1 242-254 
 
 Iodine number 10-17 
 
 Solidifying-point 23-24° C. 
 
 Melting-point 23-30° C. 
 
 Titer 20-25° C. 
 
 Volatile acids (Reichert-Meissl)i . 5-8% 
 ' See p. 20. 
 
90 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Cocoanut Oi! 
 
 Obtained from kernels of cocoanut, which grow in 
 the coast regions of practically all tropical countries. 
 Principal territories are Ceylon, India, Java, Straits 
 Settlements, Pacific South Sea Islands and South 
 America. 
 
 Kernel contains 30 to 40 per cent fat and about 50 per 
 cent moisture. 
 
 The oil has been extracted by the natives for a long 
 time. Various crude methods are in use, as sun-drying, 
 drying over a fire, or boiling in water and skimming off 
 the oil. The latter process is used in Cochin, and 
 gives the best grade of oil. If the kernels are not 
 dried they soon get rancid. They must, therefore, be 
 dried if they are to be shipped any distance. The 
 dried produc is called " copra." The quaUty of 
 copra depends largely on how it has been dried. Drying 
 by hot air gives the best grade. Next best is sun- 
 dried, and the lowest grade is kiln-dried or smoke- 
 dried. This is dark colored, and often contains excess 
 moisture. If the moisture is below 4 to 6 per cent, 
 mold does not form on it, but copra with higher per- 
 centage of water (especially above 10 per cent) becomes 
 moldy, with a consequent rancidity of the oil and an 
 actual loss of oil up to 25 per cent. Copra is graded 
 according to origin and method of drying. 
 
 It will contain from 50 to 75 per cent oil and may 
 contain up to 30 per cent water. 
 
 The grades under which cocoanut oil is sold are 
 Cochin, Ceylon and Copra oil. 
 
 Cochin oil, the best grade, was made originally on 
 the Malabar Coast by boiling and skimming fresh 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 91 
 
 nuts. The name now is used for best grade oil, no matter 
 where it is produced, providing, of course, the quality 
 is right. Cochin grade contains less than 3 per cent 
 free fatty acids ordinarily. 
 
 Ceylon is the name applied to the second grade of oil. 
 This oil has not been handled with as much care as 
 Cochin grade, consequently the acids are higher, 
 averaging around 5 per cent. Ceylon oil may originate 
 from any port, as Manila, Singapore, Java, Japan, etc. 
 
 Copra oil is the poorest grade of cocoanut. It is 
 expressed from the dried copra, which oftentimes has 
 been shipped long distances before being expressed. 
 The quality of the oil will depend largely on the degree of 
 drying the copra has received. In order to yield a good 
 oil copra has to be very carefully prepared. 
 
 Grades of New York Produce Exchange are as follows: 
 
 COCOANUT OIL— Grades 
 
 Sec. 18. — Prime Crude cocoanut oil shall not contain more than 6 
 per cent of free fatty acids (calculated as oleic acid), and shall be free 
 from moisture and impurities, and shall have color not deeper than 30 
 yellow and 5 red, provided that any oil that tests more than 5 per cent 
 of free fatty acids (calculated as oleic acid), shall not be rejected, but 
 shall be reduced one-half of one per cent in the contract price for each 
 I per cent excess of acidity over the maximum established; and pro- 
 vided also, that if the color be deeper than 30 yellow and 5 red, adjust- 
 ment shall be made in accordance with rule 7, section 2. 
 
 Sec. 19. Fair Average Quality Crude Cocoanut Oil. — When crude 
 cocoanut oil is sold as fair average quality price shall be adjusted up)on the 
 basis of an allowance of one-half of ' per cent for each i per cent excess 
 in free fatty acid over 6 per cent and a corresponding per cent in price 
 for each i per cent or fraction thereof of excess moisture and impurities 
 contained therein beyond i per cent. 
 
 Sec. 20.— Other crude cocoanut oil or refined cocoanut oil shall be 
 sold on sample or guarantee, with the designation of the country of 
 origin. 
 
92 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Sec. 21. All cocoanut oils sold under these rules shall be obtained 
 by pressure, not extraction, unless otherwise specified. 
 
 Grades of Interstate Cottonseed Crushers Associa- 
 tion are as follows: 
 
 COCOANUT OIL— Grades 
 
 Sec. 3. ^Choice grade Cocoanut Oil shall be what is known as " Cochin 
 Grade" and shall be pressed and not extracted and should not exceed 
 2% free fatty acids, calculated as Oleic Acid, free from moisture and 
 impurities, and shall have a color not greater than 6 yellow and .5 red. 
 
 Sec. 4. — Prime Crude Cocoanut Oil shall be pressed and not extracted 
 and shall not contain more than s% of free fatty acids, calculated as 
 Oleic Acid, and shall be free from moisture and impurities and shall have 
 color not greater than 30 yellow and 5 red, provided that any oil that 
 tests with more than 5% of free fatty acids, calculated as Oleic Acid 
 shall not be rejected but shall be reduced J of i % of the contract price 
 for each i % of excess acid covered by the contract. 
 
 Other Crude Cocoanut Oil shall be sold on sample or guarantee. 
 
 Copra is pressed hot. The press cake is a valuable 
 cattle food. It contains around 10 per cent oil and 
 20 per cent protein. 
 
 At ordinary temperatures cocoanut oil is a solid 
 white fat. In warm weather it becomes much softer 
 and may even become liquid. 
 
 Good grades of cocoanut are used for edible purposes, 
 as for margarins, chocolate fats, vegetable butters, 
 etc. Oil containing less than 3 or 4 per cent acid is 
 specially refined to deodorize it, for such purposes. 
 It may be pressed to remove some of the liquid fats 
 contained. A stearine from cocoanut is used in candles, 
 cocoa butter substitutes, pharmacy. The olein (or 
 liquid fat) is used in soap making, bakers' fat, etc. Oil 
 unfit for edible purposes is used for soap. Cocoanut, 
 by reason of its high saponification number,^ has a large 
 ^ See p. n6. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 93 
 
 content of glycerin, around 13 to 14 per cent (depending, 
 of course, on the free fatty acids). 
 
 Cocoanut has the property of forming " cold soaps " 
 with caustic alkalies, that is, a soap is formed with 
 alkalies without the agency of heat (as most other oils 
 require). The soap is not precipitated or rendered 
 insoluble by salt solutions, hence it makes a '^ salt 
 water " soap. 
 
 It is not often adulterated, though palm nut oil is 
 sometimes present. It, however, cannot be detected, 
 and fills the same uses as cocoanut. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 926 
 
 Saponification number 246-268 
 
 Iodine number 8-10 
 
 Solidifying-point 16-23° C. 
 
 Melting-point . ., 23-26° C. 
 
 Volatile acids (Reichert-Meissl) ' . . 6-8% 
 
 Titer 21-25° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter Up to .6% 
 
 Cocoanut stearine has a titer of 26° C, the oleine 
 about 20° C. 
 
 Character of Seattle importations is shown by the 
 following tables: 
 
 FREE FATTY ACIDS 
 
 Jan. to June, 1918, per cent 
 June to Aug., 1918, percent 
 
 1-2 
 
 s-4 
 
 r4 
 
 6-10 
 
 8-10 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 61 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 58 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 Over 
 10 Per 
 Cent. 
 
 * See p. 20. 
 
94 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 WATER 
 
 
 Under o.s 
 Per Cent. 
 
 • S-i.o 
 Per Cent. 
 
 1-2 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Jan. to June, 1918 
 
 
 
 88 
 9S 
 
 12 
 
 June to Aug., 1918 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Insoluble impurities nearly always are under 0.2 per 
 cent, but occasionally exceed 0.5 per cent. 
 
 The following are analyses of composite samples of 
 oil of different grades and origin: 
 
 Cochin. 
 
 Ceylon 
 (Manila). 
 
 Ceylon 
 fjapan). 
 
 Free fatty acids, per cent. 
 Saponification number . . . 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Moisture, per cent 
 
 Melting-point, deg. C . . . . 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 2.6 
 254 
 9.6 
 0.4 
 
 233 
 
 6.2 
 
 257 
 8.8 
 0.61 
 26-28 
 22.7 
 
 S-S 
 257 
 
 , 8-9 
 0.49 
 26-27 
 22.4 
 
 Japan Wax 
 
 From berries of the sumach tree in China and Japan. 
 These trees are grown for the lacquer which they 
 exude. It is not a true wax, but a fat,' as it contains 
 glycerin. 
 
 Hard, pale yellow, conchoidal fracture. Can be 
 kneaded with the finger like wax. 
 
 Commercial varieties may contain 15 to 30 per cent 
 water. Starch up to 25 per cent has been found. This, 
 of course, is an adulteration. 
 
 It is used in polishes, floor wax and for currying 
 and finishing leather. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 95 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 975 
 
 Saponification number 220-240 
 
 Iodine number 4-15 
 
 Melting-point So-S4° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 48-50° C. 
 
 Animal Fats 
 
 With few exceptions animal fats are non-drying, 
 that is, they do not absorb oxygen, and have a low 
 iodine number. Icebear fat has an iodine number of 
 150, and rattlesnake fat of 105, and these might be 
 classed as drying fats. 
 
 The most important animal fats are lard, beef tal- 
 low, mutton tallow, and butter. It has been proven 
 by experiment that the character of animal fats is 
 iniluenced largely by the kind of food the animal eats. 
 Furthermore, certain substances in the food pass di- 
 rectly into the animal fat. Thus it has been found that 
 the substance, which in cottonseed oil produces a color 
 in the Halphen test, is found in the lard of a hog fed 
 upon cottonseed meal. The same has been found in the 
 milk of a cow. Not only cottonseed but also sesame 
 oil acts the same way. Because of this influence of 
 the animal's food, the characteristics of animal fats 
 vary more than do those of vegetable fats, and as a 
 consequence the detection of adulterations is more 
 difficult. 
 
 Lard (from the fat of the pig) 
 
 The following grades are recognized in the United 
 States: (i) Neutral lard, from the leaf of the pig, 
 
96 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 rendered between 40 and 50° C, contains up to 0.25 
 per cent free fatty acids. Sometimes divided into one 
 and two grades. Neutral lard No. i is prepared from 
 the leaf. Neutral lard No. 2 is prepared from the back 
 fat. (The leaf is the portion surrounding the kidneys 
 and bowels.) 
 
 (2) Leaf lard, rendered from the residue left from the 
 neutral lard by steam heat and pressure. 
 
 (3) Choice kettle rendered lard, rendered in steam- 
 jacketed open kettles from portions of leaf and back 
 not used for neutral lard. 
 
 (4) Prime steam lard rendered by steam from head, 
 heart and small intestines. It may also contain fat 
 from other parts. 
 
 The United States Department of Agriculture defines 
 lard as follows: 
 
 I. Lard is the rendered fresh fat from hogs in good health at the time 
 of slaughter, is clean, free from rancidity, and contains, necessarily 
 incorporated in the process of rendering, not more than one per cent of 
 substances, other than fatty acids and fat. 
 
 1!. Leaf lard is lard rendered at moderately high temperatures 
 from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that 
 adherent to the intestines, and has an iodine number not greater 
 than 60. 
 
 3. Neutral lard is lard rendered at low temperatures. 
 
 The New York Produce Exchange defines Standard 
 Prime Steam Lard as follows: 
 
 Rule 2. Sec. A. — Standard Prime Steam Lard shall be solely the 
 product of the trimmings and the fat part of the hog, rendered in tanks 
 by the direct application of steam and without subsequent change in 
 the grain or character by the use of agitators or other machinery, except 
 as such change may unavoidably come from the transportation. It 
 must have proper color, flavor, dryness, and soundness for keeping, and 
 no material which has been salted must be included. All lard must be 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 97 
 
 rendered in conformity with the rules and regulations of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture. The name and location of the 
 Tenderer, the date of packing, and the grade of Lard, shall be plainly 
 branded on each package at the time of packing. 
 
 Sec. B. — Prime Steam Lard of superior quality as to color, 
 flavor and body may be inspected as "Prime Steam Lard, Choice 
 Quality," and shall be deliverable on contracts for "Prime Steam 
 Lard." 
 
 The definitions of the Chicago Board of Trade are 
 practically the same. 
 
 Neutral lard does not keep as well as the steam- 
 rendered varieties because of the lower temperature at 
 which it is made. 
 
 No. I grade is used in oleomargarine. The second 
 quality is used by confectioners. Lard is also used in 
 pharmacy and perfumes. After the edible grades of 
 lard have been obtained, the remainder is worked up 
 for any fat left. This grease is used for soap, lard oil, 
 stearine, etc. 
 
 Lard oil is obtained by pressing out the liquid fat of 
 lard. It is used for compound lards, margarine; non- 
 edible grades are used for lubricating, wool oil, burning 
 oil, silk scouring. The residue left after pressing out 
 the lard oil, is lard stearine. It is used in candle manu- 
 facture, etc. 
 
 Lard compound is made by thickening cottonseed oil 
 with oleo stearine, or with other stearines, to get the 
 proper consistency. Oleo stearine is made by pressing 
 beef tallow. Vegetable stearines, or hydrogenated oil, 
 may be used in place of oleo stearine. 
 
 All of the above characteristics are influenced largely 
 by the food of the animal, so that the detection of adul- 
 teration in lard is often a very difficult matter. 
 
98 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Characteristics of Lard and Lard Oil. 
 
 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Lard Oa. 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number . 
 
 •934- .938 
 195-203 
 47- 8s 
 36- 48 
 27- 30 
 19- 36 
 
 .913-. 919 
 
 igo-198 
 
 67- 88 
 
 Melting-point, deg. C 
 
 Solidifying-point, deg. C 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 —4 to .+10 
 
 Bone Fat 
 
 Obtained from bones by boiling, steaming, or extrac- 
 tion by solvents. Latter process yields bad smelling 
 oil unsuitable for soap and used in candles only, or very 
 cheap soap. 
 
 Bone oil is obtained from bone fat the same as lard 
 oil is obtained from lard, and is used as a lubricant on 
 account of its low cold test, and also, in the leather 
 industry, in a similar manner to neat's-foot oil. 
 
 It is very low in free fatty acids. 
 
 Characteristics of Bone Fat 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C. . . ; 914-.916 
 
 Saponification number 1 91-195 
 
 Iodine number 46-56 
 
 Melting-point 21-22° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 15-17° C. 
 
 Tallow (Either from Beef or Sheep) 
 
 Tallow is classified as edible or inedible and also by 
 
 the name of the animal. 
 
 Beef Tallow 
 
 For edible grades, as for margarine use, the kidney fat 
 (suet) is used. In freshly rendered tallow the free acids 
 
VEGETABLE AXD ANIMAL 
 
 99 
 
 are less than 0.5 per cent, but poor grades may contain 
 over 25 Der cent. 
 
 Tallows are generally sold on titer, acids, non-fatty 
 matter and color test. The determination of wateris 
 also important. Besides the edible uses, it goes into 
 soap, candles and greases. The higher the titer test 
 the more valuable it is for soap and candles. 
 
 Tallow used to be the chief soap-making fat, because 
 of its high titer and availability. Since hydrogenated 
 oils are becoming so common, the soap maker is not so 
 dependent on tallow. 
 
 Candle makers do not want the titer below 44° C. 
 Tallow of lower titer is used for soap. For railway 
 axle grease the titer should not be below 41° C. Tallow 
 is sometimes adulterated with mineral matter and other 
 foreign ingredients. 
 
 Mutton tallow has a stronger odor than beef tallow, 
 and cannot be used in margarine or high-class soaps. 
 It is harder, with a higher titer test, solidifying- and 
 melting-point. It is sometimes sold mixed with beef 
 tallow. It has more tendency to turn rancid than beef 
 tallow. 
 
 Characteristics of Beef and Mutton Tallow: 
 
 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Mutton. 
 
 
 •943- -95 2 
 193-200 
 
 35- 47 
 43- 45 
 27- 35 
 40- 48 
 
 ■937-- 953 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Titer dee C. .... 
 
 43- 46 
 
 ^2- 4.1 
 
 Solidifvine.-Doint. deer. C 
 
 
 44- 49 
 
 
100 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Oleo stearine or beef stearine is the stearine obtained 
 by pressing tallow. 
 
 Oleo oil or tallow oil is the resultant liquid fat. 
 
 Oleo stearine is largely used in lard substitute, oleo- 
 margarine, etc. 
 
 Oleo oil is used in oleomargarine. 
 
 Horse Fat 
 
 Sometimes used for edible purposes in place of lard, 
 tut its chief use is in soap. Characteristics similar to 
 lard or tallow. Iodine number is higher, 75 to 86. 
 
 Battel Fat 
 
 While butter has in general no place in the oil trade, 
 the characteristics are herewith given for comparative 
 purposes: 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 936-. 940 
 
 Saponification number ,221-233 
 
 Iodine number 25-50 
 
 Melting-point 28-33° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 19-24° C. 
 
 According to United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture rules, butter must contain not less than 82.5 per 
 cent milk (or true butter) fat. To comply with this 
 rule the water cannot be over 16 per cent. 
 
 Butter Substitute. Oleomargarine^ 
 
 Mixture of animal fats (such as oleo oil or neutral 
 lard, or beef stearine), and vegetable fats, in oils such as 
 ' See also p. 107. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 101 
 
 cottonseed oil or cottonseed stearine. Oleo oil is churned 
 with vegetable oil or fat and with pasteurized skim milk. 
 Sometimes butter flavor or color is added. 
 
 Renovated Butter 
 
 Process butter is the product made by melting butter 
 and reworking, without the addition or use of chemicals 
 or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and con- 
 tains not more than i6 per cent water, and at least 82.5 
 per cent of milk fat. — U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 
 
 Waxes 
 
 Waxes are distinguished from oils and fats in that they 
 do not contain glycerin, or at least only in smaller 
 amounts. They are combinations of fatty acids (which 
 are in general the same as those of oils and fats) and 
 higher alcohols (the alcohols replacing glycerin). 
 
 The waxes yield large amounts of unsaponifiable mat- 
 ter, which in this case consists mainly of the higher 
 alcohols. 
 
 Liquid Waxes 
 
 Represented by sperm oil. 
 
 Sperm Oil 
 
 This is classed as a liquid wax because it does not con- 
 tain glycerin, thus distinguishing it from other oils. 
 It is obtained from the head cavity and blubber of the 
 sperm whale. The head oil is worth more than the 
 blubber oil. The two are sold in the proportion of 
 one-third head and two-thirds blubber oil as No. i 
 sperm oil. The body oil of sperm is graded as No. 2 
 
102 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 and 3 oil, and contains considerable amounts of free 
 fatty acids. 
 
 The oil is subjected to cold to settle out the sperm- 
 aceti, and then filter pressed. This gives winter sperm 
 oil, standing a cold test of 38° F., the usual standard. 
 By further pressing, oils of higher cold test are obtained 
 such as " spring " and " taut " sperm oil. The press 
 cake is crude spermaceti. 
 
 Pacific coast grades of sperm oil are as follows: 
 
 No. I, one- third head, two- thirds blubber oil, acids 
 up to 2 per cent, specific gravity not over .884. 
 
 No. 2, body oil, acids up to 5 per cent. 
 
 No. 3, body oil, acids up to 15 per cen,t. 
 
 As the specific gravity of sperm oil is low, a high 
 gravity points to admixture of other oils. No. i sperm 
 oil is specified to have a gravity of not over .884 at 
 15.5° C. Spermaceti will also raise the gravity. 
 
 Inasmuch as the presence of mineral oil cannot be 
 detected in sperm oil by simple determination of the 
 percentage of unsaponifiable matter, there is an in- 
 ducement sometimes towards adulteration in this way. 
 Mineral oils can be detected by special methods of exami- 
 nation of the unsaponifiable matter, such as acetyl- 
 ation. 
 
 Sperm oil is a valuable lubricating oil. It has 
 very little tendency to gum. The viscosity does not 
 decrease with increase of temperature so rapidly as 
 other oils, which makes it specifically valuable for 
 high temperature work. It is also used in leather 
 finishing. 
 
 Arctic sperm oil or bottlcnose oil has more of a tend- 
 ency to gum, and brings a lower price. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 103 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15.5 
 
 Saponification number 
 
 Iodine number 
 
 Titer, deg. C 
 
 Flash-point 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, per cent 
 
 Arctic Spenn. 
 
 .876-. 881 
 
 121-136 
 
 67-8S 
 
 8.3-8.8 
 
 31-43 
 
 Solid Waxes 
 
 Carnauba Wax 
 
 From leaves of a palm in South America, chiefly in 
 .orazil. Obtained by melting in boiling water. Used 
 in polishes, candles, varnishes, waterproofing, etc. 
 Gives very good luster in polishes. May be adulterated 
 with paraffin, stearine, etc., which can be readily detected. 
 Free fatty acids up to 2 per cent. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 995-1 .00 
 
 Melting-point 83-91° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 80-87° C. 
 
 Saponification number 78-88 
 
 Iodine number 13-14 
 
 Wool Wax or Wool Grease 
 
 Removed from wool by scouring with soap, or by 
 solvents. 
 
 It has the property of mixing with water and finds use 
 in pharmacy and cosmetics, when refined. The refined 
 products are adeps lanae and lanolin. Adeps lanae 
 
104 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 is free from water, and lanolin is mixed with 20 to 25 
 per cent water. 
 
 The crude product is known as brown grease, re- 
 covered grease or, in the United States as degras, and 
 is used in currying leather. Distilled wool grease is 
 made by distilling with steam. The liquid portion is 
 used as a wool oil, the solid portion for soap and candles. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Solidifying-point Around 30° C 
 
 Melting-point 31-42° C 
 
 Saponification number 82-130 
 
 Iodine number 17-52 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 43-52% 
 
 Beeswax 
 
 Secreted by bees. Used in candles, polishes, etc. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Melting-point 62-70° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 60-63° C 
 
 Saponification number. . . , 90-107 
 
 Iodine number 8-14 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 52-56% 
 
 Spermaceti 
 
 From the head cavity of the sperm whale. See sperm 
 oil. 
 
 Used for candles, cosmetics, etc. 
 
 Brittle, white, translucent. Crude sperm oil yields 
 about 10 per cent spermaceti. The crude press cake 
 from the sperm oil pressing is melted and refined with 
 caustic soda. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 105 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Spscific gravity at 15° C 942-. y6o 
 
 Saponification number 120-135 
 
 Iodine number 3-7 
 
 Melting-point 41-46° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 41-49° C. 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 49-53% 
 
 insect Wax (Chinese Wax) 
 
 Secretion of an insect in Western China. Yellowish 
 white, resembles spermaceti, but is harder and can be 
 powdered more easily. Used in China and Japan for 
 polishes, sizing for fabric, candles. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Specific gravity at 15° C 970 
 
 Melting-point 80-83° C. 
 
 Solidifying-point 80-81° C. 
 
 Saponification number 80-93 
 
 Iodine number 1-2 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 49-51% 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Uses of Oils 
 
 In the following section the various uses to which oils 
 are put will be briefly discussed. 
 
 Edible Oils 
 
 For general discussion see page lo. 
 
 Salad Oil3 
 
 Common oils in use in the United States are : Cotton- 
 seed, corn, olive, peanut, sesame, soya. Almost all 
 vegetable oils are used in different countries except cer- 
 tain oils which have toxic effects, such as castor, China 
 wood, croton, etc. 
 
 Salad oils are often a blend of several oils. It is 
 specially important that salad oils be freed previously 
 from stearine, so that none will separate out on the table. 
 They must be low in acids, free from rancidity and of 
 good taste. 
 
 Besides salad oils, oils are used somewhat in cooking 
 and baking, though in this country the use of solid fats 
 is more common for these purposes. 
 
 Edible Fats 
 
 Commonly used fats are lard, butter, tallow (suet), 
 
 cacao butter. 1 An edible fat must be low in acids, free 
 
 from rancidity, and of good taste. 
 
 ' Solid vegetable fats are considerably used for edible purposes in 
 their native countries. 
 
 106 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 107 
 
 The higher-priced edible fats are often replaced by 
 substitutes. Hydrogenated oils are playing an in- 
 creasingly important part as edible fats and are used 
 in all the following, as well as the natural products. 
 
 (i) Tallow substitutes; mixtures of tallow or beef 
 stearine, with cottonseed oil, cottonseed stearine, cocoa- 
 nut oil, or other edible oils. 
 
 (2) Butter substitutes: Margarines, mixtures of 
 animal and vegetable fats. 
 
 Oleomargarine: (See page 100, under Butter.) Made 
 from oleo oil (pressed from beef tallow) or neutral lard, 
 churned with vegetable oils and pasteurized skim milk. 
 Vegetable oils used in oleomargarine are cottonseed, 
 sesame,' peanut, soya and corn. 
 
 I Margarines are also made which consist exclusively of 
 vegetable oils. Cocoanut or palm nut oil is usually 
 the base of these, sometimes cottonseed stearine. 
 Cocoanut oil is refined and deodorized by processes 
 which are generally kept secret. Sometimes cocoanut 
 oil is emulsiiied with water, eggs, milk, salt, to make the 
 product more like butter. 
 
 (3) Lard Substitutes: Mixtures of lard or lard 
 stearine, with beef or mutton stearine, cottonseed 
 stearine, cottonseed oil, corn, peanut, sesame, cocoanut 
 and palm nut oils. Such mixtures are labeled as " lard 
 compound " in the United States. 
 
 (4) Cacao Butter Substitutes: Chocolate fats, sub- 
 stitute for CEcao butter in cheap chocolate or in confec- 
 tionery where more fat is required than would be fur- 
 nished by the chocolate. Animal fats in general are 
 not suitable. Cocoanut oil, pahn nut oil, or stearine 
 
 See p. ss. 
 
108 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 from these, to give required consistency, are used. 
 Sometimes waxes have been added as stiffeners. 
 
 Oils for Medicinal Purposes 
 
 Castor and cod Uver oils are the two most commonly 
 used. 
 
 Various preparations are made of castor and cod 
 hver oils to make them more palatable as e.g., efferves- 
 cent oil, i.e., saturated with carbon dioxide, mixtures 
 with milk, gum arable, etc. 
 
 Phosphorized oils are treated with phosphorus, the 
 phosphorus dissolving in the oil. Almond oil is so 
 treated. 
 
 Iodized and brominated oils have been treated with 
 iodine and bromine. 
 
 Burning or Illuminating Oils 
 
 Almost every kind of oil has been used for this pur- 
 pose in different countries. Use of vegetable and 
 animal oils has been decreased much by petroleum oils. 
 Lard, whale, seal, rape and olive are still used in various 
 countries. Drying or semi-drying oils are not suitable, 
 because of gumming tendency. Acids should be less 
 than 5 per cent. High acid oil causes charring of wick 
 and smoky flame. Mineral acid (from refining) should 
 be absent. Mucilaginous or insoluble matter tend to 
 clog the wick. 
 
 Paint Oils 
 
 Drying oils only are suitable. Linseed is the best and 
 oldest paint oil. Walnut and poppyseed are used for 
 high-grade paint. China wood, soya, corn and men 
 
VEGETABLE AIrt) ANIMAL 109 
 
 haden are also used.^ China wood is used after heating 
 and the addition of a drier. Other semi-drying oils are 
 sometimes used as adulterants. 
 
 Extracted oils are not suitable for the best paint.^ 
 Most paint oils are used in the form of boiled oils 
 (see pages 36, iii). 
 
 Lubricating Oils 
 
 Before the introduction of petroleum oils, vegetable 
 and animal oils and fats were exclusively used for lubri- 
 cating. Their use is not now so common. Tallow oil, 
 lard oil, neat's-foot, castor, rape, olive, tallow, sperm, 
 porpoise and dolphin are used. Drying and semi- 
 drying oils are not used because of their tendency to 
 gum.3 A lubricating oil should be free from mineral 
 acids and low in free fatty acid. Viscosity is very 
 important, as it is chiefly to their viscosity that oils owe 
 their lubricating value. The viscosity must not be 
 too greatly decreased by heating. Lubricating oils 
 should have a high flash-point* and burning-point, and a 
 low freezing- or sohdifying-point. The specifications 
 for these latter properties depend on the specific use to 
 
 ' There are a number of other oils which give good promise of becoming 
 important drying oils, such as perilla, hempseed, candlenut, or lumbang, 
 stillingia, etc. Use of these oils will be extended as new ways of applying 
 them are found. 
 
 ' For tests as to the suitability of an oil for paint use, see pp. 34, 35, 
 
 44. in- 
 
 ^ Another important objection to drying oils would be their tendency 
 to spontaneous combustion on cotton "waste." 
 
 * The flash point is the temperature at which the oil first catches 
 fire, determined by trying the surface with a flame. The oil is heated 
 during the test either in an open or closed cup. Burning point is 
 the temperature at which the oil continues burning. 
 
110 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 which the oil is to be put and the climatic conditions of 
 the place where it is to be used. A cylinder oil needs 
 a higher flash-point than a bearing oil. The former 
 should not be below 500° F. and the latter 350° F. 
 
 Wool Oils, Cloth Oils 
 
 Used for lubricating the fibers of the wool previous 
 to spinning. Olive oil, lard oil, neat's-foot oil, and oleic 
 acid are used. Wool grease, distilled grease, and seek 
 oil may be used. Seek oil is the recovered grease from 
 scourings of silk, wool or cotton goods. Drying and 
 semi-drying oils are unsuitable, as these would have a 
 tendency to cause spontaneous combustion. Wool oils 
 must be easily removable by scouring, therefore the 
 unsaponifiable matter should be low. Flash-point should 
 be high. 
 
 Hydrogenated or Hardened Oils or Fats 
 
 Almost all liquid oils can be changed to hard fats by 
 the action of hydrogen on the oil in the presence of a 
 substance called the catalyst. Nickel is one of the 
 most commonly used catalysts. The oil is deodorized 
 in the process. It is difficult or impossible to tell what 
 the original oil was after hardening. 
 
 The melting-point or titer of the product can be con- 
 trolled in the process to produce any desired result. 
 This is of great advantage to the soap and candle maker. 
 Hardened oils and fats are used in margarines, lard 
 substitutes, soap, candles, etc. Those intended for 
 edible purposes should of course fulfill the same speci- 
 fications as other edible oils. The presence of metals, 
 left in the oil from the hydrogenating process, if in too 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 111 
 
 large amount will prevent their use for edible purposes. 
 Only traces of these metals are permissible. Nickel 
 in hardened fat runs generally less than o.oi per cent, 
 some as low as 0.003 P^r cent. 
 
 There is considerable advantage in shipping hardened 
 oils over liquid oils, as there is no danger of loss by 
 leakage. 
 
 Boiled Oils 
 
 Formed by heating drying oils with substances called 
 driers, such as manganese, cobalt, and lead compounds. 
 These latter hasten the absorption of oxygen when the 
 oil is exposed in a film, as in paints and varnish. 
 
 • Linseed oil is most commonly used. Perilla and 
 menhaden are satisfactory. Candle nut, hempseed, 
 soya, china wood, poppyseed are not as satisfactory. 
 
 A practical test for the suitability of a drying oil is 
 to heat it to 300° C. rapidly. In this test it should 
 remain clear. An oil not suitably refined will separate 
 out a sediment in this test. 
 
 Boiled oils are used in varnishes, paints, enamels, etc. 
 
 Varnishes 
 
 Mixtures of boiled oils with gums or resins (such as 
 damar, copal, rosin, etc.), and turpentine or other thin- 
 ner. China wood oil is finding an increasing use in 
 varnishes. 
 
 Linseed oil has always been the standard oil for 
 varnishes. 
 
 Lithographic varnish, or oil, is linseed oil which has 
 been heated to 250 to 300° C, but has not had a drier 
 added. The thickness depends on time of heating. 
 
112 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 Enamels are mixtures of varnishes with pigments. 
 Paints are mixtures of boiled oils, pigments and 
 thinner. 
 
 Blown Oils, Oxidized Oils 
 
 Oils through which a current of air, oxygen or ozone 
 has been blown. Drying and semi-drying oils, either 
 animal or vegetable, are suitable for blowing. Blown 
 oils are higher in gravity and viscosity than the original 
 oil, that is they become thicker. The viscosity ap- 
 proaches that of castor, and such oils are sometimes 
 called " soluble castor oil " because they are soluble in 
 petroleum oils, whereas castor oil is not. 
 
 Corn, cottonseed, rape, seal, sperm and fish oils are 
 blown for use in lubricants, and to some extent in 
 leather. 
 
 Blown linseed oil (along with other drying oils), is 
 used in linoleum, by mixing with various gums or 
 resins. For this purpose the oil is blown until it forms 
 a soHd. 
 
 Rubber Substitute, Vulcanized Oils 
 
 By the action of sulphur or sulphur chloride on certain 
 oils, solid masses, somewhat like rubber in consistency 
 are formed. These are used in compounding rubber 
 goods. 
 
 Rape, castor, corn, soya, peanut, sesame and linseed 
 oils are so used. Nitrated oils also are used as rubber 
 substitute. 
 
 Nitrated Oils 
 
 Linseed or castor oil treated with nitric acid form 
 thick heavy Hquids. Solutions of these in acetone are 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 113 
 
 used in paints, varnishes and enameled leather, and 
 as rubber substitute. 
 
 Sulphonated Oils 
 
 Turkey red oil^ used in dyeing and printing cotton 
 fiber is a sulphonated oil, that is, one that has been 
 treated with sulphuric acid. Castor oil so treated forms 
 the original Turkey red oil. Olive, peanut and cotton- 
 seed oils are also used. The value of a Turkey red oil 
 depends on its action towards the fiber on which it is 
 to be used, in fixing dyes. Turkey red oil is also used 
 as a wool oil. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 In the manufacture of candles, fats are first saponified 
 by various processes, and the mixed fatty acids obtained 
 separately from the glycerin. The mixed fatty acids 
 consist of solid acid as stearic acid or stearine, and liquid 
 acids as oleic acid. The latter are of no use to the 
 candle maker. The mixture of acids is pressed to 
 free the stearine from the oleic or liquid acids. Dis- 
 tillation of the oleic acid is also used as a means of 
 separation. Oleic acid is a by-product. 
 
 By such means stearine of the required consistency or 
 melting-point is obtained. The higher the titer test 
 therefore of a fat, the higher will be the yield of stearine 
 suitable for candles. The titer test is the sohdifying- 
 point of the total fatty acids of an oil or fat. 
 
 Tallow, bone fat, palm oil, cottonseed stearine, vege- 
 table tallow and artificially hardened oils and fats are 
 all used. Waxes such as spermaceti or beeswax are used 
 1 See p. 68. 
 
114 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 in stiffening, as are also mineral wax such as paraffin, 
 ceresin, etc. Paraffin has come to be a very important 
 ingredient of candles, and has somewhat lessened the 
 importance of vegetable and animal stearine for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Fatty Acids 
 
 Stearine is the name applied to the mixture of solid 
 fatty acids, obtained as in candle making. It is a mix- 
 ture of stearic and palmitic acids. Besides its use in 
 candles, it is used in polishes, waterproofing prepara- 
 tions, phonograph records, etc. Low grades may be 
 used in soap. 
 
 The name stearine is also applied to solid fats separat- 
 ing out naturally from liquid oils. This " stearine " is 
 a solid fat instead of a solid fatty acid, that is, it is a com- 
 bination of a solid fatty acid (e.g., stearic acid) and 
 glycerin. 
 
 Oleic acid, oleine, eleine, or red oil, is the name applied 
 to the liquid fatty acids, separated in candle making. 
 Saponification oleine is obtained by refrigeration and 
 pressing; distilled oleine by the distillation process. 
 It is used in soap making and for wool oils. 
 
 Soap Stock Fatty Acids 
 
 These are prepared from fats by saponification in 
 establishments whose chief aim is the recovery of 
 glycerin. The fatty acids resultant are used by soap 
 makers. This gives the small soap maker the material 
 which he needs for soap, and does not compel him to 
 recover the glycerin, thereby removing a handicap 
 which he would have in competing with large soap 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 115 
 
 factories which can well afford to recover the glycerin, 
 because of the scale on which they operate. Almost 
 any oil is used by plants making soap stock acids. 
 
 Soap 
 
 Soap is a combination of the fatty acids of oils or fats 
 with a base such as an alkali (potash, soda, ammonia) 
 or alkaline earth (lime, magnesia, etc.), or metals (alu- 
 minum, iron, lead, etc.). The character of the resultant 
 soap depends both on the base and on the oil used, so 
 that a great variety of soaps may be made. Almost 
 all oils are used in soap. 
 
 Soda gives a harder soap than potash. The drying 
 oils (linseed, hempseed, fish) give soft soaps. Solid 
 fats give hard soaps. The semi-drying oils (cottonseed, 
 etc.) may be used as admixture in both soft and hard 
 soaps depending on the consistency desired. 
 
 Oils and fats are valued by the soap maker on the 
 amount of unsaponifiable matter they contain. A com- 
 mon determination required by the soap maker is what 
 is known as miii, which stands for moisture, insoluble 
 sediment (or dirt) and unsaponifiable matter. None 
 of these of course will make soap. When glycerin is 
 high priced the amount of glycerin which an oil contains 
 also influences the value of it to the soap maker. (See 
 glycerin for method of estimating.) 
 
 Soaps are made to fit special uses, as toilet, laundry, 
 textile soaps. 
 
 Glycerin 
 
 The glycerin in combination with the fatty acids of an 
 oil or fat, is obtained by the soap and candle maker as a 
 by-product. 
 
116 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 The amount of glycerin in an oil is not a fixed quantity. 
 Oils contain mono-, di-, and tri-glycerides. That is, 
 one, two, or three equivalent weights of fatty acids, are 
 united with one equivalent of glycerin. The percentage 
 of glycerin in a tri-glyceride is less than in a mono- 
 glyceride. The tri-glycerides are, however, the chief 
 constituents of natural oils, and therefore the amount 
 of glycerin can be approximated from the saponifica- 
 tion number, as follows : 
 
 Subtract from loo the combined percentage of water, 
 insoluble and unsaponifiable matter. Divide the saponi- 
 fication number determined on the oil by the remainder, 
 giving the approximate saponification number of the neu- 
 tral oil. Multiply by lo, divide by 183, giving the ap- 
 proximate percentage of glycerin in the neutral oil. 
 Subtract from 100 the combined percentage of water, 
 insoluble and unsaponifiable matter, and free fatty acids, 
 and multiply the percentage of glycerin in the neutral 
 oil by this remainder, giving the glycerin percentage 
 in the original oil. 
 Take for example the following analysis of an oil: 
 
 Water 2.0% 
 
 Insoluble matter 0.2 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter 2.0.... sum 4 . 2 
 
 Free fatty acids 4.0.... sum 8 . 2 
 
 Saponification number 195 
 
 100 — 4.2= 95.8 
 
 — - = 203 saponification number of neutral oil. 
 9S-0 
 
 203X10 ... , . 
 
 - — = 1 1 . 1 per cent glycerin in neutral oil. 
 
 103 
 ii.iX(ioo — 8.2) = 11.1X91.8 = 10.2 per cent glycerin in 
 
 original oil. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 117 
 
 A shorter method is to multiply the saponification 
 number by lo and divide by 183, and then multiply by 
 the percentage of neutral oil, i.e., 100 per cent minus 
 the sum of the water, insoluble, unsaponifiable and 
 free fatty acids. This method is not as accurate as the 
 foregoing. 
 
 The percentage of glycerin can of course be deter- 
 mined accurately by chemical methods. 
 
 The cocoanut group of oils have the highest percent- 
 age of glycerin, and the rape oil group the lowest. 
 
 Polishes 
 
 Mixtures of waxes, stearine, oils, with solvents such as 
 turpentine. 
 
 Foots, Soap Stock 
 
 Foots are residues or sediments from the refining 
 of oil. They consist of impurities such as mucilaginous 
 matter,, water, dirt in the original oil, and stearine (or 
 solid fat). When alkalies are used in refining, a soap 
 is formed with the free acid in the oil, and this is also 
 contained in the foots. Some neutral oil is always en- 
 tangled with it. Cottonseed soap stock^ is such a prod- 
 uct. The character of foots depends on the refining 
 process used on the crude oil. 
 
 Black grease is the fatty matter obtained by treating 
 soap stock with acid (also called acidified soap stock). 1 
 
 Greases 
 
 Waste fats from garbage, slaughter houses, etc., stearine 
 from whales and fish, are worked into grease, which is a 
 
 1 See p. S3- 
 
118 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 general name for low grade, more or less solid fats. 
 Greases are used in candles, soap, lubricants, etc., 
 depending on their character. (See also wool fat.) 
 
 Sod Oil, Degras 
 
 In the chamoising process of treating skins, whale, 
 menhaden and cod oil are rubbed into the skins. They 
 are then left to ferment for some time, and afterwards 
 the excess oil is separated. The oil so obtained is 
 very different than the original oil. It contains water 
 and other impurities, and is used in dressing leather. 
 Sometimes skins are worked for the sole purpose of 
 preparing degras or sod oil. 
 
 Degras is the heavy grease first obtained from the 
 skins. After this is collected (by pressure) the skins are 
 washed with alkali, and the solution so obtained neu- 
 'tralized with sulphuric acid, giving sod oil. The fore- 
 going applies to European practice. 
 
 The name " degras " in the United States is applied 
 to the grease from wool scouring. 
 
 Fish oils, tallow and various greases are sometimes 
 substituted for degras or sod oil. 
 
 Degras or sod oil is valued on the amount of water, 
 impurities and unsaponifiable matter. They are used in 
 the treatment of leather. 
 
 Stuffing grease is a mixture of degras with tallow, 
 fish stearine or other waste fats, sometimes soft soap. 
 It is used in tanning. 
 
CHAPTER rV 
 
 Sampling 
 
 The correct sampling of oils is a very difficult matter, 
 and one that requires very careful attention. It is 
 frequently done, however, in a careless manner, and 
 perhaps there is no other one reason that causes so 
 many misunderstandings and disputes in the oil trade 
 as incorrect samples. Practically all oil, it may be said, 
 is sold on the basis of sample submitted to the buyer 
 by the seller, or on analysis of sample by a chemist. 
 If now the sample does not correctly represent the lot 
 of oil which is being offered for sale, trouble is sure to 
 arise, and this is the cause of most of the " claims " 
 in the trade. The buyer very seldom sees the lot of 
 oil he buys until it is delivered to him. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties in getting a correct sample 
 of a lot of oil is the presence of water, foots, insoluble 
 matter of various kinds, etc. After oil has been standing 
 for some time, or has been shipped some distance, these 
 settle to the bottom of the container, and to get a 
 correct sample must again be mixed with the bulk of 
 the oil. This often is very difficult and even impossible 
 practically, and so methods of sampling have to be 
 employed in practice which will approximate as nearly 
 as possible an accurate sample. 
 
 Methods of sampling vary with the kind of container. 
 What is applicable to one is not to another. The 
 
 119 
 
120 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 various sampling methods will be discussed therefore 
 according to the kind of container. 
 
 Tank Cars. 
 
 The time to take an accurate sample of a tank car 
 is during loading, or immediately after the car is loaded. 
 While the stream of oil is running into the car, a dip 
 may be taken from the stream of oil at regular intervals, 
 and all the samples thus obtained combined into one 
 composite sample after careful mixing. Immediately 
 after the car is loaded the oil is pretty well mixed in 
 the car. Even at this time, however, it is not safe 
 to take one dip in the car and take this as the sample, 
 for if the first oil which went into the car is different 
 than the last, only an imperfect mixture of the two 
 layers will have taken place in the loading process, 
 and one dip will not give an accurate sample. If, 
 however, a dip is taken out of about six different layers 
 from top to bottom of the car, and all these dips com- 
 bined into one composite sample, this composite will 
 be a very accurate sample of the contents of the car. 
 These separate dips can be very conveniently taken 
 by a can fastened at the end of a pole, with a stopper 
 arranged to be withdrawn when the desired depth 
 has been reached. The bottom dip should always be 
 taken as near the bottom of the tank as possible. Most 
 tank cars have a sump in the bottom, into which the 
 sampling can may be inserted, thus getting the oil 
 at the very bottom of the car. 
 
 Sometimes a trier or thief with a closing valve on 
 the bottom is used on tank cars, but this is very cum- 
 bersome to handle, and for this very reason is liable 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 121 
 
 not to take an accurate sample. Another objection to 
 it is the difficulty in cleaning it between samples. 
 Sampling instruments must always be kept clean. A 
 trier or thief without a vah'e on the bottom which may 
 be closed when the bottom of the tank is reached, is 
 absolutely worthless. A thief does not take a sample 
 proportional to the mass of the oil in the \arious layers 
 from top to bottom of a cylindrical container, but takes 
 the same amount out of each layer regardless of the 
 fact that a foot of depth in the middle represents much 
 more oil than a foot of depth at either the top or the 
 bottom. In sampHng by dip cans this may be com- 
 pensated for, if desired, by combining the dips in dif- 
 ferent proportions in making up the composite sample. 
 
 After a tank has stood for a time, or especially after 
 it has been shipped for a distance, the water and in- 
 soluble matter settle to the bottom. If there is much 
 insoluble matter and the car has come a long way, the 
 insoluble matter may become packed, as it were, in 
 a layer on the bottom. It is then very difficult to dis- 
 lodge or to mix with the bulk of the oil in order to get 
 a uniform mixture. It is very seldom practical in any 
 case to attempt to make a uniform mixture of the 
 contents of a tank car for sampling purposes. Com- 
 pressed air is sometimes tried as a means of agitation, 
 but in this process water may either be added to the 
 car or abstracted from it, depending upon the tempera- 
 ture of the oil and the degree of wetness of the com- 
 pressed air. 
 
 The best way to take an accurate sample of a car 
 which has settled into two layers is to draw off the two 
 layers separately in unloading the car, taking samples 
 
122 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 from the stream of oil at regular intervals of time. 
 If, for instance, the upper or clear layer is unloaded 
 first, it is sampled regularly, and at the point where 
 a change is noticed in the character of the oil miming, 
 the unloading is stopped long enough to measure the 
 volume remaining in the tank. After imloading com- 
 mences again, a second series of samples is taken from 
 the bottom oil. These two series of samples are each 
 combined into separate composites, and analysis made 
 of each. Knowing the volume of each layer, the average 
 for the car can be readily computed. More than two 
 layers can be thus sampled if desired. 
 
 The difficulty of sampUng accurately a tank car on 
 deUvery disappears if the oil does not carry any amount 
 of water or insoluble matter. The car may then be 
 sampled by a dip method as described above, taking 
 care to mix the bottom dip with the others in the 
 correct proportion to represent the proportional volmnes. 
 
 When the contents of tank cars are solid, as in the 
 case of cocoanut oil in cold weather, it is best to sample 
 as above, after the oil has been warmed and is unloading. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 It is generally not necessary to sample every barrel 
 of a lot of oil. Usual practice is to sample one in 
 every ten barrels, or ten per cent. In the case of a 
 lot of oil which arises from more than one source, or 
 in the case of a lot containing much water, it may be 
 necessary to sample more frequently than one in every 
 ten. Sometimes every barrel is sampled in the case 
 of very " spotty " lots. In sampling barrels, the same 
 precautions must be observed as noted above, to get 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 123 
 
 an accurate sample of the oil, water, and insoluble 
 matter in the correct proportions. After a barrel has 
 stood for a time the water and insoluble matter will 
 be found at the bottom or one side, depending on the 
 position in which the barrel has stood. Where an oil 
 is " thin " enough to permit a remixing of the water, 
 etc., with the bulk of the oil, the separated layers may 
 be mixed by rolling the barrel back and forth until 
 mixture is obtained. If, however, the barrel is entirely 
 full of oil, with no air space at the top, it is difficult to 
 get a good mixture in this way. In the case of very 
 viscous oils, as for example, castor, China wood, etc., 
 it is almost impossible to mix in this manner, without 
 taking an unduly long time in the operation. Such 
 oils are best sampled in barrels by a trier or thief run 
 to the bottom. Even when a barrel has been mixed 
 by rolling, the thief should be run to the bottom for 
 the sample. Special precautions must be taken not to 
 insert the trier any faster into the oil than the oil rises 
 in the tube. If this rate of insertion is exceeded any 
 water in the bottom of the barrel will be forced into 
 the trier in undue proportion. This precaution must 
 be specially observed in the case of oils of high viscosity. 
 The various trier samples may then be combined into 
 one composite sample representing the whole lot. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Much oil is shipped from the Orient in what are called 
 " case lots." Two s-gallon oil cans are packed in a 
 wooden case. It has been found by experience that 
 an accurate sample may be obtained on most of such 
 lots, by opening one can out of every twenty cases, or 
 
124 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 what is called a five per cent sample. It is hardly 
 practicable to sample more frequently than this, and is 
 not often necessary. The best way to sample cases is to 
 first withdraw one can from the case, mix thoroughly 
 by up-ending a number of times, punch a small hole in 
 the top and pour out a small quantity of the contents. 
 Special precaution must be used to mix well very viscous 
 oils. Cocoanut oil, or other solid oil in cases, must 
 be sampled by a trier. Case lots which have originated 
 from more than one source may be spotty, and may 
 need closer sampling than five per cent. 
 
 A more accurate sample may be. obtained of a case 
 lot when it is being dumped, if it is desirable to wait 
 until such time. 
 
 Storage Tanks. 
 
 These are best sampled by the dip method as de- 
 scribed under tank cars. The various dips should be 
 taken at predetermined points in the depth of the tank. 
 In the case of a cylindrical tank standing on end each 
 dip represents an equal volume, and may be combined 
 in equal proportions. In the case of a cylindrical tank 
 lying on its side, the various dips should be combined 
 proportionally to the volume which each represents. 
 
 Oil Seeds, Cake, etc. 
 
 Various methods may be used for such materials, 
 depending on their nature. Seeds are generally sampled 
 by inserting a trier. In the case of sacked seeds, the 
 trier may be inserted into every tenth sack, to make 
 a ten per cent sample. The trier used should be prop- 
 erly proportioned to the size of the seeds being sampled. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 125 
 
 Cake may be sampled also by a trier. Copra cannot 
 be sampled by trier. Sufficient sacks are opened and 
 sample withdrawn by hand. It is a wise precaution 
 to dump a number of the sacks and take part of the 
 sample from tJie bottom of the sack. 
 
 The whole object of sampling is, of course, to get a 
 sample in which all the various components will be 
 represented in the same proportion in the sample as in 
 the material being sampled. Too hard and fast rules 
 can not be laid down for sampling methods; judgment 
 and common sense must alwa\s be used. Sampling 
 should never be entrusted to inexperienced men. The 
 sampler must know the material he is sampling in order 
 to secure an accurate sample. He must be able to 
 decide on the best method of sampling when he arrives 
 at the lot to be sampled. Oftentimes the manner in 
 which a lot is stored on dock or in warehouse influences 
 very much the manner in which the lot is to be sampled, 
 and the sampler must be a man of sufficient judgment 
 to work out a practical and at the same time as accurate 
 a method as possible under the special conditions. 
 
 In almost any of the above methods of sampling from 
 one gallon up to several gallons \yill be accumulated 
 in the composite sample. This amount is generally 
 larger than is needed for the sample. It is thoroughly 
 mixed and the final sample taken out. When sending a 
 sample to a chemist for anal)-sis it is best to send at 
 least a pint or quart. The practice of sending only a 
 4-ounce bottle is not good, as many times it does not 
 afford the chemist sufficient oil for the required deter- 
 minations. 
 
 Generally part of the sample taken is put in storage 
 
126 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 until the lot of oil which it represents is finally disposed 
 of. For storage i-gallon tin cans are best. They 
 should be kept in as cool a place as possible. Storage 
 m glass bottles is not good. The Hght has considerable 
 effect on the free fatty acid content, especially if they 
 are exposed to sunlight. The free fatty acids will 
 increase somewhat even when the samples are stored 
 in tin cans. The table on p. 4 gives a number of results 
 showing the variation in different samples in the in- 
 crease of the free fatty acids. 
 
 After a sample has been stored for some time, and a 
 portion of it is to be taken out, care should always 
 be taken to shake the can well before pouring out. 
 Misunderstandings have sometimes arisen because a 
 sample was thoughtlessly poured off the top of a reserve 
 sample. 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 127 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Acorn 
 
 Amoora 
 
 Anchovy 
 
 Anise seed 
 
 Apple seed 
 
 Apricot kernel . . 
 
 Arbutus 
 
 Areca nut 
 
 Argan 
 
 Argemone 
 
 Asparagus seed. . 
 
 Baobab 
 
 Barley 
 
 Beans 
 
 Beechnut 
 
 Beef marrow. . . . 
 
 Ben 
 
 Betu 
 
 Bilberry seed. . . 
 Blackberry seed . 
 Borneo tallow. . . 
 Brazil nut 
 
 Brownfish 
 
 Buckthorn 
 
 Burdock 
 
 Calophyllum. . . . 
 Candlelilla Wax. 
 
 Carapa 
 
 Carp 
 
 Caraway seed . . . 
 Cay Cay 
 
 Iodine 
 Number. 
 
 Saponi- 
 fication 
 Number. 
 
 lOO 
 
 199 
 
 I3S 
 
 190 
 
 1 60 
 
 188 
 
 105 
 
 178 
 
 I3S 
 
 202 
 
 los 
 
 192 
 
 148 
 
 208 
 
 IS 
 
 230 
 
 96 
 
 192 
 
 120 
 
 188 
 
 137 
 
 1 04 
 
 70 
 
 190 
 
 QO 
 
 280 
 
 ss-iis 
 
 i8s 
 
 "5 
 
 iQS 
 
 S° 
 
 198 
 
 95 
 
 179 
 
 los 
 
 194 
 
 167 
 
 190 
 
 148 
 
 189 
 
 30 
 
 193 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 III 
 
 224 
 
 iSS 
 
 
 IS4 
 
 197 
 
 90 
 
 19s 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 7S 
 
 196 
 
 84 
 
 202 
 
 128 
 
 178 
 
 S 
 
 236 
 
 Meltinj?- or 
 Solidifying- 
 
 _point. 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 — 20 
 -27 
 35 
 
 30 
 0-5 
 
 22 
 
 -3 
 
 4 
 •66 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Use. 
 
 Morocco 
 Mexico 
 
 Africa 
 
 India 
 India, 
 Africa 
 
 E. Indies 
 S. America 
 
 E. Africa 
 Mexico 
 S. America 
 
 Cochin 
 China 
 
 Edible 
 
 Edible 
 Lubricant 
 Edible and 
 drying 
 
 Edible 
 Cosmetic 
 
 Edible 
 
 Edible, 
 
 Soap 
 
 Drying oil 
 Drying oil 
 Medicine 
 
 Soap 
 
 Candles 
 
128 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS— Continued 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Celandine .... 
 Celery seed. . . 
 
 Celosia 
 
 Chaulmoogra . 
 Cherry kernel. 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Clover seed. . 
 Coffee berry . 
 
 Cohune 
 
 Colocynth . . . 
 
 127 
 
 95 
 126 
 100 
 114 
 
 6S 
 120 
 
 87 
 
 75 
 
 125 
 
 100 
 12 
 80 
 169 
 104 
 100 
 
 152 
 118 
 126 
 "3 
 3 
 
 140 
 
 100 
 66 
 
 107 
 90 
 
 85 
 Fir seed |ioo-i6o 
 
 Coriander seed. 
 Cottonseed wax 
 
 Coumon 
 
 Cranberry seed. . 
 
 Croton 
 
 Curcas 
 
 Currant seed. . 
 
 Dab 
 
 Daphne 
 
 Datura 
 
 Dika 
 
 Dodder . 
 
 Dogwood seed . 
 Dugong 
 
 Eel 
 
 Elderberry. 
 Elozy 
 
 Iodine 
 Number. 
 
 Nrnnber. ^"^"'^.^ 
 
 178 
 190 
 210 
 193 
 
 193 
 189 
 
 175 
 197 
 
 195 
 182 
 
 190 
 190 
 210 
 193 
 
 171 
 185 
 196 
 190 
 250 
 
 187 
 
 192 
 197 
 
 148 
 200 
 180 
 190 
 
 titer 40 
 — 2 
 
 25 
 S 
 
 39 
 -17 
 -15 
 
 -5 
 5 
 -4 to —29 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 China 
 Burmah 
 
 E. Africa 
 Mexico 
 Baluchis- 
 tan 
 
 S. America 
 
 Asia 
 
 S. America 
 
 Japan 
 
 W. Africa 
 Europe 
 
 Tropics 
 
 Use. 
 
 Medicine 
 Soap, Burn- 
 ing 
 
 Medicine 
 
 Pharmacy 
 Soap, Lu- 
 bricant 
 
 Burning 
 Soap, 
 
 Candle 
 Edible, 
 
 Soap 
 
 Leather, 
 Soap 
 
 Drying 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 129 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS— Continued 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Funtumia 
 
 Garden cress. . . 
 Garden rocket. . 
 
 Goose 
 
 Grape seed . . . . 
 
 Gynocardia. . . . 
 
 Haddock liver. , 
 Hawthorn seed. 
 Hazelnut 
 
 Henbane seed . 
 
 Hop seed 
 
 Horse chestnut 
 Hydnocarpus. 
 
 lUipe 
 
 Inoy kernel. . . 
 
 Inukaya 
 
 Jamba 
 
 Japan wax. . . . 
 Java almond. . 
 Java olives . . . 
 
 Kapok 
 
 Kaya 
 
 Koeme 
 
 Kokum butter. 
 
 Kombo 
 
 Lallemantia . . 
 
 Laurel 
 
 Lemon seed. . . 
 
 Iodine 
 Number. 
 
 138 
 12s 
 
 iSS 
 
 80 
 130 
 
 152 
 
 IS4 
 
 153 
 
 go 
 
 138 
 
 95 
 95 
 
 ss 
 
 90 
 
 130 
 
 100 
 
 s 
 
 63 
 83 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 go 
 
 30 
 
 SO 
 
 162 
 
 75 
 log 
 
 Saponi- 
 fication 
 Number. 
 
 i8s 
 i8s 
 ig2 
 I go 
 I go 
 
 ig8 
 
 188 
 172 
 193 
 
 171 
 
 195 
 205 
 188 
 
 i8s 
 188 
 
 17s 
 
 220 
 197 
 200 
 
 195 
 188 
 
 I go 
 I go 
 210 
 185 
 200 
 188 
 
 Melting- or 
 
 Solidifying- 
 
 point, 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 -IS 
 — 22 to —23 
 20 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 Below —17 
 
 -19 
 
 — 20 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 
 -5 
 
 SO 
 12 
 
 7 
 37 
 
 -3S 
 25 
 
 W. Africa 
 France 
 
 Assam, 
 Bengal 
 
 India 
 India 
 W. Africa 
 
 Japan 
 Moluccas 
 Malayan 
 Islands 
 Tropics 
 Japan 
 
 E. Africa 
 India 
 Africa 
 Russia 
 
 Use. 
 
 Edible 
 Drying oil 
 
 Edible, 
 Soap 
 Drying oil 
 
 Perfumes, 
 Lubricant 
 
 Medicine 
 Candles 
 
 Drying 
 Similar 
 
 to rape 
 Polishes 
 
 Edible 
 Edible, 
 Drying 
 
 Edible 
 
 Drying oil 
 Medicine 
 
130 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS— Continued 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Linaria 
 
 Loofah seed. . 
 
 Lukrabo 
 
 Lycopodium . 
 Macassar. . . . 
 Mackerel. . . . 
 Madia 
 
 Mafura 
 
 Malabar tallow. , 
 
 Mani . 
 
 Manihot 
 
 Millet seed 
 
 Mkanyi 
 
 Mocaya 
 
 Mountain ash. . . 
 
 Mowrah 
 
 Mucuna 
 
 Mulberry seed. . 
 Mustard seed . . . 
 
 Myrtle seed 
 
 Myrtle wax 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Number. 
 
 N'Gart. 
 
 Niam 
 
 Niger seed. 
 Njave 
 
 Ill 
 140 
 108 
 
 8s 
 
 8r 
 
 SO 
 
 167 
 
 118 
 
 SO 
 
 38 
 
 64 
 
 136 
 
 Manketti 148 
 
 Margos 
 
 Maripa 
 
 70 
 IS 
 
 130 
 
 42 
 
 27 
 128 
 
 60 
 104 
 140 
 116 
 107 
 2 
 
 177-200 
 
 70 
 
 134 
 
 SS 
 
 Saponi- 
 iication 
 Number. 
 
 183 
 189 
 
 193 
 
 210 
 
 I9S 
 230 
 
 IQO 
 193 
 
 202 
 
 igo 
 194 
 189 
 
 190 
 197 
 270 
 
 184 
 188 
 1 88 
 208 
 190 
 178 
 190 
 
 I7S 
 200 
 
 21S 
 192 
 
 190 
 190 
 188 
 
 Melting- or 
 
 Solidifying- 
 
 point. 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 -8 
 
 25 
 
 — 10 to 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 -17 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 23 
 
 -6 
 
 38 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 3S 
 
 -15 
 
 43 
 
 -16 to -33 
 
 -9 
 
 E. India 
 China 
 
 India 
 
 Europe 
 
 Africa 
 
 S. America 
 Brazil, 
 
 Africa 
 W. Africa 
 India 
 Brazil 
 
 E. Africa 
 Paraguay 
 
 India 
 
 N. America 
 
 Cameroons, 
 
 Africa 
 Africa 
 E Africa 
 W. Africa 
 
 Use. 
 
 Edible 
 
 Edible 
 Edible 
 
 Edible, 
 Soap 
 
 Edible 
 
 Drying oil 
 
 Edible, 
 Pharmacy 
 
 Soap 
 
 Edible 
 
 Soap, 
 
 Candles 
 Drying oil 
 
 Candles 
 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 131 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS-Continued 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Iodine 
 Number. 
 
 Saponi- 
 fication 
 Number. 
 
 45 
 
 1 60 
 
 2 
 
 238 
 
 104 
 
 229(?) 
 
 go 
 
 170-200 
 
 S2 
 
 65 
 
 136 
 
 
 71 
 
 173 
 
 109 
 
 176 
 
 no 
 
 183 
 
 9S 
 
 190 
 
 106 
 
 198 
 
 117 
 
 188 
 
 42 
 
 192 
 
 87 
 
 191 
 
 95 
 
 190 
 
 90 
 
 180 
 
 120 
 
 189 
 
 "5 
 
 i8s 
 
 105 
 
 203 
 
 100 
 
 180 
 
 8 
 
 so 
 
 175 
 
 192 
 
 "5 
 
 178 
 
 "5 
 
 192 
 
 100 
 
 193 
 
 130 
 
 200 
 
 82 
 
 196 
 
 140 
 
 190 
 
 82 
 
 193 
 
 80 
 
 194 
 
 Melting:- or 
 
 Solidifying- 
 
 tjoint, 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Nutmeg 
 
 Ochoco 
 
 Orange seed . . . 
 
 Owala 
 
 Palm wax 
 
 Para butter. . . , 
 Paradise nut. . . 
 Parsely geed . . , 
 
 Pea 
 
 Peach kernel. . , 
 
 Pecan 
 
 Persimmon . . . , 
 
 Phulwara 
 
 Pistachio 
 
 Plum kernel . . , 
 
 Pongam 
 
 Pumpkin seed. . 
 
 Quince 
 
 Rabbit 
 
 Radish 
 
 Raphia wax. . . . 
 
 Raspberry seed 
 
 Ravison 
 
 Ray liver 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rubber seed . . . 
 
 Rye 
 
 Safflower 
 
 Sasanqua 
 
 Senega root. . . . 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 4 
 -14 
 -14 
 -20 
 
 — II 
 40 
 
 -9 
 
 — 10 
 
 -16 
 -12 
 
 30 
 -15 
 
 80 
 
 Java 
 Africa 
 
 W. Africa 
 
 Brazil 
 Brazil 
 
 India 
 
 Madagas- 
 car 
 
 Brazil 
 
 India 
 Japan 
 
 Edible 
 Edible 
 
 Substitute 
 for almond 
 
 Edible 
 Edible 
 Substitute 
 
 for almond 
 Medicine, 
 
 Soap 
 
 Soap 
 
 Drying oil 
 Lubricant 
 
132 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE LESS COMMON OILS— Continued 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Iodine 
 Number. 
 
 Saponi- 
 fication 
 Number. 
 
 60 
 
 180 
 
 157 
 
 i8s 
 
 99 
 
 172 
 
 130 
 
 194 
 
 87 
 
 220 
 
 180 
 
 194 
 
 102 
 
 148 
 
 130 
 
 190 
 
 42 
 
 179 
 
 10 
 
 268 
 
 140 
 
 189 
 
 119 
 
 190 
 
 no 
 
 igo 
 
 iSS 
 
 190 
 
 81 
 
 191 
 
 156 
 
 
 10 
 
 220 
 
 107 
 
 180 
 
 124 
 
 180 
 
 120 
 
 190 
 
 "S 
 
 187 
 
 161 
 
 192 
 
 127 
 
 201 
 
 129 
 
 190 
 
 Melting- or 
 
 Soljdifying- 
 
 point. 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 Country of 
 Origin. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Shea butter 
 
 Skate liver 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Sprat 
 
 Staff tree 
 
 Strawberry seed. 
 
 Sunfish 
 
 Sunflower seed . . 
 
 Sarin 
 
 Tangkallak 
 
 Thistle seed 
 
 Tobacco seed . . . 
 Tomato seed. . . . 
 
 Trout liver 
 
 Tsubaki 
 
 Tunny liver 
 
 Ucuchuba 
 
 Vetch 
 
 Wallflower 
 
 Watermelon seed 
 
 Wheat 
 
 White acacia. . . . 
 
 Whiting 
 
 Yellow acacia. . . 
 
 17 
 40 
 
 -s 
 
 -17 
 49 
 27 
 
 -IS 
 32 
 
 W. Africa 
 Turkestan 
 Tropics 
 
 Malay 
 
 Penin. 
 E. Indies 
 Asia 
 
 Japan 
 Brazil 
 
 S. Russia 
 S. Russia 
 
 Candles 
 
 Drying oil 
 
 Edible, 
 
 Drying 
 Candles 
 
 Candles 
 Edible, 
 Drying 
 
 Lubricant 
 
 Drying oil 
 
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL 
 
 133 
 
 WEIGHT PER GALLON OF OILS 
 Based on Average Specific Gravity at 15.5° C. or 60° F. 
 
 Castor 
 
 Ciiina wood 
 Cocoanut. . . 
 
 Corn 
 
 Cottonseed . 
 Fish oils. . . , 
 Hempseed . , 
 
 Lard 
 
 Linseed . . . 
 Neat's-foot . 
 Olive 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 8,0 
 
 7 
 
 8s 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 7S 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6S 
 
 7 
 
 6S 
 
 Palm 
 
 Palm nut 
 Peanut. . , 
 Perilla . . , 
 Rape . . . , 
 Sesame. . 
 Soya. . . . 
 Sperm . . , 
 Tallow.. 
 Whale... 
 
 Pounds. 
 7-7 
 
 6 
 
 6S 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 Note. — New York Produce Exchange specifies that cottonseed, olive, sesame, 
 peanut, refined rapeseed and poppyseed oils shall be at the rate of 7i lbs. per 
 gallon. 
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DEGREES 
 BAUME FOR LIQUIDS LIGHTER THAN WATER 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 Degrees Baum6. Specific 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Degrees Baum6. 
 
 .8s 
 
 34-71 
 
 93 
 
 20 54 
 
 
 86 
 
 32- 79 
 
 94 
 
 18.94 
 
 
 87 
 
 30.92 
 
 9S 
 
 17-37 
 
 
 88 
 
 29.08 
 
 96 
 
 IS- 83 
 
 
 89 
 
 27 -.30 
 
 97 
 
 14.33 
 
 
 90 
 
 25 56 
 
 98 
 
 12.86 
 
 
 91 
 
 2i.fi5 
 
 99 
 
 II .41 
 
 
 92 
 
 22.17 i 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 10.00 
 
134 
 
 COMMERCIAL OILS 
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT 
 THERMOMETER SCALES 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 1 
 
 [ Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 -30 
 
 — 22 
 
 24 
 
 75-2 
 
 63 
 
 145 -4 
 
 -28 
 
 -18 
 
 2S 
 
 77.0 
 
 64 
 
 147.2 
 
 -26 
 
 -15 
 
 26 
 
 78.8 
 
 65 
 
 149.0 
 
 -24 
 
 — II 
 
 27 
 
 80.6 
 
 66 
 
 150.8 
 
 — 22 
 
 -8 
 
 28 
 
 82.4 
 
 67 
 
 152.6 
 
 — 20 
 
 -4 
 
 29 
 
 84.2 
 
 68 
 
 154.4 
 
 -18 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 86,0 
 
 69 
 
 156.2 
 
 -16 
 
 +3 
 
 31 
 
 87.8 
 
 70 
 
 158.0 
 
 -14 
 
 7 
 
 32 
 
 89.6 
 
 71 
 
 159-8 
 
 — 12 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 91.4 
 
 72 
 
 161. 6 
 
 — 10 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 93-2 
 
 73 
 
 163.4 
 
 -8 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 950 
 
 74 
 
 165.2 
 
 -6 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 96.8 
 
 75 
 
 167.0 
 
 -4 
 
 25 
 
 37 
 
 98.6 
 
 76 
 
 168.8 
 
 — 2 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 100.4 
 
 77 
 
 170.6 
 
 
 
 32.0 
 
 39 
 
 102.2 
 
 78 
 
 172.4 
 
 + 1 
 
 33-8 
 
 40 
 
 104.0 
 
 79 
 
 174.2 
 
 2 
 
 35. 6 
 
 41 
 
 105.8 
 
 80 
 
 176.0 
 
 3 
 
 37.4 
 
 42 
 
 107.6 
 
 81 
 
 177.8 
 
 4 
 
 39-2 
 
 43 
 
 109.4 
 
 82 
 
 179.6 
 
 S 
 
 41.0 
 
 44 
 
 III. 2 
 
 83 
 
 181. 4 
 
 6 
 
 42.8 . 
 
 45 
 
 113.0 
 
 84 
 
 183.2 
 
 7 
 
 44.6 
 
 46 
 
 114. 8 
 
 85 
 
 185.0 
 
 8 
 
 46.4 
 
 47 
 
 116. 6 
 
 86 
 
 186.8 
 
 9 
 
 48.2 
 
 48 
 
 118. 4 
 
 87 
 
 188.6 
 
 10 
 
 50.0 
 
 49 
 
 120. 2 
 
 88 
 
 190.4 
 
 II 
 
 51.8 
 
 50 
 
 122.0 
 
 89 
 
 192.2 
 
 12 
 
 53-6 
 
 51 
 
 123.8 
 
 90 
 
 194.0 
 
 13 
 
 55-4 
 
 52 
 
 125.6 
 
 91 
 
 195-8 
 
 14 
 
 57-2 
 
 53 
 
 127.4 
 
 92 
 
 197.6 
 
 IS 
 
 590 
 
 54 
 
 129.2 
 
 93 
 
 199.4 
 
 16 
 
 60.8 
 
 55 
 
 131. 
 
 94 
 
 201.2 
 
 17 
 
 62.6 
 
 56 
 
 132.8 
 
 95 
 
 203.0 
 
 18 
 
 64.4 
 
 57 
 
 134.6 
 
 96 
 
 204.8 
 
 19 
 
 66.2 
 
 58 
 
 136.4 
 
 97 
 
 206.6 
 
 20 
 
 68.0 
 
 59 
 
 138.2 
 
 98 
 
 208.4 
 
 21 
 
 69.8 
 
 60 
 
 140.0 
 
 99 
 
 210.2 
 
 22 
 
 71.6 
 
 61 
 
 141. 8 
 
 100 
 
 212.0 
 
 23 
 
 73-4 
 
 62 
 
 143.6 
 
 
 
 Boiling-point of water on the Fahrenheit scale is 212°, Centigrade, 
 00°. Freezing point of water, Fahrenheit is 32°, Centigrade, 0°. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acetyl number, 22 
 Acidity, 23 
 Acid number, 22 
 Adeps lanas, 103 
 Adulteration of oils, 12, 26 
 Almond oil, 58 
 Ammonia, 10 
 Animal fats, g$ 
 Animal oils, 72 
 Arachis oil, S9 
 Arctic sperm oil, 102 
 Artist's oil, 33, 42, 46 
 Ash, 9 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon's test, 38 
 Baudouin's test, 25, 27, SS 
 Baumfi's scale, 15, 133 
 Bean oil, 42 
 Beeswax, 104 
 Black grease, 117 
 Bleaching, 10 
 Bleaching test, 17, 52 
 Blown oil, 112 
 Blubber oils, 81, loi 
 Boiled oil, 33, 36, iii 
 Bone fat, 98 
 Bone oil, 98 
 Bone phosphate, 10 
 Bottlenose oil, 102 
 Brominated oil, io3 
 Bromine value- 20 
 Brown grease, 104 
 
 Browne's test, 38 
 
 Bung oil, 33 
 
 Burning oils, 108 
 
 Burning point, log 
 
 Butter fat, 100 
 
 Butter oil, $0 
 
 Butter substitute, 100, 107 
 
 Cacao butter, 87 
 Cacao butter substitutes, 107 
 Cake, oil, 9, 48 
 Candlenut oil, 40 
 Candles, 113 
 Carbohydrates, 9 
 Carnauba wax, 103 
 Castor oil, 66, 108, 113 
 Centigrade scale, 134 
 Characteristics of oils, 13 
 China nut oil, 37 
 China wood oil, 37 
 Chinese bean oil, 42 
 Chinese vegetable tallow, 88 
 Chinese wax, 105 
 Cholesterol, 25, 34 
 Chrysalis oil, 84 
 Cloth oils, no 
 Cloud test, 16 
 Cocoanut oil, 90 
 Cod liver oil, 77 
 Cod oil, 77 
 Cold test, 16, SI, 86 
 Color, 17, SI 
 Color tests, 24 
 
 135 
 
136 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Colza oil, s6 
 Constants of oils, 13 
 Copra, go 
 Corn oil, 47 
 Cottonseed oil, 48 
 Grade fiber, 9 
 
 D 
 
 Degras, 104, 118 
 
 Dirt, 14 
 
 Dogfish liver oil, 79 
 
 Dolphin oil, 84 
 
 Driers, 33 
 
 Drying oils, 20, 34, 108 
 
 Edible fats, 106 
 Edible oils, 10, 106 
 Effervescent oil, 108 
 Egg oil, 8s 
 Elaidin test, 24 
 Eleine, 114 
 Enamels, 112 
 Engler viscosimeter, 18 
 Expressing oils, 7 
 Extraction of oils, 8 
 
 Fahrenheit scale, 134 
 
 Fair average quality, 46 
 
 Fats, J. 
 
 Fatty acids, 1, j, 3, 4, 22, 25, 113, 
 
 114 
 Ferments, 3, 11 
 Fertilizers, 9 
 Filtration, 11 
 Finkener's test, 68 
 Fish oils, 72, 77 
 Fish tallow, 74 
 Flash point, 109 
 Flaxseed oil, 31 
 Foots, 117 
 Foreign substance, 14 
 
 Free fatty acids, 22 
 Freezing-point, 15 
 Fuller's earth, 11 
 
 G 
 
 Gallon, weight of oils, per, 133 
 Glycerin, i, 2, 115 
 Grease, 104, 117 
 Ground-nUt oil, 59 
 
 H 
 
 Halphen test, 25, 27 
 Hanus number, 20 
 Hardened oil, no 
 Heat test, 38 
 Hempseed oil, 41 
 Herring oil, 76 
 Horse fat, 100 
 Hiibl number, 20 
 Hydrogenated oil, no 
 
 Illuminating oils, 108 
 Impurities, 14 
 Insect wax, 105 
 Insoluble matter, 14 
 Iodine number, 20, 21 
 Iodized oil, 108 
 
 J 
 
 Japan wax, 94 
 Japanese cod oil, 78 
 Japanese fish oil, 74, 77 
 Japanese sardine oil, 74 
 Japanese tung oil, 39 
 Japanese wood oil, 39 
 
 Koettstoerfer number, 19 
 
 Lanolin, 104 
 Lard, 95 
 
INDEX 
 
 II 
 
 Lard compound, 97 
 Lard oil, 97 
 Lard substitutes, 107 
 Laurie acid, 5 
 Liebermann-Storch test, 25 
 Linseed oil, 31 
 Lithographic oil, iii 
 Liver oils, 77, 80 
 Lovibond tintometer, 17, 51 
 Lubricating oils, 70, 109 
 Lumbang oil, 40 
 
 M 
 Marc, 6s 
 Margarines, 107 
 Maumend test, 24 
 Medicinal oils, 108 
 Melting-point, 15 
 Menhaden oil, 73 
 Mineral oil, 23 
 Miu, IIS 
 Moisture, 13 
 
 Mucilaginous matter, 9, 10, 1x7 
 Mustard seed oil, S7 
 
 N 
 Neat's-foot oil, 85 
 Neutral oil, 1,117 
 Nitrated oil, 112 
 Nitrogen, 9 
 
 Oil, cake, 9 
 Oil classification, 5 
 Oil definition, i 
 Oil, edible, 10 
 Oil, properties, 2 
 Oil, purity, 12, 26 
 Oil storage, 12 
 Oil, uses, 106 
 Oleic acid, s, 22> "4 
 Olein, 114 
 
 Oleo margarine, 100, 107 
 
 Oleo oil, 100 
 
 Oleo stearine, 100 
 
 Olive oil, 64 
 
 Oxidized oil, 112 
 
 Oxygen absorption, 3, 10, 24 
 
 Ozone, 10 
 
 Paint, 112 
 
 Paint oil, 33, 44, 108 
 
 Palmitic acid, s 
 
 Palm nut oil, 89 
 
 Palm oil, 86 
 
 Peanut oil, S9 
 
 Perilla oil, 30 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 10 
 
 Phosphorizcd oil, 108 
 
 Phytosterol, 2S 
 
 Polishes, 117 
 
 Polymerization, 37 
 
 Poppysecd oil, 46 
 
 Porpoise oil, 84 
 
 Potash, 10 
 
 Pour test, 16 
 
 Pratt and Lambert test, 38 
 
 Proteids, 9 
 
 Purity, examination for, 12, 36 
 
 Qualitative tests, 24 
 
 R 
 
 Raked oil, 78 
 Rancidity, 3, 8 
 Rape oil, s6 
 Rapeseed oil, s6 
 Ravison oil, S7 
 Red oil, 114 
 
 Redwood viscosimeter, i8 
 Refining, 10 
 Refining loss, 11, 51 
 
138 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Refractive index, i6 
 Refrigeration, ii 
 Reichert-Meissl number, 20 
 Reichert-Wollny number, 20 
 Rendering, 7 
 Renovated butter, 101 
 Rosin, 36 
 Rosin oil, 25, 36 
 Rubber substitute, 112 
 
 Salad oils, 106 
 Salmon oil, 75 
 Sampling, iig 
 Saponification number, 19 
 Sardine oil, 74, 7£ 
 Sasanqua oU, 64 
 Saybolt viscosimeter, 18 
 Seeds, 8 
 Seek oil, no 
 Sesame oil, 54 
 Shark liver oil, 79 
 Shark oil, 79 
 Silkworm oil, 84 
 Sitosterol, 25 
 Soap, 93, IIS 
 
 Soap stock, SI, S3, 114, 117 
 Sod oil, 118 
 Solidifying-point, is 
 Solvents, 8 
 Soya bean oil, 42 
 , Specific gravity, 14, 133 
 Spermaceti, 102, 104 
 Sperm oil, loi 
 
 Spontaneous combustion, 109 
 Stearic acid, 113 
 Stearine, 11, 113 
 Stillingia oil, 41 
 Stock food, 9 
 Stuffing grease, 118 
 Sulphonated oil, 113 
 Sulphur chloride test, 24 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 23 
 Sunflower oil, 47 
 
 T 
 
 Tagliabue viscosimeter, 18 
 Tallow, 98 
 Tallow oil, 100 
 Tallow seed oil, 41 
 Tallow substitutes, 107 
 Tallow, vegetable, 88 
 Teaseed oil, 64 
 Thermometer scales, 134 
 Tintometer. 17 
 Titer, it, 2$, 113 
 Train oil, 81 
 Tsubaki oil, 64 
 Tung oil, 37, 39 
 Turkey red oil, 67, 68, 113 
 Turtle oil, 83 
 
 U 
 
 Unsaponifiable matter, 23 
 
 Variables of oils, 13 
 Varnishes, in 
 Viscosity, 17 
 Volatile fatty acids, 20 
 Vulcanized oil, 112 
 
 W 
 
 Walnut oil, 42 
 
 Water, 13 
 
 Waxes, 6, loi 
 
 Weight per gallon of oils, 133 
 
 Whale oil, 81 
 
 Wijs number, 20 
 
 Winter oil, 11 
 
 Wood oil, 37, 39 
 
 Wool grease, 103 
 
 Wffol oils, no 
 
 Wool wax, 103 
 
 Worstall test, 38 
 
Subjects Related to this Volume 
 
 For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject Catalogues, 
 envelope size, has been printed. These are arranged in groups — each 
 catalogue having a key symbol. (See Special Subject List Below.) 
 To obtain any of these catalogues, send a postal using the key sym- 
 bols of the Catalogues desired. 
 
 Liist of Wiley Special Subject Catalogues 
 
 I — Agriculture. Animal Husbandry. Dairying. Industrial Canning 
 and Preserving. 
 
 2 — Architecture. Building. Masonry. 
 
 3 — Business Administration and Management. Law. 
 
 Industrial Processes: Canning and Preserving; Oil and Gas 
 Production; Paint; Printing; Sugar Manufacture; TextiK-. 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 4a General; Analytical, Qualitative and Quantitative; Inorganic; 
 
 Organic. 
 4b Electro- and Physical; Food and Water; Industrial; Medical 
 
 and Pharmaceutical; Sugar. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING 
 5a Unclassified and Structural Engineering. 
 5b Materials and Mechanics of Construction, including; Cement 
 
 and Concrete ; Excavation and Earthwork ; Foundations ; 
 
 Masonry. 
 5c Railroads; Surveying. 
 SnDams; Hydraulic Engineering; Pumping and Hydraulics; 
 
 Irrigation Engineering; River and Harbor Engineering; 
 
 Water Supply. 
 
 (Over) 
 
CIVIL ENGINEKRING— Continued 
 
 5e Highways ; Municipal Engineering ; Sanitary Engineering ; 
 
 Water Supply. Forestry. Horticulture, Botany and Landscape 
 
 Gardening. 
 6 — Design. Decoration. Drawing: General; Descriptive Geometry; 
 
 Kinematics; Mechanical. 
 
 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING— PHYSICS 
 
 7 — General and Unclassified ; Batteries ; Central Station Practice ; 
 Distribution and Transmission ; Dynamo-Electro Machinery ; 
 Blectro-Chemistry and Metallurgy; Measuring Instruments 
 and Miscellaneous Apparatus. 
 
 8 — Astronomy. Meteorology. Explosives. Marine and Naval 
 Engineering. Military. Miscellaneous Books. 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 9 — General; Algebra; Analytic and Plane Geometry; Calculus; 
 Trigonometry; Vector Analysis. 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
 10a General and Unclassified ; Foundry Practice ; Shop Practice. 
 10b Gas Power and Internal Combustion Engines; Heating and 
 
 Ventilation ; Refrigeration. 
 10c Machine Design and Mechanism; Power Transmission; Steam 
 
 Power and Power Plants ; Thermodynamics and Heat Power. 
 
 11 — Mechanics. 
 
 12^Medicine. Pharmacy. Medical and Pharmaceutical Chemistry. 
 Sanitary Science and Engineering. Bacteriology and Biology. 
 
 MINING ENGINEERING 
 
 13 — General; Assaying; Excavation, Earthwork, Tunneling, Etc.; 
 Explosives; Geology; Metallurgy; Mineralogy; Prospecting; 
 Ventilation.