ALBERT R. UANN U&RAHy AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library S 501.W5 The American farmer's "jew a"^.,"|;,;;'^f,f ^' 3 1924 003 408 626 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003408626 .1. ^ 1 r I ^V5 ***** ^- ifi. M* ' •1 'iA \ f && id I Mil V I " ['\\J^ A BOOK FOR EVERY AMERICAN! THE AMERICAN FARMER'S NEW AND UNIVERSAL HAND-BOOK: OB, AN IMPEOYED AND COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE TREAIMENT OF SOILS; THE OPEKATIONS OP PRODUCTIVE IXBIJ) HUSBANDRY; KITCHEN GABDENING; DAIRY PRACTICE; PRUIT GROWINQ ; MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES OV ANIMALS, TOWLS AND BEES ; CULTURE OP FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &0.; CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS; GRAFT- ING, BUDDING, PRUNING, TRAINING ; THE GREAT DISEASES OP TREES AND PLANTS; INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ANIMALS, FRUIT-TREES, GRAIN, ETC. THE WHOLE EUBODTINO A PLAIN, PRACTICAL, AND COMPREHENSIVE DETAIL OF AGRICUL- TURAL ECONOMY, m ALL ITS DEPARTMENTS, THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES. ILLUSTRATED BY UPWAKDS OE THBEE ETnn)BED SPIENSIDLT EXECTTTED ENGBAVmCS. BY PRACTICAL AGRICULTDEISTS. SECOND EDITION. WORCESTER: PUBLISHED BY EDWARD LIVERMORE. 1851. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by EDWARD LIVERMORE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Slereo type d by HOBABT & BOBBINS, NEW ENGLAND TYPE AND STEREOTTPE FOUNDERT, BOSTON. INTRODUCTION. In presenting to the American public a work on Ageicttlture and THE vAEiors Arts and Sciences connected with its more per- fect Knowledge and Practice, we feel that we should hardly be satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, — the mere approval of our book by the community at large. We should be far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements it may cause. It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy, as is. sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more, — in the form of a Preface or Introduction, — in demonstrating the importance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political econ- omy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advance- ment, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic ; and, from such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts, principles and suggestions, valuable, in a social and economical point of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far from being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light, as to need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and magnitude of agriculture and* its kindred employments? Argument can hardly enhance them ; eloquence, in its seleitest phrases, can add no adornment to them. The earth itself is not more the foun- dation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all social IV INTRODUCTION. and mental progress. What government — what community — could be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter ? And do not all the means of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth ? and, with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of manual toil and culture ? A few things are of spontaneous produc- tion, bat the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached. Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun. The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world., Further improvements in this great department of human effort would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might rejoice in its bounties ; and human imagination cannot assign a limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races of mankind. The correctness of these views, however, it has been presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this country ; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improve- ment, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be problematical. To the realization of this end, — so earnestly to be desired, — these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no small degree. But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical relations of agriculture ,to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of agriculture, — as well as to commend their own labors to public favor, — to indulge in elaborate encomiums on the moral dignity of rural pursuits, and their adaptedness "to ennoble the lives and char- acters of those wko engage in them. Such encomiums are just, and, in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective mind, however, whether that of a farmer or a tradesman, needs to be informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and INTEODtrCTION. phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largely- restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul. No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than the husbandman. He sees Him not only "in the cool of the day," but in every waking moment; — in the purity and fragrance of the circumambient atmosphere, — in the untamed grandeur of Nature's mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, — in the germ- ination of every seed, — in the growth of every leaf and of every blade of grass, — by these, and numberless objects besides, is he impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him who " causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man," but with the gracious course of His providence, which rewards every discovery of His laws, and every act of obedi- ence to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say, briefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many and so palpable attestations of a beneficent and controling Power above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power, or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes characterizes man's moral machinery. And if, with the Book of Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to be voluntarily awakened to a just sense of the honorableness of his employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them. There is one topic, which, if its discussion here were compatible with the extent of space required for the purpose, might, perhaps, be advantageously, presented at some length; — this is, the necessity that exists for the formation, throughout the country, of exclusively Agricultural Libraries, to comprise every standard work, whether of American or foreign authorship, and be accessible, at all times, to farmers and others. This powerful means of advancing the science of farming has hitherto been almost totally neglected ; and, with the exception of a few private collections, — foremost among which may be named the splendid library owned bythat enlightened and distin- guished friend of agricultural improvement, Hon. John W. Lincoln, of Worcester, Mass., — this species of literature, in a collective form, A* TI INTRODUCTION. is extremely scarce, and, consequently, the farmer's opportunities for intellectual progress in his profession are few and limited. The consideration of this interesting topic, however, as well as of those which have previously been alluded to, belongs more appropriately to the pages of a work differing somewhat, in its objects, from this volume. Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands this work may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study, diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, con- firmed by careful and discriminating practice, — and that it embraces vdthin its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its ramifications, — introductory comment on the design and character of this volume is unnecessary. To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, — the Ageicu-lturist — the Market Gardener — the Dairy Farmer — the Fruit Grower — the Stock Eaiser — the Poultry Breeder — the Bee Keeper — the Florist — and the Rural Architect, — this volume is respectfully dedicated, with the earnest hope that it will prove to them a substantial and profitable aid. CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGEAVINGS. ISONTISFIECE (CEXOISXER SHSEP). vaosTSBBJwm (illusikahts). AGBIODLTUUAL OPERATIONS rig. , Page. 4. root-grdbber mode of opebating, 6 9. European dirt-shovel '* 9 11. Appear ANCE of badlt-ploughed land, .12 12. Plocghino with double TEAM, . . . .' 13 14. Diagram of bidge-ploughiho, IS IB. " " " 16 16. ThANSVEBSE section of RIDGE-FLOUaHING, 17 17. Illustration of casting, in ploughing, 17 18. " " " " " 18 19. Illustration of cleaviWh, in ploughing, 18 20. Diagram OF cross-ploughing, 19 28. Earths and springs 34 29. Draining peat lands, 35 30. " " " 35 31. Draining clay lands, 37 34. Meadow watering, . '. 40 35. Catch-work irrigation, 41 55. Transverse section of potato-drills, 71 56. -" " " " 72 76. Modes op supporting running plants, 101 83. Turnip culture, 122 GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC. 36. Different kinds of wheat, 44 37. Clasbipicatign of wheat by the grains, . 44 41. " " barley " " " 50 42. Different kinds op barley 51 44. The rye plant, S3 46. Different kinds of oats, S6 48. The Indian corn plant, 59 54. " buckwheat " 67 63. " MILLET " 76 59. " hemp " 77 60. " flax " 80 62. * " LUCEBN " 83 63. " sainfoin " 85 64. " TARE " 86 * This cut, and the two which succeed it, represent plants which, though extensively cul- tivated in some countries, are grown only to a very limited extent in the United States ; they are described in this work merely for the purpose of malcing the agricultural or farming information, contained in these pages, as complete as possible. Vm CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 65. Different kinds of cloveb, ' .... 87 66. Meadow or green grass 89 67. TiMOTHTj cat's tail, OB HERD'S GRASS, 90 68. Orchard grabs, or cock's foot " 90 69. Meadow FESCUE " 91 70. Rat or rtb " 91 71. Red TOP, herd's GRASS, OB FOUL meadow 8RASS 91 72. Sweet-scented ternal grass -93 73. Pony grass, 92 77. Hop plants, male and female, 110 78. The morel plant, 114 79. The MITSHBOOM PLANT 114 80. Varieties of the mdstabd plant, 115 81. The PEA plant, 117 82. " RHUBARB PLANT, 119 85. " CARAWAY " 124 86. " coriander " 125 87. " lavender " 126 88. " LldUORICE *' ' 127 89. " paesley " 128 90. " SAFFRON " 129 FRUITS. 98. Early harvest APPLE, 165 '99. Red Astrachan " 166 100. WilLiAms's favorite apple, J 166 101. Juneating " 167 102. Summer ciueen " 167 103. Maiden's blush " 163 104. Gravenstein " 169 105. Rambo " 169 106. Yellow bellflower •' 170 107. EsopUB Spitzbnberg " 171 108. Baldwin " 171 109. Hubbardston nonsuch " , 172 110. Westfield seek-no-fuether apple, 173 111. ROXBURY russet APPLE, 173 112. Golden pippin " 174 113. Lady " 174 114. Harrison " , 175 115. Red Siberian crab apple, 176 116. Early apricot , 176 117. Peach " 177 118. Brussels " 177 119. The BARBERRY .173 120. The blackberry, 179 121. Black heart cherry 180 122. American amber " 180 123. Downer's late " 181 124. Early white heart cherby, 181 125. The cranberry, 182 127. White currant, 184 128. Black " 185 129. Melling'b crown bob gooseberry, 187 130. Houghton's seedling " 187 131. Black Hamburgh GRAPE, 189 132. Muscat of Alexandria (red and white) grape, 189 133. Catawba grape, 190 134. Isabella " ,.,... 190 135. The melon, 192 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. K 136. The MtrLBEBBT 193 137. Jaune lisse nectarine, 194 138. Musk violet " 194 139. Gboss mionohne peach, 196 140. Albebgb " 196 141. Red Magdalen " 197 142. Late heath " 198 143. Babtlett peab, • 200 144. WiNTEB NELIS PEAB, 201 145. Seckel " 201 146. Beubbe bosc *' 202 147. Muscadine " 203 148. Jeffebson plum, 205 149. GbEEN GAGE " 205 150. pubple favobite plum, 206 151. Bleeckeb's gage " 207 152. DuANE'S PUBPLE " 207 153. FbOST 6AGB " 208 154. Apple-shaped auiNCB, 210 155. Fabtolff baspbebby, . . . : 211 156. Fbanoonia " 212 157. Labge eably scarlet stbawbebby 214 158. Hovey's seedling " 215 159. swainstone's " " 216 160. Ross Ph(Enix " 216 161. Pbolifo hautbois " 217 162. Gushing " 217 163. The fig, 218 164. " LEMON, 219 165. " lime, 220 166. " OLIVE, 220 167. " OBANGE 221 DOMESTIC OR FAEM ANIMALS. 170. Explanatory skeleton of the ox, 231 171. Prize dairy native cow " kaatskill," 233. 172. Devon bull 234 173. " ox 236. 174. " " 236. ,176. " cow, 237 177. Short-hobned bull, 238 178. " cow, 239- 179. Heeeford cow, 240. ISO. Ayrshire bull 241 181. " cow, 241 182. New Leicester cow, 242- 184. New Leicesteb sheep, ^49 133. CoLTSwooD sheep, • . . 260 186. South-Down ewe and lamb, 251 187. Black-faced or heath sheep 252: 188. Merino sheep, 252 189. Explanatory skeleton of the pig, 255 190. China hog 257 191. Berkshire HOG, 2?8 192. Suffolk " . . . 258 193. Siamese sow and litter, 269 194. explanatoby figube op the hobse, 262 195. Arabian horse, »....,... 263. 196. American eaoe hobse, 264, 197. " road ■' 264 X CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS, 198. Norman (Edhopban) house, 265 199. Thibet goat, 268 200. Newfoundland dog, 270 201. Shepherd's " 270 202. Terrier " '. . . 27' DOMESTIC FOWLS. 203. Bankiva cook, 291 204. Dorking fowis, 292 205. Jago or Spanish fowls, ... - 293 206. Crested oh Poland " 294 207. Bantam cock, ■ 294 208. Ostrich or Coohin-China fowls, 296 209. Turkey, v 300 210. Toulouse goose, . ... 303 211. Common •' 304 212. Rouen or Rhone duck 309 213. English or Aylesbury white duck, 309 214. Muscovy ducks, 310 EUKAl STRUCTURES, MECHANICAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 32. Different kinds of drains, 38 220. PlOWER-POT HIVE, 332 221. Top for a " 333 222. Huish's " ■ 334 223. GiLMORE's BEE-HOUSE 334 224. Construction of Gilmore's hive, 335 " 336 " 337 " 337 " 338 " 339 " 340 379 247. Garden seat, 379 248. Fountain for a garden 380 249. Sun-dial, " " " 381 255. Ground-plan of a farm-house, 399 256. ■ " " " one-story house, 400 257. Model of a medium-sized " 400 258. Ground-plan of a " " 401 259. Side elevation of a medium-sized house, 401 260. Upper floor " " " " 402 261. Model OF a LARGE farm-house, 402 262. Side elevation of a large farm-house 403 263. Ground-plan " " " " 403 264. Bed-chamber floor of a large parm-hoube 404 265. TUDOa COTTAGE 405 266. Model of -double cottage structure 405 267. Ground-plan of double cottage structure, . / 406 26B. Bed-chamber floor of" " " 406 269. Moderate-sized cottage 407 270. Plan of dairy apartments, 408 271. Model of a complete dairy, 410 272. Ground-floor- OF A COMPLETE DAIRY 411 273. Side ELEVATION OF A- •"■ " . ._ 411 274. Upper floor - " - " " " . .' 412 27-5. Model op the Washington barn, 414 225 226. Back-side of 227. Boxes in 228. Arrangement of 229. " " 230. " '■ 246. Arbor, for a garden. CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGEAVINGS. XI 276. Model of Buel'b baen, . . ■ 415 277. End and side view of Buel's babn, 416 279. Arrangement of cattle-shed, 420 280. Apartment and apparatus for boiling food, 423 281. Pig-house, 425 282. Improved nest, for hens, 43O 283. Plan of buildings for a large farm, 432 284. " " " " " SMALL " 433 285. Cellular wall-work, for greenhouse, 435 286. Mode of building stone wall, 43S 287. " " " GATES 439 HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL OPERATIONS. 236. Plan for a flower-garden, ... 352 240. ' " 365 241. '■ " " " 366 242. " " " " 366 243. " " " " 366 244. " " " " 366 245. Weeping-willow arbor, 378 289. The processes of grafting, 446 290. Grafting the vine, 443 291. The processes of budding, 453 297. Training the grape-vine in a pot, 466 298. Balloon-training of the rose 467 299. Spiral-cylinder training, 470 300. Spurring-in training, 471 301. Conical OR auENOuiLLE training 471 302. Fan training, in its first stage 472 303. " " " " advanced stage, 473 3,04, Horizontal training, in its first stage, 474 305. " " " " advanced stage, 474 * FARMING IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, UTENSILS, ETC. 1. Rounded shovel, 5 2. Square shovel, 5 3. Spade, 5 5. Root-puller 7 6. Bramble-hook, 8 7. Paring plough, 3 8. Dirt-scraper, or ground-leveler, 9 10. Premium plough, eagle no. 1 . 10 13. " " with lock-coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, ... 13 21. " subsoil plough, 19 22. Scotch harrow, 22 23. Gedues harrow 23 24. Field roller, 24 25. Large six-pronged manure fork 27 26. Small-sized " " .- 27 27. Improved Expanding cultivator, 28 33. Machine for irrigating 39 38. Horse-drill, 47 * The publisher would acknowledge, in this place, his ohligations to those eminent man- ufacturers of Agricultural Implements, Messrs. Rugsles, Nourse, Mason & Co., Boston, and IMessrs. Martin & Co., Blackslone, Mass., for the use of several of the cuts of superior farming utensils which ornament these pages. Xn CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 39. Machine tor dibbling wheat, 47 40. Pan-mill tor cleaning grain, 49 .43. hummblling machine, 62 45. Machine for cleaning smutty grain, &c., 55 47. Grain cradle, 58 49. Corn planter 62 50. Universal cultivator, 64 51. Corn cracker. 65 52. Corn sheller 66 53. Corn and cob crusher, 66 57. Broom-corn scraper 74 61. Rippling machine, for flax 82 74. Scythe, 93 75. Revolving horse hay-rake, 95 84. Vegetable cutter, ... 123 91. Cheese PRESS, . .* 135 92. Self-acting press, 135 93. Thermometer churn .- 136 94. Cylindrical churn, 137 95. Gault's churn 137 96. Fruit gatherer, 164 97. " " 165 126. Cranberry rake 183 168. Ox chain and bull ring, 225 169. Hay and straw cutter 229 175. Ox yoke • 236 183. Lactometer 245 233. Instrument for fumigating bee-hives, 348 234. Garden rake, 359 235. " SYRINGE, 360 237. " ROLLER, 362 238. Grass-edge parer, 363 239. Garden trowel, 363 250. Grass-edging and ladies' garden shears, 382 251. Scissors, for cutting flowers, , 388 252. Machine for watering gardens, 390 353. Briar or bill hook, 391 254. Pruning shears, 391 278. Improved barn-door rollers, 416 288. Grafting chisel 443 292. Pruning chisel, 455 293. " scissors 456 294. Budding and pruning knives, 456 295. Pole-pruning shears, 457 296. Lopping and sliding pruning shears 459 BEES AND OTHER INSECTS, AND THEIR OPERATIONS. 215. Queen bee, 3ig 216. Drone " 319 217. Working bee, 319 218. Form of the bee's sting, 321 219. Operations of bees in the cells 322 231. Comb, or hexagonal cells, of bees, 34I 232. Swarming of bees 344 306. Horse bot-fly and larva 513 307. wire-wosm, larva, and anatomy, 617 308. Hessian fly and its operations 519 309. Wheat midge, larva, and operations, 529 310. Cabbage moth and caterpillar, 623 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGKAVINGS. Sm 311. Onion FLY, lA£VA, &c 52S 312. Black-veined white buttebplt, 526 313. Winter moth, 631 314. Apple weevil, 536 316. Pear " 536 316. Peak chebivies, 540 317. Plant-louse ob aphis 541 318. Vine scale insect 644 319. Locust, 560 B CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, iU CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS, to CHAPTER I. SOILS: — THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. THE OOMPOSmOlI OF SOILS — THEIK OLASSlrlOATION — QUALITIES — KELATJON BETWEEN THE BOIL AND BDBSOIl — MEANS OF INOKEASING THEIK PEODCOTITB POWEBS, AND KENDEEINO THEM FIT FOR CDLUVATION, VIZ., — ALTERING THE PROPORTION OF THEIR INGKEDIENIS — CLEAEIHG — PLOnOBCLNG — BAEROWIKO •i— ROLLING — MANURING — DRAINING — lEEIOATING 1 CHAPTER II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. ■jyHEAT — BARLEY — RYE — THE OAT — INDIAN CORN — BUCKWHEAT — THE PO- TATO — BROOM CORN — MILLET — HEMP — FLAX — LUCERN — SAINFOIN — THE TARE — OLOTEB — THE GRASSES, 43 CHAPTER III. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. Vegetables : — artichoke — asparagus — borage — bean — beet — borecole BROCCOLI cabbage — CAEDOON CARROT OAUHFLOWER CELERY CHIVE CORN CORN-SALAD CRESS CUCUMBER DANDELION EG G-PLANT ENDIVE GARLIC -^ HOP HOESE-EADISH LEEK LETTUCE — MOBEL MUSHROOM MUSTARD ONION OKRA PARSNIP PEA PEPPER ■ — PUMP- KIN RADISH RAPE RHUBARB SALSIFY SOORZONlaiA SEA-KALE SHALLOT SKIEEET SPINACH BftUASH TOMATO TUENIP. HERBS, 4C. : — ANISE BALM BASIL CARAWAY CAMOMILE CORIANDER CHERVIL DILL FENNEL FOXGLOVE HOEEHOUND HYSSOP — LAVENDER UQUOEICE MARJORAM MINT PARSLEY PENNY-EOYAL PEPPERMINT — PDESLANB — ROSEMARY RUE SAFFRON SAGE SAVORY TANSY THYME ; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, 98 XVl CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE BAERT. DAISY IMPCEMENT3 MABAOEMENT MILK BTJTIEB-MAKINQ CBmESE-UAKINO; INOHrDlNG ATT. THE MOSI OELEEKATED AND ESTEEMED MODES, . . 184 CHAPTER V. FRUITS, FRUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. STAHDARD KINDS : — APPLE APE.I0OT EAEBEERT BLACKBERKT — CHERKT CKANEEEST CDBEANT QOOSEBEBKT OBAFE MEDLAR — MELON MUL- BERKT NECTARINE PEACH PEAR PLUM — CUTINCE KASPBEHRT STEAWBERRT. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS : AiMOND BlUEBEERT BUTTEK- inrr — chestnut — fig — hlbert — lemon — dime — ouve — orange — POMEGRANATE SHELLBAEK WAINDT 'WHORTLEEBRRT ; 'WITH A MONIHLT CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, 164 CHAPTER VI. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF THE BULL THE ax THB-COW SHEEP SWINE THE HORSE THE ASS — THE MULE THH GOAT THE DOG, — IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VAEIEIIES; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, 225 CHAPTER VII. PODLTRT, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. THE RAISING, BREEDING, DISEASES AND TREATMENT, OP THE COMMON BARN FOWLS ; ALSO THE TURKEY — THE GOOSE THE DUCK IN ALL THEIR IMPORTANT VARIETIES, 291 CHAPTER VIII. BEES. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES — POSITION OF THE APIARY HIVES AND BOXES OBTAININ (} STOCK — SWARMING THE HONEY HARVEST — MANAGEMENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING HOW TO TREAT THE PRODUCE OF THE HONEY HARVEST THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES, 318 CHAPTER IX. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. THE CULTURE OP FLOWERS — PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS DESCRIPTION OP STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS ORNAMENTAL Iiax»; — WITH A MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR, . . . . 859 CONTENTS. XVn CHAPTER X. KURAl ARCHITECTURB. THB OOlTSTEnCTION OP FAEM-DWBLLIlfGS AND COTTAGES — DAISIES — BAEIIS — STABEES — OAET-SHBDa, AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES — GBANARIES — CATTLE-SHEDS • — PIGGERIES POTTLTRT-HOUSES — ARRANGEMENT OF THE PARMERT' — GREEN- HOUSES — FENCES AND GATES, . 398 CHAPTER XI. HORTICXILTUEAL SCIENTIFIC OPEKATIONS. IHB MPEOVED MODES OF GRAFTING — BUDDING — PKUNINQ — TRAINING, 442 CHAPTER XII. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. BUOHT OB BLAST — CANKER OR CARIES — CONSUMPTION — CONTORTION — DROPSY — BBGOT — HONET-DEW — CURL — MILDEW — POTATO-ROT — SMUT, . 477 CHAPTER XIII. NOXIOUS INSECTS. KSBOTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP- AOATB ON THEM INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES. — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER^PLANTS — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS, 512 INDEX 553 DEFINITION OF WORDS, — SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND PECULIAR, — COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTS, 575 B* CHAPTER I. SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. tHE COMPOSITION OF SOILS THEIR CLASSIFICATION (JtrAlITIES RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL MEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PROBUOTIVE POWERS, AND RENDERINa THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ., — ALTERING THE PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS — CLEARING PLOUGHING — HARROWING ROLLING . — MANURING DRAINING IRRIGATING. GENERAL EEMARKS. Nothing is more true than the fact, that, from the vague manner in which soils are usually described by writers assuming to instruct those who cul- tivate the soil, it is often difficult for a farmer, who reads accounts of agri- cultural operations in any other section of the country than that in which he resides, to judge what relation the soil which is the scene of such oper- ations bears to that which ho himself cultivates. A certain acquaintance with a few of the plain principles and laws of chemistry in connection with the composition of soils is, therefore, very desirable ; for it is only in the accuracy in which soils are described, and their' composition and character ascertained and understood, that a knowledge of the best methods of remedy- ing their defects, and improving them by the application of different matters, can be acquired. It will be consistent, then, with the design of our work, to give some account, in the first place, of the I. — COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Though various in fertility and texture, all soils are resolvable into the same constituent parts. They consist of earthy and organic matters in a state of combination. What is commonly called earth may be considfered' in two points of view, either as mixed or unmixed with animal and vegeta- ble remains. As originally produced from the crumbling or decomposition of rocks, earth is, of course, destitute of any of these matters ; but theyvery soon enter into its composition, and exist in a considerable proportion in all soils not completely barren. The principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of rocks and soils are silica, — found in quartz, flint, and sand; altanina, — a leading ingredient in the composition of clays, giving' them that softness, 1 2 farmee's hand-book. plasticity, and adhesiveness, for which they are distinguished ; lime, — con- stituting the numerous varieties of limestone, marl, chalk, and marble; magnesia, — existing in various states of combination with acids and other earths, and is found in various mineral springs. Thus, vphere silica prevails, as in the case of many sands, the earth may be called silioious ; vphere clay prevails, the soil may be called aluminous ; where lime exists in quantity, as in the case of chalk, the soil is calcareous ; and where magnesia prevails to such an extent as to impart its distinctive nature to the soil, it may be called magnesian. Besides these, there is the oxide of iron, forming a constituent part of soils, though its influence on their productive powers has not been definitely ascertained n. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. Having spoken of the ingredients in soils, we will now classify them according to their peculiar properties and the kinds of crops they are severally best adapted to produce. The grand divisions are as follows : — Clayey Soils. — These are distinguished for the adhesion of their parts, and the retention of moisture. Farm lands of this description, — the richer clays, we mean, — generally produce crops of great abundance and of superior quality, but at extra cost. Much attention is necessary to the choice of suitable seasons for conducting the operations of tillage on these soils : if too dry, it turns up in hard masses, difficult of being made fine enough for sowing ; and if too wet, it is worked into mortar, and cannot be reduced by the harrow. At the first ploughing, the clay comes up in large clods ; but the oftener it is acted upon by the implements of tillage at the proper time, the more is its cohesion broken, and the more easily can the roots of plants penetrate. They must be worked when the clods can be crushed by the roller. Sandy Soils. — These are distinguished by their small degree of adhesive- ness ; and, with the aid of manures and consolidating substances, to counter- act their poverty and their susceptibility to drought, no land pays better for improvement. The richer class of sands is fitted for the production of every kind of herbage and grain, bulbous and tuberous rooted plants. Gravelly Soils. — Between the gravelly and sandy soils there is a close resemblance, both containing a large portion of undecomposed rocky matter. The loose texture of gravelly soils renders them unfit for the production of wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to barley and oats. Peaty Soils. — While other soils consist, primarily, of the wom-off portions of rocks, combined with various animal and vegetable matters, it is otherwise with the peat soils. The matter comprising the soils of this class varies exceedingly, but in all cases it retains the general characteristics of SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 3 its origin, from the quantity of the stems and other parts of plants which it contains, either entire, or in a partial state of decay. At the surface, it may be fibrous, and of a brownish-gray color ; and lower, it may be friable, of a light-brown color, and with few fibres. Still lower, it may be compact, of a deep-brown color. Wherever wood, stems, or grass of any kind, goes to waste, or falls down and is decomposed, its remains are changed into moss, if the necessary degree of humidity be present ; and, a certain temperature being essential in producing this change, it is only in the cold and temperate parts of the earth that peat is formed. Loam Soils. — Under this denomination is included that kind of soil which appears to be an intimate mixture of all the others. It is friable in its com- position, and neither liable to be parched in summer, nor drenched and chilled with surface water in winter. It is suitable for every kind of crop, and every system of husbandry. The arrangement of the different kinds of soils which we have now made is sufiicient for every practical purpose. There is, however, a more import- ant and interesting distinction to the farmer, and this is III. THE QUALITIES OF SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY THEIR COM- PARATIVE TRODUCTIVENESS. The fertility or powers of production of any soil may be judged of from its natural produce ; in part from the kinds of plants which are peculiar to it, and in part from the luxuriance with which they grow — more certainly by the latter. The soils of the poorest class produce mosses, low and stinted plants, and heaths. As the soil improves in quality, the grasses become intermixed with these inferior orders of vegetation ; and as improvement advances, the grasses increase in quantity, value, and variety. Cultivation and local circumstances having such influence on the peculiar vegetation of any particular section of country, little confidence can be placed in lists of plants indicative of different soils. We therefore pass to consider the IT. RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL. Clayey Subsoil. — The value of the soil for agricultural purposes is affected, in a great degree, by the nature of the subsoil upon which it lies. A retentive, clayey subsoil is in general highly injurious to vegetation ; for, where the soil rests on a subsoil of this quality, it is constantly soaked with water, and is tilled with difficulty. The retention of an undue quantity of moisture diminishes the beneficial action of the manures which have beeu applied to the land, and the crops on such soils make but little progress Hence, their grain is of inferior quality, and, when in grass, their herbage is coarse. ^ FARMER'S HAWD-BOOK. ' Porous Subsoil. — A porous subsoil absorbs all superfluous moisture. Below clay, and the different Tarieties of loam, an open subsoil is particu- larly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry ; it tends to correct any undue absorbent power in the soil above ; and it promotes the beneficial action of manures, contributes to the growth and preservation of seeds in the soil, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it is that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will produce better crops than a deeper one, resting on wet clay, or on cold or non-absorbent rock. Quality of Svisoil. — But not only is the soil affected by the depth and texture of the subsoil, but by its quality. There are cases when, from natural revolutions, that which is properly the soil forms the lower stratum or layer, as, for instance, where the original surface has been covered by the sand ; but, in general, the lower stratum is far less suited to the nourishment of plants, and in many cases contains matter which, if too abundant, is greatly injurious to vegetation. Depth of the Soil. — Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil which rests upon it should be of good depth ; and in proportion to that depth will it he affected by the nature of the subsoil. If a retentive subsoil is placed very near the surface, not only is the soil too shallow for the purposes of vegetation, but it is too easily affected by the alternations of dryness and moisture ; and if, again, a porous subsoil be very near the surface, the roots of the plants, as in the other case, not only have not suiBcient space to extend themselves, but the moisture of the soil is too easily exhausted by heat, to the injury of vegetation. V. MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION. Having now explained the composition, varieties, and qualities of soils, and the connection between them and the subsoil, or lower strata, we shall pro- ceed to point out the various means which it is necessary for the farmer to use, in order to maintain and increase their fertility, and render them fit for the grand purpose of cultivation. These grand means are as follows : 1. Altering the Proportion of the Different Ingredients in the Soil. — This is done by ascertaining the composition of the soil, and then adding to, or subtracting from, the ingredients in which it is deficient, or with which it superabounds. If a sterile soil is found to contain any of the salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by applying quick- lime. A soil of good apparent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be sterile ; but this may be remedied by a top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess of limy matter in the soil, it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too abundant SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. O in sand are benefited by a dressing of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. Light sands are improved by using peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ; though the former is in its nature only a temporary improvement. Wheu peats are acid, or contain iron, limy matter is necessary in bringing them into cultiva- tion. The best natural soils are those of which the materials have been derived from different strata oif layers of the earth, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together ; and, in im- proving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do better than imitate the processes of nature. To do this, the necessary materials are seldom far distant ; coarse sand is often near by, and beds of sand and gravel are common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution of the soil, by thus changing the character of its ingredients, is repaid by a great and permanent advantage, — less manure is required, and its fertility and productiveness insured. 2. Clearing. — It is seldom that the operation of altering the proportion of the different ingredients of the soil can be performed to any extent until after it has been cleared ; nevertheless, we have chosen this arrangement of Pig. 1. Fig. 2. Fie-. 3. our suoject, believing it to be the one best adapted to promote the end which we have in view, namely, a plain and intelligible presentation of principles, fects, and modes. 1* farmee's hand-book. That the chief part of waste and uncultivated lands might be turned to advantage, is undoubtedly true. Land covered with furz ; the soil of ancient forests, overrun with this plant, or covered by stagnant water ; those moving sands, which are often carried &om place to place, in some sections of the country, by the wind ; neglected tracts, which yield nothing at all, or, at most, but a scanty return ; in short, almost all kinds of land are sus- ceptible of some kind of tillage, and capable of yielding certain varieties of produce. But operations of this nature are not always attended with profit, the land often costing as much, or more, in the end, as it would have been necessary to give for such as was already in a state of cultivation. Definite Plan of Operations. — The first thing to be done is carefully to determine on the manner in which the land about to be cleared can best be turned to account ; then to lay down a plan of operation, drawn up with due regard to the nature of the soil and the ends proposed to be derived from it ; and, finally, to precisely and perseveringly adhere to such plan. It is im- portant that the improvement of the land should be commenced at that part which is most capable of being converted into meadow or pasture ground, even though it should be determined to submit this land to the plough at some ftiture period ; by so doing, a supply of manure will be insured, and the fertility of those portions of land afterwards cleared will be increased. Clearing Forests. — It is upon the soil of forests that operations of this nature are usually performed, and it is upon such soils that they are attended Fig. 4. with the greatest advantages and success, both as regards the person by whom they are undertaken, and society in general. The soil of forest land SOILS : THEIE NATUKE AND TREATMENT. 1 generally contains a sufficient quantity of nutritious matter to enable it to produce both crops of fodder and of com, even without being manured with dung ; and, consequently, will yield an immediate return for the expenses of clearing, without being exhausted by so doing. The extirpation of trees and bushes often requires a great deal of labor ; and, to do it more easily, several machines have been invented. Trees must be grubbed up by the roots ; and it saves labor to cut the roots below the ground, while the tree is standing, and draw the tree over by means of ropes fixed to the top ; the stem becomes a lever, by which the roots are more easily drawn out. Useless shrubs are readily cut down, and serve for fuel. Their roots are seldom difficult to grub up ; a simple and very power- ful instrument for this purpose is a very strong iron three-pronged fork, the prongs twenty inches long, and a strong handle, twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it, to the end of which a rope is fastened ; this is driven slant- wise under the roots, and, by means of a log as a fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled down by the ropes. Figure 4 represents this instrument ; and the succeeding cut is that of an implement now much used for the same purpose, the claws being attached to the bush close to the ground, and, by means of cattle fastened to it by a chain, the bushes or roots are easily drawn. Fig. 5. Clearing Waste Lands. — Next to the soil of forests, waste lands and com- mon pasturages are most generally cleared. Land of this description is usually in a most disordered condition, the surface being rugged and uneven, and covered with stumps of trees, and bushes, &c. After disposing of the latter, according to the mode just described, recourse may be had to the operation of half-ploughing, for the purpose of raising the furrow-slices of the turf. This may be performed with any plough which has a broad, sharp share, held in a somewhat inclined position, so that on the side on which the yet unturned earth is situated the share may enter rather more deeply, and on that next the mould-board the divided furrow-slice may be very thin, — so much so, indeed, that the lower angle of the ploughshare may merely graze the surface of the ground. When the soil thus prepared has remained for 8 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. some time in this state, a strong harrow should be passed over it in a con trary direction to the ploughing, in order to tear in pieces and break up those slices raised by the plough. The ground will be covered with roots and fibres, and these must be burned. A bramble-hook, like that above, is also frequently used in cutting brush or brambles. Faring and Burning. — Comparative experiments prove that paring and burning is one of the best methods employed in clearing uncultivated lands of a marly nature, though many disapprove of the practice. The operation consists in paring off the turf to a depth of two or three inches, — generally by a breast-plough, worked by hand, or by a turf-paring plough, drawn by a Fig. 7. horse, — allowing it to dry, and then burning it in heaps. The result is a mixture of burned earth, charred vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that part which is entirely consumed, thus producing a powerful manure, impregnated with alkaline salts and carbonaceous matter, which, it is well known, are very powerful promoters of vegetation. Insects are also killed by the pro- cess. It is very easy to ascertain whether any soil will be improved or not by paring and burning. A few sods may be taken and exposed to heat in an iron pot closely covered over ; the heat should not be so intense as to pro- duce light, but should be kept up for a considerable time, till the sods are consumed. If the ashes are red, and the whole is a fine powder, with par- ticles of charcoal in it, the soil from which it was taken may be safely pared and burned, especially if it forms a mud with water, and the earth is not readily deposited. But if it feels gritty, lets the water readily through, and soon settles when mixed with it, burning will not be advantageous. Leoelling Uneven Surfaces. — Frequently, when the surface of newly- cleared land is uneven, it is necessary, in the first place, to smooth and level SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 9 it, in order to caltivate it more easily. Wlien the inequalities of the sur face cannot be reduced by a more simple process, it may be done, when the soil is loose and sandy, by an instrument like the following ; or by another, which is much used in Flanders, consisting of a wooden shovel, shod with iron, and having a long handle ; about the middle of this shovel, which is convex, are two hooks, one on each side, to which chains are fixed, which unite at the bar, to which the traces of a horse or horses are to be attached ; a rope fixed to the end of the handle completes the instrument. A man accustomed to the use of it raises the handle, and the shovel enters the ground, and is filled by the horse going on. By depressing the handle, the load is made to slide on the rounded bottom of the shovel, till it arrives at the place where it is to be deposited. By letting the handle go, retaining the Pig. 8. rope, the whole is upset instantly, turning over on the edge ; the handle strikes on the bar, and the load is leil behind in a heap. By pulling the i^. 9. .7 i^m-^^J^ rope, the whole instrument resumes its original position, and is brought back to the place from which the earth is to be taken again, without any loss of 10 farmer's hand-book. time, or the slightest stoppage of the horses. About five cwts. of loose earth may be thus moved at each time. This instrument, which is now being superseded by others, is seen in the preceding cut. Removing Stones. — The removal of large stones often increase's the dif- ficulty of clearing an uncultivated soil to a considerable extent ; and yet they must be removed, at least, as far below the surface of the soil as the plough penetrates in its course, otherwise it is wholly impossible to till the ground properly. When they cannot be used for any valuable purpose, they may be sunk into the ground to a depth at which they will not interfere with any of the operations of agriculture. For this purpose, a trench deeper than the stone itself is dug all around it, and it is laid in the hollow thus formed. The width and depth of this hollow mast be greater than the breadth and depth of stone, and its shape must be so contrived that the stone, when turned over, may not present either of its angles or edges to the ground. Very large stones must be blasted, especially if they are going to be used in building. The most useful mode of conducting this operation consists in the use of gunpowder ; but it should be done by those who understand the operation, and with proper instruments. Another method consists in heat- ing the stone to a high degree, by means of a fierce fire applied to one part of it only, which will cause it to expand. When the stone has been thus made intensely hot, water is poured upon it to make it crack, the effect being increased by powerful blows given with very heavy hammers. A third method consists in piercing the stone in the direction of its veins, and introducing into the hole a cleft cylinder of iron, and then driving a wedge of the same metal in between the two halves of the cylinder. Finally, a quantity of water may, during the winter season, be introduced into a hole made in the stone to a sufficient depth, the aperture to be then closed with a stopper closely driven into it. The water contained in this hole, ex- panding as it freezes, exerts a force sufficient to break in pieces the strong- est stone. 3. Ploughing. — Ploughing is justly considered the most important of Fiff. 10. agricultural operations, as on the manner in which this is performed depends the facility of executing all succeeding operations on the same piece SOILS : THEIR NATUKE AND TREATMENT. 1 1 of land. The plough acts as a wedge, separating a portion of the soil, and turning it over at the same time. The manual operation of holding the plough in a proper position, and directing the horses or cattle which draw it at the same time, is only to be acquired by experience ; when once attained, it is, perhaps, the most agreeable and healthful of agricultural exercises, the body being kept upright, tl.e arms and legs brought into action, and also the eye and the mind, to keep the furrow straight and of regular width and depth, and the voice to speak to the animals. In the performance of this operation it is requisite, First. That the lines traced by the plough should be perfectly straight and parallel with one another ; the furrow slices all equal, and uniformly turned up, so that they may not overlap each other, or form any inequalities on the surface of the ground. If the slices are not of equal breadth, the operation becomes more diificult, because at every deviation from the straight line the resistance which the earth opposes to the instrument becomes increased. Second. That the plough advance at a regular and uniform depth, and OB a line parallel to the surface of the soil ; that is to say, that it do not, as is the case when it is not well guided, sometimes cut thick and at others thin slices. Third. That the plough empty the furrow as completely as possible, so that the earth may not fall in again, after the instrument has passed ; and that the portion of soil not yet raised, but which has just been divided by the ploughshare, may form not an acute, but a right angle with the bottom of the furrow on which it borders. Fourth. That the furrow-slice be turned up at an angle of about 40 degrees, or so as to form with the surface of the ground, or the bottom of the furrow, an angle of from 40 to 50 degrees, which is in most cases the best inclination. Fifth. That the divided slices be always of the same breadth ; and that it be such as is required by the nature of the soil itself, and the purpose of the operation. Sixth. That they likewise preserve the depth which it is desirable to give them. Seventh. That the ridges or heaps of earth between the furrows be of a suitable length and breadth, and that their sides be parallel to one another, so that they may not terminate in a point ; for such a form tends to increase the labor of ploughing considerably, by rendering it necessary to turn fre- quently. Eighth. That the ploughs be placed one after another, on different parts of the land to be ploughed, so that the opejation may be executed in the best possible order, and with as little loss of time as possible. 12 fakmee's hand-book. Ninth. That the horses or cattle be harnessed as near to the plough a3 they can be placed without retarding their free and easy movement ; for the nearer they are to the point of draught, the less exertion will be required to overcome the resistance. Tenth. That when ploughing with a pair abreast, the most powerful horse should be worked in the furrow ; but, if the team be harnessed in line, and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the tallest should be put foremost, if he be in every respect equal to the other. Eleventh. That, when at work, they should be kept going at as regular and good a pace as the nature of the work will permit ; for they are thus more manageable, and the draught easier, than when slow. By attending to this, the heavy soil will cling less to the coulter, and the land will work more freely. Twelfth. That, the breadth and depth of the furrow being ascertained, the plough should be held upright, bearing equally all along on a straight sole, and be made to move forward in a regular line, without swerving to either side. The edge of the coulter should be set directly forward, so that the land-side of it may run in a parallel line with the land-side of the head, and in such a position that their slant or sweep may exactly correspond. Thirteenth. That the ploughman should walk with his body as nearly as possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement steadily in a straight line. He should also be sparing of his voice, and of correction to the team : of the former, because too much cheering and order- ing only confuse the cattle, and because punishment, when often repeated, at length loses its effect. How to hold the Plough. — lur ploughing, the instrument ought to be held vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is per- formed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below not being tilled at all, but left thus : Plff. 11. Construction of the Plough, — In the construction of ploughs, whatever be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to be attended to ; such as the giving the throat and breast — or that part which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground — that sort of long, nar- row, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords the least resistance in passing through the land ; and to the mould-board that kind of hollowed out and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to con- SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 13 tribute |ri 34 farmer's hand-book. the firm, unchanged land. Where there is a difficulty in ascertaining the line of the spring, and consequently that of the cross drain, either from its not showing itself upon the surface, or from there not being any apparent outlet, it may generally be met with in carrying up the conducting drain for con- veying away the water ; as soon as the operator discovers the spring, he need not proceed any further, but form the cross drain on the level thus dis- covered to such a distance on each side of the tail, or terminating part of the strata, of whatever sort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land , in regard to situation or other circumstances, may demand. The following iigure, representing an uneven surface, will illustrate the nature of the strata which produce springs. Fig. 28. Suppose A A a porous gravel, through which the water filtrates readily ; B B a stratum of loam or clay, impervious to water. The water which comes through A a will run along the surface of b a towards s s, where it will spring to the surface, and form a lake or bog between s and s. Sup- pose another gravelly or pervious stratum under the last, as c c c, bend- ing as here represented , and filled with water running into it from a higher level ; it is evident that this stratum will be saturated with water up to the dotted line e f f, which is the level of the point in the lower rock, or impervious stratum, d, where the water can run over it. If the stratum b b has any crevices in it below the dotted line, the water will rise through these to the surface, and foi-m springs rising from the bottom of the lake or bog ; and if b b were bored through and a pipe inserted, rising up to the dotted line, as c o, the water would rise and stand at o. If there were no springs at s h, the space below the dotted line might still be filled with water rising from stratum c c c. But if the boring took place at g, the water would not rise, but, on the contrary, if there were any on the surface, it would be carried .down to the porous stratum ceo, and run off. Thus in one situation boring will bring water, and in another it will take it off. This principle being well understood, will greatly facilitate all drain- ings of springs. Wherever water springs, there must be a pervious and an impervious stratum to cause it, and the water either runs over the impervi- ous surface, or rises through the crevices in it. When the line of the springs is found, as at s s, the obvious remedy is to cut a channel with a sufficient declivity to take off the water in a direction across this line, and SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 35 sunk through the porous soil at the surface into the lower impervious earth. The place for this channel is where the porous soil is the shallowest above the breaking out, so as to require the least depth of drain ; but the solid stratum must be reached, or the draining will be imperfect. It was by at- tending to all these circumstances that Elkington acquired his celebrity in draining, and that he has been regarded as the father of the system. Drains, and Peat Lands. — When the drains cannot be carried to a sufficient depth to take the water out of the porous stratum saturated with it, it is often useful to bore numerous holes with a proper auger in the bottom of the drain through the stiffer soil, and, according to the principle explained in the preceding figure, the water will either rise through these bores into the drains, and be carried off, and the natural springs will be dried up, or it will sink down through them as at o, in the section, if it lies above. This method is often advantageous in the draining of peat-bogs, which generally lie on clay or stiff loam, with a layer of gravel between the loam and the peat, the whole lying in a basin or hollow, and often on a declivity. The peat, though it retains water, is not pervious, and drains may be cut into it which will hold water. When the drains are four or five feet deep, and the peat is much deeper, holes are bored down to the clay below, and the water is pressed up through these holes, by the weight of the whole body of peat, into the drains, by which it is carried off. Figures 29 and 30, represent a common case of this kind ; h h (Fig. 30) are the sides of a hill ; the swampy lot, below, is filled with springs, which are, however, drained by running a ditch (J b) across it, and sinking Fig. 30. Fig. 29 holes into the subsoil. One of these holes is seen in Fig. 29 (a b), and the manner in which it conveys the surface water away. The bottom of the 36 eakmer's hand-book. drains is sometimes choked with loose sand, which flows up with the water, and they require to he cleared repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after the first rush is past, and the water rises slowly and regularly. The surface of the peat, being dried, dressed with lime, and consolidated with earth and gravel, soon becomes productive. When a single large and deep drain will produce the desired effect, it is much better than when there are several smaller, as large drains are more easily kept open, and last longer, than smaller ones ; but this is only the case in tapping main springs, for, if the water is diffused through the surrounding soil, numerous small drains are more effective. But, as soon as there is a sufficient body of water collected, the smaller drains should run into larger, and these into main drains, which should all, as far as is practicable, unite into one principal outlet, by which means there will be less chance of their being choked up. When the water springs into a drain from below, it is best to fill up that part of the drain which lies above the stones, or other materials which form the channel, with solid earth vvell pressed in, and made imper- vious to within a few inches of the bottom of the farrows in ploughed land, or the sod in pastures ; because the water running along the surface is apt to carry loose earth with it, and choke the drains. When the water comes in by the sides of the drains, loose stones, or gravel, or any porous material, should be laid in them to the line where the water comes in, and a little above it. over which the earth may be rammed in tight, so as to allow the horses to walk over the drain without sinking in. Hard Soils. — Another branch in the art of draining is the removal of water from hard soils which lie flat, or in hollows, where the water from rain, snow, or dews, which cannot sink into the soil, runs along the surface and stagnates in every cavity or depression. In this case a number of drains are required to lay the surface dry. There is often a layer of light earth immediately over a sub-layer of clay, and after continued rains this soil becomes filled with water, like a sponge, and no healthy vegetation can take place. To meet this, numerous drains must be made in the subsoil, and even the draining tiles or bushes, which may be laid at the bottom of the drains ; loose gravel or broken stones must be laid to within a foot of the surface, so that the plough shall not reach them. The water will gradually sink into these drains and be carried off, and the loose wet soil will become firm and dry. Direction of Drains. — It is very seldom that a field is absolutely level ; the first thing, therefore, to be ascertained, is the greatest inclination, and its direction. The next object is to arrange drains so that each shall collect as njuch of the water in the soil as possible. Large drains, except as main drains, are inadmissible. The depth should be such only that the plough may SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 37 not reach it, if the land is arable, or the feet of cattle tread it in, if it he in pasture. All the drains which are to collect the water should lie as nearly at right angles to the inclination of the surface as is consistent "with a suf- ficient fall in the drain to make them run. One foot is sufficient fall for a drain three hundred feet in length, provided the drains be not more than twenty feet apart. The main drains, by being laid obliquely, across the fall of the ground, will help to take off a part of the surface water. It is evident that the drains can seldom be in a straight line, unless the ground be perfectly even. They should, however, never have sudden turns, but be bent gradually where the direction is changed. The flatter the surface and the stifFer the soil, the greater number of drains will be required. It is a common practice with drainers to run a main drain directly down the slope, however rapid, and to carry smaller drains into this alternately on the right and left, which they call herring-bone fashion. But this can only be approved of where the ground is nearly level, and where there is very little fall for the main drain. A considerable fall is to be avoided as much as possible, and every drain should lie obliquely to the natural run of the water. It generally happens that, besides surface water, there are also some land springs arising from a variation in the soil ; these should be carefully ascer- tained, and the drains should be so laid as to cut them off. Chy Land. — In draining clay land, where there is only a layer of a few inches of looser soil over a solid clay, which the plough never stirs, the -F%-. 31. J drains need not be deeper than two feet in the solid clay, nor wider than they can be made without the sides falling in. The common draining tile, which is a fiat tile bent in the form of half a cylinder, and which can be made at a very cheap rate, is the best for extensive surface draining. In solid clay it requires no flat tile under it ; it is merely an arch to .carry the loose stones or earth with which the drain is filled up. Loose round stones or pebbles are the best where they can be procured, and in place of them, bushes, heath, or straw may be laid. In grsiss land the sod may be laid 4 . 38 farmer's hand-book. over the drain, after it has been filled up, so as to form a slight ridge over it. This wUl soon sink to a level with the surface. To save the expense of stone or tiles, drains are frequently made six inches wide at the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut in the solid clay, two or three inches wide and six deep (a), leaving a shoulder on each side to support a sod, which is cut so as to fit the drain, and rest on the shoulder (b) ; this sod keeps the earth from filling the channel. It is filled up as previously described. Where the clay is not sufficiently tenacious, the bottom of the drain is sometimes cut with a sharp angle, and a twisted rope of straw is thrust into it. This keeps the earth from falling in, and the running of the water keeps the channel open ; the straw, not being exposed to the air, remains a long time without decaying. It is a common mistake to suppose that in these drains water enters from above ; — it rises from below. Varieties of Drains. — The dilTerent sorts of drains in use may be classed in two divisions, — drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or passage for the water, of suflicient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes of different kinds, arched or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. We give cuts of these, as follows : Fig-. 32. 8. Iheigating. — Watering poor land, especially of a gravelly nature, is one among the many useful means resorted to by intelligent farmers to improve it and make it fit for cultivation. Land, when once improved by irrigation, is put into a durable state of fertility, and becomes so productive as to yield a large bulk of hay, and the after-math is also valuable. In favor- able situations, it produces very early grass, which, on that account, is dpubly valuable. The main object of irrigation in tropical climates seems merely to be to carry to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 39 and nourishment of the plants to be produced ; but this species of irrigation is very different from that to which the term is applied in this country. In temperate climates, the purpose is not merely to supply the deficiency of water in the soil. The whole art of irrigation may be defined to be, the supplying a sufficiency of water during all the time the plants are growing, and, secondly, never to allow this water to accumulate so as to stagnate. The supply of water must come from natural lakes and rivers, or from wells and ponds. As the water must flow over the land, or in channels through it, the supply must be above the level of the land to be irrigated. This is generally the main object to be considered ; and the taking of the level is, therefore, the first step towards irrigating. The improved hydraulic ram, seen in the annexed cut, is an excellent machine ; h represents the spring or brook ; o, drive or supply pipe, from spring to ram ; g, pipe conveying water to house, or other point required for use ; B D A E i, the ram ; j, the plank or other foundation to which the machine is secured. Fig. 33. Channels. — Along the banks of running streams nature points out the declivity. A channel which receives the water at a point higher than that to which the river flows, may be dug with a much smaller declivity than that of the bed of the river, and made to carry the water much higher than the natural banks ; it may thence be distributed so as to descend slowly, and water a considerable extent of ground, in its way to rejoin the stream. This is a common mode of irrigation, and the shape, size, and direction of the channels, are regulated by the nature of the surface, and other circumstances, which vary in almost every situation. 40 faemee's hand-book. Kind of Soils for the Purpose. — The soils most suitable for being watered are all those which are of a sandy or gravelly nature, as the improvement is not only more immediate, but the efifeet more powerful, on those than on any other descriptions of land. It is of advantage that the soil should be incum- bent on a warm and absorbent bottom ; for the subsoil of watered meadows is considered of more importance than the quality or depth of the surface soil. The best watered meadows are sometimes those in which the soil is only a few inches in depth, especially when the bottom is porous. Waters Best Adapted. — With regard , to the quality of the waters most suitable for irrigation, those of rivers which flow through a rich and culti- vated country are to be preferred, as they are enriched by the animal and vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and which are contained in them in a state of solution. A considerable portion of these matters is left on the surface of the land by the waters passing over it, and it is thereby greatly enriched. Water from bogs is considered inferior, from the antiseptic (resisting putrefaction) quality communicated to it from the peat. Water impregnated with iron has sometimes been used with good effect. Fig. 34. tl c c c c e e e e Meadow Watering. — The above diagram represents a watered meadow. A is the main conductor, e the wear placed across the river to intercept the course of the water, and c c c c are the feeders taken off as directed from the main conductor, at right angks to it, by which a constant flow of water is SOILS : THEIR NATUKE AND TREATMENT. 41 maintained over the surface. The water is then carried ofF the meadow by means of the small drains e e e e, passing between the intervals of the former, and communicating with the main drstin d d, which again conveys the water to the river. The dimensions of these smaller drains are seen to be greatest where they respectively join the main conductor and main drain, being then about four inches deep and eight or ten inches wide, and gradually diminish- ing to a point, as seen in the figure. The dimensions of these drains, how- ever, as well as the distance between them, must be regulated by the exten of the ground to be gone over, and the nature of the soil. It is frequently- necessary that the water should be collected and conveyed to another main conductor for watering a meadow in a lower situation ; and when slight inequalities occur in the surface, or when it is wished to convey an addi- tional quantity of water in any particular direction, stops are used for the purpose, which consist of small pieces of sods placed in the drains to cause the water to flow over. Preparing the Surface. — In the preparation of the surface for irrigation, it is usual to form it into low ridges, the feeders being on the crovims of the ridges, and the drains for carrying off the water in the furrows. The plan illustrated in the preceding figure is designed only for situations in which Xjt Anr aC ^^ ,V"^ za^ ~3^^~^ YZ ~ _ ^ m- . ,.S =i the inclination is not considerable. In the irrigation of lands with consid- erable inclination of surface, the feeders cannot be carried along lengthwise, 4* 42 farmer's hand-book. as in the former case, but across the line of descent, so that the water flow- ing from one is intercepted by the next lower, and so on until it has covered the whole of the meadow. This is termed catch-work irrigation. The preceding figure is an example of irrigation where the soil is very porous, and gently inclined, the supply of water being abundant. A main carrier is led from the sluice (a) directly across the declivity (b), and side feeders (c) taken out from it at regular distances. These feeders have stops of turf, at regular distances (d), by which means the water is dispersed. After watering a space of from twenty to forty feet in breadth, it is again collected by the small drains in the furrows, and returned lower down to another feeder. The Time to Operate. — The process of floating the meadow commences generally in the month of October, or as soon as possible after the after- math has been consumed, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is first kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a time. _ It is then let off, and the ground left perfectly dry, for five or six days ; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued for some time, care being taken to let off the water when it begins to freeze. As the spring advances and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering are shortened, so that the flooding shall not last more than a few days at a time. The formation and arrangement of surfaces for irrigation, however simple in principle, are, in practice, among the most difiicult operations of agricul- tural improvement. Whoever, therefore, contemplates the execution of this kind of work to any considerable extent, will find it desirable to consult a person experienced in the matter. CHAPTEE II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. WHEAT EAKLET KTE . — THE OAT INDIAN COKN — BUCKWHEAT — THE PO- TATO BROOM COKN MILLET HEMP FLAX HIOEEN — SAINFOIN TH13 TABE — CL07ER — THE GUASSES. WHEAT. Classification. — Writers on agriculture enumerate something like one hundred varieties of wheat ; but the nice distinctions which are necessarily made in multiplying the sorts to such an extent' are but of slight import- ance to the majority of farmers. The best mode of classifying the plants included in this order is by natural marks, that is, by the ear and by the grain. In this way confusion is avoided in describing the ear and the grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain, should be acquainted with both ; but the baker, who is only acquainted with the grain, need know nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe at once, to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best suited to his purpose. An examination of the ears of wheat proves that they may be consistently divided into three classes, as represented in the following figure, and dis- tinguishable thus :- — a is a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near each other on the rachis, and this position makes the chaff short and broad. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis as to screen it from view ; the ear is not so broad, but longer than a; the chaff is of medium length and breadth. The third class is seen at c, the spike- lets of which are set open, or so far asunder, as to permit the rachis to be easily seen between them ; the ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is much narrower ; the chaff is long .and narrow. In d is represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which the beard gives to the ear. The term bearded is applied the same as spring wheat ; beardless wheat, however, is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and the bearded may be sown in winter. 44 farmer's hand-book. In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, three heads may comprise all the varieties. . (See Fig. 37.) The first class (a) is where all the grains Fig. 36. are short, round, and plump. The second class (J), where the grains are long and of medium size. The third class (c) , where the grain is large F^. 37. and long to a greater degree than the last class. These three sorts are represented according to their natural size. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 45 Best Varieties for Cultivation. — The following are the names of the kinds of wheat most esteemed and cultivated in this country. White Flint : This is one of the most valuable kinds in the northern states. The heads are not too long, but well filled, with thirty to forty grains ; the kernel is white and flinty, large, and with thin bran ; the flour is very superior ; the perfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushel. Harmon's White Flint : A variety improved from the above ; the berry is larger, bran very thin, flour superior ; this and the above are little injured by the Hessian fly, and will stand a good deal of wet weather. White Provence : pleads middling and bald, chaff bluish, berry large and white, bran thin, flour good ; it is early, but the straw is small, long, soft, and liable to fall. Old Genesee Red Chaff: An old favorite, but liable to rust and the fly ; red chaff", bald, long straw, berry white and large, bran thin, superior flour. Kentucky White-bearded, Hutchinson or Canada Flint: White chaff, bearded, heads short but heavy and well filled, shells readily, berries round, short and white, flour very good ; it litters a little ; the straw is strong, but liable to injury from insects. Indiana Wheat: White chaff, bald, berry white and large, bran thin, berry not so flinty as the white flint, but the straw is larger and longer ; shells easily ; is attacked by the insects, and it is more liable to be winter-killed. A variety of white wheat is much esteemed in western New York, which resembles an improved Indiana ; it is called Scotch Wheat. Virginia White May: White chaff, bald, and resembles the white flint in its growth and straw, though the heads are more clumped, the berry stands out more, and shells easier ; berry white and hard, bran medium thick, flour good ; matures early. Wheatland Red : Red chaff, bald, heads of medium length, red berry, good flour, very hardy, bright and large straw, ripens early. Red Bearded : Red chaff, beards standing out from the head, berry white, good flour, hardy, succeeds well after com, or on light soils. Mediterranean: Light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, flinty, bran thick, inferior flour. Blue Stem : Has been grown in Virginia for about thirty years ; white chaff, bald, berry white, bran thin, superior flour, straw fair size and good product. T?ie Yorkshire or English Flint, or Soule's Wheat : Recently introduced ; similar in its leading feat- ures to the old Genesee. The Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Many-spiked, or Wild Goose Wheat : A hardy variety, with a thick straw, which prevents its lodging. The red wheat is usually grov^ upon the strongest clay land, and degen- erates when sown upon a soil of a lighter description. It is hardy, and so much better adapted to insure the production of a crop on wet and adhesive soils, that it is very generally sown on that class of lands ; but, on all the 46 farmer's hand-book. better class of soils, the white or smooth-chaffed wheat is preferable, the thinness of the husk rendering it more valuable to the miller. Winter wheat is sometimes confounded with spring wheat, the only dis- tinction being in the different periods of ripening. The produce of wheat sown in the spring acquires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce of that sown in autumn. This distinction is not, however, an absolute or permanent one. , Soils. — The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat are the rich clays and the heavy loams, though these are not, by any means, the only descrip- tions of soils on which it may be cultivated. Before the introduction of turnips and clover, all soils but little adhesive were thought unfit for wheat ; but even on sandy soils it is now extensively cultivated, after either of these crops. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth of wheat ; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repe- tition of it as those already mentioned. To bring wheat to perfection, a dry and warm season is required. Time for Sowing. — The season of sowing wheat depends on the crop to which it succeeds. It is sown before winter, when the land can be then prepared for its reception, as after fallow or potatoes ; and it is sown in spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not removed off the land till that season. The time of sowing must depend, also, on the state of the land, as well as the season. It is, however, generally recom- mended to put it into the ground as early as may be convenient in autumn ; and on strong soils it is not unfrequently sown in the latter end of Septem- ber, in the course of October, and the beginning of November. Seed Wheat. — Seed wheat is prepared by a process termed pickling, before being sown. This is intended to prevent rust, of which it is a pre- ventative. "Various substances are employed as a pickle to wash the seed, the most common and useful being a solution of common salt in water, sufficiently strong to buoy up a fresh egg. After being freed from all foreign substances, the seed is dried, and, if not sown immediately after, must be spread thinly over the floor, to prevent its heating. Culture. — When the seed is sown broadcast, it is covered by the action of the harrows sufficiently to cover the seed. A double turn along the ridu'e, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, will generally suffice, and oftentimes less than so mu'ch. As soon as the seed is har- rowed in, the whole should be water-turrowed, to carry all excess of moisture off the land, by means of the double mould-board plough, with one horse, passing along the furrows of the field, and the furrows of the head-lands. Open furrows are also to be drawn through such hollow parts as the water might stagnate in, care being taken to sink all inequalities, THE HEAVY OK FIELD CROPS. 47 that a passage may be afforded for the water to run off. The intersection of the furrows of the field with those of the head-lands are also to be cleared out, and cuts made occasionally through the head-lands. On the lighter class of soils, ploughing in the seed may be adopted. The seed is sown broadcast ; after which a shallow ploughing is given to the land, and, perhaps, a slight harrowing. The horse-drill, now much in vogue, will plant wheat, lye, Indian com, &c., on all kinds of lands. See figure. Fig. 38. The dibbling of wheat has been tried in many places with success, and on rich and highly-cultivated lands there is no doubt that there are great advantages to be derived from the system, especially the saving of seed. It is a favorable mode for small farmers, one man being able to make holes fast enough with the common dibble to keep three persons depositing the seed, which may be done by children. Annexed is a figure of one of these machines : — Fig. 39. 48, farmer's hand-book. Qumttity of Seed. — The quantity of seed necessarily depends on the time and mode of sowing, and the state of the land ; land sown early requiring less seed than the same land when sown late, and poor land being, at all times, allowed more seed than rich ; also, when sown broadcast, more seed is given than when either dibbled or sown in drills. The quantity, therefore, varies from two bushels, or less, t» as many as four. Winter wheat, when sown in spring, should always have considerable seed. Good and improved soils require less than soils not so good, and on the former the plants are less liable to be injured during the winter, and gener- ally all come to maturity. After-CuUure. — The after-culture of wheat, or culture of the growing crop, is chiefly confined to ha,rrowing, rolling, hoeing, and weeding. Har- rowing is found beneficial in penetrating the crust which is formed on tenacious soils, and raises a fresh supply of mould to the roots of the plants. Rolling in spring should be practised on dry, 'porous soils, which are fre- quently left in so loose a state by the winter frosts, that the roots are thrown out of the ground, and perish. Hoeing is performed when the row-culture is adopted, to pulverize the intervals between the rows, and to check the growth of weeds. Cutting and Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. If cut at this time, it will yield more in measure and weight, and a larger quan- tity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing, before storing or threshing. The latter operation is usually done, by extensive wheat-growers, with a large machine, taken into the field, and driven by horse-power ; with moderate farmers, a small single or double horse-machine, or hand-threshing in winter. If the grain is perfectly ripe, and the straw thoroughly dried, and the shea,ves free from grass or weeds, wheat may be cut and stacked or housed the same day. It must, however, be eflectually cured in the fields. To save it from wetting, some farmers lay it in the form of a cross, surmounted with a sheaf so disposed as to throw off any slight showers that may fall ; others place it in shocks, the sheaves two and two, standing on their butts, the heads of the sheaves inclined to each other, and the tops spread out so as to shield the standing sheaves as much as possible ; others, again, place their wheat in the same position as the last, with the exception that all of the shock is left standing, and no sheaves are placed over the heads. Un- less very dry, it should be laid on scaffolds, when taken into the barn, to prevent heating and moulding. When placed in a stack, it should be well elevated from the ground, and, if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice or THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 49 open-work should be left from the bottom, extending to the top, to produce circulation. The straw or chaff yields good fodder, when cut or mixed with meal or roots ; it is also good for bedding cattle, for manure, and should never be wasted. The fan- mill, for cleaning grain, is too well known to be described in this place. Fig. 40. , — ( Enemies of Wheat. — Wheat is subject to various diseases, principally the mildew, smut, and rust. Mildew is indicated by the presence of certain minute plants of the order oi fungi, which grow upon the stem and leaves, and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. The' preva- lence of heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes of temper- ature, have been assigned as the cause of mildew, and it has been found that open, airy situations are much less subject to it than low sheltered lands. To remove this destructive agent, the use of salt is highly recom- mended The quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and the applica- tion is more effectual if frequently repeated, and does no injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a cloudy day, it is best to defer it until evening. When wheat is infected with the smut, the farina of the grain, together with its proper coverings, and part of the husk, is converted into a blacks 5 • 50 faemer's hand-book. sopt-like powder. This disease does not affect the whole of the crop, but the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed through it. If the seed be prepared in the way already described, the disease will rarely prevail to such an extent as to affect materially the value of the crop. Rdst is another very prevalent disease, nearly allied to the mildew. It appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem, leaves, and seed, and, like the others, is produced by a parasitical plant. The roots of the wheat plant are liable to be attacked by grubs and worms, the larvae of various beetles ; among these are the wire-worm, and the red-headed large white grub, the larvas of the May-bug, cockchaffer, or black bug. These often do much injury, and late ploughing is the best mode of destroying them, by thus exposing them to the frosts ; when they appear in the summer, they are sometimes destroyed by being attracted towards large fires, kindled for the purpose, and perishing in them. But the insects that attack the wheat while growing and in the ear are by far the most powerful enemies which it encounters. These insects are the Hessian fly and the wheat fly. The former has a black head, thorax, and wings, with a brownish body ; the latter is of smaller size, of a yellow color, and clear wings. (See Chapter on Insects.) BARLEY. Classification. — The natural classification of barley by the ear is obvi- ously of three kinds, — ^ four-rowed, six-rowed, and two-rowed, as in Fig. 42. In Fig. 42, d. is the four-rowed, or here or bigg ; c is the six-rowed ; and h the two-rowed. When classified by the grain, there are two kinds, here or bigg, and barley ; and though both are awned, they are sufficiently marked to consti- tute distinct varieties. In the here (Fig. 41, a), the median line of the bosam is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, by which one of its sides is larger than the other, and the lengthened point is from where the awn has been broken off. In the barley (6), the median line passes straight, and divides the grain into two equal sides, and whose shortness and plumpness give to it a character of superiority. Both kinds are repre- sented below, natural size : — FSg. 41. THE HEAVY OE FIELD CROPS. 51 £Hff.i2. In this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties gen- erally cultivated, the two-rowed being thekind most esteemed. Kind of Soil. — The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized. It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow, wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal of the potato crop from the ground. Bst it succeeds turnips with greater propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley. Barley ripens early in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than any of the other corn crops in the spring. The best season may be said to be in the month of April or beginning of May. An increased quantity of straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early that the crop is sown. 52 farmer's hand-book. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of land for barley is similar to that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the spring, the land is to be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediately sown. Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry. As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegeta- tion, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley should then be sovni as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given. Sowing. — The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows. The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeing, may be adopted with advantage. The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bush- els to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil, and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable ; and, when sown late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination. Culture. — The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case, the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows, and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds. Harvesting. — In the harvesting of barley more care and attention are requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best sea- sons ; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem afler it has reached a certain period, it must be cut down ; for *hen it is suffered to stand longer, much Fig. 43. .083 is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it is cut at a time when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its THE HEAVY OE FIELD CROPS. 53 natural juices, and consequently requires a long time in the field before either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. Threshing and Dressing. — The threshing and dressing of barley are attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a second time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw. Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hununelling machine (Fig. 43) is used. Uses. — Barley is used in Europe as a staple article of food. It is inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for fattening stock, though more especially swine. Enemies. — The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by the larvae of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different character from that which affects wheat, ajid one which, it is found, cannot be prevented by pickling and liming. RYE. Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety, although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye ; but these are produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each other so much, that, when sovm together, they cannot be distinguished. Fig.ii. Soil. — The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils best suited to its 5* 54 farmer's hand-book. growth are those which contain the greatest proportion of sand, and there are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five per cent, of this substance. Those soils, however, which contain a less proportion of sand are preferable ; for, though it will grow upon ground of the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good land, provided it be not of a clayey nature. In this country it is grovm in the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan ; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in a great measure take its place on their lighter soils. Time for Sowing. — Eye may be sown either in the autumn or in spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by that of sovnng. The quantity of seed may be two bushels and a half to the acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled. As it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil is dry; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has completely germinated. Culture. — Eye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains less atten- tion in its production than wheat ; it also suffers less from being sown upon the stubble of another com crop, or even upon its own ; and it is therefore not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be recommended for imitation. The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been some- what popular in the Eastern States. The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to 'be entertained regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain ; and, until it be past, no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the straw losing their green color. The com then sheds easily from the ear. When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to sprout. Product and Uses. — The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large ; the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is stronger ; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CEOFS. 55 it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure to the air. It is also used both in the brewery and distillery ; and in many parts, after undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone, or mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domes- tic animals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and' the husk possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to the palate. The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the flour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption in the farmer's family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground into flour, which is the better practice. The proportions may be one third of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat. Fig.i5. Enemies. — Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the order of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smut- ball. But there is one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes found in wheat, is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the French name of a cock's spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape. 66 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. By some perversion of the vital functions of the plant, the embryo, oi germen, instead of growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out a, long, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common seed, which rises above the chaff, and has the appearance of a slender pyra- mid, slightly bent on one side. This substance is soft, and easily broken or cut, and is uniform in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it. It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed with the flour. Figure 45 is Pilkinton's machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take out chess, onions, and heavy grit. THE OAT. Varieties. — Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture, and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several varieties. Fig. 46 represents two of the most marked and useful. FiSr. 46. That represented in the cut a is the White or Common Oat, known by ' its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The Siberian or Tartarian Oat (h) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor soils and exposed situations. The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety, sufiers but little from winds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situations THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 57 and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk, awnless chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw ; it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific ; the black Poland oat is regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin- skinned, white grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned. It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties. The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding u, large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hartiy, and yields well in the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is grown in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the South. Soil. — The soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, from the stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. They will produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain ; but as these usually grow straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside ; and the follow- ing year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of the land for oats is less than for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sown after grass. It is sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has been previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat. Sowing and Culture. — The period for sowing oats is generally from the beginning of March to the middle of April. The month of March is consid- ered by many to be the best for seed-time. They are sometimes sown in Fbbruary, also in the autumn ; but the crops sown at a later period of the season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity of seeds is from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats, the quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well as by the condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requires less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts is used ; first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no avms, 68 FARMEE'S HAND-BOOK. a greater number of grains is contained in a bushel. Some varieties, too, are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart ; in general, however, four bushels will be necessary on medium soils, and, in poor, upland soils, as many as six may be required. Grass-seeds may be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with wheat or barley. The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If, therefore, through necessity, {his system should be adopted, the oats should be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred. When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of the harrows for covering the oats. Being usually sown after grass land, oats are more apt to be overrun with thistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, before the crop comes into ear. Reaping. — The reaping of oats is performed vrith the scythe or sickle. It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color. Fig. 47. The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder. Enemies. — The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larvae of insects, which generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before sowing. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 59 INDIAN CORN. Varieties. — The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob, &c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows : — Fig. 48. Yellow Corn . — The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd ; this has 24, and occa- sionally even more rows. The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows ; a hardy plant. The Sioux, or yellow flint corn, with 13 rows; also the Sioux variety grown in Pennsylvania ; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16 rows. White Indian Corn. — This includes the White Flint, White Flour Corn, and White Sugar or Sweet Com, and the White Gourdseed. The Genuine White Flint is the twelve-row com, raised in Virginia. The White Flint has 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows. The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania — called, in Maryland, Smith's Early White — has 8 rows. The New Jersey has 8 rows. The New York, 10 rows ; and Mandan Indian Com. The Early Sugar Com, with shrunken grains, has 12 rows. Blood-Red Indian Corn. — Varieties are as follows: — Common-sized Haemetite, with 12 rows and red cob ; red cob with white grains ; red cob with yellow grains ; red cob with brown grains ; red cob with white efourdseed ; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint ; white cob with red 60 farmer's hand-book. grain ; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob ; the same on a red cob : the dwarf Haemetite, commonly called Guinea corn ; blue corn with 10 rows; the celebrated Button com, &c., &c. Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States — the white and yellow gourdseeds ; others to the Middle States — the gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed; whilst the heavy flinty- grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Eastern States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short- ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf- ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum- mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif- fers exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States the ears come to maturity in three or four months. Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White Flint, used for making hommony ; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain, filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grind- ing up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improv- ing it ; the Early Jersey truck com, a middle-sized ear, with white and rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, — two kinds, the white and the red cob ; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, usually raised for parching or popping. Preparation of the Land for Planting. — In the Middle States corn is planted in all conditions of the land ; but in Virginia and Maryland it gener- ally follows the wheat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward has been turned, care is taken not' to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of the roots. Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dress- ing on the ploughed ground. Season for Ploughing. — With regard to the best time for ploughing, this must depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or winter ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 61 grubs and other insects which have retreated below the surface for wiuter quarters ; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in favor of spring ploughing. The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows, and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction, being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory to planting. The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized. In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by a method called listing, or double furrowing ; that is, ploughing so as at first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side. This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow- slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting, a plough is run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is imme- diately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation of plant- ing is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern States it cannot be done, as a general rule, before the middle of May. Planting. — After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 4^, or 5 feet apart, or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks, when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage has of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never cross- wise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances. When the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart than where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which may be planted three feet apart. Manuring. — Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it will always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has been flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in. In the Northern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a liberal quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop to early maturity. When not enough is at hand to aflford a good dressing broadcast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hill •ust before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian corn, and 6 62 faemee's hand-book. may be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture of these with lime and plaster ; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and with good effect — one gill to each hill ; it pushes the young corn forward with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub, cut-worm, and other insect depredators. The same end may also be pro- moted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. To protect the seed against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. This impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar. Fig. 49. Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth of Planting. — Where there is reason to apprehend much mischief to the young plants from blackbirds, crows, vermin, and other insects, it is best to drop from four to seven grains to each hill, so that some two or three may have a chance to escape. The deficiency is usually attempted to be made up by replanting other grain, but the product of this replant is too often feeble,, and so late in maturing as to be frequently injured by the frost in autumn. A better plan is to replant with the surplus of other hills, though this requires a damp and very favor- able condition of the weather. As to the proper depth of covering for the seed, much diflferenee of opinion exists. All covering which exceeds four or five inches must, under ordinary circumstances, be considered extrava- gant and injurious. It cannot be doubted, that where the mould is of a light texture, moderately deep covering answers best, as a general rule. To cover deep where the soil is a heavy clay loam, would either cause the grain to rot, prevent it from rising, or dispone it to come up twisted, unless opportunely assisted by lain, to soften the packed covering. Tillage. — The corn once planted, its tender blade pushes through the •niE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 63 ground, usually in about a week or ten days, and even sooner when the seed has been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is com- menced, some begin with the harrows even before the com is up. The first objects to be effected are to keep the grouhd stirred and iree from grass and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is so frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commence very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the young corn will thus be in a measure spared ; whereas, if the ground is perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed ilpon, will, of course, destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the young com cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose. The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations in soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to soften the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or short rakea, to clear the com which may be covered. Then comes the plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. This operation is termed bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden mould-boards, as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cut- ting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse, and render the soil near the com much more permeable by the roots, and at the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences. Whatever tends to favor the extension of the roots downwards, serves to place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst young ; but when its top blades begin to be heavy, its demands for moisture increase so a:s to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and moisture are the great promoters of its growth. 64 faemer's hand-book. The fanners in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corn, than formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is after- wards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 50) , which completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. This mode of culture is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level. If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hill- ing it. It is sometimes said that com requires hilling to support it. Nature disproves this, by the stifle, bracing roots thrown out by this plant at the time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen for com. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first place. Allow no weeds to grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-har- row, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe. Thinning and Suchering. — As quickly as possible after it is ascertained that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as to leave only two or three in a hill. Or, should they stand in rows or drills, the plants are left apart one or two feet. The operation of suckering takes place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, how- ever, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring THE HEAVY OB FIELD CEOPS. 65 the growth and development of the corn, and lessening the product of both fodder and grain. , Harvesting the Crop. — This is done differently in different parts of the country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the com is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon as the grain has become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are stil' green, put immediately i(ito shocks, and thus left some time standing in the field. The com, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and cribbed, api the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender. In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle Statps, the corn is commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When, therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with the husk, which is soon after eaten by, the cattle. In some parts of the Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure enough of the corn for family 'use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into the field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means of the machine called the com-cracker, and is valuable in many cases. Pig. 51. By the first of these methods, the crop may be secured before the a,utumnal rains, with all its valuable fodder, and the ground cleared/ in time for ?i winter crop of wheat or rye. The juices retained by the s1;alk are sufficient to nourish the com to maturity. By the second mode, there is always a losp in the grain product, which is never so well filled after the blades and tppp have been removed in a green state. , . , 6* ' 66 farmer's hand-book. Preserving Com. — This is usually done by stowing away the ears, cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the sides and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave spaces of about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air. The engravings below represent a corn-sheller (a),' and a corn and cob- crushing machine (A), now much in use. The first-named is made with a wooden frame, easy to be repaired, and will shell from one hundred to one hundred and fifty bushels of corn per day. The crusher is used at the South and West for the purpose of cracking or crushing the corn and cob together, preparatory to grinding between mill-stones. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Diseases and Enemies. — Besides the birds, cut-worm, wire-worm, &c., that we have already alluded to, corn suffers from other diseases, the chief one being a dark or blue-black spongy growth, which sometimes takes the place of the blighted ear of com. The mass sometimes grows till five or six inches in diameter, and is to be considered a luxuriant or rank species of fungus. As the species of what are called parasitic plants, to which this belongs, are so readily destroyed by applications of common salt, there is reason to believe that soaking the seeds well in salt water, previously to planting, or scattering salt over the grounds, will prevent this disease. A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom does THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 67 much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However, the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay. When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds in- flicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its own leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown or beaten off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The conse- quence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecun- dation after the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or a half of naked cob, — the consequence of imperfect impregnation. BUCKWHEAT. Description. — This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum (a) , tartaricum (b) , and a few other species. Fig. 54. Soils. — This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all other kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry, sandy soils, provided only that the drought be not felt precisely at the time 68 farmer's hand-book. when the plant stands most in need of moisture ; it then yields as plentiftil a crop as any other kind of grain ; bat if the ground be in a situation some- what more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye ; in such situations, it takes the place of other fallow crops ; it is also sown on lands where rye has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On richer soils the plant grows more vigoronsly, but only in the stalk, rarely producing so much seed -as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain. Culture. — The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On account of its sensibility to cold, — the slightest hoar-frost injuring it,— ^ the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The middle of May is recommended ; and, if sown later, it is liable to be attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is ripe. The quan- tity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in sowing wheat ; sowing more thickly is injurious. The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which it is exposed in the several stages of its growth, — more so, perhaps, than any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and springs up during the time of the greatest drought ; but, after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe- nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure an early harvest. The success of buckwheat is thetefoie somewhat [ireca- rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout the season, but also on the time of sowing, a week. earlier or later often THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 69 malking a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions, at different times, a crop may be made sure of. Tlie seed should be simply covered up with the harrow, and not in fiiirows, and requires no further attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it is very subject. Harvesting. — The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des- titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying on the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occurrence is, there- fore, considered favorable. The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years ; in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected. But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two. Uses. — Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose, may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The culti- vator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good supply of seed ; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn crop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the sea- son to be consumed as green-raeat. Another purpose to which buckwheat has been applied, and for which it appears, from the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be done when the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which file farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle, sows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll, and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop is recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field, called couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown as early in the season as frost will permit, and, as soon as it gets into flower, 70 farmer's hand-book. rolled down, and turned under with the plough. , Another crop is then sown on top of the first, and harrowed in ; and, if the season be not unfavor- able, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in. THE POTATO. Propagating. — The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is in this wa)' that new sorts are obtained ; or it may be propagated by plant- ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. The approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, so that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn. Varieties. — The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious distinctions being the early and the late. First : the earliest kind, used by gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for field- culture. Second : early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their order of ripening, as — the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion, and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation ; the Early Red, Cape of Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third : the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field, such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numer- ous others. Fourth : those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Cham- pion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam. Soils. — The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness. Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops ; and it is one source of great value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a peaty character. Culture and Tillage. — In the common course of farming, potatoes are cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade ; thus, in woods in new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or, in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivation, however, upon the larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the plough and the working cattle upon the farm. The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted upon land newly broken-up from grass ; in this way they may be cultivated beneficially in regard to produce ; it is, however, a deviation from the general rule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded THE HEAVY OE FIELD CROPS. 71 by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow, and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root- weeds are to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a comport. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last ploughing; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because, as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the pre- vious one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to be ao-ain harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and all the root-weeds are to be industriously collected and removed as before. The proper manure for the potato is common farm-yard dung, but any other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one an- other. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required. A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato-sets placed upon it, will appear thus : — Fig. 55. The sets are now to be covered by splitting each drill so that the top of the new drill formed is immediately above the bottom of the old one, and this simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the middle of May. The early potatoes should be planted earlier. In a fortnight or more after planting, the whole field is to be harrowed. The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to 72 pakmer's haktd-book. pass along' each inteiTal ; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting- up all weeds, '&c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with side- coulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this, the hand-hoers are to follow as before. This is generally sufficient to cleaii the land in an effectual manner, thodgh sometimes, when there are many weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the •earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards ieach row. A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear thus : — Fig. S6. This, in all cases, completes the culture of the potato, the crop requiring ho further attention until the tubers are ready to he taken up, when ripe, which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost. It has often been recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late pota- toes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop. I^ses. — The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple, means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given quantity, so as to produce good bread. It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It inquires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But tlthough potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state, — and it is frequently convenient to give them in that state, — yet various benefits may arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished by every class of domestic animals, affording food in a high degree nour- ishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind ; but it is observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for THE HEAVY OK FIELD CROPS, 73 Other animals. To hogs they are given with the hest effect; also to poultry, mixed with meal. Diseases. — The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and the scab. The cuvl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their con- sequent diminutive size. To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed oe naountain land must be used. Using um;ipe tubers is also said to be a pre- ventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds. The worms sometimes attack the tubers, in the ground, and greatly injure, them in certain situations ; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt on the ground before planting. The scab must be remedied by giving good tillage to the land. Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a very extraordinary faUuie has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop, extending, in many case?, over entire districts, and, in others, partially con- fined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XII. BROOM COEN. Vkrieti'esr. — According to Allen, a distinguished writer on agricultural sjibjects, there are four or five species of the broom grass. There are several varieties, of which the pine-tree kind is regarded the poorest, or the lea'St advantageous foiciljtiv'ation ; yet, as it is the earliest, — being three weeks earlier than the large kind, — in a short season, when its seed will ripen, while the seeds of the other kind fail to ripen, this may prove the most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop, being ten days earlier than the large kind, and yields about seven hundred pounds of brush to the acre — the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. The New Jersey, or large kind, yields about one thousand pounds of brush per acre. The stalks and seed are large. In good seasons this is the most profitable crop. Alluvial lands are best adapted fbr the broom corn, more especially if warmly situated, protected by hills, and well manured. Method of Planting. — The broom corn is planted in rows, about two and a half or three feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough, or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from eighteen inches to two feet apart, or further, according to the quality of the soil. The quantity of seed to be platited is estimated very differently by different farmers. Some say that half a peck is enough for an acre, while some others plant half a bushel, and some a bushel, in ordet to make it sure that the land shall be well stocked. The rule with Some is to cast a teaspoonful, or thirty or forty seeds, in a hill. The manure at the- time of planting should be put 7 74 farmer's hand-book. into the hill, aYid old manure or compost is preferred, as being- most free from worms. Culture. — The broom corn should be ploughed and hoed three times, — the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six feet high, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field. The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten ; if there are only- five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser, and if there are about eight, the brush will be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the superfluous stalks should be pulled up. Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broom com is harvested at the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at two or two and a half feet from the ground, and by laying those of two rows across each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with a passage between each table for the convenience of harvesting. After drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to twelve inches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh ; and, if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. How- ever, the dry stalk weighs but little ; if its weight is excessive, the pur- chaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it is spread on the tables, still further to dry. As it is carried into the barn, some bind it in sheaves, which is a great convenience for the further opera- tion of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon, unbound. Fig. 57. a Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called " scraping the brush." Two iron horizontal scrapers are prepared, — one movable, to be elevated a little, so that a handful of brush may be introduced between them. The upper scraper is then pressed dovm with one hand, and the brush drawn through with the other, the seed being scraped olT. This is THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 75 the old method. A newly-invented scraper is superseding the old one. It is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of con- venient height for the operator. The form (Fig. 57) is as follows : a is a piece of wood or steel, immovable ; b and c are pieces which are elastic, movable to the right and left at the top, but fastened to the central piece below. The degree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the planks d and/ — wedges in the hole through which the pieces pass. A quantity of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instru- ment. As it is forced down and drawn towards the body, it separates the elastic sticks from the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufBciently on the brush, so that the seed is scraped off. The advantage of this scraper is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand, as in the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substituted for the pressure of one of the hands. The instrument also seems to double the scraping surface. Uses. — For the manufacture of brooms it is unsurpassed. The seed is also used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed with Indian meal, and is excellent food. It weighs forty pounds a bushel. MILLET. Varieties. — There are two kinds of Millet cultivated : the German Millet (a) and the Cultivated Millet (J). The cultivation required by both is about the same. Fig. 58. Soil. — Millet requires a warm, rich, sandy, well-pulverized soil. It succeeds better when sown after some crop which has been abundantly "76 fabhek's hand-book. manured than it does when sown immediately after an amelioration of: undecomposed manure. The soil must be tilled to a considerable depth for its reception, and ploughed three times, besides harrowing, rolling, and weeding. It is generally very successful on newly-drained land, provided it is in good condition, and also land which has been left in repose for several years ; in the latter case, a single ploughing is sufficient, if the soil is afterwards harrowed, and weU broken-up with a roller, before the seed is put into it. Sowing. — Millet should be sown in May; a harrow is then passed lightly over the soil, and, where the ground is dry, a roller must also be used. The seed must be wholly ripe, perfect, and free from disease. Culture. — As soon as weeds make their appearance among millet which is just shooting above ground, they must be eradicated ; thorough weeding is an indispensable operation in the culture of millet. Great attention is also requisite to seize on the exact time when the plant attains maturity, especially with common millet, which ripens very unequally, and is very liable to shed its seed. Those who only cultivate millet in patches cut off the spikes as they ripen, and carry them home in sacks ; but as this can only be done where this plant is cultivated but little, the reaping must be commenced as soon as the greater part of the plants are ripe, and performed in a careful manner with a sickle. The plant must not be left on the ground in swaths, because, if rain comes on, and it gets wetted, it sheds its grain. It should, on the contrary, be immediately carried to the barns, and there threshed, and freed from all impurities and foreign substances. The grain should then be spread, in very thin layers, over the floor, and stirred about every day with a rake, until perfectly dry ; other- wise, it will become heated and bitter. The sfraw is tied up, even though moist, and carried into the air to be dried; if not properly dried, it will become mouldy on being stacked. This straw is much esteemed as proven- der for cattle. Although, when cultivated to any great extent, it is not possible to cut off the ears separately as they ripen, it is well to gather all those in this man- ner which are to be used for seed. Grain which ripens thoroughly, and of which proper care has been taken, shoots up evenly, and produces perfect plants, free from disease, and especially from smut, which frequently mani- fests itself in this grain where proper precautions have not been taken. That portion of millet which is intended for seed should also be preserved in a dry and airy place, and should be threshed when wanted. THE HEAVY OE PIELD CROPS. T7 HEMP. FKg. S9. Soils. — The soils which produce this article best are those which are -fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not much practised, clover being used in place of it. Deep, black, putrid vege- table lands, which have a low situation, and somewhat inclined to moisture, as well as the deep, mellow, loamy or sandy sorts, are well adapted. Mel- low, rich, clayey loams do well, and so does old meadow-land. The preparation of the ground, for sowing the seed, is by the plough and 'horses, until the clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolved, and the sur- face of the field is rendered even and smooth. Scarcely any other crop better rewards diligence and careful husbandry. Fall and winter ploughing is practised with advantage — it is indispensable in old meadows, or old ■pasture-grounds. Culture. — Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a place distinct from that in which they are cultivated for the lint. The seeds intended tore- produce seeds for the crop of the next year are sowed in drills about four feet apart. When ihey are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the 'male and female stalks, the former are pulled and thrown away, and the latter are thinned, leaving the stalks separatecl seven or eight inches from each other. The male plant alone blossoms, and, when agitated, throws off farina, a yellow dust or floui which colors the ground, or any object with which it comes in contact. A few of the male plants had better be left, scattered through the drill, until the farina is wholly discharged, for an 7* 78 farmee's hand-book. obvious reason. Between the drills a plongh is run sufficiently often to keep the ground free from weeds and grass, and between the stalks in each drill the hoe is employed for the same object. The seed plants are gen- erally cut after the first smart frost, between the middle or last of Sep- tember and the middle of October, and carried to a barn or stackyard, where the seeds are easily detached by the common thrail. After the seeds are threshed out, spread them on a floor, to fcure properly and prevent their rot- ting, before they are finally put away for use the next spring. The seeds — whether to reproduce seeds only, or the lint — are sowed about the same time, which time depends on the season, though it is generally agreed that all the month of May, and about the 10th of it especially, is the most favor- able time. When the object is to make a crop of hemp, the seeds are sown broadcast. The usual quantity is a bushel and a half to the acre, though some use more. When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or harrowed in ; ploughing is best in old ground, as it avoids the injurious effect of a beating rain, and the consequent baking of the earth. It is also beneficial afterwards to roll the ground with a heavy roller. Gathering. — After the seeds are sown, the labors of the cultivator are suspended until the plants are ripe, and in a state to be gathered — every- thing, in the intermediate time, being left to nature. If the season be favor- able until the plants are sufiiciently high to shade the ground, (which they will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches height,) there is a strong probability of a good crop. When they attain that height, but few articles sustain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp. It is generally ripe and ready to be gathered about the middle of August, varying according to the time of sowing. Some sow at different periods, in order that the crop may not all ripen at the same time, and that a press of labor, in reaping it, may be thus avoided. The maturity of the plant is determined by the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and the leaves of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue ; it is then generally supposed to be ripe, but it is safest to wait a few days longer. Two modes of gathering the plants are practised, — pulling and cutting; the latter is now generally preferred. When pulled, it is done with the hand, which is better for the protection of an old leather glove. The laborer catches twenty or thirty plants together, with both hands, and, by a sudden jerk, draws them without much difficulty. The operation of cutting is performed with a knife, often made out of an old scythe, resembling a sickle, — not so long, but broader. This knife is applied much in the same way as the sickle, except that the laborer stoops more. But, whether pulled or cut, the plants are carefully laid on the ground, the evener the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 79 better, to cure, which they do in two or three days, in dry weather. When cured, the plants are set up in the field in which they were produced, in shocks of convenient size, the roots or butt-ends resting on the ground, and the tops united above by a band made of the plant itself. Previously to putting them up in shocks, most cultivators tie the plants in small hand bundles. Before the shocks are formed, the leaves should be rapidly knocked off, with a rough paddle or hooked stick. The shocks are collected together and formed into stacks, which are sometimes permitted to remain over a year. Rotting. — Two methods of rotting are practised — the dew-rotting and the water-rotting. When dew-rotted, the plants are usually spread down from the middle of October to the middle of December. A farmer who has a large crop on hand puts them down at different times, for his convenience in handling and dressing them. Autumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint a dark and unsightly color than winter rotting. The best ground upon which to expose the plants is meadow or grass land. The length of time they ought to remain exposed depends upon the degree of moisture and the temperature of the weather that prevail. In a very wet and warm spell, five or six weeks may be long enough. To determine whether they have been sufiiciently rotted, a handful is taken and broken by the hand or applied to the brake, when it can be easily ascertained, by the facility with which the lint can be detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. If the fibres remain on the ground too long, they lose some of their strength, though a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, will do no injury. If they are taken up too soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separated from the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, and the process of breaking is difficult. Snow-rotting, that is, when the plants, being spread out, remain long enough to rot, (which, however, requires a greater length of time,) bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes it nearly as valuable as when water-rotted. Breaking and Dressing. — After the operation of rotting is performed, the plants are again collected together, put in shocks or stacks, or under some covering. Breaking and dressing are best performed in February and March; and the best sort of weather, frosty nights, and clear, thawing days. The brake cannot be used advantageously in wet or moist weather. The usual daily task of an able-bodied hand at the brake is eighty pounds weight, though this depends on the weather and the condition of the stalks. The quantity of net hemp produced to the acre is from six hundred to one thousand pounds, varying according to the soil and the season. It is said that the quantity which any field will produce may be anticipated by the average height of the plants throughout the field. Thus, if the plants will 80 fakmeb's hand-book. average eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight hundred weight of hemp, each foot in height corresponding to a hundred weight of the lint. Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all ; and nothing cleanses and prepares the earth better for other crops than hemp, especially for small grain or grasses. It eradicates all weeds, and, when it is ttiken off, leaves the field not only clean, but, smooth and even. FLAX. Varieties. — The most important species of this plant — the only one fonn- ing the subject of cultivation — is the common flax, which has been applied to the making of cloth from time immemorial. Pig. 60. Soils. — The soils best suited to the growth of flax are those which con-' tain a large proportion of vegetable matter in their composition. Strong clays do not answer well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry, sandy nature. K the soil be too much enriched by the application of manures, the flax will 1 grow too luxuriously, and produce a coarse fibre ; and if it be deficient in fertility, the produce will be scanty and unremurierative. Soils of the alluvial formation are peculiarly adapted ; also land having a black, mossy surface, or what is called gray land, and where the lower part of the soil is clay ,^resting on a retentive subsoil. Crops of flax of considerable value have often been reaped from land on which the produce of oats was inferior; In the preparation of the soil for flax, it is of importance that it should be reduced to a fine tilth, and be free from weeds. ' When the previous crop has been grass, a-single ploughing only is given, which is to take place early iin winter; when the period of sowing arrives, the land is to be well -har- THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 81 rowed, to prepare it for seed. When flax succeeds a corn crop, the land is also ploughed early. Two ploughings are generally required in the spring. Culture. — In the culture of flax, the broadcast system is universally adopted, and, after sowing, a double turn of the harrows is given to cover the seeds. In most cases it is advantageous that the whole should be rolled, and, in damp situations, water-furrowed. When it succeeds any of the green crops, the grass-seeds and clover-seeds are sown a,t the same time as the crop. In this case the preparation of the land is easy. The period of sowing is in the month of April or May. The quantity of seed sown will depend, in some measure, on the object in view in cultivating the plant. When the quality of the fibre is regarded rather than the quantity, thick sowing is advisable ; but if it be intended to save the seed of the crop for the purpose of reproduction, it should be sown thin, in order that the plants may have room to throw out their shoots, and to have free access of air in the blossoming and filling seasons. Three bushels of seed may be re- garded as the proper quantity ; but if fine fibre must be produced, an additional quarter of a bushel may be added ; when the seed is regarded, two bushels or two and a half may be sufficient to the acre. The quality of flax- seed is easily ascertained , and it is important that every farmer should be a judge of the different kinds. That which is fresh and proper for sowing should be smooth, slippery, bright, plump, and so heavy as to sink in water ; it should also taste sweet, and , on being broken, it should appear of a light yellowish-green color, and oily. The after culture of flax is chiefly confined to weeding. Gathering. — The state of ripeness at which the crop is to be taken up depends on the object in view in its cultivation. If to produce seeds, then a degree of ripeness is essential greater than when the quality of the fibre is the desideratum. In the latter case, it is well to pull the flax when it is somewhat green ; in the former case, the state of ripeness is denoted by the seed vessels becoming hardened, the stems assuming a yellow hue, and the leaves beginning to fall. When the seeds are not intended for sowing again, though intended to be saved for consumption on the farm, the best period of pulling is shortly after the plants have attained maturity with respect to the formation, but not to the full ripening of the seeds. Flax should never be pulled when it is in the least degree damp ; and, when it is pulled, the greatest care should be taken to sort it, keeping every kind by itself. When pulled up, the plants are bound into sheaves or bunches, binding with the flax itself. Rippling. — In the process of rippling, which is the next operation, a large cloth should be spread upon the ground, with the ripple placed in the centre of it. The rippling machine (Fig. 61) is an instrument lifce a comb, 82 farmer's hand-book. with iron teeth, fixed upon a plank. The flax is separated into handfuls, and then drawn once or twice through the teeth of the machine, and thus the cap- sules or seed-vessels are separated. These capsules or pods should be spread in the sun to dry ; and those seeds which separate from the pods without bruising are the best and ripest, and may be set apart for sowing. The capsules are then broken, either by treading or threshing, and the seeds carefully winnowed and cleaned. Pig: 61. Watering. — The next process is the separation of the fibres from the stem by steeping the flax in water, by which the softer part partially under- goes the putrefactive fermentation ; the best water being that which is clear, soft, and in standing pools. The bunches of flax should be built in the pool in nearly an upright position, the root-ends being uppermost. They are kept under water by means of stones. When the flax is properly watered, it will sink in the pool, and the fibres will separate freely from the stalk. In warm weather, eight or ten days will sometimes be enough, and only a few more, in any ease ; but, if the fibres adhere to the stem, so as to be separated with difiiculty, it must be continued in the water longer. When sufficiently watered, it is taken out of the pool ; and when drained, is taken to a grass field, and spread thinly over it in rows, lying on the grass not more than eight or ten days, and, when brittle, is taken up and again bound into sheaves or bunches, and then left till thoroughly dry, when they are sent to the mill, or carried home, or stored till wanted. Uses. — Besides the fibre of the plant, its seed is of considerable import- ance, being highly nutritive, and beneficial to every species of animal. It is given in the form of a jelly, mixed with various other matters. Given to calves, it is an excellent substitute for milk ; to horses and cattle it may be given, mixed with bruised oats, bran, or cut hay, and straw ; but when intended for cattle, the chaflT need not be separated from the seeds, but be all boiled together. LUCERN. Description. — This plant has a perennial root, and grows, when culti- vated, from a foot and a half to two feet high, and more. It is covered with THE HEAVY OR FIEiD CHOPS. 83 leaves, downy below, and slightly so on the upper suiface ; bears a flowei of a Sue purplish violet, and flowers in June or July. J^. 62. Soil. — The soil adapted to its growth is deep, and of the lighter class, with a free or kindly subsoil. Culture and Tillage. — Two methods of raising this plant have been recommended and practised. The one is sovfing it broadcast, in spring, sometimes along with a corn crop, in the same manner in which clover is sowed, and sometimes without a crop ; and the latter is the better practice, lucern not being suited to grow freely under the shade of other plants. The other method is, cultivating it in rows. Lucern, like other cultivated forage plants, gradually gives place to the grasses and hardier plants. When cultivated in rows, and carefully hoed, these native plants can be kept down, and the lucern preserved for a long period in the ground. But, when sovni broadcast, this cannot be done in the same degree, and the lucern does not generally endure beyond nine or ten years. This is the main advantage which the row system possesses over the broadcast, in the cultivation of this plant. The best period of sowing lucern is about the middle of April. When sown broadcast, the quantity of seeds to the acre may be sixteen or eighteen .pounds ; when sown in rows, ten pounds. The soil should be well prepared, by deep ploughing, and a previous summer fallow, or fallow crop, such as potatoes, turnips, or carrots. But when it is wished merely to possess a few acres of lucern for the convenience of soiling, it is better to have the ground deeply trenched, and well manured. When drilled, the rows need not be more than eighteen inches apart, which will give room for tilling the intervals by the horse or hand hoe. After 84 farmer's hand-book. the seeds are sown, care must he taken to keep down, by means of the hoe, all weeds that spring up amongst the plants and in the rows. In the month of Augnst of the first year, when in flower, the crop may be mown, and, after this first cutting, the shoots may be kept down, by a slight pasturing with sheep, but not while the soil is wet, nor continued till a late period. Early in the following spring, the ground is to be horse or hand hoed, so that all weeds may be kept down, and the earth stirred about the roots of the plants. In the month of May the crop will be ready for the first cutting. After being cut, it is to be horse-hoed in the intervals. It will now grow very rapidly ; and, when ready for cutting, is to be cut again, and, after each cutting, hand-hoed. In this manner it' may be mown four or five times in the season. It does not, however, arrive at its fiiU growth till its third year, after which it will yield rich and early foliage. But it requires to be manured at intervals, as every fourth or fifth year ; the manure may be farm-yard dung, spread upon the surface after the last cutting in autumn, or early in spring. When the system of broadcast is adopted, the difference in the method of tillage is, that, in place of horse and hand hoe, the common har- row is used, which, passing over the surface, stirs the soil about the roots of the plants, and drags up and destroys weeds ; the lucern itself, having a strong root striking downwards, is not torn up by this rough treatment, but is benefited by the stirring of the soil around its roots and stems. Uses. — This plant is eminently wholesome and nutritive. It is well suited for milch cows, causing them to yield good and abundant milk, and is perfectly adapted to the feeding of horses, which is one of the most common purposes to which it is applied. It may be used with the like advantage for the soiling of any kind of stock, and is valuable for the early feeding which it supplies, being in this respect considerably before the clovers. SAINFOIN. Description and Habits. — This is a deep-rooted plant, with a branching stem, bearing spikes of beautiful flowers. It grows wonderfully on rocky soils, stretching its roots to a prodigious depth amongst the crevices of rocks and open strata. It is, in truth, on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of the cultivation of sainfoin are seen. Like lucem, although in a lesser degree, it is choked, and ultimately extirpated, by the prevalence of the grasses ; but in a soil perfectly suited to it, as in a chalky down, it will have a duration, perhaps, as long as any other plant. Although best adapted to the limy soils, it will also grow upon any light soil which has a free or open subsoil ; but on moist clays it will only last a few years, — some- times not above two. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CKOPS. 85 Culture. — Sainfoin may be sown with a crop, in the same manner as the clovers and grasses. In the following season, it may be mown for hay or green forage, although it does not attain its full maturity until its third year. When this mode of management is adopted, the sainfoin should be mixed with one or more of the clovers, the most suitable being white clover, which will add to the weight of the produce, without materially interfering with the growth of the sainfoin. It should be sovm broadcast, rather than culti- vated in rows, and the seeds should be of a good and tried kind, perfectly fresh. Pig. 63. It does not bear such frequent cutting as lucem. When used for soiling, it may be cut twice ; when used for hay, it should be cut once, and the after-math depastured. It may be used for herbage as well as for forage, and many farmers prefer depasturing it in the first year, so that in the second it may have attained its full growth before it is mown. When made into hay, it should be cut just when it comes into full flower. It is not very apt to be injured by heating, and therefore may be put up more quickly than other hay plants. K ground is to be mown for successive years for forage, then, on such soils as are suited to it, it is a good crop, being easily grovra, hardy, and productive. Such ft mode of cultivation, however, cannot be commended. When sown merely to produce one crop of hay, and then to be depastured for such a period as may be thought suited to the nature of tjie soil, it answers well ; but in this case it is recommended that it be sown with a proportion of white clover and rye grass. 86 farmek's hand-book. THE TARE. Description. — This is an annual plant, hardy, and comprising several varieties, one of which is distinguished by producing yellow seeds. The Pig. 64. varieties are chiefly two, the winter and spring tare, in choosing between which, everything must depend on the intention of the crop. If the object is to have early feed, the winter variety is to be preferred ; but where the land is foul, and requires to be two or three times ploughed in spring, or where a late crop is desired, or a crop for seed, then the spring variety will generally deserve the preference. Soil. — The best adapted is a day, but they will grow in any rich soil, not. over dry. In a moist climate, the haulm grows so luxuriant as to rot at bottom ; and in one over dry, it is deficient in length. A dry season is, on the whole, preferable. Preparing the Soil. — This seldom consists of more than one ploughing, if for autumnal sowing ; and of a winter and spring ploughing, when to be sown in spring. Time of Sowing. — The winter variety is sown in September and Octo- ber, and the first sowing in spring ought to be as early as the season will permit. The mode of sowing is mostly broadcast. Culture. — The quantity of seed to an acre is from two and a half to three and a half bushels, according to the time of sowing, and whether they are to be consumed green or left to stand for a crop. When intended for seed, less is sown than when grown for soiling or drying the haulm. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 87 CLOYER. Varieties. — There are three principal varieties, — Dutch clover, purple clover, and cow-grass, the most approved kind being the common red or broad clover, which is extensively cultivated in the United States, some- i^. 65. times alone, and occasionally with other grasses. With timothy it makes hay of a very excellent kind, especially for neat cattle. Culture. — The seed is usually sown with winter wheat or other grain crops, late in February or in March, whilst the ground is still subject to freezing and thawing, and the seed can thus gain admission into the soil. Or it may be sown with the oat, or otlier spring or summer crop, in which case, having the advantage of being harrowed in, it can generally be sown with even greater success than when put with a crop of winter grain. Too little seed is generally applied , the quantity required being from ten to four- teen pounds per acre. Clover is frequently turned under in the fall, to enrich the ground prepar- atory to a crop of wheat, or in the ensuing spring for the benefit of Indian corn. The best time for turning down is in the rankest and most juicy stage of its growth. Being a biennial plant, clover, of course, leaves the field after the second year, unless allowed to seed itself. When timothy has been sown with it, it obtains possession of the field, where it is gener- ally allowed to remain two or more years longer, affording the richest of all kinds of hay for horses, although for neat cattle the mixture of red clover and timothy is generally preferred. Clover hay, when fed unmixed to horses, often produces a cough. This can always be removed by substituting timothy for a few weeks, after which, 88 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. the feed may consist of half clover and half timothy, with little or no danger of producing cough. When the clover hay is fed from large troughs or mangers, instead of racks above the head, horses escape the cough. The first year's grovrth of clover is sometimes mown for hay and some- times pastured, and the second crops devoted to hay and furnishing seed. When the second crop is pastured in spring, the stock must not be turned on before the ground has become so firm that hoofs will not sink into the sod, nor until the growth is such as to enable the cattle to thrive. The pasturage may be continued from the middle of April or first of May, for about six weelcs, when the cattle are to be withdrawn, and the second crop allowed to go to seed for saving. The common practice of spreading clover hay from the swath causes the leaves and blossoms to dry and crumble before the haulm or stems are suf- ficiently cured. In this way, either the finer parts of the hay are lost, or the crop is housed with so much moisture as to cause it to heat, and often to spoil. It should only be spread when it has become wet with rain in the swath, and should be gathered again before the leaves dry and crumble. Both these evils may be avoided, and labor saved, by curing the grass wholly in swath and cock. The clover should be left to wilt in the swath, and When partially dried, either to turn the swaths or to make grass-cocks the same day, so as to secure the dried portions from the dew. These grass-cocks are allowed to stand one, two, or three days, according as the weather is, and as the curing process has progressed, when they are opened at nine or ten o'clock on >a fair day, the hay again turned over between eleven and three, and, soon after turning, gathered for the cart. Some care is required in making the cocks. The grass is collected with forks and placed on dry ground between the swaths, in as small a compass as possible at the base, say two or three feet in diameter, and rising in a cone to the height of four or five feet. The advantages of this mode .of curing clover are — 1. The labor of spreading from the swath is saved. 2. The labor of the hand-rake is abridged, or may be wholly dispensed with, if the horse-rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken off. 3. It prevents, in a great measure, injury from dew and rain ; for these cocks, if rightly constructed, (not by rolling,) will withstand a rain of some days, without heating, or becoming more than superficially wet. 4. Clover hay made in this way may almost invariably be housed in good condition ; and, if rain falls after the grass is mown, the quality of the hay is much superior in cocks to what it would be under the old process of curing. Many prefer niowing the clover before it gets very ripe, as then so much of the seed would not be shaken oflf during- the operations of curing, remov- ing, &c. As the hay of the seed-crop is seldom considered of much value, THE HEAVY OE FIELD CROPS. 89 except for litter and manure, it is frequently left long in the field to become thoroughly dry, so as to insure it against heating in the mow or stack, as this would he far more injurious to the seed than exposure to weather. Besides mowing the seed-crop in the usual manner for hay, several other methods have been devised. The one most usually resorted to in Pennsyl- vania is the employment of a scythe and cradle to cut oiF the heads, which are caught by a kind of bag attached to the lower fingers, the rest being removed. Or, the upper fingers being removed, the lower ones may be placed sufficiently close to catch the heads. Many contrivances are in use for gathering the heads in the field. , In getting the seed from the heads, it has been common to employ the flail ; and, to clear it from the husk and chaff, recourse has been had to a clover-mill, worked either by water, steam, or horse power. The old method of threshing out cloverrseed by the flail, or by the tramp- ing of horses, has been generally regarded as very tedious and disagreeable ; so much so, indeed, as to hare discouraged most farmers from attempting to gather the seed at all ; but the introduction of threshing-machines has obvi- ated all difficulty of this kind. THE GRASSES. Varieties. — The species qf grass which may be regarded as most valuable in our meadows and pastures are r — 1, Meadow or green grass ; 2, Tim- othy ; 3, Orchard grass ; 4, Meadow fescue ; 5, Blue grass ; 6, Ray grass ; 7, Red-top ; 8, Sweet-scented vernal grass. These, among tha almost infinite varieties, are considered about the most valuable First, — Meadow or Green Grass, also called Spear or June Grass, highly esteemed for hay and pasture. It is a native variety, and abounds through 8* 90 farmer's hand-book. the country, but does not perfect itself north of the Ohio valley. It wilJiT stands the frost, and prefers a warm, dry, limy, or rich upland soil. Second, — The Timothy, CaVs Tail or Herd' s Grass^ For the Northern States this is unsurpassed, flourishing in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy ; is easy of cultivation, hardy, and very productive For milch cows and young stock, it should be cut while it is juicy. May be sown upon wheat or rye, in the spring or early fall. Third, — The Orchard Grass, or Cock's Foot, a native variety, well suited to good arable lands. Should be cut before wholly ripe, and be fed closely. Will grow in aU parts of the United States. Fourth, — The Meadow Fescue; likes a rich, boggy soil, is quite produc- THE HEAVY OS. FIELD CHOPS. ' 91 tive and forward, the grass being of a kind much relished by cattle, either green or hay. Fig. 69. Fifth, — The Blue Grass, or Flat-stcdked Meadom; an early dwarfish grass, growing in the Middle and Northern States. It is hardy, but is more valuable for pasture than hay. Sixth, — The Ray Grass, or Rye Grass ; extensively grown in some parts of Europe, but does not do so well in this country, except in elevated and humid districts. Seventh, — The Red-top, Herd's Grass, Foul Meadow, or Fine Bent; a native perennial variety, valuable for hay and pasture, on lands adapted to its growth, which are reclaimed swamps and other moist grounds. This 92 fakmee's hand-book. grass and timothy are fit for the scythe about the same time, and, there- fore, fit to be sown together. Pig. 71. Eighth, — The Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a foreign perennial grass, of dwarfish habit, sown principally on gromids intended for pasture, on account of the very early feed it affords, and for its growing quick aftel being cropped. It is delightfully fragrant. Pig. 73. In addition to the preceding varieties, there is the Pony Grass (Fig. 73), which is considered one of the best winter grasses for the Western States. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 93 It grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green through the cold season. Lands Alternately in Grass and Tillage. — In laying down lands to grass, the most important primary object is duly to prepare them for the reception of the seeds. The soil ought to be brought into the highest possible degree of fertility ; for, although land may be too rich for the production of some crops, it is quite otherwise in the case of grass. Besides being rich, the land should also be well pulverized by tillage ; otherwise, the irregularity of the surface will not only occasion an irregularity in the produce of the crop, but it will be liable to be damaged by excessive droughts, before the plants can have extended their roots, or become firmly settled in the land. The time of sowing the seeds of the cultivated grasses depends on the nature of the land, the state of the weather, and the kind of crop amongst which they are sovni. When sown with corn, the seed-time is invariably in the spring. The autumn is preferable when they are sown exclusively by themselves. This practice has been recommended, in the case of laying down lands to permanent grass, as being calculated to afford a thicker and better sward. The value of the grass crop is, no doubt, in some degree, affected by the exhaustion of the soil occasioned by the production of the preceding crop of corn, but not in a degree commensurate with the latter ; besides, the period in the rotation at which the smaller seeds should be sown is immediately after the land is manured, and, in this case, the sever- ity of the com crop is felt. After being sown, the seeds quickly germinate, and, in favorable situations, they will have attained a considerable height before the commencement of the com harvest ; and when the corn is cut down close to the ground, they are cut and winnowed with the straw, and add considerably to the value of the latter for fodder. After harvest, the ground jF^. 74. may be slightly pastured with calves and sheep ; throughout the winter tha land is to remain untouched. In the succeeding spring, clear the land of 94 farmer's hand-book. stones, and afterwards the surface is to be raked to break down the stubble of the preceding crop, and further to prepare the land for the action of the scythe towards the first of June. When, however, the crop is set apart for pasturage, the earliest and richest herbage is to be obtained in th« second year. Soiling. — When the practice of soiling, or cutting the crop and consum- ing it in a green state, is pursued, the part containing a large quantity of the clovers should he chosen, while that in which the grasses predominate may be made into hay. The crop may be cut for soiling earlier than for hay. Soiling is in many cases advantageous ; in others, it is not. Certain animals do not thrive unless enjoying the air and exercise attendant on pas- turage, and, in most cases, a portion of the farm is unavoidably in pasture, as, for instance, grass land in the second and third year. Soiling and depasturing may be somewhat combined by turning animals out to the pastures during the cool parts of the day, and feeding them in the house towards noon. Haying. — The portion of the crop which is not cut for soiling is made into hay. The period when the crop should be cut down, when intended for hay, is just when the plants have attained their full size ; and the flowers, which just then are coming on, should not, in any degree, have begun to fade before the crop is cut down. The plants are laid in swaths by the action of the scythe, and as soon as these are dried on the top, they are completely turned over by a fork in such a manner as not to break or spread, and these swaths may be put into cocks in the evening, which are after- wards made into ricks or conveyed to the stack. When not dry enough to be carried from the small cocks to the stack, it must be formed into large cocks or ricks in the field, there to stay until fit to be stored in a larger stack. In forming the stacks, a layer of straw is usually spread over the bottom, or stand, and the hay is then regularly spread and trodden down, observing to keep the middle of the stack well raised. In this manner, it is carried up to the height of several feet, projecting slightly to the eaves, so as to overhang the sides, to guard the lower part from rain. The roof is then raised to a considerable height in a slanting form, with gable ends ; and, being thus formed, the loose hay which projects from the sides and ends of the stack is ptfUed, until all is smooth and regular, and the stack is then bound down with ropes. Salt, in small quantity, is sometimes strewed upon the hay, as the building of the stack proceeds, to stop fermentation and ender the hay palatable. Immediately after the hay is removed from the field, cattle may be turned in for several days. The length of time which the land is afterwards continued in grass depends on the course of cropping practised on the farm. According to the alternate husbandry, it cannot be THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 95 long'er than one or two seasons, for, tinder any circumstances, it is not good management to keep land more than three years in grass. The revolving horse hay-rake is in extensive use, and is highly commended. Fig. 75. Lands Permanently in Grass. — The ' management of lands of this de- scription is somewhat difier«nt from that of grass land merely interposed in the course of cropping of arable lands, to prevent the exhaustion of the nutrient parts of the soil consequent upon incessant tillage. From the short period which the land is, in the latter case, in grass, manure is seldom applied to the surface, though often -indispensable in the former. Various other operations are also performed to remedy those defects which are natural consequences resulting from lands being long kept in grass. Such lands naturally divide themselves into two classes — those fit either for mowing or pasture, and those fit for pasture only. Perennial Grass Lands Jit for Mowing, or Meadow Lands. — Under the term meadow are included all such lands as are kept in grass chiefly for the sake of the hay crop, though occasionally, and at particular seasons of the year, it may be depastured. The value of the natural meadow depends much on the situation, as well as on the quality, of the land. There are three descriptions of these meadows ; those on the banlcs of streams and rivers, those on the uplands or more elevated grounds, and bog meadows. The meadows situated along the banks of rivers and streams are, in gen- eral, by far the most valuable, and should never be converted into tillage. The principal defects to which such lands are liable are the oozing out of the springs towards their junction with the higher grounds, and the over- 96 farmer's hand-book. flowing of the stream or river ; the former evil is to be remedied by drain- ing, and the latter by embanking. Upland meadovi's require more attention than valleys and holms, being more difficult to drain, and requiring frequent manuring. The roots of grasses never strike deep into the soil ; and thus, deriving their nourishment chiefly from the surface, the utility of top-dressing is obvious. The irreg- ular surface of uplands is frequently much injured by superfluous moisture, and the surface is generally covered by inferior herbage and by mosses, the remedy for these being simply a course of tillage. Boggy land is generally least valuable. When thoroughly drained, the culture of herbage plants is about the most profitable way of occupying it. When under tillage, its cultivation is very difficult ; but when so far improved as to warrant its being laid down in grass, large crops may be obtained at comparatively small expense. More than one crop is rarely obtained from the natural meadows. The time of cutting the crop is later than that of the cultivated meadow, the proper time being just before the formation of the seed. After being cut, the grass is allowed to remain for a short time in the swath, and is then scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. If the weather be fine, the grass is soon formed, with the rake, into what are called wind-rows, which, after standing a. few hours, may be formed into cocks of small size, by simply grasping a quantity of the grass, which had been previously shaken in a heap, and placing it on a part of the surface that has been raked. The next day these cocks are again spread abroad, then formed into wind-rows, and again put into cocks, of a larger size, in the evening. In a day or two these will be ready for putting into ricks, if the weather be fine ; if it be not, a much longer time may be required, and the cocks will have to be again shaken out and re-formed into larger, before the hay is ready for the rick. In certain situations, the raising of hay on the natural meadow will be found the most simple and economical way of occupying such lands as are suited to it. Frequent manurings are, however, essential to their product- iveness, the best manure being composts of lime, to be applied in the spring. Permanent Pastures. — The drainage of lands permanently in grass greatly improves them. Cuts are made along the hollows of the field, which convey the water to the most convenient outlet, and small drains, formed either by a plough or spade, open into them. These need not be more than a foot deep, though numerous, especially in hollow places. Having removed the surface water, the tendency to rot will be removed. Weeds, shrubs, and mosses, should be thoroughly removed, which can be done by the hand, the plough, by draining, and by a course of tillage. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 97 Lime applied to the surface of grass lands, either alone or combined with other matters, is beneficial, after superfluous moisture has been removed. When, from frequent rolling and the treading of animals, the surface of grass lands gets into a tenacious state, scarifying will go far to remove the evil. This operation is quite useful before any top-dressing is applied. The time of stocking pastures in spring must depend on the season ; and the state of growth which it is desirable the plants should attain before being stocked must, in some degree, be determined by the condition and deacription of the animals to be employed in consuming the herbage, — whether they are only in a young state, or approaching to fatness, — whether milch cows or sheep, or a mixture of animals of different species. The great objects to be aimed at are, that the stock, of whatever kind it may be, shall be carried forward faster or slower, according to the object in view, and that none of the herbage shall be wasted. 9 ' CHAPTER III. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. VEGETABLES : — ARTICHOKE — ASPARAGUS — BORAGE — BEAN — BEET — BORECOLE — BROCCOLI CABBAGE — CARDOON CARROT — CAtTLIFLOWER ~ CELERY — CHIVE — CORN — OORN-S AlAD CRESS -^ OUCnMBER DANDELION — EGG-PLANT ENDIVE GAELIC HOP HORSE-RADISH LEEK LETTUCE MOREL MUSHROOM — MUSTARD ONION — OKEA — PARSNIP — PEA PEPPER — PUMP- KIN RADISH RAPE RHUBARB SALSIFY SOOBZONERA — SEA-KALE — SHALLOT SKIEEET SPINACH SQUASH TOMATO TURNIP. HERBS, &C. : ANISE — BALM — BASIL CARAWAY CAMOMILE — CORIANDER CHERVIL DILL — FENNEL FOXGLOVE HOREHOUND HYSSOP LAVENDER LIQUORICE MARJORAM MINT PARSLEY PENNY-ROYAL PEPPERMINT PURSLANE ROSEMARY— RUE — SAFFRON — SAGE — SAVORY TANSY — THYME ; WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OP OPERATIONS. I. VEGETABLES. Artichoke. — There are only two or three varieties of this plant culti- vated, the Globe and the Green. The heads, in their immature state, and tefore their blue, thistle-like flowers open, are cut and boiled in salt and water, the edible part being the fleshy substance on the bottom of the scales, which, to be relishable, has to be dipped in a nicely-prepared sauce of butter and spices, though it is frequently eaten as a salad in a raw state. Culture, (5fc. — The artichoke is propagated from seed or from offsets. If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart, in the row ; and, in the fall of the year, put out the plants in clumps of four, in rows three feet apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the next year. When winter, approaches, earth the roots up well, and before the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter. Open it at the breaking up of the frost, dig all the ground well between the rows, and level the earth down from the plants. The young ones, or offsets, which grow out from the sides, must be pulled off; and, if a new plantation is wanted, they may be set out, and will bear late the same year. Artichoke (Jerusalem) . — This is a small sunflower, with nutritious tubers, less in size than potatoes. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 99 Culture, <^c. — It is usually propagated by sets from the roots, in April, and grows in any soil which is moist, sandy, and light. It is cultivated like the potato. When raised for its tuber, it is liable to become troublesome, from the germinating power of even the smallest piece left in the soil. It keeps in the ground all winter, or may be preserved under sand. In the Middle States it thrives well. It yields from 150 to 900 bushels of roots, which are eagerly devoured by swine, and, when steamed or boiled, are quite palatable. AsPARAGrs. — There are two principal varieties, the purple-topped and the green-topped, the first-named being generally preferred. Culture, <5fc. — In the making of asparagus-beds, a proper soil is the first thing needed — one not too wet, nor too strong, nor stubborn, but mod- erately light and pliable, and well manured. The situation should be one exposed to the sun, ranging east and west. The seed may be sown from the middle of February to the middle of April, — usually about the last of March. Plant five or six inches apart, one inch in depth, putting two seeds in each hole, or sow in drills made the same distance asunder. When the weather is dry, water the beds moderately ; also destroy all weeds. Tow- ards the end of October, as soon as the stems are wholly withered, cut them down, and spread them over the ground mixed with dung. The next spring, every other plant must be transplanted into a bed, twelve inches apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years' further growth, before being finally planted out ; or, they may be planted immedi- ately in the beds for production. Many gardeners judiciously sow the seed in beds where they are to remain for production. The best time for the final removal is the end of March, if the soil be dry and the season forward. The beds for regular production should be three feet wide ; the usual prac- tice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then cover deep with well- rotted manure. Growing asparagus in single rows three feet apart, giving no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in the fall, and pointing over the surface about two inches deep with a fork, leaving it rough as possible, is a mode highly commended. In the spring, when the surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and about two inches of soil drawn over the crowns from each side of the rows. When the gathering is nearly over, the ground is stirred again, to loosen the tramping made in gathering the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a powerful compost, and' the whole is then drenched with liquid manure. This is summer cultivation. In May, or early in June, the beds are in full production of young shoots, which, when from two to five inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as the head continues compact and firm. Cut carefully. The seed is usually 100 farmer's hand-book. ripe in September ; collect it ; and, when the pulp and husk decay, clean the seed with water, and then dry it. Forcing. — In forcing asparagus, such plants may beinserted in hot-beds as are five or six years old, and are of sufficient strength to produce vigor- ous shoots. To plant old shoots for the main forcing crop is, however, erroneous. The first plantation should be made about the first of October, and, if it works well, will begin to produce in the course of four or five weeks, and continue to do so for about three. The hot-bed may be made in the usual way, and topped with six inches of light rich earth, and kept at about 60° in the day time, and never below 50° at night. In planting, a furrow is drawn the whole length of the frame ; against one side of it the first row or course is to be placed, the crown upright, and a little earth drawn on to'the lower end of the roots ; all round on the edge of the bed, some moist earth must be banked close to the outside roots. The foliage of this vegetable is liable to be destroyed by the larvse of two beetles, and the only remedy is to pick off and destroy the affected parts. Borage. — Its fresh leaves are boiled for a dinner dish, or are used in salads. It is aromatic, and therefore sometimes used 1o flavor wine. Culture, they advance from half an inch to three inches high, and when the weather is dry, draw the earth to the stems, and continue to hoe and earth up, as it will assist the peas to bear plentifully. When they are six or eight inches high, place a row of sticks or brush, about five feet long, in the middle of the double rows, and a few smaller ones on the outside of each row. Sow again from the middle to the end of April, for use in July and August. The crop is readily collected by a short scythe and horse-rake, or by hand. It should be done while the haulm is of a yellowish green, or the peas scatter. The haulm in this state is a very valuable rough fodder, if care- fully housed. The grain is threshed out, and forms excellent provender for stock and poultry. Enemies. — The pea is subject to but few diseases. The pea-bug punc- tures the pod when very young, and deposits an egg. Very few crops entirely escape them, except such as are sowed about the middle of June. It is therefore best to sow a part about that time, for seed, or to keep a sufficient quantity over one year. Pepper. — The varieties grown for pickling and kitchen use are the Sweet or Bell, the Cayenne, and the Tomato or Flat. Culture, <^c. — Sow a small portion of sejed, thinly, half an inch deep, on a hot-bed or in a pot, in April, and transplant in June, on good soil, twelve inches apart, and eighteen inches from row to row. As they grow, hoe 118 farbier's hamd-book. frequently, earthing' up the stems. When sown in the open gronnd, the time is the same ; let the soil be lig-ht and warm, and transplant when three to four inches hig^h. Pbmpein. — The best varieties of pumpkin are the Cashaw, Fanaly, Con- necticut Field, White Bell and Valparaiso. Culture, -beds. 18 CHAPTER IV. THE DAIRY. DAIRY IMPLEMENTS BIANAGEMENT MILK — BUTTER-MAKINO CHEESE-MAK- ING; INCLUDINO ALL TSE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES. IMPLEMENTS. General Remarks. ^- The construction of dairy-houses is, naturally, the first subject to be presented, in a chapter like this. The reason why it is here omitted is, in order that it may be included in the chapter on Rural Architecture, thus enaljliiig us to give consistency and completeness to the plan of this volume. We begin, therefore, with remarks on some of the implements or utensils employed in dairy operations. These comprise milk-pails, shallow pans or cooling dishes for holding, sieves for straining the milk when taken from the cow, dishes for skimming the cream, churns for the making of butter, besides scales, prints, and boards, for weighing, measuring, and ornamenting it ; also ladders, vats, tubs, curd-breakers, and presses, for the manufacture of cheese,, together with vessels large enough to hold the whey or butter-milk. Almost all of these, except the churn and press, are so generally similar, and so familiar to all, as to require but little description. The material of which most of these are formed is wood, though many dishes are made of earthen-ware, lead, tin, freestone and slale, and not unfrequently of brass. It being generally conceded that the dairy husbandry of England is the most perfect in the world, we shall incorporate as much information relative to its management in that country, in the present chapter, as will be com- patible with the limits assigned to this department. Presses. — The cheese-presses act upon the curd by pressure, and are there usually made of stone, of different weights, proportioned to the size of the cheese. They are most generally raised by a block and fackle, but are fre- quently made upon the principles of the lever, and there are various con- structions, placed in frames of wood, also of iron. A very common machine, of an extremely simple form, used in many dairies which produce such small cheeses as not to require great pressure, is that of a movable beam, fixed by a pivot in an upright post, and having hooked on at the other end a THE DAIRY. 135 weight which presses in this manner on the cheese-vats underneath (Pig. 91). There is also the Patent Self-Acting Press, which is much used. It /h Fig. 91. t-ii:A:A^ w '■''M is light, hut strong, and is substantially a table on which to turn the cheese ; no forcing screws, nor lifting heavy weights, but the cheese creates a con- stant and regular pressure, of twelve times its own weight, whether large or small ; and, if a greater pressure is needed, one pound laid upon the 136 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. cheese or table axids twelve pounds increased pressure, and so on. The cheese is not removed from the press until the pressing is completed. Churns. — The churns are closed vessels, into which the cream, or the whole milk, being put, a piston, or a wheel in the form of a fan, is quickly and regularly moved, either up and down, or by turning, according to its form, so as to separate the oily particles of which the butter is composed. They are generally made of the best oak, and of various sizes. Much im- provement has been made, within a few years, in the construction of chums, figures of three of which we annex. Fig. 93. The Thermometer churn (Fig. 93) is constructed so that the cream or milk is readily brought to the desired temperature without mixing water or other substances, and the temperature certainly and definitely determined, which proves invaluable in making butter. There is a double bottom, made in the form of a semi-circle, of two sheets of zinc, or other metal, placed one above the other, the cream to rest upon the uppermost ; between the two sheets forming the bottom is a space or chamber, into which may be introduced cold or warm water, as may be required, to increase or diminish the temper- ature of the cream or milk. The water is easily applied by means of a common tin tunnel, through an aperture or hole in the side of the churn. Another improvement is a thermometer permanently placed in one end of the churn, secure from injury, marked at sixty-two degrees, and which is always visible, so that the operator may know when the cream or milk is brought to the proper temperature. If loo warm, the mercury will rise THE DAIET. 137 above the mark, and cold water should be applied in the chamber described ; if too cold, the mercury will fall below the mark, when warm water must be used in the same manner. The cream or milk should be stirred or agi- tated, by turning the crank, while the water is being introduced, to give an equal temperature throughout. When the thermometer indicates that the cream or milk is of the proper temperature, the water may be drawn out through the tube placed for the purpose, when the churning should be performed by giving the crank about forty revolutions to the minute. Kendall's Cylindrical Chum (Fig. 94) is simple in its construction, and Fig. 95. combines all the advantages of other cylindrical churns, with this improve- ment, that the revolving dasher can be taken out in a moment, whenever 13* 138 FARMERS HAND-BOOK. it is required to be cleansed. There are five sizes, from two to twenty gallons. The Gault Churn is an article much in use, and in some respects a supe- rior machine. Fig. 95 represents the top lifted up to receire the cream or discharge the butter. Tillinghasfs is also an almost incomparable churn. Cleanliness in Dairying. — The form of these utensils is, however, a mat- ter of secondary importance, compared' with their being kept extremely clean, which is the chief requisite in all the operations of the dairy ; and, therefore, those which can be most readily cleaned are the best to be em- ployed, whatever may be their shape. Those who superintend dairy opera- tions should be clean and careful, and the floor of the dairy should be kept perfectly dry ; for water thrown down in hot weather will rise again in steam, and affect the milk with its humidity. MILK. Management of Milk. — When the milk has been drawn from the cow, it should be carried as gently as possible to the dairy, and after being there strained through the sieve, it must then be deposited in shallow pans or coolers, not exceeding three or four inches in depth, where it is left to col- lect the cream, which rises to the surface within a few hours, according to the temperature of the air. Those who are particularly nice, either in the consumption of the raw cream, or for the making of butter, skim it, perhaps, within twelve hours ; but it is more generally left full twenty-four, or even thirty-six hours, according to the state of the season, when intended for butter, and is then not unfrequently skimmed again. The chief component parts of milk are those which, when separated, are known as forming butter and cheese, the residue of which is called whey. These parts are known, however, to vary in percentage, according to the quality of the milk; and, to determine this point, what is called a lactom- eter is in use. It consists of glass tubes placed upright in a wood frame ; these tubes are divided and subdivided, by marks, into equal spaces ; they are filled to equal height, each with the milk of a particular cow, when, after remaining a proper time, the quantity of cream in each is readily seen through the glass, and the eXact difference determined by the marks ; this, however, does not show whether the caseous matter (of which cheese is formed) or the butyraceous matter (or oily substance producing cream) predominates. The following observations may be assumed as a summary of its management : First — Of the milk that is drawn from any cow at a time, that which ui/mes off at the first is always thinner and of a poorer, quality than that which comes afterwards, the richness continually increas- THE DAIRY. 139 ing, to the last drop drawn at that time. Second — If milk be put in a dish and allowed to stand till it throws up cream, that portion of cream which rises first to the surface is richer in quality and greater in quantity than what rises in a second equal portion of time ; the cream that rises in the second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than that which rises in a third equal space of time ; and that of the third than the fourth, and so on ; the cream that rises decreasing in quantity, and declining continually in quality, so long as any rises to the surface. Third — Thick milk always throws up a smaller proportion of the cream it actually contains to the surface than milk which is thinner ; but that cream is of a richer quality. If water be added to that thick milk, it will also afford a considerably greater quantity of cream than it would have done if allowed to remain pure ; but its quality is at the same time greatly debased. Fourth — Milk which is put into a bucket, or other proper vessel, and carried to any considerable distance, so as to be much agitated, and in part cold, before it is put into the milk-pans to settle for cream, never throws up so much nor so rich cream as if the same milk had been put into the pans directly after it was milked. Fifth — If it be intended to make butter of a very superior quality, it will be, in such case, advisable to separate the milk that is first drawn from that which comes last, and the quality will be improved in proportion to the smallness of the last-drawn milk that is obtained. The first-skimmed cream should, also be used, as it is always richer than that which rises last. BUTTER. General Remarks. — This is formed either by cream alone, or with the whole milk, unskimmed ; but although such different modes of manufacture might seem to warrant very different results, yet they have very little per- ceptible effect on the quantity or quality, though the profit on the produce of the dairy may be affected, in large towns, by the greater demand for skim-milk or butter-milk. There is also another kind, which is much infe- rior, and made from the cream of whey, after the cheese has been taken from the milk ; but the process of making is nearly the same. Cream, Butler. — When butter is to be made from cream alone, the milk is, in winder, usually skimmed as often as four, and in summer two or three times, or until it will afford no more cream ; and this should be first sepa- rated from the edges of the pan, to which it firmly adheres, by means of an ivory or silver-bladed knife, run closely around it. The cream should then be carefully drawn to one side and lifted off with a skimming-dish, which is generally pierced with small holes ; an act which requires some dexterity, 140 fabmeb's eakd-booe. both to avoid the leaving of any cream behind, and to prevent any portion of the milk being mixed with it. Some persons, indeed, have leaden cool- ers, with a plug in the bottom, which allows the milk to escape to a large vessel underneath, while it leaves the cream at top ; but the former practice is most usual. The length of time which the milk should stand before it is skimmed must depend both upon the temperature of the air at the time, and the views of the dairy operator. In moderately warm weather, if very fine butter be intended, it should not be suffered to remain more than six or eight hours ; for ordinary good butter, it may be safely allowed to stand full twelve hours, and during cold weather, much longer. The cream is then put into a deep vessel, in which it is frequently stirred, every day, with a wooden spoon, in order to prevent coagulation, until sufficient be collected to form a churning. No vessel can be better adapted for this purpose than one in the under part of which, close to the bottom, there is a faucet and peg for draining off, from time to time, any thin, serous part of the milk that may chance to be there generated ; for should this be allowed to remain, it acts upon the cream in a powerful manner, and greatly diminishes the richness and quality of the butter. The inside of the vessel should be covered with a bit of close, fine silver-gauze, to keep back the cream, while the whey is allowed to pass. Many persons imagine that no butter can be of good quality except that which is made from fresh cream ; the fact, however, being, that the forma- tion of butter takes place only after the cream has attained a certain degi^ of acidity, and no butter of even tolerable quality can be obtained from cream that is not more than one day old. The length of time which the cream should be kept before it acquires that degree of acidity which is requisite for the best butter, depends so much upon the weather, that no fixed rule can be laid down. In fact, so little nicety is observed, in this respect, by practical farmers, even those who have a high reputation for making good butter, that few of them ever think of observing any precise rule with regard to the different portions of their cream, seeing they in gen- eral make into butter all they have collected since the former churning ; the time which should intervene between one churning and another being usually determined by local or accidental circumstances. If the cream be very carefully kept, and no serous matter be allowed to lodge about it, a very great latitude may be safely admitted in this respect. It is, indeed, certain, that cream which has been kept three or four days in summer is in excellent condition for making into butter, and that from three days to seven may be found in general to be the best time for keeping cream before churn- ing. The cream from every milking should, however, be kept apart until it IS become sour, and not be mixed up with sweet cream, — at least, not until THE DAIKY. 141 the moment of churning, — for the mixture occasions fermentation, which, though partly prevented by the stirring, is liable to render the cream putrid. When, however, the herbage is coarse, or the cows are fed on roots, or artificial grasses, the sooner the cream is churned, the better will be the butter. Sometimes the milk is allowed to stand until the cream becomes clotted, or, as it is termed, " carved," to a proper degree of acidity, which generally takes place, in warm weather, within a day or two ; and, in winter, it is placed near the fire, in order to forward that process. Clotted Cream. — The mode of procuring the genuine clotted or " clouted cream," which is said to produce one fourth more cream than by the common way, is as follows : The milk, while warm from the cow, is strained into either large, shallow brass pans, well tinned, or earthen ones, holding from two to five gallons, in which should be a small quantity of cold water, which prevents burning, and causes the cream to be more completely separated and thrown to the top. The morning meal of nulk stands till about the middle of the day ; the evening meal, until the next morning. The pans are now steadily carried to and placed over a clear, slow fire, which, if of charcoal, or over a stove, the cream is not so apt to get an earthy or smoky taste as when the milk is scalded over a turf or wood fire. The milk must not boil, as that would injure the cream. The test of its being sufiioiently scalded is a very nice point ; the earthen pan, having its bottom much smaller than the top, allows this point to be more easily ascertained, because, when the milk is sufficiently scalded, the pan throws up the form of its bottom on the surface of the cream. The brass pan, if almost as big at the bottom as at the top, gives no criterion to judge by, but the appearance and texture of the cream at the surface, the wrinkles upon which become smaller, and the texture somewhat leathery. In summer, it must be observed, the process of scalding ought to be quicker than in winter, as, in very hot weather, if the milk should be kept over too slow a fire, it would be apt to run or curdle. This process being finished, the pans are carefully returned to the dairy, and, should it be the summer season, they are placed in the coolest situation ; if on stone floors, the better ; but should it be the winter season, the heat should rather be retained, by putting a slight covering over the pans, as cooling too suddenly causes the cream to be thin, and consequently yields less butter, the mode of making which is this : The cream should, in hot weather, be made into butter the next day ; but in winter it is thought better to let the cream remain one day longer on the milk. The cream, being collected from the pans, is put into wooden bowls, which should be first rinsed with scalding, then with cold, water. It is now briskly stirred round one way, with a nicely-cleaned hand, which must also have been «vashed in hot and then in cold water ; for these alternate warm and cold 142 PARMER'S HAND-BOOK. ablutions of bowl and hand are not only for the sake of cleanliness, but to prevent the butter from sticking to either. The cream, being thus agitated, quickly assumes the consistence of butter ; the milky part now readily sepa- rates, and being poured off, the butter is washed and pressed in several cold waters ; a little salt is added to season it, and then it is well beaten on a wooden trencher until the milky and watery parts are separated, when it is finally formed into prints for the market. In the common way of making butter from cream, the dairies chum the wholfe quantity at once ; but in many dairies, celebrated for the quality of their butter, only the first skimmings are used in making the best kind, the mode pursued being as follows : The milk, after standing twenty-four hours in large shallow coolers, lined with lead, is skimmed ; the skimmed milk is then drawn off from the leads into other vessels of increased depth, but unlined, in which it is left from twelve to twenty-four hours, daring which time it is skimmed two or three times ; this is called " doubling ; " it is then " trebled," or put into tubs, or still deeper vessels, where it is occa- sionally skimmed, so long as any appearance of cream is found to form upon the surface ; after vphich, it is given to the pigs. The butter which is made from the after-skimmings is paler and inferior to that made from the cream cast up within the first rising ; it is therefore generally churned apart. Whnle-Milk Butter. — If butter be made from the whole milk, the process, in the best dairies, in which the consumption of butter-milk is considerable, is to place the milk, when drawn from the cow, in coolers on the floor of a clean, cool, well-aired milk-house, from twelve to twenty-fo\ir hours, till it has cooled to the temperature of the milk-house, and the cream has risen to the surface ; these coolers are next emptied, while the milk is yet free from acidity, into a clean, well-scalded vat, of size to contain the whole milking, or two milkiugs, if both are sufiiciently cooled, where it remains till churned. If another milking, or meal of milk, be ready before that which has begun to become sour, that second meal may be put into the same vat ; but if the first has soured, or is approaching'to acidity, before the second quantity has completely cooled, any further admixture would lead to fermentation, and injure the milk. It is necessary that the whole milk become sour before it is churned, bat the whole of it must become so of its own accord, and by no means forced into acidity by any mixture of sour milk with that which is sweet. The utmost care should, however, be taken, not to allow the coagu- lum, or curd, of the milk in the stand-vat, to be broken till the milk is about to be churned. If it be not agitated, or the " lapper " (as it is termed in dairy language) broken, till it is turned into the churn, it may stand from a day to a week without injury. Churning. — The operation of cAurning-, whether it be cream or whole THE DAIRY. 143 milk, is done in the same manner ; but the latter, from being so much the larger quantity, is of course so much more laborious, that in large dairies churns moved by machinery are frequently used, and whichj besides the advantage of performing the work with great regularity, also produce a larger quantity of butter. The whole milk, besides, requires more time than that 'of cream to complete the process — from two to three hours being considered necessary to effect it with due deliberation, while that of cream is generally finished within less than an hour and a half. The operation should, in warm weather, be very slow, for if it be done too hastily, the butter will be soft and white ; the churn should, therefore, be cooled by being previously filled with cold water ; but in winter it should, on the contrary, be performed quickly, and the churn should be warmed. The motion of the churn should be, in each case, regular, and whatever may be the degree of velocity, the stroke of the fan, or piston, ought always to be the same, until the butter is formed, or said "to come." The air which is generated in the churn should also be occasionally allowed to escape, or it will create froth, which impedes the process. The temperaturb of the milk-house should be kept, as nearly as possible, at about 55°, or at least between 50° to 60° ; and cream, when churned alone, should not be higher, for if kept at a high temperature in the process of churning, it will be found inferior in appearance, taste, and quality ; but milk and cream, when churned together, it is generally thought, must be equalled to about 70° to 75°,- before the latter can be separated from the milk, which is consequently the common practice. This is done by one person pouring gradually a small quantity of warm water into it, while another is churning ; for if the work be carried on while too cold, the milk is said to rise in the churn, air-bubbles are thrown up with a rattling noise, and the milk becomes pale ; whereas, if conducted at a proper heat, it does not swell, but is easily worked, and remains at the proper straw-color. A thermometer, it may therefore be imagined, should always be hung up in every d$.iry ; yet, strange to say, it is an instrument seldom seen in any of them ; the only scale which the dairy-maid knows is at her fingers' ends, and although she invariably trusts to her hand for trying the heat, it is yet sur- prising with what correctness she usually judges. Practice, it is said, makes perfect ; and it is astonishing with what accuracy many operations, which are supposed by theorists to demand the aid of science, are performed, through experience, by the merest child in science. Notwithstanding, how- ever, the accuracy which experience may produce, it is not to be compared with that denoted by scientific experiment, nor can it be acquired without great loss of time, which might otherwise be avoided. The whole milk, as well as the cream when churned separately, must 144 farmer's hand-book. become sour before it is churned ; but this must be effected merely by the state of the atmosphere, or by being kept exposed to the fire, in order to bring on fermentation. It is therefore kept in a large vat, or tub, until the milk is turned into curd, or lapper, and if that remains undisturbed, the churning may be deferred for some days longer ; the warm water must not, therefore, be added until the curd is broken. In some dairies, the milk is put into a pan, or vat, and well stirred with a wooden spoon, or ladle, two or three times a day, to prevent the cream from separating from the milk ; and this sort of stirring, or partial churning, is continued till the milk becomes so thick and clotted that the ladle stands erect in it, after which, it is put into tlie chum for an hour or so ; cold water is also poured in, to help collect the butter and separate tlie milk from it. Washing Butter. — In most places, the butter, when taken from the churn, is washed in repeated waters, in order to extract the milk, until the water comes out pure. This, however, is a practice not generally com- mended, for it has been found, by long experience, that butter retains its sweetness much longer when no water is used in making up. When it is taken out of the churn, it is well worked with the hand, which presses out most of the milk ; it is then beaten with a cloth, or rather a cloth is repeatedly pressed down upon it, which absorbs all the remaining milk. The less it is beaten or worked , however, the better ; for the more it is kneaded, the more tough and gluey will it become ; and a slight quantity of salt may be added to flavor it. Salting. — If the butter be salted for market, after the whole of the milk has been carefully pressed out, it should be well mixed, by working it in by the hand, with finely-powdered salt ; for if care be not taken in mixing it equally, the butter acquires different colors — yellow where the salt has fallen, and white where it has not — which kind is, of course, inferior. The operation should be performed immediately, for, if deferred, as it commonly is by country dealers, and farmers who do not churn enough to fill a firkin at once, the butter loses a portion of its firmness and flavor. Should, however, there not be enough to fill up a package, the butter should never be put into the firkin in layers, but the surface should be left every day rough and broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churning. The quality may also be in a great measure preserved by giving it a partial salting, and covering it over with a clean linen cloth, dipped in pickle, and placed in a cool situation. The quality of salt should be strong marine, free from the brine of mineral salt. The quantity may be that of about ten ounces to fourteen pounds of butter, — rather more or less according to the length of time which the butter is intended to be preserved ; but it is generally thought that the butter made THE DAIRY. 145 during the summer months is the fittest for salting, and that the sort which is made in the latter part of the season, not taking it so well, requires rather more. Some farmers use saltpetre, in the proportion of half an ounce of salt with one eighth of saltpetre to the pound of sixteen ounces ; and, although this forms a valuable piclile, if the salt be really good, yet it unquestionably would be much improved if four ounces of raw sugar were to be added to each pound weight of salt. A compound of one part sugar, one part nitre, and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beat together into a fine powder, and mixed thoroughly with the butter, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound, has been found to keep the butter in every respect sweet and sound, during two years that it was in cask. It is also said to impart a rich marrowy flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes but very little of the salt. When the butter is cured, it is then tramped firmly, with a round wooden stick, into the firkin, which is filled up to the head, and then covered over with a little of the purest salt. CHEESE. General Remarlts. — As butter is made from the oily part of the milk which rises to the surface in the form of cream, so cheese is composed from the curd, or coagulated milk, and may be obtained from the caseous part alone, after the milk has been skimmed. If thus deprived of the cream, this " skim-milk" cheese is, however, of a poor quality; and if intended to be good, the whole milk should be used, without any loss of cream : for, if any portion of it be abstracted, the cheese will be proportionably less rich, — con- sequently, less palatable, and of inferior value. The mode of making, too, though in the main points apparently the same, yet is subject to more variety of minor details in the practice than that of anything formed of one material, and thus many different qualities are carried to market, each bearing some distinct character of its own. That many of those kinds which are by connoisseurs thought indifferent might, by other management, be more nearly assimilated to the superior sorts, there can be little doubt ; these peculiarities, however, have, in some cases, attached a certain degree of value to their flavor, while in others it would seem to be imparted by the natural grasses grown upon the soil. This applies more especially to some places. It is well known that where brine-springs most abound the cheese is always esteemed to be of superior quality. , Rennet. — Different Modes of Preparing and Treating. — Although cheese may be made from the curd which has been formed by the coagula- tion of the milk when it turns sour, yet, when thus obtained, it is hard and ill-flavored ; means have, therefore, been found to curdle it with " rennet," which is made from the gastric juice of animals, but more especially from 13 146 fakmer's hand-book. that found in the maws or stomachs of sucking calves, that have heen fed entirely upon milk. These maws, or " veils," as they are soraetiraea called, are occasionally preserved, along with the curd contained in them, by salting ; but the more usual mode is to employ the skins of the stomach- bags alone, the method being to put a few handfuls of salt into and around the stomachs, which are then rolled up and hung near the chimney to dry, after which, they are put by for a long time before they are used. If the skin be good, a bit of it no larger than a half-dime, if put into a tea-cup, filled with water, with a little salt, during about twelve hours before it is wanted, will form a stock sufficient for eighteen or twenty gallons of milk ; but their manner of preservation and use is extremely various, and, as the quality of the cheese depends more upon the application of the rennet than upon any other part of the manufacture, we shall here state some of the most approved modes of its preparation. Most dairy-maids are of the opinion that if the curd, or chyle, were not removed from the maw of the calf, it would communicate a harsh taste to the cheese ; and some intelligent operators never use the veils until they are a year old, for, if newer, the rennet made from them causes the cheeses to heave, or swell, and to become full of eyes, or holes; and it is well known that, if too much be used, or if it be unusually strong, it will occasion the cheese to heave, probably by causing fermentation. It is, therefore, some- times prepared by adding to every six veils two gallons of brine, and two lemons, the latter doing away with any unpleasant smell, and giving it an agreeable flavor. A large quantity should be made at a time, and it should never be used until it has stood at least two months. Another mode is, to take the maw of a newly-killed calf, and clean it of its contents ; salt the bag, and put it into an earthen jar for three or four days, till it form a pickle ; then take it from the jar and hang it up to dry, after which it is to be replaced in the jar, the covering of which should be pierced with a few small holes to admit of air, and let it remain there for about twelve months. When wanted for use, a handfiil each of the leaves of sweet-briar, dog-rose, and bramble, with three or four handfuls of salt, are to be boiled together in a gallon of water for a quarter of an hour, when the liquid is to be strained off and allowed to cool. The maw is then to be put into the liquid, together with a lemon stuck around with cloves ; and the longer it remains in it, the stronger and better will be the rennet ; half a pint, or less, of the liquor, is sufficient to turn fifty gallons of milk. Another mode practised is, when the rennet-bag is fit for the purpose, let two quarts of soft water be mixed with salt, wherein should be put almost every sort of spice and aromatic herb that can be procured ; and must boil gently until the liquor is reduced to three pints, when it should be THE DAIRY. 147 Btrained clear from the spices, and poured, in a tepid state, upon the maw, and a lemon may be sliced into it. It may remain a day or two, after" which it should be strained again, and put into a bottle, where, if well corked, it will keep good for twelve months or more, and give the cheese a pleasing flavor. Still another practice is this : when the maw comes from the butcher, it is always found to contain a chyly or curd-like matter, which is frequently salted for present use ; but when this chyly matter is taken out, and the dtin cleaned from slime, and every apparent impurity, by wiping or a gentle washing, the skin is then filled nearly full of salt, and placing a layer of salt upon the bottom of a mug, the skin is placed flat upon it. The mug is large enough to hold three skins in a course, each of which should be covered with salt ; and when a suflicient number of skins are thus placed in the mug, it should be filled up with salt, and put, with a dish or plate over it, into a cool place, until the approach of cheese-making season in the fol- lowing year. The skins are then all taken out, laid for the brine to drain from them, and, being spread upon a table, they are powdered on each side with fine salt, and are rolled smooth with a paste-roller, which presses in the salt. After that, a thin splint of wood is stuck across each of them, to keep them extended while they are hung up to dry. lu making the rennet, a part of the dried maw-skin is, in the evening previously to its being used, put into half a pint of luke-warm water, to which is added a little salt. In the morning, this infusion — the skin being first taken out — is put into the tub of milk ; but so great is the difference in the quality of these skins, that it is difficult to ascertain what quantity will be necessary for the intended purpose. A piece the size of half a crown, cut from the bottom of a good skin, will commonly be suflSicient for a cheese of sixty pounds' weight, though ten square inches of skin are often found too little. It is customary, however, to cut two pieces from each skin, one from the lower, the other from the upper part ; but the bottom end is the stronger. An improved mode is, to take all the maw-skins provided for the whole season, pickled and dried as before, put them into an open vessel, and for each skia pour in three pints of spring water ; let them stand twenty-four hours, th^ take out the skins and put them into other vessels ; add for each one pint of spring water, and let them stand twenty-four hours, as before. On taking the skins out the second time, gently stroke them down with the hand into the infusion, and they are then done with. Mix these two infusions together, pass the liquor through a fine linen sieve, and add to the whole a quantity of salt rather more than is sufficient to saturate the water, that is, until a portion of salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. The next day, and also the summer through, the scum, as it 148 farmer's hand-book. rises, is to be cleaned off, and fresh salt should be added. Somewhat less than half a pint of this preparation will generally be sufficient for sixty pounds of cheese ; but, when for use, the whole should be well stirred up. In some places, however, so far from washing away the chyle contained in the maw of the calf, pains are taken to increase it as much as possible, by giving to the animal as much milk as it can he made to swallow, a few hours before it is killed ; for, the chyle being formed by the mixture of the gastric juice with the food, and that gastric juice being the coagulating power, both are therefore carefully preserved, and are considered as thus forming a stronger rennet than can be drawn from the bag alone. When the stomach or b,ag is taken from the calf's body, its contents are examined, and if any straw or other food be found among the curdled milk, such impurity is removed ; but no part of the chyle is suffered to be lost. At least two handfuls of salt are put into the bag, and upon its outside, after which it is rolled up in salt, and hung near a fire, where it is always allowed to hang until it is well dried ; and it is understood to be improved by hanging a year, or longer, before being infused. When rennet is wanted, the " yirning," as it is sometimes called, with its contents, is cut small, and put into a jar, with a handfiil or two of salt, and a quantity either of soft water that has been boiled, and cooled to about 65°, or of new whey taken off the curd, is put upon the bag in the jar. The quantity of water, or whey, to infuse the bag, is more or less, accord- ing to the quality of the yirning. If it is that of a new-dropped calf, that has not been fed, three pints will be enough ; but if he has been fed for four or five weeks, a couple of quarts may, at least, be put on the bag to wash ; it should, however, be observed that the yirning of a calf four weeks old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age. After the infdsion has remained in the jar from one to three days, the liquid is drawn off, and a pint more water, or whey, put on the bag in the jar ; and that, after standing in mash one or two days, is also drawn off, and, with that of the first infusion, strained, if any impurities appear in the liquor ; the whole being put up in bottles for use as rennet, and the bag being thrown away, without ever being put into the milk. Some put about a drachm of jvhiskey into each quart bottle of the rennet ; and it may be either used imniediately, or kept for as many months as may be convenient. A table-spoonful of rennet thus made will, it is said, coagulate thirty gallons of milk ; but its great superiority over our common practice is, that it will curdle the milk in five or ten minutes. As to the chyle occasioning a harsh taste to the cheese, the reverse is the fact. It must, however, be admitted, that, unless great care be employed in the immediate preparation of rennet thus made. THE DAIRY. 149 the curd is extremely apt to become rancid, and thtis impart a certain degree of rankness to the cheese. Whole-milk Cheese. — The mode of making sweet-milk cheese — that is, cheese made of milk which has not been skimmed — is, to put the ladder across the cheese-tub, with a large canvas-cloth covering the whole, in order to prevent the falling of milk upon the floor, or any other matter into the tub, and above this is placed the sieve through which the milk is to be strained. It should be of the temperature of 90° to 95'^ ; and if below 85°, a portion of it should be placed in a deep brass pan, which is then immersed in the water, which is kept hot in the wash-house. By this means the whole is warmed equally, and it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid to it ; for, if the milk be not warm enough when the rennet is put to it, the curd will be tender, and the cheese will bulge out at the sides ; and, if too hot, it will cause it to swell or heave, and become spongy, both of which defects are injurious to its appearance and quality. The rennet is then at once added to the milk, which is thus coagulated at its natural heat ; but many farmers have not cows enough to form a cheese at every milking, and it must, there- fore, be then allowed to cool. In doing this, it of course throws up cream, which is not unfrequently taken off for butter, while the second meal , of whole milk, is used along with that which has been already skimmed ; but if the cheese be intended to be of fine quality, the cream must be also added. This, however, should be at the same time skimmed ; for the milk, when cooled, must be afterwards heated to full 90° in the summer, and to a higher temperature in cold weather ; and, were the cream to be warmed to that degree, it would be melted, which would cause a considerable portion of the fatty or butyraceous matter to be lost in the whey. It is, therefore, gen- erally thought the best practice to gradually bring it to a liquid state ^ly the < admixture of moderately warm milk, before it is poured into the cheese-tubs. The curd is then broken into small pieces, and the whey being thoroughly squeezed out, it is salted, wrapped in a cloth, and placed in a chessart, of such size as may be convenient, or is usually made in the neighborhood ; it is then pressed with weights proportionate to its size, and turned occasionally, until it becomes sufficiently firm to be taken out of the mould, and placed either on a cheese-rack, or on the floor of the cheese-room, where it is occa- sionally turned, and dry-rubbed with salt, and remains until fit for tlie market. Drying. — New cheese requires to be hardened by gradual drying before it becomes fit for market ; and the cheeses, when taken out of the mould, are, for this purpose, spread in a single layer on the floor of the cheese-loft, where they are daily turned by hand, in order to expose each surface alter- nately to the air. This, on a large dairy-farm, is a slow and laborious operation, which, as it devolves upon hired help, sometimes prevents them 13* 150 farmee's hand-book. from paying proper attention to that essential duty. A machine has, there- fore, been invented to remedy this ineonvenience, called a Swing Frame, which consists of a dozen strong shelves framed together, and having bare nailed from top to bottom of one side of the back of the shelves, in order to prevent the cheeses from falling out while in the act of turning. The frame is suspended on two strong pivots, one of which is let into the wall of the room and the other is supported by a strong post. Two catches keep the frame upright, and prevent it from beirtg turned more than half around. By first filling the shelf immediately below the axis of the frame, and then placing the cheeses alternately on the two nearest shelves above and below that which has been already filled, the preponderance of one side over the other can never be more than the weight of one cheese ; the whole power, therefore, required to turn the machine, cannot, in any circumstances, be greater than this and the friction of the pivots. The cheeses, in the act of turning, drop upon those shelves, which, in the former position of the frame, were above them, and, having been exposed to a current of air for twenty- four hours previously, have become perfectly dry. The benefits of the machine are, that, by mbans of it, fifty-five cheeses are turned in the same time which is required for turning two by hand ; that a room thus furnished will hold treble as many cheeses as when they are laid on the floor ; that the shade aiforded by the shelves, together with the current of air which passes between them, has the eflfect, in hot weather, of preventing excessive sweating, and consequently loss both in weight and quality, as well as diminishing the necessity of rubbing the cheeses ; and, lastly, the ripening of the cheeses is hastened, so that, on an average, they are ready for market five weeks earlier than usual. The Store-room. — The store-room should be kept temperately warm, and the shelves on the floor upon which the cheeses are laid should be strewed with dry moss, or fine hay,' as the cheeses, when new, are other- wise apt to adhere to the boards, and thus acquire an unpleasant appearance. At a more advanced stage they may be laid upon straw ; but, at first, it would sink into the surface apd deface them. The dried leaves of the tutsan, or of the yellow star of Bethlehem, and the twigs of the common birch-tree, are also thought to assist in preventing the depredations of mites. Green Whey. — The whey which runs from the curd without pressure is called " green whey," and is received from the cheese-tub into pans covered with a cloth, under which they are held, until it deposits a sedi- ment, which is added to the curd, after which it is poured into the cistern ; while that which is pressed by hand from the curd is termed " white whey," and contains a considerable portion of oily matter ; so much so, that THE DAIEY. 151 it is in some cases kept apart, and set for cream. Most generally, however, the green and white are both scalded together, until they throw up a sub- stance in appearance between cream and curd, which is skimmed off so long as it rises, to be churned for whey-hutter, the difference between which and milk-butter is something in favor of the latter. MODE OF MAKING THE CELEBRATED CHEESES. In all our dairies the same main points are admitted to be essential ; but, although the means of attaining them are nearly alike in similar sections of country, yet in others they differ materially in the minutiae ; and as upon these much of the art of cheese-making depends, we give the details of the modes employed on some of the most celebrated descriptions of cheese, believing that it will be of material value to every American farmer, to be acquainted with the modus operandi of producing the finest articles of dairy labor. Cheshire Cheese. — The Cheshire cheese is generally made with two meals of milk, even in dairies where two cheeses are made in a day ; indeed, in the beginning and end of the season, three, four, and even five or six meals, are kept for the same cheese. The general custom is, to take about a pint of cream, when two-meal cheeses are made, from the night's milk of twenty cows. In order to make cheese of the best quality, and in the greatest abundance, it is, however, admitted that the cream should remain in the milk ; for whether the cream that is once separated from it can by any means be again so intimately united with it as not to undergo a decom- position in the after process, admits of a, doubt. The more common prac- tice is, to set the evening's milk apart till the following morning, when the cream' is skimmed off, and three or four gallons of the milk are poured into a brass pan, which is immediately placed in the farnace of hot water, and made scalding hot ; then half of the milk thus heated is poured upon the night's milk, and the other half is mixed with the cream, which is thus liquefied, so as, when put into the cheese-tub, to form one uniform fluid. This is done by the dairy-woman while the others are milking the cows, and the morning's milk being then immediately added to that of the even- ing, the whole mass is at once set together again for cheese. The rennet and coloring being then put into the tub, the whole is well stirred together, a wooden cover is put over the tub, and over that is thrown a linen cloth. The usual time of " coming," or curdling, is one hour and a half, during which time it is frequently to be examined. If the cream rises to the surface before the coming takes place, as it oflen does, the whole must be stirred together so as to mix again the milk and the cream ; and this as often as it rises, until the coagulation commences. If the dairy- 152 farmer's HANfi-BOOK. woman supposes the milk to have been accidentally put together cooler than she intended, or that its coolness is the cause of its not coming, hot water, or hot milk, may be poured into it, or hot water in a brass pan may be par- tially immerged in it. This must, however, be done before it is at all coagulated, for the forming of the curd must not be tampered with. If it has been set together too hot, the opposite means, under the same precautions, may be resorted to ; but the more general practice is to suffer the process to proceed, hot as it is, until the first quantity of whey is taken off, a part of which, being set to cool, is then returned into the tub to cool the curd. If too little appears to have been used, it renders the curd exceedingly bit- ter, and therefore an additional quantity may be put in ; but this must be done before the coagulation takes place, for, if added afterwards, it will be of little effect, as it cannot be used without disturbing the curd, which can then only acquire a proper degree of toughness by having some heated whey poured over it. For coloring, Spanish annatto is the drug usually employed, little more than the quarter of an ounce being sufiicient for a cheese of sixty pounds. Other coloring matters are, however, used, such as marigolds boiled in milk, which gives a pleasant flavor, and carrots also boiled in milk and strained, which imparts a rich color, but a rather strong taste. The annatto is generally put in by rubbing a piece of it in a bowl with some warm milk, which is afterwards allowed to stand a little, in order to drain off the sediment, and is then mixed with the entire quantity. Within an hour and a half, as already mentioned, if all goes on well, the coagulation will be formed — a point which is determined by gently press- ing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand ; but in this test experience is the only guide, for the firmness of the curd, if the milk be set hot together, will be much greater than that from milk which has been set cold together. If the curd be firm, the usual practice is to take a common case-knife, and make incisions across it to the full length of the blade, at the distance of about one inch, and again crosswise in the same manner, the incisions intersecting each other at right angles. The cheese-maker and two assistants then proceed to break the curd, by repeatedly putting their hands down into the tub, and breaking every part of it as small as possible, this part of the business being continued until the whole is uniformly broken, small. It generally takes up about forty minutes, and the curd is then left, covered over with a cloth, for about half an hour, to subside. The bottom of the tub is now set rather a-tilt, the curd is collected to the upper side of it, and a board is introduced, of a semi-circular form, to fit loosely one half of the tub's bottom. This board is placed on the curd, and a sixty-pounds' weight upon it, to press out the whey, which, draining to the lower side of the tilted tub, is ladled out into brass pans. Such parts of the THE DAIRY. 153 cuid as are pressed from under the board are cut off with a knife, placed under the weighted board, and again pressed ; the operation being repeated again and again, until the whey is entirely drawn from the curd. The whole mass of curd is then turned upside down, and put on the other side of the tub, to be pressed as before. The board and weight being removed, the curd is afterwards cut into pieces of about eight or nine inches square, piled upon each other, and pressed both with the weight and hand ; these several operations being repeatedly performed, as long as any whey appears to remain in it. The next thing is to cut the curd into three nearly equal portions, one of which is taken into a brass pan, and is there by two persons broken ex- tremely fine, a large handful of salt being added, and well mixed with it. That portion of curd being sufficiently broken, is put into a cheese-vat, which is placed to receive it, on a cheese-ladder over the cheese-tub, the vat being furnished with a coarse cheese-cloth. The second and third por- tions of the curd are treated in the same manner, and emptied into the vat, except that into the middle portion eight, nine, or ten times the quantity of salt is usually put. By some, however, each portion is salted alike, and with no more than three large handfuls to each. The breaking takes up more or less time, as the cheese was set together hotter or colder ; half an hour is, perhaps, the longest. The curd, when put into the cheese-vat in its broken state, is heaped above the vat in a conical form ; to prevent it from crumbling down, the four comers of the cheese-cloth are turned up over it, and three persons, placing their hands against the conical part, gently, but forcibly, press it together, constantly shifting their hands when any portion of the curd is starting from the mass, and folding down the cloth upon it. So soon as the curd adheres together so as to admit of it, a small square board, with a comer of the cloth under it, is put on the top with a sixty-pounds' weight, or a lever, such as that which has been described, is pressed upon it. Sev- eral iron skewers are at the same time stuck in the cone, as well as through holes in the side of the vat, from which they are occasionally drawn out and fixed in other spots, until not a drop of whey is discharged. The weight and skewers are then removed, and the corners of the cloth are held up by hands, or by a wooden hoop, while the curd is broken as small as possible, half way to the bottom of the vat, and the same operation of pressing and skewering is repeated. The four comers of the cloth are then taken up, while the vat is drawn away, and rinsed in warm whey ; a clean cloth is then put over the upper part of the curd, and it is returned inverted into the vat ; it is then broken half way through in the same manner as before, which several operations occupy from three to four hours. 154 farmer's hand-book. When no more whey can be extracted by these means from the cheese, it is again turned in the vat, and rinsed as before in warm whey. The cloth now made use of is finer and larger than the former, and is so laid that on one side it shall be level with the edge of the vat, and on the other wrap over the whole surface of the cheese ; the edges being put within the vat, thus perfectly enclosing the entire mass. In this stage of the business the cheese is still higher than the edge of the vat ; and, to preserve it in due form, recourse is had to a binder, about three inches broad, either as a hoop or as a cheese-fillet, which is a strong, broad, coarse sort of tape, which is put around the cheese, on the outside of the cloth, and the lower edge of the binder pressed down within the vat, so low as that the upper edge of it may be level with the surface. The cheese i§ then carried to the press, and a strong, smooth board being placed over it, the press is gently let down upon it, the usual power of which is about fourteen or fifteen hundred weight. In most dairies there are two presses, and in many three or four, of diiferent weights, the cheese being by some put first under the heaviest, and by others under the lightest. As soon as the cheese is put into the press, it is immediately well skew- ered, the skewers being of strong wire, eighteen or twenty inches long, sharp at the points and broad at the other end, the vat and bindei? having holes, seldom more than an inch asunder, to receive them. As the press always stands near the wall, only one side of the cheese can be skewered at the same time, and it must therefore be turned half way round, whenever that is necessary ; but this occasions no inconvenience, as the skewers must be frequently shifted, and many more holes are made than skewers to fill them. In half an hour from the time when the cheese is first put into the press, it is taken out again, and turned, in the vat, into another clean cloth ; after which it is returned to the vat, but is by some persons previously put naked into warm whey, where it stands an hour or more, for the purpose of hardening its coat. At six o'clock in the evening, the cheese is again turned in the vat into another clean cloth, and some dairy-women prick its upper surface all over an inch or two deep, with a view of preventing blisters. These, however, if they occur, can be remedied by opening them with a penknife and pouring hot water into the incision ; then press down the outer rind, put on a little salt, and place a piece of slate with a half- pound weight upon it. At six o'clock in the next morning, it is again turned in the vat, with a clean cloth as before, and the skewers are laid aside ; it is also turned two or three times more, both morning and evening, at the last of which finer cloths are used than those at first, in order that as little impression as possible may be made on its coat. After the cheese has remained about forty-eight hours under the press, it THE DAIEY. 155 is taken out, fine cloth being used merely as a lining to the vat, without covering the upper part of the cheese, which is then placed nearly mid-deep in a salting-tub, its upper surface being covered all over with salt. It stands there generally about three days, is turned daily, and at each turning well salted, the cloth being changed twice in the time. It is then taken out of the vat, in lieu of which a wooden girth, or hoop, is made use of, equal in breadth to the thickness nearly of the cheese, and in this it is placed on the salting-bench, where it stands about eight days, being well salted all over, and turned each day. The cheese is then washed in lukewarm water, and, after being wiped, is placed on the drying-bench, where it remains about a week ; it is then again washed and dried as before, and after it has stood about two hours, it is smeared all over with about two ounces of sweet whey-butter, and then placed in the warmest part of the cheese-room. On the cheese coming into the salting-house, it is, in some dairies, taken out of the vat, and after its sides are well rubbed with salt, is returned into the vat with a clean fresh cloth under it ; the top being covered with salt, it is placed on the salting-benches, turned and salted twice a day, and the doth changed every second day. On the salting-benches it is continued seven or eight days, when it is taken out of the vat, and with a wooden hoop, or cheese-fillet, around it, is put into the salting-tub, and managed as before described. While it is remaining in the warmest part of the cheese-room, it is, during the first seven days, rubbed every day all over, and generally smeared with sweet butter ; after which it should for some time be turned daily, and rubbed three times a week in summer, and twice in winter. The details of this process, however, apply only to cheeses of sixty pounds' weight, and the quantity of salt used to them is uncertain. The greatest is about three pounds each ; but much of it is wasted, and whether the cheese acquires much saltness in the salting-house, dairymen themselves are doubt- ful, though much salt is there expended. Respecting the heating of the milk, the practice must evidently vary according to the weather. The sponginess and heaving of the cheese, which are sometimes complained of, are faults which are to be attributed more to inattention on the part of the operators than to want of actual skill, — the remedy being careful breaking, good thrusting, frequent skewering, and powerful pressing ; they not im- probably arise partly from the use of cold and warm milk, which,, if mixed together, will generate air. Those of pungency and rankness, which are commonly imputed to impurity in the rennet, and by some to the want of salt, may be also more properly ascribed to the fermentation occasioned by the imperfect discharge of the whey. Gloucester Cheese. — When the curd is sufficiently firm for breaking, it 156 farmer's hand-book. Is gently and slowly cut crosswise, to the bottom of the tub, at about an inch apart, with a three-bladed knife of fourteen inches long. When it has stood five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, and the whey to come out as clean as possible, some of the whey is dipped out of it with a bowl, and the curd is again cut. This must also be at first done slowly, and with strokes at a considerable distance from each other, for, if performed hurriedly, a great sediment of curd will be found in the whey-leads ; it should, however, be gradually quickened, and the strokes taken nearer and nearer every time, one hand with the skimming-dish keeping the whole in motion, and turning up the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other cuts them as small as possible. This process may occupy a quarter of an hour. The curd is now allowed to settle during a quarter of an hour, when the whey is taken from it, and poured through a very fine sieve placed over the whey-leads, the curd being then cut into lumps, from which most of the re- maining whey escapes. The curd is then pressed down with the hand into vats, which are covered with large cheese-cloths of fine canvas, and placed in the press for half an hour, after which they are taken out, and the curd put into a mill, which tears it into small crumbs, and saves the laborious part of squeezing and rubbing it with the hands, while it also retains that portion of the oily matter which would be otherwise lost to the cheese, and thus occasions a great improvement in the making. In this pulverized state it is customary to scald the curd with hot whey, though some consider the cheese richer when not scalded, for this washes out a part of the fat. The whey should, nevertheless, be completely ex- tracted, and the curd fitted into the vat as compactly as possible, being rounded up in the middle, but only just so much as that it can be pressed down to a level. A cheese-cloth is then spread over the vat, and a little hot water is thrown over the cloth, as tending to harden the outside of the cheese, and prevent it from cracking. The curd is now turned out of the vat into the cloth, and the inside of the vat being washed in whey, the in- verted curd, with the cloth around it, is again returned to it ; the cloth is then folded over, and the vat put into the press, where it remains about two hours, after which it is taken out and dry cloths applied, which should be repeated in the course of the day ; it is then replaced in. the press until the cheese is salted, which is generally done within twenty-four hours after it is made^ The salting is performed by rubbing the entire cheese with finely-pow- dered salt ; for if the curd be salted before being put into the vat, its parti- cles do not intimately unite, and although it may become a good cheese, it is loose and crumbly, and never becomes a smooth, close, solid mass, like that which has been salted after it has been made ; but this is never done THE DAIRY. 157 until the skin is closed, for if there be any crack in it at that time, it will not afterwards close. The cheese is after this returned to the vat and put under the press, in which more cheeses than one are placed together, care being always taken to put the newest lowest in the press, and the oldest uppermost. The salting is repeated three times, — the cloths being removed after the second, in order to efface their marks, — and twenty-four hours are allowed to intervene between each ; thus the cheese is within five days taken from the press to the cheese-room, though in damp weather it should remain somewhat longer. There it is turned every day for a month, when it is ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping with a common knife, the operator sitting down to perform the operation. When it has been cleared from all scurf, it is rubbed all over with a woollen cloth dipped in paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown, and small beer ; and as soon as the state of the paint will permit, the edge of the cheese, and about an inch on each side, are rubbed hard with a cloth, every week. The quantity of salt is generally about three and a half pounds to the hundred weight, and one pound of annatto is enough for half a ton of cheese. The true characteristics of the double Gloucester cheese consist in its great richness, together with the mildness of its flavor, and that waxy texture which makes it cut, even in thin slices, without crumbling ; while its oily matter is retained in toasting, by merely softening itself, without being burned. Stilton Cheese. — This article, so proverbial for its richness, is made by putting the night's cream, without any portion of the skimmed milk, to the milk of the following morning ; but those who wish to make it very fine add a still greater quantity of cream, and of course the richness of the cheese depends upon the amount which is used. Butter is also said to be some- times mixed with it. The rennet is then added, without any coloring ; and, when the curd has come, it is taken out without being broken, and put whole into a sieve, or drainer, where it is pressed with weights until entirely cleared of whey. When dry it is put, with a clean cloth, into a, hooped chessart, and placed under the press, the outer coat being first salted. When sufficiently firm to be removed from this mould, the cheese is placed upoa a dry board, and tightly bound in a cloth, which is changed daily, in order to avoid all danger of cracks in the skin, until this is found to be tolerably well coated, after which it is no longer used, and the cheese re- quires no further care than being frequently turned upside down, and occar sionally brushed. The cheeses of this kind, although not much larger than the crown of an ordinary sized hat — the form of which they much resemble — and not weigh- ing more than about a dozen pounds, yet require nearly two years to bring 14 158 farmer's hand-book. them to maturity ; for they are not generally thought suiEoiently mellowed for use until considerably decayed ; and, in order to forward their ripeness, it is said that, besides their being placed in damp but warm cellars, they are sometimes wrapped in strong brown paper, and sunk in a hot-bed. It is also stated that the flavor of an old cheese may be communicated to a new one, of whatever species, by some portions being intermixed with it. This is done by extracting small pieces, with the sample-scoop, from each cheese, and interchanging them ; by this means, the now one, if well covered up from the air, will in a few weeks become thoroughly impregnated with the mould, and with a flavor hardly to be distinguished from the old one. The cheeses selected for this operation should, however, be dry, and the blue mould should be free from any portion of a more decayed appearance. Dunlop Cheese. — The Dunlop has acquired a high reputation for its mild richness, and is made as follows : When so many cows are kept on one farm as that a cheese of any tolerable size may be made every time they are milked, the milk is passed, immediately as it comes from them, through a sieve into the vat, and, when the whole is collected, it is formed into a curd by the mixture of the rennet. Where, however, the cows are not so numer- ous as to yield milk sufficient to form a cheese at each meal, the milk of another meal is stored about six or eight inches deep in coolers, and placed in the milk-house. The cream is then skimmed from the milk in the cool- ers, and, without being heated, is put into the curd-vat, along with the milk just drawn from the cows, and the cold milk, from which the cream has been taken, is heated so as to raise the temperature to about blood-heat. This, indeed, is a matter of great importance ; and though in summer 90° may be sufficient, yet, upon the average of winter weather, 95° will be generally found requisite. If coagulated much warmer, the curd becomes too ad- hesive, much of the butyraceous matter is lost in the whey, and the cheese will be found dry, tough, and tasteless ; but if too cold, the curd, which is then soft, does not part readily with the serum, and the cheese is so want- ing in firmness that it is difficult to be kept together ; indeed, even when the utmost pains are taken to extract the whey, and give solidity to the cheese, holes — which, in dairy language, are termed " eyes," " whey-drops," and " springs " — frequently break out, rendering them either rancid or insipid. About a table-spoonful of the liquid rennet is generally thought sufficient for twenty-five gallons of milk, and the curd is usually formed by it within twelve or fifteen minutes, though in some dairies — of course, in consequence of the difference of strength in the rennet — it does not come from three quarters of an hour to an hour, though double the quantity of rennet is used. The curd is then broken with the skimming-dish, or with the hand, and the whey ought to be taken off as speedily as i possible, though without pressing, THE DAIKY. 159 as the least violence has heen found to make it come off white, and thus weaken the quality of the cheese. The best method of separating the whey from the curd is, in the first instance, to lift the edge of the cheese-tub, and let the whey run off slowly from it into a vessel placed underneath. The tub is then let down to stand a little, after which it is turned one fourth round, and another collection emptied off; thus, by turning the tub a fourth time round every time, it is found to part from the curd more pure and quickly. When quite freed from the whey, and the curd has acquired a little con- sistence, it is then cut with the cheese-knife, gently at first, and more minutely as it hardens, after which it is put into the drainer (which is a square vessel, with small holes in the bottom, and a cover to fit inside), on which the lid is placed, with a cloth thrown over it ; and a slight pressure — say from forty to fifty pounds, according to the quantity of curd — being laid on, it is allowed to stand from fifteen to twenty minutes, or half an hour. It is then cut into pieces of two inches square, the h hey is again discharged, and the weight, being doubled, is replaced. The process of cutting it smaller every half hour, and increasing the weight until the press- ure is upwards of a hundred pounds, is continued for three or four hours. It is then 'cut very small, and minutely salted, half an ounce being suffi- cient. A clean cheese-cloth, rinsed in warm water and wrung out, being then placed in the chessart, the cheese is turned upside down, and laid, with in- creased weight, under the press, during the whole night. Next morning, and during the three or four days which it must remain in the press, it is daily turned repeatedly, dry cloths being eacli time used, and the weight is gradually increased, until the pressure amounts to at least a ton. When iiltimately taken from the press, the cheeses are generally kept during a week or ten days in the farmer's kitchen, where they are turned three or four times every day, and rubbed with a dry cloth. They are then removed to the store-room, which should be in a cool exposure, between damp and dry, without the sun being allowed to shine upon them, or yet a great current of air admitted ; this gradual mode of ripening being found essential to prevent the fermentation and heaving of the cheese, as well as the cracking of the rind ; but attention must be paid to rub them with a dry cloth, and turn them daily for a month or two, and twice every week after- wards. Practical Suggestions. — Such, then, are the most usual modes of manu- facturing the world-renowned cheeses to which we have alluded, in which the difference employed is in some cases very striking and important. Thus, in the preparation of rennet, the bag itself is in some places used, 160 farmer's hand-book. s while elsewhere the liquid decoction extracted from it is so much stronger that it occasions the curd to coagulate, as we have just seen, within fifteen minutes ; and in other places, it occupies an hour and a half, and not unfre- qnently more than two hours. Now, it is not only the delay which is thus disadvantageous ; for it is well known that the degree of heat at which the curd is set is one of the nicest points in cheese-making, and we can hardly imagine how that can be properly regulated, if it be allowed to stand so long cooling in the cheese-tub. The temperature to which the last night's milk is heated when there is not sufEcieiit to make a cheese that one meal, and the mode in which the cream is managed, differ also in various dairies ; nor does there appear any objec- tion to the practice of making the last night's milk into cheese, provided it be so gradually heated as that the cream does not run the risk of being con- verted into oil, as it does if too suddenly heated ; yet we believe that, when once separated from the milk, the cream can never again be so completely blended with it as to be entirely retained in the curd when set ; it conse- quently runs off with the whey, and leaves the cheese of inferior quality. The skewering of the curd, as practised in some dairies, is unknown in most other places ; and the labor of several persons employed for three or four hours in thrusting or hand-pressing it into the vat is an operation which is generally managed in other dairies with a couple of maids, and in one quarter of the time. The heaving of the cheese is attributed to the imperfection of its ferment- ation , occasioned in a great measure by the store-rooms — though com- monly placed over the cow-house — not being sufficiently heated, so as to occasion its sweating ; yet, in the account of the Dunlop cheese, objection is made to heated stores, as causing an improper degree of fermentation. The rankness of flavor, which is mostly attributed to the impurity of the rennet, is by others ascribed to the nature of the pasture. In this, both sup- positions may be right ; for it must be evident that it may be readily occasioned by the use of a large quantity of badly-prepared rennet ; and we learn from the management of one of the dairies, where every means were taken to avoid the fault, that the cheese still maintained an unpleasant taste of the same description, which could, therefore, have only arisen from the herbage. It was, however, at length uniformly overoome by throwing about half a tea-spoonful of saltpetre into the pail before the cows were milked. The cracks which frequently take place in cheese are also by many persons supposed to proceed from lime having been used as a manure upon land laid down to pasture, and afterwards fed by cows ; but this is probably a mistake, for it rarely occurs in the Dunlop sort, though perhaps as much lime has been applied to the soil where that description is made as THE DAIRV. 161 (o any other. It is more probably owing to the cheese being exposed, before it is dry, to too much draught of air. The mode of salting is also very differently conducted in several dairies ; in some the practice being to cure the cheese after it has been removed from the vat, vfhile in others the salt is minutely mixed into the curd pre- viously to its being put int6 the vat. Both practices, nevertheless, appear to be attended with equally good effects, but the latter certainly occasions less trouble, without any waste of salt. Skim-milk Cheese. — This article, made of milk from which the entire of the cream has been taken, is, of course, more or less palatable in propor- tion to the time during which the milk is allowed to stand ; for if that be so long as to deprive it entirely of the butyraceous or oily matter, it becomes indigestible, and so hard that, in some places, where large quantities of it are made, it is said that, instead of being cut with a knife, it is usually chopped with a hatchet. The milk should, if possible, not be allowed to become sour ; and the mo- ment it has been skimmed, it should be heated to no more than animal heat, or about 90° ; for, if put together too hot, its toughness will be increased, and as the curd coagulates more readily than that of full-milk cheese, the same degree of heat is not necessary. This is the chief perceptible difference in management, except that the curd is more difficult to be broken, and that the cheese needs less of the press ; but in all other respects the mode of making is the same. It will also be sooner ready for use than whole-milk cheese of the same weight. Cream Cheese. — This being, in general, only wanted for immediate use, is, in fact, little else than thick, sweet cream, dried by being put into a small cheese-vat of about an inch and a half in depth, perforated with small holes in tlie bottom, to allow any portion of the milk which may be mixed with it to escape. It is also covered with rushes, or the long grass of Indian corn, so disposed as to admit of its being turned without being handled, and it is never pressed except gently by the hand between cloths. It is thus kept in warm situations to sweat and ripen ; for, if once penetrated by frost, or even chilled, much of its mellow richness is lost, and it becomes comparatively insipid. The extreme of heat should, however, be equally guarded against, or it becomes rank ; and, therefore, some judgment is requisite in the time for using it in perfection. New Cheese. — New cheese is only made in the early part of summer, when the cows have been turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new milk, with about one third of warm water added before the rennet is put to it. The whey is then gently poured off, and the curd is carefully kept entire until put into a vat of considerable diameter, but only abotit an inch 14* 162 fakmek's hand-book. in depth. It is very gently pressed for a few hours only, and when removed from the vat, it is covered with a cloth, which is frequently changed, and so soon as the skin is formed it is considered fit for use. Parmesan Cheese. — This is prepared as follows : The cows are kept in the house nearly the whole year round, and fed during the summer with cut grass, and in the winter upon hay. The weight of these cheeses varies from sixty to one hundred and eighty pounds ; it consequently requires a great number of cows to produce one of even the smallest Weight, and as the farms in that territory are not large, the dairymen club together. The mode of making is this : The summer cheese, which is the best, is made of the evening milk, after having been skimmed in the morning, and at noon, mixed with the morning milk, which is also skimmed at noon. Both kinds of milk are poured together into a large copper cauldron, of the shape of an inverted bell, which is suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to be moved on and off the fire a.t pleasure. In this vessel the milk is gradually heated to the temperature of about 120°, after which it is removed from the fire and kept quiet for a few minutes, until all internal motion has ceased. The rennet is then added, whic^ is composed of the stomach of a calf, fermented together with wheaten meal and salt, the method of using it being to tie a piece, of the size of a hazelnut, in a rag, and steep it in the milk, while held in the hand, and squeezing it from time to time. A sufficient quantity of the rennet thus soon passes through the rag into the milk,' which is now to be well stirred, and afterwards left at rest to coagulate. Within about an- hour the coagulation is complete, and then the milk is again put over the fire, and raised to a temperature of 145°. During all the time it is heating, the mass is briskly stirred, till the curd separates in small lumps, when a part of the whey is taken out, and a few pinches of safiron are added to the remainder, in order to color it. When the curd is suffi- ciently broken, nearly the whole of the whey is taken out, and two pailfuls of cold water are poured in. The temperature is thus lowered, so as to enable the operator to collect the curd by passing a cloth beneath it, and gathering it up at the corners. It is now pressed into a frame of wood, placed on a solid platform, and covered by a round piece of wood fitting into the mould, with a heavy weight at top. In the course of the night it cools, parts with the whey, and assumes a firm consistence. The next day one side is rubbed with salt, and the succeeding day the cheese is turned, and the other side rubbed in like manner, this alternate salting being continued for about forty days. After this period, the outer cnist of the cheese is pared off, the fresh surface is varnished with linseed oil, the convex side is colored red, and the cheese is fit for market. THE DAIRY. 163 Potato Cheese. — Cheese, which is said to be of very fine quality, is partly formed from potatoes, being made in the following manner : — The potatoes of a large, white kind, are those to be preferred, and after being boiled, they are peeled, when cool, and reduced to a pulp, of equal con- sistence, either by being grated or ground in a mortar. To five pounds of this pulp there is added one pound, or about a pint, of sour raillt, with the usual quantity of salt to impart a flavor ; the whole is then kneaded together, and, being covered up, is allowed to remain for three or four days, according to the season. At the expiration of this time, the pulp is again kneaded, and placed in one or more small wicker baskets, in order to get rid of the. superfluous moisture ; the pulp is then moulded into form by being placed in small pots, in which the cheeses are allowed to dry in the shade during about fifteen days, after which they are put in store. The older they are, the better they become ; and, if kept dry, they will keep for a great number of years. Three kinds of this cheese are made : the first, or most common, according to the above proportions ; the second, with four parts of potatoes and two parts of curdled' milk ; and the third, with two parts of potatoes and four of milk. Ewe-milk is as frequently employed as that of cows, and imparts a pungent taste, which to many palates is found agreeable. Green or Sage Cheese. — The method pursued in the making of this article is, to steep over night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of sage, one part of marigold-leaves, and a little parsley, after they have been bruised. On the following morning, the greened milk is strained off, and mixed with about one third of the whole quantity intended to be run or coagulated. The green and white milks are run separately, the two curds being kept apart, until ready for vatting ; these may be mixed, either evenly and intimately, or irregularly and fancifully. The management is the same as for common cheese. CHAPTER V. FRUITS, mUIT-TREES, VINES, &c. STAHDAKD KINDS : APFLE APKICOT BAEBEEBT BLACKBEBltT CHEEttt ' CKAKBERET OUERAKT GTOOSBBEEET GEAPB MEDLAE MELON MULBEKEY NECTAKISE — PEACH PEAE — PLUM — (JCINOE EASPBEEBT STEAWBEEET. MIBCE1I.ANE0U9 KINDS : ALMOND BLUEBEEET BTIT- TEKNDT CHESTNUT PIG ^ PILBEST LEMON -^ LIME OLIVE ' — OBAKGE POMEGEANATE SHELLBAEK WALNUT WHOETLEBEEET ; WITB A MONTHLT CALENDAE OP OPERATIONS. THE APPLE. Propagation. — The apple may be propagated by seeds, cuttings of the blanches or roots, by layers, suckers, in arching, grafting, or budding; but the last two modes are principally for continuing varieties, and seeds are used to obtain new varieties. Soil and Situation. — It will grow in any common soil, neither too aandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry subsoil, and a ftee exposure. Mode of Bearing, dfc. — The apple bears invariably on the old wood, often on that of the preceding year ; and the blossoms continue being pro- duced from terminal and lateral spurSj or short, robust shoots, many years. These spurs require to be thinned out when they become crowded, to be shortened when they become too long, and to be cut in when they become so old as to produce smaller fruit than is desirablfe. Pruning. — The object of this is to admit the light and air among the branches, to preserve the symmetry of the head by causing it to spread equally and in the same form and manner on every side, and to eradicate diseased'branches. (See chapter on Grafting, Budding, Pruning, &o.) Fig. 96. Gathering and Keeping. — The common mode of keeping, by those who grow apples in large quantities for the market, is to lay them in heaps in FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 165 cool dry cellars, and cover them with abundance of straw. They may be kept in a cellar, packed in barrels, the interstices filled with dry sand, so as to exclude the air. Table apples may be spread upon shelves, or packed in sand, fern, or straw, in jars. VARIETIES. Summer Apples. Early Harvest. — This is one of the earliest varieties worthy of cultiva tion ; its form is flat, medium size, bright straw-colored skin, flesh tender Fig-. 98. \ and sprightly. In the Middle and Western States it grows well, and is much esteemed. Ripens in .Tuly and August. Red Astrachan. — This is a fruit of extraordinary beauty. It bears abun- dantly, the fruit being rather above the middle size, and very smooth and fair, roundish, a little narrowed towards the eye. The prevailing color is deep crimson, with sometimes a little greenish yellow in the shade, and occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white bloom. Stalk rather short, and deeply inserted. Flesh white, crisp, moderately juicy, of a rich, acid, agreeable 'flavor. Ripe in August, and does not keep a long time after gathering. Hardy, vigorous, and produc- tive. Adapted to various soils and climates. Fig. 99. 166 fakmer's hand-book. J^. 99. Fig-. 100. FKUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 167 Williams's Favorite. — This is a moderate grower and a good bearer, requiring a strong soil to perfect it. It is large and handsome, and ripens from the last of July to the first of September. Skin very smooth, nearly covered with a fine dark red. Flesh yellowish-white, of mild and agreeable flavor. Fig. 100. Piff. 101. Pig. 102. \ \^^ '/ 168 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. Juneating. — This is an old, favorite variety, of small size, flat form,' long and thin stalk ; color a pale green, turning to light yellow when ripe ; the skin has an oily feel ; the taste is pleasant. Bears abundantly in good ground, ripening from the last of June to the middle of July. Fig. 101. Summer Queen. — A popular apple, of the finest quality and appearance. Large size ; color fine, rich, yellow ground, mixed with red striped ; long stalk ; large tree ; great bearer ; flesh rich, yellow, and agreeable flavor. Best on sandy soil. Fig. 103. Fig. 103. Maiden's Blush. — An apple of large size and great beauty ; has a yellow ground, bright red cheek ; form flat ; smooth skin ; flesh white, tender, and sprightly ; ripens in August, hardy, and great bearer. Fig. 103. Remarks. — The above comprise some of the most universally esteemed Summer apples ; to which may be added the following well-established sorts, out of hundreds contained in the nursery catalogues : — American Summer Pearmain, a staple sort in New Jersey; Benoni; Cole, large and hand- some ; Early Red Margaret, a capital fruit, ripe in July ; Early Strawberry, much esteemed in New York; Large Yellow Bough, a fine dessert fruit; Summer Rose, Aesseri; Sapson; Tucier ; Manomet Sweeting; Spice Sweet; Red Quarrenden. Fall Apples. Porter.— 'A large and popular variety, very productive; skin bright yellow, with a blush ; flesh fine-grained and juicy ; ripens last of Septem- ber to October. FEUITS, FRUIT-TBEES, VJKES, ETC. 169 FdU Pippin. — A fine kind, quite popular in the Middle States. Large size ; round ; skin smooth, oily, bright greenish-yellow, slightly speckled ; flesh white, tender, juicy, of a superior flavor. Ripens from last of Octo- ber to December. Gravenstein. — Vigorous tree, and very productive. Fruit large ; color clear straw or yellow, with stripes of red ; flesh pale yellow, crisp, delicious Fiff. 104. 15 170 FAHMER S HAND-BOOK. flavor. A fine fruit for dessert, cooking, or cider ; ripe in September and October. Fig. 104. Eamio. — Sometimes called Gilpin, Romanite, Bread and Cheese, and Seek-no-furili£r. Popular in Middle States. Does well on a light sandy soil. Size not large ; flat; skin smooth; color variegated ; flesh greenish- white, tender, rich, slightly acid. Productive, ripening last of October to late in the season. Fig. 105. Yellow BeUflower. — A much-admired fruit, rather preferring a sandy soil. Fruit large, oblong ; skin smooth ; color pale yellow, with a blush ; flesh juicy, tender, sub-acid. A good bearer, ripening in November. Fi^. 106. Remarks. — The five preceding varieties are among the choicest Fall apples. There are others of nearly equal value, such as the Golden Sweet ; Richardson ; Summer BeUflower, of New York ; Bars, of Rhode Island ; Lyman's Large Summer, of Connecticut ; Winthrop Greening, of Maine ; Early Joe, of New York ; Meoaco, of Connecticut ; Superb Sweet, of Mas- sachusetts ; Fairbanks; Sassafras, or Haskell Sweet; Fall Wine; Lowell; Moses Wood; Jersey Sweeting; Inland Pippin; Pomme Royal, of Ohio; FEiriTS, FKUIT-TKEES, VINES, ETC. Fiff. 107. ni ITS FAEMEB S HAND-BOOK. Lyscom; Magnolia; ThompMns; Jewett's Red; Fameuse; Golden BaH; Hurlbut; Belmont; Herefprdsldre Peammin. 'Winter tmd Spring Apples. Empus Spitzenberg. — This apple possesses great beauty and exquisite flavor. Large size; skin fair and smooth; color bright red, with small spots ; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, and sprightly ; good bearer. Fig. 107. Baldwin. — Also called Pecker, and Steele's Red Winter. E^j^s very high in the northern markets. Fruit large, roundish ; colpr yeliiow and dull red, streaked and dotted; flesh pale-white, crisp, highly flavored. Good bearer, ripening from November to April. Fig. 108. Hubbardston Nonsuch. — A superior variety. The tree grows large, vigorous, and handsome ; bears abundantly. Fruit large, globujar, or coni- Flg. 109. cal ; color yellow, with stripes of pale red ; flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet, relieved by a slight acid. Ripens in November and December. Westjield Seek-no-further. — Same as the Seek-no-further of Connecticut — an old and valued fruit. Size large ; round; color pale red and green, with slightly yellow dots ; flesh white, tender, and rich. Fig. 110. FEUITS, FETIIT-TEEES, VDfES, ETC. 173 Nswt&am Pipfin. — The Green and the Yelhw are two distinct varieties of this apple. It grows well in the Middle and Western States. Size me&axa:; flesh fine, firm, crisp, juicy, very superior flavor. Fig. 110. Fig. 111. RoodMry Rmset. — Very popular, and ejrtensively grown. Medium size, 15* 174 farmer's hand-book. roundish, somewhat flat ; skin dull- green or brownish-yellow ; flesh green- ish white, compact, slightly acid, but rich flavored. Ripe in Dec. Fig. 111. Rhode Island Greening. — Also called Jersey; ani Burlington Greening. A very large fruit, flat at its base and summit ; color yellowish-green, with dark spots ; flesh yellow, tender ; rich, juicy, acid flavor ; ripens from Sep- tember to March ; bears abundantly. A universal favorite. Golden Pippin. — Beautiful dessert apple. Small, round, symmetrical; gold color, with dark dots ; flesh yellowish ; rich, sprightly flavor ; great bearer, flourishing best on a strong sandy loam. Ripens November to March. Lady Apple. — Superior for the table. Fruit small, but beautiful ; rather flat ; skin smooth ; color yellow and red ; flesh firm, white, well flavored. Piff. 113. Remarks. —It would be easy to extend the foregoing list of Winter and Spring apples, had we the room requisite. We have described the most desirable standard sorts for cultivation in this country, and subjoin the FKUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 175 names of other varieties of note : Detroit ; Northern Spy ; Blue Pearmmn ; Peck's Pleasant; Swaar ; Waxen Apple; King; Gloria Mundi; Norton's Melon ; Golden Reinette; Hollow Crown Pearmmn; Ladies' Sweeting; Dan- vers Winter Sweating; Fort Miami; Wood's Greening; Vandevere ; Jona- than; Minister; Old Nonsuch; Prior's Red; Leicester Sweeting; Tolman Sweeting; American Golden Russet; Little Pearmairi; Tewhsbury Winter Blush; Route's Janette; Rockrimmon; Never Fail. Cider Apples. The most valuable kinds for the manufacture of cider are the Harrison (Fig. 114) and Cornfield, extensively raised in the Middle States, being rich in flavor, and bearing very abundantly ; Hugh's Virginia Crab, small size, but very productive ; and the Red Streak. Crab Apples. , Red Siberian. — A beautiful tree, and a great bearer. Fruit small, about the size of a cherry, growing in clusters; color bright red, when matured; 176 fakmer's hanb-book. globular form, long and thin stem. Excellent for preserves. Ripe in Sep- tember. Fiff. 115. Yellow Siberian. — The tree, its habits and appearance — excepting the color of the fruit — is similar to the preceding. The color of the fruit is a fine, clear yellow, or a rich golden hue. Ripe in September and October. THE APRICOT. Propagation. — The apricot-tree may be raised from the stone, like the peach, or by budding, either on its own or plum stocks. Soil and Situation. — The soil which suits the apricot best is a rich black mould, though some recommend a light loam. It thrives better in the Middle States than at the North, where, when propagated, it needs shelter. VARIETIES. Early Apricot. — This variety is round-shaped, little inclined to oblong, with a furrow running from the stem to the head ; color bright yellow, with Pig. 116. a red cheek ; flesh yellowish white, rich, juicy, finely flavored. the month of July, which is one of its chief merits. It ripens in FRUITS, FKUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 177 Large Early. — This is a fine fruit, which also ripens in July. The fruit is of medium size, somewhat oblong ; color orange, rather pale ; flesh straw- color, rich, juicy, easily leaving the stone. An excellent sort. Fig. 117. Peach. — This is the largest, and by many considered the finest, of all the varieties. The form is round, with compressed sides ; color a yellowish Fig. 115. fkwn on the shady side, slightly colored with red towards the sun ; fleshi yellow, sprightly, juicy, and highly flavored. Ripens in August. Fig. 117. 178 farmer's hand-book. Brussels. — The most hardy tree, and, perhaps, the most certain, in our climate. It is a large, long fruit ; color a pale yellow, with a portion of red, and some spots ; flesh a pale yellow, firm, rich, tender, and juicy ; cleat at the stone ; does not grow mealy ; ripens in July. Fig. 118. Remarks. — Of the other cultivated sorts, the Moorpark and Bed Mascu- line are the most valuable and popular ; besides these, there are the Breda; Black; Roman — good for the North; White Masculine; Turkey. There are also some varieties exclusively ornamental. THE BARBERRY. Culture, (J-c. — But little need be said respecting this well-known shrub, which grows spontaneously in this country and in Europe, bearing a small acid berry, much used as a pickle and preserve. It is readily propagated by seeds and suckers, in a light, rich soil. F^. 119. VARIETIES. Common Red. — This is the variety most known, and its appearance and habits are too familiar to require any description here. Its color, when fully ripe, is a deep scarlet, with a slightly dark tinge. Stoneless. — This variety is not common, and is produced mostly by culti- vation. When free from seeds, it is, of course, the^est kind for preserves. THE BLACKBERRY. Propagation. — The Blackberry grows spontaneously, and in great pro- fusion, so that it is seldom cultivated. This, however, is sometimes done, by plantmg the seed in rich soil, and manuring pretty freely, or by setting ont layers. FRUITS, FRUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. 179 VARIETIES. Ttmling. — This variety is produced on a low shrub, with trailing branches. The fruit is large, roundish-oblong, and ripens in July. The best for all purposes. High. — This is an erect shrub, growing to the height of eight or ten feet. The fruit (Fig. 120) is generally somewhat smaller than the Trailing, and, though highly esteemed, is not so rich and highly flavored as the first- named. Sometimes raised in gardens. White. — Not much known — has white fruit. Dovhle White Flowering, and Double Pirik Flowering. — These are orna- mental varieties, growing very luxuriantly, and making a splendid appear- ance when trained on walls and fences. Not so common in the Northern States as elsewhere. THE CHERRY. Propagation. — The Cherry-tree is propagated by seeds and by suckers, when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone, when new varieties are wanted ; by scions, when working on old subjects ; and by buds, when the trees are young. If intended for dwarfs, bud the plants at two, and if for standards, at four, years of age. The spring succeeding this operation is the time for transplanting. Soil and Situation. — This tree will grow and thrive in a diversity of soils, but prefers a deep loam, in a free exposure. A wet soil is not adapted for its healthy growth and bearing ; neither should the soil be too rich, as it will then become thrifty in wood, without corresponding fruitfulness. VARIETIES. Black Heart — also known as Davenport^ s Early Black, New May Duke, AnseU's Fine Black, Spanish Black Heart, Black Russian, and Black Caroon — 180 faemee's hand-book. Fig. IZl. is an old and esteemed variety : fruit large, tieart-shaped ; color dark purple to deep black ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, well-flavored. Ripens last of June. MayDuke — also known as Early Duke, Holman's Duke, and JuneDuke — is one of the choicest and most thrifty sorts, and very extensively cultivated. The fruit is roundish, growing in clusters ; color red ; flesh soft and juicy, rich, and of fine flavor. Ripens in June. Bigarreau. — Yellow Spanish, "White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, by some. Size large to very large, heart-shaped and flattened; color pale FRUITS, FEUIT-TKEES, VINES, ETC. 181 yellow, or straw, slightly dotted; flesh yellowish tinge, firm, juicy, and sweet. Ripens towards the last of June, and is a superior sort. American Amber. — Early Amber, and New Honey, by some. Fruit medium size, growing in clusters of three or more ; color dark pink, when ripe ; flesh rich, sweet, amber color. Ripe in June. Fig. 122. Elton. — Size quite large, and heart-shaped ; tree hardy, with dark red footstalks to the leaves ; skin rather thin ; color somewhat variegated, with pale straw and red in streaks ; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet ; ripens in June, and bears abundantly. Much esteemed. Black Eagle. — A foreign sort, very popular in some parts ; size about medium; heart-shaped, somewhat globular; color purplish-black; flesh tender, juicy, and well-flavored. Ripens in July. Ox Heart. — A long, large, heart-shaped cherry, with a dark red skin; flesh rich, firm, with a fair flavor. Ripens early in July. Black Tartarean, —r Also known as Black Russian, Ronald's Large Black Heart, and Black Circassian. A large and superior fruit; heart-shaped; color blackish-purple ; flesh dark, firm, sweet, excellent flavor. Fine bearer, and is ripe about the first of July. Downer's Late. — Fruit large size, oval. Skin smooth, light red ; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, and delicious ; ripe in early part of July, lasting a con- siderable time. Certain and productive bearer. Fig. 123. Early White Heart. — A very early sort, ripening near the end of May. Size rather small, and oblong heart-shaped ; skin waxy white, tinged with Fig. 124. a pale red ; flesh firm, sweet, and finely flavored ; not so productive as the May Duke, and some others. 16 182 fakmer's hand-book. Remarks. — The other established and standard sorts are the Doctor, Belle de Choisy, Napoleon Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Morello, Knight's Early Black, Florence, Downton, Manning's Mottled, Holland Bigarreau, Elliott's Favorite, Hyde's Seedling, and Kentish. The Wild Cheery comprises several varieties, the best kind being the Blade, which is ripe in September or October, and is used for various medi- cinal purposes. The Choke Cherry is another kind, bearing a red berry, which matures earlier than the first-named. THE CRANBERRY. General Culture, <^c. — Comparatively speaking, the cultivation of the cranberry has not been reduced to any very certain and well-defined sys- tem. It is a native fruit, growing on a low trailing vine, found in bogs, meadows, swamps, and other wet lands. The berry is round, red, and quite acid, the finest variety being found in this country, where it commands a high price. Some persons enumerate three kinds, only one of which, sometimes called the Bell, is adapted to a dry soil. It grows, in a wild state, on the borders of cranberry bogs, spreading its way to upland soils, and is much larger than the other kinds, in its wild state. Persons engaging in the cultivation of this fruit may begin with the Bell; by commencing with those which have been cultivated, or naturalized to a dry soil, they will much sooner FRTJITS, FRUIT-TEEES, VmES, ETC. 183 accomplish their ohject, and with much less trouble and expense, as the plants multiply and increase abundantly. From one or two thousand plants, enough may be obtained, in two or three years, to plant a very large surface of ground. Select a moist soil, not liable to bake ; loamy soils, which are moderately dry, and contain a mixture of sand, are well adapted for the purpose. The soil should be prepared by ploughing, harrowing, and making it even, and should be marked out in drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, putting the plants in the drills about six inches apart ; hoe them slightly, till the roots become clinched, when further cultivation is unnecessary. In two or three years the plants may be expected to run together and cover the whole soil. It will yield from one hundred and fifty to four hundred bushels per acre, the size being two or three times as large as the wild, and of a superior flavor, and keeps sound from the harvest of one year to that of the next. The fruit is generally gathered in September, with wire-tooth rakes made Pig. 126. for the purpose (Fig. 126). One man may gather from thirty to forty bushels per day, with the aid of a boy to pick up the scattered fruit. The roots may be planted either in spring or fall ; the former from the time when the ground can be worked till the middle of May, and the latter in October and November. In some places, low and coarse meadows, of no value, have been drained and planted with the cranberry, and are thus made very profitable. After 184 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. draining the land well, and removing all brush and shrubs, the soil is ploughed, though it is usually sufficient to cover the surface with a heavy top-dressing of sandy soil, and then make holes four feet apart, into which the sods, or square bunches of the cranberry-roots, are planted. Some cranberry-growers think it expedient to flow such lands, the water being let on about the 20th of October, and remain till the 20th of May, or till the frosts have disappeared, in order that the blossoms may not be cut off in the spring, by appearing too early. To keep Cranberries. — When the fruit is to be exported, it is put, in a perfect state, into tight barrels, filled with water, and headed up, by which means they are kept sotind and good. Fig. 127. THK CURRANT. Propagation. — The best method of propagation is by cuttings, — the FRTTITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 18l> shoots of the last summer's production, of straight, clean growth, shorten- ing each from about ten to twelve or fifteen inches long, according to its strength. Plant in rows about two feet asunder, and about nine inches apart in the rows ; let nd limbs grow nearer than six inches to the ground ; prune every year, giving free access to the sun. To cultivate on an extensive scale, set Pig. 128. 186 farmer's hand-book. the bushes in rows, six or eight feet between each bush, with .intervals of proper width for passing across the rows. Soil and SitvMion. — A strongj rich, deep loam brings the fruit to its highest state of perfection, but it will thrive in a much poorer soil. Bed Dutch, — also known as Morgan's Red, and Red Grape, — is a large- sized currant ; color red ; rather mild flavor ; grows in long clusters. White Dutch. — White Leghorn, White Crystal, Morgan's White, Reeve's White, by some. Size large ; skin slightly yellowish ; flavor mild ; quite hardy. A variety much esteemed for the dessert. Fig. 127. Black Naples. — This is considered the best of the black varieties, being larger and more prolific. It is not so well suited to a southern clime. Champagne. — A pale-red fruit, large, and quite acid. Not of superior quality. May's Victoria. — This is a newly-introdaced sort, bearing a large berry, of a brilliant red color. The flavor is very superior, and the bush is very productive. By many persons it is esteemed the best of all the colored kinds. Fig. 128. Remarks. — The other notable varieties are Knight's Early Red, Com- mon Black, and Striped Fruited. The varieties described above are, how- ever, the best. THE GOOSEBERRY. Propagation. — The mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring new ones. Plant the cuttings in autumn. Soil and Situation. — Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottomKand well manured, will suit the gooseberry ; that which is soft and moist producing the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees over- much shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill-flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Keep well pruned. Capper's Top Sawyer. — A large, round, hairy fruit ; branches somewhat drooping ; ripens somewhat late ; considered very fine. Melting's Crown Bob. — Berry of large size, oblong, bright red, hairy, good flavor, rather late. It is highly recommended by growers, as an excel- lent sort, and profitable to cultivate in gardens or elsewhere. Fig. 129. PEUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 129. 187 Houghton's Seedling. — This variety is said not to mildew under any circumstances. It grows very thrifty, and bears abundantly, though the Pig. 130. berry is not so large size as some others ; flesh soft and sweet ; skin deli- cate ; color dark. A very superior sort, if not the very best. Fig. 130. Woodward's Whitesmith. — Large, white, roundish, erect branches, fine flavor ; considered an excellent kind. Coleworth's White Lion. — White, roundish-oblong, downy ; ripens late ; excellent flavor, branches drooping, good bearer. Orompton's Sheba Queen. — Fruit good size, rather early ; form roundish- oblong ; downy ; good flavor. Early Green Hairy. — Fruit small, round, and hairy ; deep green ; flavor excellent ; ripens quite early. Red Warrington. — Fruit large and roundish ; excellent flavor. Remarks. — Farrow's Roaring Lion, Parkinson's Laurel, Keene's Seed- ling, Early Sulphur, Yellow Ball, Early White, White Honey, Pitmaston Green Gage, Old Rough Red, Hill's Golden Gourd, Prophet's Rockwood, Nixon's Green Myrtle, and Wellington's Glory, are also well-known sorts. 188 farmer's hand-book. THK GRAPE. Propagation. — Vines are propagated in the open ground by layers and by cuttings. .The former is the readier mode, if the shoots be laid down in pots, and planted out in summer. The latter mode is much the better. To provide cuttings to be planted at the proper season, select, at the autumnal pruning, a sufficient number of shoots of the preceding summer's growth, such as are well ripened, of a medium size, and moderately short-jointed . Cut them into convenient lengths of six or eight buds each, leaving at the ends not less than a couple of inches of the blank wood for the protec- tion of the terminal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings about nine inches in the ground, in a warm and sheltered situation, where they will be pro- tected from the severity of winter. The best time to plant them out is about the last of March, or fore part of April. Soil and Situation. — A light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more than eighteen inches deep, on a dry bottom of gravel, stones or rocks, is the best. The warmer the aspect, the greater perfection does the grape usually attain. Warmth alone is not, however, sufficient ; shelter from the withering in- fluence of the wind is equally necessary. Culture, <^c. — Manure composed of bones, whole or crushed, the horns and hoofs of animals, as well as their carcasses, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, feathers, hair, urine, blood, — indeed, almost every variety of manure may be used to fertilize and enrich the soil occupied by the vine. If very rich manures are used, they should be mixed with turf and sand, otherwise so much benefit does not accrue. Pruning. — In pruning the vine, always cut upwards, and in a sloping direction ; always leave an inch of blank wood between the terminal bud, and let the eye be cut on the opposite side of the bud ; leave as few wounds as possible, and let the surface of every cut be perfectly smooth. In cutting out an old branch, prune it even with the parent limb, that the wound may heal quickly ; prune so as to obtain the quantity of fruit desired on the smallest number of shoots possible ; never prune in frosty weather, nor when frost is expected ; never prune in the spring, as this causes bleeding, and therefore a wasteful and injurious flow of sap ; prune as soon after the first of October as the gathering of the fruit will permit. Training. — To train a vine on the surface of a wall is to regulate the position of its branches, the principal objects of which are, to protect them from the influence of the wind ; to bring them into close contact with the wall, for the purpose of receiving the benefit of its warmth ; to spread them at proper distances from each other, that the foliage and fruit may receive the full effects of the sun's rays ; and to retard the motion of the sap, so as to FRUITS, #EUIT-TREES, VINKS, ETC. 189 secure the formation of fruit-buds. The flow of sap, it must be remembered, is always strongest in a vertical direction, and weakest in a downward one ; on this account, serpentine training is preferable, being calculated to check the too rapid ascent of the sap, and to make it flow more equally into the fruiting-shoots, and those intended for future bearers. Black Hamburgh. — A well-known variety, but more adapted to the vinery than for out-of-door culture. The bunches are quite large size ; berries large, roundish, slightly oval ; skin thick, deep purple or nearly black ; flavor rich and sweet. A productive and valuable sort. Miller's Burgundy. — A very hardy and fruitful grape, very popular, and extensively grown. Its leaves are very thick J covered on both sides with a thick down. The bunches are small, but solid ; skin thick, of a blue-black color ; flesh tender, juicy, and pleasant. Muscat of Alexandria. — There are the White and the Red Muscat, the fonner (a) being large in the berry, of oval size, and fruiting in long, large 190 F.4I1,MER'S hahd-book. bunches ; the skin is thick ; flesh firm, juicy, musky flavor, very agreeable eating ; hangs a long time on the branches. The Red resembles the White, except in color (b). Ripens finely on walls. Fig. 133. Catawba. — This is a native sort, highly esteemed. It is hardy, vigorous, and productive ; large bunches ; color deep purple and palish-red ; thick Piff. 133. skin ; pulp sweet, rich, finely flavored. Ripens first part of October. Supe- rior for wine, or eating, and succeeds well in any tolerably fair situation. Isabella. — A hardy plant, very productive, and, in this country, almost universally grown. Bunches large, rathfer loose ; berries fair size, oval ; Pig. 134. skin thick, purplish black ; flesh soft to firm, juicy, sweet, aromatic. A most valuable variety, rather late at the North, but seasonable in the Middle and Western States. Alexander. — Known also as the Schuylkill Musmdel. A certain and pro- lific bearer ; large, bluish-black berry ; oval ; skin thick ; flesh firm, sweet, musky flavor. Not so thrifty at the North as the two previous sorts. Smppemong. — Distinguished by its diminutive leaves; grows wild in some parts of the United States, and is in considerable use as a wine firuit, for which purpose it is esteemed one of the best. The White and the Blaci are scarcely dissimilar in any particular, except their respective colors. The bunches are rather small ; berries large, pretty round ; thick skin ; flesh sweet and juicy, with a musky taste and flavor. Remajies. — There arc numerous other varieties worthy of an extended FEUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 191 notice, on account of their peculiar adaptedness to particular sections, and their distinctive uses, such as — the Royal Muscadine, Early Black July, Black Prince, Bland, Ohio, Lenoir, Diana, Winnie, Clinton, Cunningham, Warren's Madeira, Elsinimrgh, Norton's Virginia, White Sweetwater, Black Sweetwater, Black, Grizzly, White Fronlignan, and Missouri. THE MEDLAR. Propagation. — It is raised by grafting, by layers, also by seed, planted while fresh, and in the fall. The seed does not germinate for some time ; the layers will root in autumn : the pear is the best stock upon which to graft. Tree low ; fruit round, size of a plum ; pulp thick, with five stones. Soil and SiiiuUion. — Any common soil will answer, but a well-drained, retentive loam, suits it best. Gather the fruit in November, and spread singly upon sand. VARIETIES. Blake's Large. — A variety not very frequent, though by some thought one of the best. German or Dutch. — The tree is very irregular, dwarfed; fruit large, and, all things considered, the best of all the sorts. Nottingham. — This is small-sized, and of a quick, pungent flavor. Stoneless. — Not so good quality, but may be preserved better than the other kinds. THE MELON. Propagation, <^c. — Propagated by seeds, planted in shallow hills, five or six feet apart each way. From six to ten seeds in a hill will suffice, and the soil which covers them should be about half an inch deep. When up, thin the plants to two or three in a hill, and draw the earth up to them. Hoe, and keep free from weeds. Soil and Situation. — Melons require a warm, dry, rich soil, with a small quantity of manure in each hill. They are easily raised in almost every part of the country, though they flourish better in the Middle and Southern States than further north. VARIETIES. Water-melon. — The sub-varieties of this sort are the Imperial, Carolina, New Jersey and Spanish ; also, the Citron. These are well-known kinds, and are extensively grown. By many they are considered as forming a dis- 192 farmer's hand-book. tinct species of fruit, of themselves. The first-named is a productive sort, nearly round ; color palish-green, and white ; flesh pink, rich, pleasant. The Carolina (Fig. 135) is a very popular variety ; large size ; oblong ; color green and white ; flesh red ; sweet, agreeable flavor. Fig. 135. Mask-melon. ^K delicious fruit, a native of Persia. The varieties are numerous, easily propagated from seeds. The principal sorts are the Seising, an egg-shaped, light straw color, highly flavored variety ; Green Hoosainee, a superior. and prolific sort ; Large Germek, round, sea-green colored, richly flavored, and productive ; Early Canteleup, ripens early and bears well, rather small-sized, thin skin, orange-colored flesh, juicy, and of good flavor; Nutmeg, green-fleshed, large, roundish oval, tender, sweet, pleasant flavor. Besides these, the Green Citron, Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Sock, and Sweet Ispahan, are good kinds, worthy of cultivation. THE MULBERRY. Propagation. — It may be propagated by seed, sown in a warm border, but this mode is rarely pursued; by layers — lateral shoots obtained by heading down the tree near to the ground ; by cuttings, having two thirds of their length old wood, and one third yearling ; or by lopping off a straight branch, eight feet long,, from a large tree, — the nearer the trunk the better. Make it clear of every little stem, then dig a hole four feet deep, plant the naked branch firmly in the ground, leaving around it a cavity to hold water, when the season is dry. In two years it will bear fruit. Soil and Situation. — It prefers a moist, deep, loamy soil, and a some- what free exposure to the south. The soil should not be cold, or wpt, and should be well drained. It may be trained against a wall, but this requires much space. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 193 VARIETIES. Hed. — This is a common variety, growing wild in the United States. The iiuit is of a deep-red color, and of excellent flavor. Black. — This variety hails ftom Asia Minor, but thrives in a northern Pig. 136. climate. The berry is large and long, black, and of a rich aromatic taste. It is used in making wine, or cider, mixed with apples. Remarks. — The Johnson is a new variety, and it bids fair to sustain the high character given it by Professor Kirtland. Fruit large, oblong, of a mild and pleasant flavor. Of the White Mulberry there are several sorts ; not, however, so valuable for their fruit as for silk. THE NECTARINE. Remarks. — The nectarine is not uncommonly classed with the peach,, as a distinct variety, the peculiarities consisting in the fruit being smooth and naked, without fur or down, and the flesh being firmer. There is no doubt of their identity, as the seed of the peach sometimes produces the nec- tarine, and vice versa. It is propagated and grown the same as the peach (which see) . varieties. Boston. — Also known as Lewis's and Perkins's Seedling. Originated in Boston, where it was raised from a peach-stone. The fruit is very hand- some, of medium size, and heart-shaped ; color bright yellow and red ; flesh firm, sweet, pleasant. One of the best varieties for general cultiva- tion. Red Roman. — One of the most hardy. It is a large, handsome, red 17 194 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. cling-stone ; color dark next the sun, the shaded side yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, and vinous. Ripe in August and September. A good bearer. Fig. 137. Jaune lAsse, or Eoussanne. — A small, round ftuit ; skin yellow, o, little spotted with red towards the sun ; skin smooth ; flesh yellow, firm, sweet) highly flavored. Ripens in September and October. Fig. 137. Fiff. 133. / ^ Elruge. — A fine fruit, very popular. Medium size ; roundish ; pale- green, deep-red next the sun ; flesh palish-white, tender, juicy ; ripe in September. FKUITS, FRUIT-TKEES, VINES, ETC. 195 Early Violet.' — Medium size ; green, and purplisli red; flesh pale yel- low, and pinkish; soft, rich, sweet, agreeable flavor. Ripe last of August. Good bearer ; very superior. Musk Violet. — This fruit is of large size ; color a yellowish- white, -a fine red violet towards the sun, with whitish spots ; flesh yellowish- white, firm, vinous, sweet and musky. Ripe in September. Fig. 138. Remarks. — Hunfs Tavmey, Dovmton, New White, Broomfield, Pitmas- ton^s Orange, and Due du Tellier's, axe recommended to growers. THE PEACH. Propagation. — It may be propagated by planting the stone in the fall, at a depth of two or three inches, and in one or two years they will be of sufiicient size to transplant. A common way of increasing them is by bud- ding on the plum stock or the bitter almond ; usually inoculated on the peach stock. Plant from ten to twelve feet apart, and the land may be cul- tivated with manured crops of com, potatoes, vines, or pulse. Soil and Situation. — A rich, sandy loam is the best, — a natural or arti- ficial soil of this description. It is best not to manure much, except when the land is also occupied by other crops, like those just mentioned. Culture, (Sfc. — When transplanted, they should not be very large, — generally not more than two years' growth. Good varieties are obtained by budding ; grafting is thought, on the whole, to be hardly of much benefit. VARIETIES. Ikirly York. — One of the earliest and most generally cultivated varieties. Size medium, roimdish, slightly oval ; skin thin, somewhat dotted ; color red ; flesh greenish-white, tender, rich, lively flavor. Ripens middle or last of August. Red Cheek Melocoton. — A large yellow clear-stone, with a red cheek ; flesh rich and juicy ; ripens in September, — sometimes earlier. Gross Mignonne. — A large, round peach, flattened at the ends, divided by a deep furrow into unequal parts ; the stem small, a small point at the blossom end ; skin covered with a thin fine down ; color a clear green, approaching to yellow, deep brownish-red towards the sun ; flesh fine, melt- ing, juicy, delicate and white, tinged with red near the stone ; the juice is sweet, vinous and sprightly. Ripens in August. Fig. 139. George the Fourth. — Medium size, globular form; color pale yellow and dark red ; flesh melting, rich, superior flavor. Ripens in September. Coolidge's Favorite. — Fruit large and roundish ; skin smooth, white, 196 farmer's hand-book. with red towards the sun ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, finely flavored. Hardy, and a good bearer, ripening early in September. Much thought of. Fig. 139. Alberge. — Size medium ; yellow skin, with dark red cheek ; flesh yel- low, tinged with red, melting, rich, sweet, and vinous flavor. It is deeply Pig. 140. ' ii'i I 'III I/, i\ Vii! till III III'" l' V^tWiiiiii'iN,^/i^ X, / i^ indented by a seam running from the stem to the blossom end. Ripens last of August. FRTJITS, FKUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. 197 Bergen's Yellow. — Large size, round, slightly depressed ; color red and orange, dotted ; flesh yellow, tender, rich and luscious ; good bearer, and ripens first of October. A valuable sort. Morris White. — Fruit large, round or oval; color white, greenish, slight purple tinge ; flesh white, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripe middle of September. Oldmixon Freestone. — A beautiful, large, flat peach, with a white skin and red cheek ; flesh rich, juicy, luscious. Ripe in August. Red Magdalen. — Medium size ; round, flat next to the stem ; color a fine Fig. 141. \ I I ; red towards the sun ; flesh white, reddish near the stone, sweet and sprightly. Ripens in September. Hardy and productive. Crawford's Late. — Fruit large, round, and handsome; yellow in the shade, deep red towards the sun ; flesh yellow, reddish near the stone, juicy, tender, rich, finely flavored. Ripens about the last of September or first of October. Red Rareripe. — An excellent fruit, frequently called Morris's Red Rare- ripe ; size quite large, round ; color red and white ; flesh tender, rich, melting, highly flavored. Ripens in August. Yellow Rareripe. — Size large, globular ; color yellow, and purplish red ; flesh yellow, red near the stohe ; tender, juicy, vinous flavor. Ripens in September. Noblesse. — A large and handsome clingstone ; skin white, with a pale blush, and some dark brownish spots; flesh rich and highly flavored. Ripens in September. 17* 198 farmer's hand-book. Lemon Freestone. — A pale yellow, whitish fruit ; medium size ; flesh juicy, tender, melting, and highly flavored. Ripens in September. Monstrous Cling. — A large, roundish-oval fruit ; color palish-yellow, with deep red tinge ; flesh solid, juicy, and sweet. Ripens in October. Late Heath. — Large, oblong, terminating in a point at the head ; color rich cream-colored white, sometimes faintly blushed ; flesh rich, tender, Pig. 142. juicy, and melting. Hardy, and ripens in September, lasting into Novem- ber. Early Tillotson. — A medium size, round fruit ; color yellowish white, red, with dots ; flesh white, red near the stone, juicy, melting, excellent flavor. ^ Remarks. — The varieties, besides those mentioned above, worthy to be recommended for general cultivation, are the Jaques, White Imperial, Pres- ident, Late Admirable, Ward^s Late Free, Golden Ball, Hyslop's Cling, Old Neivington, Malta, Nutmeg, Belle de Vitry, Incomparable, Catharine, Chan- cellor, and Late Purple. FRUIT$, FRUIT-TKEES, VINES, ETC. 199 THE PEAR. Propagation. — The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, bul not so readily by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very indifferent plants, and are usually rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding ; by seed, either for the purpose of obtaining new va- rieties, or to produce pear stocks. But, as the varieties of the pear do not reproduce themselves from the seed, and seedlings are slow in giving their fruit, the pear is principally grown by scions and buds. These are placed on pear or quince stalks, according as taste or interest may invite to early and small crops, of fine quality, or to later and more abundant ones, of infe- rior character. In the former case, the stem of the quince is advantageously employed, and in the latter, that of the common pear, and without any ma- terial difference in the operation, excepting that the feebler the stem, the nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or bud. The second year after budding or grafting, the plants may be removed to the places where it is intended they shall stand. Soil and Situation. — Though the pear-tree may be made to grow almost anywhere, still it succeeds poorly on the north sides of hills, or in stiff, dry soils, and still worse on those having a wet subsoil. Some of the later and finer varieties require a deep, substantial loam, occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well-rotted dung ; and some of the best aspects the garden can furnish are also desirable. Culture, <^c. — Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young trees should be left, in a great degree, to regulate their own shape. To produce a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the deficient side, and leave the other to itself. Trees of other forms, and intended for walls and espaliers, require more labor and management, and a degree of both summer and winter pruning ; the former of which consists in rubbing off all foreright, ill-placed, spongy shoots, before they become hard, while the latter consists in sparing all such well-placed and thrifty laterals as may be necessary for preserving the form given to the head of the tree, and cutting away all others close to the branch from which they grow. If the older wood be diseased or redundant, cut it away also, or shorten it down to some healthy and promising shoot. When an old tree becomes unproductive, either cut down within about two feet from the ground, and train up anew some selected shoots which may have pushed from the stump, or take off at its base every branch which does not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs from such other branches as by this rule will be left. Into these retained branches, at their subdivisiops, and at different distances from their bases, 200 fakmer's hand-book. quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully inserted, which, when about twelve inches long, must be trained downwards between the branches. VARIETIES Bartlett. — One of the most valued sorts, and grown in almost every part of the country. Fruit large, pyramidal ; color yellowish at maturity, thin. Fig. 143. and smooth ; flesh white, delicate, buttery, sweet, juicy, highly flavored. Hardy, productive, keeps well, ripens in October. It stands about number one among all the pear-tribe. Madeleine. — Medium size ; pale yellow, sometimes with a blush towards the sun ; form obovate, tapering to the stalk ; flesh white, tender, juicy, refined flavor ; one of the best and earliest pears ; hardy, and a good bearer. Dearborn's Seedling. — A valuable early sort; small, symmetrical; color light yellow, with a few dots ; flesh white, tender, sweet, and sprightly flavor. Is quite productive, early, ripening from the middle to last of August. Winter Nelis. — A fine winter variety ; size rather above medium ; roundish-obovate ; color pale straw, slightly brown ; flesh white, soft, sugary, rich, musky-flavored ; ripe in December; not very productive, but excellent. Kg. 144. FEOTTS, FBUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. F^. 144. 201 Pig. 146. fllli. V . VacxN 202 farmer's hand-book. Seckel. — Size generally small ; form regular, round at the blossom end, contracting gradually towards the stem ; color sometimes yellow, with a bright red cheek, and at other times a complete russet, without any blush ; flesh melting, juicy, exquisitely flavored. Ripe in Sept. and Oct. Fig. 145. Tyson. — A medium-sized fruit ; color light straw, with brownish blotches ; flesh lightish-white, rich, sweet, fragrant ; ripens in September. Beurre Bosc. — Fruit large and long ; color light cinnamon russet ; flesh Pig. 146- white, rich, tender, delicious. A moderately productive variety, ripening in October and November. Fig. 146. FRUITS, FEUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. 203 Bloodgood. — Large size ; form oval ; color dull yellow, with darkish spots ; flesh soft, melting, agreeahle flavor ; early and prolific. Ripens in August. Flemish Beauty. — Fine large fruit ; color dull yellow and brownish ; flesh yellowish tinge, sweet, tender, juicy, sugary, musky flavor. Ripe in October. One of the best sorts, though not so much cultivated as it deserves. Golden Beurre of Bilboa. — Medium size, oblong, roundish at the crown, contracted towards the summit ; color light yellow, with russet spots ; flesh tender, melting, rich, excellent flavor. Ripens in October, and very fruitful. Summer Frank Real. — Medium size, obovate, thickest in the middle ; color light yellow, with brownish-green dots ; flesh melting, rich, fine- grained, sweet, and of superior flavor. Ripens in September ; hardy ; fruitful. Muscadine. — Medium size, roundish, symmetrical ; color yellowish-green, with dots of brown ; flesh white, buttery, rich, musky flavor. Ripens in Pig. 147. / / September, bearing abundantly, and is altogether a very valuable sort. 204 farmer's hand-book. Remarks. — There are many other varieties which might be strongly recommended, but we can only give the names, without attempting to give a full description. Among the Summer, or early sorts, worthy of being no- ticed, are the Summer Melting, Stevens's Genesee, Honey, Jargonelle, Beurri d'Amaulis, and the Bmtsselet de Rheims; of the Autumn sorts, among the best are the Belle Lucrative, Marie Louise, Swan's Egg, Cushing, Frederic of Wurtemburg, Fulton, Saint Michael, Bleeker's Meadow, and Belle el Bonne; of the Winter sorts, the most desirable are the Colmar, Columbia, Vergou- leuse. Pound, St. Germaine, Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Beurre Biel, and Passe Colmar. THE PLUM. Propagation. — The plum, like other stone-fruit, is mostly propagated by budding, the stocks being the free-growing plum, either raised from seed, or, more commonly, from layers or suckers. Soil and Situation. — The plum naturally does not grow in so light a soil as the cherry, nor in so clayey a soil as the apple ; and in a state of culture, a medium soil, on a dry subsoil, is found to be the best. Only the finer kinds are planted against walls. 'Culture, <^c. — All the varieties produce their blossoms on small spurs, which are protruded along the sides of the shoots of one, two, or three year^' growth, — generally in the course of the second or third year. These spurs, if duly thinned, and, when necessary, cut in, will continue bearing for five or six years, or longer. Standard trees require very little pruning, beyond that of occasionally thinning out the branches, which should be done before midsummer, to prevent the gum from appearing on the wounds. Plum-trees against walls or espaliers are generally trained horizontally. Old trees may be renovated by heading in or cutting down. The plum is forced in the same manner as the peach. Jefferson. — A superior dessert sort. Fruit large, oval, contracting towards the stalk ; color bright, deep yellow, with a purplish-red cheek, and a whitish ,bloom ; flesh orange, quite juicy, richly flavored. Ripens from the middle to the last of September ; a good bearer. Fig. 148. Green Gage. — Of this plum there are several varieties. The size, in good soils, is large, the form round, and the skin green ; the flesh is green, melting, juicy, and exquisitely flavored. Ripens in August and September. Fig. 149. Washington. — A well-known variety ; originated in New York State ; large, oval ; color bright yellow, with red dots ; flesh yellow, sugary, ex- cellent eating. Hardy ; shy bearer ; ripens in September. FROTTS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Piff. 148. 205 206 fakmee's hand-book. Coe^s Golden Drop. — Thrifty growth; good bearer; fruit large and handsome, oblong; color greenish-yellow, with violet and crimson dots; flesh orange color, rich, juicy, finely flavored. Ripens in September. Purple Favorite. — Large size ; roundish ; color light brown, with a shading of purple, and bright yellow dots ; flesh greenish, soft, sweet, and Fig. 160. / excellent flavor. Ripens last of September, and bears well. Red Gage. — Known also as Long Scarlet, and Scarlet Gage. Medium size ; oblong, tapering towards the stalk ; color brilliant red toward the sun, and yellowish in the shade, covered with a light purplish bloom ; flesh yel- low, rich, and sweet. Ripens first of September. Morocco. — Medium size; round; deep purple; flesh slightjy yellow, tender, sweet, richly flavored. Ripens about the last of August. Drop d' Or. — (Joth of Gold, by some. Small, round ; color rich, brilliant yellow, reddish toward the sun ; flesh yellow, sweet, not so juicy as some kinds. A clearstone ; ripens in August ; a pretty fai bearer. Yellow Egg. — Large size ; oval, narrowing at both ends ; color yellow, whitish dots, and a thin white bloom ; flesh somewhat coarse, yellow, slightly acid. Ripens in September. A better cooking than eating plum. Bleecker's Gage. — Medium size, nearly round, very regular ; color dark yellow, with deep red spots ; flesh yellow, sweet, finely flavored. Ripens in September. The tree is hardy, productive, and the fruit much esteemed in some parts. Fig. 151. FKUITS, FRtriT-TREES, VINfiS, ^TC. Fig. 151. 207 Duane^s Purple. — Large size ; oval, or oblong, bulging on one side F^. 152. /^ // ^^ "x 208 farmer's hand-book. color reddish-purple toward the sun, palish-red in the shade, with a few yellow specks, and a lilac bloom ; flesh light brown, juicy, lively, slightly acid. Ripens middle of August. Royal Hative. — Also called Early Royal. Medium size ; round ; color purple, with dark yellowish spots and streaks, blue hloom ; flesh yellow, tender, richly flavored. Early, thrifty, productive ; ripens early in Sep- tember. M'Laughlin. — Large size, round ; color brownish-yellow, with a red tinge ; flesh melting, juicy, fine flavor, though not superior. Ripens in August. Frost Gage. — Fruit rather small ; roundish ; color dark purple, with brown dots ; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, saccharine, agreeable flavor. Fig. 153. Ripens in October ; moderately productive : a good sort for cooking pur- poses. Remarks. — We have enumerated the most valuable sorts, though there are others more adapted, perhaps, to certain localities, or preferred by ama- teurs ; such as the Imperial Ottoman, Elfrey, Smith's Orleans, Flushing Gage, Red Diaper, Lombard, Black Dawson, Huling's Superb, Blue Dwarf Gage, and Prince's Imperial Gage. THE QUINCE. Propagation, (^c. — The quince is, as all know, a low, much-branched, crowded, and irregular tree, blossoming in May or June, and ripening its fruit in October or November. It is generally propagated by layers, but cuttings root without difficulty. The best standards are produced by graft- ing, at the height of five or six feet, on the pear, the thorn, or the mountain ash. The quince is generally planted in the orchard, in some part where the FRUITS, FEXriT-TKEES, TINES, ETC. 209 Boil is good, and not very dry ; it bears on two years' old wood, and requires little pruning, except thinning out irregular, crowding, or decaying branches. The fruit is kept by packing in sand or dry straw. It is said that the quince will grow on any soil that will give good corn or potato crops. The soil should be well prepared by ploughing and sub- soil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrow manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence, — spring or autumn answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches should be shortened in, one half of the last year's growth, before the trees are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers. This will secure life and thrift to the trees. In orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart, the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, pre- pared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do so for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably cropped with potatoes, and so forth. The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf. The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or decayed wood, or any quite superfluous branches. In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovel- fuls of fresh stable manure ; and when the spring opens, plough the ground between the rows, and Jightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this, give the whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packing- houses. VARIETIES. Apple-shaped. — This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape ; color brilliant yellow ; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becoming soft when stewed. Fig. 154. Pear-shaped. — Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavoredj as the Apple, and not generally so much esteemed. 18* 210 farmer's HAND-BeOK. Pig. 154. Portugal. — This variety is more juicy, less harsh, better colored and flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong ; color mild yellow ; not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised as it deserves. Remarks. — There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are not of sufficient importance to be described at length. THE EASPBERRY. Propagation, <^c. — The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, -which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In makiag a plantation, three or mOie suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted' in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year ; FEinTS, FRUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. 211 but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground. The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool for next year's bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gath- ered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to give light and air to the suckers ; but as these are liable to be injured by the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting oflfthe weak wood at the extremities of the shoots. VARIETIES. Fastolff. — This is a very superior variety, considered by many the best fHg. 165. .«*»> W^-l. :ivvH 212 farmer's hand-book. of all the reds. Fruit extra large size ; roundish-conical ; color brilliant red, purple tinge ; flesh rich, melting, finely ilavored. It is not so much grown now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known ; besides, the plants are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States. Yellow Antwerp. — White Antwerp, and Dovhle-Bearing Yellow, by some. A large, conical berry ; color lightish-yellow ; flesh sweet, very pleasant flavor. Worthy of cultivation. American Black. — A well-known popular variety ; size rather small, in its native growth ; color quite dark ; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor. Red Antwerp. — Also called New Red, True Red, and Howland's Red. Large size ; conical ; color pale red ; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking. Franconia — Fruit large ; obtuse-conical ; color purplish-red ; flesh firm, rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive ; not so early as others, but superiot for preserving. Fig. 156. * Fig. 166. Remarks. — The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the Cushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described, constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior. THE STRAWBERRY. Propagation and Culture. — The usual time for transplanting strawberry plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and have made offsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong plants, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some fruit the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in May of the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants, FKTJITS, FEUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 213 when they are put out. Some out off all the old leaves, preserving only those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on tlie plant. Many persons cut the roots in hefore they put them into the ground ; — all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools : if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants Should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent the moisture around the plant from evaporating. The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds ; and, if sown imme- diately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. Soil and Situation. — The best soil is one that is light, warm, and gravelly ; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit ; but, in doing this, the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil ; besides, high manuring produces strong, luxuriant vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for straw- berries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and situation must not be too dry. Forcing. — Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufiicient number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them 214 fakmee's hand-book. lightly with manure ; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a time with straw. They must he kept, the following spring, free from weeds and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. Towards the latter end of May, or heginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or three plants into each pot, according as the object may he, whether quality or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots will be filled with roots, when the plants must be re-potted into flat thirty- two-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them root- ing through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth of the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes ; the plants remain here until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier and stronger than the others ; some of them, if the autumn is moist, will be excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots, early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains,' and from frost. VARIETIES. Duke of Kent. — Fruit rather small size ; roundish-conical ; color bright, deep red ; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considera- bly inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener; — say the last of May, or first of June. Large Early Scarlet. — This also is an early fruit, and siiperior to the Fig. 157. FRTTITS, FEUIT-TBEES, VINES, ETC. 215 Duke of Kent. Medium size ; roundish-oblong ; color brilliant red ; rich, sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer. Red Wood. — An old and favorite sort ; size small ; round ; color scarlet ; . flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer. Black Prince. — Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome ; roundish; color darkish-red; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and pro- lific. Hovey's Seedling. — One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a northern climate ; form roundish-conical, regular; color dark red ; texture and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June. The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce. Fig. JS8, and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown near some variety having perfect stamens, such as the Early Scarlet, or Ross Phcenix. Swainstone's SeedUng. — A comparatively recent sort, well thought of by those who have grown it. Large size ; ovate-conical ; color light, shiny scarlet; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 159. Ross Ptuxnix. — Large size to very large, with numerous seeds; form generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven ; color dark crimson ; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Produc- tive ; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey's Seedling. Fig. 160. Prolific Hautbois. — Large size ; conical ; color purplish-red ; flesh rich, juicy, tender, highly flavored. It bears very well, ripens early, and ha« as good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 161. 216 farmer's hand-book. Fig. 160. Cushing. — Fruit very large; round, some of the berries with a short neck; color light scarlet ; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored ; good bearer. Fig. 162. FRUITS, FHUIT-TEEES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 161. 217 Fig. 162. Remarks. — The Hudson's Bay, British Qjnem, White Alpine, White Wood, Bishop's Orange, Dovmton, Elton, Methven Scarlet, Boston Pine, and Myatt's Pine, are esteemed varieties. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &o. Almond. — There are two kinds, — the common or sweet, and the bitter. The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of 19 218 SAemee's hanu-'B'ook. which is small ; the Sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, also large and sweet. These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. Blueberry. — A well-known dwarf hush, bearing a small berry, tender, juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and puddings. Not much cultivated ; grows wild in abundance. Butternut. — This is a species of walnut,, growing in different parts of the United States, and sometimes called Oil Nut and White Walnut. Its wood is used for Tarious mecfianical purposes, and its bark possesses vari- ous medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten ^ but is more valuable as a pickle. Chestnut. — The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard and durable, and used for various purposes ; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled or roasted ; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the seeds, planted in the fall ; the seeond year they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the seed. Its growth is more rapid than the native kind. It inaybe budded on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. Fig. — The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the J^. 163 estfly white, the Murray, the small brown Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs tWay be propagated by seed's, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by ingraft- FRUITS, FfttriT-i'll'EES, VINES, ETC. 219 ing ; the best mode being by layers or" cuttings, which bear the first or second year. A warm climate is required for out-door culture. Filbert. — There are several varieties, — the Red, the White, the Barce- lona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but naturally fertile soil, without putrescent manures. They are propagated most easily from suckers, and should be' well pruned. They bear in the fourth or fifth year. Lemon. — A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a winged stalk. Flowers red externally ; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and Fig. 164-. very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In this country it may be raised at the South in the open air. Lime. — The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white ffdweis, arid roundish, pale-yellow fruit, vrith A nipple-like termination. The leaves aud general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon ; biit the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat.and slightly bitter. The figure ( 166) represents the South American lime. OliVE. — The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in iise for pickles, and in Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the ftuit being first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In pickling, the fruit is simply preserved in salts and water. Fig. 165. 220 faemer's hand-book. Pig. 165. Fig. 166. Orange. — The orange thrives only in a warm climate, thougih it is quite generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes ; more, however, for orna- ment and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height ; has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bergamot, the Blood-Red, the Saint Michael's, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Manda- rin. Fig. 167. Pomegranate. — A small, low tree, in its form and habits not unlike the common havirthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting on the common sort ; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. The chief FETJITS, FRTTIT-TEEES, TINES, ETC. 221 Fig. 167. sorts are the Swee^, the Add, and the Subacid; besides which, there are some ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple, and is very handsome ; skin hard ; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit, it is also used medicinally. Shellbaek. — Also called Shagbark, and lEehory Nut. A large and towering tree, with oval leaves ; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The wood is much used for di£ferent mechanical purposes. Walnut. — Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions, bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propa- gated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is foar-lobed. Whortleberry. — A small, dwarf shrub, comprising several varieties, and knovni generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens. FKUIT CALENDAR. January. — Vinery : commence forcing for fruit in June ; begin with a temperature of 50°, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60°. Peach-house : commence forcing for fruit in May ; begin with a tempera- ture of 60°. Cherry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of 45°, by night. Figs: plants in pots may now be placed' in a vinery. Strawberries : take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the 19* 222 farmer's HANp-:?poK. month. Prune the Apple, Pear, Phun, Cherry, Gooseberry, Currant, and Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier trees. February. — Vinery : increase the heat above that for the preceding month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flower. Cherry- house: give air at every favorable opportunity. Fig-house: commence forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons : sow seeds for early crop. Strawberries : take into the. forcing-house for succession. March. — Peach-house : remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and , when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house: increase the heat, after the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house : water freely, both at the root and over-head. Melons: plant out from last month's sowing. Strawberries: give air freely while in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees. April. — Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist tempera- ture, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach-hoUse: partially thin the fruit before stoning ; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen off; — syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down insects. Fig-house: when the shoots have made three or four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Mel- ons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines. May. — Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all useless shoots. Peach-house : when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots and overhead, — at the same time, admit air freely. Cherry-house : raise the temperature to 70° when the fruit is swelling ofi". Fig-house: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off. Melons : regulate the vines at an early stage of their growth ; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees ; remove their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with soap-suds when the ftuit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot. June. — Vinery: as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere ; — a few leaves may be taken off, or tied on one side, where they shade the fruit. Peach-house : suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house : when the.fruit is, gathered, give the trees several good Washings, to destr.oy ipsS9,ts, Trthe house, should. also, be, smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly supplied, with jWater. .,Afe&»s. -.ridge, out late crops; give air fr.eply,.to ripening fruit; ..gummer-prune^ Tfjincsagajpst walls. Finally, thin Apricots. ,^t traps, for 5y,asps. ,Jf,?t pfery-tr^es. FRUITS, KlUIT-TKEBS, VINES, ETC. 223 J'ULY. — Vinery: carefully awoid raising a dust when the fruit isripe; give air freely. Peach-house : when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees : if in pots, 'these should now be placed in a shatly situation. •Fig-house : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liberally, to bring forward the second crop. ^'Melons : pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin wall-fruit. Prune and tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberrrj Tunners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve them. 'Stop the shoots oi vines against walls, two joints above the fruit. 'August. — Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root-watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prematurely. Peach- house : the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house : syringe the trees fre- quently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in, — displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month. September. — Vinery : the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day ; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required. Peach-house : if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens. Expose wall-fruit to the sun and air, to give it flavor and color. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month. October. — Vinery: as soon as the leaves have fallen from the vines, prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house : fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden ; take up and plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fig- trees when the fruit is gathered. Melons : keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries. November. — Vinery: protect the border where the vines of the early forcing-house are growing outside. Peach-house : prune and dress the trees as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house : if the lights have been taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe ; the trees should now be pruned. Pot i^e'^-trees for forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect Fig-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Filbert, Gooseberry, and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers. 224 farmer's hand-book. Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees, to protect them from frost. December. — Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house : after the trees are tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil ; slightly dig the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry- house : fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house: the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots oi Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where pruning is completed. CHAPTER VI. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. THE KBAEINO, BBBEDING, DISEASES, AND GENEEAL CABE OP THE BUM. IHE OX — THE COW SHEEP SWINE THE H0B3B THE AS3 THE MULE THE GOAT THE DOG IN ALL THEIK STANDABD TABIETIES; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE. Breeding and Rearing. — The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cat- tle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of agriculturists ; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable car- cass ; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of offal, are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield. a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most remarkable for the first is very different from that of the other ; — in place 226 fakmek's hand-book. of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-bellied, — in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest down- wards. Procreating Age. — The age at which bulls should be employed, and the number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which prac- tice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as long as they can serve, — perhaps till they are ten or twelve years old ; in some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older. . Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation with cows has been found to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time. When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the latter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary. Time of Impregnation. — The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring, and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons ; but excepting when the fat- ting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advan- tageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to lake the bull than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will oiten grow barren. Rearing. — The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The best method, according to some, is this : The calves suck a week or a fort- night, according to their strength ; new milk in the pail, a few jneals ; next new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more ; then, skim-milk alone ; or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or sweet whey, in the field ; being careful to house them in the night, until warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from DOMESTIC OR FAEM ANIMALS. 227 objection ; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, how- ever scanty or irregular it may be ; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity. When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is enough ; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow's milk when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however, may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk. When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips, should be laid in the troiigh or stall before them. The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture is often coarse, but abundant ; and in winter, all good breeders give them an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first win- ter they have hay and turnips ; the following summer, coarse pasture ; the second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too much ; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, as many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle. Castrating. — There used to be a strange difference of opinion among farmers as to the time when this operation should be performed. In some places it is delayed until the animal is two years old : but this is done to the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Mode. — Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a dose of physic ; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly prac- tised was simple enough : — a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly aa 228 FAKMEH'S HAND-BOOK. possible around tlia scrotum. The supply of bloo4 being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents, soon became livid and dead, and were suf- fered to hang, by some ca,)ieless operators, until they dropped off, or were cut off on the second or third day, It is now, however, the general prac- tice to grasp the scrptum in th^ hand, between the testicles and the belly-, and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of suiEcient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through thei- cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, how- ever, wl^o has any feeling for the poor animal on, which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vess?ls and prevent after hemorrhage ; and therefore saves a great deal of unneces- sary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards divid- ing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with inithe same way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to tlie scrotum will be necessary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few — but their practice cannot be justified — seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly con- tracts, and very little bleeding follows ; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be practised on small- er animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there is but little substance to be torn asunder ; but, even there, the Imife, some- what blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt. The application of torsion ^ or the twisting of the arteries by means of a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The sperrnatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance ; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found per- fectly closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity ; it will retract DOMESTIC .OR FARM ANIJIALS. 229 into the surrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow from it; the cord may be thgh divided, and llie bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron or of the wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. Falte.ning. — The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them to suck, as by this method the object is probably not only sooner, but more effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies from five to nine weeks, — the time being much shorter where milk is very valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning and evening, warm from the cow ; the quantity being increased according to their age and strength. In wliatever way they are managed, they should be kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enjoy a due quantity of fiesh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like arti- cles, are also given to calves while fattening. Pig. 169. The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses or 20 230 farmer's hand-book. fold-yards; and in winter, on turnips, along with liay or straw, oil-cake, carrots, potatoes, &c. The hay or straw is much more beneficial when cut by one of the machines now used for that purpose. The age at which cattle are fatted depends on the circumstance of their being employed in breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the sham- bles when about three years old, and very few of any large breed are kept more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, in most instances the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or in the seventh or eighth year of their age. In general, it may be said that the small breeds of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few weeks' turnips ; and large cattle, at least in some parts, are chiefly fatted in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnips, and other like substances. HOW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FOR .VARIOUS OBJECTS AND PURPOSES. The Bull. — The head should be ratlier long, and the muzzle fine ; eyes lively and prominent ; ears long and thin ; horns wide ; neck rising with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine or crops and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards ; bosom open ; breast broad, and projecting well before his legs ; arms, or fore-thighs, muscular, and tapering to his knee ; legs clean, and very fine-boned ; chine and chest so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders ; plates strong, to keep his belly from sinking below the level of his breast ; back, or loin, broad, straight, and flat ; ribs rising one above another in such a manner that the last rib shall be ratlier the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass; hips should be wide-placed, round, and a little higher than ihe back ; the quarters, from the hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually liom the hips backward, and the turls or pott-bones not protuberant ; rumps close to the tail ; tail broad, well- haired, and in a horizontal line with his back. Bulls should he constantly well fed, and kept in proper enclosures. The 0.x. — The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine ; counte- nance calm and placid ; horns fine ; neck light, particularly where it joins the head ; breast wide, and projecting well befin-e the legs ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and, when the animal is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind them ; the fore flank well 'filled up, and the girth behind the shoulda-s deep ; back straight, wide, and flat ; ribs broad, and the space between them and the hips small ; flank full and heavy; belly well kept in, and not sinking low in the middle ; hips round, wide across, and on a level with llie back DOMESTIC OS. FAKM ANIMALS. 231 itself ; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extremity of the rump, long and straight ; the rump points fat, and coming well up to the tail ; the twist wide, and the seam in the middle of it so well filled, that the whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back ; the lower part of the thigh small ; tail broad and fat towards the top, but the lower part thin ; legs long and strong ; feet and hoofs broad and hardy ; and, when the animal is in fine condition, the skin of a rich and silky appearance. Skeleton of the Ox. a, The upper jaw bone. 6, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. <-•, The lachrymal bone. >.r-M. Ji-'^'"^ part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominat- ing proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eye, indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten ; while the uniform colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 239 various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared with the size of the animal ; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so characteristic of a good feeder ; they arrive early at maturity ; and, further, they combine the valuable qualities oi' milking and fattening in an unsur- passed degree. Fig. 177 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, and may be relied on for its faithful delineation. The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, in all respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent qualities distinguishing the breed generally, v/e close with presenting a life- likeness of one of the female species. FHg. 178. IlEREroaDSHiRE. — The Herafordshire whife-faced breed may be lluis dis- tinguished : The countelianc.o cheerful, pleasant, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest deep and full ; bosom broad, and pro- jecting forward ; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor standing high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, — the hindmost large and full of length ; round bone small, snug, and 240 FABMEK S HAND-BOOK. not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and short below the knee, and hock small ; feet of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide inellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat neatly haired, bright and silky ; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed. They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age. They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and grow fat where a. Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and Hereford will often improve eacli other, the former acquiring bulk and hardihood, and the latter a finer fovui and activity. The Hereford cow (P'ig; 179) is apparently u very inferior anrimal. Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, — small, delicate, and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and Fig-. 179. .^>-J beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to proceed; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumalates fat at a most extraordinary rate. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 241 Ayrshire. — This breed has been much improved. It is short in the leg, the neck a little thicker at tlie shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head ; Fig. 180. «Iv I the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point. Pig. 181. 342 farmer's hand-book. They are deep in the carcass, but not round and ample, and especially not so in the loins and haunches. Fig 180 represents an improved Ayrshire bull. It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calving, may be considered as not mors than an aver- age ; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter ; thus fully establishing the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig. 181 represents one of these beautiful animals. New Leicester. — This breed may be substantially distinguished by the following characteristics : The fore end long, but light to a degree of eler FHg. 182. fe^jivWWte/ gance ; neck thin ; chap clean ; the head fine, but long and tapering ; eye large, bright, and prominent ; the horns of the bulls comparatively short, of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them DOMESTIC OR FAKM ANIMALS. 2*3 hang downward by the side of the cheeks ; shoulders fine and thin as to bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone ; girth small, compared with the short-horns and middle-horns ; chine quite full when fat ; loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant ; quarters long and level, the nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously ; round bones small, but thighs flesh)^, tapering ; legs small, clean, somewhat long ; feet neat, middling size ; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the animal will allow ; ribs standing out full from the spine ; belly small ; hide middling thick ; color various, — the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity, is indisputably good. As grazier's stock, they rank high. The principle of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough, or on roads ; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of them. Fig. 182 is that of a New Leicester cow. Remarks. — Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sus- sex, the Alderney, the Suffolk, and the Kyloe ; these, however, we do not design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of DAIRY cows. Qualities. — We have already expressed, in the preceding pages, the general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for dairy purposes. Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as are known to afford the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of whatever breed they, may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a dispo- sition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch, — should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate ; but she need not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prom- inent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind- quarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep ; and she should have a large, well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case of a feeding- stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro- 244 farmee's hand-book. duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and feeding qualities. Feeding. — With respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwith- standing all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties of peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural pastures, for milch cows ; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of milk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of grass butter may always be distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however, should not deter the fanner from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counter- balance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its fullest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great advantage, on the pastures, during summer. Keeping in Good Condition. — Dairy cows should be kept constantly in good condition. When they are suffered to fall off in flesh, particularly in the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no management afterwards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anything near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been sup- ported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable pro- portions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness. Milking. — In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in the day will suffice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 245 little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger pro- portion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most perfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking. A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, — some cows, like other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others. Ascertaining the Quality of Milk. — The value of milk, and the propor- tion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others, where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by churning it separately ; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex. FKg-. 183. 11. SHEEP. Rearing, (^c. — The ewe may breed when fifteen or eighteen months old, and at the same age the ram may also be employed to the extent of forty or fifty ewes, and, when older, to seventy or eighty. The young lambs should be brought forth at a time when there will be a sufficient supply of food for the dam to enable her to yield a copious supply of milk ; and also for the lambs, as they advance in growth. The usual 21* 246 fakmer's hand-book. period is from the middle of October to November, in which case the ewea will begin to lamb soon after the beginning of March. No preparation is necessary, except, for a few weeks before, to place the ewes on somewhat better pasture than usual. The period of lambing having commenced, the attendant should carefully observe every ewe that appears to be in labor. The attendant should not be in iiaste to render assistance, until the strength of the ewe appears to be declining. If she is to be driven to the fold, it must be done gently as pos- sible. Before assistance is given, first see that the fcetus is coming in a proper position, which is with the head crouched between the fore-legs ; if wrong, it must be turned to the proper position. In the case of twin lambs, the one which is least advanced must be put back, and the extraction of the other assisted. If the fcetus be dead, it should be extracted immediately. The keep of sheep after lambing, when rich pastures, or other kinds of grass lands, cannot be reserved, should consist of turnips, or other kinds of green food. The ewes should also have a dry, quiet, and sheltered pasture, protected from the severity of the weather. High feeding should be allowed them, but not while pregnant. Castrating. — Castration of the male lambs should be performed when they are ten days or a fortnight old. They should be in perfect health, and the weather fine, but not warm. An incision is made into the scrotum on each side, through which the testicles are successively protruded, and they are taken away by severing the spermatic cord. Weaning. — The period of weaning differs according to the locality of the farm, and the quality of the pasture. In a mountainous situation, and where the land is inferior, weaning often takes place when the lambs are not more than three months old, for it requires all the intermediate time to the beginning of winter to bring the ewes either ready for the ram or fatted for the market. The time is generally from the first to the middle of July, and the lambs are simply separated from the ewes. It is necessary to take away a portion of the ewe's milk, at intervals, to prevent injurious disten- sion of the udder. Dry them by degrees. After being weaned, the lambs are named according to their sex and age. The males are called hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tup-hogs, the castrated males wether-hogs, and the ewe? ewe-hogs. It is important that the lambs be put into a good pasture in the summer, to make up for the loss of the milk of the dam. When the grass begins to fail, they are to be supplied with turnips plentifully, which, with hay, are to be their food during winter. Shearing. — This is an annual operation, usually taking place at the end of May or first of June, — the precise period depending on the state of the DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 24"? animals, those in a high condition being ready sooner than those that are lean, — the wool coming off readily at that time, when plucked, this being the proper criterion. About a week preTiously to shearing, the animals are to be washed, to free the wool from all impurities. Everything being prepared, a sheep is handed to the first operator, who seizes it and pulls it into the water, and immediately turns it over on its back, holding the arm of the fore-leg with the left hand, and grasping a portion of the wool at the side of the head with his right hand, turning the sheep over from side to side, at the same time pulling it gently backwards and forwards from and to him; at every successive turning ; the wool waves up and down in the direc- tion of the length of the body, and swirls round the body, first in one direction and then in another ; the sheep is then handed to another operator, who repeats the process and hands the animal to another person, and he who handles it last examines the fleece. After being washed, the sheep are put into a clean grass field ; the fleece will soon dry, after which the sheep may be shorn ; though it is better to wait about a week, in order that the oil may be brought again into the wool, without which the latter loses its peculiar lustre with the loss of the yolk. When the sheep are to be shorn, they are put into some enclosed space ; a winnow-cloth, or large sheet, of some kind, is spread on the floor, and fastened down at the corners. The shearer then sets the sheep on its rump, in which position it is kept by resting against his legs. In this position, the wool is removed from the head and neck, and the operator afterwards clips in a circular direction from the belly to the back ; the animal is then laid on its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all around the back. All dirty portions of the wool about the tail and belly ought to be removed by the shears, and kept by themselves. The outside of the fleece is folded inwards, beginning with the side, and narrowing the whole fleece into a stripe of about two feet in breadth. This stripe is then rolled firmly up, from the tail-end towards the neck, the wool of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound around the fleece, to give it a cylindrical shape. The clippings are steeped in water and washed by the hand, and afterwards dried -in the sun. In usingi the shears,.they should be held close to the sheep, with their points a little elevated ; every stroke should be short and narrow, to make a clean clip. Keep the shears sharp by a whetstone. Different names are again applied to the sheep after being shorn. They are now shearlings, shearling-wethers, shearling-ewes, and shearling-tups, or rams ; the wethers are also called dinmonts, and the ewes gimmers. The ewes, or gimmers, are kept on the pastures during the second season. 248 fahmer's hand-book. and such as are intended for breeders receive the ram at the proper season. The wethers, or dinmonts, are fit for the butcher soon after being shorn. But it is only in the case of the more improved breeds being reared, and the supply of food of the last description, that the dinmonts are thus disposed of at this early period. More frequently they are kept on the farm for another winter, when the management is the same as during the first year. The dinmonts, however, are frequently sold fat before they have completed the entire winter's feeding ; and when not disposed of at this period, they are sold after being a second time shorn. The details of the rearing and treatment of sheep on arable farms have now been given at length. But frequently, instead of the animals being produced and fattened on the farm, the operations of the fanner may be either confined to breeding sheep and disposing of them before they become fat, to pass into other hands before they come to the butcher, or they may be confined to fattening sheep, always purchasing the stock from the breeder. In situations, however, where the breeding and feeding of sheep can be carried on with equal advantage, they may, with economy, be com- bined on the same farm. Animals for the Market. — But instead of rearing all the animals to the age of one or two years, the lambs are sometimes disposed of fat during the first summer. In this case, they are fattened merely on the milk of their dams. In certain cases, however, the ewes are made to produce the lambs at those seasons which are found to suit the adjacent markets best, and die lambs are fed in the house. Food. — Grass in summer, and turnips and hay in winter, form the chief food of sheep, and they are seldom difficult to procure in favorable situations. In the absence of turnips, the different roots cultivated on the farm may be substituted with advantage. Salt should always be supplied to sheep. Sheep in Mountainous Sections. — -The management of sheep in mountain- ous sections sometimes differs, in some respects, from that described. The food is here not so abundant, nor so good, and the sheep must be of hardy constitution. The period of putting the ram to the ewes is also somewhat later, in order that the lambs may not be brought forth until the season is advanced, and the herbage well sprung up. During the winter, when not too severe, the sheep are kept on the pasture, and in stormy weather they have an allowance of hay, and roots when they can be produced. The operations of lambing, castrating, weaniilg, and shearing, are the same in both cases. Smearing. — The operation of smearing may be regarded as peculiar to the mountain races of sheep. This is performed with a view to destroy the DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 249 veimin, and protecting- the animals from the inclemency of the weather. It is, however, injurious to the wool, but doubtless destroys vermin, and prevents diseases of the skin. The usual substances employed are tar and butter, — a gallon of the former to six pounds of the latter, — which is sufficient for twenty sheep. Combinations of tar with other substances are also employed, such as oil, soda, and even potatoes boiled and pounded, the effect of which is to render the tar more easy of separation from the wool. Whatever composition is used, it should be rubbed in streaks on the sliin, without daubing the wool. The usual time of doing it is in the first part of November. Signs of Good Health. ^The appearances which show the sheep to be in good health are, a rather wild or lively briskness ; a brilliant clearness in the eye ; a florid, ruddy color on the inside of the eyelids, nostrils, and gums ; a fastness in the teeth ; a sweet breath ; a dryness of the nose and eyes ; easy and regular breathing ; coolness in the feet ; dung properly formed ; fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken ; and the skin exhibiting a florid-red appearance. A discharge from the nose or eyes indicates having taken cold. VARIETIES. LoNG-wooLED. — The long-wooled sheep are of the largest size. The Fig. 184. New Leicester or Dishley breed stands deservedly at thehead of the list ; and, indeed, for symmetry of shape, early maturity, and attaining to a con- 250 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. siderable size, it stands unrivaled. The preceding figure is a very fail specimen. This breed owes its origin to the late Mr. Bakevfell, a celebrated breeder, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, England. It is inferior, in size and quality of wool, to many of the larger varieties, but for early maturity and aptitude to fatten it has not been surpassed. It should have a tapering head, long, and hornless ; eyes prominent, and a quiet expression ; ears thin, lohg, directed backwards ; neck full and broad at its base, gradually tapering towards the head, particularly bare at the junction with the head ; the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the pole ; breast broad and fall ; shoulders broad and round, — no uneven or angular formation, no rising of the withers, no hollow behind the situation of these bones ; arm fleshy throughout, even down to the knee ; bones of the leg small, standing wide apart, -^ no looseness of skin about them, and rather bare of wool ; chest and barrel deep and round ; ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine ; the barrel ribbed well home ; carcass gradually diminishing in width towards the rump ; quarters long and full ; legs medium length ; pelt mod- erately thin, soft, elastic, covered with a good quantity of iine, white wool. The principal races of this breed are the New Leicester, the Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Komney Marsh, and the Coltswood. Fig. 185 is a portrait of one of the latter. Fig. 185. Short-wooled. — The short-wooled varieties of sheep are very numerous, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 251 and are also distinguished generally by smallness of size. They are hardier than the larger sheep, yet, with few exceptions, not so well calcu- lated for the exposed and mountainous sections. The Cheviot and South- Down are very generally difiiised varieties of this class, both kinds being hornless. Fig. 186 is a South-Down ewe and lamb, of the most improved sort. The points in this valuable breed are principally as follows : — The head should be neither too long nor too short ; the lip thin ; the neck moderately long, thin next to the head, and tapering towards the shoulders ; breast wide and deep, projecting forward before the fore-legs, which indicates a good constitution and disposition to feed ; the shoulders not too wide between the plate-bones, but on a level with the chine ; chine low and straight from the shoulders to the tail ; the ribs should project horizontally from the chine, as the animal will then lay its meat on the prime parts ; the sides high and parallel ; rump long and broad ; the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the chine ; hips wide ; ribs circular, and barrel- shaped ; legs neither very long nor very short ; the bones moderately fine. Black-faced. — The Black-faced or Heath sheep are distinguished by black faces and legs, and large and spirally-twisted horns. The female is, however, frequently hornless. The fleece is long, coarse, and shaggy, extending over the forehead and lower jaw. This is an active and hardy race, capable of subsisting in the most exposed situations, producing mutton • of excellent quality, though not generally fattened till four or five years old. 262 tARMEE'S HAND-BOOK. Their wool is not so valuable as that of the Cheviots. Fig. 187 represents one of the black-faced race. Fig. 187. s^^-. '^>\~. Merino. — This celebrated and most useful breed are distinguished by the fineness and felting qiiklity Of their wool, and the weight yielded by each sheep, — the ease with Whiteh they adapt thettiselveB to the climate, the readiness with which they take to the Coarsest food, their geiilleness and tractability. Their defects are their unprofitable and Uilthrifty form, voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect of fteir young, and Pig. 188. inferior flavor of the mutton. The wool, lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is cCvered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet DOMESTIC OK FARM ANIMALS. 253 small in the bone ; the breast and back narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is cairied on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, more or less spiral ; head large, but forehead rather low. A few of the females are homed, but, generally speaking, are destitute. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks ; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular , looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throati- ness, or hoUowness in the pile ; the pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, on account of the thickness with which it grows upon the pelt, and the abundance of the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel which fall upon it, though, when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world- produces. Fig. 188 is a representation of the Merino breed. III. SWINE. Breeding and Bearing . ^— These animals arrive early at maturity. The sow is fit to receive the male when little more than eight months old, and the latter is capable of propagating at the same early period ; but neither of them should he allowed to be used for the purposes of breeding until they have completed their first year, and the male should be admitted only to a limited number of females for some time after. The period of gestation in the sow is about sixteen weeks ; and the number of young produced at a birth varies from five to ten or twelve, sometimes even to eighteen or twenty, and two litters are produced in the year, or even five in two years. She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young, but the period of impregnation should be regulated by that at which it is desirable the young should be produced. The winter is a bad season. The periods of impregnation should be about the beginning of October and April, as the young will then be produced in February and August, so that the last litter will have gained full strength before the approach of winter. The pregnant sow should be separated from the herd, but should not be entirely confined. The period of bringing forth will be generally known by the animal carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed some time previous ; and she inust then be well littered with short straw, for, when profusely littered with long straw, the young pigs are liableto be injured or killed by the mothers, while they are nestling imperceived under the straw. Treatment of Dam and Young, ^r^ The young animals, being extremely tender, are liable to be destroyed immediately after their birth by the mo- 32 254 farmer's hand-book. tion of the dam ; and, to guard against this, they should be watched, and the young- ones removed from her as they are brought forth. During the first and second day after the birth of the young, or until they acquire strength, they should be removed from the dam, and only occasionally admitted to suck. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food, mixed with a little meal or bran. Castrating. — The males may be castrated when about a month old ; and a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed, at the same age, on such of the females as are not intended for breeding. Weaning. — The period of weaning is regulated by the manner in which the young pigs have been fed ; and, when they have been liberally supplied with food, it need not be deferred longer than six or seven weeks ; for, when delayed beyond this, the sow will be in low condition as the time of bringing forth her j'oung again approaches. Treatment after Weaning. — ^ When weaned, the young pigs should be fed three times a day on nutritious and chiefly farinaceous food, combined with milk or whey; and, in a few weeks, they will consume the ordinary roots cultivated upon the farm. In some instances, the young pigs are dis- posed of while they are sucking, especially when the number brought forth is greater than the dam can perfectly support ; and , when intended for being killed, they are then termed porkers, or roasters. The young pigs, after being weaned, are sometimes allowed to go at large through the pastures, and have to depend on these chiefly for their food. In this case, they frequently do great injury to the fields. The best plan is to confine them in pens, allowing them occasionally to go through the feed- ing-yard, to pick up any refuse food scattered through it ; and, in addition to this, supply them with a little green food, as clover during summer, and turnips or potatoes during winter. Food. — The food of swine may be of a more varied character than that of any other animal. Every kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and kitchen, is eagerly consumed by them; — roots, raw or boiled ; different kinds of seeds ; brewers' grains, and the wash of the distillery. It is im- portant that they should be liberally and regularly supplied with food. They ought to be fed three times in the day ; and the troughs should be emptied before a fresh supply is given, and washed out occasionally, so as to keep them clean. The hog delights to wallow in the mire, but prefers a clean bed at night. The food should be varied — liquid and solid. Disposition of the Carcass. — The flesh of the hog may be disposed of in two ways. The one is to yield pork, and the other to produce bacon. It DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 255 the former case, the age seldom exceeds six or eight months, and in the latter, ten or twelve. When the substances employed in fattening have been juicy rather than nutritious, the flesh will be much improved by feeding with bran-meal, mixed with the other food, for some time previous to killing the animals. This is more essential in producing bacon, as it tends to harden the flesh, and render it of that mellow firmness which constitutes the essential property of fine hams and bacon. Some time previous to the period of killing the animal, therefore, the food may consist of about two thirds of steamed pota- toes, or other roots, and one third of ground pease, barley, oats, or bran, enlarging the quantity of farinaceous food as the animal fattens. An important matter in the management of swine is the preservation of the flesh after the animals are killed. In the case of pickling pork, the carcass is cut in pieces, and packed. A solution of salt in water is prepared, strong enough to swim an egg, which is to be boiled, and, as soon as it has cooled again, it is poured on the pork, so as to cover it. The vessel is now closed up, and the pork ready for market. In the making of bacon, the hams or legs are separated from the flitches or sides, as close to the latter as possible without injuring their appearance. The body is then separated from the head, and cut longitudinally in the direction of the back-bone, and then transversely between the second and third ribs. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with saltpetre, and covered with salt, — better if rubbed in by the hands. Put them in a cool place, and in this state let them remain about a week, after which 956 FARMER S JLAND-BOOK. they should be turned, and an additional quantity of salt sprinkled ovei them. In about two or three weeks from the period of the first salting, they may be hung up in the chimney of the kitchen, or in a srattke-house, to dry. In Westphalia, and some other places noted for the flavor of the hams pro- duced, sugar is commonly used in curing-; in the proportion of about one pound of sugar to three of salt, and two ounces of saltpetre. The sugar assists in preserving the meat, rendering its fibre mellow, and corrects the extreme pungency which is often occasioned by the too free use of salt. In every case, after the hams and flitches have remained hanging a suflicient time to dry them, they are taken down, and packed up in seeds from the mill, or sawdust, in which they remain until required for use. The proper period for curing bacon is during the cold weatlier. In order that those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of the pig may possess the means of informing themselves in regard to that subject, we give the preceding skeleton, explained as follows : — riie Head. A. Maxilla inferior, vel posterior — lower jaw. B. Dentes — the teeth. C. Ossa nasi — the nasal bones. D. Maxilla superior, vel anterior — upper jaw. E. Os frontis — the frontal bone. F. ' Orbiculus — the orbit or socket of the eye. G. Os occipitis — the occipital bone. The Trunk. H. Atlas — the first vertebra of the neck. I. Vertebree colli, vel cervicales — the vertebrae of the neck. J. VertebrEE dorsi, vel dor§aIes — the ver- tebrae of the back. K. Vertebrae lumborum, vel lumhales — the vertebrae of the loins. L. Ossa coccygis — the bones of the tail. Fore Extremity. a. Scapula — the shoulder-blade. 6. Humerus — the round shoulder bone. c. Sternum — the breast bone. d. Ulna — the elbow. e. Radius — the bone of the fore-arm. y. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. g: g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis— the first and second bones of the foot. h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis — the bones of the hoof. tUnd Extremities. i. i. Pelvis (ossa innominata) — the haunch bones. j. j. Os femoris — the thigh bone. k. k. Patella — the stifle bone. I. I. Tibia — the upper bone of the «eg. m. m. Tarsus (one of which is the (N) os calcis) — the hock bones. n. II. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. 0. u. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) — the first digits of the foot. p. p. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) — the second digits of the foot. VARIETIES. China. — ^The Chinese breed was originally obtained from Asia. There are two distinct species, the white and the hlaqk ; the former better shaped DOMESTIC OR FAKM ANIMALS. 257 than the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both are small-limbed, ears and head fine, round in the carcass, thin-skinned, and the head so imbedded in the neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout can be seen. They seldom reach a very great weight ; they are rather difficult to rear, and the sows are bad nurses. Their flesh is somewhat tender for bacon, has rather too large a proportion of fat, and their hind-quarters are so deficient in pro- portion to the size of the other parts, that they cut up to considerable disad- vantage for hams. But their great aptitude to fatten, and the extreme delicacy of their meat, — which, when young, is unrivaled, — render them very valuable. Fig. 190 The black race are thrifty, and fatten on a comparatively small quantity of food ; which valuable properties are so desirable that, notwithstanding their small size, they are crossed with other breeds to a very considerable advantage, producing several kinds possessing properties superior to those of the parent stock. They are also very prolific. There is also a mixed breed, patched with black and white, — some with, thick, pointed ears, like the true species, which they otherwise resemble in form, while in others the ears are rounded, and hang down. Berkshire. — The Berkshire hog is of a reddish-brown color, with black spots ; the head well placed, with large ears, generally standing forward, though sometimes hanging over. He is short-legged, small-boned, and of a 22* 258 farmer's hand-book. rough, curly coat. Their bacon is very superior, and the animals attain to a great size. Fig. 191. i%. 192. DOMESTIC OE FARM ANIMALS. 259 The crosses of this breed are so ntunerous, that any attempt to distin- guish them, and particularize as to their merits, would be futile. Fig. 191. Suffolk. — The Suffolk breed has been long in repute as a hardy and prolific species, though generally of only moderate or rather small size ; and when crossed with either the Berkshire or Dishley breed, produces animals which are in very general esteem. They fatten quickly, but their shape is not considered altogether valuable for making bacon. Fig. 192 is an ex- ample of an animal of this breed. WoBURN. — The Woburn breed is white, mixed with various colors, well- formed, round in the carcass, small limbed and headed, hardy, and very prolific, and so kindly disposed to fatten, that they are said to have attained to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs, within the same given period of time. Siamese. — The widely-diffused breed known by this term, on account of its origin, is worthy of notice in this place. The animals are small, and have a cylindrical body, with the back somewhat hollow, and the belly trailing near the ground, on account of the shortness of the limbs. The Fig. 193. bristles are soft, the color is usually black, and the skin externally of a rich copper-color. The ears are short, small, and somewhat erect. The ani- mals are not over-hardy or prolific, and the females do not yield the same 260 faemee's hand-book. quantity of milk ; but they arrive very soon at maturity, tliey fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate. IV. THE HORSE. Rearing and Breeding. — In the breeding of the horse, it is important that the parent, of either sex, be free from disease ; for the diseases, as well as the good properties, of the animal, are transmitted to their offspring. In breeding, attention should be paid to the female as well as to the male parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and proper- ties of the progeny. A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age ; but it is an error to commence' breeding from any mare before strength has been ac- quired, and her form developed, — which will rarely be sooner than at three or four years of age. The mare comes into season in spring, and goes with young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the ex- tent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male till that of foaling, the farm mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other symptoms, and she m^y then be released from work. In general, little difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires assistance ; but, should difEculty really arise, from the particular position of the foetus, it is well to obtain the assistance of a practised hand, lest the mare be injured by unskilful and violent means. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should be placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is better, in a pasture-close, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is bet- ter that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young undisturbed. But yet she may be put, without danger or injury, to mod- erate work, within a shprt time after foaling. For a time, the foal should be shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too long ; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted to follow the mother even when at work in the field. Many, indeed, do not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of accidents to the foal. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking milk more frequently, is the better for exercise, and becomes used to the objects around it. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be again in season, and may receive the male. Weaning. — In six months, the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely by separating it from the dam. It is then best put in a field. The mother DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 261 is then put to her ordinary Vifork, and treated as usual. At the time of weaning, and during all the period of its growth, the foal should be liber- ally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farinaceous food, may be given to it. It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered, but it is important to its growth and vigor that it be supplied with sufficient food. Castrating. — The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be castrated, and the best time for the operation is at one year old. Some do it before weaning, but it is better that it be delayed till the masculine form of the animal has been more developed. The details of this operation must be left to the experienced practitioner. Little improvement has been effected on the old mode, except the opening of the scrotum, and the division of the cord by the knife, instead of the heated iron. Training and Management of Colts. — If the colt be intended for the sad- dle, it is well that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by the person who feeds it, to render it docile and good-tempered. Anything like harshness is to be carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pas- tures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals may be put into a yard with sheds, and plentifully littered with straw. They may receive straw for half the winter, and hay towards spring, when the straw becomes dry and unpalatable ; and turnips, or any green food, should be supplied freely in the winter. They should have a piece of ground on which they may run in winter, on account of their health and the state of their feet. As early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during summer, and in the following winter treated in the same manner as before. They are also to be treated in a similar manner in the following summer and winter, after which, that is, when three years old, they will be in a condition to be broken in ; and, if draught-horses, employed in the work of the farm, they may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age, though at this period the work should be very gentle. A farm-horse usually receives little training ; but the colt should have a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for a few days, and allowed to champ it for an hour or two at a time, in a stall. The harness being then put upon him by degrees, he may be trained to the different labors required of him. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily made obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he is put to work, or if he is a stallion, or if he shows any vice, he should have more training. And if a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle and the carriage, the more training the better. In every case, gentleness and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the colt. He is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only 262 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. when necessary to secure submission, fear being the feeling which controls the animal. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse designed for rapid motion or irregular labor. He must be kept in good order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never be allowed to fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform. Food. — The food of the horse consists of herbage, or green forage ; of dried forage, as hay and straw ; of various farinaceous substances, as oats, Fig. 194. The Forepart. 1 The Forehead. 2 The Temples. 3 Cavity above the Eyes. 4 The Jaw. 5 The Lips. 6 The Nostrils. 7 The Tip of the Nose. 8 The Chin. 9 The Beard. 10 The Neck. 11 The Mane. 12 The Fore-top. 13 The Throat. 14 The Withers. 15 The Shoulders. 16 The Ghes-t. 17 The Elbow. 18 The Ann. 19 The Plale-vein. 20 The Chestnut. 21 The Knee. 22 The Shank. 23 The Back Sinews, Main Tendons. 24 The Fetlock-joint. 25 The Fetlock. 26 The Pastern. 27 The Coronet. 28 The Hoof. 29 The Quarters. 30 The Toe. 31 The Heel. The Body. 32 The Reins. 33 The Fillets. 34 The Ribs. 35 The Belly. ^6 The Flanks. Th£ Hitid-part. 37 The Rump. 38 The Tail. 39 The Buttocks. 40 The Haunches. 41 The Stifle. 42 The Thighs. 43 The Hock. 44 The Instep. 45 The Point of the Hock. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 263 peas, and beans ; and of the juicy roots, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot, the parsnip, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the most gen- eral, and best adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. It is, for the most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is better masticated and digested when bruised. Two gallons per day, or nine pounds, are considered to be good feeding, when the horse is on dry food, and not on hard work ; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased to three gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced to one gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But, on an average, ninety bushels in the year will be sufficient, in every case, for the working horse of a farm. Meal is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a safe one when the chill is just taken off the water. Beans, when bruised, are excellent food, tending to correct laxativeness. Fig. 194 is explanatory of the name and situation of the external parts of a horse. VARIETIES. Arabian. — The celebrated Arabian breed of horses, of which the figure presented below is a fine portrait, are more compact than the horses of Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or Fig. 195. what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very little exceeding, on a medium, fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, in height. As compared with the horses of countries abounding in grasses, their aspect is lean, their form slender, and their chest narrow. But their slimness is not inconsistent with muscular force ; and their movements are agile, their natural pace swift, and their spirit is unmatched. The power of their deli- 264 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. cate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is sufficiently oblique ; the withers Fig. 196. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 265 are elevated ; the back is moderately short ; the quarters are good ; the head is well formed ; the forehead broad ; ears somewhat long, but alert ; eyes full and clear ; veins prominent. They are remarkably gentle and docile, patient, playful, obedient, and intelligent. They subsist on very scanty fare. American. — The Mexican horses are derived from Spain, and seem in no other respect inferior to the European than a less careful management may account for. The horses,of Canada, chiefly of French lineage, are coarse and small, but hardy, muscular, and useful. Those of our own country are of every variety, derived originally from England, but crossed by the modern racer, and by the horses of Syria and Arabia. On this account, we have a very mixed race of horses, many of which are excellent. Such has been the attention paid to the race breed in our country, that the best and fastest trotting horses (see Fig. 196) in the world are now to be found in the United States. Among the American roadsters, the Morgan family stand number one. They are exceedingly compact, deep-chested, strong-backed, fore-legs set wide apart ; head small, high and graceful ; eyes fine, and well set. The family comprises several varieties, among which the Goss and the Gifford rank very high. We give an engraving (Fig. 197) of one of these animals, which is a fair sample of the average quality. ' European. — Of the European breeds, the present Norman horse is the Pig-i 33 266 farmer's hand-book. most enduring and hard-pulling. The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of cart horses, bred chiefly in the valley of the Clyde ; they are strong and hardy, have a small head, are longer necked than the SuiFolk, veith deeper legs, and lighter carcasses. The Suffolk Punch are valuable on farms composed of soils of a moderate degree of tenacity. The preceding figure is that of an improved Norman draught stallion. V. THE Ass. Rearing and Breeding . — In breeding from the ass, the same general rules apply as in the case of the horse. The male will procreate at the age of tvi^o and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be the largest and strongest, at least three, but not more than ten, years old ; his legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short, hair shining, soft, deep gray. The best time of covering is the last of May, nor must the female be hard VFOrked whilst with foal, for fear of casting ; but the more the male is worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal in about a twelve-month, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not pro- duce mire than one in two years. The best age to breed at is from three years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with the dam, and then wean it, by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes milk ; and, when it has forgotten the teat, it should be turned out into a pasture, but if it be in winter, it must be fed at times, till it is able to shift for itself. Training. — The ass may be broken and trained at the end gf the second year, but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is easily eflfeeted when two or three years old, by laying small weights upon his back, and increasing them by degrees. Age^ dj-c. — The age of the ass is known by his teeth, in the same manner as the horse ; viz;, at two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth fall out, and the others on each side soon follow ; they are renewed at the same time, and in the same order. The anatomy and physiology of the ass do not difier very materially from those of the horse. Characteristics, — :The ass is naturally humble, patient, and quiet. He is extremely hardy, both as to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs. In the choice of water, he is very nice, drinking only of that which is perffeetly clear. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. He is sel- dom or never sick, and endures hunger and thirst most resolutely. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is excellent for persons of delicate stomachs. DOMESTIC OK FARM ANIMALS. 267 VX. THE MULE. Rearing, Breeding, <5j-c. — In the breeding of mules, mares of a large breed and wiell made should be employed. They shottld be young, lively, large- barrelled, small-limbed, moderate-sized head, and a good fdrehand. It is ■well to have the foals, from the time of their being dropped, often handled, to make them gentle ; it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness and sudden frights, and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and become docile and harmless. They may be broken at three years old, but not hard worked till four. Give them food enough to prevent their losing flesh and to keep up their growth, without palling their appetites with deli- cacies, or making them over fat. They should also have sufficient stable room, and good litter to sleep on, besides being well rubbed down every day, particularly in cold, raw, wet weather. When three years old, mules are proper for use. Mules are now brought to an astonishing degree of perfection. They are usually strong, well-limbed, large, sure-footed, and capable of carrying great burdens, and travelling great distances. Some think it surprising that these animals are not more propagated, as they are so much ha,rdier and stronger than horses, less subject to diseases, and capable of living and working to almost twice the age of a horse. Those that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot. The general complaint against them is that they kick and are stubborn, but this is owing to neglect in breeding. VII. THE GOAT. Description, (Sj-c. — The goat appears to be the connecting link between the sheep and antelope tribes. It is lively, and though the natural inhabitant of a mountainous region, is easily domesticated. But it is in wild, rocky countries, that the goat is chiefly reared. The female gives a great quantity of milk for so small a creature, and its quality is very superior. She is readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and feeds in situations where the cow could not subsist, which latter is a valuable quality. It arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may be shorn, and is of some value ; and its skin, especially tjiat of the kid, is very valua- ble. The flesh of the kid, though not much sought after, is equal to that of the finest lamb. The male will engender when one year old, and the female at eight months ; but good stock must come by parepts not so young. From two to five years the male is most vigorous, and the female bears her best kids from two to eight years. Goats bear well the motion and confinement of ship-board, and give the best of milk. 268 FAKMEK'S HAND-BOOK. VARIETIES. There are three principal species enumerated, viz., the wild goat, the ibex, and the Caucasian ibex ; from the first-named the different varieties of the common domestic goat are believed to have originated. Perhaps the most celebrated and valuable of all the various breeds is the Thibet (Fig. 199) , on account of the soft and delicate wool they produce, and which falls off in the warmer seasons. These goats are long-bodied, large hooked horns, stout limbs, and very long glossy hair. The color is frequently milk- white, but more generally brown, with points of a golden hue. VIII. THE DOG. Bearing, Breeding, tSfC. — In breeding, for first-rate animals, ascertain the pedigree for at least four generations. The male should be not less than two years old, and the female at least fifteen months. The male need not be rejected as unfit until his eighth year, if healthy and vigorous, nor the female, under similar circumstances, till her sixth year. The female goes DOMESTIC OR FAKM ANIMALS. 269 with young sixty-three days, and has from four to thirteen young at a birth. The dam may be allowed to breed only three times in two years, and to rear not more than five puppies ; the whelps should not be suckled longer than six weeks, and five, or even four, is long enough, if necessary to remove them. After weaning, feed them moderately with porridge, mashed potatoes, with skim milk, or new milk, to dilute the mess ; let it be fresh and cool. They should also have a bed of clean straw, fresh water, and an open, airy place for exercise and sport. At about four months old, the first set of teeth begin to drop out, and are replaced by the permanent set. About the twelfth month, the tusks have acquired their full length. At two years old, a yellow circle appears around the base of the tusks, gradually developing itself more and more, till the third year, when the edges of the front or cutting teeth begin to be worn down, and the little nick, or the crown of the lateral incisors, to disappear. As the fourth year approaches, the tusks lose their points, and the teeth begin to decay. As soon as his eighth year has passed away, a few gray hairs show themselves around his eyes, and at the corners of the mouth. At the age of twelve to fourteen years, confirmed infirmity sets in, and the animal does not survive long after. The dewclaws — the fifth toe upon the hind foot — shoiild be removed, if removed at all, with a pair of large, sharp scissors ; let the pup be held by one person, while another feels for the proper place to cut, which must be done with decision. Cropping, which is, equally with the previous opera- tion, a very cruel one, must be done, if done at all, by drawing the ears over the head until the points meet ; then, with a very sharp pair of scissors, cut both points oflf to the desired length ; and, with a single cut to each, from below upwards, cut away the hinder portion of the flaps of the ears up to the point. In a week the ears will be well. In training dogs, gentleness does more than harshness and violence can effect. VARIETIES. Newfoundland. — The true breed of Newfoundland is a dog of moderate stature, seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven inches in height ; long- bodied, broad-chested, shaggy coat ; pointed, wolfish muzzle ; ears small, and inclined to he semi-erect ; color usually black, with a shade of brown through it, and occasionally some white. The large dogs of the Newfoundland breed, which have been improved by crossing with the mastifi", are more showy, but less valuable. The Newfoundland are remarkably docile and obedient, faithful, good- natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their master's property, and suffer no person to injure the one or the other ; and, 23* 270 FAEMER S HAND-BOOK. however imminent the danger, will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for almost all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. They are a famous water-dog, and have saved many human beings from drowning^. Fig. 200. Shepherd. — The shepherd's dog of Scotland stands about twenty-one inches in height at the shoulder, is very gracefully shaped, muzzle pointed, Fig. 201. DOMESTIC OR FAKM ANIMALS. 271 ears half erect, coat long but fine and silky, tail and hams fringed with hair, and the color usually black and tan, or sandy yellow. The animal is remarkable for his sagacity, and his disposition to tend live stock appears to be inherent and hereditary. The English shepherd's dog is larger and stronger than the Scotch, and has much of the appearance of a cross with the great rough water-dog. It is coarser in the muzzle and in coat, and is desti- tute of tail. It is, however, equally sagacious. Drover. — The drover's dog bears considerable resemblance to the sheep- dog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown color. He possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree of ferocity, arising from improper training and uses. Setter. — The setter, or land spaniel, comprises several varieties. He is by some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and where water is to be got at occasionally, duri-ng a. day's shooting, he is undoubtedly superior. In dis- position the setter is more affectionate than the pointer, but requires more training, and that of a mild and gentle character. Terrier. — The terrier is a dog of very great utility, and of very varied form and size. They all have one common characteristic, which makes them Fig. 202. extremely useful, which is, a determined hostility to those animals termed vermin, as foxes, otters, polecats, rats, mice, &c. DTSEASES OF THE FOREGOING ANIMALS. Abscess. — As soon as the abscess is brought to a head, let the matter be evacuated, either naturally by a bran-poultice, or by opening with a broad- shouldered lancet. Keep the part clean, trim the hair, and inject into the wound a little tincture of myrrh and aloes. If the cavity does not soon fill up, inject, once or twice a day, a wash of a half-ounce of bluestone, with half a pint of water. Afoflery. — For Horses, bleed two gallons from a vein at once, remove the dung with the hand, and give the following mixture : Barbadoes aloes 272 farmer's hand-book. 1 oz., Epsom salts 6 oz., water 2 pts. For apoplexy or staggers in Cattle, bleed from four to six quarts, till the beast is faint, and give, every six hours, a mixture of Epsom salts 1^ lbs., linseed oil 1 pt., warm water 3 pts., with only half the quantity of salts and oil, till they are well purged ; after which, give, twice a day, tartar emetic 2 scruples, powdered nitre J oz., gruel 3 pts., — mixed for use. For apoplexy in Skeep, bleed a quart, and give, for a purging drench, Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., warm water 4 oz. ; repeated every six hours, if the bowels are not well opened, and give once or twice a day tartar emetic 10 grs., nitre 2 drs., gruel 2 oz., — mix for use. For apoplexy or staggers in Pigs, bleed, and then open the bowels with Epsom salts and sulphur. (Alteratives.) — These are medicines which operate without producing very decided evacuations. For Sheep, mix together one ounce of Ethiop's mineral, 2 ounces of nitre, 4 ounces of sulphur ; — give about two drachms daily, till the animal is cured. For the Cow, the dose is from a half to a whole ounce daily. For the Horse, one ounce to an ounce and a half, made into a ball with soft soap. If there is any tendency to grease, add to each ball one drachm of powdered resin. In cases of weakness, two drachms of gentian powdered, and one drachm of ginger powdered. For Dogs, flour of sulphur 12 oz., powd. nitre 2 oz., Ethiop's mineral 1 oz., treacle suflScient to make a mass ; give a piece the size of a nut to a walnut, according to the size of the dog. Black Quarter. — Also known as Quarter Evil, Quarter 111, Black Leg, Blood Striking, The Blood Joint Felon, or Inflammatory Evil. — Symptoms — extension of neck, red eyes, breath hot, muzzle dry, pulse quick, heaving, moaning, loss of appetite, lameness. Bleed copiously, then give a strong purgative dose, composed of 14 lbs. Epsom salts, 1 pint linseed oil, 3 pints water. The wearing a seton, occasional doses of physic, and frequent careful examinations by the owner, are better than all else to prevent this disease. In Sheep, bleed from the jugular vein till the sheep falls, arid give Epsom salts 2 oz., linseed oil 2 oz., gruel 4 oz., till the bowels are well relieved ; then give, twice a day, tartar emetic 10 grains, camphor 20 gr., nitre 2 dr., gruel a wineglass full. Black Water. — Also called Red Water, Brown Water, Black Water, Moor 111, &c. — Symptoms — bloody urine, loss of appetite, languor, apathy, seclusion, constipation. Bleed copiously; then give Epsom salts 1 lb., in 2 qts. water, every six hours, in half-pound doses, till the bowels are relieved. Inflammation of the Kidneys, and Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Bladder or Urethra, resemble this disease. The first-named is rare ; the second may be treated by bleeding, with a dose of Barbadoes aloes, in powder., 6 to 8 dr., powdered gum Arabic 1 oz., in a pint of water. domsstk; oe 7aeu animals. STS Bed Water in Sheep -^hleeA freely, and give for a drench, Epsdm ealts 2 oz., linseed oil 1 oz., warm water 4 oz., - — mix for a dose. Bog Spavin. — For this well-known disease in horses, a blister is the only means of cure. Bone Spavin. — Disease of the hock joint : remedied by rest, or cessation from hard work, or patting to moderate work on soft ground. The bony deposite, or inflammation, may be removed by repeated blisters. Use a hot iron only as a last resort. Botts are grubs, which, in the spring, trouble horses. To kill these, some use common salt in the animal's food, or as an injection. But when once the worm has attached itself to the animal's stomach, it is difiicult to remove them. Bowels, Inflammation of. — In case of inflammation of the external and muscular coats of the bowels of Horses, bleed freely till fainting is produced, and give the following purge, — Barbadoes aloes 4 dr. , powdered gum Ara- bic 4 dr., hot water J pint; dissolve, and add a pint of linseed oil, and repeat the dose in eight hours. The belly should be stimulated with the following liniment, — mustard i lb., spirit of sal-ammoniac Q oz., water enough to make it creamy. A fever-ball may be given twice a day, made of powdered foxglove 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with linseed meal and treacle or soft soap sufficient. For inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, produced from an over-dose of physic, give for a purge — prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered bark 2 dr., powdered opium 1 dr., powdered ginger 1 dr., gruel 3 pints, — mix. For inflammation of the bowels of Cattle, bleed freely, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pt., to be repeated in six hours, till the bowels are well relieved, with injections of warm gruel. For the same disease in Dogs, bleed, put into a warm bath, and give castor-oil 2 oz., syrup of buckthorn 1 oz., — mix for a dose. Brain, Inflammation of. — Of the staggers in Horses there are two kinds, the Sleepy or Stomach, caused by over-feeding, wliich must be treated by removing the stomach's contents by the stomach-pump, then bleed, and give an opening ball. Mad staggers arise from inflamed brain ; bleed from 4 to 6 qts. , and repeat this in six or eight hours, and give the following ball, — Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., calomel 1 dr., and treacle, inject with warm water and linseed oil. For inflammation of the brain (frenzy or lough) in Cattk, bleed till the animal faints, and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., hot water 1 qt. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 pint, — mix for a dose, and repeat every 6 hours till the bowels are relieved. For S/ieep, bleed freely &om the jugular vein, amd give for drink — Epsom salts 2 oz., hot water 4 oz. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 2 oz., — mix for use. 274 farmer's hand-book. Brittkness of Hoof. — Mix 3 oz. oil of tar with 6 oz. of common fish-oil ; rub this -well into the crust and the hoof. BroJcen Knees. — Bathe the wounds with warm water, and apply, for a tincture, QSgyptiacum J oz., friar's balsam 1 oz., tincture aloes and myrrh 1 oz, — mix for use. The knee of the horse should be bandaged. Broken Wind. — This is the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs, and is prevented, rather than cured, by occasionally feeding the horse with nutritious food, and avoiding great exertion just after he has been fed, so as not to distend the belly and press upon the lungs. Bronchitis is catarrh, extending to the entrance of the lungs. Symp^ toms — hard and rapid breathing, and coughing up mucous matter. Bleed according to the violence of the disease, and blister the brisket and sides with blister ointment well rubbed in, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., sulphur 2 dr., with treacle; repeat till the bowels are acted on, assisted by warm and frequent injections, and give, twice a day, a ball made of — tartar emetic 1 dr. , powdered foxglove 4 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 3 dr., with sufficient treacle. (Calves, Diseases of.) — For Diarrhoea, give two or three times a day 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls of — prepared chalk 4 oz., powdered canellabark 1 oz., laud- anum 1 oz., water 1 pt. For Costiveness, dissolve 3 to 4 oz. — according to age — of Epsom salts in 2 qts. of water, and inject into the stomach by means of the stomach-pump, and, in need, repeat in half doses every 4 hours. For Canker in the Mouth, give a dose of Epsom salts, and wash with mel- CEgyptiacum 1 oz., friar's balsam 1 oz. Canker in Horses' Feet. — Pare the hoof, destroy the fungus by means of the butyr of antimony, and apply tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz. , and tincture of aloes and myrrh J oz., mixed together. Canker of Ears, in Dogs. — Apply an ointment of burnt alum in fine powder 1 dr., white vitriol in fine powder 1 dr., spermaceti ointment 4 oz. Capped Hock. — A' Horse affection, produced by a bruise. Apply early and repeatedly a blister. Catarrh (common) , or Hoose (common cold) . — In slight cases, for Cattle, house, and give a dose of Epsom salts. If severe, bleed, and then give — Epsom salts J lb., ginger 2 dr., powdered aniseed 2 oz., gruel 3 pts. For Influenza, bleed 3 to 6 qts., and give for a purge — Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered coriander seeds 1 oz. ; dissolve in 3 pints warm gruel. In a Horse, give immediately additional warmth, some mashes, and a ball or two, each dose, made of — camphor 2 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered nitre 4 dr., and sufficient linseed meal and soft soap to make a ball ~, if severe, bleed, and, when better, give daily — powdered nitre 2 dr., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. gentian J oz., do. ginger 2 dr. ; — boil ten min- DOMESTIC OR FABM ANIMALS. 275 utes in a quaurt of ale, and give new milk warm. In Sheep, bleed, and give for a purge, Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered aniseed 2 dr., — mix, and give in a little warm gruel. Catarrhal Fever. — Symptoms, in Horses, shivering, hot mouth, hot skin, heaving of the flanks, cough, nose red, and discharging a watery matter. If attended to early, bleed moderately, and repeat this if the pulse increases and legs get cold. Keep the bowels open by giving a mixture of Barhadoes aloes 2 dr., gum Arabic J oz:, water 1 pt., for a dose ; inject with warm gruel, and repeat the physic in 12 hours, if necessary. If the throat is sore, apply a blister of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz., — mix for use. Hot mashes are excellent, and a constant supply of gruel ; then, for cooling medicine,' give camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., tartar emetic 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball. This disease must not be con- founded with inflammation of the lungs. Choking. — Use a flexible tube gently ; if the choking matter can be felt externally, pour a pint of sweet oil dovim the throat, and rub outside with the hand. Colic. — Laudanum 1 oz., spirits of sweet nitre 2 oz., do. of turpentine 2 oz., linseed oil 1 pt., — mix. Apply hot water, by means of flannels, to the belly, and give an injection of Epsom salts J lb., linseed oil 4 oz., water 4 qts., — mix. If these do not operate well, in half an hour, bleed. Contracted Foot. — Place the animal in wet clay during the day, or turn him into a moist pasture, properly paring away the sole and the toe, and lowering the heels. Cough. — Give, in a ball, gum ammoniacimi 2 dr. , powdered squills 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., soap 2 dr., made into a ball with syrup. If very bad, bleed moderately. Crih-Biting. — Indicates unsoundness, and tends to colic. Put a strap tight around his neck, or let him wear a muzzle of such a sort as will not prevent him from eating, but will disenable him to seize hold of the manger. Cud, Loss of. — Give, for a drink, when no particular disorder is appar- ent, Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered gentian J oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr., — mix, and give in warm gruel. Curb. — A bony excrescence in the inner side of a horse's hind leg. Give, for a cooling lotion, to reduce the inflammation, — afterwards apply- ing a blister, — sal ammoniac 2 oz., powdered nitre 2 oz., vinegar 1 pt., water 1 qt., — mix for use. Diarrhcea. — An excessive discharge of fcecal matter. First give an aperient, either one pint of linseed oil, or, in a quart of water, i lb. Epsom Baits, 2 dr. powdered ginger, — mix for a dose; then give, for an astringent— 376 farmer's hand-book. prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 3 dr., do. opium i dr., do. ginger 3 dr., — mix, and give in a quart of warm gruel. Distemper in Dogs. — Mix tartar emetic 20 gr., calomiel 20 gr., opium 5 gr., and give, in a piece of butter, from 2 to 6 gr.., according to sizp. Distention of the Rumen, or Grain Sick. — ■ First use the probang, then give 1 pt. of linseed oil ; also give injections of warm water. Dropsy. — In the Horse, — give a diuretic ball of powdered resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., sulphur 4 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., oil of juniper ^ dr., treacle sufficient to make a ball, once or twice a day. When great debility exists, add a tonic made as follows — powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., do. resin 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., powdered nitre 3 dr., oil juniper 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, — to be given once or twice a day. Dysentery, or Scouring Rot. — Dangerous and generally fatal disease. Take a small quantity of blood, and 1 pt. linseed oil, or Epsom salts 4 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., to be given in 1 qt. of gruel ; afterwards, night and morning, an astringent of prepared chalk 1 oz., powdered catechu 4 dr., do. canella bark 2 dr., do. opium 2 scruples, do. gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr., — mix, and give in thick gruel. Epilepsy, or Fits. — Animals subject to fits should not be rode nor driven. If a Cow, either reduce her food or hasten her departure to the butcher. If a Sheep, the best treatment is to leave the action of the over-excited nervous energy to cease of itself. Eye, Injhmmation of. — In Horses, \ion account of cold, give in a ball — emetic tartar IJ dr., nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to form a ball ; and frequently foment the eye with hot water. If it does not abate, use for a lotion -^ Goulard's extract X dr., spirit of wine 1 dr., soft water 4 pt. , — mix, and bathe frequently with a small piece of sponge. If it does not arise from cold, bleed, and give a dose of physic first, and then give the balls and use the lotion as above. In Cattle, bleed, and then give, for a purge, Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 1 oz., water 3 pts., — mix; the eye to be fomented with hot water frequently, and then use for a lotion — Goulard's extract 2 dr., laudanum 2 dr., water 1 pt., — mix, and bathe with a sponge ; when the inflammation has abated, use the following — purified white vitriol 10 gr., soft water 4 pt., — mix for use. Eyes, Weak, in Dogs. — Apply, for a wash, white vitriol 8 gr., soft water 4 pt., — mix together, and apply, with a piece of linen rag, several times a day. Farcy. — One of the stages of glanders. Symptoms, — buds or knots on the sides of the face, inner part of thigh, or on the neck ; great swelling of the legs and muzzle, cracked heels, bad discharges fiom the nose, &c. Use a lotion made of — blue vitriol 1 oz., white do. 1 oz., water 1 pt., — mix; DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 277 the ulcers to be bathed with this, night and morning, at the same time using balls made of — bluestone 1 dr., powdered gentian 2 dr., liquorice plsvder 3 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball, to be given twice a day. After^giv- ing the above for two or three weeks without relief, then give corrosive sub- limate 10 gr., gentian powder 3 dr., liquorice do. 4 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball ; give every morning, and if it produces purging or sickness, discontinue at once. If green food is not to be had, give carrots. Feet, Inflammation of. — Symptoms in a horse, — fidgetiness, fever, moan- ing, lying down. Bleed freely at the toes, and apply soft linseed meal poultices to the whole foot, removing the shoe and gently paring the hoof; give for a dose — camphor 2 dr., nitre 4 dr., emetic tartar 1 dr., soft soap sufficient to make a ball ; if severe, bleed afresh, and the third day, if no relief comes, apply a blister. Fever in the Horse. — Symptoms, — dulness, cold extremities, bad appe- tite, constipation. Bleed, and give for a ball — Barbadoes aloes 6 to 8 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient, &c. ; give bran mashes and warm water, and perhaps an injection of warm water, i lb. Epsom salts, 4 pt. linseed oil. Afterwards give, night and morning, for a ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., powd. nitre 2 dr., linseed meal and treacle enough to form a ball. Fistulous Withers. — Require to be treated like Poll Evil. Flooding. — A discharge of blood from the uterus of the cow, after calv- ing. Apply very cold water to the loins. If it continues, raise the cow's hind parts, give 2 dr. opium every hour, keep the patient quiet, take her calf. Fly in Sheep, i — Appear in May. If the head is sore after the maggots are killed, apply a plaster of bees' wax 2 oz,, 1 lb. pitch, spread on warm linen. To destroy the maggots, rub together sal-ammoniac 2 oz., corrosive sublimate J oz., dissolved in 2 gals, hot water, and apply the same. Feet, Diseases of. — Pumiced feet may be palliated by bar shoes. Tread, or overreach, — wash out the dirt carefully, and apply a little friar's balsam, and in bad cases a poultice. Pricked or Wounded Foot may often be cured by paring down the sole to the quick, and applying a little tow and friar's balsam to the place ; if matter has formed, apply a poultice. Thrush, — make a paste, of powdered blue vitriol 2 oz., do. white vitriol 1 oz., rubbed down with lard 3 lbs., tar 1 lb. ; apply some of this, on a little tow, deeply into the cleft, over night, to be removed in the morning. Foot Rot, in Sheep, — apply a liquid, of powdered verdigris J oz. , blue vitriol 4 oz. , white do. 4 oz. , soft water 4 pt. , mixed together, and add nitric acid 1 oz. , buty r of antimony 1 oz. ; pare away the horn, and apply with a feather to the pan affected. Foul Foot, — after cutting away the fungous flesh, and using 24 278 farmer's hand-book. butyr of antimony, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 1 oz., butyr antimony 1 oz.,"i— mix for use ; also give a dose of salts. Garget. — Inflammation of the internal part of the udder. At first, allow the calf to suckle, and rub about her udder; if unsuccessful, bleed a little, and then give, for a drench, Epsom salts 1 lb., aniseed powdered 1 oz., warm water 3 pts. ; bathe the udder, thrice a day, with hot water, and after each bathing rub with yellow basilieon 4 oz., camphor 1 oz., rubbed down with a little spirits of wine, strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 16 oz., mixed well together. Glanders. — Symptom, — peculiar thin, light, glutinous discharge from left nostril. Give, for a ball, bluestone 3 oz., dissolved in water, powdered myrrh 3 oz., do. nitre 8 oz., linseed meal and soft soap sufficient to make the mass into 24 balls ; give one night and moaning, and inject the ulcers night and morning with a weak solution of chloride of lime, by means of a syringe, at the same time giving the horse green food. Grease. — An inflammation of the horse's heel, stopping the greasy matter from exuding on its surface. Wash with soft soap and water ; then apply, for an ointment, yellow wax 2 oz., sweet oil 8 oz. ; melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr. ; use a little after each bathing. Give bran mashes, a diuretic ball, every 3d or 4th day, at the same time having green food, if possible. If not attended to, the inflammation extends and the heel cracks ; poultice it with carrots boiled soft, or with linseed meal ; apply the following caustic, — bluestone 2 dr., alum 2 dr., water 1 pt. When the inflammation has subsided, leave off the poultice, and apply, for an ointment, yellow resin 4 oz., do. wax 4 oz., sweet oil 1 qt. ; melt together, and add calamine in very flne powder J lb. , — stir till cold. Griping. — Mix senna-leaves 12 oz., guaiacum-wood 2 oz., elecampane- root 2 oz., aniseed 2 oz., caraway do. 2 oz., coriander do. 2 oz., stick- liquorice 2 oz., stoned raisins 8 oz., rectified spirits of wine 3 pts., soft water 3 pts. Let this mixture stand two weeks, occasionally shaking it ; dose for a Calf, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, — for a Horse, 4 pt. Grogginess. — In Horses, a peculiar knuckling over of the fetlock-joint, and tottering of the fore-leg. No cure. Heart, Inflammation of. — Not common. The only remedy is copious bleeding. It is indicated by quick pulse, rapid action of the heart, heard even at a distance. Healing Dogs' Ears. — Melt together yellow resin 2 oz., do. wax 1 oz., sweet oil 4 pt-, and when it begins to cool, stir in 4 oz. powdered calamine ; apply it to the sores. Hide-bound. — Hardness of the skin of the Horse. If there be no other disease, give a mild physic-ball, of Barbadoes aloes 5 to 6 dr., powdered DOMESTIC OR FAKM ANIMALS. 279 ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., treacle sufficient to form a ball. After this has operated, give every day, with bran mashes, green food, regular exercise, and good grooming, a ball made of powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., do. yellow resin 1 oz., do. gentian 2 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., treacle suflUcient to make eight balls. Hoove. — Symptoms in Cattle, — the animal ceases to eat, is distressed, breath oppressed, moaning, belly blown up ; brain is next affected, tongue protrudes. Introduce, as often as the belly swells, an elastic pipe down the throat into the stomach, which liberates the gas and relieves the animal ; when relieved, give a dose of Epsom salts 1 lb., caraway seeds 2 oz., ginger 4 oz., gruel 3 pts., and then, to give tone to the stomach, for three or four mornings, give a dose of Epsom salts 4 oz. , powdered gentian 1 oz. , do. ginger 4 oz., do. caraway 1 oz., gruel 3 pts. In Calves, — introduce the elastic pipe. In Sheep, use the elastic pipe, or probang, same as for cattle, and give a dose of Epsom salts 2 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr., caraway 2 dr., in i pint of warm water. Hydrocephalus, or Water in the Head, in Sheep. — Give moderate doses of Epsom salts combined with ginger and gentian ; for a Sheep, the dose may be — Epsom salts 3 oz., gentian 1 dr., ginger J dr., in a i pt. warm water. Jaundice, or Yellows. — Symptoms in Cattle, — yellow eyes, urine, and skin. If there be fever, bleed lightly, and then give Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered ginger 4 dr., warm water 3 pts. ; after the bowels are well opened, give every day, for a purge, madder 1 oz., flour of sulphur 2 oz., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., Epsom salts 2 to 4 oz., warm v/ater 3 pts. In Sheep, — give repeatedly, for a purge, Epsom salts 3 oz., powdered ginger 4 dr., do. aniseed 2 dr., warm water i pt. ; if this be too weakening, give powdered gentian 2 dr., do. bark 1 dr., do. ginger J dr., warm water { pt. Joint Felon, or Rheumatism. — Give for a drench, to keep the bowels open, Epsom salts J lb., powdered caraway seeds 1 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., warm water 1 qt. ; also give, once or twice a day, tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 4 dr., nitre 2 dr., aniseed powder 1 oz., well rubbed together, and given in 1 qt. thick gruel ; if the joints continue much swollen, use for a liniment — spirits of hartshorn 2 oz., opodeldoc 2 oz., camphor liniment 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., — mix for use; Kicks, and other Bruises. — Foment the parts freely with hot water ; if the skin is broken, apply a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz., tinct. of aloes and myrrh 2 oz., — mix for use. Kidneys, Inflammation of. — In Horses, — bleed freely, every 6 hours, if requisite ; and give, for a ball, Barbadoes aloes 8 to 10 dr., powdered ginger 2 dr.', treacle sufl[icient to form a ball ; the operation of the physic to be as- 280 faemer's hand-book. sisted by injections of warm water and ^ pt. linseed oil, frequently thrown up, the loins well fomented with hot ifrater, and afterwards apply a mustard poultice, with bran mashes and linseed tea. Lameness of Shoulder. — Foment frequently with hot water, bleed a little from the plate vein, and give a dose of physic ; and in obstinate cases apply a blister, or a liniment of opodeldoc 4 oz., laudanum 1 oz., sweet oil 4 oz., spirits of hartshorn 4 oz., — mix, and after each fomenting with hot water, rub well in. Lampas. — In Horses, — a swelling of some of the bars of the mouth. Give a few mashes, aided by a gentle alterative ; in need, make a few mod- erate cuts across the bars. Lice in Cattle. — Result from poor keep. Use, for ointment, strong mercurial ointment 3 oz. , lard | lb. , — mix, and rub where the lice are found. Lioer, Inflammation of. — Symptoms — fever, reclining on the right side, fulaesa on that side of the belly ; urine yellow or brown, and sometimes bloody. If there is much fever, bleed a little, and giv« — calomel 1 dr., powdered opium 10 gr., do. ginger 2 dr. ; rub together, and giye in 1 qt. gruel, and repeat it twice a day ; give, in 6 hours after first dose, a purge of Epsom salts 8 oz., water 1 qt. ; dissolve and add linseed oil 1 pt. ; repeat till the bowels are open. If purging takes place from the first, give the calomel, opium and ginger, and give the drench as in diarrhcea, at the same time blistering the right side ; if great weakness ensue, give, for a tonic, powdered gentian 4 oz., do. caraway seeds 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., Epsom salts 4 oz. , — mix, and give in 1 pt. warm brandy. For Sheep, bleed mod- erately, and keep the bowels open by a drench made of Epsom salts 3 oz., powdered ginger 1 dr. , warm water 4 oz. Locked Jaw. — In Horses, — bleed till the ciyulation is evidently affected, so as to administer a strong purging ball or drink, assisted by injections of one pt. linseed oil to one gal. warm water, at the same time applying a strong blister from the poll to the rump, and even on the side; when the physic begins to act, give an anti-spasmodic of powdered opium 1 dr., do. aniseed 3 dr., camphor 1 dr. ; rub the camphor down with a little spirit of wine, and mix with the opium and aniseed, and beat into a ball with treacle. In Cat- tle, — bleed till the beast threatens to fall, and give, for a drink, Epsom salts IJ lb., flour of sulphur 4 lb., warm water 3 qts., — mix, and repeat in J lb. doses every 6 hours, assisted by injections every 4 hours, composed of Ep- som salts 4 lb., linseed oil 4 pt., warm water 4 qts. ; when well operated, give 1 dr. opium, dissolved in warm water, twice a day, and put a seton in the dewlap. For Sheep, — bleeding, and physic, — either Epsom salts or linseed oil. Mallenders and Sallenders. — A scurfy eruption in the legs of horses. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 281 Give a diuretic ball every third night, and dress tveice a day with ointment nKide of tar 4 oz,, suet 4 oz., ^melt together, and add sugar of lead 1 oz., — stir till cold. Mange. — For a Horse, give a physic-ball of Barbadoes aloes 6 dr., calomel \ dr., powdered ginger 2 dr., Castile soap 2 dr., oil of caraway 20 drops, treacle sufficient to form a ball. After the mange has set, give the following alterative balls: powdered black antimony 2 oz., do. nitre 2 oz., Castile soap 2 oz. , flour of sulphur 8 oz. , soft soap enough to make the mass into 8 balls ; give one of these every night, and use an ointment of flour of sulphur 8 oz., strong mercurial ointment 2 oz., soft soap 4 oz., train oil 1 pt. ; rub well together, and then rub it in, with the hand, over the parts affected, using it moderately ; repeat, and, if needful, add 2 oz. of spirits of tar. In Cattle, use a drench, of Epsom salts J lb., flour of sulphur J lb., — mix, and give in 3 pts. of thin gruel every third day, and use the same ointment as for horses. In Dogs, — mix for use, and rub in carefully, with the hand, upon the affected parts, an ointment of flour of sulphur 1 lb., soft soap 4 oz., oil of tar 1 oz. , train oil !^ pt. Megrims in Horses, -r- Is the mildest form of determination of blood to the head. Give present relief by drawing a penknife deeply across the bars of th« mouth, and set them bleeding; then wash well, and give a dose of physic, with green food. When the physic has operated, give every night an alterative ball, made of flour of sulphur 5 oz., powdered nitre 5 oz., do. te^in 1^ oz., do. black antimony 3 oz., liquorice and soft soap sufficient to make 12 balls. Miscarriage, -r- In Mares, often arises from over-exertion, or accidents, or stinting in food, or high feeding and idleness. When, therefore, the beast is near her time, separate her from the rest, and put her in some convenient quiet place. When there is danger of slipping the calf, the cow should be taken from the pasture or stable the over-night, and from 2 to 3 or 4 qts. of blood drawn ; and give for a purging drink, repeated in about 8 or 10 days, Epsom salts 1 lb., nitre 2 oz., ginger and aniseed, in powder, 1 oz. each, trea- cle 4 oz. ; pour 3. pts. hot water upon these, and give when new-milk warm ; after it operates, give for one drink, — alum in powder 4 oz. , nitre 1 oz. , grains of paradise, and aniseeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, solid opium cut small J dr., treacle 4 table-spoonfuls ; put this into a pitcher, pour 1 qt. hot water upon it, cover it down till new-milk warm, and then give it to the beast. If the calf is slipped, separate the cow from the herd, and give, for a drink, sper- maceti 2 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz., one egg-yelk; beat these together, then add grains of paradise, and caraway seeds, fresh powdered, 1 oz. each, treacle 4oz., — mix in 1 qt. warm gruel, add awine-glassof gin, and give it, new-milk warm, every third day, for 3 times. In Sheep, must be prevented, 24* 282 farmer's hand-book. as in the two former cases, by careful attention to their habits, feed, and condition. If the ewe is afterwards attacked with fever, she may be treated as for fever ; if very weak, give doses of ginger 2 dr., gentian 1 dr., Epsom salts 1 oz., in warm water. Nasal Gleet. — In Horses, give a ball, night and morning, made of blue vitriol 1 dr., dissolved in water ; powdered gentian 2 dr., do. ginger 1 dr. ; treacle and meal enough to form a ball. Inject the nose with a solution of chloride of lime. Navel 111. — When the navel bleeds, tie a ligature a short distance from the belly ; a pledget of lint, dipped in friar's balsam, over it, confined with a bandage, and changed night and morning ; and keep the bowels open with linseed oil ; then give a cordial drink, in a little gruel, once a day, made of powdered caraway 3 dr., do. gentian 1 dr., do. ginger i dr. Palsy. — In the Horse, if from violence or accident, give a dose of physic, foment the back or loins with hot water, and rub in, for an ointment, opodeldoc 4 oz., spirits of turpentine 4 oz., do. of hartshorn 4 oz., mixed together ; if necessary, after three or four days, apply a mustard liniment. In Cattle, keep the bowels well open by a drench made of Epsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway 1 oz., do. aniseed 1 oz., do. ginger 2 dr., — mix, and give in 1 qt. warm beer, and use same liniment as for horses. In Sheep, keep the bowels well open with a drink of Epsom salts 2 oz., warm water 3 oz. ; dissolve, and add linseed oil 1 oz., — mix together. (Pigs, Diseases of.) — Eor the common diseases of pigs, give flour of sul- phur 1 lb., madder J lb., powdered nitre i lb., do. black antimony 2 oz., — mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls in their food for a dose. Pneumonia, or Injlammaiion of the Lungs. — In Horses, bleed freely till fainting begins; then give, for a fever-ball, tartar emetic 1 dr., powdered foxglove J dr., do. nitre 3 dr., linseed meal and soft soap enough to form a ball, to be given two or three times daily. After the force of the fever is reduced, it may be necessary to apply extensive blisters to the brisket, and to the sides under the elbows, the hair being shaved close, and the ointment made of powdered Spanish flies 1 part, lard 4 parts, resin 1 part ; melt the lard and resin together, then add the Spanish flies, and rub the ointment well in with the hands for J of an hour. In Cattle, the treatment is similar ; bleed freely, and, if needful, repeatedly ; give a dose of salts, and then the following — tartar emetic 1 dr., camphor 1 dr., nitre 4 dr., in 1 qt. thick gruel. If the blister-ointment fails, hot water and a hot iron may be used. Poisons. — For Cattle, affected by the yew-tree, hemlock, dropwort, black henbane, and wild parsnip, give 1 lb. Epsom salts in 2 qts water ; use the stomach-pump, injecting and copiously withdrawing water. Symptoms, DOMESTIC OE FAEM ANIMALS. 283 — sudden swelling, thirst, refusal of solid food, grinding of the teeth, paw- ing, and rolling as in pain. Poll Evil. — First bleed, administer a dose of physic, and apply cold lotions. If these fail, use poultices and warm fomentations, and then intro- duce a seton skilfully. Ring-bone. — In Horses, an enlargement of the postern joint; — apply a blister over the ring-bone, formed of powdered cantharides 1 oz., resin ointment 4 oz., — mix for use. Rheumatism. — In Dogs, use for an embrocation, camphorated oil 2 oz., spirits of hartshorn 1 oz., laudanum J oz., — mix for use. Roaring. — In the early stages, a blister, bleeding, cooling medicine, inay succeed in recovering ; when confirmed, it is cureless. It is an unnatural contraction of the windpipe and larynx. Rot. — An affection of the lungs and liver, with a dropsical tendency. Symptoms, — if, in warm, sultry, and rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is reason to fear that they have contracted the rot ; this suspicion will be further increased, if, in a few weeks afterwards, the sheep begin to shrink, and become flaccid in their loins, — by pressure about the hips at this time a crackling is sometimes perceptible ; now, or soon after, the countenance looks pale, the skin is pale red, and the wool easily separates from the felt, and, as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots ; about this time, the eye loses its lustre, becoming white and pearly, and to this succeed debility and emaciation. For a cure, both tur- pentine and common salt have sometimes been used with success ; the latter is good to prevent, as also are aromatic vegetable substances, — pars- ley, for instance, — also give them, when feeding on watery plants, some hay, corn, px oil-cake. Round-bone, Sprain of. — Foment well and often with hot water, then blister. Saddle-galls, Sit-fasts and Warbles. — Allow no pressure on the parts affected ; then dress with common salt dissolved in water, and the brine mixed with one fourth its bulk of friar's balsam. Scab in Sheep. — This is owing to the presence of minute insects. Use for a lotion, corrosive sublimate 1 oz., sal-ammoniac 4 oz., spirits of turpen- tine 1 pt., hot water 2 gal. Dissolve the sublimate and sal-ammoniac in the water, and then add the turpentine ; separate the wool, remove the scab, and apply the lotion. Scour in Lambs. — Mix, and give one or two table-spoonfuls once or twice a day, — prepared chalk 2 oz., powdered canella bark 3 dr., tincture of catechu J oz., laudanum 4 oz., water 1 pt. ^4 FABMEk's HANS-BOOK. Sore Teats in Cows. — Before milking, bathe the teats well with warm water; after milking, use for an ointment, wax 2 oz.^lard 6 oz., — melt together, and add sugar of lead in very fine powder 2 dr. ; stir till cold. Splint. — Caused by inflammation of the shank-bone : its growth is attended by heat, tenderness, and pain. If it produce lameness, cut the hair oiF close, and rub in, for three or four nights, a little strong mercurial ointment ; then blister the part with blister ointment, and repeat it if neces- sary. When the inflammation from the blister has subsided, turn him out. Staling, Difficulty. — In the Horse, give bran mashes, green food, and plenty of gruel ; if this fails, take a little blood, and give a mild dose (rf physic. Staling, Profuse ; or. Diabetes. — In Horses, bleed, give a dose of physic, and then twice a day give an astringent ball, made of powdered baik !i oz., do. opium i dr., do. coriander 3 dr., treacle enough to form a ball ; give green food, or a few carrots. Stifle Lameness. — Foment frequently with hot water ; give a mild dose of physic, and let the animal rest. Strangles. — Symptoms, — a cough, discharge from the nostrils, and also one of a soapy nature from the mouth, swelling under the throat, loss of appetite, fever. Give mashes and green food, and apply to^ the throat,, oscr the tumor, a blister of powdered cantharides I oz., yellow basilicon 4 oz., oil of thyme 2 dr. , — mix for use. When the tumor has formed, open it with a lancet, and dress with a tincture of friar's balsam 2 oz. , tincture of myirh and aloes 2 oz., — mix. When the tumor begins to heal, give a mUd dose of physic. It is not often necessary to give medicine, if much fever existSi At the commencement of the disease, give, for a ball, tartar emetic, 4 cb., powdered nitre 16 dr. , linseed meal and soft soap enough to make 4 balls. Surfeit. — A skin complaint in horses. Bleed a little, give mashes and green food, and a ball, made of — powdered black antimony 2 oz., do, nitre 2 oz., do. resin 1 oz., do. gentian root 2 oz., flour of sulphur 4 oz., soft soap enough to make 8 balls. Swelled Legs. — Give regular exercise, and assist by hand-rubbing, and by bandages wrapped rather tightly around the legs. Give no diuielic balls. Thick-wind. — Feed moderately, give green food occasionally, and gentle exercise. Thoroughfin. — In Horses, a swelling above the hock. , Apply a blister. Ticks or Lice in Sheep. — Apply carefully, for a wash, powdered arsenic i lb., soft soap 7 lbs., soft water 4 gals. ; boil this till the arsenic is dis- solved, and add as much soft water as will dip 50 to 70 sheep. Tumsick, or Goggles, or Giddy, or Dunt. — A complaint of the head, DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 285 proceeding from the presence of hydatids in the brain, lodged in a sac or bladder, which presses upon the brain. It is beyond the reach of medicine or mechanical operations. Sturdy is a name often given to this disease, as well as to Water in the Head, but they are distinct. Treat by examining the skull for a soft spot on the bone, "where the water is collected. Per- forate the skull with a trocar, accompanied by a tube, through which the water may escape ; after which, apply a few drops of essence of myrrh to the aperture ; shelter the animal and dress the wound. Ulcers. — Bathe 3 or 3 times a day, with a solution of chloride of lime, and use an ointment of yellow basilicon 4 oz., powdered verdigris J oz. ; rub together for use. Warbles. — Foment with hot water, and when the tenderness has abated, apply a lotion, of strong vinegar 1 pt., rectified spirit of wine 2 oz., extract of Goulard 1 oz., spirits of turpentine 1 oz., — mix together for use. Warts. — Cut them off close with a pair of scissors, and touch the roots with lunar caustic. Womb Inflammation. — It occurs in Cows, after calving or bulling. Symptoms, — great irritation and pain. Bleed, and give for a drench, Bpsom salts 1 lb., powdered caraway seeds 2 oz., warm gruel 3 pints. Bathe the womb with Goulard water, or vinegar and water mixed equally. In Sheep, bleed and open the bowels with Epsom salts in 2 oz. doses. Worms. — In the Horse, unless they abound, let them remain. If they descend into the rectum, inject a quart of linseed oil, or salt and water. If a strong dose of physic is intended to be given to the patient, when it has set, give a ball every morning, fasting for a week, of tartar emetic 8 dr., ilour of sulphur 6 oz., powdered ginger 8 dr., treacle sufficient to make 8 balls. In Dogs, give, for a drench, spirits turpentine 1 to 4 dr., castor-oil 2 to 8 dr., — mix for a dose according to size. Wounds. — Foment frequently with hot water, and apply a tincture of ftiar's balsam 2 oz., compound tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz. ; if unhealthy granulations arise, wash, previously to using the tincture, with bluestone 1 oz., soft water 1 pt. Wounds generally heal better without sewing, if it can be avoided. For Dogs, tincture of myrrh and aloes 2 oz., ftiar's balsam 1 oz., — mix these together, for use. LIVE STOCK CALENDAR. November. — The month of November may be said to be the conraience- ment of the farmer's year. By this time the labors of his harvest have been concluded, and his produce has been secured ; and he is now proceeding to prepare the ground for the crop of another season, if the weather be suffi- ciently open for him to do anylJiing more before the next spring. 286 farmer's hand-book. The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows ; of a certain number of calves ; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year, termed, therefore, one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but now approaching- to the end of their second year ; of a certain number of steers and heifers which have completed their second year, and are therefore termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year ; and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at matu- rity ; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course of the season, and the older steers are ready for final breeding. As the month of October had advanced, the pasture had begun to fail ; and before the termination of the month, the various cattle had been put in their respective houses, yards, and stalls. The cows which had borne calves in the early part of the year had been put in the cow-house and tied in their respective stalls, — straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as turnips, having been supplied to them. The calves which were born in the early part of the year had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had been well littered, and had received straw, and a full allowance of turnips. The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year, and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards with sheds. They had likewise been plentifully littered, receiving straw, with a full allowance of turnips. The older cattle — those that have completed their second year — had been treated thus : — Such of them as were heifers, to be retained for breeding, had been separated from the males in the preceding spring ; had received the male as they came into season, in spring and the early part of summer ; and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their respective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers again, which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put in pairs into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full supply of tur- nips, or other nourishing food. The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiving straw for provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips. Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the com-r mencement of the month of November. The same treatment with respect to them is to be continued during the entire month ; — the cows and heifers are to receive straw, with a modified allowance of turnips — the calves and steers straw, with a full supply of turnips. The sheep again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breeding-; stock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus : — The ewes, consisting partly of sheep that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th of October, the rams admitted to them, At the beginning of November, tho DOMESTIC OE FARM ANIMALS. 287 rams and ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass, and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn. The lambs born in the spring, now termed ewe and wether hogs, had, on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on turnips. At the beginning of November, they continued penned on turnips, they being attended to as well as the sheep, and the pens being shifted when necessary. The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allow- ance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving full feeding ; but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labor become short, the hay may be withdrawn, and the allowance of oats reduced one half. By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw as provender, with any succu- lent roots, as turnips and potatoes. The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fat- tened at all times, and the poultry receive their regular supplies of food in their yard ; and as the same method of management continues throughout the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to. December. — The cows are in the cow-houses ; the young cattle in their yards ; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards, as before ; and they are all kept and treated in the same manner throughout the month. The ewes are, as before, on grass; but in snows, or hard frosts, they receive an allow- ance of hay. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before, and are kept so during the month. The hours of daylight, and consequently of labor, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their modified allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, receiv- ing straw, with an allowance of green food, and are kept so during the month. January. — The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month ; turnips being brought, and a store kept in reserve, as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, or towards the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time, and the calves separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the day. The ewes are on grass-land, if the weather be not too severe, receiv- ing hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hogs continue penned on turnips, as during the previous month. The horses are on straw, and are receiving their short allowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, and are fed as before. February. — The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month. The cows will calve during this month, and must be carefully attended to. The ewes are on grass, if the weather is not too 288 farmer's hand-book. rigorous ; and after the middle of the month, they may have turnips carried to them, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of next month. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before. By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put upon hay, and receive their full allowance of com, in preparation for their work in spring. In place of straw, the colts may now receive hay. March. — The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before. During the month all the cows may be supposed to have calved. The addi- tional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be obtained. The ewe and wether hogs are on turnips, as before. The ewes yvill now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male lambs are castrated in lots. The horses are on full work, and are receiv- ing their full allowance of hay and corn. The colts are receiving hay. April. — The cattle are in their yards, and fed as before ; the calves are receiving milk, with such nourishing substances in addition as may enable the milk of each cow to bring up two ctilves. The ewes are now on new grass, with their lambs. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are removed from turnips and put on grass. The horses are at full work, and receive a full supply of hay and com. The colts that have reached their third year may now be taken up and trained to work ; or they may be allowed another summer's grass, and be taken up for training in autumn. Mares will foal this month. May. — At the commencement of this month, the cattle may yet be in their yards, and be fed as formerly. By the middle of the month, the former year's calves, now yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass is sufficiently advanced, are turned out to pasture ; the cows are turned out to pasture, and if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers from which it is wished to breed, they must be separated from the steers of the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into sea- son, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During this month, the older cows should^ all have received the male, so that they may calve in the following February. With respect to the feeding oxen now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may be fed during the month, as long as there are turnips sufficient for them. Dur- ing this month, the mares should all have received the male, so that they may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth moatb, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along DOMESTIC OR FARM AHIHALS. 289 with the cows and feeding stock. The sheep of all kindSj at the commence- ment of the month, were on grass, and they continue to be pastured in their respective fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready, may, be washed and shorn, or else these operations are deferred till later in the season. JjffjHVE. — The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month. All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, andmares, as have not received the male, now receive him. At the beginning of the month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the month, the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hogs, are at grass in their respective enclosures ; and at or before the beginning of the month, they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days, or as soon as convenient after shearing, the wether-hogs, now dinmonts, and such of the ewe-hogs, now gimmers, as are not to be retained on the farm for breeding, may be sold. July. — The cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept 30 during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during the day, and may be permitted to pasture in the fields at night ; and this method of feeding may be continued during the month. But their work having become easy towards the middle of the month, their allowance of corn may be lessened. At the commencement of the month the ewes, with their lambs, are in their former fields of grass ; by the middle of the month the Iambs are weaned ; and from this time forward, the lambs, now termed hogs, are kept separate from the breeding ewes. August. — The cows, steers, and calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe and wether hogs in theirs. The old ewes that are to be sold may now be selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose ; and, at the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first crop of clover is consumed, other feed may be furnished. They may still be allowed to be in the fields at night. September. — The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are kept so during the month. All the sheep are likewise'at grass during the month ; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for sale may be sold. The horses are kept on green forage. As the month advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable ; and, at the end- of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food. October. — At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers, 35 290 fabmee's hahd-book. are at grass ; but as the month advances, the cows maybe taken up at night, and receive green forage in the house. Before the 10th of the month, the rams are admitted to the ewes and gimmers. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hogs are at grass, but towards the end of it, when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. Towards the end of the month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers, are put finally into their respective winter houses and yards. CHAPTEE VII. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWXS. THE EAISING, BBEEDIHO, DISEASES AND TREATMENT, OP THE COMMON BABN FOWLS ; ALSO THE TURKEY THE GOOSE THE DtlOK IN ALL THEIR IM- PORTANT YARIETIES. I. COMMON BAKN FOWLS. VARIETIES. Bankiva. — This fowl is a native of Java, has a red indented comb, red wattles, and ash-gray legs and feet. The cock has a thin indented or scal- loped comb, and wattles under the mouth ; the tail a little elevated- above the level of the rump, and the feathers disposed somewhat in the form of titles. Neck-feathers long, hanging, rounded at the tips, and of the finest gold color ; head and neck fawn color ; wing-coverts are dusky-brownish and black ; tail and belly black. The hen is of a dusky ash-gray and yel- lowish color, comb and beard much smaller than the cock, with no feathers on the neck besides the long hackles. The annexed cut represents a cock of this variety. Fiff. 203. ..^^; DvNCHiLL. — This is the commonest form of the domestic fowl. The cock 292 farmer's hakd-book. has a large thin comb and wattles, and the brilliant plumage of the wild species ; but the best hens are generally of dingy colors, though there is almost infinite variety in their shades ; the white ones are better for the table than for laying. The legs of the common fowls should be short, white, and shining, and their bodies round and plump. Game. — This kind of fowl is rather slender in the body, neck, bill and legs, and the colors, particularly of the cock, very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and the eggs small, but, like the flesh, much esteemed for superior delicacy ; and therefore, for more reasons than one, it would be better to raise them for domestic use than for the cock-pit. Dorking. — This valuable variety has acquired a great popularity, and is easily distinguished. Their flesh is exceedingly juicy, white, and deli- cate, and they have the advantage of feeding rapidly, and growing to a very large size, when properly managed. Capons and poulardes are fre- Fig. 204. quently made of these fowls, growing to an enormous size when castrated. The feathers are almost always white, and their legs short and remarkably smooth. Malay, or Chittagong. — These fowls have remarkably long legs and large bones ; their flesh is, however, finely flavored, when they have been properly fattened, ajid their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of ordinary fowls. The color of the feathers is black, or very dark- brown, streaked with yellow, and the legs are largeand coaree. POULTRY, OE THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. :293 The fowls are tall, sfxong-beaked, and powerful ; the cook has a loud and haish crow. It is said that a cross breed between the Malay and the com- mon fowl produces a breed very superior to either of its progenitors. Padtjan, or Jago. — There are numerous hybrids and varieties of the Jago fowl, one of the most interesting being the Spanish fowl, represented in the following figure. The body and tail feathers are of a rich black, Fig. 205. with occasionally a little white on the breast. The cock is a most majestic bird ; its deportment grave and stately ; and it is encircled with a ring of brown feathers, from which rises a black tuft which covers the ears. There are similar feathers behind the comb, and beneath the wattles. The legs and feet are of lead-color, except the sole of the foot, which is yellowish. The every-day or ever-laying fowto are the same as the Hamburgh, or Dutch. They are, however, evidently only a variety, or hybrid, of the Jago fowl, with the nourishment -that was required in that species, and in some of its varieties, to form a tuft of feathers, expended in an enormous comb and wattles. These fowls are very large, their feathers blackish, with an iridescent green. The wattles and combs, even of the hens, are unusu- ally large, and the caps under the ears are very large, and of a bluish white. Crested. — This variety :is known by a densely-tufted crest and a small comb ; it is also variegated with fine colors, but it agrees in other respects with the common dunghill fowl. The difierent varieties of this fowl are the white fowl with a bl?xik crest, the black fowl with * twhite crest, and the white fowl with a large beard. Of these, the Poland or Polish fowl, tepie- 25* 394 FABMEE S BANS-BOOK. sented below, is the best known, and it appeals probable that it is a hybrid between the Crested and the Spanish fowls. These fowls are very hand- Pig. 206. some, and excellent for the table ; the hens are good layers, producing large and finely-flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters. Bantam. — This is a small variety, with short legs, most frequently feathered to the toes, so as sometimes to obstruct walking. The full-bred t^. 207. Bantam cock should have a rose comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackles, a proud, lively carriage, and ought not to weigh more than one pound ; the POTJLTEY, OE THE VARIOTTS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 295 ntakin-colored and the black are the greatest favorites. If of the latter color, the bird should have no feathers of any sort in his plumage. The nankin bird should have his feathers edged with black, his wings barred with purple, his tail-feathers black, his hackles slightly studded with pur- ple, and his breast black, with white edges to the feathers. The hens should be small, clean-legged, and match in plumage with the cock. Dwarf, or Creeper. — This variety, which is not larger than a pigeon, differs from the bantam chiefly in size and in the shortness of its legs. The Acaho is very small, with a circle of feathers about the legs, a thick tail, which it carries straight, and the ends of the wings black. In addition to this, there are some who are obliged to leap, from their legs being so short ; they are the size of a dunghill fowl, and kept as being very fruitful ; the hens will hatch thirty eggs at a time. RuMKiN. — This is now considered a distinct species. It is distinguished by the want of a tail, by the comb not being, in the wild birds, indented, and by the wattles being blood-colored rather than scarlet ; the feathers are all of a dusky orange in the wild birds, but finely variegated in the tame ones. Frizzled. — A native of Java and Japan. Distinguished by having all the feathers turned and frizzled, being smaller than our common species, more wild, and less suitable for domestic purposes. Flesh firm and delicate. Silky. — This is also a distinct species, according to modem writers. It has the whole body covered with feathers, the webs of which are so disu- nited as to appear like hairs or glossy silk ; the general color is white, and the legs covered wholly on the outside, quite to the toes. As in other vari- eties, individuals of this sort differ in respect to color. Russian, or Siberian. — This breed seems to differ chiefly from others in having considerable tufts of brown or dark loose feathers springing from each jaw, and others, longer or fuller, from the lower jaw. In the hen there is an upright tuft, spreading from the back of the head, of the same silky texture. Independently of these, the cock has the usual comb and wattles, and the hen a, small comb also. This sort varies in color, one variety being white, with the ends of the feathers glossy blue or black, giving it a spotted appearance, and the legs being covered with fibrous or downy feathers ; another has the plumage of the game fowl, a fine tawny orange, spotted with black. Barbary. — This African variety is generally of a pale or dun color, spotted about the neck sparingly with black, and the feathers at that part very full ; on the crown is a large, full tuft of feathers, the same in color with the body. Java. — Resembling the Malay in shape, but somewhat colored like the 296 FARMEE'S HAND-aOOK. Borkino-. It is probably a cross between the two. In qualities it lesembles the Malay, but is not so valuable as a cross with other ^breeds. Ostrich, ok Cochin Cbina. — This variety of fowls eompletely surpasBes, Fig. 208. - 1 '^V^*^^iVx . ^.-»^^ ifl size and power, the general run of poultry. Their general color is rich, glossy brown, deep bay ; on the breast is a marking of a blackish color, POULTKT, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 29*7 and of the shape of a horse-shoe ; the comb is of a medium size, serrated, but not deeply so, and the wattles are double. Besides their gigantic size, however, these fowls possess other distinctive characteristics, the most strik- ing of which is, that the wing is jointed so that the posterior half can, at pleasure, be doubled up, and brought forward between the anterior half and the body. The eggs are large, chocolate-colored, and of a very delicate flavor. GENERAL TREATMENT. Raising, Breeding, Jpc. — Heris, if left to their own impulses, would pro- duce one brood early in spring, the other in autumn. They begin to lay in February, sooner or later, partly according to the time of molting, which means the shedding of the feathers, at which time they lose their high tone of health, and cease to lay. The season of molting is late in the autumn, and in consequence of the change in their constitution, while the juices of the body are promoting the growth of new feathers, no egg secretions are formed. The molting period, after the third year of the hen's life, becomes gradually later and more tedious ; young poultry molt in spring ; no fowl are fit for the table at such time. , The hens lay abundantly in February and March, which are usually quite as cold as November and December, while in the latter, unless they have molted very early in autumn, they rarely yield an egg. Reaumur-warmed his fowl-houses by artificial heat, but got no eggs. Yet a stock of poultry, by judicious treatment, may be rendered prolific during the entire year, by having very early and successive summer broods, as the pullets (which do not molt in the first year) will lay towards the close of the year. The first brood may be obtained in January, by care- ful management. Hot food — boiled potatoes are as good or better than any other — should always be given, in the winter months, to the hens which are on the laying list, and which should be kept as dry and warm as possible. NuTvber of Hens for a Cock. — Every experienced fowl-keeper knows that those eggs only are prolific which are produced by hens which have had con- stant intercourse with the male, though, for the purposes of the table, they are better without this intervention, as they are more easily preserved in a state of freshness. Some writers recommend twelve to twenty females for each cock, while others consider half that number more desirable. The fact is, much depends on climate, and the season of the year, a dry and genial tem- perature favoring a greater number of the hens to the male. Qualities of a Good Cock. — In selecting a cock, he is considered to have every requisite quality, when he is of a good middling size ; when he car- ries his head high, has a quick, animated look, a strong and shrill voice, short bill, a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles, and of the 298 farmek's hand-book. same color as the comb, the breast broad, the wings strong, the plumage black, or obscure red, the thighs very muscular, the legs thick, and fur- nished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground frequently for worms, not so much for himself as for his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in Iceeping them together, and in assembling them at night. Selecting Hens. — It is only requisite to have them of middling size, dark colored, bright eyes, short legs, blue feet, and neither disposed to crow nor be passionate. Hens that are long-legged, — and of course' ill-formed for sitting, — with small body, and very limited compass of wings, should be kept, if kept at all, exclusively for laying. The best age is from two to four years. Sitting. — The hen testifies her desire to hatch by making a clucking noise, searching for eggs to sit upon, and by general, restlessness and fever- ish agitation. When this tendency is not naturally excited, some humane breeders endeavor to promote the disposition by stimulating applications — nettles, for instance — to the belly. Hens that have molted very early will often sit before November, and this is a point gained when chickens are wanted about Christmas. The eggs for hatching should be fresh, and free from all offensive smell, and preserved in bran, with their larger end — which contains the air-bag — uppermost, and under a warm temperature, for three weeks before they are set. Examine the eggs, by holding them between the eye and a candle, and if the vacancy caused by the air-bag at the blunt of the egg appears to be a little on one side, it will produce a hen ; if this vacancy be exactly in the centre, it will produce a cock. From nine to fifteen is the number usually placed under the hen, according to her size. Her nest should be of clean, soft, and short straw, if possible on the floor, and facing the south, and corn and water should be placed within her reach ; but the food should be remov&d as soon as she satisfies herself. Many hens feed but once a day, and some would starve themselves sooner than leave their eggs in search of food. Hatching. — The hen sits for three weeks. About the twenty-first day the chicks chip the shell with the upper bill, which is furnished with a homy scale at the end, and gradually extricate themselves from confinement ; fre- quently they do not disengage themselves from it in less than twenty-four hours, or even more ; but it is generally much better not to assist them in breaking the shell, for if this be done before they have taken in the necessary supply of sustenance, by the yelk passing into their bodies through the navel, they will certainly die. It may, however, sometimes be necessary to afford them aid, for it sometimes happens that their bodies adhere, from POULTRY, OE THE VAEIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 299 bad hatching, to the shell, and that their naturally revolving movements do not tend to disengage them. They must, in this case, be very tenderly relieved by the hand. On the day after they have been hatched, the chicks may be removed from the nest to a basket, or some similar receptacle, lined with wool, or such soft, warm substance, though it is perhaps better not to remove them from the original nest. For a fortnight they are fed with crumbs of bread soaked in milk, and thenceforth every day, for some time, with yelks of eggs, curd, grits, &c., and after a few days they may be allowed to peck about in warm spots with their mother, but must be guarded from wet. ' They will soon feed greedily on meal, crumbs, &c., mixed with a small portion of potatoes, beet-leaves, parsley, or cabbage. Fattening. — Fowls in a natural state, picking up what they can get at the barn-door, are, perhaps, the best-flavored and most wholesome for the table ; but as it is common, and almost necessary, to practise fattening, we will treat of that matter. The raost'approved coops are thdse which are divided into solitary cham- bers, so narrow as to prevent the fowl from turning around, and with an opening in the rear part foi the discharge of the excrement, perfect clean- liness being indispensable, with meal and milk in a trough, and a little gravel or brick-dust, to promote digestion, at front. Another practice is, to cram them with a paste made of flour, or meal, milk, and hog's lard, or kitchen-grease, introduced by means of a tube, or by the fingers. In the course of a fortnight chickens may be rendered sufficiently fat, and of great weight. Caponizing. — The number of capons fattened in some countries is enormous. The season for emasculating the cocks hatched in the previous spring is the autumn, and the operation is performed as follows : — A trans- verse incision, about an inch and a quarter long, being made in the lower part of the belly, the fore-fingers are introduced to take out the parts, with the aid of a pair of sliarp scissors to cut the cord, and so carefully as not to injure the entrails ; the orifice is then rubbed with oil or butter and stitched up, and in three or four days the bird is well. They are fattened in a month or six weeks. Health of Fowls. — The indications of good health are, a florid color of the comb, and bright eyes free from moisture, dry nostrils, and bright, glossy plumage. 11. THE TURKEY. VARIETIES. The diversity of color is about all that constitutes the difference of vaiieties of this bird ; — the black, the white, the copper-color, the brown, 300 FARMERS HAND-BOOK. the bronze, the dusky-gray, &c. As to the relative value of the ordinary varietieg, there is some doubt. The bronze and copper-colored varieties i%. 209. are generally small, and difficult to rear ; but their flesh is very delicate. The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable, but the black are decidedly superior as regards hardiness, rearing, acquiring flesh, and the quality of the flesh ; they are also very prolific. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. Keeping, iSfC. — With respect to the best mode of keeping turkeys, it is necessary to let them have a large, roomy shed, protected from the weather and from moisture. The perches should be high, and a ladder should be supplied, as the birds, whfen fat, are otherwise apt to injure themselves in their descent from a, lofty perch. During warm weather they may be per- mitted to select their own roosting-places on the trees about a farm, but should be well watched, lest they stray away, and, in cold weather, get their tender toes frost-bitten. The turkey provides itself with food from the roads and hedge-rows : snails, slugs, and worms, are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest pool serves to slake its thirst. It should, however, be kept away from the grain-fields. Qaalities. ^ In selecting a turkey-cock, see that he is large, stout, pioud. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 301 and majestic. Both cock and hen should have short legs, full shapes, and general vivacity and energy in all their movements, and he healthy. A tu-rkey-cock is in his prime in his third year ; the hen is in her prime younger, say in her second year^ Laying. — One fecundation, it is said hy some, will render all the eggS' of that laying fertile, while others allow one cock to every dozen or fourteen henSi The approach of the laying season is known by the increased liveli- ness and proud strut of the hen, and a peculiar self-satisfied cry. This usually takes place in March. When these symptoms are noticed, a nest should be provided, and a true or false egg put into it, to induce the hen to commence laying there, for she prefers a secret place. The time when she lays is usually the morning ; some lay daily, others only every second day. When the turkeys are to be let out in the morning, examine the hens, and keep in such as are about to lay, in order to secure the eggs. While the hen is laying, the cock should be kept from her, as he would ill-treat her and break the eggs. The eggs must he taken away as soon as laid, and they will keep till the hens cease laying, if put in a basket and kept dry. The hen-turkey will hatch other eggs than her own. Sitting. • — The same barbarous stimulus, of flogging with a sprig of nettle, prescribed for hen-fowls not readily disposed to sit, has been tried for turkey- hens ; and also a dose of brandy and water to make them drunk when they are placed on the eggs, to insure their sitting on their becoming sober." The dark-colored turkeys are preferable. Any number of hens may be placed under the same shed, at short dis- tances from each other, taking care that they are kept quiet and dark, as well as warm. The nest may be formed of a circular, pad or roll, stuffed with matted straw, and about fifteen inches in diameter ; the inside being filled with soft bruised straw, on which the eggs are laid, which, being secured by the border, will not roll about when the hen makes a motion to get in and out of her nest, or turn her eggs. Hatching. — When several hens hatch at the same time, commencing together, it is obvious that if any accident should happen to one of them, the eggs may be at once transferred to some of the other nests, the evening being the proper time for this, so that on the morrow the new-comer may appear to be of her own family. On the thirty-first or thirty-second day, the chicks, as in the case of fowls, will chip and break their shells, and get out, unless ptevented by the adhesion of the body to the pellicle of the shell. When (and this direction equally, applies to all poultry) a small hole is perceived in the shell, through which the hill can be seen, and the chicken appears unable to break through the shell completely, the' shell should be slightly and gently broken, on the 26 302 faemee's hand-book. outside, and lifted up with the point of a pin, but with care not to touch the chick. Treatment of the Young. — A few drops of wine are frequently given to reanimate drooping chicks, and some recommend bread soaked in wine for them at first ; but the natural warmth of the mother's body is the best physician, and this they should as quickly as possible enjoy, as the external atmosphere is so cold compared with that in which they previously existed. Th6»early feeding of young turkeys is very similar to that which we have recommended for fowls. Egg is a favorite food for them. They may very soon have nettles and parsley made into balls, with groats or meal boiled to the consistence of stirabout, which they learn to peck from the hand. As the mother is very stupid, and does not teach her little ones to search for food, a keeper is necessary for young turkeys, in order to feed them fre- quently, to take them out airing after the dew is off the ground, and place them in shelter, either from the hot sun or rain, for six weeks, when they become pretty hardy, and can eat boiled potatoes mixed with their meal. The membranes of the neck and head now shoot the red, as it is termed, and at this critical period poults require very high feeding. After harvest, turkey poults — which name they receive after two months — are driven in large flocks to pasture and stubble fields, where they learn to pick up insects and grains of com ; and then they are quite independent of the maternal wing, and flock with the older turkeys, and roost with and accompany them. But care should be taken to have shade or shelter always at hand for them during the sultry hours of the day, and when rain is falling. Fattening. — After six months, turkeys may be crammed like fowls, with the same kind of food, but need not be so closely confined, though a dark place is recommended for them. It requires six weeks to render turkeys .perfectly fat, and it would be barbarous to confine them in pens so long ; they may be left in close farm-yards. To have very large turkeys, cocks should be kept over for fattening until they are nearly two years old ; but a young hen-turkey in spring is much better in flavor. Feeding. — In their ordinary run about the farmer's yards and fields, turkeys nearly feed themselves sufficiently ; if not, they will do so by scattering among them, in the morning, oats or corn. Boiled potatoes or Swedish turnips greatly assist in the support of a flock of turkeys. in. THE GOOSE. Varieties. Toulouse. — The varieties of the common domestic goose are very few. Amongst these varieties is that of the Toulouse, chiefly remarkable for its vast size. Its color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and POULTRY, OR THE VAEIOTTS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 303 occasionally relieved with blaxjk— the head, neck as far as the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck as far as the shoulders, of a dark brown ; the breast is slaty blue ; the belly is white, as also the under Pig. 210. surface of the tail ; the bill is orange-red, and the feet are flesh-color. The Toulouse is of a mild and easy disposition, which conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that also at little cost. The flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. Chinese. — The Chinese goose is a well-known variety, including seyeral sub sorts, among which is the Hong Kong, considered the same as is called by the name of Poland, having a large, homy knob on the bill and forehead, the prevailing color gray, with a longitudinal stripe of deep brown running above the back of the neck, — the legs red. There are also the Black-legged Chinese, also knobbed, and usually with a white edge around the knob, somewhat similar to that of the wild breed called the White Fronted, — and the White Chinese, a very handsome bird, knobbed as the rest, of a snow- white color, and with legs of a bright orange-red. These geese are inferior in size to the Toulouse, but, nevertheless, very fine birds, and worthy the attention of the breeder. The white variety, especially, with red legs, is very beautiful ; the flesh is also good. They feed well, fatten easily, and are very prolific. Common. — Of our ordinary and well-known domestic geese there exist but two sorts, whose only distinction seems to rest in their relative size, they being divided into the large and smcdl; and by some, according to their color, into the wMte and the gray. These divisions are, to a certain extent, 304 farmer's hand-book. arbitrary ; as out of the one clutch' may be generally found the several vari- eties, both as to size and color, that are' sought for. The best sorts are those which vary least in color. Gray 13 the best; mixed colors will not prove so prolific, and the young will be more difficult to feed up to the re- quired standard. GBNEKAL MANAGEMENT. In France, geese are put up in thirties in the same lodge, with roofs and partitions to separate them, never allowing more than eight under one roofi All damp must be avoided, for geese at all times are f6nd of a clean, dry place to sleep in, however much they may like to swim in water. It is not a good plan, on the whole, to keep geese with other poultry ; for, when confined in the poultry-yard, they become very pugnacious, and will very much harass the hens and turkeys. It is recommended to pasture geese in marshy or moist ground, and to sow for them vetches or tares, meliot, clover, chicory, and lettuce, of which they are very fond. Grass they should also have, arvd they are satisfied with the poorest. In allowinggeese to range at large, it must be remembered that they are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as to young fruit-treeS. To prevent their getting through the gaps in fences, halng a stick across their breasts. Food. — Did geese require to be alVays fed in the poultry-yard, it would cost more than they are worth to keep thein, for they are voracious feeders. All sorts of vegetables, food, and grain, agree with them, but they do not POULTRY, OK THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. 306 thrive well without grass. The refuse of the cabbage of a market-garden would maintain a great many geese at a very small cost, but it is very doubtful whether they would keep long in good health, when fed either on cabbage, mangel-wurzel leaves, chicory, endive, lettuce, or other green food. This, indeed, is apt to render their bowels too open, and even to bring on scouring, unless alternated with boiled or steamed potatoes, given warm, or with the meal of oats, peas, beans, or maize, beaten up with boiled potatoes, carrots, or turnips. The stubble-fields of any sort of grain are excellent pasture for geese, for there they not only find grass and other herbage, but the grain which may have been scattered, and which would otherwise be lost ; while their dung, though at first acrid and apt to injure, will, when it has been mellowed, much enrich the ground. ' Pairing. — It has been ascertained by M. St. Genis that geese will pair like pigeons and partridges ; and, in the course of his experiments, he re- marked that, if the number of the ganders exceed that of the geese by two, and even by three, including the common father, no disturbance nor disputes occur, the pairing taking place without any noise, and no doubt by mutual choice. It is usual, in books, as well as in practice, to assign six geese to one gander. In some places, the small farmers who keep two or three geese keep no gander at all, but turn their geese, at the breeding season, for a short period, among the ganders of some larger establishment near them. This, however, must render the eggs of doubtful fertility, though, no doubt, it would not be practised, if it were found to be an unprofitable plan. The gander to be selected should be of a large size, of a fine white, with a lively eye, and an active gait; while the breeding goose ought to be brown, ash- gray, or parti-colored, and to have a broad foot. The gray geese are sup- posed to produce the finest goslings, while the parti-colored ones produce better feathers, and are not so apt to stray from home. Laying. — When well kept, geese will lay thrice a year, from five to twelve eggs each time ; and some more, when they are left to their own way : but if the eggs be carefully removed as soon as laid, a goose may be made, by proper feeding, to lay from twenty to fifty eggs without intermit- ting. They begin to lay early in spring, usually in March ; and it may be known when an individual is about to lay, by her carrying straws about to form her nest with ; but, sometimes, she will only throw them about.. When this is observed, the geese should be watched, lest they lay in some by-place, and the eggs be lost. It is an essential precaution, as soon as it is perceived that geese want to lay, to coop them up under their roof, where nests made of straw have been previously prepared. If they can. once ba 26* 306 father's hand-book. induced to lay in this nest, tliey will continae to do so till their numbei* of eggs is completed. In venture forth ; and, secoffcliy, bBftailse thebees, iif tftey eOrdOle'neS tipersi- tions so early, become wearied before they have perfSrlHed a gOotf day's work, and the afternoon is a liiore Eidvaritageous' pei'io'd for tltiSir labcfts. Fig. 219. LoattioW. — The prace for flxiiig' the Stand should be a diy soil, — and a sandy one is better. It should slope towards the ftont, in order to carry off the surface water produced by occasional rains, and should not, on arty account, be. exposed to the droppings from the eaves of houses, or even hedges. Shelter is essential, especially behind and on the east of the hives, — a house or high wall is the best; it is also recommended that the stand be placed in a sort of small, open shed, well painted on the outside^ to protect it from the weather ; a few shrubs about the stand are also good as additional shelter. Some recommend high trees for the purpose of keeping the air calm, lest the bees should be blown down, when, returning home. High trees are not advisable. Bees are seldom blown to the ground by mere wind, but even when they are, they can, in a great majority of oases, recover themselves ; whereas, if blown amongst trees, they will be sure te be whipped so violently by the branches, that they are absolutely hurled to the ground with such force as to render their recovery hopeless. The' bees also fly low, on their return, when they arrive at the immediate neighborhood- of their stand, and, consequently, high trees would be not only useless^ but inconvenient. Whatever trees, therefore, are planted in the imtaedtettg^ vicinity of the hive, should be of low size, with bushy heads, in oifder that- the swarms which settle on them may be more easily hived. Avoid a site near mills or other noisy places, or the neighborhood' of offensive odor, as factories and the like ; and if, as occasionally may happert) Sees. 323 the stand be placed against the garden wall, behind which is the farm- yard, let not a dung-hill be built against the opposite side, as it may cause a desertion of the boxes. Do not place the stand where there are rat or mouse holes. Water is essential to the well-being of bees ; it must, however, be pre- serited to them judiciously, or it will prove a greater evil than a good. If there is a shallow, rippling brook through the garden, so much the better ; if not, place near the stand small, shallow pans of water, and put some pebbles in them. This water should be changed daily. It is objectionable to have a pond or canal in the neighborhood ; thousands of bees will be lost every season through such a means, as they will be constantly blown into them when returning heavily laden to the hive, especially in the evening, when wearied, after the toil of an industriously-spent day. The pebbles in the troughs are for the bees to rest on while drinking. It is well if the garden is abundantly planted with such shrubs and flowers as afford honey, in order to prevent, as much as possible, the neces- sity of the bees constantly traveling to an inconvenient distance in search of food. It is well also to so Contrive as to have a succession of such food, adapted to the season, — a matter comparatively easily managed, and of some consequence to the well-being of the bees. Among these plants may be entlinerated broom, furz or gorse, thyme, especially lemon-thyme, clover, crocus, heaths, fruit-trees, mustard, mignonette, sage, single roses, rad- ishes, primroses, parsley, peas, parsnips, marigolds, violets, lilies, laurus- tin, daffodils, celery, cauliflowers, asparagus, sunflowers, wall-flowers, borage, winter vetches, buckwheat. Hives should on no account be so placed as to be exposed to the noonday sun ; this will injure the honey and melt it, and will raise the temperature of the hive so as to produce unwished-for swarming, besides otherwise annoying and injuring the bees. A few shrubs, therefore, should be so placed as to cast their shadow across the stand during the heat of day. Let the shrubs be of such a description as the bees are fond of, and they may also be disposed so as to give the apiary a pleasing and picturesque appearance. Bee-houses are only fit for keeping the bee-boxes in daring winter ; — one, two, or three sets of collateral boxes, are as many as any moderate bee- keeper will desire, or be able conveniently to attend, and thfee can be kept each in a little shed by itself Bee-hives should never be placed cloie to each other, as they must necessarily be in the bee-houses recommended by some, for bees are naturally vgry irritable and pugnacious insects, and if two colonies be kept too near each other, battles will ensue, and the weaker hive be injured or destroyed. 324 fakmeb's hand-book. III. HIVES AND BOXES. Sequisites. — The old straw, conical-shaped hive, is too well known to need description, and, perhaps, too unprofitable to be worthy of it. The chief objects to be effected by the use of a suitable receptacle for bees are, first, the power of depriving them of their honey at pleasure, and without injury to them ; secondly, the obtaining of it in its pure and uncontaminated form ; thirdly, the means of enlarging their accommodation when necessary, and the consequent prevention of swarming. Different Kinds of Hives and Boxes. — Among other hives of considerable merit, that called the Nutt hive is worthy of being noticed and explained, and the opinions of Mr. Nutt, the inventor, are of sufiicient value to be presented in this place. According to Mr. Nutt, bee-boxes should be from eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or ten inches deep in the clear. The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar, — the chief grounds of preference of which wood are, its keeping away moths, and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood bee- , boxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from what carpenters term shakes. Good, sound red deal answers the purpose very well. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front, should be, at the least, an inch and a half thick ; for the ends, top, and back part, good deal, one inch thick, is sufficiently substantial ; the ends that form the interior divisions and openings must be of half-inch stuff, well-dressed off, so that when the boxes and the dividing tins are closed, — that is, when they are all placed together, — the two adjoining ends should not exceed five eighths of an inch in thickness. These communication ends — the bars of which should be. exactly parallel with each other — form a communication or division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bee, and by which the said boxes can be immediately divided, without injuring any part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so frequently annoys them, in extracting their sweets from the piled or storified boxes. The receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which appear upon each side of the end boxes, — the one with the cover off, the other with it on, — must be four inches square, with a perforated flat tin, of nearly the same size ; and in the middle of that tin must be a round hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, in the centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the perforated cylinder tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must have a smooth piece of wood, well made, to fit it closely, and to cover the frame-work, so as to carry off the wet ; then placing this cover over the square perforated tin, the box will be secure from the action of wind and BE£S. 325 lain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator and also for a secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is inserted. Within this frame- work, — and so that the perforated flat tin, already described, may completely cover them, — at each corner,- make a hole with a three-eighths' centre-bit, through the top of the box. These four small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential part of it. We next come to the long floor, on which the three square bee-boxes which constitute a set stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long, shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-boxes, and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when placed collaterally, require ; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better ; because, in that case, the rain or wet that may at any time fall upon them will drain off completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project about two inches in front ; but this projection must be sloped, or made an inclined plane, so as to carry oflT the wet from the front of the boxes. To the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the alighting board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by three, having the two outward comers rounded off a little. The passage from this alighting board into the pavilion (not seen in the plate, it being in the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, but out of the floor-board, and should be not less than four inches in length and about half an inch in depth, or so as to make a clear half-inch way under the edge of the box for the bee passage. This is preferable to a cut in the edge of the box, because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soon drain out, and the floor become dry ; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out of the box, the rain, that may and at times will be drifted in, will be kept in, and the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental to the bees. In depth, the floor-box, measured from outside to outside, should be four inches, so that if made of three-fourths'-inch deal, there may be left for the depth of the box part two inches and a half. Internally it is divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box. Admis- sion to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer, or drawer- fronts, or blocks, which will be described presently. The bottom, oropen edge, of each of the boxes, should be well planed, and made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the afore- said floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them. In the 28 326 farmer's hand-book. floor-board are made three openings, one near the back of each box. These .openings are of semilunar shape (though any other shape would do as weU) , the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will be most convenient if made parallel with the back edge of the box, and about an inch from it. They are covered by perforated or by close tin slides, as the circumstances of the apiary may require. The drawer, the front of which appears under the middle box, is of great importance,, because it affords one of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. In this drawer is placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to iit it ; and in that tin another thin frame, covered with book-muslin, or other fine strainer, which floats on the liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. Here, then, is a feeder, containing the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother hive, and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. When the drawer thus prepared with bee-food is closed, the tin placed over the semi- lunar aperture must be drawn, which will open to the bees a way to their food in the drawer beneath. The heat of the hive follows the bees into the feeding department, which soon becomes the temperature of their native domicile. The box-fronts on each side of the feediqg-drawer are formed qf a bit of talc suspended over a hole on the outside, thus permitting egress, but precluding ingress. By means of this contrivance, the number of bees may be increased without alarming or annoying them, and they can likewise escape when being deprived of one or other of the collateral boxes. This contrivance further precludes the intrusion of insect enemies. The centre is perforated on the top, and over the hole a bell-glass is placed, which, when the hive is filled, the bees fill with honey which is of the purest description. Wooden fittings or covers are provided for the protec- tion of these glasses. The bees, being placed in the centre box, or pavilion, soon commence operations, and speedily fill it with honey. When full, which may be ascer- tained by looking through a window fixed in the back of the box, the tin slide which separates it from the bell-glass must be drawn ; tliis is best done on a warm day, and the comb should previously be cut through with a thin wire. Before taking ofl' the glass, the operator should pause fox a few minutes, to observe whether there be any unusual stir among the imprisoned bees ; for if they do not appear alarmed, the queen is among them, and in that case the slide must be withdrawn, and the operation postponed to another day. In taking away the glass, envelop it in a silk handkerchief, and remove it about ten yards from the boxes ; then place it a little on one side, so as to permit the imprisoned bees to escape, which they will do in a few minutes. When occasion requires, the bees are to be sirnilarly admitted into the side BEES. 327 boxes, by drawing the slides ; but in removing one of these boxes some pre- cautions require to be used. For instance, open the ventilator the night previous ; this will, by lowering the temperature of the hive, and admitting ,a current of air, induce the bees to leave the box thus treated, and to^congre- gate in the pavilion. Then put down the slide d, and let the bees remain for ten minutes or so in darkness. , If the queen be not in the box to be .taken, any bees that may remain in it will be restless and in confusion. If she should be there, the commotion will be in the centre box. If the queen should be in the box intended to be taken, draw up the slide again, and she will soon leave it. Having emptied the full box, return it to its place. Ac- cording to this system, fumigation is unnecessary, — a child, even, may manage the, boxes with ease and safety." The centre box, called, on account of its being the breeding place, the pavilion of nature, is never to be meddled with. Any person of common ingenuity can form for himself a set of collateral ;bpxes, by taking as a stand a piece of strong wood — deal, obtained from an old door, or other waste timber ; let it be about four feet long and about two feet wide, as thick as can be procured ; place it on four legs, and let the edge project over the legs, in order to prevent the incursion of insects ; plane the upper surface smooth. Make three boxes, each about ten inches square, with, of course, no bottom, and have the edges of the bottomless portion planed smooth, so as to lie as close as possible to the board. Cut away a portion of the bottom of one side of each box, and in that designed for the centre box do so on two opposite sides ; — these are for communication. Get two sheets of tin, or thin wood, — a piece of a broken tea-chest will do ad- mirably, — and place one between each of the collateral boxes and the centre one, so as to cut off communication between them, until it is desired to open it, when, of course, one of them is withdrawn, and, at the same time, the side box, thus opened, will be pushed close to the central one. Let the stapd-board be on an inclined plane, sloping towards the front, so as to throw off wet, and let the said hoard project a couple of inches, to serve the bees as a place on which to alight. Make a small hole, about half an inch, or rather less, in diameter, in front of this centre box, partly in the box and partly in the board, for the ingress and egress of its inhabitants. Paint the boxes externally, but do so a considerable time before they are required for use, and encompass them with the best sort of rough shed that can be con- veniently put up ; bore a hole, with a centre-bit, in the top of each box, and place a glass vessel over it. When it is necessary to feed the bees, it can be done by attaching a feeder to the entrance door, and the holes for the bell- glasses will afford ample means of ventilating. In case they should not, however, have a hole at the back of each box, stopped with a cork, which ran he withdrawn for the admission of air when necessary. Take care that 328 farmek's hand-book. the cork be not pushed entirely through the wood of the box, or it will be so cemented by propolis that it cannot, perhaps, be drawn out without injury or disturbance to the combs. Another mode of forming bee-boxes is as follows : Let them be of as g-ood quality as possible, so as to effectually preserve their contents from either extreme heat or cold, dampness, or any sudden changes of temperature. The size of the centre box should be about ten and one half inches cube, inside measure ; and it would be of advantage to have six bars fixed across the top of it, from front to back, which should be one and one-eighth inches in width, half an inch in thickness, and half an inch apart — the ends.of each of which should be neatly rabbeted into the front and back of the box. Over the bars should be laid a piece of thin gauze, and upon it the top or cover- ing-board of the box, which may have a circular hole in the middle of it, securely stopped by a good cork-bung, to be removed for the purpose of placing a small bell-glass over the hole, as occasions require. The side boxes may be made and used of different sizes, if desired, and to contain from 350 to 1100 cubic inches each. If the smaller sizes are adopted, the entrance to them must be along the hollow part of the bottom-board ; but it would be considered more complete to have the side boxes of the same width and depth as the centre one, and to have them well fitted and secured together during the honey-gathering season. The entrance from the centre to the side boxes may then extend along the under edges of each of them from front to back, and about three-eighths to one-half an inch in depth ; there should also be a perpendicular one, three inches long and half an inch wide, up the centre of the end of each of the boxes, the upper part of which should reach to within three inches of the top of the box inside. The use of bars to the top of boxes is frequently of much service to the apiarian, as he can thereby occasionally remove a few of the old combs from the box, and can, at any time, have an opportunity of examining the state of the interior of the boxes. Before using a new box with bars, as above, a piece of pure and clean brood-comb should be neatly fixed to each, on every alternate bar, which may be readily accomplished by the assistance of a long and smooth piece of heated iron — the comb, being rubbed for a few seconds on the iron, should immediately be applied to the bar, and will then, in a short time, firmly adhere to it. The use of hwes of straw is by many persons still continued and approved ; and there is no doubt that, when properly made and judiciously managed, the returns from them will often equal, or surpass, those from some of the more fancy-shaped and costly wooden boxes. The size of the straw hive should be from sixteen to seventeen inches in diameter, and twelve to thirteen inches in height ; and they should have a BEES. 329 narrow, flat, and thick top of wood, with a circular hole and cork-bung in the centre of it, similar to that for wooden boxes. The outer box, in which the stoek-hive and side boxes are enclosed, having been made wider than the interior hives or boxes, should have a partition from front to back, on each side of the stock-hive, and the interstices round the centre hive filled up with dry sawdust, powdered charcoal, or other suitable materials, which will be of service in preserving the temperature of the hive in a congenial and uniform state. The communication from the straw stock-hive to the side boxes should be along the hollow centre of the bottom-board ; three or more circular holes should also be made in the bottom-board on each side, in such manner that each of them may be covered with a bell-glass, or that one of the larger side hives or boxes may be placed over them, as may suit the wishes or convenience of the apiarian. When glasses are used, they should be well covered with some soft woollen materials, and a hive or box should then be placed over them, to effectually exclude the light, and pre- serve them from accidents of any kind, and sudden changes of temperature. It is advisable to have the outer box well made, with a neat and substantial roof to carry off the wet, &c., and it should be made of such breadth as to leave a space of one half inch on each side of the stock-hive. A well-informed writer observes, that, if the bees are kept in a straw hive, it should be of a large size, and well made, and should be stocked with a strong swarm at the usual period of the year. It should be then placed on the centre of a stout bottom-board, made long enough to hold a small hive or box on each side of it, and having hollow communications from the centre hive to the side ones, which can be opened or closed at pleasure. When the bees require room in the spring or summer months, the entrance from the centre to one of the side hives must be opened, and after they have fairly taken possession of it, it must be properly ventilated by a hole previously formed on the top, and covered with a piece of perfo- rated zinc, keeping the temperature between 65° and 75°. The three hives should have a well-made wooden covering over them, with a span-shaped roof to carry off the wet. Sic, and an opening at the back for the purpose of examining the progress of the bees ; the outer box should be well painted, and water-proof, and will greatly assist in regulating the tempera- ture of the hives, and in protecting them from extreme cold, dampness, or sunshine. It matters not much of what wood the boxes are made, provided it is sound, thoroughly seasoned, and well put together. Different opinions are entertained as to the size of bee-boxes ; but much depends on the number of bees they are to contain, and on the honey locality ; there must also be a reference to the proposed mode of working them, for, where no swarming 38* J!SO FARMEB?S JSAND-BOOK. is pennittecL, a larger biv« may be advantageously wsed. A good size is twelve inches squaie, and nine inches deep within, the thickness throughout being not less than an inch. The top of the hox ought to project on all sides nearly three quarters of an inch, for better protection and appearance, and as affording convenience for lifting. On the top a two-inch hole should be cut in the centre, for placing a bell-glass, and for the purpose of feeding ; and another hole, to receive a ventilator, may be made near the baek wjn- dow, that position being better for inspection, aiUd less in the way .of the bees, than the centre pf the hive, which is, or ought to he, .the -seat sf breeding, and should not be disturbed. A window may be placpd at Jibe back and front, five inches high and six or seven inches wide. The best and neatest way of securing the windows is by a sliding shutter of zjop. This passes into a rabbet to receive it, cut, oil the remaining three sides., jat the back of the lower edge of the moulding. To prevent any wet fnyn lodging at the bottom moulding, an opening or two may be easily jdut through, on the under side, to allow its escape. Place the hive under spme cover or shed, as a protection from wet and heat. The "Leaf Hive," invented by Huber, consists of eight fiames, eaeh eighteen inches high and ten inches wide inside, having the uprights and top cross-pieces one and a half inches broad, and one thick, so that the eight frames, when placed close togetlier, constitute a hive eighteen inches hjgh, twelve inches between end and end, and ten inches between hack and front, all inside measure. The frames are held together by a flat sliding-bar pn each side, secured by wedges and pins. To the first and eighth of these frames is attached a frame wilji glass, and covered with a shutter. The body of the iive is protected by a sloping roof, and the enlirance is joade through the thickness qf the floor-board. Some dislike the sliding-bsirs, with their pins and wedges, because, in drawing thepi out, all t^e ftiimes .are liable to open, and the observer is exposed to some hazard of annoyance from the bees issuing out ^t .every joint ; as a substitute for them, place hinges on one side, and a hqok-and-ey,e on each frame on the other, and thus any particular leaf may be opened without meddling with the rest. Jn taking honey from this hive, the bee-master has the whole interior com- pletely under his eye^ and at his disposal ; and can choose what combs :b«st suit his purpose, both as to quantity and quality, taking care, however, to do so only at such periods as will leave the bees time to repleni^ :the vacancy before the termination of the honey season. It is also well adapted for artificial swsrming. By separating the hive into halves, the honey, brood-combs, and bees, will,, generally speaking, be equally divided; .and by supplying each half with four empty frames, there will be two hives, one half empty,. eg»al in nnniher of he.es, .of Jwood, and even of stores. One BEBS. ^1 flf the new hives will possess the queen, and, if the operation has been iPerfonned at the proper time, — that is to say, a week'or ten days before the period of natural swarming, — the probability is, there will be a royal brood coming forward in the other ; at all events, there will be plenty of eggs and larvffi of the proper age for forming an artificial queen. With regard to the use of sticks or cross-pieces, some object to them, as «nly an annoyance to the bees ; and there is little fear of the combs falling, «xoept in very deep hives, — at any rate, it may be prevented by contracting the lower part a little. The best way of doing this is by working a JliFOoden hoop inside the bottom hand of the hive ; it should be perflated through its whole course, and the perforations made in an oblique directipn, so distant from each other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to ran^e in an uniform manner. The hoop gives greater stability to the hive., pre- ,8erves the lower edge from decay, and aifords facility in moving it. A oiicular piece of wood (turned with a groove at the edge, to retain it in its ^Illace) should be worked into the crown, having through it an inch-and-a- iJWf hole. With a little ingenuity, the bees may be fed through :this open- ing, — a better method than the ordiuary one, at the bottom of ,a.hive. A .piece of wood or tin will commonly cover the hole ; but at times, especially in winter, it may be used for the purpose of ventilation,, and allowing the impure air of the hive to escape. In this case, a bit of perforated zinc or Jin should be placed over it, which, when stopped up by the bees, can he :ieplaced by a clean one. An earthen pan is a common cover to a. straw hive ; and this may be slightly raised by wedges on the four sides, to per- mit a small space underneath. Of whatever material the outer covering consists, it must project so far on all sides as to protect the hive from the least moisture. This cannot be too much guarded against ; and whether of wood or straw, all hives ought to be well painted at the beginning, and kept so. To have a simple and cheap hive, get a. common straw hive, of somewhat larger dimensions than common, and cut it across (about one third of its length) from the upper or conical end ; fit to this end a round piece of wood about an inch in thickness, having in its centre a hole about an inch and a half in diameter, fitted with a cork or bung. Take another hive of ordinary dimensions, and place it over this. This is called capping. When, during the proper season, the bees have filled the lower part of the hive, and show symptoms of requiring more room, you have only to draw out the cork, and place the cap over the board. This acts as a bell-glass, and the honey which will be collected in it will not be inferior to that procured from the most costly set of bee-boxes. A coating of Roman cement on the exterior surface of these hives will render them almost everlasting. 332 fakmer's hand-book. Glass hives are not to be recommended. Bees lore darkness, and hate light or observation. In a state of nature they seek some hollow, vacant spot beneath a bank or rock, the cleft of a tree, or some similarly dark and secluded place. Huish is of the opinion that straw is the best material for making hives, because it is clean, wholesome, dry, impervious to the effects of the weather ; and being a warm advocate for the deprivation of a hive, in pref- erence to the massacre of the bees, the particular shape of the hive became a matter of the first consideration, and secondly, so to construct it that the use of the sticks could be entirely abolished. In some parts of Greece, the hives resemble exactly a large flower-pot, and he considered that that shape offered to him every advantage which he was desirous of obtaining. The combs, being begun at the top, would necessarily be larger than at the bottom, and thus, acting on the principles of the wedge, they would be prevented from falling down, and the extraction of them from the top would, in comparison from the bottom, be a matter of great facility. In order, however, to effect the extraction of the combs from the top, it was evident that that advantage could not be gained were the top of the hive to be of one piece, for as such it could not be liited without moving the whole mass of the combs, which, in the first place, would be next to an impossibility, and, in the second, would tend to the utter ruin of the hive. Having, there- fore, constructed a hive of the shape of a flower-pot, making the diameter of the base not much smaller than that of the top, he placed a projecting band at the top, on which he placed seven bars, according to the annexed figure. These bars are fastened to the band of straw by small wooden pegs, which are easily drawn out when a honey-comb is to be extracted. Fig. 220. With the knowledge that bees will not construct their combs on an insecure foundation, he placed a piece of network over the bars, of which the meshes are of a middling size, by which, in a degree, the bees were forced to attach their combs to the bars, and thereby rendering their extraction more easy. Over the network he placed a board of five divisions, attached to each other BEES. 333 by hinges ; so that any part of the interior of the hive could be examined without exposing the whole. The network was evidently an annoyance to the bees, for in almost every instance the greater portion of it was nibbled away. In the lapping-board nine holes were made, over which plates of perforated tin were put, in order that the perspiration might escape, which prevents the combs assuming that black appearance which is in general so great an eyesore. According to this construction, the deprivation of the hive is very easily effected, and may be accomplished by the most timid person. The hive being covered with a top, according to the annexed cut, it is taken off, and one of the side flaps being lifted up, the position of the Pig. 221. comb immediately exhibits itself. If it has not been constructed exactly parallel with the bar, the opposite side may be examined, and that comb selected for extraction which presents the greatest facility. It is, however, necessary that the operator shbuld have in readiness a pair of bellows, to the orifice of which is attached a small tin box, with the lid and bottom well perforated, into which some old rags or dried leaves, in an ignited state, must be placed ; and thus, being provided with the object most dreaded by the bees, — namely, smoke, — as soon as the flap is opened, and the bees present themselves, they can be driven away ; and should they show any disposition to return, the repetition of the smoke will curb in them all future inclination to annoy the operator. The make of Mr. Huish's hive was originally round. It was, however, soon discovered that that shape carried with it the disadvantage of having the side combs very small ; and, therefore, after much trouble, he succeeded in bringing it nearly to the square, by which the side combs are nearly as large as those in the middle. Fig. 283 represents the hive. Of late years, many new plans for bee-hives have been presented to the public, some of which are great improvements on the old modes of construc- tion and management. Among these may be named Beard's, Colton's, Cutting's, Weeks', and Miner's; a stUl more valuable invention is that recently patented by Ansa Gilmore, Esq., which is commended by many of our most intelligent and skilful apiarists, as one combining, in an emi- 39W farmer's BEJEND-BOOK. nent degree, all the requisites of a perfect hive, and its introdactiofl i8^ becoming more genera) than that of any other article now in the market. Fig. 222. The following is a perspective view of a bee-house, or apiary, on Mr. Gil- moie's plan. n^. tins. JsJs-; (*»- f ^li'.S The above shows the front, with the openings for the bees — a door at the end,, leading into the apartment back of the hives, where you can go,; and examine the boxes, and inspect operations^ unmolested. These houses may BEES. 335 be'ttUde plain br ofnatti'ental, according to the taste or desires of the propri- etors', and of any required size. In regard to the Gilmore plan, the first thing necessary will be to pre- pare a house or room, say eight or ten feet wide, and of any length you wish. In this, the hives and boxes are to be arranged as follows : ^- The hives are made of the usual size, but in three parts, as represented by a a a. They are seven and a half inches high, ten wide, and fifteen long. Fiff. 224. On the tops of all rff them^ are slats or gratings made of Wood', about an inch in width, and about a quarter of an inch apart. They should be apart far enough to let the bees pass through easily, but not so far apart as to allow them to build comb that would project through the grating, and connect with comb below. The object is to be able to remove parts of the comb in the 336 farmer's hand-book. hive when it gets old, and by sliding in a new section of hive, give them a chance to renew it. In this way, aU the comb may be renewed in each hive, from time to time. There is much advantage in this, for the bees are not only more healthy and active with new, freshly-made comb, but, in process of time, the cells, where the larvse are raised, become narrow and filled up with bread, and the exuvia of the growing young ; hence, bees bred in such places are not so large and strong. This arrangement of hives enables the bee-breeder to remove the old, and give the bees a chance to manufacture new. These sections of the hive are held together by bits or small cleats of wood, represented by c c c, which are fitted into slots cut in the edge of each section, and held in their places by small wood screws. On the top of the hive, as at e, is an orifice or hole, which may be closed by a slide, and also a similar one on the sides, at d. These are for the purpose of allowing the bees to pass from hive to hive, as they are placed in contact with each other, and should be four or five inches square. They can thus pass through the opening e, in the top, into the hive above, or into the hives on either side, through the opening d, in the sides. Fiff. 225. These sections, when put together, represent the front of the hive. It will be perceived that holes, or i)Otches, are cut on each side of the cleats c c c, to allow the bees to pass and repass into and out of the hives, as is usual in common hives. Any number of hives are placed in contact with each other, side by side, and on the top of each other ; and there is a com- munication throughout the whole, as above named, through the openings c and d. BEES. 337 The next cut represents the bax;k-side of the hive, where are seen the cleats c c c, and the openings e and d. In addition to these are holes ff, eight in number, bored with an inch or an ineh-and-a-half bit. They are made to allow the bees to pass from the main hives into the boxes, which Pig. 226. are placed in contact with them, having an opening of the same size, to match. These boxes are made of thin, light wood, having a pane of glass in ftont, through which it may be seen whether they are filled with honey or not, before taking them away. They are seven and a half inches long, and four and three-fourths' inches high. The cut g represents the glass Fiff. 227. front ; // showing the opening on the back-side, corresponding with the hole /, in the main hive. These boxes are kept in their places by means 29 338 farmer's hand-book. of a rack, similar to the rack or case in which small drawers are placed. This is shown in the succeeding cut, and is extensive enough to cover the whole of broadside of the hives — s s s s representing slides of wood, tin, or zinc, by which the communication between the hives may be cut off when desired. These are the movable parts of the apiary. We will now proceed to arrange them in the house or room in which they are to stand. In order to f^. 228. illustrate this arrangement, the interior of the house is seen with the back and ends removed, thus exposing the fixtures within. A A A A is the floor of the house ; B B B B is the front side. In order to let the bees pass out and in, small openings or doors are made, either in the form of a long open- ing, as in the shaded part represented by c in the upper part, or in the square shaded parts, e e e e, below. Long openings are preferable. AH these openings are furnished with shutters or slides, by which they may be BEES. 339 coihpletely closed, at will. The best arrangement for this is to have a long opening with a groove at the top and bottom of it, so as to letum the slides farmer's hand-book. when put in. By these, any part of the opening eka be shut, and openings left just where you wish, which is often essential in directing the bees to f^. 830. \ \ \ \ \ \ 01 'ith a very sharp knife, so as to leave a perfectly smooth, even surface, b; the scion, which should at least have three buds, and need never have more than five (the top one for a leading shoot, the next two for side shoots, in the case of fruit-trees, and the lower two to aid in uniting the scion to the stock) , is next cut, so as to fit the prepared part of the stock as accurately as possible, at least on one side ; then a slit or tongue, as it is technically termed, is made on the scion, and a corresponding one in the stock, c. All being prepared, the scion is applied to the stock, inserting the tongue of the one into the slit of the other, c; then the scion is tied on with matting, d; and lastly it is clayed over, e; and 38 446 FAHMEH'S HAND-BOOE. sometimes, in addition, it is earthed up, or covered with moss, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture. In earthing up the graft, the loose surface soil should be used at the grafting season, as being drier and warmer than that which is less under the immediate influence of the sun. When the scion is placed on the stock with the right hand, the ribbon of bast, by which it is tied, is brought round the graft from right to left ; but when the scion- is put on by the left hand, the bast is brought round from left to right ; the object in both cases being to make sure of the exact coincidence of the inner bark of one side of the scion with the inner bark of one side of the stock. The ball of clay which envelops the graft should be about an inch thick on every side, and should extend for nearly an inch below the bottom of the graft, to more than an inch over the top of the stock, compressing and finishing the whole into a kind of oval or egg-shape form, closing it in every part, so as completely to exclude air, light, wet or cold. The ball of clay will not be so apt to drop off, if the matting over which it is placed is ren- dered a fitting nucleus for solid clay, by previously smearing it over in a comparatively liquid state. This envelope of clay, with the earthing up, preserves the graft in a uniform temperature, and prevents the rising of the sap from being checked by cold days or nights ; and, therefore, earthing up ought always to be adopted, in the case of grafls in the open garden, which are difficult to succeed. When the scion and the stock are both of the same thickness, or when they are of kinds which do not unite freely, the tongue ia sometimes omitted ; but in that case more care is required in tying. In this, and also in other cases, the stock is not shortened down to the graft, but an inch or two, with a bud at its upper extremity, is left to insure the rising of the sap to the scion ; and after the latter is firmly established, the part of the stock left is cut off close above the scion. When the stock is not HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC orERATIONS. 447 headed down till the scion is ahout to he put on, it is essentially necessary to leave it longer than usual, in order to give vent to the rising sap, which might otherwise exude about the scion, and occasion its decay. SpliceGrafting the Peach, Nectarine, Apricot, Jfc. — In splice grafting the shoots of peaches, nectarines, and apricots, and other tender shoots with large pith, it is found of advantage to have aquarter of an inch of two-yeais- old wood at the lower extremity of the scion, and to have the stock cut with a dove-tail notch. In the case of the fruiWrees mentioned, the buds of the scion on the back and front are removed, leaving two on each side, and a leader ; and when these have grown six or eight inches, their extremities are pinched off with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will throw out two others, and thus produce in autumn a finely-shaped tree, with ten branches. Such trees will bear two or three fruits the second year from the graft. Cleft Grafting. — This requires less care than splice grafting, and is chiefly adopted when the scion is a good deal larger than the stock, and more especially when grafting stocks of considerable height, or heading down old trees. The head of the stock being cut over horizontally with a saw, a cleft is made in it, from two to three inches in length, with a stout knife or chisel, or with the splitting-knife. The cleft being kept open by the knife or chisel, or the pick end of the splitting-knife, one or two scions are inserted, according to the diameter of the stock ; the scions being cut into long wedge-shapes, in a double sense, and inserted into the slit prepared for them, when the knife or chisel being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon the scions, and holds them fast. The graft is then tied and clayed in the usual manner, and the whole is frequently covered with moss, or some similar substance. When the stock is an inch or more in diameter, three or more scions are frequently put on at equal distances from each other round the circumference, and this is called crown grafting. Cleft grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode, because, if the split has been made right through the stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather before it is covered with wood by the scion. If the cleft is made only on one side of the stock, the evil is mitigated ; but there still remains the ten- dency of the scion in its growth to protrude the wood all on one side. In crown grafting headed-down old trees, the scion is generally chosen of two- years-old wood, and it is sometimes inserted between the inner bark and the alburnum, as in what is called — Rind Grafting. — In this, great care must be taken to open the bark of the stock, without bruising it, which is done by the spatula end of the graft- ing-knife. The scion is prepared without a tongue, and inserted so that its wood maybe in contact with the sap of the stock. As in this case both 448 fakmee's hand-book. edges of the alburnum of the scion come in close contact' with the alburnum of the stock, the chances of success, other circumstances being alike, are increased. In cases of this kind, also, a longitudinal notch is sometimes cut out, instead of a slit, and the scion cut to correspond. Sometimes, also, the scion is prepared with a shoulder, more especially when it consists of two- years-old wood ; and this mode is termed shoulder grafting. Cleft Grafting the Vine. — This operation is shown iii the annexed cut, in which a is a bud on the scion, and i one on the stock, both in the most Fig. 290. favorable positions for success. The graft is tied and clayed in the usual manner, excepting that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite the eye of the scion, for its development. In grafting the vine in this manner, when the bud b on the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten or fourteen days, after which it is cut off, leaving only one bud and one leaf near'its base to draw up sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock.- The time of grafting is when the stock is about to break into leaf, or when they have made shoots with four or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffering from bleeding ; though, if vines are in good health, and their wood thoroughly ripened, all the bleeding that usually takes place does little injury. Saddle Grafting. — This is only applicable to stocks of moderate size, but it is well adapted for standard fruit-trees. The top of the stock is cut into a wedge-shape, and the scion is split up the middle, and placed astride on it, the inner barks being made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft grafting. The tying, claying, &c., are of course performed in the usual manner. SiWe Grafting. — This is nothing more than splice grafting performed on the side of a stock, the head of which is not cut off. It is sometimes prac- tised on fruit-trees to supply a branch in a vacancy, or for the sake of having HORTICULTBBAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 449 different kinds of fruits on the same tree ; but it is better for the latter pur- pose to graft on the side-branches, because, in consequence of the flow of the sap Hot beirtg iMterrupted by being headed down, the success of this kind of grafiing is more uncertain than almost any other mode. In grafting the lateral branches of fruit-trees, it is always desirable, in order to insure suc- cess, to have corresponding buds in the scion and the stock. Wedge Grafting. — This is simply a modiiication of side grafting. Boot Grafting. — Root grafting is merely the union of a scion to a root, instead of to a stem. It is sometimes practised in nurseries, by grafting the apple and the pear on the roots of thorns, tree paeonies on herbaceous paeonies, &c. Serbaceous Grafting. — This is applicable either to the solid parts of herbaceous plants, or to the branches of ligneous or woody pla:nts, when they are in an herbaceous state. By this method the melon has been grafted on the cucumber, the tomato on the common potato, the cauliflower on the broccoli and the borecole, &c. To do this, choose a vigorous part of a shoot having a well-developed leaf. In the axil of this leaf an oblique cut is made, of half its thickness. The point of a melon shoot, so far developed as to have its fruit quite formed, is then cut off, and pointed at its end, two inches below the fruit. It is inserted in the cleft made in the stock, always taking care to spare the leaf until the scion has taken. The remaining part of the operation is performed with ligatures and grafting-wax. Grafting by Approach, or Inarching. — This differs from grafting by detached scions, in the scion or shoot not being separated from the plant to which it belongs, and by which it is nourished, till aunion takes place. For this purpose, it is necessary that the two plants which are to form the scion and stock be planted, or, if in pots, placed adjoining each other, so that a branch of the one may be easily brought into close contact with the stem, or with a branch, of the other. A disk of bark and alburnum is then removed from each at the intended point of union, and the parts being properly fitted to each other, so as the inner barks of the respective subjects may coincide, as in the case of grafting by detached scions, they are bandaged and covered with clay or grafting-wax. This being done, in a short time, in con- sequence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut off below the point where it is united with the stock, leaving the former to be nourished only by the latter. The principal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity and value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an in- crease by means of detached scions or cuttings. 38* 450 fakmek's hand-book. II. BUDDING. Uses of Budding. — Budding, or grafting hy detached bads, consists in transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases ; or, at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of budding is founded. This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All the different modes of budding may be reduced to two ; — shield budding, in which the scion is a piece of bark, commonly in the shape of a shield, containing a single bud, — and flute budding, in which the scion consists of a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of one year is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of suc- cess when the bad of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud on the stock. The shield may, however, be placed on the internodes, or a piece of bark without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union may take place between the parts, because the marrow rays exist every- where in the wood, and- it is by them, during the process of organization, that the layer of wood of one year, in a growing state, is joined to that of the year before. When the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ; but, in budding trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises in spring ; when the bud inserted is developed immediately, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions ; and in the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a bud formed during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the follow- ing spring. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligature is frequently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascending sap to nourish the graft. HORTICtJLTUKAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 451 The uses of budding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting, ire, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting are not so successful ; to perform the operation of grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fruit- trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, — as the apricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation during the budding season ; to graft without the risk of injuring the stock in case of want of success, as in side budding, and in flute budding, without heading down ; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the same stem, which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without dis- figuring the stock, in the event of the want of success ; to prove the blossoms or fi-uits of any tree, in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leaf- buds ; and finally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kinds on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees. Performing the Operation. — In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing operation is retarded ; besides, the bark never rises so well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them ; then procure the cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the budding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be taken should be cut — always using the proper kind of knife — from the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of grafting by detached scions. When these cuttings are to be used, their lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera- tion of cutting shields or rings from them is going on. If, on the other hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from which the buds are to be taken is not to be cut off the parent tree till just before the operation is to be performed. The cutting should be a shoot of the current year's wood, which has done growing, or nearly so, and its leaves should be cut off, to prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon as it is taken from the tree ; the end of the cutting should then be put in water to keep it fresh, and the buds taken off as wanted. When the leaves are cut off, care should be taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to handle the shield or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in the stock, or a ring of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from the cutting, containing a bud or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is intro- duced in the manner which will presently be described. Tying the bud on 452 farmer's hand-book. the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting- wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring. Transmitting Scions. — Scions for budding may be sent a considerable distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion clbsely wrapped up in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. They may also be left for several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objec- tion, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn Wheat-straVr, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moiatute. Wax for Budding. — Prepared wax for budding iiiay be composed of turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be tnore than a quarter of an inch in thickness ; or it niay be very thinly spread on cotton cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it servies both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a cbvering for excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting- Wax, the moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of bast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand, or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared: — take common sealing-wax, — of any color, except green, — one part ; mut- ton fat, one part ; white wax, one part ; and honey, one eighth of a part. The white wax and the fiit are to be first melted, and then the sealihg-wax is to be added gradually, in small pieces, — the mixture being kept con- stantly stirred ; — and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking it off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds; and kept slightly agitated till it begins to congeal. Shield Budding. — This is about the only mode in use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cut and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible through abud. (Fig. 391, a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, i, is then cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enter- ing the point of the knife at the Under extremity of the shield, and between it and the thumb ; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on each side of 'the slit in the stock is raised up by the spatula end of the budding-knife, and the shield inserted beheath it ; its upper part being cut straight across, as at rf, so as to admit of its joining accurately with the HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 453 inner bark of the stock, as at c, so as to receive its descending sap. A bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the wounded parts, and. to show only the bnd and the petiole, as at/, and the Fiff. 291. operation is complete. At /, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of*some length, which is tied for a short time to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter which is shown by dotted lines is cut off in July. The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally be. about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a. third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off, or shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is woody, is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead of an even surface ; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. When this latter has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another ; though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be taken from the scion that are nearly mature, v/hich is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the leafj in the axil of which it grows. Shield Budding without a Bud or Eye. — This is used simply to cover a wovmd or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another. Circular Shield Budding. — Budding with a circular shield, with a portion of wood attached, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by 454 farmer's hand-book. removing some from places where there are too many to other places in which there are too few. With the point of n penknife, in spring, cat a small cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, securing the edges with grafting-wax. Budding with a shield stamped out hy a punch is considered excellent for budding old trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken oiFwith the budding-knife. With a mallet the punch is driven through the bark of the scion, and then through that of the stock, and the piece which comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken out of the latter. Shield budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore, recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one. Flute Budding. — There are several modifications of this mode of budding, which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to take, — such as the walnut and the chestnut, — and for several oaks, as well as for the white mulberry. Annular Budding. — This is performed either at the principal movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In either case, the top of the stock is kept on ; Snd if the ring of bark contain- ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared for it on the stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to make it fit exactly. , After-care. — The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the buds or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be known in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers and adheres. The next operation is to head down the stock to within an inch or two of the bud, — the stump being left for a week or two as a prop, to which the shoot produced by the hud of the scion may be tied, till it acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop themselves on this stump should be rubbed off ; but in the case of very weak scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap ; but in autumn budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch, heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost HOETICULTTTEAL SCIENTIFIC OPEKATIONS. 455 bud ; and in teiminal flute budding, it is peiformed as a necessary part of the operation. in. PRUNING. Uses of Pruning. — Pruning consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches, buds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of pruning may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches ; lopping, which is applied to large branches ; clipping, which is applied to small shoots in masses ; and disbudding, disleaiing, and disbark- ing, which are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may also be included. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip- ping-shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the pruning- chisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chisels is seen in the follow- ing cut. Fig. 292. Pruning Forest-trees. — In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-branches and encouraging the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the main stem. On the other hand, should crooked timber be desired, pruning by destroying the leading shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable direction, tend to attain the end in view ; and, by the aid of training, this end can be completely effected. Trees which are stunted in their growth, from beincr hide-bound (a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure of the trees to the weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and, in the case of young trees, by being planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots) , may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut down or headed in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunted, by amputating the larger roots. Pruning Ornamental Trees. — This is chiefly employed to remove dis- eased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the development of their natural form and character. Pruning Ornamental Shrubs. — Those which are grown for their flowers produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots are 456 farmer's hand-book. thinned out, or shortened, or hoth ; and it is useful when the plants are prevented from exhausting themselves hy the removal of decaying blossoms, so as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruning-scis- sors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c. Fiff. 293. Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs. — These, above- all other plants, are benefited by pruning, which is indeed by far the most imponant part of their culture. The most general object of pruning, is to create an abundant snpply of sap during summer; by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general strength of the tree is augmented, ajid to limit the distribution of this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by dimin- ishing the number of buds. The eifect of this is to increase the vigor of fig'. 294. the shoots or fruits produced by these buds ; and if this be done in such a manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will have answered its purpose. If a fruit-tree were not deprived every year of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the fruit would be HORTICULTUEAL SCIENTIFIC OPEEATIONS. 457 more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavor, as is found to be the case in old neglected orchEird-trees. The a|)plication of pruning to fruit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the sub- ject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel-fruits, which are produced on wood of two or: more years' growth, require to be pruned in a. different manner from such fruits as the peach, which is produced from the shoots of the current year. The production, of blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruitrtrees. In pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator — pole pruning- shears — is found to be very convenienti See Fig. 295. FHg. 296. Pruning Herbaceous Plants. — To herbaceous plants pruning is appli- cable, not only when they are being transplantedj when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-bearing kinds, such as the melon tribe, the tomato, &e. It is even useful to the cabbage tribe, when it is wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking off. of potato-blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the sake of heatness, &c. mPFEEENT KINDS OF PROTIING. These may be included under close pruning, shortening-in, fore-shorten- ing, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tear- ing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling. Close Pruning. — This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in order that it may be speedily healed over. In performing the operation, care should be taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as possiblfe ; and at the same time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation 39 458 farmer's HANDrBOOK. to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted where the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches, or of any- kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ; but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a blemish in the timber. Shortening-in. — This term is applied when side-shoots are shortened at the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called fore-shortening, and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows ; and under that dis- tance it is called spurring-in. In ihe culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connection with spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms, with branches which, never being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bear- ing spurs. Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are produced there is trained to take its place. Fore-shortening. — When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the lateral branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them ; and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows. Spurring-in. — The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other fruit-trees, or fruit-shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally ; and the object of spurring-in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only be done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same vigor as to the growing point, because the great object in producing spurs is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigor- ous shoots. A lateral shoot of the present year being produced, may be shortened to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer, after that shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following winter ; but the former is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encourage the production of wood, and, consequently, of sap, but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches, which are, in fact, the spurs. The second and third years the shoots pro- duced are shortened in the same manner as they were the first, and it will HORTICXTLTITEAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 459 generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots, when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by the pro- cess of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are, ftom time to time, cut out, and new spurs formed by the same process as before ; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing the spurs is cut out close to the main stem of the tree, and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It must be confessed, .however, that pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms ; that depends far more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruit- bearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other par- ticulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally. Heading-^n. — This is cutting oflf all the branches which form the head of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to pro- duce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees peri- odically, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted Fig. 296. forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots, instead of distributing it over a great many ; and it is done in transplanting trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parks. The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill 460' FARMEB^S KAND-BQCHC. at one stroke ; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, and afterwards, the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally withr what is called the bilt-kuife. Lopping. — This, term is very generaHy; applied to heading-in, but it is: also as generally used to signify the cutting off- large blanches from the- sides of stems, and in this sense, we shalL here treat of it. Lopping is pert- formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag lopping are the modes which are injurious ; the only mode of lopping, large branches' from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring, the. timber in theseu trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound-.at its base, or, at all events, to maintain the giowth of the.wholeof thepaiti.ofi the branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the tr.iink. Tbisjnqdejs called loppmg-in. Fig. 296.representaone of :th6 lopping or branch' shears, also the sliding pruning-shears. Cutting Down. -^Cutting down the stem or trunk of a.tieeito the gg^oundi is an important operation, because j in some casesj such as .that of resinous or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renewingthfi tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few inches above .the surface of the soil ; but even with fruit-trees, when th&y are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting, themi down to the graft. Stopping and Pinching-out. — When., the, point of a shoot is cut off, or pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ; that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the largeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot, or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf-buds into flower-buds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. Much of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented by stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full length, in order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater vigor is in turn imparited- to the stem and branches^ Iij this case of pruningj as in every other j the state of the tree, and^a variety of circumstances connected, with it, require to be taken into cqnsiderstiofl. DisbarUng. — This includes, two distinct openations, ^ the rejnoval; of HORTICULTURAL SGIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 461 coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the stems of old vines for the latter purpose ; one effect of removing the loose outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri- ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood. Scraping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised. Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken off varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width of the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation maybe performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, pro- duces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by. the same means seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would be. It has little effect on stone fruits ; and while it succeeds on the goose- berry, it is said not' to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning. Disbudding. — This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they are beginning to develop their leaves ; and is commonly performed with the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-buds, it will add to the strength and probability of setting of those wh ch remain, and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots, whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation of that which can ultimately be retained for training. , By applying this mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum, especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great 39* 462 farmer's hand-book. measure dispensed with, excepting for cutting out diseased or decaying shoots. In removing the buds, care should be- taken not to injure the bark of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ; the fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at inter- vals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too great privation of foliage at once. Disleafing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are imfolded, no bads are matured in their axils ; and thus, while the superfluous vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Disleafing in this manner the summer's shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit- bearing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stop- ping growth. Slitting and Splitting. — These may be classed under modes of pruning, the first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, — a practice of doubtful utility, — and the second to stimulate the stems to the production of roots or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longi- tudinally from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may be considered necessary. The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes slit up, and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds. Bruising and Tearing. — Bruising and tearing off the stems of plants from their roots are in some cases found to be more effective than cutting them off with a smooth section. A very full crop of pears has been obtained from trees which before had not borne at all, by twisting and breaking down the young shoots late in the autumn, when the wood had become tough, and after the Sap had retreated. This practice has been found successful with branches on which ringing had been tried without success, and the pendent branches continued perfectly healthy. Clipping. — This is confined chiefly to common hedges and box edgings. Root Pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant is absorbed from the soil by the roots, it is evident that the supply will be diminished by partially cut- ting off its source. The effect of cutting through the stronger rootsof trees HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 463 is analogous in its first eflfects to that of ringing; with this difference, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the parts above the ring. The immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, how- ever, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree, and prevent the second result, — that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from those amputated ; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be subjected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on subjects unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throw- ing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the roots resulting from each preceding operation come into action. Root prun- ing is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly employed to check the luxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever. Girdling and Felling. — This is very common in this country, not for the sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in hardening the timber, is very great ; but, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean a rim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground. By girdling, the whole of what would otherwise be mere alburnum becomes similar to the heart- wood, and this may be one reason why the boards made from such trees are found not to warp. Larches are particularly susceptible to this process. Seasons for Pruning. — The seasons for pruning vary according to the object in view. Where wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to throw strength into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performed, after the fall of the leaf, the better ; because, as the sap is more • or less in motion, and consequently impelled to all the buds, throughout the whole of the winter, that which would have been employed on the shoots and buds cut off is saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it. Next to autumn, — according to the opinions of some of the most experi- enced growers, — winter is to be preferred, for the same reason ; but in this season mild weather is always to be chosen, because the frost, if severe, will seize on the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture their surface. 464 farmer's hand-Sook. The 'worst season in Which any description of wood pniiiingcan be performed is the Spring, jast before the expansion of the leaves, -when the sap is rising with the greatest vigor. The slightest wound toade in many plants, both woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones, where the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must neces- sarily -weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and ringing, spring is the most suitable season, — at least, for the latter practice, for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they are formed by the leaves ; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring. When all their parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. The advantages of pruning just before midsummer are, that the woimds may be partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those Which remain. Tlie disadvantages are, that the Sap which would have been elabo- rated by the leaves cut off, and Which would have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong, this is-no disadvantage ; but in the case of those which are too wealc, it is a positive loss. The summer season is found better than any other for prun- ing trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken away ; and it is also considered favorable for resinous trees. The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, arid some species of maple. IV. TRAINING. Uses of Training. — To train a plant is to support Or conduct its stem and branches in some form, or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes df use Or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders. Principles of Training. — The principles upon which training is founded vary according, to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts : — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this ten- dency encourages the production of leaves and Shoots, and whatever represses HOBTICXTLTOBAL SCIENTBFJC OPERATIONS. 465 it promotes the fdnnation of blossom-buds. When a plant is to be traioed over the sur&ce of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be allowed to turn up at the pointy, in order to promote their extension. When the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should be followed, and the points of the shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright grown plants, trained horizontally, pr even in a downward direction. This should also be done when the object is to restrain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or tree is to be invigorated. When the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying length, but very little breadth ; and when it is to increase temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen against winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of the sun during the day, and giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere is at a lower temperature than the wall. Manual Operations of Training. — The tie or the list, by which the shoots are fastened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the intemode, and always immediately behind a bud or joint; because, when tying or nailing takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots, the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is prevented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced in a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The bast ties are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order tiiat it may be the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. Osier ties, which are frequently used for espalier- trees, are fastened by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails »nd shreds, when any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must always be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter WQuld gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not fD be placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attadied ; for there it is worse than useless. On the contrary, the shreds should be put on so as to pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is desira- ble the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in length are sufficient for ordinary branches,, but twice thg,t length is necessary for very large Mies; they should, in genejral, be driven into the joints, and not into the baclis, because the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth, or to leather, as being softer, and less influenced by the weather. Their length should be such as to_ contain a shoot double the 466 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never com- press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth may he from half to three quarters of an inch to a whole inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing. Training Herbaceous and Shrvbhy Plants in Pots. — These, being in a highly artificial state, when they require training should have straight rods, or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for the grape is seen in the annexed cut ; formed of rods and rings of stout wire, the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower. Fig. 297. Training Hardy Flowering Shrvbs in the Open Ground. — ^Trailing and creeping shrubs seldom require any assistance from art, excepting when they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or walls. The cut which follows represents a climbing rose, trained down from a ring which forms the top to an iron rod. This is called the balloon manner of training, and was first applied to apple-trees. When the rod is fixed in the ground, the ring at the top should stand an inch or two higher than the graft at the top of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of the plant, if it should not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shoots are then to be selected, and tied to the ring with tarred twine ; and if, from their length, they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as shown in the figure. Training Fruit-trees. — By far the most important application of training is to fruit-tiees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air which could not otherwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant bushes or trees in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against walls or espaliers. HOETICULTTJKAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 46'7 In either case, the operation is fonnded on the principle of suppressing the direct channel of the sap, hy which it is more equally distributed over the Fiff. 298. tree, the tendency to produce over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is diminished, and the production of flowers from every part increased. We find that trees in a state of nature always produce their first flowers from lateral branches, to which the sap flows less abundantly than to those which are vertical ; and the objedark-brown spots on their bodies. They all Pig. 317. appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first, and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young ; they proceed from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. In twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The off- spring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, agam ready to bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen genera- tions in all are produced,- some of the progeny having wings, and others 46 548 FARMER^ HAWB^BOOK. none ; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the former pairing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep- tember, males and females are produced from the last generation ; the apple aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis those that do. When these newly-born males and females are full-grown, pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the buds, like the plum aad peach aphides ; the females, having thus provided for their future spring progeny, die off in the autumn ; the eggs survive the winter. With regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying the eggs soon after they are laid. They may be seen late in the autumn, or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young trees that have high steins, because the eggs lie exposed close together on the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed. We should not, however, press them, but the shoots. should be washed over with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash", which will kill the eggs. With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, being of a dark- brown, they are easily seen. When the peach-trees begin to put out their leaves, examine them thoroughly on account of the aphides, because, at a later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easily be freed from them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aphides, and brush the tree, carefully examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third and following generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings and disperse themselves. Small and Large. Pear Midges. — This species of midge is very small ; the feelers are cylindrical, finely-haired, and composed of sixteen joints, with the two basal-joints thicker than the others ; the abdomen is slender, seven-ringed, and finely-haired ; there is a knobby two-jointed pair of forceps on the extreme point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed ; the wings lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, thin, and -finely^ haired. According to some, it is a. species belonging to the genus Sciara; others call it Molobrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms when they are still closed. The large pear midge, female, is little more than one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick ; the male is more slender,3nd shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body ; the head is black and shining, as js also the thorax ; the proboscis ash-gray ; the abdomen of the male a deep black, — that of the female browner, with black rings ; and the anal point is quite black ; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black. WOXIOOS mSECTS. &£J The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the ground, while some will be found but little decayed, though containing several yellowish larva, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with ten segments without feet ; and each having a pointed head, on which two black spots stand close together. , Black Gall Midge. — There are a number of species of this insect. The thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back ; the scutellum is grayish ; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions ; the feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found to lay their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so fer developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg- ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the •anther of the still-closed blossom. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and Ihe small larvae bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx. When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are full-grown, and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in spring, to propagate their species. iParadoxical Pear Platygaster. — This is a small insect, said to have the male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen, and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasiti- cal upon other insects, we shall not describe it further. Rhynchkes (CurcuUo) Betuleti. — Rhynchites Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto been considered as the peculiar enemy of the vine ; it is, however, never found on vines, but only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially dis- tinguished from the Rh. B'eluleti by its shining copper-color. The latter insect is a small weevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one third of an inch long, including the rostrum, — the latter being nearly a third of the whole length ; it is tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax of the male, towards the front on both sides, are observed short spines; the abdomen is almost quadrangular. The spines are wanting on the thorax of the female, and her rostrum is shorter. The beetle appears in spring, as soon as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It makes use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food of its young. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the petiole with her rostrum almost half through, so that it hangs down. She then begins to roll the leaf together, generally alone, but sometimes assisted by the male. While this operation is going forward, she also lays her eggs ; 544 farmer's hand-book. that is, she pierces the roll, lays an egg in the opening, and pushes it in with her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, hetween the different folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is impossible to discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suit- able for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind, and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the worm is fully grown, it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes from ripening. As it is toler- ably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed, particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and burnt or crushed. Vine Scale Insect. — This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The eggs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring Pig. 318. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 845 Vine Beetle. — It issues ftom the earth in spring when the vine has hegun to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and half an inch broad, black and shining ; head large ; thorax broad ; abdomen short ; legs rather strong. To protect the vine, the only way is to collect and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is discernible on account of its form and size. Vine Saw-fly. — The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi- transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female is one fourth of an inch in length ; that of the male is somewhat shorter. These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, in little swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grovra to their full size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length ; have twenty-two legs ; the head and the tip of the tail are black ; the body, above, is light- green , paler before and behind , — the lower side of the body is yellowish. As a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and also upon the ground under the vines. Canker Worm. — This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees : but cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suffer from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes ; these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size, and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is a great difference of color even among the same species, of the same age and size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last ring ; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the body ; there are two whitish bands across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grovni, they become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the pale-yellowish line remains. Some are ftund of a dull greenish-yellow, and others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small black spots on the hack. When 4iot eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. They leave off eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of the 46* • 546 FAfiMER's HAND-BOOK. wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty' wide pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circulat notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends. The crevices between the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow ; then smear the under side of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of intercepting the insect's path is to enclose the trees with collars, or citculat slips of tin or zinc. And still another mode — though these are only three out of nearly a hundred that are practised — is, to dig around the trees, and lay the earth smooth; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots ; then tar the trees. Apple-tree Borer. — They are the larvK of a beetle called Saperdd bivittala, — the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state; early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food. The trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larvae are fleshy whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical ; the head is small, horny, and brown ; the first ring is much larger than the others ; the next two are very short, and, with the first, are covered with punctures and minute hairs ; the following rings, to the tenth inclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under side, with two fleshy warts^ close together ; the eleventh and twelfth rings are very short ; no appearance of legs ; the grub cuts a cylindrical passage through the bark, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con- tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. Here its transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupse of beetles ; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on each of the rings of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. The final change occurs about the ficrst of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement NOXIOUS INSECTS. 54't in the night. Killing it by a wire thrust into the holes it has made, is one of the oldest, safest and most successful methods. V. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS. Earwig. — This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very dangerous to mankind, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to fruit and flowers. Its size varies according to its age and sex. When fully grown it measures almost an inch, including the forcep-like appendage at the end of the abdomen ; its breadth is one sixth of an inch . The body is light- brown, free from hair ; it has very short wing-cases, under which the wings lie concealed, folded both longitudinally and transversely. It is usually under the bark of trees, in the hollow stems of trees, in rolled-up leaves, and under stones. In orchards, it particularly injures the fruit of trees which are trained as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, which are often entirely pierced through in warm weather. They also attack the other sorts of fruits, par- ticularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens they destroy carnations, pinks, and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs is by catching them, which is best effected by hollow tubes, laid here and there, in orchards and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this pur- pose, but the hollow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insects are eager in the pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also easily caught between the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid on the ground. They creep into these traps in the morning after their noc- turnal rambles, and may easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the day. Some place the flower-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the earwigs from creeping, but not from flying, upon the plants. Orange Scale Insect. — It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and is very plentiful on green-house plants, particularly on orange-trees, fasten- ing itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when the trees are kept rather warm. It is best destroyed by washing the branches and leaves. If this be done in autumn, it is a great advantage, as the old ones cannot creep up again. Mealy Bug. — This species is reddish, and strewed with white dust. At the sides of the twelve segments of the body it is provided with small tuber- cles. The male is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wings, and two long, brush-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species of plants, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them off carefully with soft brushes, and crushing them. Oleander Scah Insect. — The female appears as a yellowish, round, flat shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. The shield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white. 548 farmer's hand-book. The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on different kinds of plants, particularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c.,and can only be gotten rid of by 9areful brushings. Rose Scale. — The female is like that of the former. The male pupa is linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They live on the stems and old twigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout. Rose-trees are much injured by these insects. Cactus Scale. — The female bears a great resemblance to the oleander scale, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The male is orange-yellow, the pupa linear, doubly furrowed, powdery-gray. Lives principally on the different species of cactus. Sweet Bay Scale. — The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with a reddish-yellow elevation before. The male is pale cherry-red ; the body flat ; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it is so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient ; a pointed stick must therefore be had recourse to. Rose Moth. — In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossoms arrives. It is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little brownish scale is found here and there attached to them ; and upon nearer inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm, the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots. When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks another ; and thus, in a short time, one of these larvae can strip a whole branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an inch long ; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It under- goes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity requires. The moth appears at the end of May. The whole body is silvery shining gray ; the upper wings strewed with minute. black dots, deeply fringed at the posterior edge ; the under wings are narrow, pointed, with very long fringes. The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this enemy is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is developed, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must be cruslied immediately. Plant Mite, or Red Spider. — A small insect of the spider class. It is NOXIOUS INSECTS. 549 scarcely visible to the naked eye ; has eight legs ; its color changes from yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish spot. In the open air it usually attaclcs kidney-beans. Among trees, the young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the under- side of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appear- ance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue. Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hot- houses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree. VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. General Remarks. — Most of the insects that choose the various sorts of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows. The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larvae of various species of cock- chaffers living in the earth. When bare spots are seen on meadows, we may be sure that the larv^ of the cockchaffer are there carrying on their work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cock- chaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth, clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at the expense of the herbage. Unspotted Lady-bird. — An insect injurious to many of the artificial grasses. It has been observed on the common tare, sanfoin, and the differ- ent sorts of clover. This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowish- white, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. The pupa is light- yellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. The perfect insect is almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddish- brown. A good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requi- sites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation. Migratory Locust. — An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their native country is in the plains of Asia, between the Black and Caspian Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude ; and after eating up everything in their native country, favored by the wind, they perform great journeys in prodigious swarms. Their swarms often measure several hun- 550 faemek's hind-book. dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick clouds. When they have alighted in a place, they spare nothing that their Fig. 319. f -^ ■*.' • !«' «• sharp teeth can master. Grain of all sorts, meadows, vineyards, and the foliage of trees, are to them equally welcome as food. They stay till they have eaten up everything in the country, and transformed it into a desert, and then they resign themselves to the guidance of the wind, wherever it may take them. Besides the locusts laying waste large tracts of country by their voracity, and causing famine, they become also a real scourge to man- kind, from the stench which arises from their dead bodies when they are very numerous, and which breeds dangerous diseases. This insect is one of the larger species of the genus to which it belongs. Its length, from the head to the points of the wings, is from two to two and a half inches. Its head and neck are green, its body brownish, the upper ■wings brown, melting into greenish, and with darker quadrangular spots ; the under wings are transparent, and greenish towards the body. The blue upper jaws, which, on the inner surface, are furnished with sharp teeth, are very characteristic organs, which they apply effectually to devouring the vegetation. Rye-grass Moth. — A moth injurious to the different species of grass, and other meadow herbage. The moth is of middling size ; the male, with extended wings, is nearly .an inch broad, and black, with yellow notches on the abdomen ; the wings are thin, black, and fringed with the same color. The female has a thick, long abdomen, which is whitish-gray, and woolly at its exterior ; wings small, slender, brownish-gray, and not adapted for flying. The caterpillar is found in April and May, living on rye-grass and many other plants in meadows ; its ground-color is velvety-black, yellow at the incisions and sides, with a black head and small yellowish warts, having ash-gray hairs on them. The destruction of this caterpillar is very diflBcult, as it prefers living in long grass in the day-time, or in the ground. Break- NOXIOirS INSECTS. 551 ing up the meadows in autumn appears to be tie best method of destroying the pupce concealed there. Antler or Grass Moth. — A moth injurious to meadows. It is of middling size ; its head and back are yellowish-brown, the collar lighter, almost yel- low ; the abdomen and legs are brownish-gray, the latter with darker joints ; the upper wings are usually brownish-gray, with a darker mixture in the middle ; the under wings are yellowish-gray. The caterpillar is brown or blackish, with five lighter stripes along the back ; the first and last sections are covered with a hard, smooth scale ; the stripes meet at the edge of the anus ; the abdomen is blackish. The larvae are an inch long, and they undergo their transformation about midsummer, within a light cocoon, under moss, stones, &c., changing into a blackish-brown, shining pupa. The food of the caterpillar consists of all the soft sorts of grasses. It lives at the roots, and eats all the germs. Although it is in existence in autumn, lies benumbed in the earth in winter, and begins to eat again in the spring, yet the effects of its devastations appear chiefly in the beginning of June, when it has changed its skin for the last time. The only means of extirpating or diminishing this caterpillar consists in surrounding the attacked places, as the ground permits, with shallow ditches, or by means of a plough with deep furrows, as broad as possible, and turning pigs into these places to devour the insects. THE END, INDEX. A. Page Abscess in animals, 271 Acacia, 388 Age of cattle 232 Alderney cattle, 243 Almond, 217 Alterative medicines for animals, 272 Altering the proportion of the ingredients in soils, 4 Althea fnitex, 381 Amaranthus tricolor 381 American horses, iVlexican, Canadian, United States 265 Anatomy of the ox 231 " of the pig 256 " of the horse, 262 '■ of the bee 320 Angelica plant, 384 Animals, Dougstio. Horned or Neat. Breeding and rearing, 225 Gestation, time of impregnation, . . .226 Castrating 227 Fattening 229 Age 232 Names at different ages, 233 The Bull. How to judge of, 230 Native, 233 Devon, 234 Ayrshire, New Leicester 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 The Ox. How to judge of, ^ 230 Anatomy of, 231 Native 233 Devon, 235 Short-homed, 238 Hereford 240 Ayrshire, 241 New Leicester 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alde^ ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 The Cow. How to judge of, 232 Native, 233 Devon, 236 Hereford 240 Ayrshire, New Leicester 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Dairy qualities, 243 Feeding, keeping in good condition, milking, 544 47 Page Ascertaining the quality of milk, , . . 245 Remarks on Devon cattle, 237 Diseases of cattle, 271 Sheep. Rearing, &c 245 Castrating, weaning, shearing 246 For the market, food, sheep in moun- tainous sections, smearing, 248 Signs of good health 249 New Leicester, Dishley 249 Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Devonshire Notts, Romney IVlarsh, Coltswood, . 250 Cheviot, South-Down, Black-faced or Heath 251 Merino, 252 Diseases of sheep, 271 Stoine. Breeding and rearing, treatment of dam and young 253 Castrating, weaning, treatment after weaning, food, disposition of the car- cass, 254 Anatomy of, 256 China, 256 Berkshire, 257 Suffolk, Woburn, Siamese, 259 Diseases 271 The Horse. Rearing, breeding, weaning 260 Castrating, training and management of colts, 261 Food, anatomy 262 Arabian 263 Mexican, Canadian, Morgan, Gifford, Goss, European, 265 Norman, Clydesdale, Suffolk 266 Diseases 271 The Ass. Rearing, breeding, training, age, char- acteristics ^ 266 The Mule. Rearing and breeding 267 The Goat. Description, &c., 267 Tarieties, 26a The Dog. Rearing and breeding 268 Newfoundland 269 Shepherd's 270 Drover, Setter, Terrier, Pointer, ... 271 Diseases of animals, 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . . 285 Insects injurious to animals, 512 Animated oats 381 Anise 124 Annual flowers, culture of, 370 554 Annular budding, 454 Antler, or grass moth, 551 Aphis, 522, 541 Apiary. Aspect of, 321 Location, shelter, trees, 322 "Water, shruba, sun, flowers, 323 Apoplexy in animals, 271 " in fowls, 316 Apple. Propagation, soil and situation, . . . 176 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Summer Sorts. Varieties — American Summer Pear- main, Benoni, Cole, 168 Early Harvest, 165 Early Red Margaret, Early Strawberry, Juneating, Manomet Sweeting, . . . 168 Red Astrachan, 165 Red Quarrenden, Sapson, Spice Sweet, Summer Queen, Summer Rose, Tucker, 163 Williams's Favorite, 167 Fall Sorts. Bars, 170 Belmont, 172 Bread and Cheese, Early Joe, Fair- banks, ..........'.... 170 Fall Pippin, 169 Fall Wine, 170 Fameuse, 172 Gilpin, 170 Golden Ball, 172 Golden Sweet, 170 Gravenstein, 169 Herefordshire Pearmain, Hurlbut, . . 172 Jersey Sweeting, . . 170 Jewett'sRed, 172 Leland Pippin, Lowell, Lyman's Large Summer, 170 Lyscom, Magnolia, .' 172 Mexico, Moses Wood, Pomme Rpyal, . 170 Porter, 168 Rambo, Richardson, Romanite, Sassa- fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur- ther, Summer Bellflower, Superb Sweet, 170 Thompkins, ^ 172 Winthrop, Yellow Bellflower, ... .170 Winter and Spring Sorts. American Golden Kuisset, 175 Baldwin, 172 Blue Pearmain, 175 Burlington Greening, 174 Danvera Winter Sweeting, Detroit, . . 175 Esopus Spitzenberg, 172 Fort Miami, Gloria Mundi, 175 Golden Pijipin, 174 Golden Reinette, Hollow Crown Pear- main, 175 Hubbardaton Nonsuch, 172 Jersey, 174 Jonathan, King, 175 Lady, 174 Ladies' Sweeting, I^icester Sweeting, Little Pearmain, Minister, Nev^r- fail, .175 Newtown Pippin, 173 Northern Spy, Norton's Melon, Old Nonsuch, . / 175 Pecker, 172 Peck's Pleasant, Prior's Red, Raule's Janette 175 Rhode Island Greening, 174 Rockrimmon, 175 Boxbury Russet, 173 Steele's Red Winter, 172 Swaar, Tewksbury Winter Blush, Tol- maa Sweeting, Vandevere, Waxen', . 175 Westfield Seek-no-further, 172 Wood's Greening, 175 Cid&r Sorts. Camfield, Harrison, Hugh's Virginia Crab, Red Streak, 175 Crab Apples. Red Sibevian, . . , 175 tellqw Siberian, 176 Apbicot. Propagation, soil $nd situation, .... 176 Va-rieties — Breda, Black, Brussels, . . 178 Early , Large Early, 177 ftloorpark, 178 Peach, 177 Re^ Masculine, Eojnan, Turkey, White ' Masculine, 178 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects Injurious to, 526 April. Ij^itchen-garden calendar for, 131 Fruit calendar, 222 Live-slock calendar, 288 FloricuUural calendar, 394 Arabian horseis 263 Arbors for gardens, 373 Architecture, . 398 See Index of Rural Architecture. Artichoke, Jerusalem, 93 Ash-tree 393 Ashes, 32 Asparagiis. Varieties and culture, 99 Forcing, 100 Beetle, 520 Asphodel, . 386 Ass — rearing, breeding, training, age, char- acteristic?, 266 Assorting hops, , 112 Aster, China, 381 Asthma in fowls, . 316 A-ugiiat, Kitchen-garden calendar for, 132 Fruit calendar, 223 Live-stock calendar, 289 Floricultural calendar, 395 Auricula, 381 Autumn slock of bees, 342 Autumnal flowers, 364 Aylesbury or English duck, 309 Ayrshire cattle, 241 Azalea, 381,333 B. Saopn, inaking, 255 Balm, 124 INDEX. 555 f^lsamine, 335 Baiikiva fowls, 291 Bantam fowla, '.'.'.' 294 Barbary fowls, ! ! ! 295 Barberry, culture, Coramoa Red, Stonele'as' 178 Baklev. '' Different kinds, 50 Kind of soil, '.'.'. 51 Preparing; tbe land, sowing, culture,* harvesting, 52 Threshing, dressing, uses, .53 Diseases and enemies, 53, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Barn. Plan of, light and air, preventing depre- dations of vermin, 413 "Washington barn, 414 Buel barn, 415 Barn Fowls. Bankiva, Dunghill, 291 Game, Dorking, Malay or Chittagong. . 292 Paduan or Jago, Crqsted, Hamburgh, Dutch, Every-day or Ever-laying, Polartd, 293 Spanish, Bantam, 294 Dwarf or Creeper, Acaho, Rurakin, Frizzled, Silky, Russian or Siberian, Barbary, Java, 295 Ostrichor Cochin China, 296 Raising, breeding, number of hens for a ' cock, qiialities of a good cock, , . . 297 Selecting hens, sitting, hatching, . . . 298 Fattening, caponizing, health, .... 299 Diseases, ', 314 Insects injurious to 512 Basil, ". 124 Baaawood-tree, 393 Sean. '' ' Varieties and culture, 100 Twining sorts; 101 Beard's hive, 333 Beauty of the ni^ht, 383 Bbbs. Different classes, queen, 318 Drone, working, 319 Structure, 320 Position of the apiary, aspect, . . . . 321 Location, 322 Water, shrubs and trees, sun, .... 323 Houses, 323 • Diseases and enemies, 356 Hives and Boxes. ' Requisites, 324 Nutt, 324 Collateral, 325 Straw, 328 Size, 329 Huber's leaf, 330 Simple and cheap, 331 Glass, Huiah's 332 Beard's, Colton'a, Cutting's, Weeks', Miner's, 333 Gilmore's hives, house, and boxes, . . 334 Obtaining Stock. Spring stock, autumn stock, 342 To secure good hives, 343 Swarming. Time, indications, 343 To prevent, 344 To secure one that has settled, .... 345 Effects of swarming, 345 To avoid, in the case of collateral boxes, 346 Adaptedness of the different hives, . . 347 The Honey Harvest. Time and mode, 347 Fumigation, 343 Tapping or driving, 349 First harvest, second harvest, .... 350 Examining and weighing, 351 Honey-comb, 341 Duration of hives, food for bees, . . . 352 Management during Winter and Early Spring. Autumn and winter care, feeding, nar- rowing the entrance, and covering, . 353 Dampness and ventilation, materials for covering, spring care, 354 Hoio to Treat the Product of the Honey Harvest. Removing the comb, obtaining and pre- paring the wax, 355 Beet. Varieties and culture, 102 To keep, *. 103 Beetles, 50 Also see Insects. Bell cranberry, 182 Berkshire swine, 257 Biennial flowers, 372 Bilberry, 221 Bird spider-fly, 515 Blackleg disease in animals, 272 Black quarter in animals, 272 Black water in animals, 272 Blackberry, Propagation, 178 Trailing, High, White, Double White Flowering, Double Fink Flowering, . 179 Black-faced'or heath sheep, 251 Blast. Description, different kinds, 477 Blasting stones, 10 Blight. Description, different kinds, 477 Blond joint felon disease, blood striking disease, 272 Bloody flux in fowls, 317 Blueberry, 218 Boggy lande*! draining, 33 Bofi;-spavin disease, 273 Boiling food for animals, 422 Bone-spavin disease, 273 Borage, 100 Borecole, 103 Borer insect, 535, 546 See Insects. Bott. Horse, 512 Fundament, 513 Red. sheep, 514 Botts, 272 Botys, 518 Bowels, inflammation of, in animals, . . ■ 273 Box plant, 382 Boxes for bees, see Bees. Brain, inflammation of, in animals, .... 273 Breaking and dressing hemp, 79 Brkeding and Rearing. ■ Neat cattle, 225 Sheep, . 245 Swine, 253 Horaes, 260 556 INDEX. Barn fowls, 297 Aas 266 Mule, goat, 267 Dog, 268 Breeds of animals, and fowls, see each kind under its head. Brier, sweet, 382 Brittlenessofhoof, 274 Broccoli, 103 Broken knees, broken wind, 274 Bronchitis in animals, 274 BTOOTn-coTn. Varieties, method of planting, .... 73 Culture, harvesting, scraping, .... 74 Uses, 75 Brown-water disease, 272 Bruises in animals, 279 " " fowls, 317 Buckwheat. Description, soils, 67 Culture, 68 Harvesting, uses, Q9 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 BOSDINS. Uses, 450 Performing the operation, 451 Transmitting scions, wax for budding, shield budding, 452 Shield budding without a bud or eye, circular shield budding, 453 Flute budding, annular budding, after- care, 454 Bu^s, 50 Also see Insects. Buildings, farm and rural, 393 Bulbs, culture, 363 Bull. Breeding and rearing, 225 Castrating, 227 Fattening, 229 Age, 232 Names at different ages, 233 Varieties, — Native, 233 Devon • 234 Short-horned, 239 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holdemess, Galloway, Sussex, Alder^ ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Diseases 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 285 Insects injurious to, 512 Burning and paring soils, 8 Bushes, see Shrubs and JVees, Bdttbr. General remarks, cream, 139 Clofled-cream, 141 Whole-milk, churning, 142 Washing, salting 144 Butterflies, destructive, sea Insects. Butternut, 218 C. Cabbage. Varieties and culture, 103 To keep, 104 Diseases, 477 Bug, 521 Butterfly, 522 Moth, 523, 524 Fly, 625 Cacalia plant, 388 Calendar of Monthly Operations. Kitchen-garden, 130 Fruit, 221 Live-stock, 285 Floricultural, 393 Calves. Rearing, 226 Fattening, 229 Diseases, 271 See Cattle. Calycanthus plant, 393 Camomile, 125 Canadian horses, 265 Canker. In horses' feet, 274 Dogs' eEirs, 274 In vegetation, — description, origin, . . 478 Remedy, 481 Canker-worm, 545 Canteleup melon, 192 Canterbury bell plant, 382 Caper-tree, 384 Caponizing, 299 Caraway, 124 Cardoon, 105 Carnation plant, 382 Carolina syringa plant, 393 Carrot, 105 " moth, 524 Casting, 17 Cassia plant, 382 Castrating. Neat cattle, 227 Sheep, 246 Swine, 254 Horses, 261 Fowls, 299 Catalpa plant, 383 Catarrh in animals, 274 Catarrhal fever in animals, 275 Caterpillars, destructive, see Insects. Cattle. Sorned or Neat. Breeding, rearing, 225 Gestation, time of impregnation, . . .226 Castrating, 227 Fattening, 229 Age, 232 Names of, at different ages, 233 The Bull. How to judge of, 230 Native, 233 Devon, 234 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holdemess, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Tlie Cow. How to judge of, &c., 232 Native, 233 Devon, 236 Hereford, 240 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holdemess, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Dairy qualities, 243 Feeding, keeping in good condition, milking, 244 Ascertaining the quality of milk, . . .245 Remarks on t)evon breed, 237 Diseases of cattle, 271 INDEX. 557 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . , , 285 Sheds and houses, 420 Barna, how to construct, models' &,c' ! '. 413 Insects injurious to, 512 Cauliflower, ' ' ' 105 Celery, :*.'.:: ::io6 unannels, water, 39 Cheap and simple hive, '.'.'. 331 Chbese. Presses . 134^145 Umerent modes of preparing rennet, . . I45 Whole-milk, drying, . 149 Store-room, green-whey, ] 150 Mode of making celebrated kinds, — * Cheshire, . 151 Gloucester, '.'..* 155 Stilion, [ [ 157 Dunlop, ','.*. 158 Cream, new, ! ! 161 Parmesan, 162 Potato, green or sage, 163 See Dairy. Chemistry, acquaintance with, l Chermes, apple and pear, 540 Ghbrrv. Propagation, soil, situation, 179 Varieties,- — American Amher, .... 181 Ansell's Fine Black, .179 Belle de Choisy, 182 Bigarreau, I80 Black Caroon, 179 Black Circassian, Black Eagle, .... 181 Black Heart, Black Russian, ... .179 Black Tartarean, 181 Davenport's Early Black, 179 Doctor, 182 Downer's Late, 181 Dovmton, 182 Early Amber, 181 Early Duke, 180 Early White Heart, 181 Elliott's Favorite, 182 Elton, 181 Florence, Holland Bigarreau, 182 Holman's Duke, 180 Hyde's Seedling, 182 June Duke ^ .... 180 Kentish, Knight's Early Black, Man- ping's Mottled, ■ 182 May Duke, 180 Morello, Napoleon Bigarreau, .... 182 New Honey, 181 New May Duke 179 Ox-heart, Ronald's Black Heart, ... 181 Spanish Black Heart . .179 White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Yellow Spanish, ISO Wild Cherry 182 Choke Cherry, 182 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Chervil, 125 Cheshire cheese, 151 Chestnut, 218 : Cheviot sheep, 251 Chickenus, fattening, 299 See Fowls. China swine, 256 China aster plant, 381 47* Chinese goose 303 Chinese monthly rose, 388 Chitiagong fowls, 292 Chive, 106 Choke cherry, 182 Choking of animals 275 Chrysanthemum plant, 383 Churning, 136,142 Churns. Thermometer, 136 Kendall's cylindrical 137 Gault's, Tillinghast's, 138 Churr worm, 521 'Cider Apples. Harrison, Camfield, Hugh's Virginia Crab, Red Streak, 175 Classification of soils, p. 2 Clayey soils, subsoil, 3 " " draining, 37 Clearing lands, 5^ 7 Cleaving, ig Cleft grafting, 447 Clematis, or virgin's bower, 383 Clethra plant, 333 Click beetle 51 6 Close pruning, 457 Clotted cream, 141 Clover, 58 Varieties and culture, 87 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, . 549 Clydesdale horses, 266 Cochin-China fowls, 296 Cock, varieties, &c., see Fowls. Cockchafl^er, field, 516 Cock's spur, 65 Codling moth, 532 Cold-frame, : 375 Colic in animals, 275 Colors, arrangement Of, in flower-gardens, . 367 Colton's hive^ 333 Colts. Training and managing, 261 See Horsp,. Columbine plant, 383 Common black currant, 186 Common goose, 303 Common red barberry, 178 Composition of Soils. Clayey, sandy, gravelly, peaty, .... 2 Loam, 3 Composts, forming 29 Construction of the plough, , 12 Consumption in fowls, 316 " in plants, 482 Contortion in plants, 482 Contracted foot in animals, 275 Convolvulus plant, 383 Copper-colored weevil, 534 Coriander, 125 Corn. Varieties of, ,59 Preparation of land for planting, season for ploughing, 60 Plantmg, manuring, 61 Number of grains to the hill, depth of ploughing, tillage, 62 Thinning and suckering, 64 Harvesting, 65 Preserving, 66 Varieties and culture for the table, . . 106 558 3 and enemiea, 66, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Corn-salad, 107 Corns in fowls, 316 Costiveness in fowls, . 317 Cottages and farm-dwel lings, 398 Cough in animals, 275 Coverings for flowers, 360 Cow. Breeding and rearing, 225 Geatation, time of impregnation, . . .226 Fattening, 229 Age, liow to jud£;e of, 232 Names at different ages, 233 Varieties, — Native, 233 Devon 236 Sliort-horiied, 239 Hereford, 240 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Dairy qualities of, 243 Feeding, keeping in good condition, milking, 244 Ascertaining the quality of milk, . . . 245 Diseases of cows, 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .285 Insects injurious to, ....... . 512 Crab Apples. Red Siberian, 175 Yellow Siberian, 176 Cranberry, culture, 182 " to keep, 184 Cream. Butter 139 Clotted, 141 Cheese, 161 Creeper fowls, 295 Cress, 107 Crib-biting 275 Cricket, mole, 521 See Insecls. Crocus plant, 3S3 Crops. Heavy, or field 43 See each plant, under its head ; also Soils. Cross-ploughing, 18 CuciiTnher. Varieties and culture, 107 Forcing, enemiea, 108 Cud, loss of, 275 Cultivation, rendering soils fit for, .... 4 Culture of plants, &c., — see eacTi kind under its head. ' Cupid's car, or monk's-hood plant, .... 383 Curb disease, 275 Curculio, 534 See Iiisects. Curing hams, 255 Curl disease, 484 CaRRANT. Propagation, 185 Soil, situation, 186 A''arieties, — Black Naples, Chanapa^ne, Common Black, Knight's Early Ked, May's Victoria, Morgan's Red, Mor- gan's White, Red Dutch, Red Grape, Reeve's White, Striped-fruited, White Crystal, White Dutch, White Leg- horn, ....,...., 186 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, train- ing, 442 Diseases, . . . , 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Cutting and harvesting, — see each plant, under its head. Cutting's hive, 333 Cypress-tree, 393 D. Dahlia, 383 Dairy. Implements. General remarks, different kinds of cheese-presses, 134 Thermometer churn 136 Kendall's cylindrical churn, 137 Gault's churn, Tillinghast's chum, . .138 Cleanliness in dairying, 138 Milk. Management, 138 Butter. General remarks, cream butter 139 Clotted cream, 141 Whole-milk butter, churning,. .... 142 Washing, salting, 144 Cheese. General remarks, different modes of pre- paring and treating rennet, 145 Whole-milk, drying, ......... 149 The store-room, green whey, 150 Cheshire, 151 Gloucester 155 Stilton, 157 ■Dunlop, . .1 158 Skim-milk, cream, new, 161 Parmesan, 162 Potato, green or sage, 163 Ddir^- house. General remarks, different apartments, site, 408 Temperature, arrangement, 409 Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a complete dairy, 410 Daisy, 384 Dandelion, 108 Dart moth 517,518 December. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 133 Fruit calendar, 224 Live-stock calendar, 287 Floricultural calendar, 397 Decorations for the garden, 378 Devon animals, — bull, 234 " ox 235 " cow, ,.236 " working, fattening, and various qual- ities of, 237 Diabetes in animals, 284 Diarrhea in calves, 274 " " fowls 316 " " other animals, 275 " " bees, 356 DJbbling wheat, 4? Dill, . 125 Directions for ploughing^ XI Disbudding, 46'( Diseases. Of Aniumls. Abscess, Apoplexy, 2^ 559 Black Leg, Black Quarter, Black Wa- ter Blood Joint Felon, Blood Striking, 272 Bog Spavin, Bolts, Bowel In0ammation,273 Britlleness of Hoof, Broken Knees, Broken Wind, Bronchitis, 274 Brown Water, 272 Bruises 279 Canker in Horses' Feet, Canker in Dogs' Ears, Capped Hock, Catarrh, . 274 Catarrhal Fever, Choking, Colic, Con- tracted Feet ... 275 Costiveness 274 Cough, Crib-hiting, Cud loss of, Curb, . 275 Diabetes, 284 Diarrhea, 275 Distemper, Distention of the Rumen or Grain Sick, 276 Dunt, • 234 Dysentery orScouring Rot, Epilepsy or Fits, Eye Inflammation, Eye Weak- ness, Farcy, 276 Feet Inflammation, Fever, Fistulous Withers, Flooding, Fly, Foot Dis- ease, Foot Rot, Foul Foot 277 Frenzy 273 Garget, Glanders, 278 Gleet 282 Go'gles, or Giddy, 284 Grain Sick, 276 Grease, Griping, Grogginess, Heart In- Jlammation, Healing Dogs' Ears, Hide Bound 278 Hoof Brittleness, . 274 Hoove, Hydrocephalus - . 279 Inflammation of Bowels,' ditto of Brain, 273 Ditto of Heart 278 Ditto of Kidneys 279 Ditto of Liver, 280 Ditto of Lungs, 282 Ditto of Womb, 285 •Inflammatory Evil 272 Influenza, 274 Jaundice or Yellows, Joint Felon or Rheumatism, Kicks and other Bruises, Kidney Inflammation, . . . 279 Lameness of Shoulder, Lampaa, Lice, Liver Inflammation, Locked Jaw, . . 2S0 LossofCud, 275 Loueh 273 Mallenders and Sallenders 230 Mange, Megrims, Miscarriage 281 Nasal Gleet, Navel III, Palsy, Pneu- monia or Inflammation of Lungs, Poisons, 282 Poll Evil, 283 Pumiced Feet, 277 Quarter Evil, Quarter 111, Red Water, . 272 King Bone, Rheumatism, Roaring, Rot, Round-bone Sprain, Saddle-galls, . . 283 Sallenders 280 Scab, Scour, 283 Shoulder Lameness 280 Sit-fasta 283 Sore Teats, Splint 284 Sprain nf Round-bone, 283 Spavin Bog, Spavin Bone 273 Staggers or Apoplexy, 272 Staling, Stifle Lameness, Strangles, Sur- feit, Swelled Legs, Thick Wind, Thoroush-pin, 284 Thrush, '. 277 Ticks 284 Tread, 277 Turnsick 284 Ulcers, Warbles, Warts 285 Water in the Head, 279 Withers Fistula, 277 Womb Inflammation, Worms, Wounds, 285 Yellows 279 Of Bees. Diarrhea, Dysentery, 356 Attacks by vermin, 357 Of Fowls. Apoplexy, Asthma 316 Bloody Flux, Bruises, 317 Consumption, Corns, 316 Costiveness 317 Diarrhea, Fever 316 Fractures, ... 317 Gout, Indigestion 316 Loss of Feathers, 317 Molting, Pip 314 Roup . ... 315 Ulcers 317 Of Plants, Trees, ^c. Blight or blast, — description, different kinds Canker or caries, — description, . . . Origin Remedy, Consumption Contortion, Dropsy, Ergot, Honey-dew, Curi, Mildew. Use of the term, nature Growth and phenomena, Provocatives, preventives, and correct- ives Potato-rot. Description, Causes, Remedies, ... Smut. Description, causes and phenomena, . . Preventives See also each plant, under its head. Dishley sheep Distemper in animals, Distention of rumen, Dos. Rearing, breeding, Newfoundland, Shepherd's Drover's, Setter, Terrier, Pointer, dis- 477 478 479 481 482 482 482 482 483 484 485 Domestic fowls See each kind, under its head. Domestic or farm animals, see Animals. Dorking fowls Double white flowering Blackberry, double pink flowering do., Double Feverfew plant, Double flowering Almond, Double flowering Cherry Double flowering Peach, Draining. Causes of wetness in lands, Boggy lands, and the true line of the spring, 490 493 601 603 608 249 276 276 268 269 279 271 291 179 387 381 383 387 33 560 INDEX. Drains in peat lands, 35 Hard aoila, direction of drains, .... 36 Clay lands, 37 Varieties of drains, 38 Drainae:e of farmery, 433 Dressing barley, . . .' 53 Drone-bee, 319 Dropay in animals, 276 " " plants, 482 Drover's dog, 271 Drying hops, Ill " cheese, 149 DtrcK. ' Rouen or Rhone, English or Aylesbury "White, ....". 309 Muscovy, 310 The duck-pond, food, . . • 310 Hatching and care of ducklings, . . . .312 Fattening 313 Pairins and laying, eggs, diseases, . . 314 Dunghill fowls, 291 Dunlop cheese 153 Dunt in animals 284 Durham or ahori-horned cattle, 238 Dutch fowls, 293 Dwarf or creeper fowls, 295 Dwarf basil plant, 384 Dwellings and cottages, rural, 398 Dysentery in animals, 276 " " hees, 356 E. Earths, — see Soils. Earwig, 547 Egg-plant, 109 Eggs, — see Fowls. Elm-tree, 393 Endive, , 109 English or Aylesbury duck, ...'.., .309 Enriching garden soils, 360 Epilepsy in animals, 276 Ergot, 55, 482 Espalier-trees, 468 European horses, — Clydesdale, Suffolk, Norman, 266 Everlasting pea, 387 Every-day or ever-laying fowls, 293 Excrements, various kinds of, 26 Extirpating trees and shrubs, 7 Eyes, inflamed and weak, in animals, . . . 276 F. Fading beauty, or morning bride plant, . .384 Fall Apples. Varieties, — Ears, 170 Belmont, 172 Bread and Cheese, Early Joe, Fair- banks, 170 Fall Pippin, 169 Fall Wine, 170 Fameuse, 172 Gilpin, 170 Golden Ball, 172 Golden Sweet, 170 Gravenstein,~ 169 Herefordshire Pearmain, Hurlbut, . . 172 Jersey Sweeting, 170 Jewett's Red, 172 Leland Pippin, Lowell, Lyman's Large Summer, 170 Lyscom, Magnolia, 172 Mexico, Moses Wood, Fomme Royal, , 170 Porter, 168 Rambo, Richardson, Romanite, Sassa- fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur- Iher, Summer Bellflower, Superb Sweet, 170 Thompkins 172 Winthrop, Yellow Bellflower, .... 170 Fallowing, uses, diflerent kinds, 20 " benefit of, rules for, 21 Fan training, 472 Farcy in animals, 276 Farm or domestic animals 225 See Animals and Cattle, Fattening Animals. Calves, • 229 Cattle, 229 Devon cattle, 238 Barn fowls, 299 Turkeys, • . . 302 Geese, 307 Ducks, 313 Feathers, loss of, 317 February. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 130 Fruit calendar, 222 Live-stock calendar, 287 Floricultural calendar, 393 Feeding. Dairy cows, 244 Swine, ' .... 254 Turkeys, 302 Geese, 304 Ducks, 310 Bees, 352, 353 Feet inflammation in animals, .277 " various diseases of, .' 277 Felling, 463 Fences, 437 Fennel, 126 Fever in the horse, 277 " " fowls, 316 " catarrhal, ;. ... 275 Fig, 218 Figure-of-8 moth, 529 Filbert, 219 Fir-tree, 393 Fistulous withers, 277 Fits in animals, 276 Flax. Varieties, soils, . 80 Culture, gathering, rippling, 81 Watering, uses, 82 Diseases, • * 477 Fleas, destructive, — see Insects. Flies, destructive, — aea Insects. Flooding in animals, 277 Flowers, Ornamental Trees, &c. Flowers. General remarks, friability of soil, . . 359 Enriching, coverings, &c., 360 Plan of garden, 361 Planting, 363 Autumnal flowers, 364 Laying out the garden, 364 Various patterns, 365 Arrangement of colors, .367 moEX. 561 Fragrant flowers, , .... 363 Cultivaliog bulba, 368 Reserve garden spot, 369 Culture of annuals, hardy, 370 Half-harrly, tender, 371 Perennials, 372 Biennials, the hot-bed, 373 Green-house plants, 374 Cold frame, 375 Winter management, 376 Repotting 377 Garden decorations, — arbors, . . . 378 Seats, 379 Vases, fountains, flower-stands, avia- ries, sun-dials, 380 Diseases of flower- plants, 477 Insects injurious to, 547, 548 Description of Standard Varieties. Acacia, 388 Almond (double flowering), Althea Frulex,Amaranthus Tricolor, Amer- ican Honeysuckle, Animated Oats, 381 Asphodel, 386 Aster (China), Auricula, Azalea Nu- diflora, 381 Balsamine, 335 Beauty of the Night, 383 Box, Brier (Sweet), 382 Cacalia, 388 Canterbury Bell, 382 Caper Tree, 3&i Carnation, Cassia Marylandica, . . . ^2 Calalpa, Cherry (double flowering), . 383 China Aster, 381 Chinese Monthly Rose, 388 Chrysanthemum, Clematis or Virgin's Bower, Clethra, Columbine, Con- volvulus, Corchorus Japonicus, Cro- cus, Cupid's Car or Monk's Hood, Dahlia, 383 Daisy, 384 Double Feverfew, ... - 387 Double flowering Almond, ..... 381 Double flowering Cherry, 383 Double flowering Peach, 387 Dwarf Basil, Eupatorium (Blue), Eu- phorbia Lathyris, 384 Everlasting Pea, 387 Fading Beauty or Morning Bride, . . 384 Flower- de-lis, 385 Foxglove, Fringe-tree, Geranium, Garden Angelica, Glycine, .... 384 Gfolden Chain 385 Golden Coreopsis, Golden Everlast- ing, ...... 384 Hibiscus 388 Hollyhock, Honeysuckle, 384 Hyacinth, Hydrangea, Ice Plant, Im- patiens Balsamina, Iris or Flower- de-lis, 385 Jonquils, 386 Laburnum, LagentrBenia Indica, Lark- spur, Laurel, Lilac, 385 Lily, Lily of the Valley, Lime Plant, Lychnadia, 386 Lychnis 388 JWezereon, ^o Mock Orange, • . 388 Musk Geranium, Myrtle, Narcissus, Nasturtium, 386 Passion Flower, Paeony, Pea, Peach (double flowering), Pink, Polyan- thus, Pyrelhrum Parthenium, Pop- py, Purple Hyacinth Bean, Rose, Rose Acacia, Rose-colored Hibis- cus, Rudbeckia, Scarlet Cacalia, Scarlet Lychnis, Snowberry, Spi- derwort, Spirsea, Syringa or Mock Orange, Strawberry-tree, 388 Sweet Bay, 389 Sweet Pea, 387 Sweet William, Tulip, Violet, ... 389 Tiger Lily, White Lily, 386 Yellow Rose 338 Ornamental Shrubs. Soil, seasons and modes, 389 After- mana|:ement, situation and ar- rangement, 391 Varieties — Azalea, Calycanthus, Car- olina Syringa, Double flowering Almond, Dwarf White (lowering Horse-chestnut, Hawthorn, Honey- suckle, Japan Sophora, Juniper, Lilac, Mountain Laurel, Mountain Rose, Pri mrose.Rose Acacia, Rose of Sharon, Scarlet flowering Chest- nut, Snowball, Spice-bush, Spirea, Strawberry-tree, 393 Ornamental Trees. Abele, Ailanthus, Ash, Basswood, Cypress, Elm, Fir, Hemlock, Horse- chestnut, Larch, Linden, Locust, Pine, Rock Maple, Spruce, Sugar Blaple, Tulip-tree, Willow, .... 393 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .393 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, ...,.' . 626, 547 Flute budding 454 Fly in sheep, 277 Folding, 30 Foot-rot, 277 Forcing plants, — asparagus, 100 " cucumber, . . . . - 108 *• lettuce, 113 " radish, 118 " rhubarb H* " strawberry, 213 Fore-shortening, 458 Forests, clearing, 6 Forest fly, 515 Foul-foot, 277 Fowls. Barn. Bankiva, DunghiU, 291' Game, Dorking, Malay or Chitla- gong, 292 Paduan or Jago, Crested, Hamburgh, Dutch, Every-day or Ever-laying, Poland, 293 Spanish, Bantam, 294 Dwarf or Creeper, Acaho, Rumkin, Frizzled, Silky, Russian or Siberi- an, Barbary, Java, 295 Ostrich or Cochin-China, . . . • . - 296 Raising, breeding, number of hens for a cock, qualities of a good PQQ^ - • • 29y Selecling'hens, sitting, hatching, .. . 298 Fattening, caponizing, health, ^Ja. 562 INDEX. Poultry-houses, — general principles and requisites, situation, form, . . 426 Roosting- perches and nests, .... 427 Conveniences for hatching, appurte- nances, air and spaccj &c., .... 428 The Turkey. Varieties, 299 Keeping, qualities, 300 Laying, sitting, hatching, 301 Treatment of the young, fattening, feeding, 302 The Goose. Toulouse, 302 Chinese, Hong Kong, Poland, Com- mon, 303 General management, food, 304 Pairing, laying, 305 Hatching, goslings, 306 Fattening, 307 2'he Duck. Rouen or Rhone, English or Aylesbury White, 309 Muscovy, 310 Duck-pond, food, 310 Pairing and laying, eggs, 311 Hatching and care of ducklings, . . .312 Fattening, 313 Diseases of fowls, 314 Foxglove, 126, 384 Fractures, bruises, and wounds, in ani- mals, 285 Fractures, bruises, and wounds, in fowls,- 317 Fragrant flowers, 363 Fringe-tree, .....'... 384 Frizzled fowls, 295 Fruit calendar, monthly, 221 Fboits, ^uit-tbebs, Vines, &.c. The Apple. Propagation, soil and situation, mode of bearing, pruning and keeping, . 164 Varieties, — Summer sorts, . . . .165 Fall sorts, 168 "Winter and spring sorts, 172 Cider sorts, crab sorts, 175 The Apricot, Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 176 The Barberry. Culture, varieties, 178 The Blackberry. Propagation, 178 Varieties, 179 Tile Cherry. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 179 Th& Cranberry. General culture, &c., varieties, ... 182 To keep, 184 The Currant. Propagation, 185 Soil and situation, varieties, .... 186 The Gooseberry. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- . eties, 186 "77ie Grape. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, pruning, training, 188 Varieties, 189 The Medlar. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 191 The Melon. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 191 7%e Mulberry. Propagation, soil and situation, ... 192 Varieties, 193 The Nectarine. Remarks on, varieties, 193 The Peach: Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, varieties, 195 The Pear. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, 199 Varieties, 200 The Plum. Propagation, s6il and situation, cul- ture, varieties, 204 The Quince. Propagation, &c., 208 Varieties, 209 The Raspberry. Propagation, &c., 210 Varieties, 211 The Strawberry. ■ Propagation and culture, 212 Soil and situation, forcing, 213 Varieties,- 214 The Almond, 217 The Blueberry,- the Butternut, the Chestnut, the Fig, 218 The Filbert, the Lemon, the Lime, the Olive, .' 219 The Orange, the Pomegranate, .... 220 The Shellbark, the Walnut, the Whor- tleberry, 221 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, and train- ing trees, vines, &c., 442 Diseases of fruit-trees, 477 Insects injurious to, ■ 526 Fumigating hives,- 348 Fundament bot, 513 Furrows, striking the, &c., 13 - G. Galloway cattle, 243 Gamma moth, 522 Game fowls, 292 Garden, — see Kitchen- garden and Flowers. Garget, 278 Garlic, 109 Gates, 439 Gathering, in ploughing, 17 " apples, 164 Gault's churn, 138 Geese, 302 Gelding, — see Castrating. Geranium plant, 384 Gestation of neat cattle, . 226 " " horse, 260 " " sheep, 245 " " swine, 253 Giddy in animals, 284 Gifford horse, 265 Gilmore's bee-house, 334 " hive, 335 Girdling, 463 Glanders, 278 INDEX, 563 Glass hives, Gloucester cheese, ..'..'. Glycine plant, '. I '. Goat, — description, &c,, " varieties, Goggles in animals, Golden-chain plant, Golden coreopsis do. , golden everlasting do., Goose. Toulouse, Chinese, Hong Kong, Poland, Common, General management, food, Pairing, laying, Hatching, goslings, Fattening, Diseases, GOOSBBERRY, Propagation, soil, situation, Varieties, — Capper's Top Sawyer, . . Coleworth's White Lion, Crompton's Sheba Queen, Early Green Hairy, Early Sulphur, Early White, Far- row's Roaring Lion, Hill's Golden Gourd, Houghton's Seedling, Keene's Seedling, . . .. Melling's Crown Bob, ........ Nixon's Green Myrtle, Old Rough Red, Parkinson's Laurel, Pi tmaston Green Grage, Prophet's Rockwood, Red Warrington, Well ifigton Glory, White Honey,- Woodward's Whitesmith, YellawBall, Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . Diseases, Insects injurious to, -Goslings,. Goss horse, Gout in. fowls, Grafting. Uses, Different kinds, utensils and materials, By detached scions, Splice grafting, - Splice grafting the peach, nectarine, apricot, &c., cleft grafting, rind graft- ing, Cleft grafting the vine, saddle grafting, side grafting, Wedge grafting, root grafting, herba- ceous grafting, grafting by approach, or inarching, Grain. Culture, varieties, treatment of, Scc.^ . Diseases, . . ^ Insects injurious to, See Heavy or Field Crops, — also each kind under its head. Grain-sick, Granaries, site, &c., Grape. Propagation, soil and situation, culture, pruning, training, Varieties, — Alexander, Black, Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, Black Sweetwater,Bland, Catawba, . Clinton, Cunningham, Diana, Early Black July, Elsinburgh, Grizzly, . . Isabella,- Lenoir, Miller's Burgundy, 189 Missouri, Norton's Virginia, Ohio, . . 191 Red and White Muscat of Alexandria, . 189 Royal Muscadine, 191 Schuylkill' Muscadel, Scuppernong, . . 190 Warren's Madeira, White Frontignan, White Sweetwater, Winnie, .... 191 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . , . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Grass. Meadow or Green, Spear or June, ... 89 Timothy, Cat's Tail or Herd's Grass, Orchard or Cock's-foot, Meadow Fescue, 90 Blue, Flat-slalked Meadow, Ray or Rye, Red-top, Foul Meadow, Fine Bent, 91 Sweet-scented Vernal, Pony, 92 Lands alternately in grass and tillage, . 93 Soiling, haying 94 Lands permanently in grass, perennial grass-lands fit for mowing, meadow lands, 95 Permanent pastures, 96 Diseases^, 477 Insects injurious to, 549 Grass-JandSj operations on, 24 Gravelly soils, 2 Grease-disease in animals, 278 Green-house plants, 374 Green-house. May be easily constructed, — materials and mode of building, 434 Arrangement of the lights, 435 Flues for heating, . 436 Green or sage cheese, 163 Green whey" 150 Greening apples, 174 Griping in animals, 27B Grogginess in horses 278 Ground beetle, 515 Growing : grains, vegetables, fruits, &c., ■ — see each kind under its head. Grubs and wornis, 50 Also see Insects. Gypsy moth, 528 H. Half-hardy annual flowers, 371 Hamburgh fowls, 293 Hams, — preparing, 255 " Westphalia, 256 Hard soils, draining, 36 Hardy annual flowers, 370 Harrowing, uses and modes, 22 Harvesting. Wheat, 48 Barley, ■ 52 Corn, 65 Buckwheat, 69 Broom com,- 74 Hatching chickens, 298 •' turkey-chickens, 301 " goslings, 306 " ducklings, 312 Hawthorn-tree, 393 Haying, 94 Heading-in, 469 564 INDEX. Health of fowls, 299 Heart, inflammation of in animals, . . . .273 Heavy or Field Crops. Wheat. Classification, '43 Best varieties for cultivation, 45 Soils, time for sowing, seed, culture, . 46 Quantity of seed, after-culture, cutting and harvesting, 43 Diseases and enemies, 49 Barley. Classification, 50 Kind of soil, 51 Preparing the land, sowing, culture, harvesting, 52 Threshing and dressing, uses, diseases and enemies, 53 Rye. Varieties, soil, 53 Time for sowing, culture, product, uses, B4 Diseases and enemies, 55 ■The Oat. Varieties, 56 Soil, preparing the land, sowing, cul- ture, 57 {leaping, diseases and enemies, .... 58 Indian Corn. Varieties, 69 Preparation of the land for planting, season for ploughing, ....... 60 Planting, manuring, 61 Number of grains to the hill, depth of planting, tillage, . 62 Thinning and suckering, 64 Harvesting, 65 Preserving, diseases and enemies, . . 66 Buckwheat. Description, soils, 67 Culture, 68 Harvesting, uses, 69 The Potato. Propagating, varieties, soils, culture and tillage, . . . . - 70 Uses, 72 Diseases and enemies, 73 Broom Corn. Varieties, method of planting, .... 73 Culture, harvesting, scraping, .... 74 Uses, 75 Millet. Varieties, seil, 75 Culture, 76 Hemp. S'oils, culture, 77 Gathering, 78 Hotting, breaking, dressing, , , . . . 79 Flax. Varieties, soils, 80 Culture, gathering, rippling, 81 "Watering, uses, 82 Lucem. Description, 82 Soil, culture, tillage, 83 Uses, 84 Sain/oin. Description and habits, 84 Culture, 85 The Tare. Description, soil, preparing the soil, timeof sowing, culture, 86 The Clovers. Varieties, culture, 37 Mowing 88 Qetting the seed, threshing, 89 The Grasses. Varieties, . 89 Lands alternately in grass and tillage, . 93 Soiling, haying, 94 Lands permanently in grass, perennial grass-lands fit for mowing, meadow lands 95 Permanent peiatures, 96 Stocking pastures, 97 Diseases 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Heifers, — see Cattle. Hemlock-tree, 393 Hemp. Soils, culture, 77 Gathering 78 Rotting, breaking, dressing, 79 Hens, — see Fowls. Herbaceous grafting, 449 '* pruning 457 " training, 466 Herbs, 124 See Kitchen- gardert, also each kind under its head. Hereford cow, . 240 " ox, 240 Hessian fiy, 518 Hibiscus plant, 383 Hickory nut, 221 Hide-bound, 278 High blackberry, 179 Hives and boxes 323 Hog, — see Stdne. Holderness cattle 243 Hollyhock, 384 Honey, — see Bees. Honey-dew, 483 Honeysuckle, 384 Hong Kong goose, .' . . . 303 Hoof, brittleness of, .274 Hoose disease, 274 Hoove disease, 279 Hop. Culture, 109 After- culture, 110 Taking the crop, drying, Ill Assorting, . 112 Diseases, 477 ' Horehound, 126 Horned or neat cattle, 225 See each kind, under its head. Horse. Rearing, breeding, weaning, 260 Castrating, training and managing colts, 261 Feeding, anatomy, 262 Varieties, — Arabian, 263 American, Mexican, Canadian, United States, Morgan, Gifford, Goas, ... 265 European, Norrnan, Clydesdale, Suf- folk, 266 Diseases, 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 285 Stables, site and construction, . . . .417 Stalls, racks, mangers, 418 Insects injurious to, 512 Horse-chestnut tree, .393 INDEX. 565 Horse-radish, 112 riOETIODLTURAr- SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Grafting. Usea, 442 Different kinds, ulenaila and maleriais, 443 Grafting by detached scions, 444 Splice grafting, 445 Splice grafting the peach, nectarine, apricot, &c., cleft grafting, rind grafting, 447 Cleft grafting the vine, saddle grafting, side grafting, 448 Wedge grafting, root grafting, herba- ceous grafting, grafting by approach, or inarching, 449 Btidding. Uses, 450 Performing the operation, 451 Transmitting scions, wax for budding, shield budding, 452 Shield budding without a bud or eye, circular shield budding, 453 Flute budding, annular budding, after- care, 454 Pruning. Uses, forest-trees, ornamental trees, or- namental shrubs, 455 Fruit-trees and shrubs, 456 Herbaceous plants, 457 Close pruning 457 Shortening-in,fore-shartening,spurring- in 458 Heading-in, 459 Jjopping, cutting down, stopping and pinching out, ~ . .460 Ringing, disbudding, 461 Disleafing, slitting and splitting, bruis- ing and tearing, root pruning, . . . 462 Girdling and felling, seasons for prun- ing 463 Traming. Uses, principles, 464 Manual operations 465 Training herbaceous and shrubby plants in pots, training hardy fiowering shrubs in the open ground, training fruit-trees, 466 Different modes of training bushes and trees in the open garden, and fruit- trees against walls or espaliers, , . . 463 Training dwarfs in the open garden, spiral cylinders, 469 Spurring-in, 470 Conical standards, 471 Fan training, ... 472 Horizontal training, 474 Perpendicular training, comparative view of the different modes of train- ing, 475 Hot-beds, 373 Houses, how to construct the various farm, 398 How to judge of cattle, for various objects and purposes, 230 Ruber's leaf hive, .... 330 Huckleberry, 221 Hyacinth 385 Hydrangea plant, 385 Hydrocephalus in animals, 279 Hyssop, 126 48 I. Ice plant, 385 Implements, — see each kind under its head, Implement-houses, 420 Inarching, 449 Increasing the productive powers of soils, . 4 Indian Corn. Culture, varieties, &c., 59, 106 Diseases, . 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Indigestion in fowls, 31S Inflammation of bowels in animals, . . , ,273 " " brain, 273 " " eyes, 276 *' - " feet, 277 " " heart 278 " kidneys, 279 " " liver, . . . 280 " " lungs, 282 " " womb, 285 Inflammatory evil in animals, 272 Influenza, 274 Insects, Noxious. Insects which live constantly on or in Domestic Animats, and propagate on them. Lice, horse bot 512 Fundament bot, ox warble, . . . . 513 Red bot, sheep bot, 514 Horse fly, forest fly, spider fly, sheep tick, bird spider fly, 515 Insects injurious to Grain. Gibbous ground beetle, 515 German or field cockchatfer, lined click beetle, wire-worm, 516 Winter or dart moth, 517 White-line dart moth, botys, corn moth, corn weevil, Hessian fly, 518 Wheat midge, 519 Insects injurious to Vegetables. Spring beetle or skip-jack, asparagus beetle, twelve-spotted -leaf-beetle, . . 520 Earth-flea beetle, turnip fly, mole cricket, churr worm, jarr worm, eve cburr, earth crab, painted field-bug, cabbage-bug, 521 Plant lice, aphis, large cabbage white butterfly, small white butterfly, green-veined white butterfly, gamma moth, 522 Cabbage moth 523 White-line brown-eyed moth, cabbage- garden pebble moth, carrot moth, . . 524 Roesel's tmy caterpillar, onion fly', cab- bage fly, lettuce fly, 525 Negro fly, 526 Insects injurious to Fruit, Fruit-trees, Shrubs and Vines. Black-veined while butterfly, or haw- thorn pontia, 526 Yellow-tailed moth, 527 Lackey moth, gypsy moth, 528 * Goal moth, wood-leopard moth, figure- of-8 moth, 529 Lunar-spotted pinion moth, winter moth, 530 Pale-brindle beauty moth, 531 Lime-looper or mottled umbre moth, small ermine moth, codling moih, . . 532 566 Red grub of the plum, red bud caterpil- lar, plum-tree tortrix, ...... 533 Copper-colored weevil, curculiOj bac- chua or purple apple weevil, .... 534 Stem-boring weevil, borer, apple weevil, 535 Pear weevil, oblong weevil, 536 Red-footed beetle, garden beetle, apple- bark beetle, small bark beetle, . . . 537 Common elm-destroying scholytus, plum saw-fly, 538 Pear saw-fly, peach or poplar aaw-fly, 639 Pear chermes, apple chermes, .... 540 Plant louse, or aphis, 541 Small and large pear midges, 542 Black gall midge, paradoxical pear platygaater, curculio, 543 Vine beetle, vine scaJe insect, vine saw-fly, 544 Canker-worm, 545 Apple-tree borer, 546 Insects injurioTis to Flower-plants. Earwig, orange scale insect, mealy bug, oleander scale insect, 547 Rose scale, cactus scale, sweet-bay scale, rose moth, plant mite or red spider, 54S Insects injuriotts to Meadows. General remarks, unspotted lady-bird, migratory locust, . - 549 Rye-grass moth, 550 Antler or grass moth, 551 Iris plant 385 TrrigBting, 33 " channels, 39 " kind of aoils for the purpose, waters best adapted, meadow- watering, 40 " preparing the surface, 41 " time to operate, 42 Isabella grape, « . 190 J. Jago fowls, 293 January. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 130 Fruit calendar, 221 Live-stock calendar, 287 Floricultural calendar, 393 Japonicus plant, 383 Jarr worm, 521 Jaundice in animals, 279 Java fowls, 295 Jerusalem artichoke, 93 Joint-felon in animals, 279 Jonquil plant, 386 July. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 132 Fruit calendar 223 Live-stock calendar, 389 FloricQltural calendar, 395 June. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 131 - Fruit calendar, 222 Live-stock calendar 289 Floricultural calendar, 394 Juniper-tree, 393 K. Keeping apples, 164 " cranberries, 184 Kendall's cylindrical churn, 137 Kicks and other bruises 279 Kidneys, inflammation of in animals, . . .279 KiTCUEN-GAHDBN. Vesetables, Culture of, &c., — Asparagus, .... 99 Borage, Bean, 100 Beet, 102 Borecole, Broccoli, Cabbage, 103 Cardoon, Carrot, 105 Celery, Chive, Corn, 106 Corn-salad, Cress, Cucumber, 107 Dandelion, 103 Egg-plant, Endive, Garlic, Hop, ... 109 Horse-radish,. Leek, 112 Lettuce, Morel 113 Mushroom, Mustard, 114 Onion, 115 Okra, Parsnip, Pea, 116 Pepper, 117 Pumpkin, Radish, Rhubarb, 118 Rape, Salsify 119 Scorzonera, Sea-kale, Shallot, Skirret, Spinach, ..,..., 120 Squash, Tomato, Turnip, 121 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . . 130 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 520 Herbs. Culture of, &c.,— Anise, Balm, Basil, Caraway, 124 Coriander, Camomile, Chervil, Dill, . . 125 Fennel, Foxglove, Horehouod, Hyssop, Lavender, 126 Liquorice, Marjoram, Mint, 127 Parsley, Penny-royaljPeppermint, Purs- lane, Rosemary, 123 Rue, Saffron, Sage, 129 Savory, Tansy, Thyme, 130 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . ,130 Kyloe cattle, 243 L. Laburnum plant, 335 Lackey moth, 528 Lactometer, use of, 245 Lambs, — see Sheep. Lameness of shoulders in animals, .... 280 Lampas in horses. 280 Land. Clearing waste, 7 Alternately in grass and tillage 93 Permanently In grass, meadow, ... 95 See Soils. Larch-tree, . . 393 Larkspur plant, 385 Larva, — see Insects. Laurel plant, . . . v 335 Lavender plant, 126 Laying, — hens, 297 " turkeys, 301 " geese, 305 " ducks, 311 Leaf hive, 320 Leek, 112 I