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 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924074309679 
 
In compliance with current 
 
 copyright law, Cornell University 
 
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BRITISH GUIANA AND 
 ITS RESOURCES 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND 
 ITS RESOURCES 
 
 THE AUTHOR OF "SARDINIA AND 
 ITS RESOURCES" 
 
 LONDON 
 GEORGE PHILIP & SON 
 
 32 FLEET STREET, E.G. 
 LIVERPOOL: 45-51 SOUTH CASTLE STREET 
 
 1895 
 S 
 

 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 FiRSi Discovery and Early History — Situation and 
 Extent — Sir Walter Raleigh's Expedition — Gold 
 Working — Inhabitants — Population — Habits and 
 Characteristics of Natives — Probable Extinction 
 of Aborigines pp. 1-13 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Sugar — Location and Abe as of Plantations — Irrigation 
 — Cultivation and Cutting — Crushing and Manu- 
 factobing — Rum — Molasses — Improved Processes — 
 Labour Cost — Coolie Immigration — ^Present Condi- 
 tion and Prospects .... pp. 15-25 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Gold-fields — Improved Means of Access — Statistics op 
 Placer and Alluvial Workings — Quartz Reefs — 
 Gold Mining — Mining Laws — Prospecting, Develop- 
 ing, and Working — Labour — Precious Stones 
 
 pp. 27-53 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTEE IV 
 
 Forests — DiFJFEKEjrT Varieties of Tkebs — Timber Lands 
 AND Grants — Cost op Labour — Bye-Products — Soil — 
 Climate — Cereals — Vegetables — Fruits — Pastoral 
 Capabilities — Fisheries . . pp. 55-62 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Fauna and Flora — Absence of Big Game — Quadrupeds 
 — Bats — Birds — Fishes — Reptiles — Frogs — Insects — 
 Great Variety op Flora ^Savannahs — Palms — 
 Orchids pp. 6-3-74 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Geological Formation — Physical Features — Roraima 
 Mountain — Kaieteur Falls — ^North-West Territory 
 — Georgetown — Climate — Hotels — Clubs — Public 
 Institutions — Society — ^Education — Recreation 
 
 pp. 76-85 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Political Constitution — Revenue and Expenditure — 
 Telegraphs and Telephones — Internal Cojimunica- 
 TioN — Railways — Waterways — -Communication with 
 Other Countries — Inducements to Travellers 
 
 pp. 87-97 
 
 APPENDIX 
 Venezuelan Frontier .... pp. 99-104 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND 
 ITS RESOURCES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 First Discovery and Early History — Situation and 
 ExTEafT — Sir Walter Raleigh's Expedition — Gold 
 Working — Inhabitants — Population — Habits and 
 Characteristics of Natives — Probable Extinction 
 OF Aborigines. 
 
 British Guiana, more generally known as 
 Demerara, is a country unknown to most 
 Englishmen, and is often classed as one of 
 the West Indian Islands ; it in fact forms 
 the north-east shoulder of South America, 
 and is the only English possession on that 
 vast continent. It lies from three to eight 
 degrees north of the Equator, and has, there- 
 fore, a tropical climate. Its first discovery is 
 involved in some obscurity ; it being uncer- 
 tain whether the honour is due to Columbus, 
 
2 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 or Vasco Nunes and Diego de Orgas ; but, 
 according to the earliest authentic re- 
 cords, the first settlement in the country 
 was effected by some Hollanders, who, about 
 the year 1580, located themselves on the 
 Pomeroon and Essequibo rivers ; and about 
 forty years latei' the Dutch Government 
 undertook to supply them with slaves. In 
 the years 1732 and 1739 "constitutions" 
 were granted to Berbice and Demerara, and 
 permission was given " to lay out sugar 
 plantations," but colonisation appears to 
 have proceeded very slowly. In 1787 the 
 districts of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
 (which then formed the chief settlements, 
 but were sparsely inhabited), were captured 
 by the English, who within the year sur- 
 rendered them, together with all the Dutch 
 West India colonies, to the French, from 
 whom they were a few years afterwards re- 
 captured by the Dutch, and in 1796 were 
 again handed back to England. At the 
 Peace of Amiens (six years afterwards), they 
 were once more restored to Holland; but, 
 on the breaking out of the great war, this 
 country — ^for the third time, and within the 
 short peiiod of sixteen years — came back 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 3 
 
 once more into English possession, and has so 
 remained ever since. 
 
 The total area of the colony is estimated 
 at 110,000 square miles, about the same size 
 as the United Kingdom ; but, owing to the 
 somewhat undefined line of frontier with 
 Venezuela, and the imperfect maps of the 
 country, the extent cannot be given with 
 any degree of accuracy. Of this area a 
 narrow strip of land stretching along the 
 sea-coast — a few miles in width and con- 
 taining about 80,000 acres — is planted with 
 sugar-cane, and an equal acreage is under 
 grass ; but the rest of the colony consists 
 wholly either of dense forest, or open savan- 
 nahs, and is, with some isolated exceptions — 
 where timber has been felled, gold working- 
 carried on, or searching for indiarubber, 
 talapa, orchids, or other products, has been 
 made — entirely undeveloped, indeed almost 
 unknown, and totally unexplored. 
 
 The colony has hitherto rested its reputa- 
 tion for fame upon the superior excellence of 
 its sugars, " Demerara Crystals " having for 
 a long period had a world-wide celebrity, 
 which, in spite of subsidies, bounties, and 
 prohibitive tariffs, has been retained to the 
 
4 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 present day. This reputation, however, seems 
 destined in the near future to be merged 
 in the higher distinction of being known as 
 one of the richest and most extensive gold- 
 producing countries in the world ; indeed, it 
 would almost seem as if the golden visions, 
 which haunted the fertile brain of the ill- 
 fated Raleigh, were now, after a lapse of 
 three centuries (this year being the ter- 
 centenary of the great adventurer's expe- 
 dition to the colony), on the very eve of 
 realisation. The mythical city of El Dorado, 
 paved with gold, and the golden lake have 
 not, it is true, yet been reached, nor has the 
 far-famed " Golden Mountain " been pierced, 
 but the precious metal in " fabulous quanti- 
 ties " is being discovered in almost every part 
 of the colony. Knowledge of the existence 
 of gold deposits, and of their having been 
 extensively worked before the days of 
 Raleigh, is evidenced by the " narratives " 
 of the " adventurers " on their return to 
 England ; it is there stated that " images 
 one-half of pure gold," and " great pieces of 
 white spar in which gold was visible," were 
 brought to them by the natives, who wore 
 " eagles of gold on their breasts " and " were 
 
BRITISH GUlANA AND ITS RESOURCES 5 
 
 covered with gold when dancing." It is 
 further narrated that a superstitious dread 
 of the " Gold-mother " on the part of the 
 natives deterred them from showing the 
 exact locality where the precious metal was 
 to be found ; every artifice was used to 
 prevent further searching ; and the enter- 
 prise as a commercial undertaking was, as is 
 historically known, a complete failm-e. Why 
 this wealth of gold has since then been 
 allowed to lie hidden and unproductive for 
 so long a period is not easy of esplanation, 
 but from the earliest days it would appear 
 that obstacles to its working have been per- 
 sistently interposed. At the commencement 
 of the seventeenth century " gold-hunting " 
 was absolutely prohibited under special 
 enactment by the Dutch (the then rulers of 
 the country), and the sugar-planters have, 
 for various reasons, continuously discouraged 
 it. Indeed, until quite recent years there 
 is no record of any systematic prospecting 
 for, still less any actual production of gold, 
 either by the crushing of quartz or the wash- 
 ing of alluvial in " any of the Guy anas." 
 
 Spasmodic efforts have at long intervals 
 been occasionally made by sanguine gold- 
 
6 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 seekers during the present century, and 
 about thirty-five years ago a small crushing- 
 mill was at considerable cost transported to 
 the Cuyuni River by some local capitalists ; 
 but, before its erection, doubts were raised as 
 to whether the locality was strictly within 
 the limits of the Colony ; and, as the then 
 governor did not seem disposed to grant 
 either protection or encouragement, the miU 
 and machinery were abandoned, and from 
 that day to this have lain in the bush, rust- 
 ing and in ruins ; and it was not till the 
 year 1884 that any practical working was 
 done, and the first shipment of gold from the 
 colony was made. The gold then obtained 
 was from alluvial washings on the same 
 river, and not far distant from the site of the 
 abandoned mill ; the amount was small — 
 about 250 ounces — but every year since then 
 the output has steadily increased, and for 
 the past two years the shipments have 
 reached a total of over 130,000 ounces, 
 having a standard value of nearly half a 
 million sterling. 
 
 It is proposed to give a description in 
 detail of these new gold-fields, their origin, 
 progress, present position and future pros- 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 7 
 
 pects ; but a short glance at the country 
 generally, its physical and climatic condi- 
 tions, the mixed races which inhabit it, its 
 political constitution, its staple industries 
 and general resources, will be desirable. 
 
 The inhabitants of British Guiana com- 
 prise not only various distinct nationalities, 
 but they have so intermarried, and their 
 intercourse has been so indiscriminate, that a 
 pure breed of any particular nation (except 
 perhaps English) is seldom met with ; and 
 yet there are no defined crosses such as 
 octoroons or quadroons. A Creole, a term 
 which is generally understood as implying 
 some strain of black blood, is a person born in 
 the colony, whether white or parti-coloured, 
 but not black, and it has much the same 
 general signification as " Africander " at the 
 Cape. 
 
 The total population according to the last 
 census (1891) was 288,320, being an in- 
 crease of 10 per cent, on the previous 
 decade ; the two towns, Georgetown and 
 New Amsterdam, numbering together over 
 60,000. The native Indians (Warraws, 
 Arawaks, Caribs, &c.), generically termed 
 Bucks, living in the interior, are estimated at 
 
8 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 10,000 ; the sugar plantations and adjoining 
 villages supply between them the bulk of the 
 remainder, which is composed of coolies 
 (mainly imported from Madras and Calcutta) 
 and negroes (descendants of emancipated 
 slaves) in nearly equal halves, the former 
 having rather the predominance, and inter- 
 mixed are about 3500 Chinese. The white 
 population numbers 16,000, of whom 4000 
 are English and the remainder Portuguese ; 
 the latter came originally from Madeira and 
 the Azores to work on the plantations, but 
 gradually took to petty trading as shop- 
 keepers and pedlars ; and they now monopolise 
 almost all the provision and rum shops in 
 ever)- town and village, and, being busy, 
 thrifty, energetic, and industrious, they have 
 made themselves of considerable importance. 
 They are the largest owners of property in 
 the colony except the sugar planters, and 
 there is scarcely a market-garden that does 
 not belong to them. 
 
 The negroes, soon after their emancipation, 
 left the plantations, most of them taking up 
 their quarters in the villages on either their 
 old or some other plantation. The bulk 
 have now become gold-diggers ; but they are 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 9 
 
 to be found in every trade and occupation as 
 shopmen, schoolmasters, clerks, &c. ; and the 
 more intelligent and ambitious have entered 
 the professions of law and medicine, and 
 have raised themselves into prominent posi- 
 tions. In public and social life they are 
 treated as equals with the whites, in marked 
 contrast with the treatment of Kaffirs in the 
 Transvaal, where they are looked upon as a 
 degraded and inferior race. 
 
 The native Indians may be said to be 
 divided into two classes : those who live on 
 the banks of the rivers and creeks, and 
 who are engaged either as wood-cutters or 
 boatmen, and lead a comparatively settled 
 life in houses of their own erection, and 
 those who have no fixed home, and lead a 
 nomadic life, wandering over all the Guianas 
 and the more northern portions of Brazil and 
 Venezuela. These are as primitive now in 
 their dress, manners, and customs as their 
 ancestors were when the country was first 
 discovered. They are, however, tractable, 
 peaceable, and inoffensive ; their knowledge 
 of wood-craft is marvellous, aiid to the 
 adventurous traveller they are now, as they 
 were in the davs of Waterton, a wonderful 
 
lo BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 help In times of doubt and difficulty. Their 
 food consists of beasts, birds, and fish — the 
 produce of their bows and arrows, or blow- 
 pipe — supplemented by bread made from 
 "cassava," a preparation (chiefly starch) from 
 the tubers of the manioc plant, from which 
 the tapioca of commerce is also derived. The 
 grating, squeezing, and baking required in 
 preparing this food form the chief occupation 
 of the women. This vegetable, yams or sweet 
 potatoes, and capsicums, are the only plants 
 they cultivate. Their drink, other than 
 water, consists of a fermented and intoxicat- 
 ing liquor expressed from cassava, and called 
 piwarri. Drunkenness among the natives 
 is, however, rare. 
 
 The houses of the more settled of these 
 tribes are well adapted to the conditions of 
 life and climate under which they are placed. 
 The principal building (called a " benab ") is . 
 a good-sized rectangular structure, supported 
 by posts driven firmly into the ground a few 
 feet apart ; the sides are left open, and the 
 roof is made of the palm or " troolie " leaves, 
 which, fi-om their great width and thickness, 
 form protection against both sun and rain. 
 Hammocks are slung from the posts and 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES ii 
 
 cross-pieces along the sides and ends of the 
 building, and in the centre is an open fire- 
 place, furnished with a few simple cooking 
 utensils, the most important of which is the 
 irrepressible, never-failing pepper-pot, a large 
 blackened earthen bowl into wiiich every 
 piece of meat, fish, and vegetable is thrown, 
 and kept in a continuous state of simmering. 
 This concoction, flavoured with an extract 
 from cassava, after the poisonous juice, called 
 " cassareep," has been extracted, half-baked 
 and half-boiled, makes a most acceptable 
 compound, and comprises the entire meal. 
 
 The bitter manioc root, from which cassava 
 is produced, is generally grown in small de- 
 tached clearings in the forest, made by cutting 
 and stripping the underbush and burning the 
 trees (the charred stumps of which remain 
 standing), and then planting the cleared 
 ground from cuttings of old plants, by stick- 
 ing them into the ground a few inches deep 
 and a few feet apart, and in less than twelve 
 months they come to maturity. Yams and 
 sweet potatoes with capsicums (pepper) are 
 sometimes grown with them in small plots, 
 but the "staff of life" is cassava, and, if 
 this crop fails, seeds and wild fruit of the 
 
1.2 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 poorest and meanest kind alone ward off 
 starvation. 
 
 The natives are of different tribes, and 
 differ in colour, physique, language, and 
 customs. The Carib (the Cannibal-guardian 
 of the coast) is almost extinct, and the War- 
 raws, Arawaks, and Acawois are becoming 
 half-civilised ; but the other and wilder tribes 
 who inhabit the dense forests and open plains 
 of the interior stiU retain their old manners 
 and customs ; they use tattoo-marks on their 
 faces and bodies, but inter-tribal battles are 
 things of the past, and war-paint is never 
 used. The men generally have a strip of 
 blue cloth fastened round their waists, and 
 the women are in full dress when wearing a 
 bead apron. At their great festivals, called 
 " pywarries," the men are sometimes deco- 
 rated with head-dresses of feathers, and wear 
 teeth necklaces and strings of beetles round 
 their bodies, which during dancing make a 
 continuous rattle ; their bronze skins are on 
 such occasions grotesquely marked with red, 
 blue, purple, and white-coloured paints in 
 strong contrasts. They are not gregarious ; 
 three or four families, living within the same 
 cluster of huts, form an average community, 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 13 
 
 and the old custom of choosing a chief is 
 dying out ; they seem to dread any contact 
 with civilisation, and are retiring, as wood- 
 cutters and gold-prospectors advance further 
 into the interior. The death-rate amongst 
 their children is very high, and, like the 
 Red Indians of North Amei'ica, they seem 
 destined in the near future to become ex- 
 tinct. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Sugar — Location and Areas of Plantations — Irri- 
 gation — Cultivation and Cutting — Crushing and 
 Manufacturing— Rum — Molasses — Improved Pro- 
 cesses — Labour Cost — Coolie Ijimigratiox — Pre- 
 sent Condition and Prospects. 
 
 In the early days of Dutch colonisation, 
 about the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, the first sugar plantations were laid 
 out under an express authority from the 
 Holland States, who at the same time under- 
 took to supply the planters with " slaves 
 from Africa," and this supply was kept up 
 by the Dutch, and subsequently by the 
 English, until the general emancipation of 
 slaves in 1834. It is interesting to note 
 that the Gladstone family were amongst the 
 earliest and largest possessors of these slave- 
 owning properties ; that they received on 
 the emancipation their proportionate share 
 of the twenty millions sterling voted as 
 compensation ; and that these same estates 
 
i6 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 remained in possession of members of the 
 family till a few years ago, when the bounty 
 was taken off sugar, and when the last of 
 the Gladstone property was sold, the late 
 Premier of England being a party to the 
 deed of transfer. 
 
 The plantations are situate wholly on the 
 sea-coast, or on the banks of the rivers and 
 on the islands in the tide-way. They all 
 have frontages to the sea or river, and those 
 on the mainland are of oblong shape, extend- 
 ing backwards into the interior for several 
 miles, and ending where the bush or savan- 
 nah begins. Each proprietor has a right to 
 extend further inland, and take more land 
 into cultivation on nominal terms ; but the 
 limit of suitable ground has in most cases 
 been reached, and it would not pay to take 
 in more of the "bush" or "savannah" that 
 bounds the existing cane-lands. 
 
 Plant^ations, though originally of the same 
 size — about a quarter of a mile frontage to 
 sea or river, and 3| miles in depth inland — 
 are now, by purchase, amalgamation, enlarge- 
 ment, or abandonment, of varying extents, 
 ranging from 300 to 3000 acres. The culti- 
 vated lands are nearly all below high-water 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 17 
 
 level, and are protected from the sea and the 
 rivers by heavy and costly dams, and from 
 the surface waters of the interior by smaller 
 embankments ; they are intersected by a 
 system of canals and sluices, which carry off 
 the waters to the sea at low water, and pre- 
 vent the ingress of the flowing tides. Where 
 necessary, and in times of excessive rain (for 
 occasionally as much as 13 inches fall in 24 
 hours), the waters in the upper reaches of 
 the canals are pumped over the sluice-gates 
 into the lower reaches by powerful steam- 
 engines ; and the cost of this operation and 
 of repairing the embankments form no in- 
 considerable items in the expense of working 
 a sugar estate. 
 
 These canals, with an infinity of smaller 
 cuts and trenches or open drains, not only 
 keep the sugar plants free from excessive 
 surface water, but serve as waterways for 
 carrying the canes from the fields to the 
 crushing-mills and factories, and afterwards 
 for taking the manufactured sugar to the 
 landing stage on the railway, or to the jetty 
 on the coast, and thence on by boat to 
 Georgetown, or other port of shipment. 
 
 The lands so enclosed or surrounded by 
 
i8 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 dams aie called " empoldered," and it is on 
 this acreage that the land taxation of the 
 colony is wholly levied. Cane-fields do not, 
 however, occupy the whole of this enclosed 
 area, the lands nearest the sea — and gener- 
 ally, therefore, the lowest and wettest — are 
 used as pasture for cattle, horses, goats, and 
 sheep ; and other parts are covered with 
 plantains, bananas, cocoanuts, and other 
 tropical fruits and vegetables, which find a 
 i-eady market in the towns and villages at 
 remunerative prices. 
 
 Sup'ar cultivation is carried on almost 
 entirel}^ by manual labour, ploughing either 
 by steam or oxen having many years ago 
 been tried and failed, owing mainly to the 
 frequency of the intersecting trenches and 
 drains ; and no machine has j^et been in- 
 vented for cutting the canes as cheaply and 
 effectively as by hand, with a knife shaped 
 like a cutlass. The average life of the sugar- 
 cane is about five years ; on the first planting, 
 and after each replanting, the ground is dug 
 to a depth of eight or ten inches with long- 
 shafted spades or forks dexterously handled 
 by coolies ; and the plants, which are mostly 
 the tops of the cut canes, about twelve inches 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 19 
 
 long, but sometimes the stools of the old 
 canes, are allowed to spring up, are put into 
 the ground In rows three or four feet apart 
 and at a distance of one foot from each other. 
 In fourteen or fifteen months they are fit to 
 cut, and are afterwards cut once a year dur- 
 ing the four following years ; after the age of 
 five years they are considered past their 
 prime, and on a well-managed plantation are 
 stubbed up and the ground is replanted. The 
 plants grow straight to a height of seven or 
 eight feet, and then assume a drooping pos- 
 ture, and when in flower have a striking 
 appearance, changing the general colour of 
 the fields from green to silver grey. The 
 stalks — of which there are seldom fewer than 
 twelve to each root — alone are carried to 
 the mill, the leaves being stripped off, left on 
 the ground, and raked into the smaller 
 trenches, where in rotation they are dug into 
 the ground and serve as manure. When the 
 plants need artificial nurture, nitrate of soda, 
 superphosphate, and mineral phosphates are 
 the most generally applied manures ; but the 
 fact that canes have been grown continuously 
 on the same ground for over one hundred 
 years without deterioration is strong proof 
 
20 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 against the necessity of rotation of cropping. 
 Sometimes plants from other cane-fields are 
 used, but the tops from the same fields are, 
 as a rule, planted again. In recent years 
 canes have been raised from seed, under 
 charge of Government botanists and chemists, 
 at the Botanical Gardens m Georgetown, and 
 the experiments carried on seem likely to 
 lead to very decided improvements. 
 
 The canes, on reaching the mill, are thrown 
 from the boats (which are tugged along the 
 canals by mules) on to a travelling inclined- 
 plane, which carries them to the crushing- 
 rollers, and, whilst passing, a stream of boil- 
 ing water is poured upon the broken cane, 
 and the saccharine liquor or juice is caught in 
 troughs ; the dry crushed cane passes away 
 and, when dried, is used as fuel for the fur- 
 naces, effecting a great saving in the con- 
 sumption of coal. The juice after boiling is 
 evaporated by an apparatus called " Triple 
 Effet," or " Yaryan," into a syrup, and is 
 then crystallised in vacuum pans. This 
 crystallised production, called " masse cuite," 
 is then thrown into " centrifugals," and the 
 moisture is driven out in the shape of mo- 
 lasses, the sugar being left adhering to the 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AXD ITS RESOURCES 21 
 
 centrifugal baskets. Sugar in this state is 
 either brown or yellow for the English, and 
 grey for the American market. The whole 
 series of operations, from the cutting of the 
 cane to packing the sugar into bags for ex- 
 portation, is all completed within a few hours, 
 whilst under the old open-pan system the 
 process occupied as many weeks. 
 
 A fair average good crop of cane is about 
 fifty tons to the acre, and from fifteen to 
 eighteen tons will produce a ton of sugar 
 and eighty-five gallons of molasses, which 
 latter, when made into rum, yields about 
 thirty-five gallons ; in other words, a well- 
 managed plantation will produce yearly an 
 average of about one and a half ton of sugar 
 and half a puncheon of rum per acre. A 
 second-class sugar is made fi:om molasses, 
 and forms from 10 to 15 per cent, of the 
 first-class. Many plantations have distilleries 
 for making rum attached to them, and the 
 molasses are then treated either in a "con- 
 tinuous still," or by the old-fashioned copper 
 still. 
 
 The cost of labour in all these various pro- 
 cesses forms about one-half the total cost of 
 production ; the other half being made up of 
 
22 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 stores, materials, fuel, artificial manures, 
 transport and shipping, the keeping up of 
 schools and hospitals, and in general manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Coolies supply the chief part of all the 
 labour ; indeed, exclusive of the manager, 
 overseers, and mechanics, the negroes 
 engaged in cane-cutting and a few Chinese, 
 the whole work, both in the fields and fac- 
 tories, is done by East Indians, who are 
 imported into the country from Madras and 
 Calcutta to the number of 5000 or 6000 
 every year. 
 
 Every large sugar estate constitutes a sort 
 of community in itself The mansion of the 
 manager (for the proprietors are now nearly 
 all absentees from the colony, or, at all 
 events, do not reside on their estates) is 
 situated close to the mill in a large well-kept 
 garden, and close by are the overseers' and 
 mechanics' houses and shops, and then 
 stretching for nearly a mile both ways along 
 the banks of the main canal are rows of 
 cottages, in which the coolies and other 
 labourers live. On some of the largest 
 plantations the population in these villaores 
 will number between 2000 and 3000 ; the 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 23 
 
 people are well cared for, hospitals, schools, 
 and places of worship being provided at the 
 cost of the proprietors, and under the super- 
 vision of Government. The annual cost of 
 this coolie immigration averages £100,000 a 
 year, being about £20 per head, one-third of 
 which is paid by Government, and the other 
 two-thirds by the planters, amongst whom it 
 is assessed in proportion to the numbers 
 employed. Every immigrant coolie is, on 
 arrival at the colony, " indented," i.e., placed 
 under contract for employment for five years 
 at stated wages, and at the end of the time, 
 or at any later period, he is allowed a free 
 passage back to India. The majority, 
 however, prefer to remain in the colony, and 
 either continue to work on the same estate or 
 engage in some other occupation, such as 
 shop-keeping or market-gardening. It is, 
 however, stated that on an average 2000 
 men, women, and children return every year 
 to the East, and they do not return empty- 
 handed, it being computed that during the 
 last forty-five years — since, in fact, any 
 accurate account was kept— these immigrants 
 have taken home in cash and jewels no less a 
 sum than $3,000,000. These savings are 
 
24 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 regarded as some compensation for the loss of 
 caste sustained by living in the colony ; for, 
 though during their sojourn there they keep 
 up their peculiar habits and customs as 
 strictly as they can, yet the mere fact of 
 leaving their own, and living in a strange, 
 country, involves a certain loss of caste, 
 which never can be wholly regained. 
 
 In these days of severe competition, every 
 new appliance for cheap and effective manu- 
 facturing has to be adopted, and it is greatly 
 to the credit of the Demerara planters that 
 they have taken the lead in almost every 
 improvement. An enormous sum has been 
 spent of late years in experiments, much of 
 which has been lost, but great economies 
 have been effected, and the general results 
 have been satisfactory. The last new prin- 
 ciple — " diffusion " — whereby the cane, in 
 lieu of being crushed, is sliced by rotarjr 
 cutters and the chips boiled under steam 
 pressure, will, it is said, again revolutionise 
 the manufacture. This principle of boilino- 
 instead of crushing, and thus extractino- 
 almost every particle of saccharine matter 
 (it is said to be 96 per cent, as against 85 per 
 cent.), is no doubt theoretically correct ; Ijut 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 25 
 
 whether the additional extraction will pay 
 for the extra cost and repay interest on the 
 large expenditure necessarily incurred in 
 displacing costly machinery and replacing it 
 with other still more costly has yet to be 
 proved. Until it is, the new principle is not 
 likely to be universally adopted, even if the 
 planters in general were financially able to 
 afford it ; and unfortunately, from continuous 
 bad seasons and low prices, very few of them 
 are in that enviable position. 
 
 The sugar trade, however, though at 
 present languishing under most severe and 
 unprecedented depression — owing mainly to 
 the effect of the subsidies and bounties 
 granted to Continental sugar, and to the 
 new American tariff, which deprived Deme- 
 rara of its " favoured nation" privilege — will 
 no doubt improve ; indeed, there are already 
 symptoms of revival, but there is at present 
 o-reat and ffeneral distress, not unaccom- 
 panied, in some cases, with actual insolvency 
 and absolute ruin to some of the planters — 
 a melancholy contrast with their position 
 a few }'ears ago, when large fortunes were 
 made, and luxuxious living, with profuse 
 hospitality, \^'as universal. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Gold-fields — Improved Means of Access — Statistics 
 OF Placer and Alluvial Workings — Quartz 
 Reefs — Gold Mining — Mining Laws — Prospecting, 
 Developing, and Working — Labour — Precious 
 Stones. 
 
 Gold, which in all ages and in all countries 
 has brought about such marvellous results 
 wherever it has been found and worked, is 
 already beginning to produce its exhilarating 
 effects in the colony. It is revolutionising 
 the ideas of the people, and changing the 
 general aspect of commercial and social life. 
 Even sugar-planters — the most conservative 
 and exclusive class of traders in the world — 
 are rousing themselves from the state of 
 apathetic depression which followed the 
 lethargic contentment of a long period of 
 prosperity, but of late rudely interrupted by 
 successive bad seasons and continuous low 
 prices, and are beginning to realise that 
 there is another industry growing up in their 
 
28 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 midst, which requires no large capital, no ex- 
 pensive cultivation, is not dependent on 
 weather or season, is subject to no market 
 fluctuations, and can be carried on hand-in- 
 hand with their old time-honoured industry, 
 ^^'ith the prospect of enabling them to 
 improve and extend the one out of the riches 
 of the other without any fear of rivalry or 
 competition. 
 
 It would almost seem as if there were 
 something magic in the very finding of gold 
 in this, as in other colonies ; for, ere the 
 effects of its discovery can have been ex- 
 perienced, a joyous buoyancy of feeling is 
 engendered, which is in turn creating confi- 
 dent hopes of future fortunes, and diffusing 
 expanded ideas and increased energies ; and 
 in this country these beneficial results are 
 already beginning to manifest themselves in 
 all directions. Loafing idlers and would-be 
 criminals have disappeared from the streets, 
 and are busily engaged in unearthing the 
 precious metal, which gives them the means 
 of improving their position in a variety of 
 ways ; some are repairing and enlaro-ing 
 their old dwellings, adding outhouses and 
 gardens and buying furniture ; others are 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 29 
 
 purchasing or building shops or increasing 
 their deposits in the savings bank, or in 
 starting businesses and making small invest- 
 ments in various Industrial undertakings. 
 Much of these earnings is no doubt spent in 
 extravagances, but the money so spent — 
 whether hi gay clothes, expensive or even 
 riotous living — is not altogether wasted ; 
 shop-keepers and other tradesmen, as also 
 the revenue of the colony, are directly and 
 substantially benefited, and no one can 
 grudge or wonder at occasional excesses in- 
 dulged in after a long spell of arduous labour 
 and enforced privations at the diggings, or 
 deny the right of these liberated toilers to 
 spend their own hard-earned money in tlieir 
 own way. The Government authorities, too, 
 are becoming alive to a sense of the im- 
 portance of, and the responsibility attaching 
 to, this new source of national wealth, and 
 are, under the energetic auspices of the pre- 
 sent Colonial Minister, devising schemes for 
 gi-anting concessions to capitalists (both here 
 and in the colony) for opening-up the 
 country, for establishing steamers on the 
 upper waters of the great rivers, and subsi- 
 dising the construction of roads and light 
 
30 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 railways, so as to form a chain of land and 
 water communication between the capital 
 and the gold-fields and the interior generally, 
 and thus, by expediting and cheapening 
 transport, giving encouragement to an 
 industry, the expansion of Avhich, whilst con- 
 tributing largely to the revenue and general 
 prosperity of the colony, will, at the same 
 time, give back a direct return exceeding the 
 interest on the outlay. 
 
 The official recoi'ds of gold produced from 
 1884 to the present time show in a succinct 
 form the progress of the gold industry. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 YEAKS. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 
 oz. d. g. 
 
 1884 . ... 
 
 . 250 
 
 188-5 
 
 939 
 
 1886 
 
 6.518 1 12 
 
 1887 
 
 . 10,986 14 
 
 1888-89 . 
 
 . 20,216 1 8 
 
 1889-90 . 
 
 32,332 16 5 
 
 1890-91 . 
 
 66,864 4 21 
 
 1891-92 . 
 
 . 110,.565 12 5 
 
 1892-93 
 
 134,124 7 23 
 
 1893-9-1 . 
 
 . 1.38,527 16 14 
 
 1894 (April 1 to December 31) 
 
 . 110,432 4 16 
 
 Total 
 
 . 631,746 19 8 
 
 These results, marvellous as they are, are 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 31 
 
 rendered still more astonishing when the 
 great physical difficulties and general sur- 
 roundings are taken into account ; and when, 
 too, it is borne in mind that the whole of* 
 this output has been obtained exdusively 
 from the washing of alluvial deposits along 
 the banks of the smaller rivers and creeks, 
 and that the work has been carried ou 
 in the most primitive and unsystematic 
 manner, by means of old-fashioned " sluices," 
 " battels," and " toms," handled by men un- 
 versed in gold-working, and supervised by 
 overseers, mam' of whom are equally igno- 
 rant and inexperienced. 
 
 These alluvial deposits appear to be im- 
 partially distributed over almost every part 
 of the colony, and are now being worked on 
 nearly every tributary of the great rivers, 
 Essequibo, Mazaruni, Cuyuni, Barima, and 
 Demerara. The deposits lie at a depth 
 varying from a few inches to 15 feet below 
 the surface, which is for the most part 
 covered by a slight layer of soil and vege- 
 table matter ; they consist of coarse and fine 
 sand, pebbles of quartz, quartzite and green- 
 stone, held together by tenacious brownish 
 yellow clay, under which are found the auri- 
 
32 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 ferous strata, varying in thickness from six 
 inches to six feet, and beneath is a plastic 
 clay, white or green, but generally green, in 
 colour. These beds have evidently been 
 formed from the wearing away in past ages, 
 by the action of water and weather, of the 
 rocky formations on the higher grounds, and 
 have been carried down by water or glacial 
 action into the valleys and flats below ; and 
 they must, therefore, in a limited course of 
 years — the exact period being necessarily 
 dependent on their extent and the rapidity 
 with which they are worked — be exhausted. 
 Up to the present time no shafts have been 
 sunk to any depth through the upper strata 
 of these deposits for the purpose of testing 
 whether there are deeper beds below, such 
 as were found in Australia at considerable 
 depths, and which have proved even richer 
 than the shallower workings ; but this, no 
 doubt, will follow, when the upper deposits 
 have been Avorked out. In a large country 
 such as this, nearly the whole of which seems 
 to be auriferous, and not one thousandth 
 part of which has yet been either " pro- 
 spected" or "located," still less worked — it 
 is not unreasonable to assume that these 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 33 
 
 alluvial fields will extend in the aggregate 
 over a very large area, and will yield golden 
 crops and highly remunerative returns for 
 many years yet to come. Nor will the har- 
 vest of gold end with the exhaustion of these 
 deposits, for, when worked out, and, indeed, 
 whilst that process is going on, the rocks 
 (which are the sources of supply) will, by the 
 combined application of science and laboui', 
 be made to yield their precious products by 
 a more rapid process than Nature, if left to 
 herself, would in her own due time have 
 brought forth. There need, therefore, be no 
 apprehensions but that, for many years to 
 come, this country, from one source or 
 another, will be able to contribute for the 
 world's supply a substantial proportion of 
 the standard medium of currency. 
 
 It must, however, be borne in mind that 
 gold-mming is very difierent from alluvial 
 washing or placer working, and has to be 
 carried on under very different conditions. 
 In almost every process of its production — in 
 the sinking of shafts, driving of adits and 
 cross-cuts, breaking, crushing, and milling of 
 ore — skilled labour and considerable capital 
 are needed ; and, in the amalgamation, 
 
34 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 extraction, and saving of the gold, scientific 
 treatment is required. These requisites will, 
 no doubt, be amply forthcoming, when it is 
 known that payable gold-reefs extensively 
 exist, and this fact has already been proved, 
 and is being practically tested on the 
 Demerara and on the Barima in the North- 
 west territory. On the Arakaka Creek in 
 the Barima district extensive development 
 works are being carried on, not only in 
 placer working (which is turning out most 
 productive), but in sinking pits and driving 
 trenches and cross-cuts in the auriferous 
 seams and beds of ore, and in the erection 
 of mills and machinery for crushing and 
 milling the ore. The reefs vary in thickness 
 from twelve inches to six feet, and have 
 " casings " or " foot and hanging walls " of 
 decomposed diorite and granitic rock, be- 
 tween which are bedded the auriferous 
 quartz veins. The general direction (or "line 
 of strike " as it is termed) is north-west and 
 south-east, and the ore, in most cases, shows 
 both coarse and fine gold, and is generally 
 associated with black slate and manganese. 
 It is "free milling," though how far below 
 the surface this latter characteristic will 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 35 
 
 continue is uncertain, for in no case has any 
 reef yet been proved to a greater depth than 
 120 feet. Pannings and assays of the ore 
 from these reefs invariably give a good show 
 of gold, yielding on an average more than 
 1 oz. to the ton of ore ; some of the richer 
 reefs yield as much as 6 to 20 oz., and the 
 poorest not less than 6 dwts. of gold to the 
 ton. Pieces of quartz (in some cases weigh- 
 ing several pounds) are frequently met with 
 in placer woi'kings, and often contain as 
 much gold as quartz ; one piece, weighing 
 509 oz., yielding 274 oz. of gold and 16 oz. 
 of silver, was valued at £1000; indeed, so 
 rich is this drift quartz, that it is often 
 collected and crushed by hand in a mortar, 
 and the gold produced repays the labour a 
 hundredfold. Large nuggets of pure gold are 
 occasionally met with ; they range in weight 
 from a few dwts. to as many ounces, but 
 rarely exceed 10 oz. ; the gold, however, is 
 extremely pure, and averages £3 15s. per oz. 
 It is marvellous to relate that the whole of 
 the capital employed in placer working, and 
 nearly the whole of the money expended in 
 developing and working quartz-reefs, have, 
 with some insignificant exceptions, been 
 
36 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 raised and provided by the colonists them- 
 selves, either individually, or by private 
 partnerships, or through the medium ot 
 Companies and Syndicates formed in the 
 colony for these purposes ; the aggregate 
 capital so subscribed cannot be much less 
 than 82,000,000. This is a large sum to be 
 found by so small a community, and it pre- 
 sents an exceptional feature in the annals of 
 British mining abroad, the funds for which, 
 it may be safely stated, have been chiefly, if 
 not entii'ely, derived from home. The re- 
 sources of the colony available for mining 
 development are for the time, however, almost 
 exhausted ; and to carry out the operations 
 now in progress fresh capital will have to be 
 introduced from outside. In this colony, and 
 as is almost invariably the case elsewhere, 
 the cost of developing and working mines 
 has been much under-estimated, and this 
 fault has been aggravated in British Guiana 
 by the fact that the local directors, obstinate 
 and self-opinionated in their ignorance, had no 
 knowledge of mining operations, or of com- 
 pany supervision, and a large portion of the 
 shareholders' money has been wasted in 
 carrying on useless works under incompetent 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES ^y 
 
 and extravagant management. In one in- 
 stance a Company — the first formed, and 
 formed, too, with most brilliant expecta- 
 tions — has come to a disastrous end from 
 these causes ; and in another, additional 
 capital — found, however, entirely b}^ the 
 Colonial shareholders in the Company — has 
 had to be raised. In this latter instance it 
 is announced that the development works 
 are now completed, and that the mill and 
 machinerj'-, which have been in the colony 
 for some months, wiU be erected, and crush- 
 ing operations commenced before the end of 
 the year. Much will depend upon the results 
 in the yield of gold then shown ; and as the 
 engineer's and manager's reports are most 
 encouraging, the greatest confidence in a 
 satisfactory result is entertained ; indeed, 
 it cannot be denied that, if this, the first 
 real attempt at effective mining in the colony, 
 should be disappointing, the blow inflicted 
 for the time upon the gold industry will be 
 serious and difficult to get over. 
 
 A Company, formed in London several 
 months ago, received so little support in 
 the market that it never went to allotment, 
 and another Company, of more recent date. 
 
38 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 met with not much better response from the 
 public, but the requisite capital was subse- 
 quently subscribed privately. The nominal 
 capital in the latter case would appear to be 
 amply sufficient, but, unfortunatel}', in this, 
 as in mining undertakings generally, a large 
 sum is absorbed in payments for purchase 
 money and promotion, leaving a compara- 
 tively small sum in actual cash for develop- 
 ment and working. In this case it is, 
 however, considered sufficient, as the pro- 
 perty had been tested and partial!}'' developed 
 before it was purchased ; but it is earlj'^ yet 
 to speak with certainty, and a definite 
 opinion must be deferred till operations are 
 more advanced, and the results of the 
 crushings are known, and this — though with 
 commendable despatch (as compared with 
 directorial supineness in the colony) the 
 machinery has already been shipped — cannot 
 be ascertained for many months, and this 
 English Company may yet be the pioneer of 
 successful gold- mining in the colony. 
 
 Meanwhile, however, public attention has 
 been drawn towards the general development 
 of the country b}^ an announcement from 
 the Colonial Office of the willingness of 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 39 
 
 Government to grant large concessions to 
 capitalists — whether in England or the 
 colony — who will embark their money and 
 devote their influence and energies to carry- 
 ing out schemes for colonisation and sound 
 development. The inducements thus held 
 out, with the implied promise of Government 
 support in the making of roads and im- 
 proving of access generally, have already led 
 to preliminary arrangements being entered 
 into for the formation of such syndicates ; 
 and there is a confident expectation that, ere 
 many months are over, they will be brought 
 in a practical shape before the public. It is 
 to be hoped when these companies make their 
 appearance, that their objects and purposes 
 will be clearly defined, that the direction 
 and management will be such as to inspire 
 and deserve public confidence, that they will 
 be free from the speculative taint which too 
 frequently characterises commercial enter- 
 prises, and — what is also of paramount im- 
 portance — that they wall be backed by a 
 large capital, amply sufficient to carry out 
 fully and effectually the objects and purposes 
 for which they are formed. Hitherto the 
 want of these essentials has been the cause of 
 
40 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 the lukewarmuess with whicli such under- 
 takings liave been received, and of the ill- 
 success they have so far met with in this 
 country. 
 
 New mining- laws, regulating the pros- 
 pecting and working for gold, have recently 
 been passed b}^ the Colonial Legislature ; 
 they seem to be giving general satisfaction, 
 and may be considered, on the whole, as 
 favourable to both prospectors and miners. 
 A prospecting licence — without which no one 
 has a right to " search for gold " or " locate a 
 claim " — is obtainable by any applicant at 
 the Mines Office on payment of fifty cents, 
 and is renewable monthly on a like payment ; 
 the possession of this licence authorises the 
 searching for gold on any unoccupied Crown 
 lands, and the location of placer or mining 
 areas, on which either gold-bearing reefs or 
 auriferous deposits are found, or are believed 
 to exist. The extent of a location is 1500 
 feet by 500 feet, covering a superficial area 
 of 17i acres ; and in exceptional cases, at the 
 discretion of the Governor, concessions of 
 areas containing 500 acres are granted. All 
 " locations " must be distinctly marked out 
 bv a beacon at each corner, and by trendies 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 41 
 
 cut in the direction of the boundary lines, 
 and be cleared of bush, and must extend 
 lengthways along the strike of the reef. A 
 notice stating the name of the person on 
 whose Ijehalf the claim is located, with the 
 date and number of the licence, must be 
 affixed to each beacon in the presence of two 
 witnesses. When these preliminary formali- 
 ties have been complied with, an application 
 has to be made within two months to the 
 Mines Office for a " grant." This application 
 has then to be advertised four times in the 
 Official Gazette ; and, if no objection by a 
 rival claimant be lodged, the location is at 
 once allowed. From this time, not less than 
 six men must be kept continuously at work 
 on the claim (or " grant " as it is then 
 called) and a rent of 82 per month for a 
 mining, and $1 per month for a placer grant 
 has thenceforth to be paid ; the grant, though 
 nominally at the will of the Crown, is per- 
 petual, so long as the rent is paid. The only 
 other payment is a royalty of ninety cents 
 per oz., which is equal to 5 per cent, upon 
 the total value of the gold actually obtained. 
 Complaints are, of course, made by prospectors 
 and miners, who — like the farmers at home, 
 
42 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 but with far less reason — are never satisfied, 
 that the areas of claims are too small, and 
 the payments too high ; but these grievances 
 have little foundation ; and, compared with 
 other countries and conditions, are most 
 liberal. In the Transvaal, mining claims are 
 400 feet long by 150 feet broad, having a 
 superficial area of H acre and the monthly 
 rent for each location is £\, whilst in 
 Demerara the highest monthly payment is 
 little over one-third of this sum, and the 
 area is twelve times as large. In North 
 America, Australia, and other countries, the 
 royalties and dimensions vary according to 
 districts and circumstances, but in no place 
 are they so favourable to prospectors as in 
 British Guiana. 
 
 In details, too, the regulations do not 
 bristle with those petty, irritating provisions 
 and liabilities to forfeiture which are so 
 exasperating and discouraging in other 
 countries. In fact, when once a claim is 
 registered, no location can be "jumped"; 
 it can only be lost by forfeiture or aban- 
 donment. 
 
 The regulations, however, are by no means 
 perfect, and some amendments are needed 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 43 
 
 for the better defining of areas and marking 
 of boundaries ; and a reduction of royalty, 
 as soon as extensive crushing operations are 
 carried on, will have to be made. 
 
 During the short period that placer work- 
 ing has been carried on there have been 
 several marvellous successes. One small 
 Syndicate on the Mazaruni river, no great 
 distance from the disputed ground, with a 
 capital of $13, 500 in 4500 shares of $3 each, 
 returned in the first thi-ee years to its fortu- 
 nate members a dividend of $1 per share per 
 month, which is equal to 400 per cent, per 
 annum, but it is now almost exhausted ; 
 and there are other placers worked by 
 individuals which are producing still more, 
 one placer on the Essequibo having paid 
 no less than £20,000 a year for the first 
 four years on a capital of £180 contributed 
 by two Portuguese merchants, the other 
 partner (a Frenchman) taking the remaining 
 one-third for his share, as " discoverer and 
 locator." Many other instances could be 
 given of working men, in conjunction with 
 small capitalists, making as many hundred 
 dollars per month as were originally em- 
 barked in the enterprise. These, of course, 
 
44 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 are some of the prizes ; but tlie blanks are- 
 many, arising, however, iu most cases from 
 ignorance or dishonest}'. 
 
 The modus ojierandi of prospecting has 
 generally been as follows : A prospector, 
 usually a coloured man, knows of some place 
 where there is, or he thinks, or has been told, 
 there is, alluvial gold ; he applies to some 
 tradesman or clerk, or any one else, who is 
 known to have speculative tendencies and a 
 small sum of money at command, and he pro- 
 poses that, if provisions and a crew be found, 
 he will proceed to " prospect " and " locate " 
 in their joint names, " on sharing terms," the 
 person finding the capital taking the larger 
 share (generally two-thirds), and the pro- 
 spector the other third in the enterprise; 
 and, if the prospector has any mining know- 
 ledge or common honesty, success generally 
 follows. When gold has been found, either 
 on the surface, or by digging and panning the 
 alluvial soil, the claim is "located." A journey 
 back to the capital is then usually taken to 
 perfect the location at the Mines Office, and 
 to make arrangements for working. For 
 effecting this, a gang of black labourers, with 
 a few shovels, picks, and battels, wages and 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 45 
 
 provisions for three months, are all that is 
 needed. A sum of from £50 to £150, depen- 
 dent on the scale of operations,, will amply 
 provide these requisites, and within two 
 months, even if the placers are only of 
 moderate richness, there will be enough gold 
 produced to pay oft' the first expenditure, 
 keep the placer at work, and give profitable 
 returns in the future. On arriving at the 
 location with men and stores, the first opera- 
 tion is to select the site for a camp, and to 
 build sheds (called "logics") for the pro- 
 spector and men to live in, and for sheltering 
 the provisions and stores. 
 
 In this selection water is an essential, not 
 only for domestic purposes, but for working 
 the placer, and the situation should be either 
 on or near to the banks of a creek, so as to 
 enable a trench to be cut with the requisite 
 fall to work the sluices. The line of the 
 proposed trench, and the ground it is pro- 
 posed to work, must then be cleared of wood, 
 the trench dug, sluices with " stop-offs " and 
 dams (where necessary) made, and the sluice- 
 boxes set up ; meanwhile other men have 
 been clearing off" the top layer of earth, and 
 exposing the " pay-dirt" ready for washing. 
 
46 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 Great care is taken to ensure that the sluice 
 is placed in a position to work as much 
 ground as possible, otherwise, as the workings 
 proceed, a fresh trench has to be dug. The 
 sluice-boxes should not, however, be sunk 
 with too much fall, for although the greater 
 fall allows more " pay-dirt " being washed in 
 a given time, yet it also allows the finer por- 
 tions of gold to be carried over the " riffles " 
 by the rush of water ; and the advantage of 
 treating a greater quantity of gravel is thus 
 often more than counterbalanced by the less 
 saving of gold. The number of men em- 
 ployed at a sluice varies according to its size 
 and extent ; for an average sluice eight to 
 nine men are usually allowed, two to uncover 
 the soil and fill the sluice, two to deal with 
 the tailings, or refuse soil, and the rest to 
 attend to the sluice-box and keep it clear. 
 Hydraulicing, which has been adopted on a 
 large scale with such wonderful results in 
 California and other countries, does not seem 
 to be practicable in this country, for though 
 a sufficient volmne of water could generally 
 be obtained, the necessary fall for the tail 
 race would be wanting ; for the gold deposits 
 are found on the low and flat lands lying 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 47 
 
 along the river banks where the water is 
 sluggish, and indeed almost a dead level for 
 miles. 
 
 The wages paid to the ordinary black 
 labourer are sixty-four cents per day ; but, 
 in addition, he has to be fed, housed, and 
 supplied with medicine and medical comforts, 
 and these latter items form no inconsiderable 
 sum ; for, though there is seldom serious ill- 
 ness amongst the blacks, there is much 
 " shamming " to avoid work, and the average 
 cost per man (including over-lookers) cannot 
 be put down at less than $1 per day, inclu- 
 sive of Sundays, when no work is carried on. 
 The other working expenses are, however, 
 comparatively trifling ; on a fairly good- 
 yielding and fairly well- managed placer the 
 total cost varies from 50 to 70 per cent, of 
 the value of the gold obtained ; on rich 
 placers it is considerably less, not more than 
 one-third, and on the poor placers it is much 
 greater. This percentage of expense is, how- 
 ever, undoubtedly high, and it is mainly, 
 indeed almost wholly, caused by the great 
 cost and loss of time in the transport of men 
 and provisions to the field of operation. 
 This, however, will be materially reduced 
 
48 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 when the steamer and railway communica- 
 tions now contemplated are completed. The 
 saving in working expenses at the more 
 inaccessible workings will be reduced at least 
 one-third, in some cases even more, and the 
 whole of this saving will, of course, be so 
 much additional profit. Moreover, ^vhen this 
 reduction of cost is brought about, many 
 placers which now barely pay their A\^ay will 
 be brought into j^i'ofi^able working, and 
 others which cannot be worked now except 
 at a loss, will be able to resume operations, 
 and add to the general output. There are, 
 it is estimated, upwards of 200 placers now 
 in actual work, the returns from which vary 
 from a few oz. to 1000 oz. gold per month, or 
 an average of about 50 oz. each ; the aggre- 
 gate capital invested in these workings does 
 not, it is stated, amount to more than the 
 value of a year's production. 
 
 Amongst these many ventures there are, 
 of course, many failures and many losses, 
 owing, in some cases, to the prospector being 
 mistaken as to the richness of the location, 
 but far oftener to dishonesty and idleness. 
 It is no uncommon occurrence for prospecting 
 or working parties, fully equipped and pro- 
 
RRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 49 
 
 visioned for three or four months, never to 
 get further on their way to the diggings 
 than the first falls on the river they have to 
 ascend, and if there is no store or shop 
 where alcohol of some kind or other is to be 
 had (and this, of course, is well known before 
 starting, and a stock has been previously laid 
 in) they move to the nearest resting-place, 
 and remain idly there till the store of liquor 
 and provisions is exhausted. They then 
 either return to town with a dismal story of 
 "no gold to be found" or they ha ^'e been 
 " down with fever " ; or, if they think there 
 is a chance of getting further supplies and 
 playing the same game over again, a few 
 small nuggets or some fine gold (which has 
 been either borrowed or stolen) are produced 
 as convincing proof that gold is there, and 
 that further prospecting is all that is re- 
 quired to ensure a certain fortune. It need 
 scarcely be said that, when such appeals are 
 successful, the second expedition is as dis- 
 astrous as the first. 
 
 The great problem of the day, the labour 
 question, is pushing its way to the front in 
 this colony, though in a somewhat different 
 phase from that presented in England and 
 
50 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 other countries. It is estimated that there 
 are now engaged in the " diggings " between 
 6000 and 7000 negroes, many of whom have 
 no doubt been taken from the sugar planta- 
 tions, where they formerly worked for a few 
 months in the year in cane cutting, for which 
 work, from their finer physique, they are 
 more fitted than coolies, who, on the other 
 hand, are better suited for the lighter and 
 more intelligent labour in the sugar factories. 
 This source of supply is now, however, almost 
 exhausted, nearly every available black 
 labourer having been already allured to the 
 gold-fields by the attractions of the higher 
 wages, freer life, and intei'mediate holidays, 
 which they hold out, and which cannot be 
 resisted. A fresh source of supply will, 
 therefore, have to be found, if the sugar in- 
 dustry is to be maintained, and the gold 
 industrj- to progress. The importation of 
 blacks from the West Indian Islands, where 
 there is a superabundance of such labour, and 
 little work to be had even at low wages, is 
 the first resource, and steps are already being 
 taken, with the sanction and support of 
 Government, in this direction. A larger 
 importation of coolies from the East Indies is 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES ji 
 
 also in contemplation, not only to replace the 
 abstraction from the plantations, but to meet 
 the demand for coolie labour on the gold- 
 fields, which will undoubtedly spring up as 
 soon as mining and crushing operations are 
 generally introduced, and more skilled labour 
 is needed. The mine- owners are aided 
 greatly in dealing with their labourers, 
 through an institution recently formed, as 
 well for engaging labour, as for punishing 
 those who, after engaging themselves and 
 receiving advances, either refuse to com- 
 mence work or run away. 
 
 Owing to the peculiar physical features of 
 this colony, prospecting for gold, or, indeed, 
 travelling at all, is slow and difficult, and 
 attended with unusual risks and hardships. 
 The country is intersected in all directions by 
 large rivers, creeks, and swamps, and, from 
 the coast to the higher lands in the interior, 
 it is clothed with forest trees and a dense 
 undergrowth. There are no roads that can 
 be traversed by mules or carts, except those 
 along the sea-coast through the plantations ; 
 the Indian tracks, or paths, that can be tra- 
 velled on foot are few and far between ; and 
 to make headway through the forest a path 
 
52 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 has to be slowly and laboriously hewn with a 
 hatchet, shaped like a cutlass, and especially 
 adapted for such work. Game, fur or feather, 
 is scarce, and, owing to the thick bush, can 
 only be got by native hunters, who are not 
 alwaj-s to be relied on ; provisions have, 
 therefore, to be carried either by the pro- 
 spectoi-s themselves, or by bearers hired for 
 the purpose. To reach the gold-fields the 
 large rivers are, of course, utilised to the 
 utmost available extent, but, unfortunately, 
 none of the rivers (except the Barima) are 
 navigable for a greater continuous length 
 than forty miles. There are either rapids or 
 falls which no steamer can contend against, 
 or shallow water which no ocean-going ship 
 can get through, and transhipment of pas- 
 sengers and cargo into small steam launches 
 or boats has to be made — a tedious and costly 
 operation, which, when the contemplated 
 railways are completed and steamers are 
 placed on the higher reaches of the rivers, 
 will be rendered less and less frequent ; but, 
 even with the present facilities of access, 
 communication with the gold-fields contrasts 
 most favourably, both as to cheapness and 
 speed, with transport in other gold-producing 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 53 
 
 countries; and as labour, fuel, and water 
 (the three great items in the cost of produc- 
 tion) are abundant everywhere, the colony 
 possesses every i-equisite for working its 
 gold-fields more economically and efficiently 
 than in any other country in the world. 
 
 In a country possessing such attractions 
 for seekers after mineral wealth, it is natural 
 that prospectors should also turn their atten- 
 tion to precious stones ; but nothing has 
 hitherto been discovered sufficient to war- 
 rant any expectations of finding a Golconda 
 or a Kimberley between the Orinoco and 
 the Amazon. Diamonds, rubies, and emer- 
 alds have, it is true, been found, but not in 
 sufficient quantities or size to attract exten- 
 sive explorations. 
 
 Note. — The gold diatricts of the colony, and the principal 
 gold-fields so far located, will be found indicated on the map 
 accompanying, but the territorial boundaries between British 
 Guiana aud Venezuela being as yet unsettled, the Schora- 
 bnrgk line only has been shown in the limits of the map. 
 It will be seen at a glance how large and important a por- 
 tion of the oolony would practically relapse into " No-man's 
 Land " if the Venezuelan pretensions conld be substantiated. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Forests — Different Varieties of Trees — Timber 
 Lands and Grants — Cost of Labour— Bye-Pro- 
 ducts — Soil — Climate — Cereals — Vegetables — 
 Fruits — Pastoral Capabilities — Fisheries. 
 
 In a country possessing such a vast extent 
 of forest and such a variety of magnificent 
 and valuable trees— e.^., greenheart, mora, 
 wallaba, cedar, crab-wood — the trade in 
 timber necessarily constitutes one of the 
 most important industries. Nearly every 
 building in the colony is made of wood, 
 the framework being generally of green- 
 heart or wallaba, as they are the most 
 durable, and are proof against dry-rot 
 moisture and wood-ants, and will last over a 
 century. Greenheart is the most valuable ; 
 it is a dense, heavy wood, of a greenish- 
 yellow colour, very close grained and free 
 from knots, and is in great request for docks, 
 piles, and other hydraulic work ; it grows to 
 
56 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 a great height (often over 200 feet), and a 
 good tree will contain several hundred cubic 
 feet of timber. The Liverpool landing-stage 
 is principally built of it, and large quantities 
 were used on the construction works of the 
 Manchester Ship Canal, and this supply 
 alone gave regular employment during 
 several years to large numbers of people ; 
 but the demand has ceased, and no other 
 great works requiring this class of timber 
 being now in progress, the trade has fallen 
 away, and the exports are reduced to an 
 almost nominal amount. The contract price 
 for this wood was $2 per cubic foot, and, as 
 it could be felled, squared, and put on board 
 at half a dollar, an ample margin of profit 
 was left. " Shingles " — i.e., slabs and staves 
 made from wallaba (which is a dark crimson 
 in colour, and has a gummy secretion which 
 protects it against insects) — are exported 
 annually to the number of five or six 
 millions, mostly to the West Indies. 
 Amongst other varieties are some of the 
 hardest and heaviest, as well as the softest 
 and lightest, of woods, such as ebony, poplar, 
 And lime ; the latter, however, are not of 
 much value. There are also many fancv 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 57 
 
 woods, varying in colour from black to pure 
 white, one of the most curious being the 
 " letter wood," which has in the heart of the 
 tree dark markings across the grain resem- 
 bling letters. It is used for inlaying and 
 ornamental purposes, and is made into walk- 
 ing sticks, and fetches a high price ; other 
 sorts are made into furniture, and for light 
 work the " simarabus," which is remarkable 
 for its entire freedom from knots, and can be 
 sawn to any thinness, would be most suitable 
 for veneering. The cedar, too, grows to a 
 great height, with an almost uniform girth, 
 some of the trees measuring 120 feet in 
 height, Avith an average girth of 5 feet for 
 nearly the whole length. 
 
 The timber trade cannot, however, be said 
 to be flourishing. Iron and steel have taken 
 the place of wood largely in shipbuilding, 
 and for beams, girders, and other purposes 
 for which timber was formerly exclusively 
 used, and at present prices, the trade would, 
 excepting for the demand in the colony 
 itself, be scarcely worth following. The total 
 value of the export trade is under £20,000, 
 but as there are said to be nearly 1500 men 
 (principally " bucks " or native Indians) 
 
58 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 employed in felling, there must be a large 
 local or colonial consumption. Timber did 
 not commence to be an article of export 
 till 1850, some years after the cultivation of 
 coffee was discontinued. 
 
 All the timber lands belong to Govern- 
 ment, and a " grant " for felling is to be had 
 on very easy terms — viz., the cost of the 
 survey and a royalty of a few cents (varying 
 from 1^ cent to i cent per cubic foot). 
 Nearly all the best timber lands adjoining 
 the navigable rivers, where the trees can be 
 felled and floated easily down to market, 
 have been " gone over," but there are 
 hundreds of thousands of acres in the interior 
 still untouched by the axe, which are vii-giu 
 forests. The heavier logs have to be kept 
 on the surface while floating down the river 
 by light punts, but a good-sized raft can be 
 thus supported, as the actual weight is only 
 the difference between the gravity of the 
 wood and the water. 
 
 Wood-cutters are paid generally by piece- 
 work from 3 to 5 cents (depending on the 
 hardness of the wood) per cubic foot, cut 
 and squared, and a good workman will 
 fell 50 cubic feet a day, thus earning $2, 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 59 
 
 which is considered a high wage in this 
 country. 
 
 Timber, like sugar, has its " bye-products," 
 cordwood and charcoal ; the former used for 
 fuel in the sugar factories and for domestic 
 purposes, and the latter (made principally by 
 Chinamen, who are great experts) is exported 
 largely to the West Indian Islands. Other 
 forest products, such as gutta-percha and 
 gum — the foniier obtained by tapping the 
 trees and the latter extracted from the 
 hollows and roots — are also exported in con- 
 siderable quantities. Amongst the bye-pro- 
 ducts of the forest may be classed orchids ; 
 they are of infinite varieties, and owing to 
 their being ruthlessly and indiscriminately 
 taken, a licence to collect orchids has been 
 imposed, involving an annual payment of 
 $100 and a royalty of 20 cents for every 
 orchid exported. Oils, too, of various kinds, 
 are made from cocoanuts and palms, and 
 several kinds of fibre and tanning barks are 
 got from the mangrove trees. These re- 
 sources are, at present, ahnost entirely unde- 
 veloped ; but as the country is opened up 
 industries in these and other productions will 
 spring up, capable of almost indefinite 
 
6o BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 expansion, which though individually com- 
 paratively small, yet in the aggregate will 
 form a considerable total. 
 
 It is difficult to speak with any certainty 
 as to the general resources and capabilities of 
 the colony apart from its special industries of 
 gold, sugar, and timber, but they are neither 
 unimportant nor inconsiderable. There is a 
 great diversity of opinion as to whether the 
 soil generally is suitable for, and would 
 repay, cultivation ; some asserting that the 
 land in the interior is fertile, and will produce 
 plentiful crops of cereals, fruits, and vege- 
 tables, whilst others state that a single crop 
 of cassava or Indian corn exhausts the soil, 
 and that fresh ground has to be cleared and 
 cultivated before another crop can be reaped. 
 Greater knowledge and longer experience 
 will most probably show that there are, in 
 this as in other countries, lands of diflferent 
 qualities, some rich and fertile, others poor 
 and sterile ; but it is impossible to believe 
 that a country covered with profuse vege- 
 tation over its surface, and in places pro- 
 ducing such luxuriant crops, has not a large 
 area capable of profitable cultivation. 
 
 The climate would no doubt be considered, 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 6i 
 
 to some extent, a drawback to European 
 colonisation ; but its unhealthiness is greatly 
 exaggerated, and it is not so bad, even on 
 the low-lying lands, as to be an absolute de- 
 terrent ; and in the interior, where the lands 
 are liigher, rising in some places to over 
 8000 feet, the climate is said to be as 
 healthy as any country can show, and, when 
 these spots are rendered accessible by 
 steamers and light railways, there can be no 
 reason why comfortable homesteads and 
 flourishing settlements should not become 
 general. The country, wherever it has been 
 settled and cultivated, is as bountiful as any 
 on the face of the globe ; two or three crops 
 of rice and Indian corn can be reaped every 
 3'ear, and almost every tropical produce can 
 be grown to pei'fection ; coffee, cocoa, sago, 
 pines, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, 
 bananas, yams, sweet potatoes, cocoanuts, 
 guavas, &c., may be said to be indigenous, 
 and every month of the year has its own 
 harvest. 
 
 As regards its pastoral capabilities, the 
 interior is almost a terra incognita ; but it is 
 stated that beyond, and intermixed with, the 
 forests are large savannahs or open plains, on 
 
62 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 which cattle and sheep may be grazed, and 
 will breed, all the year round. 
 
 The fisheries of the colony, too, are also 
 capable of great development ; at present, 
 they are almost entirely neglected, and salt- 
 fish is imported in large quantities, while many 
 really good fish, such as querriman, mullet, 
 and other varieties are plentiful on the coast 
 and in the I'ivers, and could be easily and 
 cheaply caught and brought to market. One 
 large product of fishery (isinglass) could also 
 be largely extended ; no less than 5000 lb. 
 were produced last year, but the industry is 
 not cultivated. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Fauna and Floka — Absence of Big Game^Quadru- 
 PEDs — Bats — Birds — Fishes — Reptiles — Frogs — 
 Insects — Great Variety of Flora — Savannahs — 
 Palms — Orchids. 
 
 The fauna of British Guiana are distin- 
 guished by no great variety, and there are 
 no large wild animals, such as lions, ele- 
 phants, rhinoceros, hippopotami, or others 
 known in sporting language as "big game"; 
 there is nothing, therefore, sensational to 
 attract the adventurous sportsman into its 
 trackless forests. There are, however, 
 several smaller beasts and many birds, 
 great and small, which are not to be 
 met with in any other part of the world. 
 The former include some of the lesser 
 species of deer (the largest weighing about 
 150 lb., but carrying no heads worthy 
 of the name, having only two short, thin 
 straight horns), peccaries, tapirs, cavies, 
 
64 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 sloth, ant-eaters, armadillos, and small mon- 
 keys ; and there are some small wild beasts 
 dignified by the name of jaguar, or puma, 
 but they are rarely met with, and though 
 rather exceeding in size a large domestic 
 cat, are not much more dangerous. The 
 forests are, in fact, so dense as to be ap- 
 parently almost devoid of animal life, and 
 the ordinar}^ traveller seldom sees anything 
 except a bush- hog or a wandering deer, 
 which either sees, hears, or scents him before 
 there is a chance of even a snap-shot ; and 
 no sound is heard but the distant bark of 
 the ho-wling monkey, or the monotonous note 
 of the solitary bell-bird. There are no apes, 
 and, if the gorilla — which the quaint old 
 naturalist, Waterton, stuffed and exhibited 
 in his moated Yorkshire home — ever existed, 
 it is now extinct ; but there is no tradition 
 of such an animal amongst the natives ; the 
 smaller monkeys, such as the ringtailed, 
 golden-breasted marmoset, are plentifully 
 distributed throughout the forests generally. 
 Bats are numerous, and at sunset, in both 
 town and country, they fly about continu- 
 ously, and at night are as common as birds 
 in the daytime. In some of the fore-^^ts vam- 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 65 
 
 pires are occasionally met with, and the unwary 
 traveller who sleeps with his feet uncovered 
 sometimes wakes in the morning weary and 
 unrefreshed, and almost deluged in blood 
 drawn by these horrid creatures ; and yet 
 Waterton, who invariably slept with one 
 foot out of his hammock with the express 
 object of being bitten, was never once 
 attacked. Rodents and i(,ng%data are fairly 
 well represented ; the water-hog (about as 
 big as a medium-sized pig), the labba, and 
 accourie, of the guinea-pig or cavie family, 
 are much prized by the natives as food, 
 and when hard pressed take to the water, 
 where they are easily captured. Sloths 
 are abundant ; their habitation is on the 
 branches of trees, and, unlike all other 
 animals, they live suspended, with their 
 heads hanging downward, their bent, hook- 
 like paws being specially adapted for this 
 posture, a.nd, having no pads or soles to 
 their feet, they can neither walk nor crawl. 
 The great ant-bear, with its bushy tail, long 
 tongue, and no teeth, is an inoffensive beast, 
 but with its powerful claws can defend itself 
 against the jaguar, if forced to do so ; it lives 
 on ants, tearing down tlie nests with its long- 
 
66 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 claws, and licking up the contents with its 
 huge rough tongue. 
 
 The largest bird of Demerara is the jabiru, 
 a species of stork, not unlike the Indian 
 adjutant ; there are many other varieties of 
 storks, also herons, pelicans, flamingoes, 
 egrettes, cranes, curlews, sandpipers, coots, 
 and other waders and amphibious birds, 
 which are the most numerously represented 
 classes in the colony. Both owls and birds 
 of prey are fairly numerous, tlie largest of 
 the latter being the voracious and loathsome 
 king of the vultures ; eagles, falcons, hawks, 
 and shrikes assist to maintain the balance of 
 nature. Toucans, hornbills, cotingas, jays, 
 rice-birds, woodpeckers, jacamars, king- 
 fishers and tiger-birds charm by the beauty 
 of their plumage or the singulai'ity of their 
 form. But the many varieties of humming- 
 birds, and especially the karahiniti or ava, 
 are probably of most interest to the natur- 
 alist. 
 
 The collector possesses exceptional facilities 
 for acquiring perfect specimens of the skins of 
 these lovely birds, in the blow-pipe ov pucuna, 
 and poisoned arrow, used with unerring pre- 
 cision by the natives, who can kill with them 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 67 
 
 at almost incredible distances. The shaft of 
 the arrow, about tlie thickness of a knittino-- 
 needle and nine or ten inches in length, is 
 made of the heaviest wood procurable, sharp- 
 ened, and poisoned at the tip, and feathered 
 with wild cotton, bound to the other ex- 
 tremity, ^vhich is first rubbed with wax in 
 the form of an elliptical ball, slightly thicker 
 than the tube through which it is propelled. 
 Game birds are not numerous, nor are there 
 many species to classify. The most imj^or- 
 tant are gallinaceous, under which category 
 are the maroudi, or small Avild turkey, called 
 by Spix the jacatinga ; the maam, or tina- 
 mou, a bird somewhat resembling black 
 arame ; and the families of curassows and 
 guans, one of which, the hannaquoi, is 
 popularly but incorrectly called a pheasant, 
 from its long tail. Like the powise, of the 
 same family, it is extremely delicate eating 
 and is more allied to the turkey than the 
 pheasant. Jungle fowl and pintados are not 
 found either in the forests or savannahs. 
 Other game birds are partridges, quail, wood- 
 cocks, snipes (both seldom met with), plovers, 
 and many varieties of ducks (including mus- 
 covy, mallard, teal, widgeon), and geese. 
 
68 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 The beautiful crested cock of the rock, a 
 shy and solitary bird, the largest of the four 
 species of manakins, is described by Buffon 
 and alluded to by Waterton, in whose work, 
 perfected to the present time by the Rev. 
 J. G. Wood, is to be found a comprehensive 
 account of all the fauna and flora of the 
 countr}^. The pensive cry of the houtou, a 
 bird erroneously supposed by Waterton to 
 trim off" the ends of its tail feathers, leaving 
 the two central ones only, echoes through 
 the glades, which are enlivened by hardly 
 any songsters, in our sense of the tei'm, but by 
 the cries of the campanero or bell-bird, of the 
 goatsuckers, mocking-birds, and of thousands 
 of parrots, parroquets, and macaws. 
 
 The bell-bird, whose note much resembles 
 the sound of a dome-shaped spring table-bell, 
 possesses a long white tube growing out of 
 the top of its head, ordinarily pendulous, but 
 erected when the bird utters its call. Geese 
 and wild ducks of every variety are abundant 
 on the low-lying lands and on the smaller 
 rivers and creeks. They afford fair sport, 
 and many of them are excellent eating. 
 
 Of river fish there are many varieties, but 
 there has been a paucit}^ of ichthyologists to 
 
BRITISH GUlAiStA AND ITS RESOURCES 6g 
 
 describe and classify them. Nothing analo- 
 gous to the salmon genus exists in the lower 
 reaches of these tropical rivers, nor do any 
 fish ascend them from the sea. The perai, 
 described by Mr. C B. Brown, is a most 
 voracious carnivorous fish, but the two most 
 important kinds, both for size and value 
 as food, are very similar in their habits, 
 and are said to be vegetarian, browsing on 
 aquatic plants, though it may be doubted 
 whether these grasses form their entire food. 
 By Mr. 0. B. Brown they are named cartabac 
 and pacu, and, like the peccaries and other 
 hogs, are shot by the natives with arrows. 
 The arrow employed to shoot fish is pro- 
 pelled from a bow, and is frequently six feet 
 long. The shaft is a reed, inserted into a 
 loose barbed head, which becomes detached 
 after the fish is struck, and remains fastened 
 to a cord, exactly after the manner of a 
 harpoon. 
 
 Snakes and other reptiles are to be found 
 everywhere, and in no other country do 
 they grow to greater perfection. Principal 
 among the venomous snakes are the rattle- 
 snake, the labarri, and the couanacouchi, or 
 bush-master, which attains the length of 
 
70 British guiana and its resources 
 
 fourteen feet. Among those without poison- 
 ous fangs are the huge python or camoudi, 
 said by the Spaniards to reach the length of 
 seventy or eighty feet (figures which may 
 be divided by three), the boa constrictor, 
 and the small and pretty whip and coral 
 snakes. 
 
 Crocodiles are to be found in almost every 
 river and small creek, but they do not seem 
 to attain any very great size ; the average 
 being from eight to ten feet in length. They 
 are easily shot, but afford no sport, and their 
 principal weapon of defence is their tail, 
 with which they can strike a severe blow. 
 The iguana — excellent eating, as are also 
 its eggs — and the cayman, which reaches 
 eight or ten feet in length, the chameleon, 
 and many other smaller species, represent 
 the lizard tribe ; the armadillo and the land 
 tortoise are often met with, and batrachians, 
 both toads and frogs, are numerous and 
 noisy. The country is rich in butterflies and 
 moths, also in coleoptera ; the rhinoceros 
 beetle, six inches in length, being the largest 
 of this genus. 
 
 The flora of British Guiana, unlike its 
 fauna, are of gigantic size and of infinite 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 71 
 
 variety ; the trees are not only grand in 
 height, but wide in girth, and the shrubs are 
 all immense of their kind, having broad 
 leaves and flowers of gorgeous colours ; and 
 so rank is vegetation everywhere that even 
 in the forests the trees overlap each other 
 and interlace their branches, so that it is 
 hard to tell to what tree any particular 
 branch belongs, or where the tree itself 
 begins or ends. Owing to their close proxi- 
 mity, the stems are so slender in proportion 
 to their height that some of them throw out 
 buttresses, which often extend outwards 15 
 or 20 feet from the base of the trunk ; and, 
 between the walls thus formed, and with 
 the aid of a few palm leaves (measuring from 
 10 to 12 feet across), as comfortable a lodg- 
 ing as a specially built " logie " can be easily 
 and quickly formed. On all sides, too, are 
 pillars of trees, which, in the dim light 
 caused by the dense upper foliage, with the 
 bush-ropes hanging in fantastic festoons from 
 the topmost branches like links of huge 
 cables or gigantic pythons, look like the 
 aisles of some grand cathedral with stained 
 windows and endless tracery. The rivulets 
 or creeks which flow, or, rather, glide, 
 
72 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 through these glades — for they show no 
 perceptible motion in their tortuous course 
 — cause the dark water to look jet black in 
 the half light ; and here and there magnifi- 
 cent lilies, white and pink, cover the surface 
 of the water, and the sloping banks are 
 carpeted by festoons of pignonia convolvulus 
 and other creepers of every imaginable shape, 
 size, and colour, the whole presenting a scene 
 of unrivalled beauty and magnificence not to 
 be surpassed in any other part of the world. 
 
 The savannahs, too, are choked with vege- 
 tation, but of a difierent sort; some are 
 covered with an almost impenetrable grass, 
 which, with its saw-like teeth, draws blood 
 at every attempt to pass through it ; and 
 others are clothed in green verdure inter- 
 mixed with ferns, sedges, mosses, ground 
 orchids, and those most curious plants, the 
 burmamias, which convert the place into a 
 very paradise for botanists. 
 
 Palms, admittedly the princes of the vege- 
 table kingdom, are represented in every 
 variety ; they vary in size from the small 
 kind, not much larger or taller than a walk- 
 ing-stick, to the graceful " manicola," which 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES Ti 
 
 raises its head amongst the giants of the 
 forest. The " eta " palm, the most striking 
 of all, stands out boldly in the savannahs and 
 the swamps, but the cocoanut and the royal 
 palms (the latter also called the cabbage 
 palm from a much -prized and most delicious 
 edible of that shape growing at the junction 
 of the trunk with the leaves near the top of 
 the tree) are common in all cultivated lands, 
 and foi-m noble avenues to some of the sugar 
 plantations. 
 
 Orchids — those curious, singular, and most 
 beautiful productions of Nature — deserve 
 special notice ; they are found everywhere 
 in the colony, but in the greatest profusion 
 and variety outside and beyond the culti- 
 vated districts. They grow on the trunks 
 and branches of trees, on the base of palm 
 leaves, in the savannahs, on low marshy 
 ground, and in the mountain regions on the 
 bare rocks. They range in height from an 
 inch to twelve feet, and it is said that there 
 are no less than 250 different species, of 
 which the most Avonderful and interesting is 
 the " coryanthes macrantha," with its cup- 
 like flowers, five inches across, and shaped to 
 
74 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 ensure close fertilisation, and prevent the 
 incursion of crawling insects, so well 
 descril^ed by Darwin. To put a stop to 
 indiscriminate and wholesale destruction of 
 these valuable plants a heavy yearly licence 
 is, as before mentioned, levied on all col- 
 lectors. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Geological roRMATioN— Physical Featubes — Roraima 
 Mountain — Kaieteur Falls — Noeth-West Terri- 
 tory — Georgetown — Climate — Hotels — Clubs — 
 Public Institutions — Society — Education — Re- 
 creation. 
 
 The geological formation of the colony is 
 varied ; on the coast and along the river- 
 banks are alluvial flats, composed of various 
 coloured clays and vegetable matter ; be- 
 yond this belt is undulating land of quartz 
 sand, and further inland is rocky ground of 
 metamorphic and volcanic origin, intermixed 
 with granite. 
 
 Two of the most remarkable physical 
 features in this country — and not to be sur- 
 passed in any other part of the globe — are 
 the Roraima Mountain and the Kaieteur 
 Falls. The falls are situate upon the river 
 Potaro (a tributary of the Essequibo), and 
 the whole volume of the river (which is 
 4U0 feet wide above the falls at the point 
 
76 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 where it begins to break) descends in one un- 
 broken perpendicular column of water for 
 741 feet sheer down, and then by a steep 
 sloping cataract for 81 feet rushes into a pool 
 in the river below. At the falls the width 
 of water is contracted into 150 feet in width, 
 and in the river at the foot it widens again 
 to 2000 feet. The cliffs which form the 
 sides of the cataract are covered with trees, 
 parasitic plants, orchids, and ferns from top to 
 bottom, and present a scene of inconceivable 
 beauty and grandeur. 
 
 The mountain " Roraima " is a vast table- 
 land of sandstone-rock, the massive summit of 
 which is an almost level surface covering 
 30 square miles and rising to a height of 
 nearly 9000 feet above the sea-level ; this 
 crest stands on a sheer precipice 1500 feet 
 high, in the crevices of which are a few 
 creeping plants and orchids ; after heavy 
 rains it is enlivened by innumerable small 
 cascades, which throw themselves over the 
 summit in every size and of endless variet^'. 
 
 The North-west Territory, which contains 
 the richest known gold-fields, and where 
 the most extensive operations in alluvial 
 washing and quartz mining are now beino- 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 77 
 
 carried on, was in 1885 made into a 
 separate district, under the jurisdiction of a 
 Special Commissioner, who resides at Mora- 
 whanna, the capital and centime. He has 
 under him a Commissary, a Surveyor, and 
 other Government officials. Here, too, are 
 a Custom House, Post-office, Registration 
 Offices, and two Mission Churches — one 
 Anglican, the other Koman Catholic. 
 
 Georgetown — the capital and seat of 
 Government — is situate on the left bank of 
 the Demerara at its outlet to the sea, and 
 covers an area of several hundred acres. Its 
 wide streets are laid out at right angles to 
 each other, and nearly all the main roads 
 have a canal running down the centre 
 in which the Victoria Regia and other mag- 
 nificent lilies grow luxuriantly. On each 
 side are avenues of trees, of which many are 
 decorated vnth gorgeous flowers, and present 
 a strikingly pleasing appearance, reminding 
 one of the picturesque old towns of Holland. 
 The town is well supplied with water by 
 Government, but gas and electricity are 
 provided by private Companies. 
 
 The telephone, as also the telegrajDh and 
 post-offices, are in the hands of Government, 
 
78 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 and yield together a considerable revenue. 
 The telegraph charges are moderate, but the 
 cable rates, which are regulated by a pri- 
 vate Company, are almost prohibitive. The 
 telephone is extensively used, nearly every 
 private house, as well as every public office 
 and place of business, both in town and for 
 ten miles outside, are attached ; and it is the 
 most complete system of telephone communi- 
 cation in any country of the size of Demerara. 
 Financially, however, it is not encouraging, 
 the receipts not amounting to more than half 
 the interest on the cost. 
 
 In electric lig-htinof Georo-etown is far in 
 advance of an}- town of the same size in Eng- 
 land ; all the public institutions, and most 
 private houses, have installations ; it is being 
 experimentally tried for street lighting, and 
 is giving such satisfaction as will no doubt 
 lead to its general adoption. 
 
 The public buildings, which are handsome 
 and commodious, are built of stone, but the 
 private houses are constructed entirely of 
 native timber, wallaba, mora, or greenheart ; 
 they are generally painted, and to each is 
 attached a large garden. The style of archi- 
 tecture is varied and fantastic, three-storeved 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 79 
 
 buildings with towers contrasting with more 
 modest villas having only one stoi-ey ; all, 
 however, of whatever size or style, are built 
 on a basement supported by pillars standing 
 from ten to twelve feet above the ground, 
 and approached by wooden steps. The in- 
 terior arrangements are admirably adapted 
 for the climate, comprising one large room, 
 divided by curtains and screens internally 
 (forming drawing-room, dining-room, and 
 library in one), and surrounded on three 
 sides by a wide verandah, which is protected 
 from the weather by windows and jalousies 
 in alternate sections. Rents are high, rang- 
 ing from $750 to $1250 a year, and the sell- 
 ing value is from five to six years' purchase ; 
 but this, though apparently low, is suffi- 
 ciently high, seeing that the buildings are of 
 wood, and the landlord has to insure, and do 
 all repairs, which are expensive and con- 
 tinuous. 
 
 The most enthusiastic admirers of the 
 colony — indeed, the Colonials themselves — 
 cannot but admit that the climate is not 
 all that could be desired ; even Creoles, a 
 generic term applied to all born in the 
 colony of white or parti-coloured parents, 
 
8o BRITISH GUIANA AXM! ITS RESOURCES 
 
 require a change of scene and climate every 
 few years. Those who have time and money 
 at their disposal visit England or the Conti- 
 nent of Europe, and those whose means are 
 more limited visit Barbadoes (a voyage of 
 twenty hours by sea) ; the climate there is 
 not in realit}'^ much better than at Deme- 
 rara, yet it is a change, and as such is 
 beneficial. 
 
 There is no health resort in the colony 
 itself, but within half a day by steamer up 
 the Essequibo or Demerara rivers there are 
 magnificent sites for an hotel or sanatoi'ium, 
 on high ground, with as grand views of wood 
 and water as are to be seen an}- where in the 
 world ; probably the finest site of all, as Vi'ell 
 as the most healthy for such an establish- 
 ment, would be at the junction of the Mazza- 
 runi and Cuyuni with the Essequibo (distant 
 about five hours by steamer from George- 
 town) ; this locality is now used as the penal 
 settlement of the colony, and the convict 
 establishment would necessaril}^ have to be 
 removed to some other place, but this could 
 be easily accomplished. 
 
 The climate, however, indifferent as it is, 
 possesses a worse character than it fairly 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 8i 
 
 deserves. It is, no doubt, both wet and 
 hot ; the yearly rainfall averages about 
 eighty inches, and the thermometer stands 
 generally over 70° in the shade; but this, 
 though depressing, is not deadly, and there 
 are no great or sudden changes from heat to 
 cold, or cold to heat, which are the woi-st 
 characteristics of unhealthiness ; and there 
 are few countries which enjoy a more equable 
 climate throughout the year ; indeed, with 
 moderate care, and with a good, or even 
 an average constitution, tolerable health may 
 be secured by new-comers ; and the resi- 
 dents generally are as healthy, and enjoy as 
 long lives as the inhabitants of more tem- 
 perate zones. The most prevailing disease 
 is malarious fever, which generally flies to 
 the weakest organ. " Yellow Jack " (a fatal 
 epidemic, which formerly visited the colony 
 periodically) seems to have died out ; there 
 has not been a single case for the last 
 fifteen years. 
 
 The average annual death-rate in the 
 colony is, according to official returns, 38 
 per 1000, not much higher than in some of 
 our manufacturing towns, but it is nearly 
 double the birth-rate ; and yet, according to 
 
 F 
 
S2 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 the official returns, there has been an increase 
 in the population of nearly 10 per cent, in 
 the last decade. 
 
 This apparent discrepancy may, it is said, 
 be explained by the fact that the immigra- 
 tion of five thousand coolies a year (of "whom 
 only two thousand, on an average, return 
 to India) provides a yearly surplus, which 
 accounts for the increase ; but it is scarcely 
 a satisfactory solution. 
 
 Society may be said to be divided into two 
 classes by a hard-and-fast line, separating 
 those who are invited to Government House 
 from those who are not ; but everybody 
 holding any position, or with any pretensions 
 to being a gentleman, can, if he chooses, be 
 classed in the first division. The frequency 
 of these invitations is variable, depending on 
 the hospitality and tastes of the Governor 
 and his wife for the time being. Dinners, 
 balls, or large evening parties of any kind 
 are not common — indeed, few residents are 
 given to these extravagances ; yet they are 
 far from being inhospitable, and there are 
 frequent reunions where music and cards are 
 generally introduced. Whist is occasionally 
 played, but poker and loo are the favourite 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 83 
 
 games, the spirit of gambling being equally- 
 strong in both sexes. There is no theatre or 
 music-hall, but dances and musical entertain- 
 ments — amateur and professional — are occa- 
 sionally given, and are well attended. There 
 are two clubs, one patronised by the higher 
 officials, professional men, and merchants, 
 and the other by clerks in the public offices 
 and the leading shopkeepers. Strangers are 
 admitted to both as honorary members for a 
 limited — a very limited — period ; but as 
 billiards, cards, writing, reading, smoking, 
 and drinking are all carried on in one large 
 room, they are not very comfortable quarters ; 
 but, as the principal papers and periodicals, 
 with the latest cables and telegraphic mes- 
 sages, are taken, and business matters and 
 social incidents are freely discussed, they 
 are well attended. The favourite drink at 
 the clubs and elsewhere is a " swizzle," 
 and is a compound of rum, whisky, or brandy, 
 mixed with soda-water, ice, and a dash of 
 bitters, and cunningly frothed into effer- 
 vescence by the quick turning between the 
 palms of the hands of a wooden instru- 
 ment called a " swizzle-stick." It is a most 
 seductive and refreshing beverage at any 
 
84 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 hour of the day, and is invariably ta,ken as a 
 tonic before lunch or dinner, and admirably 
 in this climate does it answer its purpose. 
 The onl\^ danger attending its use arises 
 from an overdose, and the advice given to 
 the author by an old and well-seasoned 
 hahitiie of the club — viz., " that he should 
 never take more than five ' swizzles ' before 
 breakfast," may be followed with advantage ; 
 indeed, it could not for any lengtliened period 
 be disregarded with impunit3^ Of hotels 
 there are none worthy of the name ; but 
 there are comfortable boarding-houses, where 
 a good table and a fairly good bedroom may 
 be secured at the very moderate charge of 
 $40 per month. 
 
 The hospitals are well managed, and form 
 important features in the public institutions ; 
 the doctors are appointed by Government, 
 and the poorer patients are admitted and 
 treated free. There are other institutions — 
 agricultural, mining, and forests — mainly 
 carried on by private subscription, but aided 
 by Government. Religious establishments 
 are well supported financially hj a grant of 
 £20,000 a year, one-half of which is given to 
 the Protestant Church of England, and the 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 85 
 
 other half divided amonofst the Roman 
 Catholics, Presbyterians, Methodists, and 
 other sects. The system of education is 
 denominational, and it seems to be answer- 
 ing well ; there are altogether 181 schools, 
 and the scholars on the register are nearly 
 26,000, out of whom over 20,000 " attended 
 inspection," most of them passing in the 
 Third Standard ; the average grant in aid is 
 about £l 3s. per head. The Museum and 
 Botanical Gardens (the most popular of all 
 the public institutions) are kept up wholh'- at 
 Government expense ; the former contains 
 many and various interesting specimens of 
 the fauna and flora of the colonv. The 
 Botanical Gardens are of large extent, cover- 
 ing 200 acres, about half of which is laid out 
 as flower gardens. There are walks and 
 drives several miles in length, and they form 
 a favourite promenade for both carriages and 
 pedestrians ; but the most fashionable resort 
 is the sea-wall, a wide asplialted walk about 
 half a mile in length, stretching along the 
 sea-shore in front of the barracks. Here 
 every afternoon may be seen all the elite of 
 Georgetown promenading and enjoying the 
 refreshing trade winds and social gossip, 
 
St. BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 while the carnages which brought them — 
 some well-horsed and well-appointed — are 
 drawn up in waiting at the foot of the em- 
 bankment, to take back their owners in time 
 for dinner at the usual hour, 7.30. No one 
 in Demerara ever walks if he can ride or 
 drive ; and the lassitude induced by a 
 tropical climate renders the gentler exercise 
 on wheels by far the more popular. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Political Uoxstitution — Re\t:nue and Expexditure 
 — Telegraphs and Telephones — Internal Com- 
 MUNicATioN — Railways — Waterways — Commdnica- 
 TiON WITH Other Countries — Inducements to 
 Travellers. 
 
 The political Constitution of the colony is 
 exceptional and somewhat complicated, hav- 
 ing been gradually brought into its present 
 shape by modifications from time to time 
 introduced by successive Governments. It 
 was remodelled again three years ago, and 
 the executive is now vested in the Governor, 
 aided by an " Executive Council " of seven 
 members, of whom four are high ojQ&cials (the 
 Attorney-General, the Government Secretary, 
 the Auditor-General, and Immigration Agent); 
 the other three are selected, practically by 
 the Governor, from the most intelligent and 
 influential inhabitants. This newly created 
 body holds its meetings in camera, and is 
 looked upon with some suspicion by officials 
 
88 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 as well as by others not " within the pale." 
 The legislative power is vested in sixteen 
 members, half of whom are Government 
 officials, and the other half elected, called 
 the " Court of Policy." It includes the 
 Governor (who presides), the Government 
 Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Immi- 
 gration Agent, the Auditor - General, the 
 Receiver - General, the Chief Controller of 
 Customs, and the Surgeon- General or Colo- 
 nial Engineer, who constitute the " official 
 members." The non-official members are 
 elected by the various town and country 
 constituencies ; the counties of Essequibo, 
 Demerara, and Berbice return fiA^e members, 
 and the towns of Georgetown and New 
 Amsterdam the remaining three. This 
 court has no financial power ; it can only 
 legislate. Supplies are voted and expendi- 
 ture settled by another body called the 
 " Combined Court," which is composed of 
 the members of the Court of Policy, and 
 six other members called " Financial Re- 
 presentatives," of whom Demerara and 
 Berbice return one each, Essequibo two, 
 and the towns of Georgetown and New 
 Amsterdam the other two. There is a 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 8g 
 
 property qualification for members, which 
 may be either in land, houses, or personal. 
 The Combined Court and Court of Policy 
 meet when summoned by the Governor, 
 and not necessarily in either case more 
 than once a year ; but the former is usually 
 called together every six months, and the 
 latter every month. The sittings last gener- 
 ally three or four days, and in all divisions 
 the Governor has the casting as well as a 
 first vote. In the Court of Policy the 
 carrying of a Government measure is a 
 foregone conclusion, but in the Combined 
 Court the independent members, when they 
 do combine — as they occasionally do — have 
 a majority ; like our House of Commons, 
 it has theoretically the sole control over 
 taxation and expenditure. 
 
 The Government Departments generally 
 in the colony seem to be working well ; at 
 least, they are giving general satisfaction, 
 which is the best test of effectiveness. 
 There are, of course, grumblers, who think 
 that more expedition might be used in some 
 of the public offices, and that a little less 
 obstinate adherence to red-tapeism might, 
 perhaps, with advantage be indulged in ; 
 
90 BRITISH GUIANA A\D ITS RESOURCES 
 
 and it is publicly stated by others that if 
 fewer officials and clerks were employed 
 the wheels of Government business might 
 possibly run easier ; but there is nothing 
 to make a public grievance of. 
 
 In conformity with the terms of the ces- 
 sion to Great Britain in 1814, the Roman- 
 Dutch law I'emains in force in the colony, but 
 subsequent modifications and additions have 
 made it almost identical both in principle and 
 practice with that of Great Britain. The 
 Law of Limited Liability, with the ex- 
 ception of the most recent amendments, and 
 the Sanitary and Local Government and other 
 general Acts have been adopted in their 
 entii'ety. There is a right of appeal, in all 
 cases, to her Majesty in council. 
 
 The criminal code, except that grand juries 
 do not exist, is also the same as in England, 
 and all prosecutions are made at the instance 
 of the Attorney-General. 
 
 No British troops are now quartered in the 
 colony, although there is ample barrack ac- 
 commodation. A battalion of the West 
 India Regiment, whose depot is at Jamaica, 
 is the nearest available force. A small Ijodv 
 of militia exists, but order is kej)t by the 
 
BRITISH GUIAXA AND ITS RESOURCES 91 
 
 local police, maintained at the expense of 
 the colon}-. This efficient force musters 800 
 men, and is officered by whites ; and in 
 addition there is a rural constabulary nearly 
 1000 strong. The seaboard contains no 
 harbour in which a fleet can ride with safety, 
 and for assistance by sea the colony is de- 
 pendent upon Jamaica or Bermuda. A 
 sloop is, however, employed on the Pre- 
 ventive Service. 
 
 The public revenue of the colon}'- is about 
 £600,000 a year, and considerably exceeds 
 its expenditure. Its total public indebted- 
 ness is under £90,000, and the exports exceed 
 the imports by nearly £250,000 ; English 
 commerce constitutes more than two-thirds 
 of the latter and nearly one-third of the 
 former. 
 
 Internal communication in the colony, ex- 
 cept by steamers, is limited and defective ; 
 but wherever the rivers are navigable there 
 are steamships and sailing vessels, some of 
 which are largely subsidised by Government. 
 There is a daily service up the Essequibo ; 
 every other day up the Demerara, and along 
 the coast to Berbice, and twice a week to the 
 Barima in the North-west district ; all the 
 
92 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 steamers ply to the full extent of the 
 navigable limits on each river, and when the 
 first falls or shallow waters are reached, 
 transhipment into steam-launches or tented 
 boats (propelled by paddles or oars), some 
 of the larger of which carry from fifteen to 
 twenty men besides cargo, provisions, and 
 tools, has to take place. 
 
 The navigation of the rapids, which on 
 some of the larger rivers occur at intervals of 
 a few miles, causes great cost and delay, and 
 is always attended with danger. Scarcely a 
 month elapses without the record of a boat 
 being swamped, and most of its crew 
 drowned, and the cargo lost. 
 
 Inland travelling has to be done on foot ; 
 there are no roads or tracks where even a 
 mule (the most sure-footed of all beasts of 
 burden) could make its way, except along 
 the sea-coast, where there are macadamised 
 carriage roads for short distances. There 
 is only one railway ; it was constructed in 
 1840, and is amongst the earliest of Colonial 
 railways. It runs from the capital, through 
 the sugar plantations, along the east coast 
 to the river Mahaica for about twenty miles ; 
 it pays a good dividend, and the shares 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 93 
 
 stand Avell in the market. Neo'otiations 
 have for some time been in progress for 
 an extension to Berbice, 45 miles farther, 
 so as to connect the two towns of the colony, 
 Georgetown and New Amsterdam, and to 
 accommodate the intermediate plantations 
 and farms. Another proposed extension is a 
 short line of six miles along the west coast, to 
 serve the plantations and villages in that 
 direction ; and other lines of light railways 
 and steam tramways for opening up the 
 country — specially for the gold industry — 
 are also in contemplation. They are designed 
 to connect the large rivers on their upper 
 reaches ; and this connection is to be sup- 
 plemented by placing small, light-draught, 
 stern-wheel steamers — similar to those intro- 
 duced on the Zambesi — and by portages to be 
 worked by water power from the adjoining 
 falls. By these means, at a comparatively 
 moderate outlay, immediate and substantial 
 encouragement will be given to the develop- 
 ment of the gold and other industies, and 
 the opening up of the country generally for 
 colonisation and settlement. 
 
 Communication with other countries — 
 especially with England — is by no means 
 
94 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 all that could be desired. The Royal Mail 
 Steamship Company has a fortnightly ser- 
 vice ; the larger steamers, after dropping 
 the mails and passengers for this colony at 
 Barbadoes, proceed to Jamaica and Colon ; 
 and from Barbadoes smaller steamers (called 
 Intercolonial) take the passengers and mails 
 on to Demerara. The voyage occupies alto- 
 gether a fortnight ; but it might easily be 
 shortened by a couple of days, even with the 
 present fleet, and, if larger and swifter 
 vessels were used, the length of voyage could 
 be reduced to about two-thirds of its present 
 duration, but of this there seems little 
 prospect at present, as the contract with 
 the Company has just been renewed for 
 five years on the old terms. In some 
 respects, and in minor details, the service 
 might, however, be improved. There is no 
 bath-room for any but first-class passengers, 
 and there is no library on board — not a book 
 or periodical (except books of hotel and other 
 advertisements, which are supplied gratis to 
 all Companies) ; and a sheet of writing-paper 
 or an envelope is not to be had for love or 
 money. The smoking-rooms, which also do 
 duty as card-rooms, are small, comfortless 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 95 
 
 cabins, and, what with smoke and chatter, it is 
 almost impossible to see the cards, much less 
 to play them. The food is, no doubt, ample, 
 and with many varieties of dishes ; but it is 
 the same variety every day, and, with a little 
 care and forethought, this sameness might be 
 easily remedied. All the meals — five in 
 number every day — are crammed into nine 
 hours, between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m., and then 
 comes an interval of fifteen hours of complete 
 abstinence, unless something be specially 
 ordered ; and then it is not always obtain- 
 able without trouble and grumbling. The 
 whisky and brandy are good and fairly 
 cheap ; but the wines are not only dear, but 
 poor, and it would be to the advantage of 
 both passengers and Company if decent 
 wines were to be had at moderate prices. 
 The service, too, is deficient in steam tenders ; 
 at Barbadoes, and other ports of stoppage, 
 passengers have to trust to small boats, and 
 even at Demerara the landing is dependent 
 on a tender supplied by a private fii-m. for 
 which a charge of Is. per head is made. 
 This charge is not, perhaps, excessive in it- 
 self, but, as passengers booked to George- 
 town have an undoubted right to be landed 
 
96 BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 
 
 there, and not left in the middle of the 
 river, to get ashore as best they may, the 
 extra charge can scarcely be justified. 
 Under existing circumstances, however — 
 seeing that the Company has a practical 
 monopoly of passenger traffic, and that the 
 passengers are comparatively few — it is gene- 
 rally admitted that the service, although 
 defective, is in most respects as good as 
 could be fairly exjaected. It is to be regretted 
 that upon the recent renewal of the contract 
 the small additional subsidy asked for was 
 not given, as it would have secured a higher 
 speed, and man}- other improvements, which 
 must now stand over for a period of five 
 years, unless in the meantime the Influx of 
 traffic derivable — when the colony is better 
 known, and gold and other industries are 
 being developed — should warrant increased 
 expenditure on passenger comforts, or indeed 
 necessitate it, in view of probable com- 
 petition. Progress of this nature will bring 
 about desired improvements more surely and 
 effectually than any increased subsidies or 
 other artificial appliances. At present there 
 is almost an entire absence of pleasure traffic, 
 and few travellers frequent this route unless 
 
BRITISH GUIANA AND ITS RESOURCES 97 
 
 business compels ; and yet there is much to 
 attract tourists as visitors to the country, 
 and a visit could not fail to be attractive to 
 large numbers of travellers of different tastes 
 and inclinations. To the lovers of scenery, 
 the grand mountains, magnificent water- 
 falls, noble rivers, and illimitable forests 
 afford endless variety ; for the adventurous, 
 there are unknown regions to explore ; for 
 the naturalist, there are beasts, birds, fishes, 
 and insects not indigenous to any other 
 country ; for the botanist, there is probably 
 a wider field for observation and collection 
 than is to be found elsewhere in the world ; for 
 the sportsman, though there are no savage 
 beasts or big game to be met with, yet there 
 is ample field for sport in the great variety of 
 the smaller animals ; for the ethnologist, the 
 manners and customs of the native Indians, 
 emancipated negroes, coolies, and the various 
 crosses afibrd infinite scope for study ; and 
 for the capitalist and man of business, besides 
 alluvial gold, auriferous reefs, precious stones, 
 and other minerals, there are agricultural, 
 pastoral, and other industries, which, if pro- 
 perly developed, could not fail to yield most 
 remunerative returns. 
 
 G 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 VENEZUELAN FRONTIER 
 
 The question of frontier between British Guiana and 
 Venezuela, which has not hitherto been looked upon 
 in a very serious aspect, or as within the range of 
 practical politics, is now (since the preceding chapters 
 were written) assuming a somewhat acute phase. 
 This change has been brought about by a most 
 unwarrantable act on the part of some Venezuelan 
 soldiers, who, in the early part of the present year, 
 crossed the long recognised boundary line between 
 the two countries at the junction of the Uruan with 
 the Ouyuni, deliberately tore down the British flag, 
 hoisted the Republican ensign in its place, laid violent 
 hands on the small force of police stationed there, 
 and marched them into Venezuela, maltreating them 
 on the way. 
 
 For this unprovoked outrage Venezuela has been 
 called upon to make reparation and apology, but so 
 far she has made neither ; and a communication in 
 the nature of an ultimatum has been despatched by 
 the English Government through the German Con- 
 sulate, who have acted as their representative since 
 the rupture of diplomatic relations with Venezuela 
 
loo APPENDIX 
 
 some years ago. The precise terms of the despatch 
 have not yet been made public, but it is understood 
 that they are peremptory in tone, and if not coni- 
 pHed with, the demand will be followed and enforced 
 by taking possession of one of their Custom-houses, 
 a. practical remedy recently applied in the case of a 
 neighbouring republic, which assumed the same 
 defiant attitude, and could only be brought to terms 
 by a resort to the only means which appeal to half- 
 civilised communities. 
 
 This episode, though not directly bearing on the 
 boundary question, for whatever the eventual issue 
 as to that may be ample reparation and apology 
 Diust first be made, will no doubt tend to expedite a 
 settlement of the long-vexed line of frontier. The 
 -circumstances that led to the present imbroglio date 
 back to the cession of British Guiana to this country 
 in 1814. It will not be possible in this pamphlet, 
 even if it were desirable, to give a detailed account 
 of the various occurrences that have culminated in 
 this act of open hostility, but a short rSsume will 
 convey a general comprehension of the position, and 
 will not be uninteresting at the present somewhat 
 critical juncture. 
 
 It is contended on the part of Venezuela that the 
 terms of the Dutch cession did not extend beyond the 
 right bank of the Essequibo ; whereas England claims 
 that it included the whole of the watershed of that 
 river and of its tributaries, and thence to the left bank 
 of the Amacura where it empties itself into the 
 Orinoco; and England has' continuously and uninter- 
 
APPEXDIX loi 
 
 ruptedly exercised jurisdiction and rights of owner- 
 ship over this territory, without any interference on 
 the part of Venezuela, and for many years the greater 
 portion of it has been administered as a separate 
 province (North-west) under a special Commission. 
 It is within this area Ihat the most valuable gold- 
 fields have been discovered and are being extensively 
 worked, and to this circumstance no doubt is due 
 the a-ctive revival of a claim which, for the last eighty 
 years, has cropped up feebly and intermittingly, and 
 has always been met on the part of this country with 
 a firm and decided negative. 
 
 The question is by no means free from difficulties 
 .and complications, and is not such a simple matter 
 as at first sight appears. The valuable map by 
 General Codazzi, published in Paris in 1876, under 
 Venezuelan auspices, shows a line of frontier in 
 accordance with the views of that Republic, and the 
 only territory north-west of the Essequibo admitted 
 as in British occupation, is a tract stretching north- 
 wards past the Pomeroon river, and described as 
 " usurpado por los Inglescs." The same map includes 
 in the area of Venezuela a large territory watered 
 by affluents of the Amazon, possessed by Brazil and 
 Ecuador, and a wide area of debatable land on the 
 . confijies of Colombia.* The accomplished carto- 
 
 * Another map pos3e.<;sing considerable interest at the present 
 
 time, taken from a survey mide for the Spanish Gorernment 
 
 ' about a hundred and twenty years ago, is known to exist, but 
 
 the only copy believed to be extant is deposited at Santa Fe de 
 
 Bogota. 
 
102 APPENDIX 
 
 grapher may probably be relied upon for accuracy as 
 to the geographical and physical features of the 
 countries shown on his map ; but the political areas 
 there defined are merely the outcome of the preten- 
 sions formulated by his employers, and are in direct 
 variance with the lines laid down in the elaborate 
 plan of the district made by Sir Richard Schom- 
 burgk in 1840, and agreed to by Venezuela as a 
 mod/us Vivendi ten years later, in 1850, when an 
 understanding was come to between the two Govern- 
 ments that, until the exact line of tlie frontier was 
 settled, neither would encroach on the disputed area. 
 On the part of Venezuela, however, this condition 
 has not been observed, and repeated incursions, 
 but none of serious moment, have been made. A 
 few years ago the colony was startled by a rumour 
 that an " invading army " was on its way from 
 the Venezuelan frontier. This force, which proved 
 to consist of a General, decorated with a sword 
 and cocked hat, in command of a few half-caste 
 soldiers in tattered garments and armed with rusty 
 old blunderbusses, marched down the river Mazza- 
 runi to its junction with the Essequibo. The country 
 traversed was a trackless forest, and when the 
 " army " approached the confines of civilization 
 they were in a miserable state of rags and hunger. 
 Here they were confronted by a patrolling police, 
 man, taken before the resident magistrate and fined 
 $5 each for " carrying arms without a licence " ; 
 and, not being able to pay, were " in default " incar- 
 cerated in the boat-house of that official (ther6 being 
 
APPENDIX 103 
 
 no prison in tlie district) pending the orders of the 
 Governor as to their disposal. His Excelleucy, on 
 being communicated with, at once directed the 
 " army " to be sent to Georgetown forthwith ; and 
 accordingly the General with his imprisoned soldiers 
 were forwarded there. On arrival, they were well 
 fed and decently clothed, and, with a warning not 
 to repeat the escapade, were sent back to Venezuela 
 by the first available steamer, no one any the worse 
 for the " invasion." 
 
 It is not surprising that, after this exhibition, 
 " hostile invasions " from the north-west and along 
 the same route do not inspire much alarm in 
 Demerara ; but it is not from that quarter that any 
 serious disturbance need be apprehended, the track- 
 less and almost impenetrable forests for a distance of 
 nearly 300 miles being of themselves a sufficient pro- 
 tection. The most vulnerable point of attack would 
 no doubt be by the Amacura, which adjoins the 
 Barima district on the north-west, and from there 
 a few days' march would land the invaders in the 
 midst of rich gold-fields, where a large population is 
 now engaged in working reefs and placers and in 
 alluvial washing ; the invaders would no doubt meet 
 with a warm reception from the miners, who are 
 always ready to fight and defend themselves, but 
 much valuable property might be sacrificed, and 
 many lives lost, a catastrophe which should of course, 
 if possible, be averted. 
 
 The exact line diplomacy ^will take may be left 
 wilh absolute confidence in the hands of the present 
 
104 APPENDIX 
 
 Government, who are no more likely to let the 
 British flag be insulted with impunity, than they are 
 to submit to arbitration the cession of a large slice of 
 territory comprising — if the Venezuelan pretensions 
 could be upheld — not less than four-fifths of the 
 total area of the colony, and embracing many old- 
 estabUshed sugar plantations, extensive and valuable 
 forests, and almost the whole of the known gold- 
 fields — possessions which have been for years enjoyed 
 without let or hindrance. Such a title to such a ter- 
 ritory could not be submitted to the arbitration of 
 any Power, however impartial and influential, though 
 this mode of settlement may possibly be adopted in 
 the case of the large area of debatable land lying 
 outside the definite lines laid down in 1850, but 
 even this could not be eutertained until reparation 
 had been made by the Venezuelan Government for 
 the recent outrage, and some satisfactory basis for 
 arbitration had been agreed upon.