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 PRINTED JNU.S.A. 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://archive.org/details/cu31924026580617 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 PE 1111.B87 1863a 
 
 Institutes of English grammar methodica 
 
 3 1924 026 580 617 
 
BROWN'S GB.AMMAR IMPUQVKD. 
 THE 
 
 INSTITUTES 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 METHODICALLY ARRANGED ; 
 
 WITH 
 
 rOEMS OF PARSING AND CORRECTING, EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 
 
 QUESTIONS FOE EXAMINATION, FALSE SYNTAX FOR COR- 
 
 RECTION, EXERCISES FOE WRITING, OBSERVATIONS 
 
 FOE THE ADVANCED STUDENT, 
 
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS, 
 
 AND 
 
 A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: 
 
 TO WHICH AEE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR THE USB OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 
 
 BY GOOLD BROWN, 
 
 PBINCIPAL OF AH" ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL ACADBMT, NEW TOEK, 
 
 "Ne quia igltar tanquam parva fastidiat Grammatices elementa." — QumTiLiAW. 
 
 A NEW EDITION, 
 
 WITH EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING, 
 
 BT HEMRY KIDDLE, A. M., 
 
 ASSISTANT STIPBEINTKNDENT OP COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YORK OITT. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 •WILLIAM "WOOD, 61 WALKER STREET. 
 
 1863. 
 
4' /<^7 '^^ 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 TnE excellence of Beown's Geammahs, both as treatises and achonl-boolts, Is 
 very generally acknowledged. The repeated demands, however, for a more extend- 
 ed treatment of the " Analysis of Sentences" than was thought necessary by the 
 author, htm induced the publisher to issue a new edition, containing a full and pro- 
 gressive exposition of this department of grammar, and an entirely new scries of 
 exercises and examples, both for analysis and parsing, with observations and refer- 
 ences to make them correspond with the body of the work. The exercises in Anal- 
 ysis, and the definitions necessary to explain them, have not been confined to the 
 dcpartnient of Syntax, as in most other grammatical text-books, but made to com- 
 mence at a point where the intelligent progress of the pupil seems to demand such 
 aid. No attempt has been made to revise the text, or change the system of grammar 
 therein explained ; because; while no change could possibly accommodate it to the 
 views of all, the intelligent teacher can find no difttculty in varying it, in a few minor 
 particulars, so as to make it correspond with his own views. With these alterations, 
 the publisher hopes that these works will be found more useful to the public, and a 
 more valuable aid to teachers in imparting instruction in this important branch of 
 education. /^ \ 
 
 lintered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S5G, by 
 
 GOOLD BROWN, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachii setts. 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by 
 
 S. S. & "W. "WOOD, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
 
 District of New York. 
 
 
 ELROTBOTYPRD BT 
 
 Smith & McDougal, 
 84 Beckman St., N. T, 
 
 
^-,//u.-.-.^.., f-C^lfij 
 
 (T^ 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 1. LANeTTAQE Is the principal vehicle of thought ; and bo numerous and important! 
 are the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner 
 tiie affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will 
 ever entitle It to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and to an 
 important place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation 
 to its origin — whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of 
 Industry — a natural endowment, or an artificial invention, — certain it is, that, in the 
 present state of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, 
 on the voluutary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities afforded 
 us. One may indeed acquire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as to 
 eigoy the ordinary advantages of speech ; and he who is satisfied with the dialect he 
 has so obtained, will find no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is desirous 
 either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or of expressing his sentiments 
 with propriety and ease, must make4he principles of language his study. 
 
 2. It is not the business of tbe grammarian to give UtvJ to language, but to teach it, 
 agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, 
 and with which his instructions must always accord, is that species of custom which 
 Clitics denominate ooou u8b; that is, present, reputable, gei^eral use. This principle, 
 which is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to 
 the qnaint peculiarities of ancient usage, is the only proper standard of grammatical 
 purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are eiitablisbed by this authority, 
 may be called the Institutes of Grammar. 
 
 3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language ; 
 to express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth ; 
 to illustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises ; and to give to the whole all 
 possible advantage from method in the arrangement ; are the oTigects of the following 
 work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most 
 approved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. , It 
 was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established 
 rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from 
 time immemorial ; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 
 
 4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be desirable, 
 where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the 
 principles of our langui^e, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, 
 the writer has ia generid adopted those doctiines which are alreaidy best known ; and 
 has contented himself with attempting little more than an improved methdd of incul- 
 cadng them. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and elcemplify 
 those doctrines anew; and, with a scrupulous regard to the beSt usage, to offer, on 
 that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. 
 The errors of former grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose ; 
 and of their deficiencies the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they aro 
 here supplied. 
 
 5. This treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to aH classes of learners, 
 was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, 
 disencumbered tff every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the sub- 
 ject. Little regard has therefore been paid to gainsayers. Grammarians have ever 
 disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt most 
 In philological controversy, have well iUustrated the couplet of Denliam : 
 
 " The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes. 
 Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 
 
 , 6. They who set aside the authorityof custom, and judge everything to be nngram- 
 matical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever 
 disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions 
 of this sort of critics, that it would be diificult to mention an opinion not found in 
 some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, 
 variuas attempts have been made, to overthrow that System of instruction, which long 
 use has rendered venerable, and long expciience proved to be useful- But it is mani- 
 festly much easier to raise even plausible objeotions against this system, than to in- 
 
iv PEEFACE. 
 
 vent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generaUy met the reception 
 they deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovtitors. 
 
 7. While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly suppoBing 
 that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories; ^^^^"jj^l:^ 
 more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumeraDiy, oy 
 abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they '"'^o are 
 at all acquainted with the origin and character of the vaiious compends tnus incro- 
 duced into our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more exteneiva 
 and more permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord hJacon OD- 
 eerves, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, duc 
 by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the '*PJ"'^°"^ , 
 
 8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author nas, 
 however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in 
 works of this sort; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned 
 and popnlar of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and 
 write for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence 
 of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority whictt 
 gives law to language. 
 
 9: All science is laid in the nature of things; and he only who seeks it there, can 
 rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his pre- 
 decessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. 
 But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been 
 copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their 
 errors, or none had eyes to see them 1 "Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest 
 and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one' s own, nor 
 reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsup- 
 ported by authority, ia indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that author- 
 ship which has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall he who can- 
 not write for himself, improve upon him who can? It is not deference to merit, but 
 impuyeut pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance I Commonness alone 
 exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worth- 
 lessneas ! To read and be informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advance- 
 ment of learning; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and 
 stoleu criticisms, is eqilally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a 
 njan, 
 
 10. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent 
 person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly 
 on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem 
 that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to 
 teach the art of speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and neat- 
 ness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have 
 been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy 
 of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the prmciples of English Grammar. But 
 these, for an obvious reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of suc- 
 cess ; and even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though 
 sOme have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause 
 to regret their lack of an inducement to further labour. The mere grammarian can 
 neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward ; and to those who were best quali- 
 fied to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence. 
 
 11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with 
 most of the granmiatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the 
 objects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in 
 any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements 
 here offered, are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to de- 
 preciate the labours, or to detract from the merits of those who have gone before him 
 and taught with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself 
 of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. For his own information, he has 
 carefully perused more than two hundred English grammars, and ht^g glanced over 
 many others that were not worth reading. AVith this publication in view, he has also 
 resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically 
 considered what he has seen aud heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with 
 some diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. 
 
 12. His progress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with 
 labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various 
 treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated 
 a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations 
 which appeafed to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with hia 
 ultimate object — the production of a practical school grammar. 
 
 13. Ambitious of making not a large but an acceptable book, he has compressed into 
 this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials from which he could as 
 easily have formed a folio. Whether the toil be compensated or not, isa matter of 
 littli^ consequence ; he has neither written for bread, uor built cjistles in the air. Ho 
 is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortuuQ 
 
PREFACE, V 
 
 of authors, to indulge any confident anticipations of success ; yet he will not deny Ihat 
 his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of leel- 
 ing which cannot fear disappointment. In this t^jmper he would invite tlitf reader to 
 a thorough perusal of the following ^ages. A grammar should speak fpf itEclf. Jn a 
 work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance 
 to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against 
 it. Yet, if some small errors have escaped detection, let it be recollected thatit i^ al- 
 most impoasible to print with perfect accuracy a work of this size, in which so many 
 little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. .There 
 is no human v^;ilance which multiplicity may not sometimes bafHo, and minuteqee'B 
 sometimes elude. ;^o most persons grammar seems a dry and difScult subjecti "but 
 there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason allu- 
 ring. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome, 
 and the deepwimpression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the 
 author a fondness for ^ammar ; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his 
 genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever 
 imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. 
 
 14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several- parts, with 
 notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned 
 them. The examples of false syntax placed under the rules, are to be corrected orat' 
 ly; the four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subject, are to be 
 toritten out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author hai 
 been studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those 
 only which were very short He has, in general, reduced each example to a single 
 line. And, in this manner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a series 
 of exercises, more various than are given in any other grammar, and nearly equal 4tt 
 number to all that are contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed that a gramr 
 matical treatise at once so comprehensive and comdse, has not before been offered to 
 the public 
 
 15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal defi- 
 nitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever after- 
 wards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smooth the way, and facilitate the 
 hibour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of 
 gi'amniar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will 
 it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he mak6s 
 no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised 
 in learning small portions of his hook, and then applying them. in parsing^ till the 
 whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great 
 nor difficult ; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory, and strength- 
 en all the faculties of the mind. 
 
 16. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful 
 experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it 
 difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- 
 ample, rule and praxis; which no man who means to teach gr^nmiar well, will ever 
 desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. The book itself 
 will make any one a grammaiian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise 
 what it teaches ; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest and most 
 efficient method of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they wiU not fail to 
 instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. "Whoever is acquainted with 
 the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will 
 here find almost every tibing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced 
 under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, how- 
 ever learned, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some im- 
 portant rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 
 
 17. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or 
 write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember 
 that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well ; an art which can no more be 
 acquired without practice than that of dancing or swimming. And each should be 
 careful to perform his part handsomely — without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesita- 
 ting, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, mis- 
 quoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance dis- 
 agreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction thatis to he improved; and the 
 system will be found well calculated to effect that object ; because it demands of him, , 
 not only to answer questions on grammar, but also' to make a proippt and practical 
 application of what he has just learned. If the class he tolerable readers, it will not 
 be necessary for the teacher to say much; and, in general, he ought not to tdke up 
 the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; 
 gjve the word to the next, when any one errs ; and order the exercise in such a man- 
 ner that either his own voice, or the example of his best schQlars, may gradually cor- 
 rect the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with cleamess, understanding 
 well what they say, and making it intelligible to others^ 
 
 18. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of etymol- 
 OKT, and is carried on proj^ressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are appUca- 
 
vi PEEFAOE. 
 
 ble to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the 
 student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar, is 
 requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are uuLr- 
 ing; while it advances by such easygradations and constant repetitions as leave me 
 pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither ^vnoay 
 extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than f^schooi-Doy s 
 conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation, or declamation ; and is tnereiore 
 an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in or- 
 dinary speech— a species of elocution as valuable as any other. 
 
 19. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and SKiii 
 in practice; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctnneB 
 most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil— which tne 
 most eflfectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon 
 blundering ignorance. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none ot greater 
 importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, 
 more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is me 
 practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument; 
 nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of disci- 
 pline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the man- 
 agement of these things ; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally 
 raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind 
 to habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the 
 present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympa- 
 thize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us, that he 
 had "always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning 
 were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much 
 neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy."— Pre/, to 
 Minerva. The grammatical use of language ip in sweet alliance with the moral ; and a 
 similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Christian poet : 
 
 *' Sacred Interpreter of human thoughi, 
 How few respect or use thee as they ought I" — Cowper. 
 
 20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the un- 
 thinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can 
 attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtless ness the true meaning of words, 
 raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to 
 excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where 
 teachera themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may 
 be effected by means of a better book, if a better can be introduced. And what with- 
 stands ?— Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is 
 it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this, as well as to many a 
 weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, Malta non mint sicut rnultis videniur — 
 Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal them- 
 selves from the common mind; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often 
 frustrated, because a wroi^ head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficul- 
 ties: multiplicity perplexes choice; inconvenience attends change; improvement re- 
 quires effort ; conflicting theories demand examination ; the principles of the science 
 are unprofitably disputed; the end is often divorced from the means; and much that 
 belies the title, has been published under the name. 
 
 21. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the im- 
 portant exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written, or so 
 negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenUe orators, little 
 else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of 
 exercises should be constantly used with his grammar; but he made the examples in 
 thci former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the 
 series agreeably to his directiou. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has 
 probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar with- 
 out them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also 
 misplaced ; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, 
 awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly igno- 
 rant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. 
 "When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school 
 should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, 
 each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we can- 
 not tliinfc it a light objection that these forms, so ofle.t to be repeated, are badly writ- 
 ten. Nor doesthe objection lie against this writer only: Ab uno diace oirmes. But 
 tha reader may demand some illustrations. 
 
 22. First — from his etymological parsing: "O Virtuel how amiable thou artl" 
 Here his form for the word Virtue is — " Virtue is a common substantive of the neuter 
 gender, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case." It 
 should have been — " Viritte is a common Tioun, personified jj?'opBr, of the secoiuiper- 
 8071, singular number, /crftinui* gender, and nominative case." And, then the defini- 
 tions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives 
 
PREFACE, Vii 
 
 the class of this nonn wrong, fbr virtue addressed becomes an indiridnal ; he g^ves the 
 gender wrong, and in direct contradiction of what he says of the word, in his section 
 on gender; he gives the person wrong, as maybe seen by the pronoun tkou; he re- 
 peats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless preposi- 
 tions, making them diiFerent where the relation is precisely the same: ^ind all this, in 
 a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties of the noun Virtue ! — But, in etymological 
 parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to bo 
 regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them are perfectly familiar, 
 and till he can decern, with the quickness of thought, what is true or false in the de- 
 scription of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits ; and; 
 on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably de- 
 ficient 
 
 23. Secondly — ^from Ms syntactical parsing: " Vice degrades us." Here his form 
 for the word Vice is — " Viee is a common substantive of the third person, in the sin- 
 gular number, and the nominative case.^^ Now, when the learner is told that this is 
 the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course con- 
 clude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is 
 merely to OTnit the gender — this being the only difference between the two forms. But 
 even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing 
 his octavo boolrof exercises — the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what 
 then f Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymologi>- 
 cal? Never. But Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to 
 parse many words by halves — ^making a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both 
 parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes t^e difference. He should here 
 have said — " Vice is a common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
 der, and nominative case : and is the subject of cUffrades; according to the rule which 
 says, ^ A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative 
 case.* Because the meaning is — vice degrades." This is the whole description of the 
 word, with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 
 
 24. Thirdly — from his " mode of verbally correcting eri*oneous sentences: ' The man 
 is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence," says Murray, " Is incorrect; because 
 loMck is a pronoun of the n&iiter gender, and does not agree zn gender with its antece- 
 dent 7»an, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in 
 gender, &c., according to tiie fifth rule of syntax. Which should ther^ore be toAo, a 
 relative pronoun, agp*eeing with Its antecedent rruaif and the sentence should stand 
 thus: * The man is prudent wAo speaks little.' " Again: *^^ ^ After I visited Europe, Z 
 returned to America.' Tkia sentence" says he, "is not correct; because the verb 
 visited is iu the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, 
 but prior to the time referred to by the verb retnmed^ to which it relates. By the 
 thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each 
 other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense visited^ should 
 therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of 
 vifflHng, not only as past, but also as prior to tbe time of returning. Ttie sentence 
 correcUd would etaarta thus: * After I had vi^ted Europe, I returned to America.'" 
 These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones re- 
 tained by Alger, in. his improved, recopy-righied edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, 
 in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false I In the former, truly, which 
 should be who ; but not because which is of the neuter gender; hut because the appli- 
 cation of that rel&tive to persons^ is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian for- 
 get ^jhat, in speakmg of brute animals, male or female, we conVmouly use which, and 
 never who t But if which must needs be vieuter, the world is wrong in this. — ^As, for 
 the latter example, it is right as it stands : and the correction is, in some sort, tauto- 
 logicaL The coigunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the 
 other, and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect 
 tense. '^'^ After I visited Europe," is equivalent to " When I had visited Europe." 
 The whole argument is therefore void. 
 
 25. These few brief illustrations, ont-of thousands that might he adduced In proof of 
 the faultiness of tiie common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show 
 that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treat- 
 ed wi^ that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be sup- 
 posed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books 
 as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, 
 in respect to grammar, the evidences of failure are constantly inducing changes from 
 one system to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly ' 
 to end in &e same iMsappointment ; perhaps the practical instructions of an expe- 
 rienced teacher, long and ausiduoudy devoted to the study, may approve themselves 
 to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance whiclh they require. 
 
 2ti. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of 
 details to which taste can lend no charm^ and genius no embcUislunent. A writer may 
 express them with neatness and perspicuity — their importance alone can comraeua 
 them to notice. Yet, in drawing Ms illnstrations from the stores of literature, the 
 grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memoiy « 
 
vill PREFACE. 
 
 worthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples hare 
 been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following pages. _ 
 
 2T. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost iuiportance, it }^^^- 
 pecially incambent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of i^V^^ 
 lectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle whicn 
 may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately preyudicial to those whom they in- 
 struct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been sohcitous to 
 avoid every thing that could be offensive to the mo5,t delicate and scrupulous reader j 
 and, of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will 
 be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 
 
 28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages 
 with a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what la 
 copied and what is originaL All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily 
 similar. The doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own lan- 
 guage, and illustrated by that of others. Where authority was requisite,_ names have 
 "been inserted ; and in general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of 
 the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, 
 are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to al- 
 most every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or refer- 
 ence is added. In the exercises for correction, few references have been given ; be- 
 cause it is no credit to any author, to have written bad English. But the intelligent 
 reader will recognize as quotations a large portion of the examples, and know from 
 what works they are taken. To the school-boy this knowledge is neither important 
 nor interesting 
 
 29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, 
 and have been printed under so many names, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to 
 know to whom they originally belonged. Of these the author has freely availed him- 
 self, though seldom without some amendment; while he has carefully abstained from 
 every thing on which he supposed there could now be any individual claim. He has 
 therefore fewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are re- 
 puted to have written with sufficient originality on the subject. 
 
 30. In truth, not a line has here beencopied with any view to save the labour of com- 
 position; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to 
 compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which the writer 
 proposed to himself. And though the theme is not one upon which a man may hope 
 to write well with little reflection, it is true, that the parts of this treatise which have 
 cost him the most labour, are those which "consist chiefly of materials selected from 
 the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, 
 but the proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the ancient gramma- 
 rians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our 
 modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their 
 readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many 
 phrases and sentences either original or anonymous will therefore be found among the 
 illustrations of the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would de- 
 mand for every thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous exam- 
 ples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and elucidation is 
 often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 
 
 31. The author is well aware that no writer on grammar has any right to propose 
 himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common prop- 
 erty of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, 
 "and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defi- 
 nitions and rules. " Since the matter of wliich we are treating/* says the philologist 
 of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, 
 none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with 
 v/hatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have con- 
 firmed his assertions by reason and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in 
 respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says. Epistle 95, * Grammarians are the guard- 
 ians, not the autltors, of language.' " — Minerva, Lib. i, Cap. ii. Yet, as what is in- 
 tuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many 
 points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it 
 would seem an injurious refltiction on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate 
 proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language. 
 
 32. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as 
 they become competitors for the same prize ; but in competition there is nothing dis- 
 honourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is souj'ht bv 
 unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian who 
 has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can 
 need a false apology; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious 
 modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way fl^hat he assumes in an other 
 — or to underrate the duties of his olfice, that he may boast of having " done all that 
 could reasonably he expocted." Whoever professes to have improved the science of 
 English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of Ene- 
 lish grammarians j and he who begins with saying that " Uttls can bo expected" from 
 
PREFACE. . iX 
 
 f he office he assumes, must ba wrongfully contradicted when ho is held to have dono 
 much. Neither tlie ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respecta- 
 bly on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of 
 literary merit. And if, by virtue of theso qualifications alone, a man will become a 
 giammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy — a courtesy 
 which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be ac- 
 cepted and honoured under the name. 
 
 33. By the force of a late popular example, utill too widely Influential, grammatical 
 authorship has been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a 
 mere serving-up of materials anonymously borroweid ; and, what is most remarkable, 
 even for an indifferent performance of this low office, not oidy unnamed reviewers, 
 but several wiiters of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of gram- 
 matical excellence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borna 
 away hyaprofessed compiler; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme re- 
 quired, as to deuy It even the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, 
 that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to im- 
 prove upon this most happy design : while all who were competent to the task, have 
 bee<i disconi-aged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our lan- 
 guage? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such no- 
 tions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his inge- 
 nuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsidei'able, till some honoured 
 compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world un- 
 der better auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has gen- 
 erously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel liimself reduced to an 
 " humble drudge" — or, like Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting 
 his time to such a subject as grammar? 
 
 34. Since the first edition of this work, more than two hundred new compends, 
 many of them professing to be abstracts of Murray with improvements, have been 
 added to our list of English grammars. The author has examined about one hundred 
 and fifty, and seen advertisements or notices of nearly half as many more. Being va- 
 rious in character, they will of course be variously estimated; but, so far as he can 
 judge, they are, without exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to 
 be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would 
 hasre been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of 
 several of them have committed upon the following digest, were it not possible that 
 by such a frittering-away of his work he himself might one day seem to some to have 
 copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it mani- 
 fest to men of learning, that in the production of these Institutes , far more has been 
 done for the grammar of our language, than any single hand had before achieved 
 within the limits of a school-book, and that with perfect fairness towards other 
 writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, 
 whatever else may befall; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so need- 
 ful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his 
 name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 
 
 35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern ; but it is enough 
 for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of pub- 
 lic utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental 
 coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of 
 the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure n^r dis- 
 putable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to 
 know what is, or is not, origioaL Dates must be accurately observed. Many things 
 must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is per- 
 sonally interested y Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few 
 ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for 
 them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are ade- 
 quate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. 
 The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth : and, 
 even of some things withiu their reach, the majority seem content to take their opin- 
 ions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will 
 be everywhere preferred ; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appre- 
 ciated. But common sense might dictate that learning is not encouraged or respected 
 by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 
 
 36. The real history of grammar ia little known; and many erroneous impreseious 
 are entertained coucerning it: because the story of the systems most generally receiv- 
 ed, has never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never 
 worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made 
 by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying : " Unto every 
 one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance : but from him that hath 
 not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made 
 popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into the 
 account; since it is manifest, that with no exti-aordinary claims to either, they liava 
 taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talent* 
 af others into the shade, or made them tributary to their owu success and popularity, 
 
 1* 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 37. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than Lily and Murray. A law 
 was made in England by Heury the Eighth, commanding Lily's grammar only 
 everywhere to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt m changrag oi 
 achoolemaistere."— Pre/, to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by means ol a 
 special inquiry directed to be made by the bishopB at their stated visitations, this law, 
 for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. 
 Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, 
 {" because," saya one of the patentees, " he had so considerable a hand in the corapo- 
 eition,") was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work 
 after Lily's death. (See "Ward's Preface to the book, 1793.) And of the other half, 
 historyincidentally tells, that neither the scheme nor the text was originaL The 
 Printer's Grammar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says : " The 
 Italians in a short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 
 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age; as may 
 be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua 
 on the 14th of January, 1474 ; from wftom our grammarian, Lily, has ta&en the entira 
 tcheme of his grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, without payiTig amj 
 regard to the memory of this author." The historian then proceeds to speak about 
 types. See also the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar 
 which bears upon its titlepage: *' Qwam solam Regia Majeetaa in omnibus scholia 
 doceTidam, prcecipit." 
 
 38. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in the 
 compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thoughfi 
 and critical skill he fell far below most of " the authors to whom," he confesses, "■ the 
 grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its materials ; namely, 
 Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and 
 OampbelL" — Introd. to Oram,., p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon 
 his task withavery insufficient preparation. His biography informs us, that, *' Gram- 
 mar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time before the publication 
 of his first work on that subject ;" that, " His grammar, as it appeared in the fi.rst 
 edition, was completed in rather less than a year — though he had an intervening ill- 
 ness, which for several weeks stopped the progress of the work;" and that, "the Ex- 
 ercises and Key were also composed in about a year." — Life of L. Murray, p. 18S. 
 From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and 
 most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to 
 come before the public. He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that; 
 "little can be expected" from a modem grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) 
 "from a new compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and 
 some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understandiug, and the 
 gradual progi'ess of learners." — Introd. to Crram., 8vo, p. 6; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to ba 
 master of his own art — to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's 
 business 1 And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could 
 need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them I 
 
 39. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempted 
 no broad innovation on what had been previously taught ; for he had neither the vanity 
 to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in la- 
 bours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems 
 to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his no- 
 tion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the 
 sake of doing good ; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own 
 assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors 
 whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with, 
 others, under a degrading necessity which no able gx'ammarian ever felt, and which 
 every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars 
 disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfec- 
 tion of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once ori<nnal and 
 pure, is absurd. He says, " The greater part of an English grammar mustnecessariltf 
 be a compilation;'" and adds, with reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a 
 small portion of it. This I have acknowledged; and I tr\xst this acknowledgement 
 will protect me from all attacks, grounded o» any supposed unjust and irregular as- 
 sumptions." — Letter, 1811. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies does not 
 appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It 
 was then inserted as follows: "In a work which professes to be a compilation and 
 which, /rom the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected 
 from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which tha 
 compiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names " 
 — liitwd. to Grann., 8vo, p. 7; l2mo, p. 4. 
 
 40. For the nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, the author alone ia 
 answerable ; but the nature and design of grammiar, are no less repugnant to the strain 
 of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked 
 by MuiTay in his wojk of compilation. There is no part of the volume more accurate 
 than that which he literally copied froni Lowth. To tlie Short Introduction alone he 
 was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraph!.; and evou iu tUesa 
 
PEEFACE. Xi 
 
 there arc many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were 
 taken from Priestley ; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of those 
 "positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some 
 however, his own alterations may have given rise ; for, where he " persuades himself 
 he is not destitute of originsilily," he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier 
 cilitions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, liad a far better 
 cause than requital ; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, 
 though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accui-acy' 
 about sixty pages were extracted from Blair , and it requires no great critical acumen 
 to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, thei'e 
 are iifteen pages from Campbell ; which, with a few exceptions, are well written! The 
 rules for spelling are the same aa Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross hhm- 
 der; and the fourth, a needless repetition. Were this a place for minute criticism, 
 blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that 
 almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeat- 
 edly violated by the hand of the mast^sr. Nor is there among all those wh» have since 
 abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than be who compiled it. Who 
 ■will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, Alger, 
 Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, Wood- 
 worth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to obseiTe, how 
 frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his prede- 
 cessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of mapy others who have found 
 it easier to copy nim than to write for themselves. 
 
 41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the reviews, and 
 made common stock in trade, — being published, both in England and in America, by 
 booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by 
 those who were most interested in the sale of them, — have been eminently successful 
 •with the public; and, in the opinion of the world, success is the Strongest proof of 
 merit. Nor has the force of this ai'gument been overlooked by those who have written 
 in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which 
 have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, 
 *' at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed ;" par- 
 ticularly commends him for his "candour and liberality towards rival authors;" avers 
 that, "he went on, examining and correcting his grammar, through all its foi-ty edi- 
 tions, till he brought it to a degree of pei^ection which wiU render it as permanent as 
 the English language itself;" censures (and not without reason) the "presumption" 
 of those " superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his 
 honours; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but 
 as a mark of "his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds, (in very bad Eng- 
 lish,) "Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more UTiex- 
 pected by JiiTnself^ than Lindley Murray.''^ — The Friend, Vol. iii, p. 33. 
 
 42. In a New- York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was in- 
 serted a " Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., bis American correspondents and 
 publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, " as 
 it came inpurity from the pen of the author ;" with an earnest remonstrance against 
 the several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other 
 places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in alter- 
 ing the work, under pretence of improving it In this article it is stated, "that the 
 whole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray 
 himself, and that they have met with his decided disapprobation. Every rational 
 mind," continue these gentlemen, *'will agree with him, that, "■ the rights of living 
 authors, and the interests of science and literature, demand the abolition of this un- 
 generous practice.* " Here, then, we have the opinion and feeling of Murray himself 
 upon this tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judg- 
 ing it " scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which tlwy have made of their 
 predecessors* labours." 
 
 43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to Murray any 
 thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply ; except those inaccuracies 
 and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of 
 course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to 
 such perfection as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent al- 
 terations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, 
 perhaps, never complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions ; 
 and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it 
 seema necessary first to convince them that it is possible, to compose a better grammar 
 than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is nob 
 fiuch, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, 
 the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and 
 from every grammar based upon his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minute 
 surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confess- 
 edly still more imperfect. The region and the scope are essentially the same; the 
 tracing and the colouring are more original; and (if the reader can pardoa th« eug* 
 gestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid. 
 
Xii PREFACE. 
 
 44. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, 
 unleBS his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose ; ana no- 
 thing for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of ms own 
 ingenuity and taste. A good style naturfiUy commends itself to every reader—even to 
 him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to Delieve. 
 that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned Dy 
 time, wUl never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice inay 
 Bubslitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distmguisn 
 merit ; and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory 
 of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will always 
 he some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and innovation in 
 doctrine— between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual usurpation ot 
 th^ir text; and it is incredible that these should ever be eatisfied with any mere com- 
 pilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the 
 ■writer' s own incompetence. For it is not true, that " an English grammar must neces- 
 Barily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a 
 theme, and in "the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation, beyond a fair use 
 of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to 
 all, most unavoidably implies — not conscious "ability," generously doinghonour to 
 rival merit — nor " exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own — but inadequate 
 Bkill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking pre- 
 cedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 
 
 45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thingiteelf isso. 
 To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excel- 
 lence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning 
 may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the 
 subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a 
 theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly preface, 
 " that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole 
 life would not "be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and 
 confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, 
 or among the various modifications of them by other hands, we have any such work 
 as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar? — 
 The author of this treatise will not pretend that it is perfect; though he has bestowed 
 upon it no inconsiderable pains, that the narrow limits to which it must needs be con- 
 fined, might be filled up to the utmost advantage of the learner, as well as to the beet 
 direction and greatest relief of the teacher. 
 
 40. A Key to the Oral Ex&rcises in False Syntax, is inserted in the Grammar, that 
 the pupil may be enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class recitations. 
 Being acquainted with the rule, and having seen the correction, he may be expected 
 to state the error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. It 
 is the opinion of some teachers, that no Key in aid of the student should be given. 
 Accordiagly many grammars, not destitute of exercises in false syntax, are published 
 without either formules of correction, or a Key to show the right reading. But Eng- 
 lish grammar, in any extensive exhibition of it, is a study di-y and difficult enough for 
 the young, when we have used our best endeavours to free it from all obscurities and 
 doubts. The author thinks he has learned from experience, that, with explicit help 
 of this sort, most pupils will not only gain more knowledge of the art in a given time, 
 but in the end find their acquisitions more satisfactory and more permanent. 
 
 4T. A separate Key to the E:cercises for Writing, is published for the convenience 
 ol teachers and private learners. For an obvious reason this Key should not be put 
 into the hands of the school-boy. Being a distinct volume, it may be liad, bound by 
 itself or with the Grammar. Those teachers who desire to exercise their pupils orally 
 in correcting false grammar without a Key, can at any time make use of this series oi 
 examples for such purpose. 
 
 48. From the first edition of the following treatise, there was made by the author, 
 for the use of young learners, a brief abstract, entitled, '■'■The First Lines of Eii{ilish 
 Qrmrumar;'* in which are embraced all the leading doctrinoB of the original work, 
 with a new series of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important 
 iti the grammar of the language, was necessarily excluded from this epitome ; nor was 
 it designed for those who can learn a larger book without wearing it out. But econ- 
 omy, as well as convenience, demands small and cheap treatises for children; and 
 those teachers who approve of this system of grammatical Instruction, will find many 
 reasons for preferring the First Lines to any other compeud, as an introduction to the 
 study of these Institutes. 
 
 49. Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hope of facilitating the 
 Btudy of the English Language, and thus promoting the improvement of the young, 
 the author now presents his finished labours to the candour and discernment of those 
 to whom is committed the important business of instruction. How far he has suc- 
 ceeded in the execution of his design, is wilUngly left to the just decision of those who 
 are qualified to judg('. GOOLD BUOWN. 
 
 I^vi^edy Lynn, Mass., 1854. 
 
POSTSCRIPT TO THE PREFACE. 
 
 Tee Bchool-book noir pretty well-known as " Brown's Institutes of English Gram- 
 mar,'* was my first attempt at authorship in the character of a grammarian ; and, 
 BatiBfactory as it has been to the many thousandB who have used it, it has nercr- 
 tiielesB, like all other not incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible of 
 sundry important emendations. So that I must believe with Murray, that, " Works 
 of this nature admit of repeated iTtiprovenieiUa; and are, perhaps, never complete." 
 It cannot, however, be said la my favour, as it has been in commendation of this 
 author, that, " He went on examining and correcting his grammar through all its forty 
 ediftoTW, till he brought it to the utmost degree of perfection ;" but something has 
 been done in this way, three or four of the early editions of the Institutes having 
 been severally retouched and improved by the author's hand ; and now, an undiraiu- 
 Isned demandftfor the work having continued to spread its reputation, I have at 
 length the satisfaction to have endeavoured yet once again to render it still more 
 worthy of the public favour. 
 
 The time which has elapsed siacc the author first published this work, has been 
 mainly spent in labours and studies tending very directly to enlarge and mature his 
 knowledge of English Grammar ; and, especially, to better his acquaintance with the 
 great variety of books and essays which have been written upon it. The principal 
 result of these labours and studies has been given to the world iu his large work 
 entitled " The Grammar of English Grammars." To conform the future editions 
 of these Institutes more nearly to the text of this large Grammar, to supply some 
 deficiences which have been thought to lessen the comparative value of the former 
 work, to divide the book more systematically into chapters and subdivisions, and to 
 correct a few typographical errors which had crept in, were the objects contemplated 
 in the revision which has now been effected. 
 
 In making these improvements, I have not forgotten that alterations in a popular 
 class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly undesii'able. The writer who ventures 
 at all upon them. Is ever liable to subject his patrons and best friends to more or less 
 inconvenience; and for this he should be very sure of having presented, in every 
 instance, an ample compensation. It is believed that the changes which the present 
 revision exhibits, though they are neither few nor unimportant, need not prevent, in 
 schools, a concurrent use of old editions with the new, till the former may be suf- 
 ficiently worn out. What has been added or changed, will therefore lack no justlfica* 
 tion ; and the author will rest, with sufficient assurance, in the hope that the intelligent 
 patronage which has hitherto been giving more and more publicity to his earliest 
 teachings, will find, decidedly, and without mistake, in this improved form of tho 
 work, the best common school Grammar now extant. 
 
 GOOLD BROWN. 
 Lpms Mas9.j 1865. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 preface to the Institutes ; , . . . 
 Postoript to the Preface ; . . . . 
 Befinitiou and Division of English Grammar ; 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 , iii-xii^ 
 
 xiii. 
 
 17. 
 
 PAET I.— OKTHOGEAPHT. 
 
 Chapter I.— Of Letters; 17. 
 
 I, Names of the Letters ; 19. 
 
 IL Classes of the Letters ; SO. 
 
 III. Powers of the Letters ; 24. 
 
 IV. Forms of the Letters ; 26. 
 
 Eules for the use of Capitals : 27. 
 
 Chapter II.— Of Syllables; 2S. 
 
 Diphthoags and Triphthongs ; 28. 
 
 Eules for Syllabication ; • . 29. 
 
 Chapter III.— Of Words ; 29. 
 
 Species and Figure of Words ; 29. 
 
 Eules for the Figure of Words: 80. 
 
 Chapter IV.— Of Spelling ; 81. 
 
 Eules for SpelUng ; 31. 
 
 Chapter V. — Questions on Orthography ; 33. 
 
 Chapter VI. — Exercises in Orthography ; 84. 
 
 PAET II.— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Chapter I.— The Parts of Speech; 
 
 Parsing, Praxis I ; 
 Chapter II.— Of Articles : 
 Chapter III.— Of Nouns ; 
 
 Persons ; 
 
 Numbers ; 
 
 Genders ; 
 
 The Declension of Nouns ; . 
 
 Analysis and Parsing, Praxis II 
 Chapter IV. — Of Adjectives ; 
 
 The Comparison of Adiectives ; . 
 
 Analysis and Parsing, Praxis III 
 Chapter V Of Pronouns; . 
 
 The Declension of Pronouns ; 
 
 Analysis and Parsing, Praxis IV 
 
 Chapter VI.— Of Verbs; 
 
 Moods ; 
 
 Tenses ; 
 
 Persons and Numbers 
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs ; 
 
 The Form of Passive Verbs ; 
 
 Irregular Verbs ; . 
 
 Redundant Verbs ; 
 
 Defective Verbs ; 
 
 42. 
 
 44. 
 
 46. 
 47. 
 48. 
 49. 
 61. 
 62. 
 53. 
 54. 
 55. 
 56. 
 59. 
 61. 
 63. 
 65. 
 67. 
 68. 
 70. 
 71. 
 74. 
 88. 
 91. 
 95. 
 97. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 Chapter VII.— Of -Participles : • 
 
 Aoalyais and Parsing, rraxis V ; 
 
 Chapter Vm.— Of Adverbs; 
 
 Chapter IX. — Of Conjunotious; . 
 
 Chapter X. — Of Prepositions ; . 
 
 Caapter XI. — Of Interjections ; 
 
 Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VI ; 
 
 Chapter XII. — Questions on Etymology; 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Exercises in Etymology ; 
 
 PAET III. — SYNTAX. 
 
 Introductory Definitions; . 
 Chapter I. — ^The Kules of Syntax, 
 
 Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VII ; 
 Chapter II. — Of Belation and Agreement; 
 
 Eule I. — Of Articles ; 
 
 Kule n. — Of Nominatives ; 
 
 Eulelll.— Of Apposition; 
 
 Kule IV.— Of Adjectives-, 
 
 Bute v.— Of Pronouns ; . 
 
 Bule VI. — Of the Pronoun and Collective Noun ; 
 
 Rule VII. — Of the Pronoun and Joint Antecedents . 
 
 Eule VIII. — Of the Pronoun and Bisjnnet Aateoedents 
 
 EutelX.— Of Verbs; 
 
 Eule X. — Of the Verb and Collective Noun; . 
 
 Eule XI. — Of the Verb and Joint Nominatives ; 
 
 Eule Xll.-^Of the Verb and Sisjunet Nominatives 
 
 Eule XIIL— Of- Verbs Conneoted; 
 
 Eule XIV.— Of Participles ; . 
 
 Eule XV.— Of Adverbs: 
 
 Eule XVI.— Of Conjunctions ; . 
 
 Eule XVII.— Of Prepositions ; 
 
 Eule XVIII.— Of Interjections ; 
 Chapter III. — Of Government ; 
 
 Eule XIX. — Of Possessives; . 
 
 Eule XX.— Of Objectives; 
 
 Eule XXI.— Of Same Cases ; . 
 
 Eule XXII.— Of Objectives ; . 
 
 Eule XXIII.— Of Infinitives ; . 
 
 Eule XXIV.— Of Infinitives ; . 
 
 Eule XXV. — Of the Case Absolute, or Independent 
 
 Eule XXVI.— Of Subjunctives ; 
 
 False Syntax Promiscuous ; 
 Chapter IV.— -iHeneral Items; 
 
 General Eule of Syntax ; . 
 
 General Observations on the Syntax , 
 
 False Syntax under the General Eule ; 
 
 Analysis and Parsing^ 
 Chapter V. — Questions on Syntax ; . 
 Chapter VI. — Exercises in Syntax ; . 
 
 PAET IV. — PBOSODY. 
 
 Chapter I. — Of Punctuation ; 
 
 Section I. — Of the Comma ; . 
 Section II. — Of the Semicolon ; 
 Section III.— Of the Colon ; . 
 Section IV.— Of the Period ; . 
 Section V.— Of the Dash ; 
 
 249, 
 249. 
 254. 
 254. 
 255. 
 256. 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section VI.— Of the Eroteme ; . 
 
 Section VII.— Of the Ecphoneme ; 
 
 Section VIII.— Of the Curves ; 
 
 Section IX.— Of the Other Marks ; 
 Chapter II. — Of Utterance ; 
 
 Section I. — Of Pronunciation ; . 
 
 Section II. — Of Elocution ; 
 Chapter III.— Of Figures ; 
 
 Section I. — Figures of Orthography , 
 
 Section II.— Figures of Etymology ; 
 
 Section III.— Figures of Syntax ; 
 
 Section IV. — Figures of Ehetorio ; 
 Chapter IV. — Of Versification ; 
 
 Section I. — Of Quantity ; 
 
 Section II.— Of Ehyme ; 
 
 Section III.— Of Poetic Feet ; . 
 
 Section IV. — Of Scanning ; 
 Order I. — lamhic Verse ; . 
 Order II. — Trochaic Verse ; 
 Order III. — Anapestic Verse ; 
 Order IV.— Dactylic Verse ; 
 Chapter V. — Oral Exercises ; 
 
 Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII ; 
 Chapter VI. — Questions on Prosody ; 
 Chapter VII. — Exercises in Prosody ; 
 
 KEY to Oral Exercises in False Syntax ; 
 APPENDIX I.— Sounds of Letters ; 
 APPENDIX II.— Of Derivation ; . 
 APPENDIX III.— Of Style ; . 
 APPENDIX IV.— Of Poetic Diction ; 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 256. 
 257. 
 257. 
 258. 
 260. 
 260. 
 261. 
 261. 
 262. 
 262. 
 268. 
 265. 
 267. 
 268. 
 268. 
 268. 
 269. 
 "269. 
 270. 
 272. 
 272. 
 274. 
 274. 
 281. 
 283. 
 
 297. 
 319. 
 327. 
 337. 
 340. 
 
THE 
 
 INSTITUTES 
 
 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 English Gkammae is the art of speaking, reading, 
 and writing the English language correctly. 
 
 It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, 
 Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
 and spelling. 
 
 Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with 
 their classes and modifications. 
 
 Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
 and arrangement, of words in sentences. 
 
 Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
 versification. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
 and spelling. 
 
 
 CHAPTER I.— OF LETTEES. 
 
 A Letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, com- 
 monly representing some elementary sound of a word. 
 
 An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or pri- 
 mary sound of the human voice, used in speaking. 
 
 The sound of a letter Ls commonly called its power : 
 when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be 
 silent or miUe, 
 
 2* 
 
18 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET I. 
 
 The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six ; 
 the simple or primary sounds in the language, are about 
 thirty-six or thirty -seven. 
 
 A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance 
 with these four sorts of things ; their names, their classes, 
 their ^oMJers, and their _;?)r?ws. 
 
 The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or en- 
 graved, or embossed, in an infinite variety of shapes and 
 sizes ; and yet are always the same, because their essen- 
 tial properties do not change, and their names, classes, 
 and powers, are mostly permanent. 
 
 The following are some of the different sorts of types, 
 or styles of letters, with which every reader should be 
 early acquainted: — 
 
 1. The Eoman : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, 
 H h, I i, J j, K k, LI, Mm, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, 
 S s, T t, U u, Y V, W w, X X, Y y, Z z. 
 
 2. The Italic : Aa,Bh, C c, D d, U e, F f O g, Hli, 
 li, J), Kk, L I, Mm, N n, o, P p, Q q, B r, S s, T t, 
 Uu, 'Yv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz. 
 
 3. The Script: ©yf a, '2/J .^^ ^ c, ^ J, S e, 
 
 ^/ ^^. @r/ (sf.. fy. seA. ^4 
 
 (^/. ^u, ^^, Jf"^. m^. fy, ^^. 
 
 4. The Old English: a a, j3 b, € c, tD 5, (E c, Jf, 
 © g, f) 1), 3 i, 3 t, K li, 1 1, i\\ m, N n, ® 0, Jj) p, Ca rj, 
 H r, S s, a; t, U u, t) B, to K), X je, S 2, 2 ?. 
 
 OBSEEVATIONS. 
 
 0e3. 1. — LAKOtTAGE, ill the primitive sense of tile term, embraced only 
 vocal expression, or imman speech uttered by the month ; but, after letters 
 were invented to represent ai-tieulate sounds, language became twofold, 
 spoken and written / so that tlie term laiiguage, now signifies, any series of 
 tounds or letters formed into words and employed for tlie expi'ession of thoumt. 
 
 Oes. 2. — Letters claim to be a part of language, not merely because they 
 represent articulate sounds, or spol^en words, but because they form words 
 of^themselves, and have the poVer to become intelligible signs of tliought 
 even independently of sound. Literature being the counterpart of speech' 
 and more plenteous in words, the person who cannot read ana write, is about 
 as deficient in language, as the well instructed deaf mute : perhaps mora 
 so : for copiousness, even of speech, results from letters. 
 
 UBS. 3. — For the formation of words, letters have some important advan- 
 tages over articulate or syllabic sounds, though the latter communioato 
 thought more expeditiously. The written symbols subdivide even the 
 least parts of spoken language, which are syllables, reducing them to a few 
 
CHAP. I. J OETHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR NAMES. 19 
 
 comHuablo elements ; and are themselves thereby redueod to a manageable 
 number, — even to fewer than the elements which they represent. But the 
 great advantage of recorded language is iu pemmTience, with its unlimited 
 power otcireulaiitui and tran^mtssUyn,. 
 
 Obs. 4.^A3 a letter taken singly is commonly the sign of some elementary 
 sound, and of nothing more, bo the primary combinations of letters are often 
 exhibited as mere notations of syllabic sounds, and not as having the signifi- 
 cance of words. Silent letters occur only in the particular positiouB which 
 custom or etymology h-is given them in certain kw(Z« ; and, though mute, 
 they are still nanoed and classed according to the powers usually pertaining to 
 the same characters. 
 
 Obs. 5. — ^It is suggested above, that a knowledge of the letters implies an 
 acquaintance with their names, their claeses, their powers, and their forms. 
 Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present the facts which 
 seem to be most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve 
 for tho appendix a more particular account of these important elements. 
 
 I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 The names of the letters, as now commonly spolien 
 and written in English, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, 
 Aitch, I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, 
 Tee, U, Vee, Double-ii, Ex, Wy, Zee. 
 
 OBSEEVATIONS. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The names of the letters, as expressed in the ipodom langnages, 
 are mostly framed ■with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet is fliere in 
 English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power ; for 
 A, M, I, 0, and IT, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all 
 these have other sounds than those which their names express. The con- 
 sonants are so manifestly insufficient to form any name of themselves alone, 
 and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, 
 that, did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would be bard 
 to beheve the assertion of Murray, that, " They are frequently confounded 
 by writers on grammar !" 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those 
 sounds which they usually represent at the end of an a«cented syllable ; 
 thus the names. A, E, I, 0, If, are uttered with the sounds given to the 
 same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, JSnoch, Isaac, 
 Obei, Urim ; or in the first syllables of the common words, paper, penal, 
 f Hot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can never be perfectly 
 sounded alone,' have names in which their powers are combined with other 
 sounds more vocal ; as. See, Oee, Dee, — Ell, Em, En, — Jay, Kay, Kite. But, 
 in this respect, the terms Aitcfi and Douole-u are irregular ; because they 
 have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named. 
 
 Obs. 3. — ^The names of the letters, like those of the days of the week, are 
 words of a very peculiar kind ; being nouns that are at once ioth proper and 
 common. For, m respeet to rank, character, and design, each letter is a 
 thing strictly individual and identical — that is, it is ever one and the same ; 
 yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive sort, embracing individuals 
 both various and numberless. The name of a letter, therefore, should al- 
 ways be written with a capital, as a proper noun, at least in the singular 
 number : and should form the plural regularly, as an ordinary appellative. 
 Thus : (if we adopt, as we ought, the names now most generally used in 
 Enghsh schools:) A, Aes: Bee, Bees; Gee, dees; Dee, Dees; E, Ees; Effi 
 
 f's ; Gee, Gees; Aitch, Aitches;!, les ; Jay, Jays ; Ka/j/, Kays; Ell, Ells; 
 i. Ems; En, Ens;.0, Oes ; Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues; Ar, Ars; Ess, Esses; 
 Tee, Tees; V, Ues ; Vee, Vees; Donile-u, Dauble-iies; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies; 
 
 6m. 4.— Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of ly 
 
20 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PAET I. 
 
 tlteir names ; nor can they be spolien of otherwise ; yet, as the simple ouar- 
 ncters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, 
 the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the words tor 
 which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto 
 been left too much to mere fancy or caprice ; no certain method of writing 
 tlicm has been generally inculcated ; so that many who think themselves 
 well educated, would be puzzled to name on paper these simple elements ol 
 nil learning. . « it t n rr 
 
 Obs. 5. — In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels. A, K, I, U, U, 
 name themselves; but they name themselves differently to the ear, accord- 
 ing to the different ways of uttering them in different languages. >i»-^<l as 
 the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also 
 may be affected in the same manner. But, in every language, there should 
 be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series ; 
 and that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to the 
 genius of the language. For the names of the letters, in any language, are, 
 in reality, words of that language, and not likely to be very suitable for the 
 same purpose in any other. 
 
 One. 6.— The letters, once learned, may be used uTinamed ; and so are they 
 used, always, except in oral spelling, or when some of their own number are 
 to be particularized. The chief use of the written names is, to preserve and 
 teach those which are spoken- — to record current practice, in the hope of 
 thereby preventing or lessening diversity: for, as Walker observes, '■'■TTi* 
 names nffhe letters ouglit to have no diveisitj.''''— Principles, No. 483. 
 
 Obs. 7. — The occasions, however, for naming the letters are so frequent, 
 and lists of their names are given in so many books, that one cannot but 
 marvel at the absence of these words from the columns of our dictionaries, 
 and at the errors found elsewhere concerning them. So discrepant and er- 
 roneous are tlie modes of writing them adopted by authors of spelling-books, 
 and even by our best authorities — "Walker, Webster, Murray, Churchill, W. 
 Allen, and others — that any common school-boy would guess their forms 
 quite as well. Even John Walker, in his " Principles of English Pronun- 
 ciation," spells five or six of them wrong ; commences all of them with small 
 type, as reckoning them common nouns only ; fixes a gratuitous and silly 
 " diversity" in five of them with his own hand : and contradicts himself by 
 preferring zed to iznard at first, and iszard to zed at last 1 
 
 Obs. 8. — In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom mnst have 
 established for the letters a certain set of names, which are the only true ones, 
 and which are of course to he preferred to such as are local, or obsolete, or 
 unauthorized. Sundry examples of these objectionable sorts of names may 
 indeed be cited from our school literature ; for, in the lapse of ages, usage 
 Las changed in a few instances, and, in their rash ignorance, some authors 
 of A-Bee-Cee books have taught, in lieu of the right names, both archaisms 
 and innovations at the same time ; while many others, thinking the naming 
 of letters a matter not worth their attention, have omitted it altogether. I 
 have recorded above the true English names of all the letters, as they are 
 now used, and as they have been most fitly, and perhaps most generally, 
 used thus far in the nineteenth century ; and, if there could be in human 
 works any thing unchangeable, I should wish, (with due deference to all 
 schemers and lault-finders,) that those names might remain the same and 
 in good use forever. 
 
 II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
 and consonants, 
 
 A vowel is a letter wliicli forms a perfect sound wlien 
 uttered alone; as, a, e, o. 
 
 A consonant is a letter whicli cannot be perfectly ut- 
 tered till joined to a vowel; as, h, c, d. 
 
pHAP. I.J ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTEES— THEIR CLASSES. 21 
 
 The vowels are a, e, «, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
 All the other letters are consonants. 
 
 Wot y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel 
 heard in the same syllable; as in wine, twine, whine; ya, 
 yet, youOi: in all other cases, these letters Sare vowels; as 
 innewly, dewy, eye-brow; Tssel, Ystadl, yttria. 
 
 CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 The consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes. 
 
 A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded 
 without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound 
 may be protracted ; as, I, n, g, in al, an, az. 
 
 A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all with- 
 out a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops 
 the breath ; as, k, p, t, in ah, ap, at. 
 
 The semivowels are/ h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c 
 and g soft : but lo or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ; 
 and the sound ofc,/, g, h,j, s, or x, can be protracted only as 
 an aspirate, or strong breath. 
 
 Four of the semivowels,—/, m, n, and r, — are termed liquids, 
 on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others, — 
 V, w, y, and z, — are likewise more vocal than the aspirates. 
 
 The mutes are eight ; h, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard : three 
 of these, — k, q, and c hard, — sound exactly alike : b, d, and g 
 hard, stop the vojce less suddenly than the rest. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. , 
 
 Obs. 1. — The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, 
 uid, in respect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal 
 a'utlioritj'. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided 
 the Greek letters into vowds, aemivoweU, and rmites, and declared that no 
 syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern writers, however, 
 not well satisfied, with this ancient distribution of the elements of learning, 
 have contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both sounds and letters into 
 new classes, with various new names. Bat,, bo far as I can see, they have 
 thereby effected no important improvement ; and, since mere innovation is 
 .not in itself desirable in such cases, the old scheme is here still preferred. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Dr. Bush, author of "the Philosophy of the Human Voice," re- 
 solves the letters into " tonics, suitonice, and atonies ;" and avers that " con- 
 sonants alone may form syllables." S. Kirkham too, though his Gra/mmar 
 teaches the old doctriue as given by Murray, prefers in nis Elocution the 
 instructions of Bush; disparages "the Iwary division of the letters of our 
 alphabet into vowels and consonants:" affirms that, " A consonant is not only 
 capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, more- 
 over, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syUabte f (p. 32;) commends 
 Enah's new " division and classification of the elementary characters- of our 
 language, in accordance with their use in intonation ;" puts an obsolete A 
 into each of the Doctor's new names, giving to novelties the garb of an- 
 tiques ; tells of " the Tonichs^ the Snitomcks, and the AtonicJes ;" and, under 
 these three heads, exhibits his thirty-five " elements" of the English tongue, 
 by means of Italics and the splitting of syllables, thus ; — 
 
22 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PABT I. 
 
 1. "The Tomch:, twelve: ^-tc, o-rk, a-11, a-t, ee-\, e-n, «-nd, i-de, i-t, 
 o-ld, oo-ze, ou-t. 
 
 2. "The&JfomMfo, fourteen: 5-oat, (i-are, y-ilt, «-ice, z-one, y-e, w-o, 
 iA-at, a-«-ure, Bo-n^, ^-ate, m-ate, ?!^ot, r-oe. 
 
 3. " The Atordcke, nine : XS-p, a-«, lar-i, i-/, thi-s, A-e, wA-at, iA-in, blu-«A. 
 — Kirkhania Elocution, pp. S2 and 33. 
 
 Ob8. 3.— As a mode of classing the letters of the alphabet, (which character 
 is claimed for it,) this arrangement has no fitness whatever. As a classitoa- 
 tion of the smnde of the language, it is less objectionable, but still very 
 faulty. Its vowel powers are too few, and yet the list contains two which 
 are questionable : for ou in out is a proper diphthong; and, according to 
 Walker, e in err and e in end are sounded alike. The term "i-de," which is 
 given for a " word," is not properly such ; and the term " g-W is an ill 
 example o'f the hard g, because g before i is usually soft, like y. How the 
 power of wh differs from the sounds of h and w united, 1 see not, though 
 simdry modem authors afBrra that it is simple and elementary. The asser- 
 tion, tnat "consonants alone may form syllables," is u flat absurdity; it 
 implies that consonants are not consonants, but vowels ! 
 
 Obs. i. — In Comstock's Elocution, we have the following statement : " The 
 elements, as well as the letters by which they are represented, are usually 
 divided into two classes, Vowela and Consonants. A more philosophical 
 division, however, is into three classes, VoweU, Subvowela, and Aspirates. 
 The vowels are pure vocal sounds ; their number is fifteen : they are heard ia 
 ale, arm, all, an, «ve, end, ile, in, old, lose, on, t^be, «p, fwll, o^ir. The sub- 
 vocals have a vooality, but inferior to that of the vowels ; their number is 
 fourteen : they are hoard in ftow, <Zay, ^ay, Zight, mind, mo, song, roll, then, 
 wile, wo, yoke, sone, asure. The aspirates are made with the whispering 
 breath, and, consequently, have no voeality j they are nine in number ; and 
 are heard in/'ame, ftut, iite, ^it, «in, «Aade, im, thm, whaV — Pp. 19 and 20. 
 
 Obs. 5. — 'fiua again is a classiiScation of sounds, and not of tlie letters. To 
 call it " a more philosophical division" of the letters, is a ridiculous absurdity. 
 For, of the twenty-six letters, it throws out four, — c, j, q, and x, — because 
 their sounds may be otherwise expressed ; while ten repetitions of the same 
 letter with a different sound, and six combinations of different letters, mak- 
 ing sixteen unalphabetical items, are allowed to swell the number of "ele- 
 ments" to thirty-eight: ou and wTi being improperly reckoned among them. 
 The definitions, too, are each of them inconsistent with the fact that all these 
 elements may be either whispered or spoken aloud, at pleasure, 
 
 Obs. 6. — The elementary sounds of the language oeiug more numerous 
 than the letters of the alphabet, and not very philosophically distributed 
 among them, no accurate classification of either species can be exactly adapted 
 to the other; and to divide the powers of the letters into one set of classes, 
 and then divide the letters themselves, with reference to their powers, into 
 an other set, as a few late writers have done, seems to be neither free from 
 objection, nor very necessary to the purposes of instruction. Such is the 
 scheme in Covell's " Digest," and also in Greene's " Elements of English 
 Grammar ;" where the sounds used in English, being reckoned forty by the 
 latter author, and forty-one by the former, are divided into " Vocals, Sub- 
 iiocals, and Aspirates," with an additional class of " Cognates,'''' or " Correl- 
 atives f and then the letters are classed as " vowels and eonsoTiants •" with 
 the suggestion that consonants are either " subvooals" or " aspirates.'" 
 
 Obs. 7.— By way of definition, Covell says, " FoccUs consist of pure voict 
 only. Subvocals consist of voice and breath united. Aspirates consist of pun 
 breath only. A vowel is a letter used to represent a vocal. A consonant is a 
 letter used to represent a subvocal or aspirate." — Pp. li and 16. Greene 
 sajfs, " The vocaZs consist of pure tone only. The subvocals consist of tone 
 united with breath. The aspirates consist of pure breath only. Those letters 
 
 Aich represent vocals are called vowels. Those letters which represent sub- 
 ■jicals and aspirates are called consonants.'''' — Pp. 2 and 5. Now since all the 
 elements of words, except silent letters, may be whispered, and whispering 
 consists in the articulation " of pure breafh only," may not a little whispetinB 
 ithow the unfitness of all these definitions I fa 
 
CHAP. l.J 0HTH06BAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR CLASSES. 23 
 
 Obs. 8.— Greena says, " By -wbat rule such sounds as/, «, or c soft, ■wHoh 
 have no vocajity whatever, can be called sfimvowels, it is immoadbU to see.'* 
 — Etementa of E. Gram., p. 3. This remark must have originated in some 
 •wrong notion of what vooality.is. Again, it is forgotten that not " sounds," 
 but Utters, are by the definition made semivowels. If there is any error in 
 regarding a hiss as half a voice, or in calling "/, s, or c soft" a semivowel, 
 Aristotle himself is answerable for it, as may be seen In the twentieth chap- 
 ter of his Poetics. But S. S. Greene contradicts the old philosopher not 
 only by denying ail voeality to some of his semivowels, but also by finding 
 the nature of" sesfroooA" in both of his examples of a mute; namely in a 
 hard and d, or the corresponding Greek letters. See " Table of Elementary 
 Sounds," in Greene's Elements, edition of 185S ; wherein our sibilant » is 
 blunderingly stereotyped as being an element of two or three dttiferent sorts, 
 aud as having v for its " correlative." 
 
 Obs. 9.— Bj an improper recognition of sounds for letters, and of combi- 
 nations for simples, some authors obsurdiy reckon the consonants alone to be 
 more numerous than are all the alphabetio characters together. Thus the 
 Eev. Dr. Maudeville: " A consonant is a letter which, as the name implies, 
 cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel. The consonants are J, c, d, 
 ft ?) *i hjj *i 'i "»> '"^tPt ?i r, «, i, V, w, x,y,z; to which must be added th, 
 eh, m, zh, wh, ng: being plainly elemental^ sounds, and as such belonging to 
 the aiphahet, though not formally included in it." — Gmarse of Beading, p. 18. 
 
 Obs. 10. — The distinction between vowels and consonants is generally 
 obvious and easy enough j and yet, in reference to certain sounds or letters, 
 when not pure, but combined, it is often very difficult and ai'bitrary. Some 
 few of our grammarians have long taught that w and y, as weU as a, e, i, o, 
 «, are always vowels. The most common doctrine is, that w and y are some- 
 times vowels and sometimes consonants, and that a, e, i, o, and «, are always 
 vowels. But, the sound of initial w being thought to be sometimes heard in 
 «, likewise in o, and the sound of initial y sometimes in e, or i, or u, some 
 writers have recognized one ; some, two ; some, three ; and a few, all four, 
 of these letters, as well as w and y, as being sometimes consonants; thus 
 making a vast diver.- i:y of teaching concerning the classification of the six— 
 B diversity wMch also extends itself equally into each of the new schemes 
 of elements remarked upon above. 
 
 Obs. 11. — Dr. Lowth, and his improver, Churchill, also Sheridan, and his 
 copier, Jones, represent a, e, i, o, «, w, and y asi being invariaWy vowels, and 
 as having no sounds peculiar to consonants. This opinion makes easy and 
 . simple the division ot the letters, but it greatly swells the number of dipli- 
 thongs, shows not why the initial wory follows a vowel without hiatus, and 
 accounts not for the use of o, in preference to an, before nouns beginning 
 with WOT y: as, o wall, a yard ; not an waU, an yard. 
 
 0b3. 12. — Dr. Webster, in his great American Dictionary, says, "Fis 
 sometimes used as a consonant." — Introd., p. Ikxviii. Goncerning a, e, i, o, m, 
 and w, he appears to agree with Lowth, and the others above named, 
 risber, a Lonaou grammarian of the last century, treated w as being always 
 tteomonaat, and y as being sometimes such. Brigiitland, Johnson, Murriiy, 
 Walker, Ward Wells, Worcester, and others, — amajority of those who treat 
 of the letters, — maintain the division which I have adopted above. — 
 
 Obs. 13. — Dr. Maudeville says, " /, y, and w, are sometimes consonants." 
 — Ooune ^Beading:, p. 9. Dr. Pinneo, uttering a strange solecism, and am- 
 biguity or oonstruotion, says, " All the letters of the alphabet, except the 
 vowels, and sometime) i, «, w, and y, are consonants." — Arudytiiml Groan., 
 Stereotype Edition of 1853, p. 7. L. T. Covell says, " All, excepto, may be 
 consonants." — Digest of E. Gram.^ p. 16. 
 
 0b3. 14. — Sheridan and Jones divide the consonants into mutes and semi- 
 vowels, then subdivide the mates into "pwe and i/mpmre," and the semi- 
 vowels into " vocal and aspirated." In lieu of this, some, among whom ara 
 Herries and BiokneU, divide the consonants into three sorts, ^^Jtalf votvels, 
 aspirates, and mutes." Many divide them into labials, dentals, Imgimls, pala- 
 tals, and nasals ; classes which refer to the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, and 
 nose, as the elective organs of their utterance. 
 
24 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PABT I. 
 
 Oes. 15.— Certain consonants or cSnsonantal sounds are often ''f ''°§"1*'^®4 
 in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one bein^ caUed ^c ana 
 tlie other sharp : as, 1> and p: d and t ; a hard and i ; ,; and ch ; v anci// M 
 flat and th sharp ; z and sharp s ; di and eh. These, with reference to each 
 other, are sometimes termed correlatives or cognates. 
 
 III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 The powers of the letters are properly those element- 
 ary sounds which their figures are used to represent ; 
 but letters formed into words, are capable of communi- 
 cating thought independently of sound. 
 
 The vowel sounds which form the basis of the English 
 language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly 
 familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are 
 heard at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, 
 ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull. 
 
 In the formation of words or syllables, some of these 
 fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in 
 ay, oil, out, owl ; and all of them may be preceded or 
 followed by certain motions and positions of the lips 
 and tongue, which will severally convert them into 
 other terms in speech. Thus the same essential sounds 
 may be changed into a new series of words by an/; as, 
 fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, 
 fuss, fall. Again, into as many more with & p ; as, pafe, 
 pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, 
 purl, pull. 
 
 The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty- 
 two : they are marked by b, d, f g hard, h, h, I, m, n, ng, 
 p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zli. But zh 
 IS written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of 
 s in pleasure, or z in azure. 
 
 All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following 
 words : buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, 
 pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. 
 Again : most of them may be repeated in the same 
 word, if not in the same syllable ; as in bibber, diddle 
 fifty> 9Wh high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, 
 pippin, mirror, hissesi, fieshbrush, tittle, thinketh thither 
 vivid, witwal, union, dizzies, vision. 
 
 The possible combinations and mutations of the 
 twenty-six letters of our alpliabet, are many millions of 
 millions. But those clusters which are unpronounce- 
 
CHAP. I.] OBTHOGRAPHT.— LETTERS.— THEIR POWERS. 25 
 
 able, are useless. Of sucli as may be easily uttered, 
 there are more than enough for all the purposes of use- 
 ful writing, or the recording of speech. 
 
 Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as 
 about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, 
 represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a 
 variety of oral and written signs, as may snffice to ex- 
 plain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all 
 men in all ages. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Osd. 1. — ^Different vowel souuds are produced by opening the month dif- 
 ferently, and placing the tongue ia a peculiar manner for each ; but the 
 voice" may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel 
 power. 
 
 Oes. 2. — ^Eaoh of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. 
 About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, if ever, used 
 alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them 
 aU, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as 
 plainly as ^possible : eigh, &, ah, awe, eh, e, eye, i, oh, 8, oo, yew, ii, 6. 
 Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may 
 be words ', but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, 
 it, at, ut,mit, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants ; ex- 
 cept the first, whioh is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or 
 a — a sound sometime* given to the word a, perhaps most generally ; as in 
 the phrase, " twice a day." 
 
 Obs. 3, — With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but com- 
 
 §lex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dxh ; and 
 [, either to fe or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter 
 begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple 
 sound of Z; as in Xerxes, xebec. 
 
 0b9. i. — The consonants and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. 
 Q has always the power of Te, and is constantly followed by 'u and some 
 vowel or two more m the same syllable ; as in gnake, quest^ guit, gvoit. is 
 hard, like h, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like s, before e, % and y: thus the 
 syllables ca, ce, ei, co, eu, cy, are pronounced ka, se, ei, io, hu, try. S before 
 c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter: hence the sylla- 
 bles, tea,, tee, tci, am, ecu, toy, are sounded thi, se, si, tJco, sm, ay. Ce and ci 
 have sometimes the sound of th ; as in oeean, aoeial. (Jh commonly repre- 
 sents the sound ottah; as in ehwreh. 
 
 Oes. 5. — G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. Q 
 is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and « ; and generally soft, like^, be- 
 fore e, «, or y .• thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga, 
 jt,ji, go, gu,jy. 
 
 Obs. 6. — The imperfections of the English alphabet have been the subject 
 of much comment, and sundry schemes for its reformation have successively 
 appeared and disappeared without effecting the purpose of any one of theJr 
 authors. It has been thought that there ought to bo one characterj and only 
 •ne, for each simple sound in the language ; but, in attempting to count the 
 several elementary sounds which we use, our orthoepists have arrived at n 
 remarkable diversity of conclusions. Bicknell, <iopying Martin's Physieo- 
 Grammatioal Essay, says, "Th6 simple sounds," originally necessary to 
 speech, " were in no wise to be reckoned of any certmu number : by the 
 first men they were determined to no more than ten, as some suppose ; as 
 others, ^fe«» or twenty; it is however certain that mankind ,m general 
 never eoaxed tuteniy simple sounds ; and of these only ^« are reckoned strictly 
 such." — Mcknell'a Gram., Part ii, p. i. 
 
 Obs. 7»— The number of oral elements is differently reckoned by our 
 
 2 
 
26 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PAET I. 
 
 critics, because they do not agree among themselves concerning the identity 
 or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, of some of the souuas m 
 question ; and also because it is the practice of all, or nearly all, ^J^^y- °? 
 elementary some sounds which difier from each other only in length or snort- 
 ness, and some which are not conceived to be entirely simple m tuemseives. 
 The circumstances of the case seem to make it impossible to hnd out /or a 
 certoJKto what would be a perfect alphabet for our tongue. , ^^ „ , 
 
 Obs. 8.— Sheridan, taking i and « for diphthongs, h for no letter, and 
 the power of A for no sound, made the elements of Ms oratory twenty-eigbt. 
 Jones followed him imDlioItly, saying, "The number of simple founds in 
 our tongue is twenty-eight, 9 Vowels, and 19 Consonants. H is no letter, But 
 merelyamarkofaspiration."— PTOsociJajemm., p. xiv. Bollessays Ihe 
 number of simple vowel and consonant sounds m our tongue is twenty- 
 eight, and one pure aspiration %, making in all twenty-mne. —OotavoVict., 
 Introd., p. 9. Walker recognized several more ; but I know not whether he 
 has anywhere told us Ttow many there wre. 
 
 Obs. 9.— Lindley Murray enumerates at first thirty-six well known sounds, 
 and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above; but he after- 
 wards, contradicting certain teachings of his Speffing-Book, acknowledges 
 one more, making thirt^seeen—tha thurd sound of c— "An obscure and 
 scarcely perceptible sound : as in men, lucre, participle." — Qvam., p. 11. 
 Comstook, who does not admit the obscure e, says, " There are thirty-eight 
 dements in the English alphabet, and * * * a deficiency of twelve UtUrs." 
 —Elocution, p. 19. "Wells, deducting 0, Q, and X, says, "The remaining 
 twenty-three letters are employed to represent about forty elementary sounds." 
 School Gram., 113th Th., p. 42. His first edition stated the number of 
 sounds to be "/(?r^y-o«e." — P. 36. 
 
 Obs. 10.— For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard 
 in writing, a principle of universal grammar, as old at least as the writings 
 of Aristotle, that there can be no sylMile without a -vowel, or mthoui som» 
 -vowel power, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Mur- 
 ray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel e, 
 in some unaccented syllables a certain very obscure sound, which approaches, 
 but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so re- 
 
 farded by the writers of our dictionaries. See Murray's examples above, 
 f the e in "o^en." or able be supposed to have some faint sound, the oral 
 elements of our language may be reckoned thirty-seven. 
 
 Obs. 11. — It is also a general principle, necessarily following from this, 
 that, where the vowel of a syllable is suppressed or left entirely mute, any 
 part which remains, of such syllable, falls to another vowal, and becomes 
 part of another syllable : thus Cowper, in the phrase " 'Tis desperate" re- 
 duces five syllables to threes But Wells, in arguing against the common 
 definition of a consonant, says, " We have many syllables in which the 
 vowel, though written, is -not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words 
 taken, burdened, which are pronounced tak-n, burd-nd^'' And he adds, 
 " There are instances, also, in which a consonant is sounded as a distinct syl- ■ 
 labU, without the use even of a written vowel, as in the words chas-m, 
 rhnth-m." — School Oram., p. 31. Here a very excellent teacher evidently in- 
 culcates error; ioTchasm^ rfiyth-m, or even chasmsd, is only a monosyllable, and 
 to call a consonant a syllable, is a contradiction iu terms. 
 
 IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 In tlie Englisli language, the Koman cliaracters are 
 generally employed; sometimes, the Italic; and occa- 
 sionally, the ©lb CEnglisl). In writing, we use the 
 
 (^■■u/i 
 
CHAP, l] orthography.— lettehs.— their forms. 27 
 
 The letters have severally two forms, by •which they 
 are Aistingaished as capitals and small letters. 
 
 Small letters coostitate the body of every ■work ; and 
 capitals are iised for the sake of eminence and distinction. 
 
 ^' ' SULSS FOB TEE USE OF CAPITALS. 
 
 \ 
 
 KULE I.- TITLES OT BOOKS. 
 
 The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, 
 should be printed in capitals. When books are merely men- 
 tioned, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and 
 the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's E§say on Man." 
 
 aULE II. FIRST WORDS. -*• 
 
 The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause 
 separately numbered or paragraphed,, should begin with a 
 capital. 
 
 RDIB in.-^NAMES OF DEITT. 
 
 All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, Qod, 
 Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 
 
 RCLE IV. ^PROPER NAMES. 
 
 Titles of office or 'honour, and proper names of every de- 
 scription, should begin with capitals; as. Chief Justice Hale, 
 William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the 
 Thames. 
 
 RULE V. OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. 
 
 The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea 
 strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 
 
 " Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come.'' 
 
 RULE VT. WORDS DERIVED. 
 
 Words derived from proper namts of persons -or places, 
 should begin with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman, 
 
 KUXE VII. 1 AND O. 
 
 The words /and should always be capitals; as, " Out of 
 the depths have /cried unto thee Lord." — Psahns, oxxx, 1. 
 
 RULE Vni. IN POETRY. 
 
 Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making 
 but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a 
 capital ; as, 
 
 " Our sons their fathers' failing language see. 
 And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." — Pope. 
 
28 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PABT I. 
 
 RULE IX. EXAMPLES, ETC. 
 
 A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, 
 should begin with a capital ; as, " Remember this maxim : 
 ' Know thyself.' "— " Virgil says, ' Labour conquers all things.' " 
 
 RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. 
 
 Other words of particular importance, and such as denote 
 the principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by 
 capitals. Proper names frequently have capitals throughout. 
 
 CHAPTEE II.— OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
 sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, 
 an, ant. 
 
 In every word there are as many syllables as there 
 are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a 
 word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syl- 
 lables, a trissyllable ; and a word of four or more sylla- 
 bles, a polysyllable. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS AND TEIPHTHON6S. 
 
 A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable ; as, 
 ea in beat, ou in sound. 
 
 A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both the 
 vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 
 
 An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only 
 one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in haf. 
 
 A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; 
 as, eau in beau, iew in view. 
 
 A proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all the 
 vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 
 
 An improper iriphtJwng, is a triphthong in which only 
 one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beaut?/ 
 iou in anxious. ' 
 
 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed 
 chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to ob- 
 serve, as far as practicable, the following rules. 
 
CHAP. III.] OHTHOGBAPHY.— WOEDS. 29 
 
 RULE 1. CONSONANTS. 
 
 Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or 
 diphthongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal. 
 
 BULE II. VOWELS. 
 
 Two vowels, conaing together, if they make not a diphthong, 
 must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. 
 
 KTJLE III. TERMINATIONS. 
 
 Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally 
 be separated from the radical words to which they have been 
 added ; as, harm-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed. 
 
 -Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, 
 out-ride, up-lifi: but if their own primitive meaning be disre- 
 garded, the case may be otherwise ; thus re-create and rec-reate 
 are words of different import. 
 
 BULB V. COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple 
 words which compose them ; as, no-where. 
 
 RULE VI. ^LINES FULL, 
 
 At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary ; 
 but a syllable must never be broken. 
 
 CHAPTER in.— OF WORDS. 
 
 A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written 
 as tlie sign of some idea, or of some manner of tliouglit. 
 
 SPECIES AND FIGUEE Oil WOEDS. 
 
 Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and 
 as simple or compound, The former division is called 
 their species; the latter, their _/?g'Mre. 
 
 A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
 simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 
 
 A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
 ' simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly^ con- 
 nected, disconnect, unconnected. 
 
80 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART I. 
 
 A simple word is one that is not compounded, not 
 composed of other words ; as, watch, man, never, the, less. 
 
 A compound word is one that is composed of two or 
 more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 
 
 Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, hook- 
 seller, schoolmaster : others, which may be called tempo- 
 rary compounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass- 
 house, negrO'Tnerchant. 
 
 EULES FOB THE FIGURE OF WORDS. 
 
 BULB I. COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly 
 known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly 
 broken apart. 
 
 RULE II. SIMPLES. 
 
 When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, 
 of the same meanilig, the compounduig of any of them ought 
 to be avoided. ; 
 
 EULE III. THE SENSE. 
 
 Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined 
 together or written Separately, as the sense and construction 
 may happen to require. 
 
 EULE IV. ELLIPSES. 
 
 When two or more compounds are connected in one sen- 
 tence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half 
 a word. 
 
 RULE V. THE HYPHEN. 
 
 When the parts of a cpmpound do not fully coalesce, as to- 
 day, to-night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its original 
 accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that 
 is movable, as first-born, hanger-on,, laughter-hving, the hyphen 
 should be inserted between them. 
 
 RUJ-E VI. NO HYPHEN. 
 
 When a compound has but one accented syllable in pro- 
 nunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts 
 are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should 
 be inserted between them. 
 
CHAP. IV.] OBTHOGEAPHY.— SPELLING. 31 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— OF SPELLIJSTG. 
 
 Spelling is the. art of expressing words by their proper 
 letters. 
 
 Obb.— This impoTtsnt art is to ba acquired rather by means of the spelling- 
 book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of 
 written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much un- 
 certainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best 
 scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy 
 of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as 
 are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. 
 The following rules may prevent some embarraSBment, and thus be of serv- 
 ice to those who wish to be accurate. 
 
 BULES FOB spuzzma. 
 
 RULE I. riNAL F, t, OK S. 
 
 Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
 vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : ex- 
 cept three in f— clef, if, of; four in I — bul, nul, sal, sol ; and 
 eleven in s — (w, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus, 
 
 RULE n. OTHER FINALS. 
 
 Words ending in any other consonant than^ I, or *, do not 
 double the final letter : except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, 
 burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 
 
 RDLE in. ^DOUBLING. 
 
 Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when 
 they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
 or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an 
 additional syllable that begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; 
 permit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. 
 
 Exc. — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 
 
 RULE IV. NO DOUBLING. 
 
 A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single 
 vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should 
 remain single before an additional syllable : as, toil, toiling ; 
 visit, visited; general, generalize. 
 
 Exc. — ^But I and s final are usually doubled, (though per- 
 haps improperly,) when the last syllable is not accented : as, 
 travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. 
 
 RULE V. ^RETAINING. ' 
 
 Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double 
 
82 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET I. 
 
 before any additional termination, not beginning with the same 
 letter ; as in the following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly, 
 hilly, stiffness, illness, smallness, carelessness, agreement, agree- 
 able. 
 
 Exc. — ^The irregular words, /ec?, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spill, 
 shalt, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word 
 pontiff, are exceptions to this rule. 
 
 RULE VI. FINAL E. 
 
 The final e mute of a primitive word, is generally omitted 
 before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, 
 rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. 
 
 Exc. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or 
 ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g : as, peace, peace- 
 able ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 
 
 RULE Vn. FINAL E. 
 
 The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before 
 an additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, 
 paleness; lodge, lodgement. 
 
 Exo. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimeg 
 omitted; as, true, truly ; awe, awful: and sometimes retained ; 
 as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless. 
 
 RULE VIII. FINAL T. 
 
 The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- 
 nant, is changed into i before an additional termination : as, 
 merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, 
 pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. 
 
 Exc. — Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of 
 
 i ; as, pit^, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by 
 
 Bule 6th, change i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 
 
 Obs. — When a vowel precedes, ^ should not be changed : as, da^, dayg) 
 valley, i)aUei/3 ; money, nioneys ; rnonkey, mtmJceys. 
 
 RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple 
 words which uompose them ; as, hereof wherein, horseman, re- 
 call, "uphill, shellfish. 
 
 Exo. — In permanent compounds, the words yi<ZZ and aZZ drop 
 one I ; as, handful, careful, always, withal: in others, they re- 
 tain both ; as, fall-eyed, all-wise, save-all. 
 
 Obs. — Other words ending in II, sometimes improperly drop one I when 
 taken into composition ; as, miscal, dmonliil. This excision is reprehensible 
 because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are neces- 
 sary to presurvo the Bound, and show the derivation of the compound. 
 
CHAP, v.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— QUESTIONS. 83 
 
 
 Where ia the consistency of writing, recall, mimU, — inthraU, tetJiral, — wind- 
 fall, dmo^faL—lai/staU, thumbstid,—waterfriU, overfal.-^molehiU, dunohU,— 
 windmUl, iwml, — dodpoU, enrol ? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first Araeri- 
 «aa ed. Ito.] 
 
 CHAPTEE v.— EXAMESrATION". 
 
 LESSON I. — GEHERAL DIVISION. 
 
 What is English Grammar ? 
 How is it divided 3 
 Of what does Orthography treat ? 
 Of what does Etymology treat ? 
 Of what does Syntax treat? 
 Of what does Rrosody treat ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGEAPHY. 
 
 lESSON n. — ^LEITEBS. 
 
 Of what does Orthography treat! 
 
 What is a Zetter f 
 
 What is an elementary sound of a word? 
 
 What name is given to the sound of a letter ? and what epithet, to a letter 
 
 not sounded 5 
 How many letters are there in English ? and how many sounds do they 
 
 represent? 
 In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 
 What variety is noticed in letters that are always the same ? 
 What different sorts of types, or letters, are used in English ? 
 What are the names of the letters in English? 
 Which of the letteis name themselves? and which do not ? 
 What are the names of all in both numhers, singular and plural! 
 
 I.ESSON m. CLASSES OF LETIEES. 
 
 Into what^eneral classes are the letters divided ? 
 
 What is a vowel ! 
 
 What is a consonant ? 
 
 What letters are vowels ? and what, consonants ? 
 
 When are w and y consonants ? and when vowels ? 
 
 Sow are the consonants divided ? 
 
 What is a semivowSi? 
 
 What is a mute 3 
 
 What letters are semivowels? and which of these are aspirates! 
 
 What letters arejalled liquids, and why ? 
 
 Sow idiany and which are the letters reckoned mutes ? 
 
 LESSON IV. — ^POWEBS, OB SOUNDS. 
 
 What is meant, when we speak of " the powers of the letters !" 
 
 [n what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds ! 
 
 3ow may these sounds he modified to form words or syllables? 
 
 !!an you form a word from each by means of an// 
 
 [fill you form an other such series with ap? 
 
 low many and what are the consonant sounds in English ! 
 
 h what series of words may all these sounds be heard ? 
 
 h what series of words is each of them heard more than once ! 
 
 5o enr letters admit of combinations enough ? 
 
 iVhat do we derive from these elements of language! 
 
 3* 
 
34 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAE. [PAETI. 
 
 LESaON T. — FOEMS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 What ia said of the employment of the several styles of letters in Enghsh! 
 What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ? 
 What is said of small letters ? and why are capitals used • , , 
 
 How many rules for capitals are given ? and what are their heads . 
 
 What says Eule Ist of titUs of looks ?— Eule 2d of first words ?— Knle 3d of 
 names of Deity f—R\\\a 4th of proper M?rees?— Eule 5th at object^ person'^- 
 fiedf—kalo 6th of words derived f—Rula 7th of / and ?--Kul6 8th of 
 poetry ?—&\ile, ^\hot examples, &a. /'—Eule 10th oi chief words ■? 
 
 LESSON VI. — STLLABLES. 
 
 What is a syllable ? 
 
 Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ? 
 
 What is a word of one syllable called'— a word of two 1— of three?— of four 
 or more ? 
 
 What is a diphthong 1 
 
 What is a proper diphthong ? — an improper diphthong ? 
 
 What is a triphthong ? 
 
 What is a proper triplithong ? — an improper triphthong ? 
 
 What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ? 
 
 How many rules of syllabication are given ? and what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Eule 1st oi consonants f — Eule 2d oivowels? — Eule 3d of termina- 
 tions? — Eule 4th of prefixes? — Eule 5th of compounds? — Eule 6th of Unet 
 fallf 
 
 LESSON Vn. — WOEDS. 
 
 What is a word ? 
 
 How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure ? 
 
 What is a primitive word ? 
 
 What is a derivative word ? 
 
 What is a simple word ? 
 
 What is a compound word? 
 
 How do permanent compounds differ from others? 
 
 How many are the rules for the figure of words ? and what, their heads ? 
 
 What says Eule 1st of compounds ? — Eule 2d of eimples f — Eule 3d of /J« 
 
 sense f — Eule 4th of ellipses? — Eule 5th of the hyphen? — Eule 6th of using 
 
 no hyphen ? 
 
 LESSON Tin. — SPELLING. 
 
 What ia spelling f 
 
 How is this art to be acquired ? 
 
 How many rules for spelliag are there? and what are their beads? 
 
 What says Eule Ist ai final f, I, or sf—Rnla 2d o{ otUr finals ?—'Ru\a 8d of 
 the doubling of consonants? — Eule 4th against the doubling of consonants) 
 — Eule 5th of retaining ?— Rale 6th of final e ?—R\xifi 7th of finale?— 
 Eule 8th of final y .?— Eule 9th of compounds ? 
 
 CHAPTEE VI.— FOE WEITESTG. 
 
 EXFBGISES IN OBTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 t^~ [Spelling is to be taught by example, rather than by rule. For oral exerclsel 
 In this branch of learning, a spelling-book or vocabulary should be employed Thfl 
 followiu"! examples of false orthograpiiy are inserted, that they may be corrected by 
 the pupil in ifi'itinfl. They are selected with direct reference to the rules- which 
 are at first indicated by figures. For it is evident, that exerbises of tliis kind without 
 express rules for their correction, would rather perplex than instruct the' learner" 
 anil that bis ability to correct them without reference to the rules, must nresuDDOSA 
 such knowledge as would render tbcm useless. *^ '^'^ 
 
CHAP. VI.] OETHOGEAPHY. — EXERCISES. 85 
 
 EXERCISE I.— CAPITALS. 
 
 1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english 
 language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's 
 english synonymes, Walker's key to the pronunciation of pro- 
 per names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions 
 of purley. 
 
 2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at 
 once performs its duty and endears itself to others. 
 
 3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! 
 Shall mortal man presume against his maker 1 shall he not 
 fear the omnipotent 1 shall he not reverence the everlasting 
 one? — 'The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 
 
 4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, 
 Persians, bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many 
 other nations, in an expedition against greece. 
 
 5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led 
 aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, 
 before habit had time to enchain them. 
 
 6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the ery- 
 manthian boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian 
 birds. The christian religion has brought all my thologic stories 
 and milesian fables into disrepute. 
 
 7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; but 
 all these are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or 
 love as i do. — o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! 
 o fether Micipsa ! 
 
 8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth, 
 and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 
 
 9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this 
 maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle." 
 
 EXEECISE II.— CAPITALS. 
 
 'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. — 
 'thus,' said diogenes, 'do i trample on the pride of plato.' — 
 ' true,' replied plato ; ' but is it not with the greater pride of 
 diogenes V 
 
 the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following 
 words : ' o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than 
 human virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrous youth !' 
 
 epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his 
 love of truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. 
 
 and pharaoh said to Joseph, " say to thy brethren, ' do this— 
 lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan.'" 
 
36 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PART I, 
 
 ■who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips 
 over yonder plain ^ her name is health : she is the daughter of 
 exercise and temperance. 
 
 to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the 
 sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. 
 
 the murder of abel. the curse and rejection of cain, and the 
 birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related 
 of the immediate family of adam, after his fall. 
 
 on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
 how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. 
 
 in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
 i hear the voice of god among the trees. 
 
 EXERQSE III.— SYLLABLES. 
 
 1. Correct Murray's division of the following words : "ci- 
 vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, 
 hea-ven, le-mon, mea-dow, ne-ver, o-range, pu-nish, ro-hin, 
 sho-vel, ti-mid, whi-ther; — ^be-ne-fit, ca-nis-ter, ge-ne-rous, 
 le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, se-ve-ral ; — mi-se-ra-ble, to-le-ra--ble, e-pi-de- 
 mic, pa-ra-ly-tic ;— a-ca-de-mi-eal, cha-rac-te-ris-tic, ex-pe-ri- 
 ment-al." — Murray's Spelling-Booh. 
 
 2. Correct Webster's division of the following words: 
 " oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiatc, vi-tiate ; — am- 
 bro-sia, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, 
 pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry ; — an-nun-ciate, 
 e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, ne-go-tiate, 
 sub-stan-tiate." — Webster's Spelling-Boohs. 
 
 3. Correct Cobb's division of the following words : " dres- 
 ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, 
 han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, 
 weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy." — Cobb's Standard Spell 
 ing-Booh. And these : " eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, 
 nee-dy." — Webster. Also these : " woo-dy, stor-my, clou-dy, 
 ex-al-ted, at-ten-dance. " — Murray. 
 
 4. Divide the following words into their proper syllables : 
 adit, ado, adorn, adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, bespe?ik, 
 bestow, between, bifold, encroach, incrust, foreknow, forestall, 
 forswear, mishear, mistell, misyoke, outrap, overtire preterit^ 
 retrace, unoiled, unrepaid, unresting, underbid, underanged, 
 uphand, upholder, uprouse, withal. 
 
 5. Divide the following compounds into syllables : England, 
 anthill, cowslip, farewell, foresail, foretop, hogshead, homeward 
 Eimdstone, forever, husbandman, painstaker. 
 
CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGEAPHY.-^ EXERCISES. 37 
 
 EX'ERaSE IV.— FIGURE OP WORDS. 
 
 1. The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth. 
 
 The cross row has ever had some thing of a magie spell in it. 
 The old fashioned are apt to think the world grows worse. 
 The stealing of water melons may lead to house breaking. 
 A good clothes brush helps greatly to make a gentle man. 
 
 2. An'ill-ton^ue is a fearful corrupter of good-manners. 
 Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors. 
 
 St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables. 
 Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants. 
 New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day. 
 
 3. They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones. 
 A glass house is a house in which glass is manufactured. 
 A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one. 
 Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honour. 
 The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird. 
 
 4. Let school and meeting-houses be pleasantly located. 
 The teapot and kettle are now deemed indispensable. 
 Both the ten and the eight syllable verses are iambics. 
 Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are men and women. 
 A ketch is a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast. 
 
 5. The bloodyminded man seldom dwells long in safety. 
 A tiresmith puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them. 
 Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered. 
 Timehonoured custom may be souldestroying folly. 
 
 Is evenhanded honesty expected in slavemerchants ? 
 
 6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought. 
 The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast. 
 Rain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky-water. 
 
 EXERaSE v.— SPELLING. 
 
 1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. 
 Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
 Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 
 
 2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
 To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 
 
 A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 
 
 3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
 Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. 
 
 He that hoists *oo much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 
 
 4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. 
 Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 
 
 Of all tame animals the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 
 
 4 
 
88 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART I. 
 
 5. Smalness with talness makes the figure too slender. 
 Heedlesness is always in danger of embarrasment. 
 The recklesness of license is no attribute of frcdom. 
 
 6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
 Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
 Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 
 
 7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. 
 Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
 Encouragment increases with success 
 
 8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
 Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. 
 Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request. 
 
 9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint. 
 A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 
 
 The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 
 
 EXEECISE VI.— SPELLING. 
 
 L He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
 Eepetition makes smal transgressions great. 
 Religion regulates the wil and affections. 
 
 2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
 Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 
 The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 
 
 3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
 A bad begining is unfavourable to suciess. 
 
 Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 
 
 4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. 
 Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
 They had all been closetted together a long time. 
 
 5. Blesed is he whose transgresion is forgiven. 
 Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. 
 Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 
 
 6. In all thy undertakeings, ponde*- the motive and the end. 
 We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 
 
 A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 
 
 7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 
 To borrow of future time, is thriftless managmtnt. 
 
 He who is truely a fieman is above mean compliances. 
 
 8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
 Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
 Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 
 
 9. Cold numness had quite bereft hei- of sense. 
 
 A cascade, or watertal, is a charming object in scenery. 
 
CHAP. VI.] OETHOGEAPHT. — EXERCISES. 
 
 Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
 Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsc^ls. 
 
 EXERCISE VII.— SPELLING. 
 
 1. He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. 
 Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. 
 Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices. 
 
 2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
 Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
 Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 
 
 3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. 
 lie has run well who haa outstriped his own errors. 
 See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 
 
 4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. 
 Eather follow the wise than lead the fooUish. 
 
 To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf. 
 A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
 The gods of this world have many worshippers. 
 
 5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
 Pearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer. 
 
 6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 
 Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
 Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 
 
 7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. 
 Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 
 
 By self examination, we discover the lodgments of sin. 
 The passions often mislead the judgment. 
 
 8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. 
 And, all within, were walks and allies wide. 
 Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. 
 Without fire chimnies are useless. 
 
 9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. 
 Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. 
 
 All mispent time will one day be regretted. 
 
 EXERaSE Vni.— SPELLING. 
 
 Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. 
 Afiectation is a sprout that should be niped in the, bud. 
 A covettous person is always in want. 
 Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
 Fair appearances somtimes coyer foul purposes. 
 Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
 Never utter a felshood even for truth's sake. 
 
40 LN'STirUTES OF ESTGLISH GRAJIilAB. [PAKT I. 
 
 Medicines should be administeried with caution. 
 We ha\ e licre no continueing city, no abideing rest. 
 JSIany a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 
 We are caught as sillyly as the bird in tlie net. 
 By dcferiiig repentance, we accumulate sorrows. 
 To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
 "We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
 "We may be succesful, and j-et disappointed. 
 In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. 
 He is in great danger who parlies -with conscience. 
 Your men of Ibrhead are magnificent in promises. 
 A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
 It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. 
 Weigh your subject wel. before you speak positirly. 
 Difficulties are otten increased by mismanagment. 
 Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
 Contrivers of mischief otlen entrapp themselves. 
 Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
 Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. 
 Ilvpocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. 
 Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 
 
 EXERCISE IX.— SPELLING. 
 
 A downhil road may be travelled with ease. 
 Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. 
 Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 
 A knave can often undersel his honest neighbours. 
 Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 
 True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. 
 Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 
 Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 
 Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? 
 ISIisery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. 
 The liberal man ties his puree with a beau-not. 
 Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. 
 The characters of the erosrow have wrought wonders. 
 The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 
 All virtues are in agremeut ; all vices, at varyanoe. 
 Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 
 There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills asc«nd. 
 The birds frame to thy song, their chearfuU cherupping. 
 There figgs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. 
 Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 
 Years following years, steal sumthing every day. 
 
CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES- 41 
 
 The soul of the slothful!, does but drowse in/his body. 
 
 What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dresl 
 
 Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. " 
 
 The huming-bird is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. 
 
 The muskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout. 
 
 Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. 
 
 A-bsolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 
 
 He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 
 
 The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 
 
 ' These are villanous creatures,' says a blokheded boy. 
 
 The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest ; 
 
 And children sacred held a, martin's nest. 
 
 4* 
 
42 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PART II. 
 
 PART II. 
 ETYMOLO GY. 
 
 Etymology treats of tlie different parts of speech, with 
 their classes and modifications. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— THE PAETS OP SPEECH. 
 
 The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are 
 ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the 
 Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Con- 
 junction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 
 
 1. The Aeticle. 
 
 An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put 
 before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the 
 stars ; an island, a ship. . 
 
 2. The Noun. 
 
 A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
 that can be known or mentioned : as, Oeorge, York, man, 
 apple, truth. 
 
 8. The Adjective. 
 
 An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
 and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new 
 book. You two are diligent. 
 
 4. The Pronoun. 
 A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, 
 The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and lie 
 learns them well. 
 
 5. The Verb. 
 
 A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to he 
 acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou 
 loveet, he loves. 
 
CHAP. I.] ETYMOLOGY. — PAESING'. 43 
 
 6. The Participle. 
 A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
 pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
 noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, rf„or ed, 
 to the verb : thus, from the verb ruk, are formed' three 
 participles, two simple and one compound ; 'as, 1. ruling, 
 2. rvkd, 3. having ruled. 
 
 7. The Adverb. 
 
 An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
 adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses 
 time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here, 
 studying very diligently. 
 
 8. The Conjunction. 
 
 A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
 sentences in construction, and to show the dependence 
 of the terms so connected : as, " Thou and he are happy, 
 because you are good." — L. Murray. 
 
 9. The Preposition. 
 
 A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
 tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
 generally placed before a noun or a pronoun: as, The 
 paper lies before me on the desk. 
 
 10. The Interjection. 
 An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
 indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, 
 Oh/ alas I ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! 
 
 PAESING. 
 
 Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, 
 or of some related word or words, according to the defi- 
 nitions and rules of grammar. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, making com- 
 plete sense; as, "Eeward sweetens labor.— "The fear of 
 the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
 
44 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [PABT 11. 
 
 A definition of any thing or class of things is such a descrip- 
 tion of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every 
 thing else, by briefly telling what it is. 
 
 k A rule of grammar is some law, more or less general, by 
 ■which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of lan- 
 guage. 
 
 ' A praxis is a method of exercise, showing the learner how 
 to proceed. (The word literally signifies action, doing, practice, 
 or formal use.) '^ 
 
 An example is a particular instance or model, serving to prove 
 or illustrate some given proposition or truth. 
 
 An exercise is some technical performance required of the 
 learner in order to test his knowledge or skill by use. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 PEAXIS I. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 
 In the First Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
 the different parts of speech, and to assign a reason for such 
 distinction, by citing the 'proper definition, and adapting it to 
 each particular case. -Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLE PARSED. 
 
 " The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs 
 the labor required of him." 
 
 l.*Suimits is a verb, Ijecatise it eignifies action ; 
 
 FeYforms is also a verb, for the same reason. 
 2. Oj: is a noun, because it is the name of a thing ; 
 
 Take and labor are nouns, for the same reason. 
 8. The is an article, because it limits the signification of ax, yoke, or 
 labor — the noun before which it is placed. 
 
 4. Fatient is an adjective, because it expresses the quality of ox. 
 
 5. Him is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun ox. 
 
 6. Bequired is a participle, because it expresses action like a verb, 
 
 and qualifies the noun labor like an adjective. 
 
 * Sar~ The numbers are here \ised to indicate the order in which the pupil shonld, 
 at first, be required to distinguish the parts of speech in any sentence. The verb is 
 made the ilrst in this series, because it is the word to which all others have an iunne- 
 diate or remote relation, and because it is easily recognized, and, when discovered 
 leads the mind necessarily to a knowledge of the other parts of speech comrirehended 
 111 the sentenci', by showing the particular office of every word. This cannot be done, 
 at tins stage of the pupils progress, with a proper degree of intelligence and pre- 
 cision, by mechanically examining each word in succession; for the reawin that to 
 do so requires urn to compare the distinctive office of each pan of speeoh with the 
 word examined ; while in these preliminary exercises, he is only required to keen in 
 mind the character of a single part of speech, ond compare it with each word nf tha 
 eentenco in succession. Besides, an ecleetie process like that indicated is better 
 calculated to keep the interest and attention of the pupil awake, the const'ant desire 
 of diacovtry conlmually stimulating mental activity. vuamm uesira 
 
CHAP. I.J ETYMOLOGY. — PAESING. — PRAXIS I. . 45 
 
 7. Meekly ia an adverb, 'beocnisfi it is added to the verb performs, 
 
 and expresses manner. 
 
 8. And is a oonjiinotion, because it connects submits smi. performs. 
 
 9. To is a preposition, because it expresses the relation or tae verb 
 
 mtymits to the noun yoke. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 Parse, in the •following sentences, the verb, the noun, and the 
 article, in the order, and according to the method, indicated 
 in Praxis I. 
 
 The tree bears fruit. Pizarro invaded Peru. Avarice causes 
 crime. The miser loves gold. The ox bears a yoke. The 
 river overflowed the banks. John's brother has entered college. 
 The carpenter is using a saw. John Smith explored Virginia. 
 Columbus was a Genoese. Napoleon Bonaparte died an exile. 
 Lend Charles a book. The merchant has made a fortune. 
 Did the candidate obtain the oiSce ? The elephant is a quad- 
 ruped. Virgil praised the emperor Augustus. The boys have 
 told an untruth. The scholar's diligence deserves a reward. 
 Could the criminal have escaped punishment? Queen Dido 
 founded Carthage. Scipio defeated Hannibal. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Parse,. in the following sentences, the verb, the noun, the article, 
 
 the adjective, the pronoun, and the adverb, in the order, and 
 
 according to the method, indicated in Praxis I. 
 
 The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. 
 
 The architect who planned that fine building, is named Brown. 
 
 Demosthenes was a very famous Grecian Orator. 
 
 A child who disobeys his parents, is veiy ungrateful. 
 
 Human happiness is exceedingly transient. 
 
 The man who has not virtue, is not truly wise. 
 
 I saw the whole transaction ; both parties disgraced them- 
 selves. They had a fierce dispute. 
 
 Perseverance finally overcomes all obstacles. 
 
 I, who was present, know all the particulars. 
 
 A Being infinitely wise will not unnecessarily afflict his 
 creatures. 
 
 Passionate men are very easily irritated. 
 
 Good books always deserve a careful perusal. 
 
 Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 
 Parse all the parts of speech to be found in the following sen- 
 tences, according to Praxis I, 
 
46 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PART II, 
 
 The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. 
 
 A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 
 
 The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 
 
 The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft 
 feathers. 
 
 The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the western sky. 
 
 Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and 
 flourishing manhood. 
 
 Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 
 It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us a 
 deluge of crimes and evils. 
 
 O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy rewards! 
 
 Alas ! such miseries are too common among mankind ! 
 
 Industry is needful in every condition of life ; the price of 
 all improvement is labor. 
 
 When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and 
 the plants and Sowers display their beauty. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— OF ARTICLES. 
 
 An Article is the word tlie, an, or a, which we put 
 before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the 
 stars ; an island, a ship. 
 
 An and a are one and the same article. An is used when- 
 ever the following word begins with a vowel sound ; as, An 
 art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. — A is 
 used whenever the following word begins with a consonant 
 sound; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a 
 ewer^» Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when ex- 
 pressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 The articles are distinguished as the definite and the 
 indefinite. 
 
 I. The definite article is tJie^ which denotes some par- 
 ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 
 
 II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one 
 thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, 
 an orange. 
 
 Ob3. l.~The English articles have no grammatical modifications ; thoy are 
 
CHAP. III.7 ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CLASSES. 47 
 
 not varied by numbers, gendera, and eases, as are those of some other lan- 
 guages. In respect to cla^s, each is »ui generis. 
 
 Obs. 2 — A common noun -without an article or other word to limit its sig- 
 nificatlcn, is generally taken in its widest sense ; as, " A candid temper is 
 proper for Tnan ; that i3,/or aU manhmd." — Murray, ^ 
 
 CHAPTEE m.— OF NOUNS. 
 
 A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
 that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, 
 apple, truth. 
 
 Obs. 1. — All words and signs taken techmicallv, (that is, independently of 
 their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are ndam ; or, rather, ai-a 
 Mngs read and construed as nmmsj as, " CS is a personal pronoun." — Mwr- 
 ray. " Th has two sounds." — Id. " Control is probably contracted fiom 
 eouftforroS." — Ordtib. " Without one if or hd.^^—Oowper. " A is some- 
 times a noun ; as, a great ^." — Todd's Johnson, " Formerly sp was cast iu 
 a ^ece, as sVs are now." — Hist, of Prirdmg, 1770. 
 
 ()bb. 2. — In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and itse of each 
 word, and class it accordingly: many words commonly belonging to other 
 parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns, and must be parsed as such ; 
 
 05, 1. " The Aneienf of days."— ^iSfe. " Of the tmeients."— Swift. " For 
 snoh iaypertments." — Steele. "He Is an ignorant in it," — Id "To the 
 nines." — Bums. 2. " Or any A*, the proudest of thy sort." — Shot:. "lam 
 the happiest sTie in Kent."— 5feefo. " The sTies of Italy."— 5Aai. " The Ties . 
 in birds." — Bacon. 3. " Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and si(w<, theatqfi'!" 
 —Gowper. " A »»ay-S« of mercy is insufficient." — Bridge, 4. " For the^co- 
 dueing of real happiness." — Ordbb. " Beading, writing, and cip7tering,''we 
 indispensable to civilized man." 5. " An fiereafter." — Addison. '''The dread 
 of a hereafter."— Fuller. " The deep amen."Sa>tt. " The while.'"— Mlton. 
 
 6. " With harh, and whoop, and wild halloo." — Scott. " Will cuts him short 
 with a ' WTuit then ?' " — Addison, 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Nouns are divided into two general classes ; proper 
 and common. _^ 
 
 I. A proper noun is the name of some particularindi- 
 vidual, or people, or group ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hud- 
 son, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps. 
 
 II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or 
 class, of heings or things ; as, Bzast, bird, fish, insect,— 
 creatures, persons, children. 
 
 The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal or par- 
 ticipial, are usually includ,ed among common nouns. The 
 name of a thing sui generis is also called common. 
 
 1. A collective noun, or noun, of multitude, is the name of 
 many individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, committee, 
 flock. 
 
48 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 2. An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality 
 considered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, hardness, 
 pride, frailty. 
 
 3. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action 
 or state of being ; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, 
 but employed as a noun : as, "The triumphing of the wicked 
 is short." — Job, XX, 5. . • .\ • 
 
 4. A thing sui generis, (i. e., of its own peculiar kind,) u 
 something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a 
 species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either the 
 noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galvanism, music, geometry. 
 
 Ob3. 1.— The proper name of a person or place -with an article prefixed, is 
 generally used as a common noun ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age,"— that 
 IB, the orator. " Many ffi fiery Aip,''' — ^that is, mountain : except when a com- 
 mon noun is understood ; as. The [river] Hudson,— Tlie [ship] Amity,— TU 
 treacherous [man] Judas. 
 
 Oeb. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, some- 
 times becomes proper ; as. The Parle, — The Strand. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The common name of a thing or quality personified often becomes 
 proper; as, '"My power,' said Season, 'is to advise, not to compel.'"— 
 Johnson. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
 Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 
 
 PERSONS. 
 
 Persons, in grammar, are modifications tLat distin- 
 guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
 merely spoken of. 
 
 Obs. — The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations 
 which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse itself. It belongs to 
 nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs j and to these it is always applied, either 
 by peculiarity of form or constraction, or by inference from the principles of 
 concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verba are like their sub- 
 jects, in person. 
 
 There are three persons; the first, the second, and the 
 third. 
 
 The first person is that which denotes the speaker or 
 writer ; as " I Paul have written it." 
 
 The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or 
 the person addressed ; as, " Robert, who did this ?" 
 
 The third person is that which denotes the person or 
 thing merely spoken of; as, ^^ James loves his book." 
 
 Obs. 1. — In written language, the^/Srsi/iersora denotes the writer or author; 
 and the second, tiie render or person addressed ; except when tlie writer de- 
 scribes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the words" 
 which ho records. 
 
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— NUMBERS. 49 
 
 Obs. 2. — The speaker eeldom refers to himself ly name, as the speaker ; 
 consequently, nouTis are rarely used in the first person ; and when tney are, 
 a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians deny the 
 first person to lumns altogether ; others ascribe it : and many are silent on 
 the subject. Analogy dearly requires it ; as may be seen by the follcvring 
 examples: "^(feamTroiusiEneas." — Vvrg. "CallopiusrsceMKi." — Ter. Com. 
 apudfiaem. " Paul, an apostle, &a., unto Timothy, mtj own son in the faith." 
 — 1 Tim., i. 1. 
 
 Obs. 3. — When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in 
 Haa first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks--- 
 of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what JUbses did, and Cffisar 
 records the achievements of Cmsar. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph : 
 " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord." — Gen., 
 xliv, 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God : " Oh 1 let not t?ie 
 Lord be angry, and I will speak." — Gen., xviii, SO. 
 
 Obs. 4.— When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified : aijd 
 their names are put in the second person,, because by the figure the objeota 
 are svfposed to be capable of hearing. 
 
 NUMBEES. 
 
 Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
 guish unity and plurality. 
 
 Obs. — The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak 
 of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; 
 and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by infer- 
 once from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, 
 and verbs are Eke their subjects, in number. 
 
 There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 
 
 The singular number is that which denotes but one ; 
 as, The hoy learns. 
 
 The plural number is that which denotes more Jhan 
 one ; as, The boys learn. 
 
 The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
 adding 5 or es to the singular : as, book, books; box, boxes. 
 
 Rule I. — When the singular ends in a sound which -will 
 unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding 
 s only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen, 
 pens ; grape, grapes. 
 
 Rule II. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with 
 that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and e» 
 to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page, 
 pages ; fox, foxes. 
 
 Obs. 1. — ^English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but 
 do not increase their syllables: as, wo, woes; hero, heroes: negro, negroes; 
 potato, potatoes ; mushitto, ■mmhittoea ; octavo, oetmoes. The exceptions to 
 this rule appear to be in such nouns as are not properly and fully Anglicized ; 
 thus many write cantos, juntos, solos, &o. Other nouns in o add s only ; as, 
 'olio, folios ; lamboo, lamboos. The plural of two is commonly written twos, 
 ut some prefer iwoes. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
 into L and add es, without increase qf syllables : as, fly, flies ; duty, duties. 
 
 8 
 
 {i 
 
50 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PART 
 
 Other nouns in y add « only : as, day, days: valley, valleys. So likew 
 proper names ia y aro sometimes varied; as, ITenry, ttie Henrys. 
 
 Oiis. 3. —The follomng nouns iu /, change / into v, and add es, for I 
 plural; sheaf, leaf, loaf beef iMef, calf, half , elf , shelf, self, wolf, loliarf: 
 sJieaves, leaves, &e. Life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives; are simil 
 Staff makes staves : though the compounds of staff are regular ; as, jlagstc 
 flagstaffs. The greater number of nouns in /and fe, are regular ; as,_;^ 
 slrfes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, &c. 
 
 — Ob3. 4.— The following are still more irregular : man, men ; woman, t 
 men ; child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers'] ; foot, feet ; ox, oxe 
 tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, 7Jiice ; die, dice ; penny, jtem 
 l/ics, stamps, andpennies, coins, are regular. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, a?'canv: 
 arcana ; datum, data; erratum, errata; ejtuvium, effhivia; medimn, med 
 [or mediums'] ; viinutia, ininutia^ / stratum, strata ; sta7ne7i, stttmina ; gem 
 genera ,• genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit] ; magus, magi ; radius, radi 
 aippendix, ajypendices [or appendixes'] ; calx, calces; index, indices [or indexes 
 vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; basis, 'bases ; crisis, crises ; thesis, theses ; am 
 thesis, antitheses; d'lmresis, dicereses ; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphase 
 hypothesis, hi/potheses ; metamorplwsis, metamorphoses; automaton, automatt 
 criterion, criteria [or crUericns'] ; pliainomenon, phoinomena; cherub, chcruUn 
 seraph, seraphim; beau, beaux [or beaus], 
 
 Ob?. 6. — bome nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no plura 
 as, gold, pride, meekness. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Proper names of indimduals, strictly used as such, have no plun 
 Bat when several persona of the same name are spoken of, the noun bcoomi 
 in some degree common, and admits the plural form and an article • as Ti 
 Stuarts, — The Cassars : so hkewisewhen such nouns are used to denote oha 
 acter; as, " T/ie Aristoiles, the Tullys, and the Zivys."— Burgh. 
 
 Obs. 8. — The proper names of Tuitions aud societies are generally plum) 
 and, except m a direct address, they are usually construed with the definil 
 article: as. The G-reeks,— The Jesuits. 
 
 Obs. 9.— When a title is prefi.xed to a proper nivmo so as to form a sort c 
 *i,^P rr '^"' , °"°'^' ""'^ ^°^ ^-^^ *''^<=' " varied to form ths plural ; as, Tl 
 Miss Howards^— The two Mr. Claris. But a title not regarded as a part o 
 one compound name, must he made plural, if it refer to more than one ■ ai 
 Messrs. Lambert and Son,— The Lords Calthorpe and ErsKne,—The tore 
 Jiishopsof Durliam and St. David's,— The Lords Commissioners ofjusiician 
 
 Obs. 10.— Some nouns have no smgular ; as, emiers, ides, oats, scissoi'^ 
 tongs, vespers, literati. i > i 
 
 Obs. n.— Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermir. 
 swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The foUowinff ar 
 sometimes construed as emgular, but more frequently, and more properh 
 as plural: a?™, amends, pains riches: ethics, mathematics, mlapLsii 
 optics, polities, pneumatics, !inA other similar names of sciences. BeuLs «^< 
 
 Obs. 12.— Compounds iu which the principal wnrrl !a i^nt «,..=(• ■., , h, 
 
 principal word to form the plural, and the aSiuMb to fn?,^ « ' ^ ■ 
 case: as. Sing. ,/toA..-i^W, Plu'r. fatJ^^AnTf Vo-^^X^L^^T^ 
 Smg.court-nuirtial, Plur. coulrts-marLl, i^o^^. ^Z-t-n^iHiA^,^\^Z^J~ 
 ive plural of such nouns is never used '' *" ^^"^ Possess 
 
 wo^dV^uTE:^c'r'pSfaJ\^l''t;;i^lTn:?r *^ p"°"=-p" 
 
 Mndfuli, spoonfuls, mouth}uU, /<;«<™LrSte Ta^Ll»^' ",''""' ^ <^ 
 ingatherings downsittings. servants, man^servants, outpourings 
 
 Obs. 14.— Nouns of mnltitudo, when taken oollpcHvoI,, „„„„ n i • 
 the plural form.; as meeting, _me:ti,u,s : hT^h^''^^i^,^i^^^l!^^^l, 
 have & plural signification, without the form • ss " THp V« ■„ V,,^ . I- -^J i ? 
 
 Obs. 15.-When other fJarts of speech be^o^nTuoun'Sy'Sr want tb 
 
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— GENDERS. 51 
 
 plural, or form it regvlarly, like commou nouns of tho namo endings ; as, 
 " His aifairs ■went on at &ixes and sevens.'*^ — Arhuthnoi. " Some matliemati- 
 cians have proposed to compute by twoes; others, hy fours- others, hy twelves." 
 — ChiirehiU. " Three/oum^, nine teratfw." — Id. ^^Tim&A takings and leav~ 
 imgs." — Barton. " The yeas and nays." — Newspaper. " The ays and noes." 
 — lUd. "The ins and the outs." — 3id. "Hisa»a!s and liis ors." — Mott. 
 " One of the hv,t»," — Fowle. " In raising tho mirth of ettipids," — Steele. 
 
 GENDERS. 
 
 Genders, in grammar, are modifications tliat distin- 
 guish objects in regard to sex. 
 
 Oes. — The different genders are founded on the natural distinction of sex 
 in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they be- 
 long only to nouns and pronouns ; and to these they are usually applied 
 agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the 
 nouns for ■which they stand. 
 
 There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, 
 and the neuier. 
 
 The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or 
 animals of the male kind ; as, man, father, king. 
 
 The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or 
 animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, queen. 
 
 The neuter gender is that which denotes things that 
 are neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, paper. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, 
 friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually 
 determined by the context. To such words, some grammarians have applied 
 the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly observes, 
 " There is no such gender belonging to the language. Tbe business of 
 parsing, can be effectually performed witliout having recourse to a common 
 gender." The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to 
 the learned languages ; but with us it is plainly a solecism. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, 
 often vii'tually include both sexes ; as, "Hast thou given the Aorae strength ! 
 hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ?" — " Doth the hawk fly by thy wis- 
 dom, and stretch Jier wings toward the south ?" — Job. These have been 
 called epicene nouns — that is, supercommon f but they are to be parsed each 
 according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Those terms which are equally apphcable to both sexes, (if they 
 are not expressly applied to females,) and those jjlurals which are known to 
 include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for, in all lan- 
 guages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and is generally 
 employed when both sexes are included under one common term. 
 
 Obs. i. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways : 
 
 I. By the use of different names : as, hachekn; maid ; toy, girl ; brother, 
 sister; hicJc, doe; buU, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, 
 mother ; friar, nim; gander, goose; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; 
 king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady ; man, woman; master, mistress; miller, 
 spawner ; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; sloven, slut; son, damghter ; stag, hind; 
 steer, heifer ; uncle, cmnt ; wizard, witch. 
 
 II. By the use of different terminations : as, abbot, abbess ; administrator, 
 administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride ; caterer, cateress ; 
 duke, duchess ; em/peror, emperess or empress ; executor, executrix ; governor, 
 gooemess; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; 
 
52 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 marquU, marekwnesa ; sorcerer, sorceress ; svltcin, suUaness or sultana ; tes- 
 iutvr, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or tutress ; widt/wer, widow. 
 
 The following nouns become feminine by merely adding ess ; iaron.,deacon,, 
 Tidr, Tiost,jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, prophet, shepherd, 
 ■Discount. 
 
 The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel, and 
 adding ess: actor, ambassador, arUter, benefactor, chanter, amdmctor, doelor, 
 elector, enchanter,fomider, humter, idol-ator, inventor, prince, protector, song- 
 ster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. 
 
 III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, coch-sparrow, ?ien-sparrow ; 
 Tnarh-servant, Tnaid-servant ; he-goat, she-goat ^ male relations, /'emale relations. 
 
 Oe9. 5. — The names of things without life, used Uterally, are always of 
 the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively, 
 as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are 
 spoken of as masculine ; as^ the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, 
 war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine ; as, 
 the VLOon, earth, Tiature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace. 
 
 Oes. 6. — Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, or take 
 the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they convey the idea 
 of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals that 
 compose the assemblage. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, 
 are generally spoken of as neuter; as, " He fired at the deer, and wounded 
 fl." — "If a man shall steal an ox ox s, sheep, and kill it or sell it;" &o. — 
 Skodus, xxii, 1. 
 
 CASES. 
 
 Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguisli 
 tlie relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. 
 
 Obs.— The oases are founded on the dififerent relations under which things 
 are represented in discourse, and from which the words acquire correspond- 
 ent relations, or become dependent one on an other, according to the sense. 
 In English, these modifications, or relations, belong only to nouns and pro- 
 nouns. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents, in case. 
 
 There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, 
 and the objective. 
 
 The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or 
 pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite 
 verb: as, The So^ runs; /run. 
 
 Obs.— The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what 
 before it; as, "The boy runs"— ITto runs? The boy. Boy is therefore 
 hero in the nomvnative case. 
 
 The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or 
 pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: 
 as, The hoy's hat; my hat. 
 
 Obs. 1.— The possessive ease of nouns is formed, in the singular number 
 
 [ by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; and, in the nlural' 
 
 i when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, singular! 
 
 %'s,- plural, %«',■— sounded alike, but written diff'erently •' ' « ' 
 
 Obs. 2.— Plural nouns that do not end in s, usually form .the possessive 
 
 case m the same manner as the singular ; as, man's, men's 
 
 Obs. 3 -When the singular and the plural are alike iii the nominative, 
 the apostrophe, which (as Dr. Johnson has shown) is merely a sign of the 
 
CHAP. Ill,] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CASES. 
 
 53 
 
 case, and not of elision, ouglit to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish it 
 from the singular ; as, eheepa, sheeps'. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The apostrophie s adds a syllable to the noun, when it will not 
 unite with the sound in which the nominative ends ; as, torch's, pronounced 
 
 Obs. 5. — The apostrophe and t are sometinies added to mere characters, to 
 denote phtraUtv, and not the possessive case; as. Two a's — three J's — four 
 9'8. In the foilowing example, they ore used to give the sound of a verbal 
 termination to words that are not properly verbs : " When a man in a solil- 
 oquy reasons with himself, aad pro's and cori's, and weighs all his designs," 
 &0. — Oongreoe. 
 
 The objective case is that form or state of a noun or 
 pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a yerb, 
 participle, or preposition : as, I know the boy ; he knows 
 me. 
 
 Obs. 1. — ^The digect of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which an- 
 swers to wTiom or what after it ; as, " I know the boy." — I know whom ? The 
 ioy. Bay is therefore here in the dbjedme case. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in 
 form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sen- 
 tence, or their simple dependence according to the sense. 
 
 THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its 
 numbers and cases. Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 friend, 
 friend's, 
 friend ; 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 n. MAN. 
 
 friends, 
 friends', 
 friends. 
 
 Smg. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 man, 
 
 man's, 
 
 man; 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 ni. — FOX. 
 
 men, 
 
 men's, 
 
 men. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 fox, 
 
 fox's, 
 
 fox; 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 rsr. FLY. 
 
 foxes, 
 foxes', 
 foxes. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 
 Obj. ■ 
 
 fly, 
 
 fly's, 
 
 fly; 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 flies, 
 flies', 
 flies. 
 
54 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts 
 which compose it. 
 
 Every sentence must contain, at least, two principal 
 parts ; namely, the subject and the predicate. 
 
 The subject of a sentence is that of which it treats ; 
 as, " The sun has set." — " Can you write ?" 
 
 The predicate is that which expresses the action, being, 
 or passion, as belonging to the subject. It is therefore 
 always a verb. 
 
 Any combination of the subject and predicate is called 
 a proposition. 
 
 A simple sentence is one that contains only one pro- 
 position ; as, "Fire burns."' — "The truth will prevail." 
 
 Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of 
 the propositions which they contain, into four classes ; 
 declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 
 
 A sentence is declarative when it expresses an affir- 
 mation or negation ; interrogative, when it expresses a 
 question; imperative, when it expresses a command; 
 and exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation. 
 
 Oes. 1.— The predicate being always a verb, the subject of the sentence is 
 the subject of the verb, as defined in Obs. page 52. The oMect of the verb 
 ■when tne latter is the predicate of a sentence, may be oousiciered one of the 
 principal parts of the sentence. It properly, however, modifies the verb 
 and lb not a primary element of the sentence. In imperative sentences, the . 
 subject IS the pronoun ikou or you (understood), i or the definition of the 
 object 01 a verb, see Obs. 1, page 58. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Tliere are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words 
 that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be independent. 
 A noun or a pronoun may be independent in various ways ■ as 
 
 1. The name ot' a person or tiling addressed; as, 'Vok, when wiU 
 
 you go i"-" ye of little faith I" ' 
 
 2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclama- 
 
 tion ; as, "Alas, poor Tm-whr'' 
 
 3. An expletive worct used merely to make the subject or object eni- 
 
 phatio , as, " The Spnng--^\^<i is a blessed thing !"— " QaA a troop 
 
 shall overcome liim." ° ' '^ 
 
 Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in «tai!«, renniro tlio 
 
 firm of the nominative ease, and therefore, in parsing, should\e sa d to bo 
 
 na that case. Interjections are always independent. """^^ oe !>iu<i to do 
 
 EXEKCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 
 PRAXIS II. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil~to state 
 whether the sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative 
 
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 65 
 
 or exclamatory ; to analyse it by pointing out the subject, pred- 
 icate, and object ; and to parse it by distinguishing the different 
 parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the 
 nouns. Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED, 
 
 " Columbus studied geography." 
 
 ANALTais. — TUna is a simple dedarative sentence. Tlio Bubjoot is Columbus ; 
 the predicate, studied ; the object, geography. 
 
 Pabsino. — GoVumbus is a proper nonn, because it is the name of a particular 
 individual ; it is of the third person, because it is the name of a per- 
 son spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one ; 
 of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male ; and in the 
 nominative ease, because it is the subject of the verb studied. 
 
 Studied is a verb, because it signifies action. 
 
 Geography is a common noun, because it is the name of a thing sui generis : 
 (see page 48). It is of the third person, because it is spoken of; of 
 the singular number, because it denotes but one ; of the neuter gen- 
 der, because it is neither male nor female ; and in the objective case, 
 because it is the object of the verb studied. 
 
 Generosity makes friends. Can indolence bestow wealtli ? 
 Despise meanness. Can man avoid errors ? Does Eliza under- 
 stand Italian ? Love truth. Perseverance overcomes obstacles. 
 What did you say ? Diligence deserves praise. It should be 
 rewarded. Could he have avoided disgrace ? Komulus founded 
 Kome. Forgetfulness cures sorrow. Can liars respect them- 
 selves ? Do they fear God ? Birds sing. Cowards fear death. 
 Sinners feel remorse. Has John returned ? Time flies. Plants 
 produce fruit. Observation increases knowledge. Mortal, 
 prepare. Take warning, youth ! Liberty, jt has fled ! Elec- 
 tricity causes lightning. Avarice extinguishes generosity. In- 
 tegrity inspires confidence. Who can trust liars ? 
 
 CHAPTEE IV.— OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
 and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new 
 book. You two are diligent. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 Adjectives may be divided iato six classes ; namely, 
 common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and 
 compound. 
 
58 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PABT IL 
 
 I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or ad- 
 jective denoting quality or situation; as, Good, bad, 
 peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. 
 
 II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- 
 per name ; as, American, Engtish, Platonic. 
 
 III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
 nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c. 
 
 ly. A pronominal adjective iS a definitive word whicli 
 may either accompany its noun, or represent it under- 
 stood ; as, "^Z^ join to guard what each desires to gain." 
 — Pope. That is, All men join to guard what each man 
 desires to gain. 
 
 Y. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a 
 j)articiple, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
 time ; as, An amusing story. 
 
 VI. A compound adjective, is one that consists of two 
 or more words joined together ; as, Nut-brown, laughter- 
 loving, four-footed. 
 
 Ona. 1. — NumeraJ adjeotives are of three kinds : namely, 
 
 1. Cardinal; as^ One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ton, 
 eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c. 
 
 2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, 
 ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, <fco. 
 
 S. MulHpiioative ; as. Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or three- 
 fold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, sep- 
 tuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &e. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numeiv 
 ous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series ; 
 as, one-leaved, two-lemed, ihree-leamd, four-leaved, &c. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the 
 forms of comparison. 
 
 Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
 quality in differeut degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. 
 
 There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
 the comparative, and the superlative. 
 
 The positive degree is that which is expressed by the 
 adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. 
 
 The comparative degree is that which exceeds the pos- 
 itive ; as, harder, softer, better. . ^ 
 
 The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded • 
 as, hardest, softest, best. ' 
 
 Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
 
CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 67 
 
 different degrees, cannot be compared ; as, iwo, second, 
 all, total, immortal, infinite. 
 
 Those adjectives -which may be varied in sense, but 
 not in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, 
 skillful, more skillful, mast skUlfal— skillful, less skillful, 
 least skillful. 
 
 EEGULAR COMPABISON. 
 
 Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative 
 degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add- 
 ing est to them ; as, 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 great, greater, greatest. 
 
 *wide, wider, widest, 
 
 hot, hotter, hottest. 
 
 The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to 
 monosyllables, and' to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. 
 
 COMPABISON BY ADVERBS. ~\^ 
 
 The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
 with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective 
 the adverbs more and most: as, wise, more wise, most wise ; 
 famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, 
 most amiable. 
 
 The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by 
 the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least wise ; famous, 
 less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending 
 in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather compared 
 by means of the adverbs : thus we say, virtuoia, more virtuoita, mostmrtiums; 
 but not mrtwms, irirtMOuser, mriuouaeat. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation of the 
 adjective ; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the 
 degree bemg ascribed to the adverb — or, if you please, to both words ; for 
 both are varied m sense by the inflection of the former. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely 
 various : but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are 
 those wliioh our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express. 
 Whenever the adjective Usdf denotes these degrees, they properly belong to 
 it ; as, worOiy, worthier, worthiest. If an adverb is employed mrthis purposw, 
 that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly its own ; as, 
 worthy, more worthy, m^st worthy. But these same degrees may be otTier- 
 wise expressed ; as, worthy, in a, higher degree worthy, m the highest degree 
 worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually compared as before ; but 
 only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many grammarians nave 
 erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most, lees and least, as parts of the 
 adjective. 
 
 * See Enlos for Spoiling III. and VL 
 
68 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 lEREGULAU COMPARISON. 
 
 The following adjectives .are compared irregularly : good, 
 letter, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least ; much, 
 more, most; many, more, most. 
 
 Obs. 1.— In English, and also in Latm,, most adjectives that denote pha 
 or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either re- 
 dundant or detective in comparison. Thus : — 
 
 I. The following nine have more than one superlative : far,fmiMr,fm- 
 tTiest, fa/rmost or farthermost ; near, nearer, nmrest or next; fore^fonmr, 
 foremost ov first ; hind, hinder, hindmost or Undermost ; in, inner, vnmml or 
 innermost; out, outer or idter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost; wp, 
 upper, upmost or uppermost ; low, lower, lowest or lowermost ; late, later, or 
 latter, latest or last, 
 
 II. The following five want the positive : [aft, adv.,] after, afimost, or af- 
 termost; [forth, aiv.,] further, furthest oi: furthermost ; hither, hiChermoet; 
 nether, nethermost; under, undermost. 
 
 III. The following want the comparative : front, fronimost ; rear, rear- 
 most: head, headmost; end, endmost; top, topmost ; iott&m, iotiommost; mid 
 or middle, midst, midmost or middlerru>st ; north, ruirthmost; south, south- 
 mast ; northern, northernmost ; southern, southernmost ; eastern, easternmost ; 
 western, westernTnost. 
 
 Qua. 2. — Many of these irregular adjectives are also in common use, as 
 nouns, adverbs, or prepositions ; the sense in which they are employed will 
 show to what class they belong. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The words fore and hind, front and rear, head and end, right and 
 left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, 
 mid and after, are often joined m composition with other words ; and some 
 of them, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their 
 nouns ; as, m-land, «iicf-sea, a^iec-ages, &c. 
 
 Obs. 4. — It may be remarked of the comparatives, former and latter or 
 kinder, upper ana under or netlier, inner and outer or utter, after and hither; 
 as well as of the Latin superior imd mferior, anterior and posterior, interior 
 and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor; thnt 
 they cannot, Uke other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction 
 than, introdouing the latter term of comparison ; for we never say, one thing 
 is former, superior, t&c.^ than an other. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are more numer- 
 ous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few thut 
 me pronominal, may be varied by comparison ; and some participial adjec- 
 tives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed 
 from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no 
 way susceptible of comparison. 
 
 Obs. 6. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar — An evenin// 
 school — A mahogtmy chau- — A Sowfh^Sea dream. These also are incapabla 
 of comparison. 
 
 Obs. 7. — The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such, are regularly 
 declined; as. Such a one— One's own self— The httle ones — By tens — For 
 twenty's sake — Bj fifties — Two millions. 
 
 Obs. 8. — Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also employed 
 as nouns, and have the regular declension ; as. Our superiors — His letters— 
 The elder's advice — An* other's wo — Let others do as they will. But, as ad- 
 jectives, these words are invariable. 
 
 Obs. 9. — Pronominal adjectiveSj when their nouns are expressed, simply 
 relate to them, and have no modiiioations : except this and ihat, which form 
 
 ♦There seems to he no ftood reason for joining an and other, ^n here oxohidos 
 any other article; uiul analogy and consistency require that the words he separated. 
 Ttielr union lias led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article ; as ' Anotiiei' 
 such a man,' — for, ' An other such man.' ' 
 
CHAP. IV.J ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS. 69 
 
 the plural these and those ; and much, many, and a few others, which are 
 compared. 
 
 Obs. 10. — ^Pronominal adjeotivea, when their nouns are not expressed, may 
 he parsed as representing them in person,, number^ gender, and ease •• but 
 those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective simplv 
 as an, adjective. 
 
 Obs. 11.— Tlie followmg are the principal pronominal adjectives : All, any, 
 hoth, certain, dwiers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, former, first, latter, 
 last, little, less, least, much, many, more, most, neither, no or none* one, only, 
 other, own, same, several, some, such, this, that, these, those, which, what. 
 
 Obs. 12. — Which and wJiat, when they are not prefixed to nouns, arc, for 
 the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns, 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 Words, added to either of the principal parts of a 
 sentence to modify or limit its meaning, are called ad- 
 juncts. Adjuncts are sometimes called modifications. 
 
 They are divided into two classes, primary and dec- 
 ondary adjuncts. 
 
 Primary adjuncts are those added directly to either of 
 the principal parts ; as, " Oood books always deserve a 
 careful perusal." 
 
 Secondary adjuncts are those added to other adjuncts ; 
 as, "Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happi- 
 ness." . 
 
 Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into 
 three classes ; namely, adjective, adverbial, and explan- 
 atory. 
 
 An adjective adjunct is one used to modify or limit a 
 noun or a pronoun ; as, " Both those bad boys deserve 
 severe punishment." 
 
 An adverbial adjunct is one used like an adverb ; as, 
 "Eemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.'" 
 
 An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun ; as, " The emperor Napoleon 
 was banished." — " We, the people, ordain this constitu- 
 tion." 
 
 The subject or the object in a sentence, may be modified by 
 adjective or explanatory adjuncts of various forms ; as, 
 
 * No and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective ; tho forraor 
 being used before a nonn expressed, and tbc latter when tho noun Is understood, or 
 Botnliiced after the adjective; as, "FoDiOJieof us livotli to liiuisolf, and no man 
 diotU to hhrnuW—Roiiums, xlv. T. 
 
60 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 1. By an articlo or an adjective ; as, " The dlUgent scholar 
 
 improves." 
 
 2. By a noun or pronoitn in the possessive case; as, 
 
 William's sister lias lost her book." 
 
 3. By a verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire to 
 
 excel is laudable." 
 
 4. By a preposition and its object, used together as an 
 
 adjective ; as, "A man of integrity obeys the dictates 
 of conscience.^'' 
 
 5. By a iioiin ov pronoun used as an explanatory adjunct; 
 
 as, " His brother, Charles, is idle." 
 The predicate of a sentence may be modified by adverbial 
 adjuncts of various forms ; as, 
 
 1. By an' adverb ; as, "The sun shines briffhtliy." 
 
 2. By a prejiasition and its object, used together as an 
 
 adverb; as, " He came from £oston." 
 
 EXEKCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PAESING. 
 
 PRAXIS III. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 
 In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to classify 
 and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis ; to point 
 out, in addition, the adjuncts of each of the principal parts, 
 and distinguish their classes ; and to parse the sentence by 
 distinguishing the different parts of speech, and the classes 
 and modifications of the nouns, and adjectives, distinguish- 
 ing also the article as definite or indefinite. Thus: — 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise la-ws." 
 
 Analysis. —This is a simple declarative sontenee. 
 
 Tlie siibjcet is Athenians ; the predicate, observed ; the object, laws. 
 
 The sulijcct is limited by the adjective adjunct, the ; the predicate is modi- 
 fied 'by the adverbial adjunct, carefully ; and the object is modified by 
 the adjective adjuncts, Solori's and wise. 
 Paesinq. — TTie is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. 
 
 Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people. 
 (Modifications as in the preceding praxis.) 
 
 Carefully is an adverb, because it is added to the verb ohserved, and ex- 
 presses manner. 
 
 Oise?'ved is a verb, because it expresses action. 
 
 Solon's is a proper poun, heca^ise it is the name of a particular individual; 
 it is of the third person, sinfjular number, masculine pen.lti-, and it 
 the possessive ease, because it indicates tlio possession of te«w. 
 
 'Wise is a common adjective, because it simply expresses the quality of 
 laws. 
 
 Laws is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of thins^s. 
 
CHAP. V.J ETYMOLOGY. — PEONOUNS. 61 
 
 Pleasure's call always wins an eager attention. 
 
 Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous emotion. 
 
 King Belshazzar made a great feast. 
 
 Every pereon highly praised "William's noble conduct. 
 
 Where did your kind father buy that interesting book ? 
 
 The French, ambassador immediately presented his cro- 
 dentials. 
 
 This benevolent young lady kindly teaches many poor children. 
 
 Riotous Indulgence rapidly destroys the bodily vigor. 
 
 This enterprising merchant has just returned from Europe. 
 
 The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. 
 
 Indulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. 
 
 Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. 
 
 The beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest 
 admiration of mankind. 
 
 The powerful eloquence of Demosthenes excited the fierce 
 indignation of Athens against Philip of Macedon. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— OF PEONOUNS. 
 
 A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, 
 The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he 
 learns them well. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, 
 because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have' Umited the term 
 anteeedent, to the word represented by a relative. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The pronouns / and thou in their different modifications, stand 
 immediately for persona that are, in general, sufficiently known without be- 
 ing named; (/meaning the speaker, and thou the hearer;) their antecedents 
 ai'e therefore generally understood. 
 
 Obs. 3. — ^The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general 
 or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned ; as, 
 "Se that hath knowledge, spareth his words." 
 
 Obs. 4. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some per- 
 son or 'thing unknown to the speaker ; the noun, therefore, cannot occur 
 before it, but may be used after it or instead of it. 
 
 Obs. 6. — The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in con- 
 struction as the antecedents to other pronouns ; as, Ke that arms his intent 
 with virtue is invincible." — " Who. that.hzs-aixj mnralaense, dares tell lies '<" 
 
 CLASSES. 
 Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, rel- 
 ative, and interrogative. 
 
 I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its 
 form, of what person it is. 
 
 Tlie simple personal pronouns are fivo : namely, I, of 
 
 c 
 
62 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and 
 it, of the third person. 
 
 The compound personal pronouns are also five : name- 
 ly, myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second per- 
 son ; himself, lierself, and itself, of the third person. 
 
 II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an 
 antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses 
 of a sentence. 
 
 The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that; 
 and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or 
 whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 
 
 What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that 
 or those which ; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and 
 then as relative. 
 
 III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which 
 a question is asked. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; 
 being the same in form as relatives. 
 
 OBsl.— JFAoia usually applied to persons only; wAicA, though formerly 
 applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate things . wlui 
 (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : that is applied indSeferentlv 
 to persons, animals, or things. 
 
 0b3. 2.— The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used rhy 
 ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to t}ml 
 which, or thejhmgrwhwh. In this double relation, wMt represents two cases 
 at the same tune : as, " He is ashamed of what lie has done ;" that is, of tJiat 
 [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular number, though 
 sometimes plura ; as " I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to 
 me. -Byron. 'AU distortions and municries, as such, are wUt raise aver- 
 sion m stead of pleasure. — Steele. 
 
 . Obs. 3.- What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the 
 same time, and is placed betore the noun which it represents : as, " What 
 
 """"uW*!,/ "l T ^""^T ""^J^^ '"„ ^^"^ '^' ^« *''* ™o°ey that we had, &e. 
 -— " What man but enters dies ;" that is. Any man wh6, &e. " What god 
 but enters yon forbidden md."-Pope. Indeed, it does Lot admit of being 
 
 Ttri^ w «" ''""°' "^ ^''!"P'" ■•'='^''^«- The compound whaUver of 
 whatsoever has the same peou larities of construction ; as, ^' We will certainly 
 do whatsoever thing go fn forth out of our own mc^uti."-Jer xliv 17 
 
 Obs. i.-Who, which, md what, when the afBx ever or eiever 'is added, 
 haveanunhmited sigmflcatipn; and, as some general tcrmtTuoh ^ani 
 person or any thing ,s usually employed 03 the aSteoedeut, they are aU com- 
 monly followed by two verbs t as, " Svhoemr attends, w 1 impi oye •" tta^ 
 ^, Any person. wU attends, will improve. In parsing, si3y™| aXjiedenl 
 
 Obs. h.-WTmh and what are often prefixed to nouns asSefinitive oTinter- 
 tZrat'''rF.^ai ^^^^^^%S^^r^'^ '0 Pe-nfrwSirJo 
 
 IS a definitive or pi-pnominal adjective, when it relates to a noun exwessed 
 or understood after it ; as, " That book is new." In other oasen iMF?^^n 
 junction, as, " Live well, that you may die well " ' '* "^ ''°^' 
 
 Obs. 7.-Tlie relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow thn 
 word on which its case depends: thus, it is saij, iJolu,, xiii, 29,] %uy 
 
C3HAP. v.] E'^YMOLOGT.— PRONOUNS.— MODIF. 63 
 
 those things ihat we have need off but we cannot say, "Buy those things 
 of that we have need." 
 
 Obs. 8. — The Word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has 
 sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun ; as, " The Lord added to 
 the church daily such [persons] «« should be saved." — Aets, ii, 47. 
 
 Obs. 9.— Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, refer- 
 ring to one of two things ; as, " Whihei- is greater, the gold or the temple V 
 —JUati., xxiii, 17. 
 
 Obs. 10. — Interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this; that, 
 as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not relate to a 
 precedinff noun, but to soniething which is to De expressed in the answer to 
 the question. Their ^a-son, nunUier, and ^ered«r, therefore, are not regulated 
 by an antecedent noun ; but by what the speaker supposes of a subject which 
 may, or may not, agree with them in these respects : as, " What lies there !" 
 Ans. " Two men asleep," 
 
 MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Pronouns have tlie same modifications as nouns; 
 namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 
 
 Obs. 1. — ^In tSe personal pronouns, most of these properties are distin- 
 guished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the interrogative pro- 
 nouns, they aps ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and the verb. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally 
 applicable to both sexes ; and should be considered masculine or feminine 
 according to the known application of them. [See Zemeac's French Gram., 
 p. 73.] Tie speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course 
 know the sex to which they respectively belong ; and, wheneTer they ap- 
 pear in narrative, we are told who they are. In Latin,, an adjective or a par- 
 ticiple relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with them in nwmber, 
 gender, and case ; as, >, 
 
 Mieerce hoc tamen unum 
 Exeqnere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille 
 Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensns : 
 Sola viri moUes aditus et tempora n^ras. — Virgil. 
 Qes. 3. — ^Many grammarians deny the first person of nouns, and the gen- 
 der of pronouns of the first and second persons ; and at the same time teach, 
 that, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for 
 which they stand, in gender, nmriber, ani. person." — Mfurrm/^s Gram., 2d Md., 
 1796. Now, no two words can agree in any propeity which belongs not to 
 bothl 
 
 THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS, 
 The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of it» 
 numbers and cases. 
 
 SIMPLE PERSONALS. 
 
 The simple personal pronouns are thus declined : — 
 I, of the FIRST PERSON, any* of the genders. 
 
 Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, 
 
 Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 
 
 Obj. me; Obj. us. 
 
 * That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and 
 sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain ; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, 
 Is a Question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they ate only applied hgur- 
 
64 IN-STITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 
 
 Thou, of the second person, any of the genders. 
 Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nona, ye,* or you, 
 
 Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 
 
 Obj. thee; Obj. you. 
 
 He, of the thied person, masculine gender. 
 Sing. Nora, he, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 
 
 Obj. him ; Obj. them. 
 
 She, of the third person, feminine gender. 
 Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 
 
 Obj. her; Obj. tliem. 
 
 It, of the third person, neuter gender. 
 Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, 
 
 Poss. its,f Poss. their, or theirs, 
 
 Obj- it; Obj. them. 
 
 Oes. 1.— Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive 
 case, in each number; as, my or mine, our or ours; tliy or thme, you or 
 youn; Imr or liers, their or theirs. The former is used before a nouu ex- 
 pressed ; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or so placed as 
 not immediately to foUovv the pronoun ; as, '■'■My powers are thiri£.^— Mont- 
 gomery. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Mme and thine were formerly used before all words beginnini' 
 with a vowel sound ; my and thy, before others : as, " It was thou, a man" 
 mine equal, my guide, aaitniM aoquaintonce."— PsaZm. But this usan-e is 
 now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, " 
 
 "Time writes no wrinkle on tldne azure brow." — Byron. 
 
 COMPOUND PERSONALS. 
 
 The word selfX added to the simple personal pronouns, 
 forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are 
 used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when 
 
 atively ; and the question Is, whether the flRure always Docessartly chanKc-s the gen- 
 der of the antecedent noun. Pranoans are of the same sender as the ninSs for i,Sh 
 they stand ; and if, in the following example, gold and Sia^^ T^ Seutor so L tS 
 pronoun me. And, if not neuter, of wlint gender are they ? ncutor, so is the 
 
 "Where thy true treasure ? Oolcl says, ' Not in ine •' 
 And, 'Not in me,' t\\a diamond. Gold is poor."— rot«jp. 
 
 * Tho uso of the pronoun ye is mostly confined to the solemn style and to thn hnr- 
 lesquo. In the latter, it is sometimos used for tho objective case 
 
 + In ancient times, he, Ma, anil liim, wore applied to things neiitor Tn ^n, tn„„.i 
 tion of the Bible, H,e pronoun U is employed in the nomlnaHve a^flthe "bSve bu; 
 Us IS retained in the possessive, neuter; as, "Look not thou upon tho wine when /( 
 M rod, when it giveth hia color in the cup, when it inovelh asJ./V nvJllt " i 
 xxiii, 81. Its is .lot found in tbo Bible, except by misprint "^ ^ -Prov., 
 
 % The word s^^/was ori^nnally an -■■'■■■''-■ - -^ -. . 
 allya^owt. This 
 personal pronouns 
 both ad^eotvve ani 
 
 rf/was ori.?inally an a./jecliv,' ; but when used alone, it is now -ener 
 his may have oce,-u,i„ne,l the diversity in tho formatiu„„f l.bo comnoi i,d 
 ms. Dr. Johnson calls self a pronoun ; but ho oxrjlain^ UnT'l ■ 
 and subsUmtive. ' <->.plaiii3 it as bcini; 
 
CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY.— PRONOUNS.— DECLENSION. 65 
 
 some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing. 
 myself, plur. ourselves; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves; sing. 
 himself* plur. themselves; sing, herself plur. themselves; sing. 
 itself plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and 
 are alike in the nominative and objective. 
 
 RELATIVES AND INTERROG ATI VES. 
 
 -The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus de- 
 clined : — 
 
 Who, applied only to persons. 
 Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, 
 
 Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 
 
 Obj. whom; Obj. whom, 
 
 Which, applied to animals and things. 
 Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, 
 
 Poss. f Poss. 
 
 Obj. which; Obj. which. 
 
 What, generally applied to things. 
 Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, 
 
 Poss. Poss. 
 
 Obj. what; Obj. what. 
 
 That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 
 Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, 
 
 Poss. ^ Poss. 
 
 Obj. that;' Obj. that. 
 
 COMPOUND RELATIVES. 
 
 The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, 
 whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are de- 
 clined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. ' 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 A clause is a sentence that forms a part of another sen- 
 tence. Clauses are either dependent or independent. 
 A dependent clause is one used as an adjunct, or as 
 
 * JTUself, itsaelf, und theirselves, are more analogical than hhrwelf, its^ielf, them- 
 H6l/ves ; but castora has rejeeted the former, and established tiio latter. Wiien an ad- 
 jective is prefixed to ttelf, the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case ; 
 as. My single self, — My own self, — liifi own self, — Tlieii' own selves. 
 
 t W/tose is sonieti ines used as the possessive case of which ; as, " A religion wJiost 
 origin is divine." — Blair. 
 
 6 
 
 * 
 
66 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAE. [PABT 
 
 n. 
 
 one of the principal parts of a sentence. The clause on 
 which it depends, is called the principal clause. 
 
 Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative 
 pronouns, or adverbs. 
 
 A complex sentence is one composed of a principal 
 clause, and one or more dependent clauses. 
 
 A compound sentence is one composed of two or more 
 independent clauses. 
 
 Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called 
 memliers. 
 
 Oes. — A clause introduced "by a relative pronoun, is often called a ) 
 clause; it may be dependent or independent; thus the sentence, " This is 
 the man xsho committed the deed^'' is complex ; because the relative clause is 
 an adjunct of man, moditying it like an adjective ; but " I gave the book to 
 John, wIlo has lost it^^^ is a compound sentence, the relative clause not being 
 an adjunct, but expressing an additional fact, and equivalent to " and he hat 
 lost it." 
 
 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 
 PRAXIS ly. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 
 In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to clas- 
 sify the sentences j to point out the component clauses : to 
 analyze and parse each as in the preceding 2^>'a.vis y and to 
 state the classes and modifications of the 2^1'onomis. Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " Children who disobey their parents, deserve punishment." 
 Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is. 
 Children deserve punishment, and the dependent clause is, Who disobey 
 their parents, an adjective adjunct of children ; the connective word 
 is who. 
 The subject of the principal clause is children ; the predicate is deserve; 
 and the object is punishment. The adjunct of the subject is the de- 
 pendent clause ; the other parts have no adjuncts. The subject of the 
 dependent clause is who: the predicate is disobey ; the object is 
 parents. The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts ; the ad- 
 junct of parents is their. 
 
 Passing. — Who^ is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent 
 word children, and connects the two clauses of the sentence ■ it is of 
 the third person, because it represents the persons spoken o^ ■ of the 
 plural number, because it denotes more than one ; of the masculine 
 gender, because it is a term equally applicable to both sexes (see 
 Ubs.3, page o\) ;* and in the nominative ease, because it is the subiect 
 ot the verb disobey; its declension in both numbers is, Nom who- 
 l^oss. whose ; Obj. whom. ' ' 
 
 Tlieir is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of tho 
 
 * It would be preferable, in Hic opiiiimi of the eilitov of these e\-eiei<!r.- tn fl ■ 
 nate this the comn?o)i gender, there bcins iin roiisnii to oonsider the in-isoi',r ''''"^' 
 dcr more " worthy" than the feminino. ]!esidcs, sender is not a diitinrt'lninf jJ^'T 
 as to sex, hnt n distinction of words with rtt^pect io the sex loluih tht-i] ci , 
 and therefore such words as belong, in common, to both sexes, are majilfestlv "p.f '" 
 common r/cnder. ^ °^ ^he 
 
CHAP. VI. ETYMOLOGY. — VEEBS.— CLASSES. 67 
 
 third person ; it is of the plural number, raasomline gender, and in 
 the possessive case, because it denotes the possession of paients. Its 
 declension is, Nom. they, Poss. their-, or thews, Ohj. thMii. 
 (Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes.) 
 He who conquers his passions, overcomes his greatest enemies. 
 Every teacher must love a pnpil who evinces a love of study. 
 Savages who have no settled abode, wander from place to place. 
 Avoid rudeness of manners, which always hurts the feelings of 
 others. A good reader will often make a pause, where no gram- 
 marian would place a point. He who, in nature, recognizes the 
 Creator's hand, will ever survey its varied scenes with jeverence. 
 The poems of Homer celebrate the exploits of AcBilles, who 
 slew the Trojan prince, Hector. Prosperity gains many friends, 
 but adversity tries them. I disregard their imputations, be- 
 cause I do not merit them. When he had sold his patrimony, 
 he engaged in traffic. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— OF YERBS. 
 
 A Verb is a -word that signifies to he, to ad, or to he 
 acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I hve, thou 
 lovest, he laves. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Verbs are divided, with respect to their _/orm, into four 
 classes ; regular, irregular, redundant, and defective. 
 
 I. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
 the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, Ioved, 
 loving, lovED. 
 
 II. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
 preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; 
 as, see, saw, seeing, seen. 
 
 HI. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit 
 or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as 
 to be both regular and irregwlar ; as, thrive, thrived or 
 throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. 
 
 TV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
 and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, he- 
 ware, ought, quath. 
 
 Obs. — Eegular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, by adding 
 d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb hear, heard, hearing, 
 heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 
 
68 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [P ART II. 
 
 Yerb3 are divided again, witli respect to their signifi- 
 cation, into four classes ; active-transitive, active-intransilive, 
 passive, and neuter. 
 
 I. An active-transitive verb is a verb tliat expresses an 
 action which has some person or thing for its oDject; as, 
 " Cain sfeji; J-ieZ." 
 
 II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
 an action which has no person or thing for its object; 
 as, "John wallcs." 
 
 III. A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, 
 or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I am com- 
 pelled.''^ 
 
 IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither ac- 
 tion nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; 
 as, " Thou art."—" He sleeps." 
 
 Oes. 1. — In most grammars and dictionaries, verba are divided into three 
 classes only ; active, passive, and neuter. In such a division, the class of 0K> 
 tive verbs includes those only which are active-tramitive, and all the active- 
 intrcmsitive verbs are called neuter. But, in the division adopted above, 
 acti/oe-iniransitive verbs are made a distinct class : and those only are regarded 
 as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, there- 
 fore, we speak of verbs without reference to their reguncn, we apply the 
 simple term active to all those which express action, whether transitive or 
 intransitive. " We act whenever wc do any thing ; but we Tnay act without 
 doing any thine." — GraWs Synonymes. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them and 
 the object after them ; as, " Ctcsar coTiquerea Pompey ." Passive verbs (which 
 are derived from active-transitive verbs) reverse this order, and denote that 
 the subject, or nominative, is affected by the action ; and the agent follows, 
 being introduced by the preposition ty : as, " Pompey was congiwed by 
 Ciesar." 
 
 Obs. 3. — ^Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. 
 Active verbs are transitive when there is any person or tiling expressed ot 
 clearly implied, upon which the action terminates ; when they do not govern 
 such an object, they are intransitive. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Some verbs may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. 
 In the sentence, " Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb ; but in the sentence, 
 " Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive verb, and governs Aopffl. 
 
 Obs. 5. — An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its ob- 
 ject, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, the object of 
 the preposition being assumed for the nominativej and the preposition being 
 retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, (Active,) " They ^uo-hed at him." 
 — {PassiAie,) "He was laughed at." ° 
 
 MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Verbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely Moods, 
 Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 
 
 MOODS. 
 
 Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— MOODS. 69 
 
 expresses tlie being, action, or passion, in some particular 
 manner. 
 
 There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative^ 
 the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 
 
 The Infinitive n^ood is that form, of the verb, which 
 expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited 
 manner, and without person or number : as, To read, to 
 speak. 
 
 The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which 
 simply indicates, or declares a thing: a&,l write; you 
 hnow: or asks a question ; as. Do you know? 
 
 The Potential mood is that form of the verb, which ex- 
 presses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the 
 being, action, or passion: as, I can read; we must go. 
 
 The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which 
 represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, 
 doubtful, and contingent: as, "If thou go, see that thou 
 offend not." 
 
 The Imperative mood is that form of the verb, which 
 is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or per- 
 mitting: as, '■'■Depart thou." — '■'■Be comforted^ — ^'■Forgive 
 me." — '■'■Go in pegce." -h 
 
 Oe3. 1. — The vnjiimiviie mood is distinguished by the preposition to, which, 
 ■with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it. In dictionaries, to is gen- 
 
 Oe3. 1. — The mjimime mood is distinguished by the preposition to, which, 
 rith a few exceptions, immediately precedes it. In dictionaries, to is gen- 
 erally prefixed to verbs, to distinguish them from other pai'ts of speech. A 
 verb in any other mood than the mfirajme, is called, by way of distinction, 
 
 ?i finite verb. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The pateniial mood is known by the signs iruiy, can, must, might, 
 c&uld, wauld, and should. This mood as well as the indicative may be used 
 in asking a 4nestioxi ; aSj Must we go f 
 
 Oes. 3. — The auijunctwe mood is always connected with an other verb. 
 Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction; as, if, that, tliough, lest, 
 uniees. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The indicaikie and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be 
 used in the same dependent manner ; but this seems not to be a sufficient 
 reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood.* 
 
 * In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the sub- 
 junctive mood in English; grammarians are greatly at variance ; and some, supposing its 
 distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential, even deny 
 the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the instructions published by 
 Lindley Murray are exceedingly vague and inconsistent. The early editions of his 
 Grammar gave to this mood stx tenses, none of which had any of the personal inflec- 
 tions; consequently there was, in all the tenses, some difference between it and the 
 indicative. His later editions make the subjunctive exactly like the indicative, except , 
 in the present tense, and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-fnture. Both ways 
 he goes too far. And while at last he restricts the dist/ifietMiejorm of the subjunctive 
 to narrower bounds than he ought, and argues against, If thou lomed. If thou knew, 
 &c., he gives this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all those 
 of the potential ; alleging, *' that as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
 tive, by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. being supcradiled 
 to it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, be turned into the subjuncUve." — 
 Mitr. Gram., Oct., p. 82. According to this,the subjunctive mood of every rogiilar 
 
70 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMITAK. [PART II. 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 _' Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which dis- 
 tinguish time. 
 
 There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the 
 Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Firstfuture, and the Second- 
 future. I 
 
 The Present tense is that which expresses what now 
 exists, or is talcing place : as, " I hear a noise ; somebody 
 is coming^'' 
 
 The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what tooh 
 place, or was occurring, in time fall j past: as, "I saw 
 him yesterday; he was walking out." 
 
 The Perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
 taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past: 
 as, "I have seen him to-day." 
 
 The Pluperfect tense is that Avhich expresses what had 
 taken place, at some past time mentioned: as "I had 
 seen him, when I met you." ' 
 
 The Firstfuture tense is that which expresses what 
 will take place hereafter : as, " I shall see him again." 
 
 The Second-future tense is that which expresses' what 
 lutll have taken place, at some future time mentioned: as 
 " I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." " ' 
 
 „f ^f • ■''■7''^^^ tenses do not all express time with equal precision Those 
 of the mdieative mood, are the most definite. The flme exnressed bv tha 
 Bume tenses or what are called by the same names) i^thr^ther mooL i^ 
 frequently relative, and sometimes indefinite moous, 13 
 
 Obs. 3.-The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses eeneral 
 truths, and customary ac tions; as, ^'Viee produces misery.?'-" Shf £ 
 
 verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hundred and thirfv »wi,f ^nr„. » 
 sions; and it may happen tbat in one single teSa verb XlT?,„l^ 5f ?"' ''''?l;''' 
 fifteen different forms^incacli person and Snmber. Six times flfr.tT„,„ '^"f """1 
 60 many are the several phras4 which now compose Murra^^s SfSw? ?'f *^V w '' 
 Bubjimotive mood of the verb to atnm-a tense which most^™,m.1 ^"^ °^ "'" 
 cry reject as needless! But this is not all The scSme not n^?^ ""'7'"'^/'''',"" 
 moods, and overwhelms the learner with its multjplicitv but conL^l^, ""'i!""?^'' '"» 
 what the author himself once adopted as the ImpeS^snb nnct?vT•'rf^hiw"^'i'" 
 &c., wherem ho was sustained by1)r. Priestly and others ofhiKh authorlLn T'f- 
 son, indeed, mode the preterit subjunctive like the indicative •amltwi'^- , ' ''"'!"" 
 duced the author to change his plan, and inflect this toA of th„' ^^^ "' ?,™-}y ''a^e in- 
 Alexander Murray very p1,sitively declares tWs ifbe wrone ■ 'M ^hel n't ^"h' ""•• 
 V; tlmiffh, unless, except, whether, and the like, arc used befm-e v».h? f?°^ 7"'^^ "^ 
 terminations of ea, etK, and «, in 'those person's wldchcom^nlv Irnv^"?,''*'' '''5,''' 
 speaker of good English, expressing himself conditioimlly, saT TLn/h tS"""/ „^? 
 or Though he /oefs, but, Though thou fall, and Though he & -Zr^Tt ""■?'?''*' 
 earnest, Wt Though, or although, thou camk"-ir«. Slrol 'Si, Vom'™^K '""^ 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VBEBS.— PEE. AND NUM. 71 
 
 fnsits us." "We also use it in speaking of persons who are dead, but whose 
 works remain ; as, " Seneca reasons well." 
 
 Obs. i. — The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the other 
 moods when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, is generally 
 used with reference to future time ; as, " If he ash a fish, will he give him a 
 serpent !" — Matt., vi, 10. " When he arrives, I will send for yon?' 
 
 Obs. 6. — In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes substituted 
 (by the figure enaUage) for the imperfect ; as, " As he lay indulging himself 
 in state, he sees let down from the ceiling a glittering sword, hung by a single 
 hair." — ^-of Cicero. " Ulyssus wahes, not knowing where he was.^' — JPo^e. 
 
 Obs. 6.— The present iuflnitive can scarcely be said to express any partic- 
 ular time. It is usually dependent on an other verb, and, therefore, relative 
 in time. It may be connected with any tense of any mood : as, "I intend 
 to doit, 1 intended to doit, 1 have intended to do it;" &c. It is often used 
 to express futurity ; as, " The time to come." — " The world to come." — " Kap- 
 ture yet to be." 
 
 ■ Obs. 7. — ^The imperfect tense of the indicative mood, in its simple form, is 
 called the ^«(6n<; as, loved, saw, was. 
 
 Obs. 8. — The perfect tense, like the present, is sometimes used with refer- 
 ence to future time ; as, " He will be fiitigued before he Tias waikei a mile." 
 
 Obs. 9. — The pluperfect tense is often used conditionally, without a con- 
 junction ; as, " Had I seen you, I should have stopped." 
 
 PSESONS AND NUMBEES. 
 
 The person and number of a verb, are those modifica- 
 tions in ■which it agrees with its subject or nominative. 
 
 In each numberj there are three persons ; and in each 
 person, two numbers : thus, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st per. I love, 1st per. Wo love, 
 
 2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 
 
 '3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Thus the verb in some of its parts, varies its termination to dis- 
 tinguish, or agree with, the different persons and numbers. The change is, 
 however, principally confined to the second and third persons singular of 
 the present tense of the indicative mood, and to the auxiliaries Tiast and Tias 
 of the perfect. In the ancient bibUoal style, now used only on solemn oc- 
 casions, the second person singular is distinguished through all the tenses 
 of the indicative ana potential moods. And as the use of the pronoun tJum 
 is now mostly confined to the Bolenm style, the terminations of that style 
 are retained in all our examples,of the conjugation of verbs. In the plural 
 number, there is no variation of ending, to denote the different persons ; and 
 the verb in the three persons plural, is the same as in the first person sin- 
 gular. As the verb is always attended by a noun or a pronoun, expressing 
 the subject of the aifirraation, no ambiguity arises from the want of particular 
 terminations in the verb to distinguish the different persons and numbers. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^Persons ih high stations, being usually surrounded by attendants, 
 it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flattery, to address indi- 
 viduals of tliis class, in the plural number. And the practice extended, in 
 time, to all ranks of society : so that, at present the customary mode of 
 familiar as well as complimentary address, is alt^ether plural ; both the 
 verb and the pronoun being used in that form. This practice, which con- 
 founds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords a 
 striking instance of the power of fashion. The society of Friends, or Qmlcers, 
 
72 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PART II. 
 
 however, contimic to employ the singular number in familiar discourse ; and 
 custom, which has now destroyed the compliment of the plural, has .F^J™ 
 the appropriate form, (at least as regards them,) on au equality witli ino 
 plviral m point of respect. The singular is universally employed ui reteieueo 
 to the Supreme Being ; and is generally preferred in poetry. It is tno lan- 
 guage of Scripture, and is consistently retained in all our grammars. 
 
 Oes. 3.— As most of the peculiar terminations by which the second person 
 singular of verbs is properly distinguished in the solemn style, are not only 
 difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal in conversation ; the preterits 
 and auxiliaries are seldom varied in famiUar discourse, and the present 13 
 generally simplified by contraction. A distinction between the solemn and 
 the famiUar style, has 'long been admitted, in the pronunciation of the term- 
 ination ed, and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular ; and 
 it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to admit such a 
 distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar use of the second 
 person singular the verb is usually' varied only in the present tense of the 
 indicative mood, and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect. This method of 
 varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to the third, 
 and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the 
 common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address. It disen- 
 cumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless termina- 
 tions, which serve only^ when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency to 
 words not often emphatic ; and, without impairing the strength or perspicu- 
 ity of the language, increases its harmony, and reduces the form of the verb 
 in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the other 
 jjcrsons and numbers.* 
 
 * The wiitings of the FriancLa being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few exiimplea 
 of their customary mode of forming the verb in connecUon with the pronoun thou^ in 
 familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it : " To devote all thou luid 
 to liis service ;" — " If thou ahrmld come ;" — " What thou sai'J ;" — " Thou kindly con- 
 tributed ;^^ — "The Epistle wliich thou sent mo:" — ^^ T\iowwoul(l perhaps tzWtra?,'"— 
 "If thou submitted ;^^ — "Since thou left;^' — "Should- thou act ;^^ — "Thou may ho 
 ready ;" — " That thou ?iad inet ;" — "That thou had iritim ated ,•" — " Before thou puts^' 
 [putst];— " What thou ineets' [uicetst]; — "If thou /tad made ;''^ — "I observed thou 
 was;" — "That thou ini<jkt piU thy trn.vt;"— "Thou luid lieen at my house." — J. Ken- 
 dall. " Thou inuiy lie plundered ,*" — " That thou may feel ;" — " Tliough thou waited 
 long, and so'wght him;" — "I hope thou ?ot^? bear my slyle;" — "Thou also knows" 
 [knowst]; — "Thou i/re?j) up;" — "I wish thoawouldyet lake my counsel." — S. Ciusp. 
 *^Thon manifetited tliy tender regard, stretch^ forth thy delivering hand, and^d 
 and tfuatained us," — S. Fotiibroill. Tho writer has met with thousands that use the 
 second person singular in conversation, but never with one that employed, on ordi- 
 nary occasions, all tho regular endings of the .solemn stvle. The simplilicatiou of the 
 second person singular, wiiich, to a greater or less extent, is c\ ervwhere adopted by 
 tho Friends, and which is here delined and explained, removes from each verb eight- 
 een of tliese peculiar terminations; and, (.if the number of English verbs bo, as stated 
 by several grammarians, SOOO,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 144,000 of these 
 awkward and useless appendages. This simplifuation is supported by usaie as exten- 
 sive .IS tho familtar use of the pronoun thou ; and is also in accordance with the can- 
 ons of CTiLictsm. "All words and phrases which aro remarkably liarsh and unhar- 
 monious, and not absolutely nocessarv, shoulrl be rejected."— fWirujirfrs JViilosophy 
 o/nii.'(,>r,e, B. If, Chap, ii. Sec. 2, Canon Sixth. With tho subject of this note, 
 those who put you for thou, can h.ave no concern ; and many may think it unworthy 
 of notice, because Murrai/ has s;dil nothing .about it. We write not for or a '.liiist 
 any soel, or any man ; but to teach all who desire to know the grammar of our to'in^ue 
 And who i.^! ho that will pretend that the solemn .stile of the Bible may bo u^.-d In fa- 
 miliar discourse, without a mouthing ntTectalioii ? In preachin" the ancient termi- 
 nations of est for the second person singular and et/i for the thi?cl, .as well as ed pro- 
 nounced as a sei>arale s,vllal.le for the preteril, are admitted to be in better taste than 
 the smoother om,s, It the famdiar .style; because tho latter, I hough now frequently 
 heard m rohglous assemblies, are not so well suited to the diirnitV and o-ravitv of a 
 sermon or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially wh,.i, it treats of scriptural snb- 
 .leets, to which you put for t'lou is obviously unsuit.ible, the personal torniinntinns of 
 tlie verb, whieh from the ...irliest times to the present dav havfusS v been 0" t™ t«i 
 and often omitted by ih- iM.ets, ouglit perh.aps still 10 be insisle.l 01, a^re\^hwl^,Z 
 no;ionof our tuneVss erjiins. The criiical obj-eiiou to their elli^ioru howevc > m 
 have no very firm foundalrm whi'.e it is admitted by tho objectors themselves that; 
 
CHAP. VI.J ^ ETTMOLOGY.— VERBS.— PER. AND KUM. 73 
 
 Where the verb is varied, the second person singular is 
 
 regularly formed by adding si or est to the first person; and 
 
 the third person singular, in like manner, by adding 5 or es : 
 
 as, I see^ thou seest, he sees ; I ^^Ve, thou givest^ he gives ; I go^ 
 
 thou goes% he goes ; I jiy^ thou fliest^ he flies ; I vex^ thou 
 
 vexdst, he vexes ; I /ose, thou Zo5e5?, he Zose5. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In the solemn style, (except in Poetry, which usually contracts* 
 these forms,) the second person singular of the present indicative, and that 
 of the irregular pretcrits,t commonly end in est, pronounced as a separate 
 
 " Writers generally heme recourse to this mode of eicpression, that they may a/void 
 harsh termiimUons.'*'' — Irving's El. Eng. Gompo&iiion,^ p. 12. But if -writera of good 
 authority, such as Pope, Swift, and Pollok, have sometimes had recourse to this 
 method of simplifying: the verb even in the soleinn style, the elialon may, witli ten- 
 fold stronger reason, be admitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authoriiy of 
 general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation. 
 
 Some of the Frieiias (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy thee 
 for thoio^ and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second. Such 
 expressions as, thee does, thee is, thee ?tas, thee thinJcs, &c., are double solecisms; they 
 set all grammar at defiance. Many pei-sous who are not ignorant of grammar, and 
 who employ the pronoun arieht, sometimes improjierly sacrifice concord to a slight 
 improvement in sound, and gwe to the verb the ending of the third person, for that 
 of the second. Three instances of this occur in the examples quoted in the preceding 
 paragraph. See also the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns ; 
 who says of himselfl " Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I maiiv an ex- 
 cellent English scholar; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a 
 critic in substajitives, verbs, and particles f' — '^ But when thou pours ,'''—" There thou 
 shines chief;' — "Thou clears the head;" — "Thou strings the nerves;" — "Thou 
 hrighteTis black despair ;" — "■ Thou comes ;"" — " Thou travels far ;" — " Thou pmnts /" 
 *' Unseen thou hirks ;" — " thou pale orb that silent sMnesy This mode of simplify- 
 ing the verb confounds the persons ; and as it has little advantage in sound, over (he 
 regular contracted form of the second person, it ought to bo avoided. It Is too fre- 
 quently used by the poets. 
 
 * The second person singular may be contracted, whenever the verb ends in a 
 sound which will unite with that of St. The poets generally employ Ihe contracted 
 forms, but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing 
 them. Some insert the apostrophe, and, after a single vowel, double the final conson- 
 ant before st ; as, Tiold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, tna/y^st, niight'st, &c. : others add 
 st only, and form permanent contractions; as holdst, bidst, saidst, ledst, mayst^ 
 fmghtst, &c. Some retain the vowel in the termination of certain words, and sup- 
 press a preceding one ; as, q^f/ick''7iest,?ia/pp'ii€st^ scatVrest, slv/inyrest, slmnVredst : 
 others contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe ; as, qmck- 
 en'st, ha/pp€n''st, seatter'st, slumber'st, shwiber^dst. The nature of our language, the 
 accent anil pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs; so as 
 to avoid, if possible, an increase of syllables iu the inflection of them. Accordingly, 
 several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have been either 
 wholly dropped, or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to which they are 
 added. Thus the plural teimination en has become entirely obsolete ; th or etli is no 
 longer in common use ; ed is. contracted in pronunciation ; the ancient ys or is, of the 
 third person singular, is changed to s or es, and is usually added without increase of 
 syllables; and st or est has, in part, adopted the analogy. 80 tliat the proper mnd« 
 of forming these contractions of the second person singular, seems to bo, to add st 
 only, and to insert the apostrophe, when a vowel is suppressed irom the verb to which 
 tliia termination is added ; as, tMnkst, sayst, Mdst, lov'st, lev d^v, slumherst, skcm- 
 her'^dst. 
 
 + Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit is like the present, it should 
 take ed^ tor the second person singular. This rule gives us such words as cast-edst, 
 cost-edst, Md-dedst, bttr'st-edst, cui-tedst, Mt-tedst, let-tedst, put-tedst, Imrt-edst, rid- 
 dedst, shed-dedst, &c. The few examples which maybe adduced from ancient writ- 
 ings, in suppor of this rule, are undoubtedly formed in the usual manner from regular 
 preterits now obsolete ; and if this were rot the case, no person of taste could think 
 of employing derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that "the 
 chief defect of our language is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect is peculiarly 
 obvious, when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to 
 our preterits. Accordingly we find numerous instances among the poets, both ancient 
 and modern, in which that termination is omitted.— [See Percy's lieUques of Ancient 
 Poetry everywhere. 
 
74 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET II. 
 
 syllable. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, constitutes a syl- 
 lable, the regular preterits form the second person singular, by adding ««, 
 ■without further increase of syllables ; as, loved, lovedst — not lovedest. Dost 
 and Aast, and the irregular preterits wast, didst, and Tiadst, axe permanently 
 contracted. The auxiliaries s?taU and wiU, change the final I to t. To the 
 auxiliaries ma^, can, might, could, would, and should, the termination est was 
 formerly added ; but they are now generally written with st only, and pro- 
 nounced as monosyllables, even in solemn discourse. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The tliird person singular was anciently formed by adding th to 
 verbs ending in e, and eth to all others. This method of forming the third 
 person singular, almost always adds a syllable to the verb. It is now con- 
 fined to the solemn style, and is little used. Doth, hath, and siUth, are con- 
 tractions of verbs thus formed. 
 
 Obs. 8. — When the second person singular is employed in familiar dis- 
 sourse, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is 
 now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb ends in a sound 
 which will unite with that of st or s, the second person singular is formed 
 by adding st only, and the third, by adding s only ; and the number of syl- 
 lables is not increased : as, I read, thou readst, he reads j I hnow, thou hnowst, 
 he hnows ; I tahe, thou takest, he takes. For when the verb ends in mute e, 
 no termination renders this e vocal in the familiar style, if a synaresis can 
 take place. 
 
 Obs. 4. — But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with that 
 of st or s, st and s are added to final e, and esit and es to other terminations ; 
 and the verb acquires an additional OTllable : as, I trace, thou tracest, he 
 traces ; Ipass, thou passest, he passes; 1 fix, thovi fixest, he fixes. But verbs 
 ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do not exactly follow this rule : in 
 these, y is changed into i; and to both o and i, est and as are a'dded without 
 increase of syllables : as, I go, thou goest, he goes ; I'wndo, thou undoest,* he 
 undoes ; Ifly, thou fi4^t, he files; Ipity, thou pitiest, he pities. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is precisely 
 the same as that of the plural number of nouns. 
 
 Obs. 6.— The auxiliaries do, dost, does, [pronounced doo, dust, due,] — am, 
 art, is, — have, hast, has, — ^being also in frequent use as principal verbs of the 
 present tense, retain their peculiar form when joined to other verbs. The 
 other auxiliaries are not varied, except in the solemn style. 
 
 Obs. 7. — The only regular terminations that are added to verbs, are ing, d 
 or ed, st or est, s or es.th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, always add a syllable to 
 the verb : except in doth, hath, saith. The rest, whenever their sound will 
 unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are added without increasing 
 the number of syllables ; otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In 
 solemn^ discourse, however, ed and est are, by most speakers, uttered dis- 
 tinctly in all cases ; except sometimes, when a vowel precedes. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VEEBS. 
 The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
 of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 
 
 0='-.""'^'^® ^°pis and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or changes 
 made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the verb or its par- 
 ticiple, with a few short verbs called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. 
 
 There are four Peincipal Paets in the conjugation 
 of every simple and complete verb ; namely, the Present, 
 the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Par- 
 
 * The second person singular of the simple verb do, is now nsuallv written dest. 
 and read dust; being contracted in orthography, as well as pronunciation Aiid nor- 
 haps the compounds may follow; as, Thou undoat, outdosL miisdost oierd^A&e. 
 But exceptions to exceptions are puzzling, evea when they conform to thegenena 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETTMOLOGT.—VEEBS.— CONJUGATION. 75 
 
 ticiple. A verb which -wants any of these parts is called 
 defective: such are most of the auxiharies. 
 
 Obs. — The present is radically the same in all the mpods, and ia the part 
 from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is the root, or 
 simplestform, of the verb. The preterit and the perfect participle are regu- 
 larly formed by adding d or ed, and the imperfect participle by adding mg, 
 to the present. 
 
 An avanHary is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
 principal parts of an other verb, to express some particu- 
 lar mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The 
 auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, 
 •with their variations. 
 
 Oss. 1. — Do, ie, and Jiave, being also principal verbs, are complete : but 
 the partidples of do and lime, are not used as auxiliaries : unless hamng, 
 which forms the compound participle, may be oopsidered. as such. The 
 other auxiliaries have no participles. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^English verbs are principally conjugated by means of ammUaries; 
 the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the present 
 and the imperfect; as, I love, I loved. And evennere an auxiliary is usually 
 preferred m questions and negations ; as. Do you love f You do not Ume. 
 All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The form of conjugating the active verb is often called the Act/me 
 Voice; and that of the passive verb, thePffl»»i»e Voice. These terms are 
 borrowed from the LaUn, and Greeh grammars, and are of little or no use in 
 EnqUeh. 
 
 Obs. 4. — ^English verbs having few inflections, it is convenient to insert in 
 the conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive ; pronmms, t<j dis- 
 tinguish file persons and numbers ; the conjunction if, to denote the sub- 
 junctive ; and the adverb ru>t, to show the form of negation. With these 
 additions, a verb may be conjiS^ated mfour ways : 
 
 8. , ,, - , 
 
 4. Interrogabimeiy and negaimdy; as, Write I not? Do I not vrritet or. Am 
 1 not loriMtig ? 
 
 I. SIMPLE FOEM, ACTIVE OE NEUTEE. 
 
 The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that 
 
 which makes the present and imperfect tenses without 
 
 auxiliaries ; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required 
 
 for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the 
 
 indicative. 
 
 riRST EXAMPLE. 
 
 The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 
 
 INEINITIVE MOOD. 
 The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, 
 
76 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [PAET II. 
 
 action, or paseion, in an unlimited manner, and without penson or number. 
 It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 This tense is the root, or radical verb; and is usually preceded by th« 
 preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word : thus, — 
 
 To love. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary hive to the perfect participle, and is usu- 
 ally preceded by the preposition to ; thus, — 
 
 To have loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or 
 declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the 
 
 S resent infinitive, or radical verb ; except that the verb ie has am in the in- 
 icative. 
 
 1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus: — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 
 
 2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 
 
 3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 
 
 2. This tense may also be formed hy prefixing the auxiliary 
 do to the verb ; thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 
 
 2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 
 
 3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense, in its simple form, is Mtna preterit; which, in all regular verbs, 
 adds a or ea to the present, but in others is formed variously. 
 
 1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus: — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 
 
 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 
 
 3. He loved; 3. They loved! 
 
 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
 did to the present : thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 
 
 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love 
 
 3. He did love ; 3. They did love' 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 77 
 
 Obs. — In a femiliar question or negation, the auxiliary form is preferable 
 to the simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple form is 
 more dignified and graceful : as, '^Underskmidest thou what thou readest?" 
 —"Of whom speaketh the prophet this?" — Acts, viii, 80, 34. "Say, lieard 
 ye nought of lowland war ?" — Scott : Z.o/L., C. v, % 5. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 
 
 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 This tense prefixes the aoxiliaiy liad to the perfect participle : thus, — 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 
 
 3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or mU to the present : thus, — 
 
 1. Simply to express a future action or event : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 
 
 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You ■will love, 
 
 3. He will love; 3. They will love. 
 
 2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat :^- 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 
 
 2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 
 
 3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 
 
 Obs. — ^In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxiliaries is re- 
 yersed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition or uncertainty, 
 their import is somewhat varied. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shaU haw or wW, ham to the perfect par- 
 ticiple: thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 
 
 3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 
 
 Obs. ^The auxiliary shaU va&y also be used in the second and third persons 
 
 of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or con- 
 tingency; as, "If he shall ha/ve fimished his work when I return." And 
 perhaps wiU may here be used in the first person to express a promise or a 
 determination, though such usage, I think, very seldom occurs. 
 
 1* 
 
78 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power 
 
 liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion, it m used 
 
 in the first four tenses ; but the potential imperfect ia properly an aonet, and 
 
 not necessarily a past tense. No definite time is usuafly unplied in it. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or mmt, to the radical verb: 
 thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 
 
 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 
 
 3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliary migTit, could, would, or should, to the rad- 
 ical verb : thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 
 
 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 
 
 3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may home, cam Tmve, or rrmst luj/se, to th» 
 perfect participle : thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 
 
 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Thia tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would ha/se, or 
 sh&uld have, to the perfect participle : thus, — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 
 
 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 The subjunotive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, 
 action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This moodis 
 generally preceded by a conjunction ; as, if, that, though, lest, tmlese, &o. It 
 does not vary its termination, in the different persons. It ia used in the 
 present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense ; rarely in any other. As this 
 mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in'its tenses 
 is always relative, and generally indefinite. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future 
 action or event is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some grammarians 
 as an elliptical form of the future. ' 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 79 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 If I love, 
 
 1. 
 
 If we love, 
 
 2. 
 
 If thou love, 
 
 2. 
 
 If you love, 
 
 3. 
 
 If he love ; 
 
 3. 
 
 If they love. 
 
 Obs. — In this tense the auxiliary do is sometimes employed ; as, "If thon 
 do prosper ray way."— <?«»., xxiv, 42. " If he do not utter iV—Zev,, v, 1. 
 This uninflected do proves the tense to he present and the mood suijimctise; 
 for the word will come under no other mood or tense. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it 
 is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense ; and it may 
 refer to time past, present, or fliture : as, " If therefore perfection were by 
 the Levitical priesthood, what farther need was there," &c. — Beh., vii, 11. 
 " If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing 1" — 1 Cor., xii, 17. 
 " If it were possible, they sJiaU deceive the very elect." — Julatt., xxiv, 2i. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 
 
 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 
 
 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in command- 
 ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly nsed only in the 
 second person of the present tense. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Love 
 Plural. 2. Love 
 
 thou,j or Do thou love ; 
 
 ye or you,] or Do you love. 
 
 Obs. — ^In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the imperative 
 mood is used in the seamd and third persons of them all ; and has also sev- 
 eral different tenses, some of which cannot be dearly rendered in Mnglisli. 
 In Zatm, this mood has a distinct form for the tMrd person both singular and 
 plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, ihe first person plural is dso given 
 it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, 
 partdoularly by the poets. Such imitations must be referred to this mood, 
 imless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else. 
 The foUowiug are examples : '^Blessed be he that blesseth thee." — Gen., xxvii, 
 29. " Thy hmgdom come."— Matt., vi, 10. 
 
 "IhU he that must, beneath his rival's arms. 
 And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Tope. 
 
 " My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey," &o. — Goldsmith. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect., 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Loving. Loved. Having loved. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OP THE FIRST EXAMPLE. 
 Mrst Person Singular. 
 Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
 I shall have loved. Pot. I may love, I might love, I may have 
 loved, I might have loved. Subj. If I love. If I loved. 
 
80 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART 11. 
 
 Second Person Singular. 
 
 Ind. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou 
 hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Pot. 
 Thou mayst love. Thou mightst love. Thou mayst have loved. 
 Thou mightst have loved. Subj. If thou love. If thou loved. 
 Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 
 
 Third Person Singular. 
 
 Ind. He loves. He loved, He has loved, He had loved. He 
 will love, He will have loved. Pot. He may love. He might 
 love. He may have loved. He might have loved. Subj. If he 
 love, If he loved. 
 
 Mrst Person Plural. 
 
 Ind. We love, We loved. We have loved, We had loved, 
 We shall love. We shall have loved. Pot. We may love, 
 We might love. We may have loved. We might have loved. 
 Subj. If we love, If we loved. 
 
 Second Person Plural. 
 
 Ind. You love. You loved. You have loved. You had loved, 
 You will love. You will have loved. Pot. You may love, 
 You might love. You may have loved. You might have loved. 
 Subj. If you love, If you loved. Imp. Love [ye or you,] or 
 Do you love. 
 
 Third Person Plural. 
 
 Ind. They love. They loved, They have loved. They had 
 loved. They will love. They will have loved. Pot. They may 
 love. They might love, They may have loved. They might have 
 loved. Subj. If they love, If they loved. 
 
 Obs. — ^In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usu- 
 ally formed thus : Ind. Thou lov'st, Thou loved, Thou hast loved, Thou had 
 loved, Thou will love, Thou will have loved. Pot. Thou may love, Thou 
 might love, Thou may have loved. Thou might have loved. Subj. If thou 
 love,- If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou,] w Do thou love. 
 
 SECOND EXAMPLE. 
 
 The irregular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Per/. Participh. 
 
 See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 To see. 
 
CHAP. VI.j ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 81 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 To have seen. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1- I see, 1. We see, 
 
 2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 
 
 3. He sees; 3. They 'see. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1- I saw, 1. We saw, 
 
 2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 
 
 3. He saw; 3. They saw. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 
 
 2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 
 
 3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 
 
 2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 
 
 3. He had seen ; 3. They had seen. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 
 
 2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 
 
 3. He will see; * 3. They will see. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 
 
 3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 
 
 2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 
 He may see ; 3. They may see. 
 
82 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PART II. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might see, 1. We might see, 
 
 2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 
 
 3. He might see ; 3. They might see. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 
 
 3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 
 
 3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 Singular. Pural. \ 
 
 1. Ifl see, 1. Ifwe see, | 
 
 2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 
 
 3. If he see; 3. If they see. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Ifl saw, 1. Ifwe saw, l 
 
 2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, \ 
 
 3. If he saw; 3. If they saw. ' 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. See 
 
 Plural. 2. See 
 
 \ 
 
 thou,] or Do thou see ; 
 ye or you,] or Do you see. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. 
 Seeing. 
 
 The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 Seen. Having seen. 
 
 Obs.— In the familiar style, the aeoond person singular of this verb, iJ 
 usually formed thus : Ind. Thou seest, Thou saw. Thou hast seen Thou had 
 seen. Thou will see, Thou -will have seen. Pot. Thou may see T?hou migM 
 see, Thou may have seen, Thou might have seen. Sdbj. If thou see If thou 
 saw. Imp. See [thou,] or Do thou see. ' 
 
CHAP. VI.J ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 88 
 
 THIED EXAMPLE. 
 
 The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participk. 
 
 Be. Was. Being. Been. 
 
 nSTFESriTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 To be. 
 Perfect Tense. 
 To have been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Obs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present : as, " We he tw«lv» 
 brethren." — Gen., xlii, 32. "What he these two olive hranches?" — Zech., 
 iv, 12. Bat this construction is now obsolete. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am, 1. We are, 
 
 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 
 
 3. He is; 3. They are. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I was, 1. We were, 
 
 2. Thou wast,* 2. You were, 
 
 3. He was ; 3. They were. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 
 
 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 
 S. He has been; 3. They have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been, • 2. You had been, 
 
 3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 
 
 . — » >^ 
 
 ♦ Wert h sometimes used indlcatively for waet; as, 
 " Vainly uert thoti wed." — Byron. 
 * Whate'cr thou art or toert." — M. 
 
84 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [i^ART II. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 
 
 3. He will be; 3. They will be. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 
 
 3. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 
 
 3. He will have been ; 8. They will have been. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 
 
 3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. 1 might be, 1. We might be, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 
 
 3. He might be ; ■ 3. They might be. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 
 
 3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ^' in. ™^^* ^^^^ ^®®°' ^- ^® ™ig^* 'i^^e ^^^^ 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 
 
 3. He might have been ; 8. They might have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I- li\ I'®' 1- If we be, 
 
 2. If thou be, 2. If you be 
 
 3. If ho be; 3. If they be! 
 
CHAP. YI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 85 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 
 
 2. If thou wert, or were, 2. If you were, 
 
 3. If he were; 3. If they were. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be ; 
 
 Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Being. Been. Having been. 
 
 Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usu- 
 ally formed thus : Ind. Thou art. Thou was. Thou hast been. Thou had 
 been, Thou wiU be, Thou will have been. Pot. Thou may be, Thou might 
 be, Thou may have been, Thou might have been. Shbj. It thou be. If thou 
 were. Imp. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. I 
 
 n. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. 
 
 Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by 
 adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, 
 through all its changes ; as, I am writing — He is sitting. 
 This form of the verb denotes a continuance* of the ac- 
 tion or the state of being, and is, on many occasions, 
 preferable to the simple form of the verb. 
 
 Obs. — ^Verbs of this form have sometimes &p<issive signification ; as, "The 
 books are now aeHMaw." — AJieiCn Gram., p. 82. " It requires no motion in 
 the organs whilst it w forming?'' — Murranj'e Grami., p. 8. " While the work 
 of the temple MKM carryvrw on." — Dr. J. Owen. "The designs of Providence 
 are earrymg on." — Bp. BvMer. " We are permitted to know nothing of 
 what is tranaactmg in the regions above us."— ^i?»*. Blair. Expressions of 
 this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably 
 of far better authority, and (according to raj apprehension) in far better 
 taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in 
 its stead ; as, " The books a/re now leimg sold.'''' 
 
 rOUETH EXAMPLE. 
 
 The irregular active verb BEAD, conjugated affirmatively in 
 the Compound Form. 
 
 Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. 
 Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. 
 Eead. Eead. Reading. Read. 
 
 * Those verbs which, In their simple form, Imply continnance, do not admit tllo 
 compound form; thus we say, "I respect him;" but not, "I am respecting liliii." 
 
86 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAS. [PART II. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 To be reading. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 To have been reading. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 
 
 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 
 
 3. He is reading; 3. They are reading. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 
 
 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 
 
 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 
 
 3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 
 
 3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading. 
 
 Firstfuture Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be readmg, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 
 
 3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 
 
 3. He will have been reading • 
 Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 
 
 2. You will have been reading, 
 3 They will have been reading. 
 
CHAP. VI.J ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 
 
 87 
 
 3. He 
 
 Plural. 
 We may be reading, 
 You may be reading, 
 They may be reading. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may be reading, 1. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. 
 may . be reading ; 3. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 
 
 Thou mightst be reading, 2. You migliit be reading, 
 
 He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. 1. I may have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 
 
 3. He may have been reading ; 
 
 1. We may have been reading, 
 
 2. You may have been reading, 
 
 3. They may have been reading. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 1. I might have been reading, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 
 
 3. He might have been reading ; 
 
 1. We might have been reading, 
 
 2. You might have been reading, 
 
 3. They might have been reading. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 
 
 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 
 
 3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 If I were reading, 1 . If we were reading, 
 
 If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 3. If they were reading. 
 
 1, 
 
 2, 
 
 3. If he were reading ; 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading ; 
 
 Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 
 
88 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Being reading. Having been reading. 
 
 Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this -verb, is 
 usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art reading, Thou was reading. Thou hast 
 been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou will be reading. Thou will have 
 been reading. Pot. Thou may be reading, Thou might be reading. Thou 
 may have been reading. Thou might have been reading. Siibj. If thou be 
 reading, If thou were reading. Imp. Be [thou] reading, &r Do thou be reading. 
 
 III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compoTind 
 form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, by add- 
 ing the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be 
 through all its changes : thus, from the active-transitive 
 verb hve, is formed the passive verb be hved. 
 
 0b3. l.— a few active-intransitive verbs, that merely imply motion or 
 change oi condition may be put into this form, with a neuter signification- 
 making not pamue but neuter verbs, which express nothing more than the 
 Btate which results from the change : as, I am come- He is risen ; Thev are 
 fallen. Our ancient writers, after the mannerof the French, very frequently 
 employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense ; but, with a few ex- 
 ceptions present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary ^ore in preferenoe 
 to Ae, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not naasive ■ 
 as, Ihey ham amved — not. They are arrived. r i 
 
 Obs. 2.— Passive verbs may be distinguished from neuter verbs of the same 
 torm, by a reference to the agent or mstrument ; which frequently is, and 
 always may be, expressed after passive verbs : but which never is, and never 
 can bej expressed after «««&?• verbs : as, " The thief has been caught hi fht 
 officer."— '' Pens are made with a imfe." '' 
 
 FIFTH EXAMPLE. 
 The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively. 
 
 Principal Parts of the Active Verb. 
 
 Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect ParticipU. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 To be loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 To have been loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 9 L '^'^^o^e^' 1. We are loved, 
 
 2. T^ou art oved, 2. You are loved 
 
 3. He IS loved; 3. They are loved 
 
CHAP. VI.J ETYMOLOaY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION 89 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. 1 was loved, 1. We were loved, 
 
 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 
 
 3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular Plural. 
 
 1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 
 
 3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 
 
 3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 
 
 First-future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 
 
 3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 
 
 Second-future Tense. 
 
 Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 
 
 3. He will have been loved ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 
 
 2. You will have been loved, 
 
 3. They will have been loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may beloved, 1. We may be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be loved, , 2. You may be loved, 
 
 3. He may ba loved ;' 3. They may be loved 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 
 
 3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 
 
90 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAE. [PABT IL 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 
 
 3. He may have been loved ; 
 Plural. 1. "We may have been loved, 
 
 2. You may have been loved, 
 
 3. They may have been loved. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 
 
 3. He might have been loved ; 
 
 Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 
 
 2. You might have been loved, 
 
 3. They might have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I beloved, 1. If we beloved, 
 
 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you beloved, 
 
 3. If he beloved; 3. If they be loved. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 
 
 2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 
 
 3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved ; 
 
 Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 
 
 PAETICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 
 
 Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 
 
 Oes. — ^In the familiar style, tlie seedVid person singular of this verb, is 
 usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art loved. Thou was loved, Thou hast beea 
 loved. Thou had been loved, Thou will be loved. Thou will have been loved. 
 Pot. Thou may be loved, Thou might be loved, Thou may have been loved, 
 Thou might have been loved. StjBj. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. 
 Ikp. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. 
 
 IV. FOEM OF NEGATION. 
 
 A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adveA 
 
CHAP. VI. J ETYMOLOGY.— VEEBS.—IEREGULARS. 91 
 
 not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive 
 and participles take the negative first : as, 
 
 Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love not, or I 
 do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, 
 I had not loved, I shall not love, I shall not have loved. Pot. 
 I may, can,* or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should 
 not love ; I may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, 
 would, or should not have loved. Subj. If I love not. If I loved 
 not. Part. Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. 
 
 V. FORM OF QUESTION. 
 
 A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative 
 and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, 
 or after the first auxiUary : as, 
 
 Ind. Do I love? Did Hove? Havelloved? Had I loved? 
 Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ? Pot. May, can, or must I 
 love ? Might, could, would, or should I love ? May, can, or 
 must I have loved? Might, could, would, or should I have 
 loved ? 
 
 VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION. 
 
 A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the 
 indicative and potential moods, by placing the nomina- 
 tive and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first 
 auxihary: as, 
 
 Ind. Do I not love ? Did I not love ? Have I not loved ? 
 Had I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? 
 Pot. May, can, or must I not love ? Might, could, would, or 
 should I not love? May, can, or must I not have loved? Might, 
 could, would, or should I not have loved ? 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the pre= 
 terit and perfect participle by assuming dored; as, see, 
 saw, seeing, seen. 
 
 Oes. 1. — When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- 
 properly sahstitated for ed, making the preterit and the perfect participle 
 uregular in spelling, when they are not so m sound : as, dieirest for distressed, 
 tost for. tossed, mixt for mixed, cracM for cracked. 
 
 Obs. 2^-When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution 
 of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. In some 
 
 * When power is denied, can and not are united to prevent ambiguity ; as, " I can- 
 not so " But when the power Is affirmed, and something else is denied, the words 
 ore written separately; as, "The Christian apologist can not merely expose the utter 
 baseness of the infldel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite 
 and confronting assertion In its place."— 2>r. Chalmers. 
 
92 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PABT H. 
 
 Buoh irregularities, tte poets are indulged for the sake of /^'"""j^^"^ *,^° 
 best speakers aud writers of prose prefer the regular fo™^li<'™7v,»„ A,7^/ . 
 has sanctioned it: thus, Imrmd is better than UarTit; ^''tf *' "^tSiTC' 
 penned, than pent; absorled, than absarpt ; spelled, than spelt; smeum, man 
 smelt; though both forms are allowable. , , , 
 
 Obs. 8.— Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by tneoest au- 
 thors ; and many preterits and participles which were formerly m good use, 
 arS now obsolete, or becoming so. „„-u„ „r,j „™ 
 
 Obs. 4.— The simple irregular verbs are about 110 m numher, and aro 
 nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, m which lan- 
 guage they are also, for the most part, irregular. , . , . , , 
 
 Ols. 5.— The following alphabetical list exhibits^ the simple irregular verba, 
 as they are now generally used. In this list, and also m that of the redun- 
 dant verbs, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be prefer- 
 able, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all com- 
 pounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that lollow 
 their primitives, are purposely omitted from both tables. Wdoome and be- 
 lam, unlike coTne and Aa»«, are always regular, and therefore belong not to 
 either list. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that 
 the learner might not mistake them for words in present use. Some of thosa 
 which are placed last, are now little used. 
 
 LIST OF THE lEEEGTJLAE VERBS. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 Be, 
 
 Bear, 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Begin, 
 
 Behold, 
 
 Beset, 
 
 Bestead, 
 
 Bid, 
 
 •Bind, 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 Break, 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Bring, 
 
 Buy, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Chide, 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Cleave,! 
 
 Cling, 
 
 Come, 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 arose, 
 
 ■was, 
 
 bore or bare, 
 
 beat, 
 
 began or begun, 
 
 beheld, 
 
 beset, 
 
 bestead, 
 
 bid or bade, 
 
 bound, 
 
 bit, 
 
 bled, 
 
 broke, 
 
 bred, 
 
 brought, 
 
 bought, 
 
 cast, 
 
 chid, 
 
 chose, 
 
 cleft or clove, 
 
 clung, 
 
 came, 
 
 cost, 
 
 cut. 
 
 Imp. ParlMple. 
 
 arising, 
 
 being, 
 
 bearing, 
 
 beating, 
 
 beginning, 
 
 beholding, 
 
 besetting, 
 
 besteading, 
 
 bidding, 
 
 binding, 
 
 biting, 
 
 bleeding, 
 
 breaking, 
 
 breeding, 
 
 bringing, 
 
 buying, 
 
 casting, 
 
 chiding, 
 
 choosing, 
 
 cleaving, 
 
 clinging, 
 
 coming, 
 
 costing, 
 
 cutting, 
 
 arisen. 
 
 beea, 
 
 borne or bom.* 
 
 beaten or beat. 
 
 begun. 
 
 beheld. 
 
 beset. 
 
 bestead.f 
 
 bidden or bid. 
 
 bound. 
 
 bitten 'or bit, 
 
 bled. 
 
 broken. 
 
 bred. 
 
 brought. 
 
 bought, 
 
 cast. 
 
 chidden or chid. 
 
 chosen. 
 
 cleft or cloven. 
 
 clung. 
 
 come. 
 
 cost. 
 
 cut. 
 
 * Soma ^i^ifiQ^ carried ; l)orn ^ifrnifjea brought forth. 
 
 t " And they shall pass through it, hardly bestead, and hungry." Tsaiak. viil, 21 
 
 X Olsiwe to split, is irregular as above; cleave, to stick, is regular but cJOMWai 
 formerly used in the preterit, for cleaved. ' 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— IREEGULAKS. 
 
 93 
 
 Do, 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Drink, 
 
 Eat, 
 
 Fall, 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Fight, 
 
 Find, 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fling, 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Forbear, 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Get, 
 
 Give, 
 
 Go, 
 
 Grow, 
 
 Have, 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Hide, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Keep, 
 
 Know, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Leave, 
 
 Lend, 
 
 Let, 
 
 Lie, (to rest,) 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Make, 
 
 Meet, 
 
 Put, 
 
 Eead, 
 
 Eend, 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 did, 
 
 drew, 
 
 drove, 
 
 drank, 
 
 ate or Sat, 
 
 fell, 
 
 fed, 
 
 felt, 
 
 fought, 
 
 found, 
 
 fled, 
 
 flung, 
 
 flew, 
 
 forbore, 
 
 forsook, 
 
 got, 
 
 gave, 
 
 went, 
 
 grew, 
 
 had, 
 
 heard, 
 
 hid, 
 
 hit, 
 
 held, 
 
 hurt,f 
 
 kept,J 
 
 knew, 
 
 led, 
 
 left, 
 
 lent, 
 
 let, 
 
 lay, 
 
 lost, 
 
 made, 
 
 met, 
 
 put, 
 
 read, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Imp. Participle. 
 doing, 
 drawing, 
 driving, 
 drinking, 
 eating, 
 falling, 
 feeding, 
 feeling, 
 fighting, 
 finding, 
 fleeing, 
 'flinging,- 
 flying, 
 forbearing, 
 forsaking, 
 getting, 
 giving, 
 
 going, 
 
 growing, 
 
 having, 
 
 hearing, 
 
 hiding, 
 
 hitting, 
 
 holding, 
 
 hurting, 
 
 keeping, 
 
 knowing, 
 
 leading, 
 
 leaving, 
 
 lending, 
 
 letting, 
 
 lying, 
 
 losing, 
 
 making, 
 
 meeting, 
 
 putting, 
 
 reading, 
 
 rending, 
 
 . Perfect Pariievple. 
 done, 
 drawn, 
 driven. 
 
 drunk or drank, 
 eaten or eat. 
 fallen, 
 fed. 
 felt, 
 fought, 
 found, 
 fled, 
 flung, 
 flown, 
 forborne, 
 forsaken, 
 got or gotten, 
 given, 
 gone, 
 grown, 
 had. 
 heard. 
 
 hidden or hid. 
 hit,' 
 
 held or holden.* 
 hurt, 
 kept, 
 known, 
 led. 
 left, 
 lent, 
 let. 
 lain, 
 lost, 
 made, 
 met. 
 put. 
 rSad. 
 rent.§ 
 
 • ^HolAem is not in ^eaeniy nse ; and is ehlefly employed by attorneys."— OomSia, 
 p. 196. Wells marks this word as " obsolescent."— «<!Aoo? Oram., p. 108. L. Murray 
 rejected It; bat Lowth gave it alone, as a participle, and held only as a preterit. 
 
 t " I have been found ffoilty of killing cats I never hv/rted^^ — Roderick Ba/ndoTn. 
 
 t "They /beeped aloof as they passed her bye." — J. ^ogg, PUgrime of the Sim, 
 p. 19. 
 
 S Perhaps there is anthori^ snfflcient to place the verb rend among those which 
 are redundant See, in the Grammar of English Orammats, four examples of the 
 regular form, "rsTKfeci." i 
 
94 
 
 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAE. [FART II. 
 
 Preaeni. 
 Rid, 
 Ride, 
 Ring, 
 Rise, 
 I Run, 
 
 See, 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Send, 
 
 Set, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Smite, 
 
 Speak, 
 
 Spend, 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Stand, 
 
 Steal, 
 
 Stiolf, 
 
 Sting, 
 
 Stink, 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strike, 
 
 Swear, 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 rid, 
 
 rode, 
 
 rung or rang, 
 
 rose, 
 
 ran or run, 
 
 said, 
 
 saw, 
 
 sought, 
 
 sold, 
 
 sent, 
 
 set, 
 
 shed, 
 
 shod, 
 
 shot, 
 
 shut, 
 
 shred, 
 
 shrunk or shrank, 
 
 sung or sang, 
 
 sunk or sank, 
 
 sat, 
 
 slew, 
 
 slung, 
 
 slunk or slank, 
 
 smote, 
 
 spoke, 
 
 spent, 
 
 spun, 
 
 spit or spat, 
 
 spread, 
 
 sprung or sprang, 
 
 stood, 
 
 stole, 
 
 stuck, 
 
 stung, 
 
 stunk or stank 
 
 strode or strid, 
 
 struck, 
 
 swore. 
 
 Imp. Partidpl 
 ridding, 
 riding, 
 ringing, 
 rising, 
 running, 
 saying, 
 seeing, 
 seeking, 
 selling, 
 sending, 
 setting, 
 shedding, 
 shoeing, 
 shooting, 
 shutting, 
 shredding, 
 shrinking, 
 singing, 
 sinking, 
 sitting, 
 slaying, 
 slinging, 
 slinking, 
 smiting, 
 speaking, 
 spending, 
 spinning, 
 spitting, 
 spreading, 
 springing, 
 standing, 
 stealing, 
 sticking, 
 stinging, 
 stinking, 
 striding, 
 striking, 
 Bwearjng, 
 
 I. Perfect j 
 rid. 
 
 ridden or rode. 
 rung, 
 risen, 
 run. 
 said, 
 seen, 
 sought, 
 sold, 
 sent, 
 set. 
 shed, 
 shod.* 
 shot, 
 shut, 
 shred. 
 
 shrunk or shrunken, 
 sung, 
 sunk, 
 sat. 
 slain, 
 slung, 
 slunk. 
 
 smitten or smit. 
 spoken, 
 spent, 
 spun. 
 
 spit or spitten. 
 spread, 
 sprung, 
 stood, 
 stolen, 
 stuck, 
 stung, 
 stunk. 
 
 stridden or strid. f 
 struck or stricken, 
 sworn. 
 
 and FowWs True MnglUh Gram., p. 46. 'from., oy w. Ward, p. M, 
 
 t The verb s*rit?«, and Its dsrivative 5«8<™(fA each of which is h«oh in tn.„ <...„»ni» 
 
 forms, show also a tendency to become redundant "HTwilUndtlwnolTHciVhffl 
 
 wkich he has hestrided no child's nag."_77M Vcmguard^aJSm^^l"^^^'^^ ^""^ 
 
 "Through the pressed nostril 8pectaolo-5«s«i-W."_anoD?i- 
 
 "A lank haired hunter etrided:''—Whmi6r's Saibath, Scene 
 
CHAP. VI.J ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— EEDUKDANTS. 
 
 95 
 
 Tresertt. 
 
 Swim, 
 
 Swing, 
 
 Talce, 
 
 Teach, 
 
 Tear, 
 
 TeU, 
 
 Think, 
 
 Thrijst, 
 
 Tread, 
 
 Wear, 
 
 Win, 
 
 Write, 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 swum or swam, 
 swung or swan g, 
 took, 
 taught, 
 tore, 
 told, 
 thought, 
 thrust, 
 trod, 
 wore, 
 won, 
 wrote, 
 
 swimming, 
 
 swinging, 
 
 tailing, 
 
 teaching, 
 
 tearing, 
 
 telling, 
 
 thinking, 
 
 thrusting, 
 
 treading, 
 
 wearing, 
 
 winning, 
 
 writing, 
 
 Perfect Partioiplt. 
 
 swum. 
 
 swung. 
 
 taken. 
 
 taught. 
 
 torn. 
 
 told. 
 
 thought. 
 
 thrust. 
 
 trodden or trod. 
 
 worn. 
 
 won. 
 
 written.* 
 
 I '*' REDUNDANT VERBS. 
 
 A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or 
 the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to 
 be both regular and irregular ; as, thrive, thrived or throve, 
 thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of verbs, there 
 are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and 
 compounds. 
 
 Obs. 1. — ^Those irregular verba wliieh have more than one form for the pre- 
 terit or for the perfect participle, are in Bome sense redundant ; but, as tnera 
 is no occasion to make a distmct class of such as have double forms that ara 
 never regular, these redundancies are either included in the preceding list ol 
 the simple irregular verbs, or omitted as bein^ improper to be now recognized 
 for good English. A few old preterits or participles may j)erhaps be accent- 
 ed good English in the solemn style, which are not so in the familiar : as, 
 " And none i^alx a word unto him." — Job, ii, 13. " When I brake the five 
 loaves."— .Manfc, viii, 19. " Serve me till I nave eaten and drunken." — IJuhe, 
 xvii, 8. "It was not possible that he should be Tioldert of it," — ^^cte, ii, 24. 
 " Thou castedst them down into destruction." — Psdhns, Ixxiii, 18. " Behold 
 I was shapen in iniquity." — lb., li, 5. " A'meat-offerii^ bakm in the oven." 
 —LesKlAeus, ii, 4. 
 
 " With casted slough, and fresh celerity." — Shakspeare. 
 " Thy dreadful vow, loaden with death." — Addison. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The list which is ^ven below, (one that originated with G. B., 
 ind was prepared with great care,) exhibits the redundant verbs as they are 
 now generally used, or as they may be used without grammatical impro- 
 priety. If the reader^ would see authorities for the forms admitted, he may 
 find a great number dted in Brown's largest Grammar. No words are in- 
 serted m the following table, but such as some modern authors countenance. 
 A word is not necessarily ungrammatical by reason "of having a rival form 
 that is more common ; nor is every thing to be repudiated which some few 
 gramnlarians condemn. 
 
 Obs. S. — ^This school grammar, as now revised by the author in 1854, ex- 
 hibits the several classes of verbs in the same manner as does the Grammar 
 of English Grammars, which was first published in 1851. All former lists 
 of our irregular and redundant verbs are, in many respects, defective and 
 
 * " Writ and wrote were formerly often used as participles, and writ also as a pre- 
 terit, but they are now generally discontinued by good writers." — Worcester's IHct. 
 
96 
 
 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PART II. 
 
 erroneous ; nor is it claimed for those -wHoh are here presented, tlmt thej 
 are absolutely perfect. I trust, however, they are much nearer to periection, 
 than are any earlier ones. Among the many individuals who have puDUstied 
 schemes of these verbs, none have been more respected and louowea tuan 
 Lowth, Murray, and Crombie ; yet are these. authors' lists severally taulty in 
 respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in question, thongi 
 the whole number but Uttle exceeds two hundred, and is commonly reckoned 
 less than one hundred and eighty. ,.i i, »i. 
 
 Obs. i.— The grammatical points to be settled or taught by these tables, 
 are very many. They are more numerous than all the preterits and perfect 
 participles which the lists exhibit ; because the mere absence therefrom of any 
 form of preterit or perfect participle implies its condemnation, and the omis- 
 sion from both, of any entire verb, suggests that it is always regular. . 
 
 
 LIST OF thh; : 
 
 REDUNDANT 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Present. 
 
 PreUrU. 
 
 Imper. PwrticipU. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode or abided. 
 
 abiding. 
 
 abode or abided. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awaked or awoke, 
 
 awaking. 
 
 awaked or awoke. 
 
 Belay, 
 
 belayed or belaid. 
 
 belaying, 
 bending. 
 
 belayed or belaid. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent or bended. 
 
 bent or bended. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft or bereaved. 
 
 bereaving. 
 
 bereft or bereaved. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought or beseeohed, beseeching, 
 
 besought or beseechecL 
 betted or bet. 
 
 Bet, 
 
 betted (w bet, 
 
 betting. 
 
 Betide, 
 
 betided or betid, 
 
 betiding. 
 
 betided or betid. 
 
 Bide, 
 
 bode or bided. 
 
 biding, 
 blending, 
 
 bode or bided. 
 
 Blend, 
 
 blended or blent, 
 
 blended or blent. 
 
 Bless, 
 
 blessed or blest. 
 
 blessing, 
 
 blessed or blest. 
 
 Blow, 
 Build, 
 
 blew or blowed. 
 
 blowing. 
 
 blown or blowed. 
 
 built or builded, 
 
 building. 
 
 built or builded. 
 
 Bum, 
 
 burned or burnt. 
 
 burning, 
 
 burned or burnt. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst err bursted, 
 
 bursting, 
 
 burst or bursted. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 caught or oatehed, 
 clothed or clad, 
 
 catching. 
 
 caught or oatehed, 
 clothed or clad. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 clothing. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 crept or creeped, 
 
 creeping. 
 
 crept or creeped. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 crowed or crew. 
 
 crowing. 
 
 crowed. 
 
 _ Curse, 
 
 cursed or curst, 
 
 cursing. 
 
 cursed or curst. 
 
 Dare, 
 
 dared or durst. 
 
 daring. 
 
 dared. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 dealt or dealed, 
 
 dealing. 
 
 dealt or dealed. 
 
 SJS' 
 
 dug or digged, 
 dived or dove. 
 
 •Jigging, 
 
 dug or digged, 
 dived or diven. 
 
 Dive, 
 
 diving^ 
 , dreammg, 
 
 Dream, 
 
 dreamed or dr6amt 
 
 dreamed or dreamt 
 
 Dress, 
 
 dressed or drest, 
 dwelt or dwelled, 
 
 dressing. 
 
 dressed or drest. 
 
 IPweU, 
 
 dwelling. 
 
 dwelt or dwelled. 
 
 ^Freeze, 
 
 froze or freezed, 
 
 freezing. 
 
 frozen or freezed. 
 
 Geld, 
 
 gelded or gelt, 
 
 gelding, 
 
 gelded or gelt. 
 
 Gild, 
 
 gilded or gilt. 
 
 gilding. 
 
 gilded or gilt. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 girded or girt. 
 
 girding. 
 
 girded or girt. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 graved. 
 
 gravmg. 
 
 graved or graven. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground or grinded, 
 hung or hanged. 
 
 grinding, 
 hanging. 
 
 ground or grinded, 
 hung 0?' hanged. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 Heat, 
 
 heated or het. 
 
 heating. 
 
 heated or het. 
 
 Heave, 
 
 heaved or hove, 
 
 heaving. 
 
 heaved or hoven. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 hewed. 
 
 hewing, 
 
 hewed or hewn. 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 kneeled or knelt. 
 
 kneeling. 
 
 kneeled or knelt. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 knit or knitted. 
 
 knitting. 
 
 knit or knitted. 
 
 Lade, 
 
 laded, 
 
 lading. 
 
 laded or laden. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid or layed. 
 
 laying. 
 
 laid or layed. 
 leaned or Igant. 
 
 Lean, 
 
 leaned or 16ant, 
 
 leaning. 
 
 Leap, 
 
 leaped w ISapt, 
 
 leaping. 
 
 leaped or If apt. 
 learned or learuti 
 
 Learn, 
 
 learned or learnt. 
 
 learning. 
 
 Light, 
 
 lighted or lit. 
 
 lighting, 
 
 lighted or lit. 
 
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VEKBS.— DEFECTIVES. 
 
 97 
 
 Meiua, 
 Mow, 
 Mulct, 
 Pass, 
 Fiw,. 
 
 Pen, (to coop,) 
 Plejid, 
 Prove, 
 Onit, 
 ^ap, 
 Keave, 
 Eive, 
 Eoast, 
 Saw. 
 Seetne, 
 Shako, 
 Shape, 
 Shave, 
 Shear, 
 Shiue, 
 Show, 
 Sleep, 
 Slide, 
 Slil, 
 Siuell, 
 Sow, 
 Speed, 
 Spoil, 
 Spill, 
 Split, 
 Spo'l, 
 Stave, 
 Slav. 
 StriEj, 
 Strive, 
 Strow, 
 Sweat, 
 Sweep, 
 Swell. 
 Tlirivo, 
 Throw, 
 Wake, 
 Wax, 
 "Weave, 
 WcJ, 
 Weep, 
 Wet, 
 Whet, 
 Wind, 
 Wont, 
 Work, 
 Wring, 
 
 Prderit. 
 
 mf ant or meauod, 
 
 mowed, 
 
 mulcted or mulct;, 
 
 passed or past, 
 
 piud or payed, 
 
 penned <«• pent, 
 
 pleaded nr pled, 
 
 proved, 
 
 quitted or quit, 
 
 rapped or rapt, 
 
 reft or reaved, 
 
 rived, 
 
 roasted or roast, 
 
 sawed, 
 
 seethed or sod, 
 
 shook or shaked, 
 
 shaped, 
 
 shaved, 
 
 sheared ->/• shore, 
 
 shiued or shone, 
 
 showed, 
 
 slept or sleeped, 
 
 slid or slided, 
 
 slitted or slit, 
 
 smelled or smelt, 
 
 sowed, 
 
 sped or speeded, 
 
 spelled or spelt, 
 
 spilled or spilt, 
 
 split or splitted, 
 
 spoiled or spoilt, 
 
 stove or staved, 
 
 staid or stayed, 
 
 strunor or stringed, 
 
 strived or strove, 
 
 strewed, 
 
 sweated or sweat, 
 
 swept or sweeped, 
 
 swelled, 
 
 thrived or throve, 
 
 threw or throwed, 
 
 waked or woke, 
 
 waxed, 
 
 wove or weaved, 
 
 wedded or wed, 
 
 wept or weeped, 
 
 wet or wetted, 
 
 whetted or whet, 
 
 wound or winded, 
 
 wont or wonted, 
 
 worked or wrought, 
 
 wringad or wrung, 
 
 Imper. Participle. 
 meaning, 
 mowing, 
 mulcting, 
 passing, 
 
 paying, 
 
 penning, 
 
 pleading, 
 
 pro\ing, 
 
 quitting, 
 
 rapping, 
 
 reaving, 
 
 riving, 
 
 roasting, 
 
 sawing, 
 
 seething, 
 
 shaking, 
 
 shaping, 
 
 shaving, 
 
 shearing, 
 
 shining, 
 
 showing, 
 
 sleeping, 
 
 eliding, 
 
 slitting, 
 
 smeUing, 
 
 sowing, 
 
 speeding, 
 
 spelling, 
 
 spilling, 
 
 splitting, 
 
 spoiling, 
 
 staving, 
 
 staNing, 
 
 stringing, 
 
 striving, 
 
 strewing, 
 
 sweating, 
 
 sweeping, 
 
 swelhng, 
 
 tliriving, 
 
 tlirowing, 
 
 waking, 
 
 waxing, 
 
 wearing, 
 
 wedding, 
 
 weeping, 
 
 wetting, 
 
 whetting, 
 
 winding, 
 
 wonting, 
 
 working, 
 
 wringing. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 meant or meaned. 
 mowed or mown, 
 mulcted or mulot. 
 passed or past, 
 paid or payed, 
 penned or pent, 
 pleaded or pled, 
 proved or proven, 
 quitted or quit, 
 rapped or rapt, 
 reh oi- reaved. 
 riven or rived, 
 roasted or roast, 
 sawed or sawn, 
 seethed or sodden, 
 shaken or shaked. 
 shaped or shapen. 
 shaved or shaven, 
 sheared or shorn, 
 shined or shone, 
 showed or shown, 
 slept or sleeped. 
 slidden, slid or slided. 
 slitted or slit. 
 smelled or smelt, 
 sowed or sown, 
 sped or speeded, 
 spelled or spelt, 
 spilled or spilt, 
 split or splitted. 
 spoiled or spoilt, 
 stovo or staved. 
 staid or stayed. 
 strung or stringed- 
 strivea or striven, 
 strewed or stiown. 
 sweated or sweat, 
 swept cr sweeped. 
 swelled or swollen, 
 thrived or thriven, 
 thrown or tlirowed. 
 waked or woke, 
 waxed or waxen, 
 woven or weaved. 
 wedded or wed. 
 wept or weeped. 
 wet <»• wetted, 
 whetted or whet, 
 wound or winded, 
 wont or wonted, 
 worked w wrought^ 
 wringed or wrung. 
 
 DEFErm^E VERBS. 
 
 A defective verb is a verb tliat forms no participles, and 
 is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, beware, 
 ought, guotli. • 
 
98 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETII. 
 
 Oes.— When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the tenses 
 usnally derived from those parts are also, of obnrse, v.-anting. Ail tne anxu- 
 iaries, except do, he, and ha-ce, are defective ; but, as auxiliaries, they become 
 parta of other verbs, and do not need the parts which are techmcally said to 
 be " wanUna:' The following brief catalogue contains_ all our defective 
 verbs, except metUnhs, with its preterit methougU, which is not only detect- 
 ive, but impersonal, irregular, and deservedly obsolescent. 
 
 LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE TEEBS. 
 
 Pvesffnt. 
 
 FreUrit. 
 
 ^ Present, 
 
 Preterit 
 
 Beware, 
 Can, 
 
 
 Shall, 
 
 should 
 
 could. 
 
 Will' 
 
 kJJ JLVdf 1.&X "^A 
 
 would. 
 
 May, 
 
 might. 
 
 Quoth, 
 
 quoth. 
 
 Must, 
 
 must. 
 
 Wis, 
 
 wist. 
 
 Ought, 
 
 ought. 
 
 Wit, 
 
 wot. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Beware is not used in the indicative present. Miut is nevervaried 
 in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, where we 
 find oufjhtest. , Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and as such is 
 regitlar and complete. Quoth is used only in ludicrous language, and is not 
 varied. It seems to be properly the third person singular of the present ; 
 for it ends in (h, and quod was formerly used as the preterit : as, 
 " Yea, so sayst thou, {quod Troylus,) alas 1" — Chiueer. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Wis, preterit wist, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, ap- 
 
 Eears to be now nearly or quite obsolete ; but it seems proper to explain it, 
 eeauso it is found in the Bible : as, "I wist not, brethren, that he was the 
 high priest." — Acts, xxiii, 5. "He himself ' wist not that his face shone.' " 
 — life of SehiMer, p. iv. Wit, to know, and wot, knew, are also obsolete 
 except in the phrase to wit ; which, being taken abstractly, is equivalent to 
 the adverb namely, or to the phrase, tTiat is to say. 
 
 ' Obs. 3. — Some verbs from the nature of the subject to which they refer, 
 can be used only_ in the third person singular : as. It rains /it snows ; it 
 freezes ,• it hails ; it lightens ; it thunders. These have been called mbpersofi^ 
 verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used before them, does not 
 seem to represent any noun, but, in couuesiou with the verb, merely to ex- 
 press a state of things. 
 
 CHAPTER Vn.— OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
 pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
 noun ; and is generally formed by adding m^, d, or ed, 
 to the verb : thus, from the verb ruh, are formed three 
 participles, two simple and one compound ; as, 1. ruling, 
 2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 
 
 Obs.I.— Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence 
 in motion, or the priiiation qfmoiwn-^m actin/;, or ceasing to act. And to all 
 motion and rest, ti/me B.nd place are necessary concomitants ; nor are the ideas 
 of degree and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and of «i- 
 
CHAP. YII.] ETYMOLOGY— PARTICIPLES.— CLASSES. 99 
 
 verbs. For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass sometime and some- 
 where; aud, in every event, something must bo atfeoted smnewhat and some- 
 hnc. Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say, that 
 " aU participles imply time.'''' But it does not follow that the Ji'nt/lish par- 
 ticiples divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of 
 action; on the contrary, it is certain and manifest that they do not. Tho 
 phrase, "«w» labounng,'" conveys no other idea than that of labourers at 
 work ; it no more suggests the tiyne, than Vciq place, degree, or manner of their 
 work. All these circumstances require other words to express them ; as, 
 " Men now here awhwardly labouring much to little purpose." 
 
 Obs. 2.— Participles retain the essential »}«omJM of their verbs ; and, Zii-e 
 aerbs, are either active-transitive, aefive-intransitive, passive, or neuter, in 
 their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. 
 But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirma- 
 tion, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, liJx. adjectives, except when 
 they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses ; or when they 
 have in part the nature of substantives, like the Latin gerunds. Hence 
 some have injudiciously ranked them with tho adjectives. We have as- 
 signed them a separate place among the parts of speech, because experience 
 has shown that it is expedient to do so. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The English participles are all derived from the roots of their 
 respective verbs, and do not, hke those of some other languages, take their 
 names from the tenses. They are reckoned among the principal parts in the 
 conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. 
 In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all the tenses. 
 They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular time ; but they 
 denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its progress or 
 completion. [See remarlcs on the PaHwiples, in the PoH-Boyal Latin and 
 (h'cek Grammars.'] 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 English verbs have severally three participles ; which 
 have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most 
 accurately thus : the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pre- 
 perfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may ba 
 conveniently called the First, the Second, and the Third. 
 
 I. The Imperfect Participle is that-wiieh— ends-^em- 
 -nroniy^s—iH^, and implies a continuance of the being, 
 
 action, or passion ; as, being, loving, seeing, writing — being 
 loved, being seen, being writing. 
 
 II. The Perfect Participle is-that®:hich.jeBd«-commoTDly 
 itr^sLoc-ea^ and implies a completion of the being, action, 
 or passion ; as, been, loved, seen, written. 
 
 ni. The Preper/Bc< Partoc?pfe is- that which takes the 
 
 -sign having, and implies a previous comphlion of the 
 
 being, action, or passion; as, having bved, having seen, 
 
 having vjritten — having been loved, having been writing, 
 
 having been written. 
 
 The First or Imperfeci Participle, when simple, is al- 
 ways formed by adding ing to the radical verb ; as look, 
 looking: when compound, it is formed by prefixing being 
 
100 INSTITUTES OF EN-GLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II, 
 
 to some other simple participle ; as, hdng reading, leing 
 read, being completed. 
 
 The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and 
 is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical 
 verb : those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, 
 are inserted in the list as being irregular or redundant. 
 
 The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, 
 and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when 
 the compound is double, and having been to the perfect 
 or the imperfect, when the compound is triple : as, hav- 
 ing spolcen, having been spohen, having been speaking. 
 
 Ob3. 1. — Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote 
 present Umej some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the 
 other, past time; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time; 
 and some have supposed that both are of aU times. In regard to the nwrj- 
 ner of their signifloation, some have supposed the one to be active and the 
 other to be passive ; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active 
 or neuter, and the other active or passive ; and some have supposed that 
 either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more 
 unanimity among grammarians, in respect to tlie compounds. Hence several 
 different names have been loosely given to each of the participles; and some- 
 times with manifest impropriety ; as when Buchanan, in his conjugations, 
 calls iemg Active — and ieen, having been, and Tiamng had. Passive. The 
 First participle has been called the Present, the Imperfect, the Active, tlie 
 Present active, the Present passive, the Present neuter ; the Second has been 
 called the Perfect, the Past, the Passive, the Perfect active, the Pferfeot pas- 
 sive, the Perfect neuter ; and the Third has been called the Compound, the 
 Compound active, the Compound passive, the Compound perfect, the Plu- 
 perfect, the Preterperfeot, the Preperfect. But the application of a name is 
 of little consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the 
 learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear 
 and brief. Upon the ohoieo of his terms the writer has bestowed much re- 
 flection ; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain 
 all the reasons for preference. „ 
 
 Obs. 2. — The participle in in^ represents the action or state as continmng 
 and ever incomplete ; it is therefore rightly termed the Impehfect participle : 
 whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action as done and 
 com^ilete ; and is by proper contradistinction callecl the Peefect participle. It 
 is hardly necessary to add, that the terms per/eet and imperfect, as thus ap- 
 plied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or to those temeg of 
 the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets. 
 The terms present and past do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique con- 
 tradistinction ; but how wen they apply to the participles may be seen by the 
 following texts : " God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himseli." — 
 " We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." — St. Paul. 
 _ Obs. 3. — The participle in i?i^ has, by many, been called the Present parti- 
 ciple. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time ; otherwise 
 such expressions aa, " I had been writing^" — " I shall be writing,^'' would to 
 solecisms. It has also been called the active participle. But it is not alwaja 
 
 . . J partioiplt -, 
 
 that it denotes an unnmshed and progressive state of the being action, or 
 passion; it is therefore properly denominated the Impekfeot participle. If 
 the tern4Rere applied with reference to time, it would be no more obieetion- 
 able than the -word present, and would be equally supported by the usage cf 
 
CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY.— PARTICIPLES.— CLASSES. 101 
 
 the Greek linguists. This name is approved by Murray,'^ and adopted by 
 several of the more recent erammarians. See the works of Dr. Cromhie, J. 
 Grant, T. 0. ChurcMl, R. M'dcy, S. II. Smart, M. Harrison, W. G. Lewis. 
 J. M. iVCulheh, K Hasen, N. BuOer, D. £. Toutr, W. H. Wells, C. W. and 
 J. C. Sanders. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, denotes a completion 
 of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated tlio 
 PiByECT participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, pastj 
 or future, for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinotion ot 
 time, nor should tne name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The 
 ««r/ec< participle of transitive verbSj being used in the formation of passive 
 verbs, is sometimes called the passive participle. It has a passive significa- 
 tion, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active 
 verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, " I have written a let- 
 ter," and, " I have a letter written :" — the former bemg equivalent to, Scripsi 
 literas, and the latter to Sunt miM literoe scripts. 
 
 Oes. 5. — The third participle has most generally been called the Compound 
 or the Compound Perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objec- 
 tionable on account of its length ; and against the former it may be urged 
 that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or imperfect participle 
 is a compound: as, beiTig mriting, being seen. Dr. Adam calls Tiaoing loved 
 the perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the 
 pluperfect of the subjunctive, " as, he having loved, gu-um amaxrisset ;" but 
 it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to low, whether active or 
 passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Many writers 
 erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the partici- 
 ple in ed as always passive ; and!^ some, among whom is Buchanan, making 
 no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound Timing 
 loved, place the latter witli the former, and call it passive also._ But if this 
 participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is perhaps no 
 better term for it than the epithet Piuipekfeot, — a word which explains it- 
 self, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many other names, the most correct 
 one is Pluperfect,— -which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not 
 because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense^ but because it always 
 denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or vras, or will be, completed befort 
 the doing or being of something else ; and, of course, when the latter thing 
 is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tensa 
 of its verb ; as, '^Having explained her views, it waa necessary she should ex- 
 patiate on the vanity and futihty of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure.'' 
 Jamieson^s Ehet., p. 181. Here iMvmg explained is equivalenj; \xiwhen sheliad 
 
 Obs. 6. — Participles often become adjectives, and are oonstraed before nouns 
 to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial ad- 
 jectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives. 1. 
 When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or 
 habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A lying rogue, i. e., one 
 addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison ; aa.A mxtre 
 learned man. 3. When they are compounded with something that does not 
 belong to the verb ; as, Mufeeling, nnfelt. There is no verb to unfeel; there- 
 fore, no participle unfeeling or unfelt. Adjectives are generaUy placed beiore 
 their nouns ; participles, after them. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Participles in ing often become notms. When preceded by an 
 article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are 
 construed as nouns, and ought to have no regimen. A participle immedi- 
 
 * " The most unexceptionahTc distinction which prammarlans make between tlie 
 participles is that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or stale 
 {lenotcd bv the verb ; and the other, to tlie completion of it. Thus, the present par- 
 ticiple siKnifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended : as, ' I am writing a 
 lettir.' The oast participle signtflcs aclion perfected, or finished : 'I have written a 
 letter '—'The letter is written.' ''—Murray's arammar,hvo, p. 65 "The first [par- 
 ticiple] expresses a continuation; the others, a completion."— W. AlUn a G>ram.. 
 12mo, London, 181 S, p. 02. 
 
102 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PAET II. 
 
 ■ preceded by a preposition, U not converted into a noun, and therefote 
 retains its regimen ; as, " I thank you for helping lilm." Participles in this 
 
 ately ] 
 
 construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimea called 
 
 _. —To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, thg learner 
 
 should observe the following/CfM?- things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjec- 
 tives before them; partieipleSj as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the 
 possessive case, but not the objective ; partvAples may govern the objective 
 case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects or objects of 
 verbs ; paHicipUs cannot. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things ; 
 participles refer actions to their agents or recipients. 
 
 Obs. 9. — To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same 
 form, observe the sense^ and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it; 
 thus, lm)ed for being loved, is a participle ; but loved for did love, is a preterit 
 verb. 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, modifying 
 or completing the predicate of a sentence, and relating 
 to the subject, is called an attribate ; as, " Gold is yel 
 lowJ'—" The sun is shining."—" Honesty is the best 
 pohcy." 
 
 Obs. 1.— All verbs except to he comprehend within themselves both the 
 predicate and the attribute, mto which they may generaUy be resolved For 
 example, m the sentence >; The sun shines," the verb ,hLes is equivalent to 
 t^ibutT^' ** '"^ afiarmative or predicative word, and «iin%, the at- 
 
 «„tEf : ^;~'^^S ^^'^^ '^?' connects the subject and the attribute, must be 
 aotive-mtransitive, passive, or neuter. It is sometimes called tlie copula, 
 because it couples or umtes the subject and the attribute. 
 
 Obs. 8.— The verb to be, in most cases, only affirms or indicates otherwise, 
 the connection existmg between the subject and the attribute. When the 
 
 2 M«^',vt"T<'<o"''^*''Pr''' l-,^'^»; "^^ "Cain was a mw<i«-«.." 
 J,. lOmtity; as, "Gain was the murderer of Abel." S Name ■ as "The 
 child was called J-.A«." When mere existence is premoatT{he%erb i' 
 comprehends both the predicate and the attribute. ^""'""' '■"e vero oe 
 
 in various'^'^a'yst ''^™*''y' °'™^' "'" l"'^'? ^"7 ^^ attributed to the subject 
 
 ^' ^fh^^rSii"^ '''™°"^ "^ connection between it and the subject, as in 
 the preceding examples. ■* ' 
 
 ^' X aot'r'ftL'°n?K°"^ '° *f,IY''JfS^° connection with a particu- 
 
 '■ ^V^'asSio'la'r"""'''''"''' '^ ''"' ''''''' °' ^ "^^^^ ! -- "He ka> 
 4. By affirming a connection, as the result of a process ■ na " H^ ,ms 
 elected President."-" Tl^e tmg has grown a tree " ' ' 
 
 Ons. 6.--An attribute is sometimes indirectly/ affirmed of, or otherwion 
 connected with the object of a verb; as, " They elected him pm£"!! 
 "Vice has left him without friends'' (i. c friendless) Tlih i=i flfT -T 
 ^i^i.r:«Xf °" °' '1^^ P-l-^'^. -a m^y't Voperiy'oiSe'd^ Z't 
 
CHAP. VII.] ETrMOLOGT. 103 
 
 Oes. 7.— The eonjimotion as ia often employed to orpress the connection 
 of the nttributo with the subject or object to which it refers ; as, " She was 
 known as Curiosity" — " They engaged her as a governess." 
 
 Oas. 8. — The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the same 
 ease as the subject to which it refers : as, " It is /, he not afraid." — " Who 
 is she?"— " They believed it to be m«." 
 
 _ In analyzing a sentence, the attribute should be con^ 
 sidered one of ihe principal parts. 
 
 The principal parts of a sentence are, therefore, tbe 
 SUBJECT, the PEEDiCATE, and the object or attkibutb, 
 if there be either. 
 
 _ The other parts may be, 1. Primary or secondary ad- 
 juncts, 2. Words used to express relation or connection^ 
 3. Independent words. 
 
 Obs. — Of the four principal parts of a sentence enumerated, the only 
 two essential parts are the subject and the predicate ; the other two being 
 Incidental or occasional, and used only to modify, limit, or complete the 
 predicate. They, however, differ so wid^ply from other adjuncts, and per- 
 form so important an office in every sentence in which they occur, that 
 grammatical analysis is facilitated, and the exact nature of the sentence 
 more clearly exhibited, by treating them as distinct, even though subordi- 
 nate, elements of the sentence. 
 
 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PAESING. 
 PRAXIS V. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 
 In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to classify 
 and analyze the sentence according to the preceding praxis ; 
 in addition, to point out the attributes and their adjuncts / 
 and to parse the sentence as in the preceding praxes, distin- 
 guishing besides, the classes and modifications of the verbs. 
 Thus :— 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " Can that be the man who deceived me 1" 
 
 Analysis. — This is a complex interrogative sentence, consisting of the two 
 
 simple clauses, (Jam that be the man t and Who deceived me, cbnneated 
 
 by, who. 
 The subject of the principal clause is that ; the predicate is can be ; and 
 
 the attribute is man. 
 The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts ; tho adjuncts of the 
 
 attribute are' the, and the dependent clause. 
 The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate, deceived; and 
 
 the object, me. Neither has any adjuncts. 
 PABsiHa. — Qin is a verb auxiliary to the principal verb be, because it is 
 
 added to the present infinitive to form the particular mood and tense 
 
 in which the verb is found. 
 7%a< is a pronominal adjective, representing man, understood, in the third 
 
 person, singular number, masculine gender, and is in the nominative 
 
 case, because it is the subject of the verb can be, being used as a 
 
104 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART XL 
 
 Cm he 13 a verb, from Se, voas, ieing, ieen; it is irregular, because it does 
 not form its preterit and perfect participle by assuming d or ea- 
 neuter, because it expresses simply being ; it is tound in tne potential 
 mood, because it expresses possibUity ; in the present tense, because 
 it has reference to what now exists ; it agrees with its subject that m 
 the third person and singular number. (See Definition, page 71.) 
 
 Tfi£ is the definite article. , 
 
 Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masouhne 
 gender, and in the nominative case, because it is an attribute relating 
 to the subject that. 
 
 Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word 
 man, and connects the principal and the dependent clause of the sen- 
 tence. It is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender; 
 and is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb 
 
 Deceived is a verb, from deceive, deceived, deceiving, deceived ; it is regular, 
 because it forms its preterit and perfect participle by assuming d ; 
 active-tranaitive, because it expresses action and has me for its object; 
 it is found in the indicative mood, because it simply declares ; in the 
 imperfect tense, because it expresses time fully past ; and it agrees 
 with its subject wfw in the third person and singular number. 
 
 Me is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it ia of the ~ 
 first person ; it is of the singular number, masculine gender ; and in 
 the objective case, because it is the object of the verb, deceived ; it is 
 declined, Nom. I, Poss. my, or mine, Obj. me. 
 
 John has been very sict. William's brother, Henry, might 
 have been a prosperous man. He has become a drunkard. 
 Liberty is a great blessing. The leaves of roses are very fra- 
 grant William rapidly became a good scholar. The project 
 surely could not have been deemed a feasible one. The con- 
 tract was pronounced fraudulent. Cool blows the summer 
 breeze. He was born a lord. The princess was crowned 
 queen. Washington could have been thrice elected president. 
 The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. Art is long 
 and time is fleeting. How wonderful is sleep ! The soul of 
 the diligent shall be made fat. 
 
 LESSOir II. 
 
 The seed which was planted has become a large tree. 
 
 Whatever we do often, soon becomes easy to us. 
 _ They, who never were his favorites, did not expect so many- 
 kind attentions. 
 
 Columbus must indeed have been an extraordinary man. 
 
 The man who feels truly noble, will become so. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence, was elected the third president. 
 
 Who was it that made that great outcry ? 
 
 Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. 
 
 He that loveth pleasure, will soon become a poor man. 
 
 When the atmosphere is cleat, tlio distant hills look blue. 
 
CHAP. VIII.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADVERBS.— CLASSES. 105 
 
 LESSON m. 
 
 He might have been guilty, but no sufficient proof could be 
 found. 
 
 If you diligently cultivate your mind in youth, you will be 
 happy when you grow old. 
 
 A wicked messenger falleth into mischief; but a faithful 
 ambassador is health. 
 
 The liberal soul shall be made fat ; and he that watereth 
 shall be watered also himself. 
 
 The fear of the Lord is the instruction of wisdom ; and 
 before honor is humility. 
 
 If we do not carefully exercise our faculties, they will soon 
 become impaired. 
 ""^It may have escaped his notice ; but such was the fact. 
 
 Science may raise thee to eminence ; but religion alone can 
 guide thee to felicity. 
 
 Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 
 
 And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows. 
 
 The shepherd of the Alps am I, 
 
 The castles far beneath me lie ; 
 Here iirst the ruddy sunlight gleams. 
 Here linger last the parting beams. 
 
 The mountain boy am I. 
 
 CHAPTER Vm.— OF ADVERBS. 
 
 An Adverb is a -word added to a verb, a participle, an 
 adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses 
 time, place, degree, or manner : as. They are now here, 
 studying very diligently, 
 
 Oes. 1. — Adverbs \sae&j express what would otherwise require several 
 words ; as, Now, for at tjiw time — Sere, for ia this place — Very, for m a Tiigh 
 degree — IHUgently, for in, an indMstrwue manner. 
 
 Obs. 2. — There are several customary combinations of short words which 
 are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in pars- 
 ing ; as, Nat at aU, at le/ngtJi, im, vam,. But all words that convey distinct 
 ideas, should be taken separately. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes: 
 namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of 
 manner, 
 
 5* 
 
108 INSTITtTTES OF ElfGLISH GEAMMAR. [PAET II. 
 
 I. Adverbs of time are those whicTi answer to the 
 question, When f How hng f How soon ? or How often 1 
 including these which ask. 
 
 Obs. — Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follo-ws : — 
 
 1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, immediatily. 
 
 2. Of time past; as, Already, yesterday, lately, recently, aruilently, hereto- 
 fore, hitherto, since, ago, erewMle. 
 
 8. Of time to come ; as. To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by-amdr^y, soon, 
 €relong. 
 
 4. Of time relative ; as, WheUythen, hefore, after, while, or whilst, till, uti- 
 Hl, seasonably, betimes, early, late. 
 
 6. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally. 
 
 6. Of time repeated; as, Often, oft, ogam, occajtionally, ffeqveatly, some- 
 times, seldom, rarely, TWW-amdr-ttien, daily, weekly, montjdy, t/LiHy, once, livice 
 thrice, or three tvmes, &o. ' 
 
 7. Of the order of time; as, Mrst, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &a. 
 
 II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
 question, Where f W hither? Whence? or Whereabout? 
 including these which ask. 
 
 Obs. — Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows :— 
 
 1. Of place in which ; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, dbowt, 
 around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, eoerywhere, nowhere, wherever, within, 
 witlurtit, whereabout, hereabout, thereabowt. 
 
 2. Of place to wliioh; as. Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, 
 inwards, upwards, dowwwards, haclnvards,forward'i. 
 
 3. Of place from which; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out. 
 
 4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdiy,fwurthly, &a. 
 
 III. Adverbs of degree, are those which answer to the 
 question, How much f How little ? or, to the idea of more 
 or less. 
 
 Obs. — Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows: 
 
 1. Of excess or abundance ; as, Mach, too, very, greatly, far, besides ; chiefly, 
 prinovpally, mawily, generally ; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfedfy, 
 wholly, totally, altogether, all, qmte, clear, startc ; exceedingly, eaesnvdy, a- 
 travagantly, imtoUrably ; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely. 
 
 ^- 9!*',1"i'''^'y °'' saffioieney ; as, Mnough, sufficiently, equally, so, as, even. 
 
 3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, UtOe, scarcely, hardly, merdy'bardv, 
 only, but, partly, partially, -nearly, almost. 
 
 i. Of quantity in the abstract ; as. Sow, (meaning, in lohat degree,) how- 
 ever, howsoever, everso, something, nothing, anything, and other nouns of 
 quantity used adverbially. 
 
 IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 
 question, How ? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, 
 show how a subject is regarded. 
 
 Obs. — Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : 
 
 1. Of manner from quality ; as, Well iU wisely, foolishly. Justly, guicUy, 
 and many others formed by addmgj^ to adjectives of quality 
 
 2 Of affirmation or assent; as, T«s,|;«a, ay, verily, truly,' indeed, surely, 
 certainly, doubtless, ■undmibtedly,certes, forsooth, amen. 
 
 3. Of negation ; as, Ifo, nay, not, nowise. 
 
 i. Of doubt; as, PerJmps, Uply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be. 
 
CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADVERBS.— CONJUNCTIONS. 107 
 
 6. Of mode or way : as, Thns, so, Jiow, somehow, Tiowever, Jiowsoever, Uhe, dse, 
 ethirwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particido/rly, necessarily^ 
 6. Of cause ; as, Why, wherefore, therefore. * 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, and 
 serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circum- 
 stance of time, place, degree, or manner : adverbs that are so 
 used, are called conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Coniimctivo adverbs often relate equally to tioo verbs in different 
 danses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from 
 others ; as, " They feared when, they heard that they were Romans." — Acts, 
 ivi, 38. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive 
 adverbs : after, again, Sso, as, lefore, iesides, else, even, hence, however, more- 
 over, nevertheless, otherwise, since, eo, then, thence, therefore, till, untU, when, 
 where, wherefare, while or whilst. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Amrerbs of time, place, and manner, ore generally connected with 
 verbs or participles ; those of degree are more frequently prefixed to adjec- 
 tives or adverbs. 
 
 ^OBS. 4. — The adverbs here, tliere, and where, when prefixed to prepositionJ, 
 have the force of pronouns : as, Hereby, for by thu ; thereby, for by that ; 
 whereby, for by which. Compounds of tliis kind are, however, commonly 
 reckoned adverbs. They are now somewhat antiquated. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The adverbs how, when, whence, where, whither, why, and where- 
 fore, are frequently used as interrogatives ; but, as such, they severally be- 
 long to the classes under which they are placed. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS. 
 
 Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
 compared after the manner of adjectives : as, Soon, sooner, 
 soonest; — often, oftener, ofienest; — long, longer, longest. 
 
 The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best ; 
 badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; 
 far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Most adverbs of j««Ziiy, will admit the'comparative adverbs »mw« 
 and meii, less and lewit, before them : aa, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; 
 culpably, less culpably least culpably. But these should be parsed separately : 
 the degree of comparison, as an mflection, belongs only to the adverb pre- 
 fixed ; though the latter word also may be said to be compared by means of 
 the former. 
 
 Obs. 2. — As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should 
 not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied 
 by it. 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
 sentences in construction, and to show the dependence 
 
108 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET IL 
 
 of the terms so connected : as, " Thou and he are happy, 
 ^ hecause you are good." — L. Murray. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, 
 copulative and disjunctive; and some of each of these 
 sorts are corresponsive. 
 
 1. A.jcopulaiive conjunction is a . conjunction that de- 
 notes an addition, a cause, or a supposition: as, "He 
 and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall 
 readily grant it." 
 
 II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
 notes opposition of meaning : as, " Be not overcome [by] 
 evil, but overcome evil with good." — Rom.., xii, 21. 
 
 III. The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are 
 used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to an other : 
 as, " John came neither eating nor drinking." — Matthew, 
 xi, 18. 
 
 LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 The following are the principal conjunctions : — 
 _ 1. Copulative; And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, 
 since, seeing, so. 
 
 2. Disjunctive; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, al- 
 though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstand- 
 ing. 
 
 3. Corresponsive; Both — and; as — as; as — so; if— then; 
 either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; though, or although 
 
 CHAPTEE X.— OP PEEPOSITIONS. 
 
 A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
 tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
 generally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The 
 paper lies before me on the desk. 
 
 Obs.— Every j-«iai!io» of couree implieB more than one subieot. In aJl cor- 
 rect language the grammatioal relation of the words corresponds exactly to 
 the relation of t\i<i thtngsovvleas expressed; for the relation of words, is 
 their dependonoe on each other acawSmj. to tU sense. To a preposMon, the 
 antecedent term of relation may be a noan, an adjective, a pronoun a verb, » 
 particip e, or an adverb ; and the sviseqwerd term may to a noun a nrououn 
 an inflmtive verb, or a participle. The learner must observe that tCtorS 
 of relation are trequently transposed. 
 
CHAP. XI.j ETYMOLOGY.— INTERJECTIONS.— LIST. 109 
 
 LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 The following are the principal prepositions, arranged al- 
 phabetically : Aboard^ about, above, across, after, against, along, 
 amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart ; — Bat- 
 ing, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or 
 betwixt, beyond, by; — Concerning; — Down, during; — Ere, 
 except, excepting ; — For, from ; — In, into; — Mid or midst; — 
 Notwithstanding ; — Of, off, on, out-of over, overthwart ; — Past, 
 pending ; — Regarding, respecting, round; — Since ; — Through, 
 throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ; — Under, un- 
 derneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — With, within, without. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions. But 
 when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of relation, they 
 are either adjectives or adVerbs. For, when it signifies because, is a conjunc- 
 tion ; without, when used for unless, and rwlwithstanding, when placed before 
 a nominative, are usually referred to the class of conjunctions also. 
 
 Oes. 2. — Several words besides those contained in the foregoing list, are 
 (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions; as. A, 
 (chiefly used before participles,) abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, ilongsick, 
 anear, aneatk, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, Mween, atwixt, besouih, bywest, 
 cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-Jtarut, maugre, minus, onio, opposite, outside, 
 per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, witMl, vntnimside. 
 
 CHAPTEE XL— OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
 indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, 
 Oh ! alas ! ah! poh ! psliaw ! avaunt I 
 
 Obs. — Of pure interjections but few are ordinarily admitted into books. 
 As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to ex- 
 press thought, they seldom have any truly definable signification. Their 
 use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of 
 them. Some significant words properly belonging to other classes, are 
 ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected 
 manner. 
 
 LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 The following are the principal interjections, arranged ac- 
 cording to the emotions which they are generally intended to 
 indicate -. — 1. Of.joy ; eigh ! hey ! io ! — 2. Of sorrow ; oh ! ah ! 
 hoo ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay ! or welaway ! — 3. Of 
 wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed! — 4. Of wishing, earn- 
 estness, or vocative address ; (often with a noun or pronoun 
 in the nominative absolute;) 0! — 5. Of praise; well-done! 
 good! bravo! — 6. Of surprise with disapproval ; whew ! hoity- 
 toity ! hoida ! zounds ! what ! — 1. Of pain or fear ; oh ! ooh ! 
 ah! eh! dear! — 8. Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! 
 
 10 
 
110 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PAETU. 
 
 pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph!— Q. Of aversion; foh! 
 faugh! fie! fy ! foy !—\0. Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! 
 whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!—\\. Of calling aloud ; ho! 
 soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!— 
 12. Of exultation ; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah! 
 —13. Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-kee.—U. 
 Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail! — 15. Of calling to 
 attention; ho! lo! la! law! look! see! behold! hark! — 16. 
 Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! ^st ! aw! mum! 
 — 17. Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what! — 18. Of 
 languor or weariness ; heigh-ho ! heigh-ho-Iium ! — 19. Of stop- 
 ping; hold! soft! avast! whoh! — 20. Of parting ; /arewcK.' 
 adieu! g'ood-by ! good-day! — 21. Of knowing or detecting; 
 oho! aliah! ay-ay! — 22. Of interrogating ; eh? ha? hey? 
 
 0b3. — Besides these, there are several others, too often heard, which are 
 unworthy to be considered as parts of a cultivated language. The freqxient 
 use of uiterjections, savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 When two or more subjects, connected by a conjunc- 
 tion, belong to the same predicate, or two or more con- 
 nected predicates have the same subject, the sentence 
 should be considered svmph with a coTnpound subject or 
 predicate. 
 
 A pJirase is two or more words which express some 
 relation of ideas, but no entire proposition ; as, " Of 
 a good disposition." — " To be plain with you." — " Having 
 loved his own." 
 
 A phrase may be used in three ways ; namely, 1. As 
 one of the principal parts of a sentence ; 2. As an ad- 
 junct;" 3. It may be independent. i 
 
 An adjunct phrase is adjective, adverbial, or explanatory. 
 
 A substantive phrase is one used in the place of a 
 noun ; as, " To do good is the duty of all." 
 
 An independent phrase is one, the principal part of 
 which, is not related to, or connected with, any word in 
 the rest of the sentence ; as, " He failing, who shall meet 
 success ?" — " To be plain witli you, I think you in fault." 
 
 Tho principal part of a phrase is that upon which all 
 the others depend ; as, " Under every misfortune.''''— 
 '^Having exhausted every expedient," 
 
CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. Ill 
 
 Phrases are either simple, complex, or compound. 
 
 A simple phrase is one unconnected with any other ; 
 as, " Of an obliging disposition." 
 
 A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase or a 
 clause, as an adjunct of its principal part ; as, " By the 
 bounty of Heaven." — " To be plain with you."> 
 
 A compound phrase is one composed of two or more 
 co-ordinate phrases ; as, " Stooping down and looking 
 in." 
 
 Phrases are also classified as to their form, depending upon 
 the introducing word, or the principal part ; thus, 
 
 1. A phrase, introduced by a preposition, is called a pre- 
 
 positional phrase / as, "By doing good." — "Of an 
 engaging disposition." 
 
 2. A phrase the principal part of which is a verb in the 
 
 infinitive mood, is called an infinitive phrase ; as, 
 " To be good is to be happy." 
 
 3. A phrase the principal word of which is a participle, is 
 
 called a participial phrase / as, " A measure founded 
 on justice." 
 
 Obs. — A preposition that introduceg a phrase, serves only to express tho 
 relation between the principal part, and the word of the sentence, on which 
 the phrase depends. ^ 
 
 A phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb, must be 
 substantive in ofiice, and, with a stiict adherence to grammati- 
 cal rules, can only be infinitive in form ; as, " To disobey 
 parents is sinful." — " William loves to study grammar." Par- 
 ticipial phrases are, however, sometimes used by good writers 
 in this way; as, "Hunting the buffalo, is one of the sports of 
 the West." — "John's father opposed his going to sea." [See 
 Obs. 8, page 102 ; and Note lU., with Obs. 3, under it. Syntax, 
 EuleXIY.] 
 
 A phrase, used as an attribute, may be substantive or adjec- 
 tive in office, and. may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Infinitive ; as, "The object of punishment is to reform 
 
 the guilty." — "His conduct is greatly to be admired." 
 i [In the latter example, the phrase is adjective, to be 
 
 admired being equivalent to admirable.^ 
 
 2. Prepositional ; as, " He is in good health." — " The 
 
 train was behind tim£." [In each of these examples, 
 the phrase is adjective^ 
 An adjective phrase may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Prepositional; as, "Carele'isness in the use of money. 
 
112 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [PART 11. 
 
 2. Infinitive ; as, " The desire to do good is praise- 
 
 worthy." 
 
 3. Participial ; as, " Seeinff the danger, he avoided it." 
 An adverbial phrase may have the following forms : 
 
 1. Prepositional ; as, " He was attentive to his business." 
 
 2. Infinitive ; as, " They were anxious to ascertain the 
 
 truth." 
 8. Idiomatic ; as, " In vain." — " Day by day." — " By and 
 by." — "As a general thing." 
 
 An explanatory phrase is always substantive in office, and 
 infinitive in form ; as, " It is pleasant to see the sun" 
 
 The mdependent phrase is various in form and character. 
 It may be distinguished as, 
 
 1. Infinitive ; as, " To be candid, I was in fault." 
 
 2. Participial / as, " Considering the circumstances, much 
 
 credit is due." 
 
 3. Vocative; as, "Boast not, my rfsar/mrec?, of to-morrow." 
 
 4. Pleonastic ; as, " The blessing of the Lord, it maketh 
 
 rich." 
 
 5. Absolute ; as, " The sun having risen, the mists were 
 
 dispersed." 
 
 Ob3. 1. — The last form of this phrase is often adverbial in signification ; 
 as in the example given, in which it is equivalent to the clause, whmi iha 
 tun had rUen. It is, therefore, independent only in construction. 
 
 Obs. 2. — An adverbial phrase ma^ be modified by an adverb ; as, " It 
 lasts hd for a moment ;" i. e. iul equivalent to only, and modifying the ad- 
 verbial phrase, /or a moment. 
 
 Obs. 3. A phrase or a clause is sometimes used as the object of a prepo- 
 sition, and thus forms a prepositional phrase of a complex or anomalous 
 character' as, "Blows madevf from between-Ma-ehriveled-lips." — "That de- 
 pends on wko-can-rmir-the-fastest." 
 
 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 
 PRAXIS VI. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 
 
 In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to classify 
 and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis y to 
 classify and analyze each phrase ; and to parse the sentence, 
 distinguishing the parts of speech, and all their classes and 
 modifications. Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind. 
 By truth illumined, and by taste refined ?" 
 
CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. 113 
 
 Analtsis. — This is n simple interrogative sentenee. 
 
 The subject is w7u>; the predicate, can tell ; the object, triumphs. 
 
 The subjuct and predicate are nnmodiiied ; the adjuuots of the object, are 
 the aud the complex adjective phrase, of the mind illumined by truth, 
 and ri: fined by taste. 
 
 The prinoip il part of the phrase is mind: its adjuncts are the and the 
 compouDd adjective phrase, illumined ly truth, and refined hy taste, 
 which consists of the two coordinate participial phrases connected 
 by and. 
 
 The principal part of the former is ilhimined, and its adjunct, the simple 
 adverbial phrase, by tmth ; the principal part of the latter is refined, 
 aud its adjunct, the simple adverbiid phrase by tdste. Ah is an inde- 
 pendent word. 
 
 Passing. — Ah ! is an interjection, because it is a simple exclamation of won- 
 der or admiration. 
 Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
 masculine gender ; and in the nominative case, because it is the sub- 
 ject of the verb ean tell. 
 
 By is a preposition, because it shows the relation between truth and illu- 
 mined, the phrase by truth being an adjunct oi illumined. 
 
 Truth is a common uonn, aud abstract, because it is the name of a quality. 
 It is of tiie third person, singular number, neuter gender ; and in tlie 
 objective case, because it is the object of the preposition hj. 
 
 Illumined \» a perfeotpartioiple from the regular passive verb be illumined. 
 It perforins the office of a verb, by expressing passion ; and of an ad- 
 jective, by modifying the noun mind. 
 
 .<l»a is a conjunction, because it connects the two phrases, by tntth illu- 
 mined, by taste refined / it is copulative, because it expresses an ad- 
 dition. 
 
 IBS" [Pai-se the other words as in the preceding praxes.] 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 Frankness, suavity, and benevolence, were prominent traits 
 in the character of Dr. Franklin. 
 
 Industry, good sense, and virtue, are essential to health, 
 wealth, aud happiness. 
 
 Eural employments are certainly natural, amusing, and 
 healthful. 
 
 The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind. 
 
 Get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and live con- 
 tentedly. 
 
 Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus Brutus, and Collatinus, 
 the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls in 
 Rome. " — 
 
 The son, bred in sloth, becomes a spendthrift and a profli- 
 gate ; and goes out of the world a beggar. 
 
 In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the 
 active and the suffering virtues. 
 
 Bv disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions 
 is tamed. 
 
 Having sold his patrimony he engaged in merchandise. 
 
 The bounty displayed in the earth, equals the grandeur 
 manifested in the heavens. 
 
 10* 
 
114 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PABT II. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clotiies 
 lying ; vet went he not in. 
 
 Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and 
 fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 
 
 Sitting IS the best posture for deliberation ; standing for per- 
 suasion ; a judge, therefore, should speak sitting ; a pleader, 
 standing. 
 
 -^ The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent ; -which, 
 after a disorderly course, speedily runs out, and leaves an empty 
 and offensive channel. 
 
 "^ Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise 
 from an irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 
 
 The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of its 
 decision can hardly be questioned. 
 
 They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few 
 disappointments. 
 
 The mighty tempest and the hoary waste. 
 Abrupt and deep, stretch'd o'er the buried earth, 
 Awake to solemn thought. 
 
 Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, 
 Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore. 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— BXAMINATIOK 
 QUESTIONS ON ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON I. — PAKIB OF SPEEOH. 
 
 Of what does Etymology treat? 
 How many and what are the parts of spSpch ? 
 What is an article ? — What are the exani^les ? '' 
 
 What ia a noun ? — What examples are given ? ^ 
 
 What is an adjective ? — How ia this exemplified? 
 What ia a pronoun ? — How is this exemplified 3 
 What is a verb ? — How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a participle ? — How is this exemplified I 
 What is an adverb ? — How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a conjunction ? — How is this exemplified ? 
 What is a preposition ? — How is this exemplified ? 
 What is an interjection ? — What examples are given ? 
 
 LESSON n. — ^PAESINQ. 
 
 What is Pa/rsing f What is a sentence ? 
 
 What is a perfect defimAtm.i, f — What is a rule of grammar t 
 
 What is a, praxis? and what the literal meaning of the word I 
 
 What is an example f What is an exernse t 
 
 What is required of the pupil in the eihst pbajcis of parsing. 
 
CHAP. XII.] ETYMOLOGY. — QUESTIONS. 115 
 
 Wliat is required in each of the three Exercises given ? 
 
 How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox eubmits to the 
 yoke, and meekly performs the labour requii-ed of him." 
 [Now parse, in like manner, the other examples under the Mrst JVoiw«.] 
 
 LESSON m. — ^AMIOLES. 
 
 What is on Abtiolb! — Mention the examples? 
 
 Are am, and a different articles, or the'same ? 
 
 When is an used ? and what are the examples? 
 
 When is a used ? and what are the examples ? 
 
 What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require ? 
 
 Bepeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter. 
 
 Name the parts of speech, with an or a before each name. 
 
 How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 
 
 Which is the definite article, ana what does it denote ? 
 
 Which is the indefimte article, and what does it denote ? 
 
 What modifications have the articles ? 
 
 I.ESS0N IV. — NOUNS. 
 
 What ie a Noun ? — Can you give some examples ? 
 
 Into what general classes are uouns divided! 
 
 What is ^prtyper noun ? — a common noun ? 
 
 What parCicalar classes are included among common nouns ? 
 
 What IS a collective noun ? — an abstract nouu ? — a verial oi partioipiai noun I 
 
 What is a thing sid generis f 
 
 What modifications have nouns? 
 
 What are Persons in grammar ! 
 
 How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 What is tne^«< person ? — the second person ? — the tjdrd person ? 
 
 What are Numbers in grammar I 
 
 How many numbers are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 What is the smgtilar number j — ^the piurdl number ? 
 
 How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 
 
 What are the roles for adding s and es to form the plural ? 
 
 ij:sson v. — ^nouns. 
 
 What are Genders in grammar ? 
 
 How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 
 
 What is the mascidine gender ? — Vojbfeminme gender ? — the neuter gender ! 
 
 What are Cases in grammar ? 
 
 How many cases are there, and what are they called? 
 
 What is the nominative case ? 
 
 What is the subject of a verb 3 
 
 What is the poseeesive case ? 
 
 How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 
 
 What is the objective case ? 
 
 What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition ? 
 
 What is the declension of a noun ? 
 
 How do you decline the noma friend, mam, fox, saifly t 
 
 usson VI. — ^analysis and PAPSnCQ. 
 What is AruAysia ? — What is the mlbject of a sentence ? 
 What is & predicate ? — What is & pTopomHum, t 
 What is a simple sentence f 
 How are simple sentences divided ? — Define each. 
 What is required of the pupil in the Second Framaf 
 
 LESSON VII. — ADJECTIVES. 
 
 What is an ADJEtrnvB? — How is this exemplified ? 
 
 Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? _ 
 
 What is a common adjective ^.— a proper adjective ?— a numeral 
 
 pron&mmal adjective ?— a iKWiwepwit adjective?— a GompoumcL adjective i 
 
 ?— a 
 
116 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PAET IL 
 
 What modifications have adjectives ? 
 What is Comparisou in grammar ? 
 
 How many, and what are the degrees of compariBon ? t ,■ ■, 
 
 What i8 the posiiMJC degree 2 — the comparative degree 2— the ««pcr(oS»«« de- 
 gree? 
 Wiiat adjectives cannot be compared? 
 What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 
 How are adjectives regularly compared? — Compare great, wide, and hot. 
 To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 
 Is there any other mode of expressing the decrees? 
 How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 
 How do yon compare good, bad, or ill. Utile, mnoTi, and mcmyt 
 How do yon oompare/a?', near, fore, hutd, in, out, v/p, low, and latef 
 
 LESSON vm. — ANAIiTSlS ANT* PABSING, 
 
 What are Adjunets t — How are they divided ? 
 
 What are primary adjuncts ? — What are secondary adjuTiots t 
 
 What is an adjective adjunct f — An adverbial adjuji^t ? 
 
 What is an eioplanalory adjunct f 
 
 How may the subject, predicate, and object be modified I 
 
 What is required of the pupil in the Third Praxis t 
 
 LESSON IX. — EEONOCNS. 
 
 What is a Peonottn ? — Give the example. 
 
 How are pronouns divided ? 
 
 Wliat is Vbfersonal pronoun ? — Tell the personal pronouns. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun ? — Tell the relative pronouns. 
 
 What peculiarity has the relative what ? 
 
 Whakis an interrogative pronoun? — Tell the interrogativea. 
 
 What modifications have pronouns? 
 
 What is the declension of a pronoun. 
 
 How do you decline the pronouns I, fhou, he, she, and Uf 
 
 What is said of the compound personal pronouns ? 
 
 How do you decline who, which, what, and that ? 
 
 How do you decline the compound relative pronouns ? 
 
 LESSON X. — ANALYSIS AND PAIiSINQ. 
 
 What is a Clause f — How may clauses be connected ? 
 What is a dependent clause ? — A principal clause t 
 What is a complex sentence f — A compound sentence t 
 What is required of the pupil in the Fourth Praxis f 
 
 LESSON 21. — VBEE8. 
 
 What is a Vekb? — What are the examples? 
 
 How are verbs divided with respect to their form ? 
 
 What is a regular verb?— an irregular verb?— a redundant verlr?— adoWiw 
 
 verb ? •' 
 
 How are verbs divided with respect to their signification « 
 What IS an active-transitive verb?— an active-intramiUve verb?— a patme 
 
 verb ? — a neuter verb ? 
 What modifications have verbs ? 
 What are Moods in grammar? 
 
 How many moods arc there, and what are they called? 
 What 19 the infinitive mooi'>.—Xh>t indicative mood ?— the pofe»r!i<rf mood!- 
 
 the subjunctive mood .?— the imperative mood ? 
 
 LESSON Xn. — VEEBS. 
 
 What are Tenses in grammar? 
 
 How many tenses are there, and what are they called' 
 What is the ^-csera* tense?— the imperfect tense?— the ««•/»!< tense ?— the 
 pluperfect tense l—ihafrsl^future tense ?— the second-futuk tense ? 
 
CHAP. XII.] ETYMOLOGY.— QUESTIONS. 117 
 
 "What are the Person and Number of a verb I 
 How many persons and nnmbers belong to verba ? 
 How i(re me second and third persons smgular formed } 
 What is the conjugation of a verb ? 
 
 What are ihe prmoifial parts in the conjugation of a verb? 
 What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 
 What is an avxiUary in grammar ? 
 What verba are used aa auxiliariea ? 
 
 LBSaON Xra. — OONJUGATIOir. 
 
 What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 
 
 What is the first example of conjugation ? 
 
 What are the prinoipal parts of the verb ix)VE? 
 
 How many and what tenses has the vnfinitMe mood? — HasmdicaMmt — ^the 
 poteiiMalf — the guijunotme? — ^the imperaUve? 
 
 What is the verb love in the InfiaiHve, present? — perfect! — Ind/icative, pres- 
 ent ? — ^imperfect ? — ^perfect % — ^pluperfect ? — ^firat-mture ?^-aecond-future ! — 
 PotentUU, present? — ^imperfect? — perfect? — ^pluperfect? — Subjunctive, prea- 
 ent ? — ^imperfect ? — Im^eratmie, present ? W hat are its participles ? 
 
 LESSON XIV. — SYNOPSIS. 
 
 What is the synopsis of the verb lovb, in the first person singular ? — second 
 person singular? — third person singular? — first person plural? — second 
 person plural ? — third person plural ? 
 
 IjEsaON XV. — THE VEBB SEE. 
 
 What is the second example of conjugation ? 
 How is the verb see conjugated throughout ? 
 
 How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun If thaitf hef 
 wef youf fheyt 
 
 I.BS80N XVI. — THE VEBB BE. 
 
 What is the third example of conjugation ? 
 How is the verb be conjugated throughout ?• 
 
 How do you form a synopsis of the verb le, vnth the nominative // thmf 
 hef wef youf theyf themanf tTiemenf 
 
 LESSON XVn. OOMPOUND FOEU. 
 
 How else may active and neuter verbs be conjugated ? 
 What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 
 What 18 the fourth example of conjugation ? 
 How is the verb bead conjugated in the compound form ? 
 How do you form a synopsis of the verb he reading, with the nominative // 
 tlunif nef wef y<m? theyf thetoyf theioysf 
 
 LESSON XVm. — ^PASSIVE EOBM. 
 
 How are passive verbs formed ? 
 What is tlie fifth example of conjugation ? 
 How is the passive verb BE LOVBD, conjugated throughout? 
 How do yon form a synopsis of the verb ie loved, with the nominative // 
 i^uf nef wef youf theyf the chiZdf the chMrenf 
 
 LESSON XIX. OTHER FOBMS. 
 
 How is a verb conjugated negativel/y f 
 
 How is the form of negation exemplified ? 
 
 How is a verb conjugated interrogative^ f 
 
 How 18 the form of question exemplified ? 
 
 How is a verb conjugated mterrogatmely and negatively f 
 
 How is the form of negative question exemplified? 
 
118 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 
 
 LISSON XX.- — IBBEGUI.AB 'VEEBS. 
 
 What is an irregular verb ? 
 
 How many irregular verbs are there ? — and whence are they derived ? 
 
 How does the hst exhibit the irregular verbs ? 
 
 What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Arise, — Be, bear, best, 
 begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, 
 buy, — Cast, chide, choose, cleave, chng, come, cost, cut, — Do, draw, drinl, 
 drive, — Eat, — Fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, 
 — Get, give, go, grow, — Have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, — Keep, know J 
 
 LESSOK XXI, natEQULAE VEKES. 
 
 What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Lead, leave, lend, let 
 lie, lose, — Make, meet, — Put, — Bead, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, — Say! 
 see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink 
 Bit, slay, sling, ulink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, standi 
 steal, stick, sting, stmk, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing,— Take, teach, 
 tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, — Wear, win, write ? 
 
 LESSON XXn. — BEDTINDANT VERES. 
 
 What is a redundarvt verb ? How many redundant verbs are there ? What 
 are the principal parts of the following verbs :— Abide, awake,— Belay 
 bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, bide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, 
 burst,— Catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse,— Dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, 
 dress, dwell —Freeze,— Geld, gild, gu-d, grave, grind,— Hang, heat, heave, 
 hew,— Kneel, knit,— Lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light,— Mean, mow, 
 mulct? 
 
 lESSON XXm. — KEDTTNDiNT VEEBS. 
 
 What are the principal parts of the following verbs :— Pass, pay, pen, plead 
 prove,— Quit,— Eap, reave, rive, roast,— Saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, 
 shear, shme, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, 
 spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell,— Thrive, 
 throw,— Wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, 
 wring? ' > I ) 1 
 
 What is a defeclwe verb ?— What tenses do such verbs lack ? 
 What verbs are defective ? and wherein are they so ? 
 
 LESSON XXIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
 
 What is a Paetioiplb ? and how is it generally formed ? 
 
 How many kinds of participles are there ? and what are they called? 
 
 How IS the imperfect participle defined ? and what are the examples} 
 
 How 13 the perject participle defined ? and what are the examples » 
 
 How IS the nreperpct participle defined ? and what are the examples ? 
 
 How IS the first or imperfect participle formed ? 
 
 How is the second or perfect participle formed ? 
 
 How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 
 
 What are the_ participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest 
 form of conjugation :-Eepeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear 
 approach, suppose, thmk, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive? 
 
 LESSON XXV, — ^ANALYSIS AND PAESINU 
 
 What is an Attribute ? 
 
 What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 
 
 What may the other parts of a sentence be ? 
 
 What may be attributed to the sulaject ? — In what ways ? 
 
 What is required of the pupil in the Fifth Praxis f 
 
 LESSON XXVI. — ^ADVEKES AND OONJDNOTIONS. 
 
 What is an Adverb ?— What is the example ? 
 To what classes may adverbs be reduced? 
 
CHAP. XIII.J ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES, H^ 
 
 Which are adverbs ottimef—ot place?— of degree?— oi manner t 
 
 What are conjunctive adverbs? 
 
 Have adverbs any modifications ? 
 
 Compare well, badly or Ul, little, much, far Ka& forth. 
 
 Wliat is a Conjunction?— How are corg unctions divided? 
 
 What is a copulaUve conjunction ?— a disjunctive conjunction ?— a corre»vonsiM 
 
 conjunction ? -^ 
 
 What are the copulative conjunctions ?— the disjunctive ?— the corresponsive } 
 
 i^ssoN xxvn. — PEEPosrnoNs and inteejeotions. 
 
 What is a PuEPOsmoN ? — How are the prepositions arranged ? 
 
 What are the prepositions beginning with «.?— with S »— with c .'—with df 
 — with e?— with/.? — with t/— with to.?— with «?— with o.?— with «/— . 
 with r /—with s /—with t ? — with ■u .?— with w? 
 
 What is an Intekjeotion ? — How are the interjections arranged ? 
 
 What are the inteneotions of joy ?— of sorrow ?— of wonder ?— of wishing o» 
 earnestness?— of praise?— of surprise?— of pain or fear?— of contempt?^ 
 of aversion?— of expulsion?— of calHng aloud?— of exultation?— of laugh- 
 ter?— of salutation!- of calhng to attention ?— of calling to silence ?— of 
 surprise ?— of languor ?— of stopping ?— of parting ?— of knowing or detect. 
 lug ? — of interrogating ? 
 
 LESSON ZXVm. — ^ANALYSIS AND PAESINO. 
 
 What is a compound subject or predicate? — What is a. phrase? 
 
 How may a phrase be used ?— What is a substantive phrase ? 
 
 What is an independent phrase t — ^fi pnncipalpart of a phrase ? 
 
 What is a simple phrase? — What is a complex phrase ? 
 
 What is a compound phrase ? 
 
 What is required of the pupil in the SiicOi Prams ? 
 
 CHAPTER Xin.— FOE WRITING. 
 
 EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ^^ ["When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and 
 their classes .lod modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymologic^ 
 parsmg^ he should write out the following exercises.] 
 
 EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 
 
 1 . Prefix the definite article to the following nouns : path, 
 paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; 
 doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 
 
 2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : age, 
 error, idea, omen, um, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, 
 grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, 
 quail, raven, sample trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, 
 whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, her- 
 ald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 
 
 3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : 
 George second — fair appearance— part first — reasons most ob- 
 vious — good mail — wide circle — man of honour — man of world 
 — old books — common people — same person — smaller piece — ■ 
 rich and poor — ^first and last — -all time — great excess — nine 
 
120 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 
 
 muses — how rich reward — so small number — all ancient wri- 
 ters — in nature of things — much better course. 
 
 4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the follow- 
 ing phrases : new name — very quick motion — other sheep — 
 such power — what instance — great weight — such worthy cause 
 — too great difference — high honour — humble station — univer- 
 sal law — what strange event — so deep interest — as firm hope 
 ■ — so great wit — humorous story — such person — few dollars — 
 little reflection. 
 
 EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 
 
 1. Write the plural of the following nouns : town, country, 
 case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, 
 blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, 
 punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, 
 dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sjieaf, mouse, penny, 
 ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in- 
 law, pailful, man-servant. 
 
 2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following 
 nouns : earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, 
 nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, 
 arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, 
 landgrave. 
 
 3. Write the possessive case singular of the followmg nouns: 
 table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, 
 wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial. 
 
 4. Write the possessive case, plural, of the following nouns : 
 priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, 
 woman, servant, writer, mother. 
 
 5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of 
 the following nouns : body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nun- 
 cio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, 
 colloquy, hero, thief, wretch. 
 
 EXERCISE III.— ADJECTIVES. 
 J . Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, 
 without repeating any word : good, great, tall, wise, strong, 
 dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, 
 livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy. Thus 
 • — good^eres, &c. 
 
 2. Prefix a suitable adjective to each of the following nouns, 
 without repeating any word : man, son, merchant, work, fence, 
 fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, 
 actions. Thus — wise man, &c. 
 
 3. Compare th^ following adjectives : black, bright, short, 
 
CHAP. XIII.J ETYMOLOGY.— WHITING.— EXERCISES. 121 
 
 white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, 
 little, much, many, far. 
 
 4. Express the degrees of the following qualities, by the 
 comparative adverbs of increase : delightful, comfortable, agree- 
 able, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, 
 poignant, excellent. 
 
 5. Express the degrees of the following qualities by the 
 comparative adverbs of diminution ; objectionable, formidable, 
 forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent. 
 
 EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : 
 I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. 
 
 2. Write the declension of the following pronouns : myself, 
 thyself, himself, herself, itself, whosoever. 
 
 3. Write the following words in their customary form: 
 her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, meself, hisself, their- 
 selves. 
 
 4. Write the objective singular of all the simple pronouns. 
 
 5. Write the objective plural of all the simple pronouns. 
 
 EXERCISE v.— VERBS. 
 
 1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following 
 verbs : slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, 
 delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza. 
 
 2. Write the following preterits in. their appropriate form : 
 exprest, stript, lispt, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, soakt, 
 propt, fixt, stopt, pluckt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, 
 snapt, brusht, shipt, kist, discust, lackt. 
 
 3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, pres- 
 ent tense, second person singular : move, strive, please, reach, 
 confess, §x, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue. 
 
 4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, pres- 
 ent tense, third person singular : leave, seem, search, impeach, 
 fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, 
 beset, release, be, bias. 
 
 5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, pres- 
 ent tense, in the three persons singular : serve, shun, turn, 
 learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, 
 pretend. 
 
 EXERCISE VI.— VERBS. 
 
 1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
 verb amuse, conjugated afiirmatively. 
 
 6 
 
122 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PAET ll. 
 
 2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the 
 neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style. 
 
 3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active 
 verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form. 
 
 4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive 
 verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively. 
 
 5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active 
 verb fose, conjugated negatively. 
 
 6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter 
 verb stand, conjugated interrogatively. 
 
 7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
 verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively. 
 
 EXERCISE VII.— PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following 
 verbs : belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, sui-vey, Tie, 
 coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember. 
 
 2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: 
 turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, 
 tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist. 
 
 3. Write the pluperfect or preperfect participles of the 
 following verbs : depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, 
 sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot. 
 
 4. Write the following participles in their appropriate form : 
 dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, 
 embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt, blest, curst. 
 
 5. Write the regular participles which are now generally 
 preferred to the following irregular ones : clad, graven, hoven, 
 hewn, knelt, leant, lit, mown, quit, riven, sawn, sodden, shaven, 
 shorn, sown, strown, swollen, thriven, wrought. 
 
 6. Write the irregular participles which are, or maybe, pre- 
 ferred to the following regular ones: bended, builded, oatched, 
 creeped, dealed, digged, dreamed, dwelled, gilded, girded, 
 hanged, knitted, laded, meaned, reaved, shined, slitted, splitted, 
 strmged, strived, weeped, wonted, wringed. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII.— ADVERBS, &e. 
 
 1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, well, badly 
 or ill, httle, much, far, forth. ' ' 
 
 2. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of the 
 following adverbs : purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, 
 completely, fortunately, profitably. ■' 
 
 3. Prefix the comparative adverbs of diminution to the fol- 
 lowmg adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, power- 
 
CHAP. XIII.] ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES. 123 
 
 4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following 
 dashes : Love — fidelity are inseparable. Beware of parties — 
 factions. Do well — boast not. Improve time — it flies. There 
 would be few paupers — no time were lost. Be not proud — 
 thou art human, I saw — it was necessary. Honesty is better 
 — ^policy. Neither he — I can do it. It must be done — to day 
 — to morrow. Talie care — thou fall. Though I should boast 
 — am I nothing. 
 
 5. Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the following 
 dashes: Plead — the dumb. Qualify thyself — action — study. 
 Think often — the worth — time. Live — peace — all men. Keep 
 —compass. Jest not — serious subjects. Take no part — slan- 
 der. Guilt starts — its own shadow. Grudge not — giving. 
 Go not — sleep — malice. Debate not — ^temptation. Depend 
 not — the stores — others. Contend not — trifles. Many fall — 
 grasping — things — their reach. Be deaf — detraction. 
 
 6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjec- 
 tions to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! 
 aha ! I am undone. Hey ! io ! I am tired. Ho ! be still. 
 Avaunt ! this way. Ah ! what nonsense. Heigh-ho ! I am 
 delighted. Hist ! it is contemptible. Oh ! for that sympa- 
 thetic glow ! Ah ! what withering phantoms glare ! 
 
124 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMHAE. [PABTIE 
 
 PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govenunenli 
 and arrangement, of words in sentences. 
 
 The rdaiixm of words, is their dependence, or con- 
 nexion, according to the sense. 
 
 The agreement of words, is their similarity- in petson, 
 niimber, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 
 
 The govemmera of words, is that power which one 
 word has over an other, to cause it to assume some par- 
 ticular modification. 
 
 The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or rel- 
 ative position, in a sentence. 
 
 [Obs. 1. — SpUcBC, as the name indicates, has reference only to those prin- 
 ciples and mles which serve to gnide as in the constmctioa of sentences. 
 The prindples of analysit lie mnch deeper in the subject of grammar- 
 are mach more fnndamental, than the technical considerations vhich ibim 
 the gromidwork of syntactical mles. 
 
 Sentential analysis is fonnded npon the general laua of langnage - and, 
 therefore, its printdples are as apphcable to one langnage as another ' sytH 
 tactical rnles, on the other hand, can, as a gener^thing, hare reference only 
 to the particnlar language, the use of Which they are designed to direct. 
 
 Analysis is generally mtrodnced in connection only with syntax, as if it 
 had a special and exclosire reference to that department of grammar: 
 whereas it deals with principles that underlie almost all grammatical dis- 
 tinctions, and is quite as necessmy to the proper eladdation of etymological 
 relations as those which especially belong to syntax. The classification and 
 definition of the difierent kinds of sentences, am} their elements have there- 
 T ^Si, '■*'"<"■«<* fi-o™ tl^ part of the work f where they were ori^nally 
 placed by the oatbor), and introduced progrewirdy at intervals, in conneo- 
 tion with the exerdses of uialysis and parsing, designed to iUustnitc, and 
 pracUce the pnjril in, each consecutive part of the suWect studied. The defi- 
 nition of a senUnce immediately follows that of parfino : because up to that 
 pomt, the term had been twice used ; once, in the definition of a conjunction, 
 and once, in th^ of janing ; a feet which, of itself demonstrates the elemen- 
 tary character of this definition, and to what extent even etymological dis- 
 tmcUons depend npon it J "b- 
 
 «.tS^;/cS?!S?"'^-"^^ "® 'i™'**^ *" *« construction of tenteneet, as 
 m^^iSh^:^ ?<^,^™; tl>e «.nsidcration of those princ-ipl^lLnd 
 !Sih^ T^7>r^^ ?^ combination of sentences into paragnmhs, Li thoe 
 
 of r ^;^ J„&. Vfe^^'iii' iru-.^kr-worSo'^h^l 
 
CHAP. I.J SYNTAX. — BULE3. 125 
 
 no rule to inform us that " the suhject of a finite verh is in the nominativs 
 case," after learnins that the " nominative case is that form or state of a 
 noun or pronoun wnioh denotes the suhjeot of a finite verb." The ease is 
 different, however, when we have two or more touneoted subjects belonging 
 to the same verb ; for here etymology gives us no esy>licU direction, although 
 it still attbrds the guiding prineipU. 
 
 The roles, above enumerated, although without any directive utility, form, 
 however, the basis for many scbordinaie rules, contained in the observations 
 and notes, which should be attentively studied by the learner, and the exer- 
 cises upon them be carefolly performed-^EnrroB.] 
 
 Oes. 4. — Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily un- 
 derstood in order to complete the constraotion, must be supplied in analysis 
 and parsing. 
 
 CHAPTER I— THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 
 
 1. RULES OF RELATION AND AGREEMENT. 
 BULE I. — ^ARTICLES. 
 
 Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 
 
 RULE n. — NOMINATIVES. 
 
 A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
 verb, must be in the nominative case. 
 
 RULE in. — APPOSITION. 
 
 A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the ' 
 same case. 
 
 RULE rv. — ^ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 
 
 RULE f. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 "HA Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, , or the 
 noun or pronoun which it. representa^in person, number, 
 and gender. 
 
 RULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
 the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in 
 the plural number. 
 
 RULE VII. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
 
126 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PAET III. 
 
 nected by and, it must agree -with them in the plural 
 number. 
 
 RULE VIII. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 When a Pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
 dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in 
 the singular number. 
 
 RULE IX — VERBS. 
 
 A finite Verb must agree with its subject, (ot nomin- 
 ative^n person and number. 
 
 RULE X. — ^VERBS. 
 "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
 the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the 
 plural number, 
 
 7" EULE XL — ^VERBS. 
 
 When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected 
 by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 
 
 RULE XIL — VERBS. 
 When a Verb has two or more singular nominatives 
 connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
 singular number. 
 
 RULE XIII. — ^VERBS. 
 When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
 must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
 separate nominatives expressed. 
 
 RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
 governed by prepositions. 
 
 RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives or 
 other adverbs. ' 
 
 RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions connect cither words or sentences, 
 
 RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions show the relations of things. 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — RULES. 127 
 
 RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections have no dependent construction. 
 
 2. EULJ^S OF GOVERNMENT.* 
 RULE XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is gov- 
 erned by the name of the thing possessed. 
 
 RULE XX. — OBJECTIVES, 
 
 Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and prev 
 perfect participles, govern the Objective case. 
 
 RULE XXI. — SAME CASES. 
 
 Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
 their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
 ■when both words refer to the same thing. 
 
 ' s- RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 
 
 Prepositions govern the Objective case. 
 
 RULE XXni. — INFINITIVES. 
 
 The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
 commonly connects it to a finite verb. 
 
 V 
 
 RULE XXIV. — ^INFINITIVES. 
 
 The active verbs, 'bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
 see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after 
 them, without the preposition TO. 
 
 RULE XXV. — NOM. ABSOLUTE. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the Nomin- 
 ative, when its case depends on no other word. 
 
 RULE XXVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 
 
 A futu?&-«Qntingency is best expressed Jjy-a verb in 
 the SubjunctiveJ~pTOsent; and a mete supposition, with 
 indefinite time, by ajverb-^^e Subjunctive, imperfect: 
 but a conditic^aJ cifcumstanceTasaiimedasafact, requires 
 the Indicative mood. ^ 
 
 * The JLrrangmtmt of words la troatod of, Id tho Obaornttlons under ths Bales of 
 Bjntiui, In Cbapters Sd and Sd. 
 
128 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 
 PRAXIS VII. — SYNTACTICAL. 
 
 In the Seventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to analyze 
 the sentence according to the method indicated under each 
 example ; to distinguish the parts of speech and their classes ; 
 to mention their m,odiJications in order ; to point out their 
 relation, agreement, or government j and to apply the Bule 
 of Syntax. Thus : — 
 
 EXAMPLB ANALYZED AND PARSED. 
 
 " To be continually subject to tbe breath, of slander, will 
 tarnish the purest reputation." 
 
 Analysis. — ^Tliis is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is the complex infinitive phrase, to be continuaUy ml^ed to tie 
 breath of slander J the predicate is will tarmsh ; the object is rymta- 
 tion. 
 
 The principal part of the phrase is to be, and its adjuncts are eontimudly, 
 and the indefinite attribute, subject, which is modified by the complex 
 adverbial phrase, to the breath of slander • the 3)rincii)al part of this 
 phrase is breath, which is modified by the, and the simple adjecUve 
 phrase, of slander. 
 
 The predicate of the sentence has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the object 
 are the and purest. 
 Paesinq. — To he is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found 
 m the infinitive mood and present tense, and is, with the phrase of 
 which it is the principal part, the subject of the verb teill tarnish; ac- 
 cording to Note 11, under Rule IX., which says, " The infinitive mood, 
 a phrase, or a sentence, is sometimes the subject to a verb." 
 
 GontiniMlly is an adverb of time, and relates! to the verb to be ; according 
 to Rule XV., which says, etc. 
 
 Subject is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared only by 
 means of the adverbs, mm'e and most, and less and kast ; it is taken 
 abstractly with the infinitive to be ; according to Exception 2d, under 
 Rule IV., which says, " With an infintive or a participle denoting 
 being or action in tha abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken 
 
 2b is a preposition ; and show.s the relation between sutjeet and breath ; 
 according to Rule XVII., wliich says, etc. 
 
 Th* is the definite article, and relates to breath ; according to Rule I., which 
 says, etc. 
 
 Brtaih is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, and objective case ; and is governed by to ; according to Rule 
 XXII., which says, etc. 
 
 Win tarnish is a regular aetiv#transitive verb, from Umish, Umishti, 
 tarrmlimg, tarnuhed ; found in the indicative mood, flrst-ftiture tense, 
 third person, and singular number ; and agrees with its subject, tlie 
 infinitive phrase to be, etc. ; according to Note 11, under Rule IX., 
 which says, ''The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is eome- 
 tiraes the subject of a verb : a subject of this kind, however composed. 
 It It IS taken as one whole, requires a verb in the third person sm- 
 
 Purest is a common adjective of the superlative degree, compared, vurt, 
 purer, purest; it rel&tw U) reputation ; according to Rule IV., wMoh 
 
 fifty S, 6liC> 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 129 
 
 SqmtaUon is a common nonn, of the third person, singular number, neu- 
 ter gender, and obieetive case ; and is governed by joiS (amiah ; ao- 
 cording to Rule XX., which says, etc. 
 
 EXEECISE I.— THE SUBJECT PHRASE. 
 
 To train* citizens is not the work of a day. 
 
 To be happy -without the approval of conscience, is impos- 
 sible. 
 
 To have remained calm under such provocation, was a: proof 
 of remarkable self-control. 
 
 To be at once a rake and glory in the character, discovers a 
 bad disposition and a bad heart. 
 
 To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 
 
 To be satisfied with the acquittal of one's own conscience, is 
 the mark of a great mind. 
 
 To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect 
 of character. 
 
 To spring up from bed at the first moment of waking, is 
 easy enough for people habituated to it. 
 
 To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
 And to be grave exceeds all power of face. 
 
 EXERCISE II.— THE OBJECT PHRASE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Can a youth who refuses to yield obedience to his parents, 
 expect to become a good or a wise man ?" 
 
 AnaIiYBis. — ^This is a complex interrogative sentence. 
 
 The piinoipal clause is, Gun a youth expect to become a good or wise manf 
 The dependent clause is, woo refuses to ifield obedience to his parents. 
 The connective is who. 
 
 The subject of the principal clause is yoidh ; the predicate is expict ; the 
 object is the infinitive phrase, to become a good or a wise mom. 
 
 The adljuncts of the subject are a and the dependent clause ; the predi- 
 cate has no adjuncts ; the principal part of the phrase is to become, and 
 its adjunct is the attribute Timn, which refers to the subject «o»iA, and 
 is modified by the adjuncts a, good, and a, wise, connected by or. 
 
 • The varions usages of the infinitive mood, exhibited in thesn and the following 
 dassffied . phrases, might dictafi? some modifloation of Eule XXIII., which assorts 
 that the inSnitive mood is, in all cases, governed by the preposition to. The forms 
 of expression, and their analysis, here given, show that this statement, if correct, ex- 
 plains scarcely at all the nature, and mode of nse, of this form of the verb. We per- 
 ceive that, with or without adjuncts, it may be used as the subject or the object of a 
 verb, or as a substantive or adjective attribute, and that it maybe independent. 
 Moreover, when it introduces an adjective or adverbial phrase, it appears to be used 
 as an adjective or adverb, although it may bo con,5idernd to be the object of to (if a 
 proposition), or of some preposition understood. In this case only, does Eule XXIII. 
 appear to have any application whatever. A more general rule, and one more in 
 consonance with the nature of this form of speech, would be, "The infinitive mood 
 has the construction of a noun or an adjective." 
 
 6* 
 
130 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lit 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is wTio ; the predicate is reuses ; the 
 object is the complex infinitive phrase, to yidd obedience to his parents. 
 The aabject and the predicate have no adjuncts : the principarpart of 
 the phrase is to yield, its adjunct is the object, obedience, which is mod- 
 ified by the simple adjective phrase, to liis parenis ; the principal 
 part of this phrase is parents, and its adjunct is ]us. 
 
 1!^" \Man is in the nominative case, after become, agreeing with yowlTi; ac- 
 cording Xo Eulo ZXI.] 
 
 If you desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation. 
 
 By the faults of others, wise men learn how to correct their 
 own. 
 
 In reasoning, avoid blending arguments confusedly together 
 that are of a sepai-ate nature. 
 
 " He who refuses to learn how to avoid evil, may properly be 
 deemed guilty of it. 
 
 He did not oppose his son's goiixg to sea, because he desired 
 to remove him from the evil influence of bad company. 
 
 Never expect to be able to govern others, unless you have 
 learned how to govern youi;self. 
 
 - He who loves to survey the works of nature, can anticipate,! 
 wherever he may be, finding sources of the purest cnjoyraeot. 
 
 Ho who attempts, to please every, body, will soon become 
 an object of general indifference or contempt. 
 
 None but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 
 
 If ever any author deserved to be called an oriffinal, it was 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 .-* EXERCISE HI.— THE ATTEIBUTE PHBASE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED, 
 
 " The predominant passion of Franklin seems to have been 
 the love of the useful." 
 
 Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 The subject is passion ; the predicate is seems ; the attribute is the infini- 
 tive phrase, to have been the love of the useful. 
 The adjuncts ofthe subject are the, predominant, and the simple adjectivo 
 phrase, of Franklin; the predicate has no adjuncts; the princip.il part 
 of the attribute phrase is to have been, and its adjunct is the attribute 
 love, which refers to the subject passion, and is modified by the, aud 
 the simple adjective phrase, <^the useful. 
 ^ &" {To have been is used as an adjective, and relates to passion.'] 
 The fire of our minds is immortal, and not to be quenched. 
 Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have been 
 the motives of all his actions. 
 
 Children should be permitted to be children, and not de- 
 prived of amusements proper for their age. 
 
 Was he not to live the best part of his life over again, and 
 once more be all that ho ever had been ? 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS AND PARSING; 131 
 
 Criminals are observed to grow more anxious as their trial 
 approaches. 
 
 Knowledge is not to be received inertly like the influences of j 
 the atmosphere, by a me.re residence at the place of instruc-y 
 tion. 
 
 The great purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and i 
 beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life ; to lift / 
 it into a purer element ; and to breathe into it more profound 
 and, generous emotions. (u-ti^'^ 
 
 He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is 
 esteemed a sensible man. 
 
 Integrity is of the greatest importance in every situation of 
 life. 
 
 To be useful in some degree, is within the means of every 
 one. 
 
 To discover the true nature of comets, has hitherto proved 
 beyond the power of science. 
 
 His conduct was, under the circumstancejy in very bad taste. 
 
 The merchant was to have sailed for Europe last week. 
 
 EXERCISE IV.— THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to my? 
 self the miseries of confinement." 
 
 AsALraia. — Thia is a simple declarative sentence. 
 The subject is /; the predicate is began ; the object is the complex infin- 
 itive phrase, to figure to myidf the ndeeries of confinement. The prin- 
 cipal part ot tlie phrase is to figure, the adjuncts of which are the 
 simple adverbial phrase, to myeelf, and the object mUeriee, which is 
 lUodified by the and the simple adjective phrase, of eonfinement. 
 The adjonct of the subject is the complex adjective phrase leaning my head 
 vmon my Tiand, the principal part of which ialeamng, and its adjuncts, 
 the object head modified by my, and the simple adverbial phrase, 
 ■upon my hand, the principal part of wiiich is hand, and its ad- 
 junct, my. 
 
 Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 
 
 Augustus had no lawful authority to make a change in the 
 Roman constitution. 
 
 A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard 
 against committing them. 
 
 The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt 
 neither to palliate nor deny. 
 
 Envy, surrounded on all sides by the brightness of another's 
 prosperity, like the scorpion, confined within the circle of fire, 
 stinsfs itself to death. 
 
132 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. L^^^^ ™- 
 
 The requisites for a first-rate actor demand a combination of 
 talents and acooinplishments, not easily to be found. 
 
 The conflicts of the world were not to take place altogether* 
 on the tented field; but ideas, ^leapmg, from the world's 
 awakened intellect, and burning all o^f with indestructible 
 life, were to be marshalled against principalities and powers. 
 
 EXERCISE v.— THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE. 
 
 EXAMPLK ANALYZED. 
 
 " We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and in 
 the future by hope and anticipation." 
 
 Analysis. — This is a compound declarative sentence, abbreviated in form, 
 and consisting of the two coordinate clauses, We live in the past by a 
 knowledge of its history, and {we line) in ihefutwre hy hope and (mUeir 
 potion, connected by and. 
 The subject of either clause is we ; and the predicate is live. Neither of 
 the sabjeota is modified. The adjuncts of the first predicate are tha 
 simple adverbial phrase, in. the past, and the complex adverbial phraee, 
 ly a knowledge of its histori/ ; the principal part is knowledge, sai\^ 
 adjuncts are a and the simple adjeotive phrase, of its history. [Tha 
 adjuncts of the second predicate are of the same character, and may bo 
 analyzed in the same manner.] 
 
 At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 
 
 Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 
 
 The public are often deceived by false appearances and ex- 
 travagant pretensiofis. 
 
 _ Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the same 
 time, assist each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights 
 of both. 
 
 _ Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into 
 his own hands. 
 
 Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, mis- 
 led you from the path of sound and wise conduct ? 
 
 Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautiful, to 
 desii'e the good, and to do the best. 
 _^ Representation and taxation should always go hand in hand. 
 
 The statement which he made at first, he reiterated, again 
 and again, without the least variation. 
 
 Jacob loved all his sons, but he loved Joseph the best. 
 
 We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and in 
 the future, by hope and anticipation. 
 
 ' Mtogether is Lero an adverb relating to the adTsrbial phrase, on Die teiiUdAeO. 
 
CHAP. I.J SYNTAX.— ANAJiYSIS AJfD PARSING. 133 
 
 EXERCISE VI.— THE EXPLANATORY PHRASE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " It is useless to ejcpatiate upon the beanties of nature to one 
 who is blind." 
 
 Analtsis. — Thifl a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The principal clause is, It is useless to eiepatiate imoti the beauties qf nature 
 to one, and the dependent clause is, w^ is bRnd. The connective is 
 wlho. 
 
 The subject of the principal clause is i# ; the predicate is is ; ssai. the 
 attribute is useless. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to esspatiate 
 upon, {he beauties of nature to one. The principal part of the phrase is 
 to. expatiate, the adjuncts of which are the complex adverbial plirase 
 i^on the bemMes of not/are, and the simple adverbial phrase to one. The 
 principal part of the former is beauties, and its adjuncts are the and 
 the simple adjective plirase qf nature ; the principal part of the latter 
 is one, and its adjunct is the dependent adjective clause who is blmtt. 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is who; the predicate, is ; and -the 
 attribute, blind ; each without adjuncts. 
 
 It is always profitable to Enow our own faults and infirmities. 
 
 It is the characteristic of a pedant to make an idle display 
 of his learning. 
 
 If what I say be not true, it is easy to convict me of false- 
 hood. 
 
 It is very often impossible to estimate the extent of injury 
 which a careless word will produce. 
 
 How happy had it been for him to have died in that sick- 
 ness, when all Italy was putting up vows and prayers for his 
 safety \, 
 
 It is certainly in the power of a sensible and well-educated 
 mother to inspire such tastes and propensities in her son as 
 shall nearly decide the destiny of the future man. 
 ■ It is impossible to read a page in Plato, Tully, or any of the 
 other eminent moralists of antiquity, without being a greater 
 and better man for it. , 
 
 If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great 
 happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. 
 
 If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to 
 retire from the contest. 
 
 It is a miserable state of mind to have few things to desire, 
 and many things to fear. 
 
 Death ! Great proprietor of all ! 'tis thine 
 To tread out empire, and to quench the stars. 
 
 Tlirongh worlds unnnmber'd though the God be known, 
 'Tis ours to trace him only in our own. 
 12 
 
134 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lU. 
 
 EXERCISE VII.— THE INDEPENDENT PHRASE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " This proposition being admitted, I now state my argument." 
 
 Analysis.— Thia is a simple declarative sentence. 
 The subject is // the predicate is state ; the object ia argument. 
 The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the predicate is rum : the 
 
 adjunct of the object is my. 
 This proposition leing admitted is an independent phrase ; the principal 
 
 part TS proposition, and its adjuncts are this and being aimittm,, 
 
 EXAMPLE II. 
 
 " One day, I was guilty of an action, which, to say the least 
 was in very bad taste." 
 
 ■^^LYsis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The principal clause is. One day I was guilty of an action: and the depend- 
 ent clause IS, uhich, to say the least, was in very lad taste.' The con- 
 nective IS whwli. 
 
 The subject of the principal clause is // the predicate is was : and the 
 attribute is guilty. ' 
 
 The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the predicate is the adverbial 
 phrase (prepositional in form), {on) one day; the adjunct of the at- 
 tribute 18 the adverbial phrase of an action. Of the latter phrase 
 Sause ^ P""<=ipal part, and its adjuncts are an and the dependent 
 
 ''^''^t?,^''-'*? •,?V^?,,''''P.^?'^^.°* <'^*"^® ''^ »''**'■ ^^^ predicate is was: and 
 ■KT -it. aimfutc, the adjective phrase in very bad taste. 
 Neither has any adjuncts; the principal part of the attribute phrase is 
 7!, J^,i,i r .-^^ Its primary, and very its secondaiy adjunct. 
 
 lJ^J:f'f- '% "" '°'l«Pf?dent phrase of the infinitive form. The prin- 
 cipal part IS to say, and its adjunct, the object least, modified by the. 
 
 They being absent, we cannot come to a determination, 
 ihere being much obscurity in the case, ho refuses to decide 
 upon It. 
 
 To be plain with you, your conduct is very much to be 
 censured. ■" 
 
 I /''forrefu^r^*'"'' °^ ^""^^ ' ^^^ '"^'*'''' ""^ °^*'°"* ' *° ^"'^ 
 The baptism of John ; was it from heaven, or of men « 
 Generally speaking, the life of all truly great men has been 
 
 a lite ot intense and incessant labor. 
 
 To give one instance more, and then I will have done with 
 
 this rambling discoarse.—ffaditt. 
 
 The great utility of knowledge and religion being thus appa- 
 
 o?hl'i ^^^'^ '"?r^'''* ''P°'^ "^ '" pay a studio^is attention 
 to tnem in our youth. 
 
 A shoe coming loose from the fore-foot of the thill-horse, at 
 the beginmng of the ascent of Mount Taurina, the postillion 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 135 
 
 dismounted, twisted the shoe off, and put it in his pocket. — ■ 
 Sterne, 
 
 Want, and incurable disease, (fell pair !) 
 < On hopeless multitudes remorseless seize 
 
 At once ; and make a refuge of the grave. 
 
 Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er. 
 Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking : ' 
 
 Dream of battle-fields no more, 
 Days of danger, nights of waking. 
 
 EXERCISE Vni.— THE SUBJECT CLAUSK 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " That it is our duty to obey the laws of the country in 
 which we live, does not admit of question." 
 
 Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The subject is the dependent clause, That it is our dmby to obey the laws of 
 . tTie country in which we line ; the predicate is does admit. That is the 
 connective. 
 The adjuncts of the predicate are not and the phrase of quest/um. 
 The subject of the dependent olanse is it ; the predicate is i« ; and the at- 
 tribute is didy. 
 The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to obey the 
 laws of the cowntry wi whvih we line ; the adjunot ot the attribute is ow. 
 The principal part of the explanatory phrase is to otm, which is modified 
 by the object lams, the adjuncts of which are the and the complex 
 phrase, of the eovmiry in which we live. The principal part of this 
 phrase is cotmlry, and its adjuncts are the and the Simple adjective 
 clause, im which we Uve. The subject of the clause is we ; the predicate 
 is live, which is modified by the simple adverbial phrase in which. 
 Obs. — ^It will be perceived from the example given in this exercise, that 
 a complex sentence may be analyzed by treating it as a whole, pointing out 
 the subject, predicate, etc., and analyzing the dependent clause in its proper 
 place, as one of the principal parts, or an adjunot to either ; instead of di- 
 viding the sentence immediately into the principal and dependent clauses, 
 explaming their connection, and then analyzing them separately, as in the 
 previous exercises. The latter method is preferable for beginnerSj but for 
 advanced scholars should give place to the other, which ia more logical, and 
 easier for intricate sentences. 
 
 That the government of our desires is essential to the enjoy- 
 ment of true liberty, is a truth never to be forgotten. 
 
 That it is glorious to die for one's country, is a sentiment 
 uniformly cherished by all good men. 
 
 At what period the poems of Homer were composed, has 
 not been positively ascertained. 
 
 Who was the author jsf the Letters of Phalaris, has been 
 the subject of very ingenious and learned discussion. 
 
 That an author's work is the mirror of his mind, is a position 
 that has led to very false conclusions. 
 
136 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PART Ilf. 
 
 Why a man with so excellent an education, and surrounded 
 with so many inducenaents to a virtuous life, should have fallen 
 into habits of vice and dissipation, is inexplicable. 
 
 That truth finally must prevail over error, and virtue be 
 triumphant in a struggle with vice, are highly cherished senti- 
 ments among mankind. 
 
 How he was to extricate his army from so dangerous a posi- 
 tion, baffled all conjecture. 
 
 Whether Columbus was the first discoverer of America or 
 not, is a question among historians. 
 
 EXEECISE IX.— THE OBJECT CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED, 
 
 " Children should know that it is their duty to honor their 
 parents, to ask advice of them, and to observe their wishes." 
 AifAiTsis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 The subject is children,: the predicate is OwvlcLTtnom ; the obieot is the 
 dependent clause, That it %s their dmty, &o. That is the connective. 
 1 he subject of the dependent clause is U ; the predicate is is; the attri- 
 bute 13 OMty. 
 The adjuncts of the subject are the explanatory phrases, to honor their m- 
 rmts, to ask admce of them, and to dbserm their wishes. 
 
 He knew that solicitations or remonstrances would avail 
 little with the companions of his enterprise. 
 
 Those who are skilled in the extraction and preparation of 
 metals, declare that iron is everywhere to be found. 
 
 Columbus felt that there was a continent to be discovered ; 
 and he discovered it. 
 
 The authors of the American Revolution believed that they 
 were in the service of their own, and of all future generations. 
 
 It is interesting to notice how some minds seem almost to 
 create themselves, springing up under every disadvantage, 
 and working their solitary but irresistible way through a thou- 
 sand obstacles. 
 
 Any man who attends to what passes within himself, may 
 easily discern that the human character is a very complicated 
 system. '' ^ 
 
 How can he exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble, 
 who only believes that, after a short term on this stage of ex- 
 istence he IS to sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness 
 lorever ? 
 
 See, Aspasio how all is calculated to administer the highest 
 delight to mankind. ° 
 
 The majority of the assembly wisely considered that to de- 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 137 
 
 cline a cessation, would be to refute all their professions of 
 . loyalty. 
 
 Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 
 " Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 
 
 Brushing, with hasty steps, the dews away, 
 To meet the sua upon the upland lawn." 
 
 EXERCISE X.— THE OBJECT CLAUSE, 
 
 INFINITIVE FORM. 
 
 Osa. 1. — ^In the infinitive form of this dause, the suhjeot and predicate 
 are connected indireclZy. The predicate, instead of being a finite verb, is a 
 verb in the infinitive mood, ana its subject is in the objective case. Thus, 
 in the sentence, " He commanded the anuy to march," ajTny is the subject, 
 and to march, the predicate ; because it is indicated (although indirectly) 
 that the act of marching is performed by the agent army,, the sentence being 
 equivaleut to, " He commanded that the army should march." 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The infinitive clause is also sometimes used as the svbjeet of a 
 sentence, and occasionally as an explcmatory adjunct ," as, " For us to learn to 
 die, is the great business of life." — " It is the great business of life, for vs 
 to learn to die." [See Exception 2, Eule XVII.J 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years." 
 
 Amaltsis. — ^This is a complex imperative sentence. The subject is thon 
 (understood); the predicate is let; theobject is the infimtive clause, 
 I the chUd learn, &c. 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is child; the predicate is (to) learn ; 
 the object is that (comprehended in the double relative what, equiva- 
 lent to that which.) 
 
 The adjnnet of the subject is the ; the adjunct of the object is the simple 
 adjective clause which is appropriate for his yea/ra. 
 
 The subject of this clause is which ; the predicate, i» ; the attribute, ap- 
 propriate, modified by the simple adverbial phrase,/w his years. 
 
 Thou think'st it folly to be wise too soon. 
 
 In this melancholy state, he commanded messengers to recall 
 his eldest son, Abouzaid, from the army. 
 
 Graves describes the steps by which Shenstone made the 
 Leasowes become what it at last was. 
 
 Let us all, in our mourning attire, and accompanied by our 
 children, go and entreat Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, to 
 intercede with her son for our common country. 
 
 Madam Eoland heard herself sentenced to death with the 
 air of one who saw in her condemnation merely her title to 
 immortality. 
 
 Goldsmith said to Johnson very wittily and very justly, " If 
 you were to write a fable about little fishes, doptor, you would 
 make the little fishes talk like whales." 
 
138 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 The fact of Shenstone's having written the School-mistress" 
 and the " Pastoral Ballad," alone entitles him to be rank,ed 
 amongst the classical poets of English literature. 
 
 The curiosity of the Caliph being awakened to know the 
 cause of his despair, he ordered Mezrour to knock at the door, 
 which being opened, they pleaded the privilege of strangers to 
 enter for rest and refreshment. 
 
 See some strange comfort every state attend, 
 And pride bestow'd on all, a common friend : 
 See some fit passion every age supply ; 
 Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
 On what foundation stands the warrior's pride. 
 How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 
 
 EXERCISE X.— THE ATTRIBUTE CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " The truth is, that the most elaborate and manifold apparatus 
 of instruction can impart nothing of importance to the passive 
 and inert mind." 
 
 Analysb. — This iB n complex declarative sentence. The subject is trwih ; 
 the predicate is is ; the attribute is the dependent clause, TJie most 
 elaborate and manifold apparatus, &o. The connective is that. 
 The subject of the dependent clause is apparatus ; the predicate is cam, 
 impart ; the object is notJiwig. The adjuncts of the subject are tJie, 
 elaborate, manifold, and of instruction ; most is an adjunct of elaboraie 
 and manifold ; the adjunct of the predicate is the adverbial phrase ' 
 to the passive and inert mmdj the principal part of which is mind, 
 and its adjuncts the, and passwe and inert ; the adjunct of the object 
 is the simple adjective phrase, of important. 
 
 The crying sin of all governments is, that they meddle inju- 
 riously with human affairs, and obstruct the processes of nature 
 by excessive legislation. 
 
 One of the most useful effects of action is, that it renders 
 repose agreeable. 
 
 The only advantage which, in the voyage of life, the cau- 
 tious had above the negligent, was, that they sunk later, and 
 more suddenly. 
 
 The characteristic peculiarity of the " Pilgrim's Progress" is, 
 that it is the only work of its kind which possesses a strong 
 human interest. 
 
 The proper end of instruction is, not that the scholar should 
 be able to repeat the thoughts of others, but that he should 
 have the power to think correctly for himself. 
 
 The physician's directions were, that the patient should 
 travel to the South, that he should avoid excitement, and that 
 he should be careful in diet. 
 
CHAP. I.]. SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS AND PARSDTG. 189 
 
 EXEKCISE XI.— THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself -with a de- 
 basenjent from which he can never arise." 
 
 AirAi.Tsis. — ^This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 The auWeot is he (comprehended in the double relative whoever); the 
 pretGcate is debasee ; the object is himself. 
 
 The adjunct of the subject is the simple adjective clause, who yields to 
 temptation; the adjunct of the predicate is the comjjlex phrase, with a 
 debasement from whidt he never can arise. The principal pai-t of the 
 phrase is debasement, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective 
 clanse,.^|om whieh he never can arise. The subject of this clause is he ; 
 the predicate is can arise. The adjuncts of the .predicate are Tieoer, 
 and the simple adverbial phrase, /ni»> which. 
 
 The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to 
 some vices and follies which we have committed. 
 
 Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the terms on 
 which its members shall be admitted. 
 
 There is no foundation for the popular doctrine, that a 
 state may ■flourish by arts and crimes. 
 
 It is necessary to combat vigilantly that favorite idea of 
 lively ignorance, that study is an enemy to originality. 
 
 Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise 
 from an irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 
 
 Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever with- 
 held from the cause hi which he had engaged. 
 
 He that has light within his own clear breast, 
 May sit inthe centre, and enjoy bright day ; 
 But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
 Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. 
 
 No flocks that range the valley, free, 
 
 To slaughter I condemn ; 
 Taught by that power that pities me, 
 
 I learn to pity them. 
 
 EXERCISE XII.— THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED, 
 
 "Education, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to 
 view many latent virtues and perfections, which, without its aid, 
 would never be able to make their appearance." 
 
 Akaltsis. — ^This is a compound declarative sentence. 
 The first clause is, Edueation, when it works -upon a noUe mmd, draws out 
 to view Tiumy latent virtues and perfecUona ; and the second is, WkioTi, 
 
140 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PART III, 
 
 witTwut its aid, would never le (Me to make fhew appearcmce. The 
 conueotivo is wMoTi. 
 
 The first is a complex member-; tlie subject is education ; the predicate is 
 draws ; the objects are virtues s^nd perfections. 
 
 The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the predicate are the ad- 
 verbial clause, when it worhs upon, a noble mind, out, and the simple 
 adverbial phrase, to view ; the adjuncts of the objects are many and 
 latent. 
 
 The subject of the dependent clause is it ; the predicate is worhs. The 
 adjuncts of the predicate are when, and the adverbial phrase, upon a 
 noble mind. The connective is when. 
 
 The subject of the second clause is which ; the predicate is would le ; the 
 attribute is aile. 
 
 The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the predicate are the phrase, 
 without its aid, and Tiever ; the adjunct of the attribute is the simple 
 adverbial phrase, to make thevr appearance, of which to make is the 
 principal part, and its adj unot, the object appearance, modified by iietc. 
 
 When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects us, 
 the sincerity of friendship is proved. 
 
 When the Creator had finished his labor on our planet, his 
 last and noblest work being man, lie conferred on him a part- 
 nership in his labors. 
 
 Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does on 
 the body. 
 
 When Education had proceeded, in this manner, to the part 
 of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy, she 
 resigned her charge to two powers of superior aspect. 
 
 While I was musing on this miserable scene, my protector 
 called out to me, "Remember, Theodore, and be wise, and let 
 not Habit prevail against thee." 
 
 While this thought passed over my mind, I lost sight of the 
 remotest star, and the last glimmering of light was quenched in 
 utter darkness. The agonies of despair every moment in- 
 creased, as every moment augmented my distance from the 
 last habitable world. I reflected with intolerable anguish, that, 
 when ten thousand thousand years had carried me beyond the 
 reach of all but that Power who fills infinitude, I should still look 
 forward into an immense abyss of darkness, through which I 
 should still drive without succor and without society, farther 
 and farther still, forever and forever. 
 
 Ages elapsed ere Homer's lamp appeared, 
 And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard. 
 To carry nature lengths unknown before, 
 To give a Milton birth, asked ages more. 
 
 EXERCISE Xni.— THE EXPLANATORY CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 
 
 " Why is it that to man have been given passions which he 
 cannot tame, and which sink him below the brute ?" 
 
CHAP. I.]. SYNTAX — ^ANALYSIS AlTD PAESINQ. 141 
 
 AsLUXSlB. — ^This is a complex inteiTogative sentence. 
 The subject is it ; the predicate is is ; the adjanet of the subject is the 
 complex explanatory clause, to man haw been, given passions which he 
 cannot tame, and which sink him bdow the mite; the connective is 
 that; the adjunct of the predicate is why. 
 The subject of the explanatory clause is passions ; the predicate is have 
 been given. The adjuiiete of the subject are the simple adjective 
 clauses, which he camnot tame, and which si/nh him beuno the brute. 
 [Each to be imalyzed as in previous exercises.] 
 
 It was the fate of Dr. Bentley, that every work, executed or 
 projected by him, should be assailed. 
 
 It is surprising in what countless swarms the bees have over- 
 spread the far West, within but a moderate number of years. 
 
 To tell you the why and the wherefore would take too long ; 
 suffice it to say, that they hate us with a deadly hatred. 
 
 Seeing these, I at length comprehended the meaning of those 
 terrible words, " Must we kill them both ?" 
 
 It might fce expected, that humanity itself would prevent 
 them from breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 
 
 It is an exquisite and beautiful thing in our nature,, that 
 when the heart is touched and softened by some tranquil hap- 
 piness or affectionate feeling, the memory of the dead comes 
 over it most powerfully and irresistibly. 
 
 Interesting it is to observe how certainly all deep feelings 
 agree in this, that they seek for solitude, and are nursed by 
 solitude. 
 
 Is it because foreigners are in a condition to set our malice 
 at defiance, that we are wilUng to contract engagements of 
 friendship ? 
 
 See ! and. confess, one comfort still must rise ; 
 'Tis this, though man's a fool, yet God is wise.' 
 
 Better for us, perhaps, it might appear. 
 Were there all harmony, all virtue here ; 
 That never air nor ocean felt the wind, 
 That never passion discompos'd the mind. 
 
 EXERCISE XIV.— THE PARENTHETICAL CLAUSE. 
 
 EXAMPLE ANALYZED, 
 
 "The virtuous man, it has been beautifully said, proceeds 
 without constraint in the path of his duty." 
 
 AsAiTsis.— This is a compound declarative sentence ; composed of the 
 simple clause. The mriums mm proceeds wUihmit eonetramt m the path 
 of Ms duty, and the parenthetical alause. It has been becmUi[ullysai<l. 
 [Let the pupU analyze each clause as ib the preceding exercises. J 
 Obs.— Sentences of this form may often be analyzed by considering the- 
 
 parenthetical clause, the principal one, and the rest of the sentence depend- 
 
142 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PABT III. 
 
 ent upon it. The mode of analysis, indicated in the example, is, however, 
 preferable ; aSj although the parenthetical clause is united in oonstruotion 
 ■with the other part of the sentence, it is not necessary to complete the sense. 
 
 How dangerous soever idleness may be, are there not plea- 
 sures, it may be said, whicb attend it 1 
 
 " I leave my second son, Andrew," said the expiring miser, 
 " my whole estate ; and desire him to be frugal." 
 
 " Go forth," it had been said to Elijah, " and stand upon the 
 mount before the Lord." 
 
 " I think, boys," said the schoolmaster, when the clock 
 struck twelve, " that I shall give you an extra half-holiday this 
 afternoon." 
 
 " You remember my garden, Henry," whispered the old 
 man, anxious to rouse him, for a dullness seemed gathering 
 upon the child, " and how pleasant it used to be in the evening- 
 time 8" 
 
 " Therefore," said he, " hath it in all confidenceT)een ordered 
 by the Commons of Great 'Britain, that I impeach Warren 
 Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors." 
 
 " Oh, no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie, 
 Neglected and lone, on my lap to die. 
 Thou fine and delicate child of the sky." 
 
 No further seek his merits to disclose, 
 
 Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
 
 (There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
 The bosom of his Father, and his God. 
 
 ex;ercise XV.— compound sentences. 
 
 Oes. I.— In analyzing compound sentences, at this stage of the pupil's 
 progress, the leading dame should he distinguished from the subordwwie 
 clause. It must, however, be understood that the dependence of the latter 
 upon the former, is logical not grammaUeal, differing in this respect alto- 
 gether from the relation of the prmcipal and the dependent clause of a com- 
 plex sentence, which is purely grammatical, since the latter is an adiunot, 
 or used as one ol the prmoipal parts, in the principal clause. 
 , Obb. 2.— Some clauses are simply connected without logical or erammatical 
 dependence. They may then be called cobrdmaU olwuaS. 
 
 [I®" In the following examples of analysis, for the purpose of abbrevia- 
 tion, and in order to furnish the pupil with a ready method of clearly repre- 
 sentmg, in wiitten exercises, the parts of a sentence and their relations, the 
 emipmnddaum or members are marked by Capitals : the simple clauses, hy 
 numerals ; and the pleases, hy smali letters. When these afe all written 
 out m the order m which they occur, care being taken to unite in brackets 
 dependent clauses contained m the same sentence or member, the character 
 and composition of the sentence analyzed vrUl be exhibited 
 
 According to this mode of representation, a simple sentence would, ot 
 course, have no numencal or literal designation ; 1 would indicate a complex 
 sentence with a simple dependentolause; 1, 2, a compound sentence oon- 
 Bistmg of two simple clauses, but if enclosed in brackets thus [1 2] a com- 
 
CHAP. I.J SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 143 
 
 plex sentence containing two dependent clauses ; A, 1, 2, B, 3, 4, a compound 
 sentence composed of two compound members ; but A, [1, 2], B, [8, i]j a 
 compound sentence composed of two complex members, each containing 
 two dependent clauses j A, 1, B, 2, a oompomid sentence composed of two 
 complex members, each containing one dependent clause ; A, 1, 2, B, 3, a 
 oompoimd sentence composed or a^ compound and a complex member; 
 A, 1, B, 2, 3, a compound sentence containing a complex and a compound 
 member ; A, B, 1, a complex sentence conteining a complex dependent 
 member, whioli itself contains a complex dependent member ; and so on. 
 
 This mode of presenting to the eye the general conformation of a sen- 
 tence, its membera, clauses, etc., in their order and, partially, their depen- 
 denoa, will be found easy alter the previous practice, and cannot fail to be 
 useful. In the forms of analysis given, S. stands for subject ; P., for predi- 
 cate ; 0., for object ; Att., for attribute ; Ad., for adjunct.] 
 
 EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 
 
 1. " Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed lest he sud- 
 denly become poor." 
 
 Analysis. — Compound imperative sentence ; consisting of 
 
 A. (Leading) Let him thai hastens to te rush, take heed ; 
 
 1. (Subordinate) Jle suddenly become poor. Connective, Ust. 
 
 A. Complex imperative member. 
 
 S. Thou (understood): F. lei; O. him, that hastens to bt rich, take 
 heed. (B.) 
 
 B. Complex iniimtive member. ^ 
 
 S. hvm ; P. take ; O. heed. 
 
 Ad. S. that hastens to be rich. (2). 
 2. Simple adjective clause. 
 
 S. that ; JP. hastens ; Ad. P. to be rich. (a). 
 u. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, to be ; Ad. rich (indirect attribute).. 
 1. Simple clause. 
 
 S. ne ; P. become ; Att. poor ; Ad. P. suddenly, 
 
 2. " Say not thou, ' I will recompense evil ;' but wait on the 
 
 Lord, and he shall save thee." 
 
 Analysis. — Compound imperative sentence ; consisting of two coordinate 
 members : 
 
 A. Soff Ttot thou, '' I will recompense evU." 
 
 B. Wait on the Lord, amd he ahaXl save thee. Con. bid. 
 A. Complex iinperative member. , 
 
 S. iJura; P. say ; O. I^oiU recompense evil (1) ; Ad. P. not. 
 1. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 S. /; P. will recompense ; 0. eml. 
 
 B. Compbaad imperative member. 
 
 2. Wait on the Lord. 
 
 3. He shall save thee ; connective, and, 
 2. Simple imperative clause. 
 
 8. Thou (understood) ; P. wait; Ad. P. on the Lord. (a). 
 a. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Pnn. part. Lord ; Ad. tTie. 
 8. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 S. Me; P. shedl save ; 0. thee. 
 
 If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; if he be 
 thirsty, give him water to drink. 
 
 If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else 
 shoiild find entraace, vice certainly would. 
 
144 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [^AKT III. 
 
 While riotous indulgence enervates botli the body and the 
 mind, purity and virtue heighten all the powers of human 
 fruition. 
 
 If the King were present, Cleon, there would be no need of 
 my answering to what thou hast just proposed. 
 
 He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is 
 esteemed a sensible man. 
 
 The person he chanced to see, was, to appearance, an old, 
 sordid, blind man ; but, upon his following him from place to 
 place, he at last found, by his own confession, that he was 
 Plutus, the god of riches. 
 
 I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give 
 me liberty, or give me death. 
 
 Let any one resolve always to do right Mow,_leaving then to 
 do as it can, and if he were to live to the age of Methuselah, 
 he would never do wrong ; but the common efror is to resolve 
 to act right after breakfast, or after dinner, or to-morrow morn- 
 ing, or next time ; but now, just now, this once, we must go on 
 the same as ever. 
 
 It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely 
 because we forget, that when to-morrow comes, then will be now. 
 
 The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 
 
 Inspiring thought of rapture yet to be ! 
 The tears of love were hopeless but for thee 1 
 If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell,' 
 If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
 If fate unite the faithful but to part. 
 Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 
 
 EXERCISE XVI.— MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES. 
 
 EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 
 
 1. " Rasselas could not catch the fugitives, with his utmost 
 eiforts ; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he 
 could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the 
 mountain stopped his course." — Johnson, 
 
 AsALTSis. — Compound declarative sentence : 
 
 1. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive with his utTnost ejfoHt j 
 
 A. Resoloiny to weary .... course. Connective, hit. 
 1. Simple declarative ol.<iuse. 
 
 S. Basselae ; P. could catch ; 0. fugitive. 
 
 Ad. P. not, with Jtis utmost eforis (a) ; Ad. 0. the. 
 a. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Pnn. part, e forts ; Ad. his and utnu>st. 
 A. Complex deolai'alive member. 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AOT) PARSING. 145 
 
 B. M ; F. presaed. 
 
 Ad. S. reiolvini) to weary, ly perseverance, lam .... speed (b) ; 
 Ad. P. on, and tUl thefootof tlie mountain stopped Aw course (2). 
 b. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. parti resolving ; Ad. to weary .... speed (o). 
 
 0. Complex objective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, <o «'«ary; Ad. him (obj.) and by perseverance ; Ad. of 
 hmt, whom .... speed (3). 
 8. Simple adjective clause. 
 
 S.2S ; P. <»«W surpass ; 0. wiom ; Ad. P. not and t» speed. 
 2. Simple adverbial clause. 
 
 S. foot ; P. stopped ; O. course. 
 
 Ad. S. tt«, ^ &.« mountain ; Ad. P. KB ; Ad. O. his ; Connective, till. 
 
 2. " There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig 
 politicians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, 
 the laws against political offences, but who could not, without 
 incurring the charge of inconsistency, declare themselves ad- 
 verse to relaxation, had conceived a hope that they might, by 
 fomenting the dispute about the court of the lord high steward, 
 defer for at least a year the passing of a bill which they dis- 
 liked, and yet could not decently oppose." — Macauley. 
 
 Analtsis. — Complex, declarative sentence : 
 S. Season; P. w. 
 Ad. S. strong, to suspect .... oppose ; (a) Ad. P. there. 
 
 a. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, to suspect ; Ad. (object), Some ahle .... oppose ; (A) 
 Con. (hat. 
 
 A. Complex object danse. 
 
 S. Politicians ; P. had conceived ; O. hope. 
 
 Ad. S. Some, able, Whig, and the two coordinate olanses, connected 
 by but. Who thought .... cr^ences, (B), Who could . ... re- 
 laxation (C) ; Ad. 0. TZey rmgM .... oppose (D). Con. that. 
 
 B. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. who ; P. ffioiiffht ; O. It (to be) dangerous .... offences (1). 
 
 1. Simple object clause, of the infinitive iorm. 
 
 S. It: P. to be (nnd.) ; At. dangerous. 
 Ad. S. to relax .... offences, (b) 
 
 b. Complex explanatory phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, to relax; Ad. (primary), at that moment, (c) and laws ; 
 (Secondary), the, and agaiTist poUUcal offences, (d) 
 
 c. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 d. Simple adjective phrase, modifying laws. 
 
 C. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. Who ; P. could declare ; 0. themseket (to be) adverse to relaxa- 
 tion (2). 
 Ad. P. not, unihout incurring the charge of inconsistency (e). 
 
 e. Complex adverbial phrase. 
 
 Pnn. part, imdarrmg; Ad. (primary), charge; (secondary), fht, and 
 Iff inamsisteticy. 
 S. Simple object clause, infinitive form. 
 
 8. themselves; P. to be (und.) ; Att. adverse; Ad. Att. to relaxation. 
 
 D. Complex adjective clause. 
 
 S. meu ; P. might defer ; 0. passing. 
 
 Ad. P. Im fomenting .... steum-d (f ), for at least a year (g) ; 
 Ad. 0. M«, and of a bill which .... oppose (h). 
 t Complex adverbial phrase. 
 
 Piin. part, fomentmg ; Ad. (primary), dispute, (secondary), the, and 
 aiout .... tteward (i). 
 
 7 
 
146 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [FART III. 
 
 i. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, court ; Ad. the, and of the lord high steward (k). 
 k. Simple adjective phrase. 
 g. Simple adverbial phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, i/ear; Ad. a. At least, independent phrase, 
 h. Complex adjective phrase. 
 
 Prin. part, bill ; Ad. a, and which .... oppose (3). 
 8. Simple adjective clause, with a compound predicate. 
 
 S. the;/; P. (compound), dUUleed, and could oppose; Con. and; 0. 
 
 Ad. P. (second), not and decently. 
 
 3. What wonder, when 
 
 Millions of fierce encount'ring Angels fought 
 On either side, the least of whom could wield 
 These elements, and arm him with the force 
 Of all their regions ? How much more of pow'r 
 Army 'gainst army numberless, to raise 
 Dreadful combustion warring, and disturb, 
 Though not destroy, their happy native seat ; 
 Had not tli' Eternal King omnipotent 
 From his strong hold of Heav'n high over-ruled 
 And limited their might ; though number'd such 
 As each divided legion might have seem'd 
 A num'rous host, in strength each armed band 
 A legion, led in fight yet leader seem'd 
 Each warrior single as in chief, expert 
 When to advance, or stand, or turn the sway 
 Of battle, open when, and when to close 
 The ridges of grim war. — Paradise Lost, YI., 219. 
 
 AiTALTSis. — The first period ■which terminates at regions, is a compound in- 
 terrogative sentence. 
 
 1. What wonder (should there le) 1 A. When, .... regions ; Con. 
 
 when (used as a conjunction). 
 1. Simple interrogative clause. 
 A. Compound dewarative member. 
 
 2. When millions side ; 3. The hast regions ; Con. whom. 
 
 The second period, comprising the remainder of the passage, is a com- 
 pound exclamatory sentence. 
 
 1. How .... seat ; A. Had .... grim war ; Con. if (understood). 
 1. Simple exclamatory clause. 
 
 S. army ; P. wovid have wielded (understood) ; 0. power. 
 
 Ad. S. numberless, and warring against (numberless) army ; Ad. 0. 
 
 to raise dreadful combustion, and disturb, though not destroy their 
 
 happy native seat. 
 
 A. Compound member. 
 
 2. Had. . . . might; B. Thmgh war; Con. though. 
 
 S. Simple clause, with a componnd predicate. 
 
 B. Compound declarative member. 
 
 3. (They were) numbered such ; 
 
 C. Sach divided legion .... war; Con. as (for that). 
 S. Simple declarative clause. 
 
 C. Compound declarative member. 
 
 4. Maoh divided legion .... host ; 
 
 5. In strength .... legion, ; 
 
CHAP. I.j SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 147 
 
 D. Zed, m£gM .... war. No connective. 
 4. S. Simple decim'ative clauses. 
 D. Compound delarative member. 
 
 6. Muih single warrior seemed as a leader in chief, expert .... war ; 
 
 7. (J3« was) led in fight. Connectives (Correspond.), thirugh and yet 
 6. Simple declarative member. 
 
 S. Warrior; F. seemed; AtL feoffor (connected to the subject by <m). 
 Ad. S. each, single; Ad. Att. a, in chief, and expert; Ad. of expert. 
 When to advance .... war (a), 
 a. Command adverbial phrase. 
 
 b. When to advance ; c when to stand ,* d. when to turn the sway of 
 iattle; e. when to open and when to close Vie ridges of grim war, 
 
 J^" [Let the pupil be required to analyze and parse orally, 
 according to the Praxis, the sentences in the following para- 
 graphs, or to prepare a written analysis of each, according to 
 the method, indicated in the examples, and explained in the 
 Memarh on page Xi.'i^ 
 
 1. Let the ambitious, ■whether soldiers, tribunes, or kings, 
 reflect, that if there are mercenary soldiers to serve them, and 
 flatterers to excuse them while they reign, there is the con- 
 science of humanity afterwards to judge them, and pity to de- 
 test them. — Lamartine. 
 
 2. Some, in their discourse, desire rather commendation of 
 wit, in being able to hold all arguments, than of judgment in 
 discerning what is true ; as if it were a praise to know what 
 might be said, and not what should be thought. — Bacon. 
 
 3. If all the means of education which are scattered over 
 the world, and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient 
 and modem times, were to be collected together, andf made to 
 bring their combined efforts to bear upon an individual, all 
 they could do would be to afford the opportunity of improve- 
 ment. — Degerando. 
 
 4. Dreams are the bright creatures of poem and legend, who 
 sport on earth in the night-season, and melt away in the first 
 beams of the sun, which lights grim Care and stern Reality in 
 their daily pilgrimage through the world. — DicJcms. 
 
 5. Montaigne gaith prettily, when he inquired the reason, 
 why the word of the lie should be such a disgrace and such an 
 odious charge. Saith he, " If it be well weighed, to say that a 
 man lieth, is as much to say, as that he is brave towards God, 
 and a coward towards tnen." — Bacon. 
 
 6. Dear sensibility ! source inexhausted of all that is pre- 
 cious in our joys, or costly in our sorrows, thou chainest thy 
 martyr down upon his bed of straw, and 'tis thou who lift'st 
 
148 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PART HI. 
 
 him up to heaven ! Eternal fountain of our feeling ! 'tis here 
 I trace thee, and this is thy " divinity which stirs within me ;" 
 not that, in some sad and sickening moments, " my soul shrinks 
 back upon herself, and startles at destruction /" (mere pomp 
 of words !) hut that I feel some generous cares beyond myseltl 
 All comes from thee, great — gi-eat Sensorium of the world ! 
 ■which vibrates, if a hair of our heads but falls to the ground, 
 in the remotest desert of thy creation. — Sterne. 
 
 7. On the fourth day of creation, when the sun after a glo- 
 rious, but solitary course, went down in the evening, and dark- 
 ness began to gather over the face of the uninhabited globe, 
 already arrayed in the exuberance of vegetation, and prepared 
 by the diversity of land and water, for the abode of uncreated 
 animals and man, — a star, single and beautiful, stepped forth 
 into the firmament. Trembling with wonder and delight in 
 new-found existenee, she looked abroad, and beheld nothing, in 
 heaven or on earth, resembling herself. But she was not long 
 alone ; now one, then another, here a third, there a fourth 
 resplendent companion had joined her, till, light after light 
 stealing through the gloom, in the lapse of an hour, the whole 
 hemisphere was brilliantly bespangled. — Montgomery. 
 
 8. To learn A, B, C, is felt to be extremely irksome by the 
 infant, who cannot comprehend what it is for. The boy, forced 
 to school, cons over his dull lesson because he must, but feels 
 no amusement or satisfaction in it. The labor he is obliged to 
 undergo is not small ; the privations of. pleasure and activity, 
 he regrets still more ; and all for what ? To learn what he 
 does not like ; to force into his mind words to which he at- 
 taches no ideas, or ideas which appear to him to be of no value ; 
 [because] he cannot put them to any proper use. Youth is 
 not aware, that not for present use is all this designed. The 
 dull, laborious, but necessary routine, like plowing and sowing 
 the land, is in hopes of reaping abundance, at some not very 
 distant season. Education is not the end, but only the means. 
 — Taylor. 
 
 9. Fired with a perusal of the Abyssinian pilgrim's explora- 
 tory ramblings after the cradle of the infant Nilus, we well 
 rememberj on one fine summer holiday (a " whole day's leave" 
 we called it at Christ's Hospital), sallying forth at rise of sun, 
 not very well provisioned either for such an undertaking, to 
 trace the current of the New Eiver — Middletonian stream !— 
 to its scaturient source, as we had read, in meadows by fair 
 Amwell. — Lamb. 
 
 10. The voice of the world had whispered to Columbus that 
 
CHAP. I.J SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AND PAESING. 149 
 
 the world is one; and as he went forth toward the west, 
 ploughing a wave which no European keel had entered, it was 
 his high purpose not merely to open new paths to islands or to 
 continents, but to bring together the ends of the earth, and join 
 all nations in commerce and spiritual life. — Bancroft. 
 
 11. To a limited apprehension, it would seem as if the greater 
 part of the existence here allotted us, were little more than an 
 apprenticeship to the., business of living ; and that, if ever we 
 come to understand our authentic position and relations in the 
 world, and how our time and talents might have been wisely 
 and most effectually employed, it is at a stage of life, when the 
 journey is drawing to a close, and hardly an opportunity is 
 left us to turn what we have been learning to account. — B. 
 Chambers. 
 
 12. We never, in a moral way, applaud or blame either our- 
 selves or others for what we enjoy or what we suffer ; or for 
 having impressions made upon us which we consider as being 
 altogether out of our power : but only for what we do, or 
 would have done had it been in our power ; or for what we 
 leave undone which we might have done, or would have left 
 uudone though we could have done it. — Bp. Butler. 
 
 13. Resisting or not, however, we are doomed to suffer a 
 bitter pang as often as the irrecoverable flight of our time is 
 brought home with keenness to our hearts. The spectacle of a 
 lady floating over the sea in a boat, and waking suddenly from 
 sleep to find her magnificent ropes of pearl necklace, by some 
 accident detached at one end from its fastenings, the loose 
 string hanging down into the water, and pearl after pearl slip- 
 ping off forever into the abyss, brings before us the sadness of 
 the case. — De Quincey. 
 
 14. Glowing with a vivid conception of these truths, so won- 
 derful and so indisputable, let me ask, whether, among all the 
 spectacles which earth presents, and which angels might look 
 down upon with an ecstasy too deep for utterance, is there one 
 fairer and more enrapturing to the sight than that of a young 
 man, just fresh from the Creator's hands, and with the unspent 
 energies of the coming eternity wrapped up in his bosom, sur- 
 veying and recounting, in the solitude of his closet, or in the 
 darkness of midnight, the mighty gifts with which he has been 
 endowed, and the magnificent career of usefulness and of bless- 
 edness, which has beein opened before hini ; and resolving, with 
 one all-concentrating and all-hallowing vow, that he will live, 
 true to the noblest capacities of his being, and in obedience to 
 the highest law of his nature !—iror«sce ifa»». 
 
150 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PABT III. 
 
 16. Could every man apply himself to [the] employments 
 which are most suited to his capabilities, and, in his appointed 
 calling, work only with a view to serviceable, sincere, and en- 
 nobling results, the measure of his achievements might still, 
 perchance, fall short of his original aspirations; but, being 
 commensurate with his powers, and conformable to the eternal 
 laws, it could not fail tOs, yield him that assurance of security 
 and contentment which, by necessity, proceeds from all faith- 
 fulness of action. — Chambers. 
 
 16. By the immortal gods, I wish (pardon me, O my coun- 
 try ! for I fear what I shall say out of a pious regard for Mile 
 rnay be deemed impiety against thee) that Clodius not -onlv 
 lived, but were praetor, consul, dictator, rather than [that I 
 should] be witness to such a scene as this. Immortal gods ! 
 how bravo a man is that, and how worthy of being preserved 
 by you ! By no means, he cries ; the ruffian met with the 
 punishment he deserved; and let me, if it must be so, suffer 
 the punishment I have not deserved. — Duncan's Cicero. 
 _ 11. Where American liberty raised its first voice, and where 
 Its youth was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the 
 strength of its manhood, and full of its original spirit. If dis- 
 cord and disunion shaU wound it; if party strife and blind am- 
 bition shall hawk at and tear it ; if folly and madness, if un- 
 easiness under salutary restraint, shall succeed to separate it 
 from that Union, by which alone its existence is made sure, it 
 will stand, m the end, by the side of that cradle in which its 
 infancy was rocked; it will stretch forth its arm with what- 
 ever of vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gathered 
 around it ; and it will fall at last, if fall it must, amid the proud- 
 
 *]refote7™^"*^ °^ '^ ^^°''^' '""^ "'^ *^* ^®'^ ^P°* °^ '** origin.— 
 
 18. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
 The innumerable caravan, that moves 
 
 To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
 
 His chamber in the silent halls of death. 
 
 Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night 
 
 Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
 
 liy an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
 
 Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
 
 About him,and lies down to pleasant dreams.— ^ryawi 
 
 19. Of chance or change, let not man complain, 
 ijlse shall he never, never cease to wail • 
 
 For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain 
 Kears the lone cottage in the silent dale 
 
CHAP. l.j SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS AND PAESING. 151 
 
 All feel th' assaults of Fortune's fickle gale ; 
 Art, empire, Earth itself, to change are doom'd ; 
 Earthquakes hare raised to heaven the humble vale, 
 And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entomb'd ; 
 And where th' Atlantic rolls, wide continents have bloom'd. 
 
 Beattie. 
 
 20. The One remains, the many change and pass ; 
 Heaven's light forever shines, Earth's shadows fly ; 
 Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, 
 
 Stains the white radiance of Eternity, 
 
 Until Death tramples it to fragments. — Die, 
 
 If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek ! 
 
 Follow where all is fled ! — Rome's azure sky, 
 
 Flowers, ruins, statues, music, — ^words are weak 
 
 The glory they transfuse^ with fitting truth to speak. 
 
 Shelley, 
 
 21. The honey-bee, that wanders all day long 
 
 The field, the woodland, and the garden o'er, 
 To gather in his fragrant winter store. 
 Humming in calm content his quiet song, 
 Seeks not alone the rose's glowing breast, 
 The lily's dainty cup, the violet's hps ; 
 But from all rank and noisome weeds he sip« 
 The single drop of sweetness ever pressed 
 Within the poisoned chalice. Thus, if we 
 Seek only to draw forth the hidden sweet 
 In all the varied human flowers we meet 
 In the wide garden of humanity, 
 And, like the bee, if home the spoil we bear, 
 Hived in our hearts, it turns to nectar there. 
 
 A. 0. 1/ynch. 
 
 22. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves. 
 Dewy with Nature's tear-drops, as they pass. 
 Grieving, if aught inanimate ere grieves, 
 
 Over the unreturning brave, — alas ! 
 Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, 
 Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 
 In its next verdure, when the fiery mass 
 Of living vaJor, rolling on the foe, 
 And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low. 
 
 Byron. 
 
 23. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
 All but the page prescribed, their present state ; 
 
152 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [PAET III. 
 
 From brutes what meti, from men what spirits know ; 
 
 Or who could suffer being here below ? 
 
 The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 
 
 Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowery food. 
 
 And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. 
 
 Oh blindness to the future ! kindly given 
 
 That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
 
 Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
 
 A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, 
 
 Atoms or systems into ruin huri'd. 
 
 And now a bubble burst, and now a world. — Popt, 
 
 24. As thus the snows arise ; and, foul and fierce, 
 All Winter drives along the darkened air; 
 In his own loose-revolving fields, the swain 
 Disaster'd stands; sees other hills ascend. 
 Of unknown joyless brow ; and other scenes, 
 Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain ; 
 Nor finds the river, nor the forest, hid 
 Beneath the formless wild ; but wanders on 
 From hill to dale, still more and more astray ; 
 Impatient flouncing through the drifted heaps. 
 Stung with the thoughts of home ; the thoughts of hom« 
 Kush on his nerves, and call their vigor forth 
 lu many a vain attempt. — Thomson. 
 
 O treacherous conscience ! while sbe seems to sleep 
 
 On rose and myrtle, lull'd with syren song ; 
 
 While she seems, nodding o'er her charge, to drop 
 
 On headlong appetite the slacken'd reign, 
 
 And give us up to license, unrecall'd, 
 
 Unraark'd ; — see, from behind her secret stand,* 
 
 The sly informer minutes every fault, 
 
 And her dread diary with horror fills. 
 
 Not the gross act alone employs her pen : 
 
 She reconnoitres fancy's aiiy band, 
 
 A watchful foe ! the formidable spy. 
 
 Listening, o'erhears the whispers of our camp; 
 
 Our dawning purposes of heart explores. 
 
 And steals our embryos of iniquity. — Young. 
 
 26. The pulpit, therefore, (and I name it, filled 
 With solemn awe, that bids me well beware 
 With what intent I touch that holy thing,) 
 
 25 
 
 * See Obs. 8, pago 118. 
 
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 153 
 
 The pulpit (when the satirist has, at last, 
 
 Strutting and vaporing in an empty school, 
 
 Spent all his force and made no proselyte) — 
 
 I say the pulpit (in the sober use 
 
 Of its legitimate, peculiar powers) 
 
 Must stand acknowledged, while the world shall stand, 
 
 The most important and eflfectual guard, , 
 
 Support, and ornament of virtue's cause. 
 
 There stands the messenger of truth ; there, stands 
 
 The legate of the skies ; his theme, divine ; 
 
 His ofBce, sacred ; his credentials, clear. 
 
 By him the violated law speaks out 
 
 Its thunders ; and, by him, in strains as sweet 
 
 As angels use, the Gospel whispers peace. — Cowper, 
 
 27. Look, as I blow this feather from my face, 
 And as the air blows it to me again. 
 Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 
 And yielding to another when it blows. 
 Commanded always by the greater gust ; 
 Such is the lightness of you common men. 
 
 ' Shakspeare, 
 
 28. Nature never did betray 
 
 The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege 
 Through all the years of this our life, to lead 
 From joy to joy ; for she can so inform 
 The mind that is within us, so impress 
 With quietness and beauty, and so feed 
 With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, 
 Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men 
 Shall e'er prevail against us, or distrust 
 Our cheerful faith that all which we behold 
 Is full of blessings. — Wordsworth. 
 
 29. 0,.Adam, one Almighty is, from whom 
 All things proceed, and up to him return, 
 If not depraved from good, created all 
 Such to perfection, one first matter all. 
 Endued with various forms, various degrees 
 Of substance, and in things that live, of life ; 
 But more refined, more spirituous, and pure, 
 As nearer to him placed, or nearer tending 
 Each in their sev'ral active spheres assign'd, 
 Till body up to spirit work, in bounds 
 Proportion'd to each kind. — Milton. 
 
154 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET IH. 
 
 CHAPTEE II.— EELATIOlSr AND AGEEEMENT. 
 
 In this chapter and the next, the Eules of Syntax are 
 again exhibited, in their former order, with Examples, 
 Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax 
 The Notes are all of them, in form and character, sub- 
 ordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of 
 errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under 
 the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise, somewhat 
 similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful. 
 
 _ Obs. — Belation and Agreement are taken together that the rules may stand 
 in the order of the parts of speech. The latter is moreover naturally allied 
 to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech' are, with a few exceptions, 
 incapahle of auy agreement ; of these, the relation and use must be explained 
 in parsing; and all necessary agreement between any of the rest, is confined 
 to words that relate to each other. 
 
 RULE I.— ARTICLES. 
 
 Articles relate to the nouns which they limit : as, " At 
 a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
 aged elm." 
 
 EXCEPTION rmsT. 
 
 The definite article, used intensively, may relate to axiadjecike or ttdmi 
 of the comparative or the superlative degree; as "A land which was th 
 nagMiest. \~Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared 
 their alacrity."— i)?'. Johnson. " He chooses it the rather."— Omper. [See 
 Obs. 7th, next page.] '• 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to an 
 adJeot^m of number; aa, "Thou hast a /«w names, even in Sardis."— .Sw. 
 T.T fJ^ "^o* thousand things which crowd into my memory."— ;SiM(i<ator, 
 No. 468. [See Obs. 12th, next page.] ■• r y 
 
 OBSBRVATIONS ON RULE I. 
 
 Ob3. 1— Articles often relate to nouns understood; as, -"The \rker] 
 
 f»^f"rf' i^v, ^y°?",^"",i"^*J'-"'^'^® honiuraile {lodyX the 
 
 Leg slature,"-"The animal f«;«*i] and the vegetable world,"!" Neither 
 
 Ifl r,^i f^^l^ "?I \}ll ^^"i^1<l]--Bi&. " He was' a good man, 
 r^iV f ^ Ir"^^vV?- " Tli^l^de of swains Palemon was, the generous 
 [mamj, and the rich" [m»»]. — Thomson. 
 
 in ^hl'«.'^}il^ T' "r"^"^" Sf'^^^^'^'y tojf^at the article before several nouns 
 n fl^iHon of ^^. h'^'""" = ^^^ same article serves sometimes to limit the sig- 
 nihcatiouofmore than one noun; but we doubt the proprietvof over con- 
 struing two articles as relating to one and the same noin ^ ^ 
 it . „f' uv ■ "''^1" ^'•«'^«^«* its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after 
 
 'n ^' ^"f,?!" ° '^ **' drunkenness of the mmd."-.SoutLv 
 ih A- r .1^'^'^ «4?'eo«BC precedes the noon, the article is Dlaced before 
 the adjective, that its power may extend over that also -as. 
 ' ' T^' private path, the secret acts of men,' 
 II noble, far «7j« noblest of their Uves.".-Jewi<7. 
 
CHAP, n.] SYNTAX.— BULE I.— ARTICLES. 155 
 
 Except the a^jecliTOS aU, tueh, many, wjtat, ioth, and those which are pre- 
 ceded by the adverbs too, so, as, or how ; as, " AU the materials were bought 
 at too diar a rate." — " Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all tlie 
 ill consequences of »o/ooUah an indulgence." 
 
 Obs. 5. — When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article generally 
 retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective ; 
 as, "A man ignorant of astronomy," — " 3Ka primrose pale." In Greae, when 
 an adjective is placed after its noon, if the article is prefixed to the noun, it 
 isrepeatedbefore.the adjective; as, 'HmiXii li iicyiXti, Thedtj the great; i.e.. 
 The great city. 
 
 Ora. 6. — Artioles, according to their own definition, belong before their 
 nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed 
 after the noun to which they both relate : as, " Section the Fourth," — " Henry 
 the Eighth." Such examples, however, may be supposed elliptical ; and, if 
 they are so, the article, in Unglieh, can never be placed after its noun, nor 
 can two articles ever properly relat^ to one noun, in any particular conslmc- 
 tion of it. 
 
 Obs. 7. — The definite article is often prefixed to eomparalmea and eumerla- 
 tivee; and its effect is, as Mwrray observes, (in the words of Lowfh^ " to 
 mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely :" as, 
 " The oftener I see him, the more I respect him." — " A constitution the most 
 fit." — "A claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." — " The 
 men the most difficult to be replaced." In these instances, the article seems 
 to be used adverbially, and to relate only to the ad^'eeiive or adverb following ' 
 it ; but after the adjective, the noun may he supphed. 
 
 Obs. 8. — ^The article the is applied to nouns of both numbers ; as, 2%e man, 
 the men ; — The good boy, the good boys. 
 
 Obs. 9. — The article me is generally prefixed to adjectives that are used, by 
 ellipsis, as nouns ; as, 
 
 " The great, the gay, shall they partake 
 The neav'n that thou alone canst make ?" — Ojwper. 
 
 Obs. 10. — ^The article the is sometimes elegantly used in stead of a possess- 
 ive pronoun; as, "Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of 
 ^ml"—Som., xi, 4. 
 
 Obs. 11. — An or a implies one, and belongs to nouns of the singular num- 
 ber only ; as, A man, a good boy. 
 
 Obs. 12. — An or a is sometimes put before an adjective of number, when 
 the noun following is plnral ; as, "A few days," — "A hundred sheep," — 
 " There are a great many adjectives." — Dr. Adam. In these eases, the arti- 
 cle seems to relate only to the atyective. Some grammarians however call 
 these words of number jkyan^e, and suppose an elDpsis of the preposition of. 
 Murray and many others call them adjectives, and suppose a peculiarity of 
 construction in the article. 
 
 Obs. 13. — An or a baa sometimes the import of each or every ; as, " He 
 came twice a year." The article in this sense with a preposition understood, 
 is preferable to the mercantile per, so firequently used ; as, " Fifty cents [for] 
 u bushel," — ^rather than, "per bushel." 
 
 Obs. li. — A, as prefixed to participles in mff, or used in composition, is a 
 pr^osttion ; being, probably, the IVench a, signifying to, at, an, in, or of; as, 
 " They burst out a laughing." — M. JEdgemyrth. " He is gone a hunting." — 
 " She lies a-bed all day."—" He stays out a-nights."— " They ride out a- 
 Snndays." Shdkspeare often uses the prefix a,^nd sometimes in a manuei 
 peculiar to himself; as, " Tom's a cold,^'— " a vfeary." 
 
 Obs. 15. — An is sometimes a eonjunetion, signifying \f; as, 
 
 " Nay, an thon'lt monthe, I'll rant as well as thou,"— /S^J, ' 
 
 NOTES TO RULE I. 
 
 NoTft^ I. — ^When the indefinite article is required, a should 
 always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before 
 
156 LKTSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PAETIII, 
 
 that of a vowel ; as, " With the talents of an angel, a man 
 
 may be a fool." — Young. 
 
 Ow.—An was formerly osed before all words beginning with h, and before 
 several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to re- 
 quire «; thus, we read in the Bible, "^» house," — "a» hundred,"— " oa 
 one,"— "a» ewer," — " an, usurer." 
 
 Note II. — When nouns are joined in construction, without 
 a close connexion and common dependence, the article must 
 be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : 
 " She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitora." 
 — Wm. Penn. The should be inserted before inerit. 
 
 Note III. — ^When adjectives are connected, and the quali- 
 ties belong to things individually different, though of the same 
 name, the article should be repeated: as, "^ black and a 
 white horse ;" — i. e., two horses, one black and the other white. 
 
 Note IV. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities 
 all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not 
 be repeated : as, "^ black and white horse ;" — i. e., one horse, 
 piebald. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The reason of the two preceding notes is this ; by a repetition of 
 the article before several adjectives in the same construetion, a repetition of 
 the noun is implied ; but without a repetition of the article, the adjeotiTea 
 are confined to one and the same noun. 
 
 Obs. 2. — To avoid repetition, we sometimes, with one article, join ineon- 
 Bistent quahties to a plural noun ; as, " The Old and New Testaments,"— 
 for, " 7%e Old and {he New Testament." But the phrases, " The Old and 
 New TeatameTvl,'''' and, " The Old and the New Testaments," are both obvi- 
 ously incorrect. 
 
 Note V. — ^The article should not be used before the names 
 of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences; before simple 
 proper names ; or before any poun whose signification is suf- 
 ficiently definite without it : as, '■'Falsehood is odious." — '■'■Iron 
 is useful." — ^'Beauty is vain." 
 
 Note VI. — When titles are mentioned merely as titles, or 
 names of things merely as names or words, the article should 
 not be used; as, "He is styled Marquis." — " Ought a teacher 
 to call his pupil Master ?" 
 
 Note VII. — In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer 
 to the same subject, the article should not be inserted; if to 
 different subjects, it sh«uld not be omitted : thus, if we say, 
 "He is a better teacher than poet" we compare different 
 qualifications of the same man ; but if we say, " He is a better 
 teacher than a poet," we refer to different men. 
 
 Note VIII. — ^The definite article, or some other definitive, 
 is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun #o 
 or which in a restrictive clause ; as, ''■The men who were pr«S' 
 ent, consented." 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE I.— ARTICLES. 157 
 
 Note IX. — The artide is generally required in that con- 
 struction which converts a participle into a verbal noun; as, 
 'TAe completing of this, by the working-out of sin inherent^ 
 must be by the power and spirit of Christ, in the heart." — 
 
 Wm. Penn. " TTiey shall be an abhorring unto all flesh," 
 
 Isaiah, Ixvi, 24. 
 
 Note X. — ^The article should not be prefixed to a participle 
 that is not taken in all respects as a noun ; as, " He made a 
 mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I. — ^ARTICLES. 
 
 ^?- [The Examples of False Syntax placed tinder the rules, are to be corrected 
 ora% by the pupil, according to the fonnnles given, or according to others framed la 
 like manner, and adapted to the several notes.] 
 
 'es under Note 1. — AN or A. 
 He went into an house. 
 
 [Foionnji.— Not proper, because the article an, is used before Tumte, which begins 
 with the sound of the consonant ft. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 1st, 
 "When the IndeBnite article is required, a should always be used before the sonnd of 
 a consonant, and an befbre that of a voweL" Therefore, <m should be a: thus, H« 
 went into ojiouse.] 
 
 This is a«,hard saying. 
 ''^^ humble heart shall find favour. 
 Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 
 Few have the happiness of living with such -^ one. 
 She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 
 A hospital is '«a asylum for the sick. 
 This is truly an wonderful invention. 
 He is an younger man than we supposed. 
 An humorsome child is never long pleased. 
 A careless man is unfit for a nostler. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Nouns Connected. 
 
 Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 
 As the drop of the bucket and dust of the balance. 
 Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
 I despise not the doer, but deed. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Adjectives Connected. 
 What is the difference between the old and new method t 
 TTie sixth and tenth have a close resemblance. 
 Is Paris on the right hand or left ? 
 Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific ocean ? 
 He was influenced both by a just and generous principlo. 
 The book was read by the old and young. 
 I have both the large and small grammar. 
 Are both the north and south line measured ? 
 
 14 
 
158 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAE. [PART III, 
 
 Are the north line and south both measured 1 
 Are both the north and south Jines measured 1 
 Are both the north lines and south measured? 
 
 Under Note 4. — Adjectives Connected. 
 
 Is the north and the south line measured ? 
 
 Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 
 
 A great and a good man looks beyond time. 
 
 They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance. 
 
 The Allegany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 
 
 I rejoice that there is an other and a better world. 
 
 Were God to raise up an other such a man as Moses. 
 
 The light and the worthless kernels will float. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Articles not Requisite. 
 
 Cleon was an other sort of a man. 
 
 There is a species of an animal called a seal. 
 
 Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 
 
 The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 
 
 Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 
 
 You will never have an other such a chance. 
 
 I expected some such an answer. 
 
 And I persecuted this way unto the death. 
 
 Under Note 6. — Titles and Names. 
 
 He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 
 Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 
 Her father is honoured with the title of an. Earl. 
 The chief magistrate is styled a President. 
 The highest title in the state is that of the Governor. 
 "For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole 
 classes of objects." — Blair'' s Mhetoric^ p. 73. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Comparisons, 
 He is a better writer than a reader. 
 He was an abler mathematician than a linguist. 
 I should rather have an orange than apple. 
 
 Under Note 8. — Nouns with Who or Which. 
 
 Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be mis- 
 
 understood. 
 Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
 The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that 
 
 time. 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAS.— RULE II.— NOMINATIVES, 169 
 
 Under Note 9. — Participial Nouns. 
 Means are always necessary to accomplishing of ends. 
 By seeing of the eye, and hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 
 In keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 
 For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 
 Have you no repugnance to torturing of animals 1 
 
 Tinder Note 10. — Participles, not Nouns. 
 
 By the breaking the law, you dishonour the lawgiver. 
 An argument so weak is not worth the mentioning. 
 In the letting go our hope, we let all go. 
 Avoid the talking too much of your ancestors. 
 The cuckoo ke^s the repeating her unvaried liotes, 
 rorhear the boasting of what you can do. 
 
 EULE n.— NOMINATIVES. 
 
 A Noun or a Pronoun wticli is the Subj&ot .^a finite 
 verb, must be_in the nominative case : as, 
 
 "I know thou sayst it: says thy life the samel" — Young. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE II. • 
 
 Oe3. 1. — To this rale there are no excepUons. And in connected language, 
 every nominative stands as the subject of some verb expressed or under- 
 stood ; except such as are put in a}>positum with other nominatives, aooord- 
 ingto Eule 3d — e^ter a verb, aooorcfing to Eule 2l8t — or absolute, according 
 to Kale 25th. 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^The suWeot, or nominative, is generally placed hefore the verb ; 
 as, " Peace damned upon his mind," — Johnson. " What is written in the 
 law?"— ^iSfo. 
 
 Obs. S. — But, in the following nine cases, the subject is usually placed 
 after the verb, or after the first auxiliary : — 
 
 1. When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun in the 
 nominative case ; as, " Shali mortals be implacable V — " what art thou 
 dmngt^—Bxihe. 
 
 2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Go <^o«." 
 
 8. When an earnest wish, or other strongfeeling is expressed ; as, " May 
 the be happy !"— " How were we strueSs I" — Youni^. 
 
 i. When a supposition is made without a conjunction; as, " Were ittme, 
 it would not injure us." 
 
 5. When neither or nor, signiftmig and not, precedes the verb ; as, " This 
 was his fear ; nor was his a/mrmenswn, groundless." 
 
 6. When, for the sake Of emphasis, some word or •vwJrds are placed before 
 the verb, which more naturally come after it ; ae, " Here am L"—" Narrow 
 is the wag." — " Silver and gold have /none ; but such as I have, yiae/thee." 
 
 7. Whenthe verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatieal; as, "JfcAothe 
 mountains round." — Thomson. 
 
 8. When the verbs say, ihinle, repVu, and the lik", introduce the parts of a 
 dialogue ; as, " ' Son of affliction,' said Omar, ' who art thou V ' My name,' 
 replied the stramger, ' is Hassan.' " — Johnson. 
 
 9. When the adverb thwe precedes the verb ; as, " There lAoed a man."— 
 Mmtg. " In all worldly joys, there ia a secret wound."— Owen. 
 
160 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART in, 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II. — ^NOMINATIVES. 
 Thee must have been idle. 
 
 [FoBMTTLB.— Not proper, because the objective pronoun thee is made the subject of 
 the verb rn/ust hwve be&n. But, according to Rule 2d, "A noun or a pronoun which 
 Is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Tlierefore, (/«fl 
 should be thou ; thus, TTtou must have been idle,] 
 
 - Hipi that is studious, will improve. 
 Them thajpseek wisdom, will be wise. 
 She and Mi are of the same age. . 
 
 You are two or thre^/jears older thaiTHa.* ^- 
 Are not John and (l^'oousins ? 
 I can write as handsomely as thee. , _ 
 Nobody said so but him. 
 Whom dost thou think was there ? 
 Who broke this slate 1 Me. 
 
 We are alone ; here 's none but thee and I. — Shak. 
 Them that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise 
 
 me, shall be lightly esteemed. 
 He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound 
 . judgement. 
 
 EULE III.— APPOSITION. 
 
 A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
 same case : as, 
 
 " But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
 Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." — Barhauld. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE HI. 
 
 Qua. \.—Appositwn ia the using of different words or appellations, to des- 
 ignate the same thing. Apposition also denotes the relation which exists be- 
 tween the words which are so employed. In parsing, rule third should be 
 applied only to the explaTUitory term ; because the case of the prmcmal term 
 depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some 
 otiier rule. 
 
 Obs. 2.— To this rule, there are properlv no exceptione. But there are many 
 puzzling examples under it, which the following observations are designed 
 to explain. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal term, with 
 which the other is in apposition ; and it generally is so : but the explanatory 
 word is sometimes placed first, especially among the poets ; as, 
 " From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, 
 Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." — TTumison. 
 
 Obs. 3.— The pronouns of the j^at and second persons are often prefixed to 
 nouns, merely to distinguish their person : as, " J John saw these things."— 
 
 This IS the stone which was set at nought of ymt builders." — BiHe. " His 
 praise, ye brooks, attune."— Thomson. In this case of apposition, the words 
 are closely united, and either of them may be taken as the explanatory term : 
 the learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule third. 
 
 Obs. 4.— When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposi- 
 tion, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of both or 
 bU : as, "^His brother jPhUtp's wife f—"John the Bapiiaffs head ;"— " At my 
 
CHAP. IlJ SYNTAX.— EULE' III.— APPOSITION. 161 
 
 /Hmd Johnaon's, the lookseUer." By a repetition of the possessive sign, a 
 distinct governing noun is implied, and the apposition is destroyed. 
 
 0b3. 5. — In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign, is sometimes 
 put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive ease; as, " As an author, 
 Iii» ' Adventurer' is his capital work." — Murray. 
 
 " Thus shall mankind to guardian care eng^e. 
 The promised/ai/ier of the future age." — Pope. 
 
 Obs. ^— When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, 
 the woB^ Vhich is repeated, may properly be said to be in apposition with 
 that wHoh is first introduced; as, "They have forsaken me, the Mmntain 
 of liviB|t_waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken dstems, that can 
 hold n(rwater."— Jsr., ii, 13. - 
 
 Oes. 7.— a npun is sometimes put in apposition to a sentence; as, "Ho 
 permitted me to consult his library — a kmdness which I shall not forget." 
 
 Obs. 8. — A distriimtwe term in the singular number, is frequently con- 
 strued in apposition with a comprehensive plural ; as, " They reap vanity, 
 every one with his neighbour." — £ible. " Go ye every man unto his city." — 
 Ihid. And sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series of par- 
 ticulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition,, interest, honour, all con- 
 curred." — Murray. " Eoyalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, 
 patriots, dSparties concurred in the illusion." — Hume. 
 
 ^ Oes. 9. — To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjec- 
 tives each other and one an other are emplojTed : as, " They love each other ;" 
 — " They love one an other.'''' The words, separately considered, are singular : 
 but, taken together, ^ey imply plurality ; and they Can be properly construed 
 only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. Each other is usually ap- 
 pUed to two objects ; and one an other, to more ^an two. The terms, though 
 reciprocal, and closely united, are never in the same construction. If such" 
 expressions be analyzed, eajih and one will generally appear to be in the nom- 
 inative case, and other in the objective; as, "They love each other;" i.e., 
 each loves the other. Each is properljr in apposition with they, and other is 
 governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions ; 
 as, " Be ye helpers one of an other." — Bible. Here one is in apposition with 
 ye, and oii^r ief governed by ^. "Ye are one an other''s joy." — Ii. Hereo«» 
 IB in apposition vrith ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed 
 hyjoy. " Love will make you ore« an oiler's joy." Here ore« is in the object- 
 ive case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as before. 
 The Zatin terms alius alium, alii alios, &e., sufficiently confirm this doctrine. 
 Obs. 10. — ^The common and ibeproper name ot an object are often associ- 
 ated, and put in apposition ; as. The river Thames, — The ship Albion, — ^The 
 poet Cowper, — Lake Erie, — Ca_pe May, — Mount Atlas. But t"he proper 
 name ofaplace, when accompanied by the common name, is generally put in 
 the objective case, and preceded by of; as, The city of New York, — The 
 land of Canaan. 
 
 Obs. 11. — The several proper rutmes which distinguish an individual, are 
 always in apposition, and should be taken together m parsing ; as, 'WiMam 
 Pitt, — Marcus TuUius Cicero. 
 
 X Obs. 12. — When an object acquires a new name or character from the ac- 
 tion of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the 
 active verb, and in the nominative after the passive : as, " They named the 
 ehOd John ;"—" The child was named John."—" They elected him president;" 
 — "M was eleatei president." After the active verb, the acquired name 
 must be parsed by Bule 3d ; after the passive, by Eule 21st. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER EULE III. — ^APPOSITION. 
 
 I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here 
 last week. 
 
 [FoRMFLE. — ^Not proper, becaTi8e the nomina^vo pronoun she is used tp explain the 
 objective noon cousin. But, according to K. {^Sd, "Anoun or a personal pronoun 
 
 14* 
 
162 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAETHI. 
 
 used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in tlie same case." 
 Therefore, she sliould be Iter; thus, I liave received a letter from my cousin, Aer that 
 was here last week.} f ^ 
 
 The book is a present from my brother Richard, Xe that keeps 
 the bookstore. /t^i^.i^v- 
 
 I am going to see my friends in the country, i&ey that we met 
 at the ferry. X;^ 
 
 This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, S«o that we 
 saw at work. JI. 
 
 Dennis, the gardener, SAjn that gave me the tulips, has prom- 
 ised me a piony. 
 
 ,1 Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
 ' Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and hiHi -'■'■^'^_. 
 Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
 Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
 Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 
 
 RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns : as, " He is a 
 wise man, though he is young." 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST. 
 
 An adjective sometimes relates to apAraee or sentetice which is made the 
 Bubject of an intervening verb ; as, "2!; inrnlt theafflieted, is immous."— 
 Diuwyn, "That he should refuse, is not strange." 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 With an infinitive or a participle denoting heing or action in the abstract, 
 an adjective is sometimes also t^ken abstractly; (that is, without reference 
 to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject ;) as, " To be sincere, is to 
 be wise, innocent, and safe.'''' — HawTceaworih. " Cwmeiki marks the abstract 
 quality of being ahle to receive or hold." — CrabVs Syrumymes. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IV. 
 
 Oes. 1. — Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, "The nine" 
 [«!««««].—" Philip was one of the seven" HeacoTisl.—Acts, xxi, 8. "He cama 
 unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received him not."— John, i 
 11. " The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a 
 mighty [God], and a terrible" [God].—Z>eut., x, IT. 
 
 Oes. 2.— In as much as qualities belong only to things, most grammarians 
 teach that every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood ; 
 and suppose a countless number of unnecessary ellipses. But it is evident 
 that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to 
 pronmns,^ and, through them, to the nouns they represent. This is still 
 more obviously the case, m some other languages, as may be seen by the 
 following .examples, which retain eomethins of the Greeh idiom : "AU ye are 
 brethren."— J&«., xxm, 8. • " Whether of iAm twain did the will of his 
 father?"— Jfatt., xxi, 31. 
 
 Ohs._3.— When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed hv a 
 noun, It generally relates to the sufffect of the verb; as, "/am olad that Uie 
 &(W is made miie.''-" Every thing which is false, vicions, or mworih/.h 
 despicme to Wm, though all the world should approve iV~SpectaU>r No. 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 163 
 
 B20. Hereyafe«, vicimia, and vnworthy, relate to wMch; and despuxMc relates 
 to thing. 
 
 Obs. 4. — When an adjective follows an infinitive or a partioiplej the noun 
 or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes after 
 it, and often considerably remote ; as, " A real gentleman cannot but practise 
 those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, he has found to 
 be use/id to them." — "He [a melancholy enthusiast] thinks iim««|/' obliged 
 in duty to be sad and diaconsolate." — Addison. " He is scandalized at yovih 
 for being livdy, and at childhood for being playfuV — Id. " But growing 
 weary of one who almost walked him out of breath, he left him for Horace 
 and Auaoreon." — Steele. 
 
 Obs. 5. — ^Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by 
 ellipsis, as havmg the force of rumns. They designate those classes of objects 
 which are characterized by the qualities they express ; and, in parsing, the 
 noun may be supplied. They are most commonly of the plural number, and 
 refer to persom, places, or things, understood ; as, " The careless [^persons] 
 and the vmprudmt, the giddy and ihe fickle, the ungrateful and the witerested 
 everywhere meet us." — Blair. 
 
 " Together let us beat this ample field, 
 Try what the open [places], what the covert, yield." — Pope. 
 
 Obs. 6. — ^The adjective is generally placed immediately before its nmin ; as, 
 *' Vain man ! is grandeur given to gay attire ?" — Beattie, 
 
 Obs. 7. — Those adjectives which relate to pronouns most commonly ybKcw 
 ihem ; as, " They left me weary on a grassy turf." — Milton. 
 
 Obs. 8. — In the following instances, the adjective is placed after the noun 
 to which it relates : 
 
 1. "When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A mind conscious of 
 right,"—" A wall three feet thick.'''' 
 
 2. When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Virtue renders 
 life happy." 
 
 8. when the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive ; as, " Good- 
 ness i/niinMe,'" — *' Wisdom unsearchable.'^ 
 
 4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun ; as, " Truth 
 stands independent of all external things." — Burgh. 
 
 Obs. 9. — In some cases, the adjective may either precede or follow the 
 noun : as, 
 
 1. In poetry; as, 
 
 " Wilt thou to the isles 
 Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime. 
 Fly in the train of Autumn ?" — AJcenside. 
 
 2. In some technical expressions; as, "A notary public," or, "A public 
 notary." 
 
 3. When an adverb precedes the adjective ; as, "A Being infinitely wise," 
 or, " An infinitely wise Being." 
 
 * 4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun ; as, " A woman, 
 modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous wo- 
 man." 
 
 Obs. 10. — An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the sentence, though 
 it belong after the verb; as, '■'■Weighty is the anger of the righteous." — 
 BMe. 
 
 Obs. 11. — By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before 
 it, ia sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, "In particvktr j" that is, in a 
 particular manner; equivalent \o " partieiUarly." In parsmg, supply th« 
 ellipsis. [See Obs. 2d, under Bvle zxii.] 
 
 NOTES TO RULE IV. 
 
 Note I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must 
 agree with their nouns in number ; as. That sort, those sorts. 
 NoTK II. — When the adjective is necessarily plural, or neces- 
 
164 ETgnrUTES of ElfGUSH 6BAHMAB, [PABTin. 
 
 sarily angolaf, the noun should be made so too ; as, "ISeenb^ 
 pounds" — noV' Twenty />OH»Mi;" — "^One session," — not, "One 
 
 sessions." 
 
 Osa. l.—ln some pecoliarphnses, this role appeaiB to be diar^arded; as^ 
 "7ie0]imdndpammmrthofhKadmnctBnmeieiA.''-^oi»,yi,'l. "IfaM^ 
 tail ol-nae^*^" A hundred iead of estae." 
 
 Obs. S. — To denote a collective number, a mngnlar adjectire rasr precede 
 a plural one; aa. "One hundred men," — "Maery six weds," — "Ont seven 
 times."— ZteL, in, 19. 
 
 Oaa. S. — ^To denote phirali^, the adjeetiT* many may, in like manner, pie> 
 cede an or a vith a mngular nomi ; as, 
 
 " Fan manff a flower w iom to blosh nnseen. 
 And waste tfe sweetness on the desert air. " Cray. 
 
 NoTs in — The r«3iprocal expression, one an other, should 
 not be applied to Aoo~Sljec^, nor eae& other, or one the other, 
 to more than two : because reeiptodty between two is somie 
 act or relation of each or one to &e other, an object definite, 
 and not of one to an other, which is indefinite ; but reciprocity 
 among tiiree or more is of one, eadi, or every one, not to ont 
 other solely, or the oilier d^nitely, but to others, a plurality, 
 or to an other, taken indefinitely and implying this plurality. 
 
 Note IV. — ^The comparatiTe degree can only be used in 
 reference to two objects, or classes of objects ; the superlatire 
 compares one or more things with aU others of the same class, 
 ■whether few or many : as, "Edward is taller than James; he 
 is the larffest of raj scholars." 
 
 Note V. — ^When the comparative degree is employed, the 
 latter term of comparison should never include the former; as, 
 "Iron is more useM than all the metals" It should be, "dian 
 }fU the o&er metalsJ' 
 
 Note VL — Wh«i lie superlative d^ree is employed, the ^ 
 latter term of comparison should never exclude the former; as, 
 " A fondness for show, is, of aU otiier fellies, the most vain." 
 Hie word o&er should be eizpunged. 
 
 Note VU. — Comparative terminatiiHiSi, and adverbs of de- 
 gree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not siisceptiUe 
 of comparison ; and all double comparatives and double super- 
 latives should be avoided : as, "iSo universal a complaint :" 
 say, "So general." — "Some less nobler plunder:" say, "few 
 noble." — " The most straitest sect :• expunge most, y 
 
 Note VIII. — When adjectives are connected by o»2, or, or 
 nor, the shortest and simplest should in general beplac^fir^; 
 as, " He is older and more respectable than his brother." 
 
 Note IX. — ^An adjective and its noun may be taken as a 
 compound term, to which other ac^eetives mliy be prefixed. 
 The most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to 
 the noun : as, "A fine young man," — ^not, "A young fine man." 
 
CHAP.nJ SYNTAX.— BULB IV.— ADJECTIVES. 165 
 
 NoTB X. — In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is im- 
 proper: as, "He writes elegant;" — say, "elegantly.'" 
 
 Obs. 1. — la poetry, an adjective relating to tlie noun or pronoun, is some- 
 times elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or paraoiple ; as, 
 " To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
 QmHnval climb." — I'homson. 
 
 Obs. 2.— In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective or 
 an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions 
 of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, mial- 
 ity or jna»n«r is to be expressed : if the former, an ac^ective is proper: if 
 the latter, iji adverb. The following examples will illustrate this point : 
 "She looks ooW,'— she looks coldiy on him." — " I sat sUmt ^—1 sat aienUy 
 musing." — "Stand^n»,-^maintam your e&vaa firmly." 
 
 NoTB XI. — The pronoun iJiem should never be used as an 
 adjective in lieu of those : say, " I bought those books," — ^not, 
 " them books." This is a vulgar error. 
 
 Note XII. — When the pronominal adjectives, Ms and that, 
 or these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent 
 the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the former ; 
 
 " And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
 
 In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
 " Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
 My peace with these, my love with those !" — Bums. 
 Note XIII.^-The pronominal adjectives each, one, either, and 
 neither', are, always in the third person singular ; and, when 
 they are the leading words in their clauses, they require verbs 
 and pronouns, to agree with them accordingly : as, "Mich of 
 you is entitled to Am share." — " Let no one deceive himself." 
 
 Note XIV. — ^The pronominal adjectives either and neither 
 relate to two things only ; when more are referred to, any and 
 naneskould be used in stead of them : as, "Any of the three ;" 
 —not, "Mther of the three."— "iVbne of the four ;"— not, "JV«- 
 ther of the four." 
 
 Note XV. — Particip!i^ adjectives retain the termination, 
 but not the government, of participles ; when, therefore, they 
 are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be in- 
 serted to govern it : as, " The man who is most sparing of iiia 
 words, is generally most deserving o/' attention." 
 
 FALSE STNTAX UNDER EX7LE IV. — ADJECTIVES. 
 Examples under Note I. — Of Agreement. 
 Those sort of people you will find to be troublesome. 
 
 [FoBHinj. — ^Not proper, liecause the a^'ective ihoM Is in the plural nrnnber, and 
 do«5 not agree with its noun sort, which ia singrular. Bat, according to Note let under 
 Enlo 4th, "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with thuir nouns In 
 number." Thepefoite, Ihote should bo that; tins, That sort of people you wiU find to 
 be tJroabi»soine.J 
 
166 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PABT m. 
 
 Things of these sort are easily understood. 
 
 Who broke that tongs'? • 
 
 Where did I drop tKf scissors ? 
 
 Bring out that pats. 
 
 Extinguish thaifembers. 
 
 I disregard this minutiae. 
 
 Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 
 
 What was the height of Aese gallows which Haman erected? 
 
 Under Note 2. — Of Fixed Numbers. 
 
 We rode about ten mile'an hour. 
 
 'Tis for a thousand pound.. — Cowper. 
 
 How deep is the water ? ^Miout six fathom«J 
 
 The lot is twenty -five fe«f wide. 
 
 I have bought eight loaipf wood. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Of Reciprocals. 
 
 Two negatives in English destroy one another. — Lowth. 
 That the heathens tolerated each xtther, is allowed. 
 David and Jonathan loved oae aitt: other tenderly;.. 
 Words are derived from eacp' Other in various Ways. 
 Teachers like to see their pupils polite "to each other. 
 The Graces always hold t he on e the other by the hand. 
 
 , Under Note 4. — Of Degrees. 
 He chose the latter of these three. / • ,' 
 
 IVissyllables are often accented on the forpier syllable. 
 Which are the two moce remarkable isthmuses in the world! 
 
 Under Note 5. — Of Comparatives. 
 The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 
 The Russian empire is more extensive than any government 
 
 in the world. 
 Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was 
 
 the son of his old age. — Gen., xxx^ 3.'; 
 
 Under Note &.— Of Superlatives. 
 Of all other ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 
 Eve was the fairest of all-her-daughters. • ' 
 Hope is the most constant of all the e*h«r passions. 
 
 Under, Note 1.— Extra Comparisons. 
 That opinion is too universal tp be easily corrected. 
 Virtue confers the stpremest dignity upon man. 
 How much more are ya better than the fowls \—Luke xiL 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 1J7 
 
 Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest. — Ssdras, iv. 
 This was the most unkindest out of all, — Sha^speare. 
 The watei's are more sooner and harder frozen. — Versteffan. 
 A more healtliier place cannot be found. 
 The best and the most wisest men often meet with discourage- 
 ments. 
 
 Under Note 8. — Ac^ectives Connected. 
 
 ITe showed ns a more agreeable and easier way;. 
 This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
 Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 
 This is an honourable and ancient fraternity. 
 There vice shall meet an irrevocable and &tal doom. 
 
 Under Note 9. — Adjectives Preyed. 
 
 Ho is a young industrious man. 
 
 She has a new elegant house. 
 
 The two first classes have read. 
 
 The oldest two sons have removed to the westwai'd. 
 
 England had not seen s«m)i an ^ th ay king. — Goldsmith, 
 
 Under Note 10. — Adjectives Jbr Adverbs. 
 
 She reads well and writes neat. 
 , He was extreme prodigal. 
 They went, conformable to their engagement. 
 He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 
 The deepest streams run the most ^ent. 
 These appear to be finished the neatest. 
 He was soaice gone when you arrived. 
 I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 
 The work was uncommon well executed. 
 This is not sud> a lai^e o^o as the last. 
 Thou knowst ^8f a gqodTiorse mine is. 
 I cannot think so vaempf him. 
 He acted^l^i&iwise^ehau the others. 
 
 UndeVNote U.—Themjbr Those. 
 
 I bought them books at a very low price. 
 
 Go and tell them boys to be still. 
 
 I have several copies : thou art welcome to them two. 
 
 Which of them three men is the most useful >. 
 
 Under Note 12.— This and That. 
 
 Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is the 
 anticipation of good, that of evil. 
 
168 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PART III, 
 
 The poor vant some advantages which the rich ,^nJ9v ; but we 
 should not therefore account thogdhappy, and theaelniserable. 
 I Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
 ' iChjs pointing back to youth, ^th^i oa to age, 
 
 Under Note 13. — -/Motch, One, <&c. 
 Let each of them be heard in tfeif turn. 
 On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keeptjths sab- 
 bath. — Irenmus. 
 54^ either of these men known 1 
 No : neither of them h4^e°any connexions here. 
 
 Under Note 14^^Miher and Neither. 
 Did either of the comply stop to assist you ? 
 Here are six ; but nSS|^¥ of them will answer. 
 
 Under Note 15. — Participial Adjectives. 
 
 Some crimes are thought deservingj&eatji. 
 
 Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming gentleman. 
 
 To eat with unwashen hands, was disgusting'% Jew. 
 Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, * 
 To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. — Bryden. 
 
 RULE v.— PRONOUNS. 
 A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
 noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number 
 and gender: as, "This is the friend of wAowz /spoke •' 
 7ie has just arrived."—" This is the book which /bought ; 
 U IS an excellent work."—" Ye, therefore, who love 
 mercy, teach your sons to love it too." — Cowper. 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST. 
 
 When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite or wnhnown to 
 
 ^^?l J» ''^'"■' *•"' T,^** '' °°* ^'T'ly "PPlieaWe ■ because the person, number, 
 
 ^^?£ °^1'' r ™*",»«=*»m,«d than regulated by an antecedent : 'as, "I do 
 
 not care wU knows iV'-SteeU. " Who touched me S TeU me wlioti was." 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND, 
 The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other crea- 
 tures mascu^me or feminine by natuk when they Ire not obviously distta- 
 gmshable with regard to sex ; as, " Which is the real friend t^the to the 
 person who gives_t< the sweetmeats, or the person who, cons dering Sv S 
 tealth, resists »fe importunities r-Opie. "^He loads the a»S he is sK 
 
 %U^^Zke. «*^^«WZ« sings most sweetly when it sings in the 
 
 EXCEPTION THIRD. 
 
 The pronoun it is often used without a deflnita reference to any anteoe- 
 
CHAP. II.J SYNTAX.— RULE V.— PBONOUNS. 169 
 
 i 
 
 dent, and is Bomatimes a mere expletive ; as, " Whether she grapple it with 
 the pride of philosophy." — OhaXmers. 
 
 " Come, and trip * as you go 
 On the light rantostio toe." — MXUon, 
 
 EXCEPTION FOURTH. 
 
 A singular antecedent wi\h the adjective rrumy, Bometunes admits a plural 
 pronoun, bat never in the same clause ; as, 
 
 " In Hawick twinkled mamy a KpM, 
 Sehitxd him soon tJiey set in mght,"— fT, Scott, 
 
 EXCEPTION FIFTH. 
 
 When a plural pronoun is put by enallaga for the' singular, it does not 
 agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb ; as, 
 " rTo [Lindley Murray] have fMowei those authors." — Murray's Gram., 8vo, 
 p. 2d. " W« ahaU Uote our remarks on this Bubioct.""-ii, "My lord, you 
 IcnoiB I love ^«." — SkaJapeare. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE V. 
 
 Obs. 1. — ^The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself and 
 others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of fiction, 
 in stead of the singular, to iniamate that the speaker is not alone in his opin- 
 ions. Monarchs sometimes join it to a singular noun ; as, " We Alexander, 
 Autocrat of all the Eussias." They also employ the compound owrtelf, which 
 is not used by other people. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The pronoun ycm, though originally and properly plural, is now gen- 
 eriUly applied alike to one person or to more. [See Ois. 2ffl, page 71.1 This 
 nsi^e, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is estaolished by that 
 authority ogunst which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remon- 
 strate. We do not, however; think it necessary or advisable, to encumber 
 the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing this pronoun and the 
 corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is manifestly better to say 
 that the plural is used /or the singular, by the figuJe Eaallage. This change 
 has introduced the compound youndf, which is used in stead of " 
 
 Obs. S.— The general usage of the Freiuih is like that of the Englim, you 
 for thou; but Spanish, Portuguese, and German politeness requires that the 
 third person be substituted mr the second. And,' when they would be very 
 courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, as iAey for thmi. 
 Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person : as, they, denot- 
 ing the highest degree of respect ; he, a less degree ; you, a degree stiU less ; 
 and t!um, none at Si, or absolute reproach. Tet, even among them, the last 
 is used as a term of endearment to children, and of veneration to God ! 
 
 Obs 4.— Such perversions of the original and proper use of language, are 
 doubtless matters of considerable moment. These changes in the use of the 
 pronouns being evidently a sort of complimentary fations, some have made it 
 a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have pubhshed their rea- 
 sons for so doing. But the moral objections which may lie against such or 
 any other applications of words, do not come vrithin the grammarian's prov- 
 ince. Let eve^ one consider for himself the moral bearing of what he 
 utters. [See Mittheu), xii, 36 and 37.] 
 
 Obs. 5. — When ajironoun represents the name of an inanimate object pi»r- 
 $oniJied, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the literal 
 sense ; [See the figure Syllepsis, in past rv ;] as, 
 
 "P^nce dreams her life away." — Sogers. 
 
 " Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." — Id. 
 
 Obb. 6. — When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun 
 agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense ; as, " Pitt was the 
 piilar which upheld the state." — " The monarch of mountains rears his 
 snowy head." [See Figures, ui past iv.] 
 
 8 
 
170 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET m. 
 
 Obs. 7. — When the antecedent is pat by tnetonymy for a noun of different 
 properties, the pronoun sometimes ag§ee3 with it in the figurative, and 
 sometimes in the literal sense ; as, 
 
 "The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold. 
 Fierce drags the bleating ^«^, ne'er drunk 1i£r Tnilh-^ 
 Nor wore ner warming fleece." — Hwmaon. 
 " That each may fill the circle mark'd hj Bknert, 
 Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
 A hero perish or a^parrow fell." — Pope. 
 " And heaven beholds its image in his breast." — Id. 
 Obs. 8. — ^When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than 
 it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in 
 the literal sense ; as, - 
 
 " A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." — Thomson, 
 " But, to the generous still improving mind, 
 Tkatpyes, the hopeless heart to sing for joy, 
 To hkn the long review of ordered life 
 Is inward rapture only to be felt."— 7;^. 
 Obs. 9.— Pronouns usually /oSoai the words which they represent- bnt 
 this order IS sometimes reversed : as, " WTwm the cap fits, let him put it on." 
 —"Hark! i!fey whisper; angels sa.j,'''' &a. r "• 
 
 Obs. 10.— a pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or sentence; and in 
 this case, the pronoun is always in tlie third person singular neuter: as 
 "bhew wry Jtandsome: and she has the misfortune to know »*."-" Yet men 
 can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity; which is to talk and act as if 
 they had a demonstration of its felsehood." — Bp. Butler. 
 
 Obs. 11.— When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb be- 
 tween them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either 
 otthem, Ut not with the same meaning; as, 1. "I am the man who com- 
 mand; here, mi&j command belongs to the subject /, and the meanine is 
 I who command, am the man." (The latter expression places therSvo 
 nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "I am the man 
 who commands :" here, wha commands belongs to the predicate Tnan, and 
 the meaning is, " I am the commander." 
 
 Obs. 12.— Ailer the expletive it, which may be employed to introduce a 
 noun or pronoun of any person number, or gender, the above-mentioned 
 d^stiuction IS generally disregarded ; and the relative is made to agree with 
 the latter word: as, "/< is not I tha do it." The propriety of this construc- 
 tion is questionable. c r j 
 .S^' ^^'T^^l pronoun it frequently refers to something mentioned in the 
 subsequent part of the sentence. Ttis pronoun is a ne^ssary expletive at 
 the commencement ot a sentence in which the verb is followed by a clause 
 which, by transposition, may be made the subject of the verb : as, "/* is im- 
 ^iSiU&^plmse every orcc^'-^^Ityfoa requisite that the papers should besent:' 
 
 »™L tri? • ° 1 *"*^'^'^T^J'''?"°'™'' '^^ placed at or near the J^ 
 
 gmmy ot their own clauses ; and the learner must observe that, through 
 all their oases, fhey almost invariably retain this situation in the senten^ 
 and are often found before their verbs when the order of constrection woS 
 reverse this arrangement: as "He who preserves me, to™to» I oweiny 
 being «.7,<„« I am, and wh>m i serve, is etemuV^-Murrav "Wh^ broSa 
 can tell us wh, they arer-Fope. " He whom you sJi7~lJ,tt 
 .q„^f ^S;-^'ery relative pronoun, being the representative of some antece- 
 dent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person numbeTandse^ 
 der, but not its c^e By taking an other relation of cLe"'i? Mpfto form ^ 
 other clause; and by retaining the essential meaS of ite anteSnT 
 serves to connect this clause te that in which the nX3„^; ."^, ^"tj'^a^h 
 atives, therefore, cannot be used in al ininend M sS '' ^T*^" ^'" 
 withasubinnctive vr-.rl%. K„t i;i,„ „n, '"lepenat-nt simple sentence, nor 
 witii a suDjunctne verb, but, like other connectives, thevbelonir nt thp hpnd 
 of a clause m a compound sentence, and thev exclndrA^^T:, ?• . 
 
 when two such clauis ;,rc to be joined togc?Lr- a° "Slf -r,!' ""*P' 
 uho feareth the Lord, and wh> keipeth his com^mliienta!" ^ """^^ 
 
CHAP. II.J SYNTAX.— RULE V.— PEONOUNS. 171 
 
 Obs. 16. — The special rules commonly given by tlie grammarians, for tho 
 oonstraotion of relatives, aae both unnecessary and faulty. It usually takes 
 two rules to parse a pronoun ; one for its agreement with the noun or nouns 
 which it represents, and the other for its case. But neither relatives nor in- 
 terrogatives require any special rules for the construction of their cases, be- 
 cause the general rules for the cases apply to pronouns as well aa to nouns. 
 And both relatives and interrogatives genersflly admit eveiy construction 
 common to nouns, except apposition. Let the learner parse the following 
 examples : — 
 
 1. mmunatims ly Mule 2d: "I who write; — ^Thon w!u> writest: — "Eewho 
 writes; — ^the animal wAich runs." — Dr. Adam. "He that spareth his rod, 
 hateth his son." — Solomon. "He who does any thing whush he knows is 
 wrong, is a sinner." — " What will become of us without religion ?" — EUmr. 
 " Hei« I determined to wait the hand of death ; which, I hope, when at last 
 it comes, vnUfdlZ lightly upon me." — Dr. Johnson. " What is sudden and 
 unaccountable, serves to confound." — Orabb. " They only are wise, who a/re 
 wise to salvation." — Goodwvn.. 
 
 2. MmmaHvesti/Svle21st: "TOo art thou?" — "What -were we i" — Sible, 
 " Do not tell them who I am." — "JLet him be who he may, he is not the 
 honest fellow that he seemed." — " The general conduct of mankind is neither 
 what it was designed, nor what it ought to be." 
 
 3. I/dminatives absolute iy Sule 25th: "Theie are certain bounds to im- 
 prudence and misbehaviour, which ieinff transgressed, there remains no place 
 for repentance in the natural course of things." — £p. Mutler. This construc- 
 tion of the relative is a LaHm,sm, and very seldom used by the best English 
 writers; 
 
 4. Possessives by SvU 19th: "The chief man of the island, whose name 
 was Publius." — Acts. '* Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none 
 can escape." — Dr. Johkson. " To contemplate on Him whj)se yoke is easy 
 and whose burden is light." — Steele. 
 
 5. OMeetiiies by Sule 20th : " Those «iXom she persuaded." — Dr. Johnson^ 
 " The cloak that I left at Troas."— 5i. PomZ. " By the things which he sui- 
 fered." — Id. " A man whom there is reason to suspect.''—" WTuit are wo 
 to do?" — Burie. "Love refiiseth nothing that love sends." — Gumall. 
 " Whomsoever you please to appoint." — £owm. " Whatsoever he doeth, shall 
 prosper." — BwU. " What we are afraid to do before men, we should be 
 afraid to think before God." — ^bs. " Shall I hide from Abraham that thing 
 which I do V—Gea., xviii, 32. '< Shall I hide from Abraham what I do ?" — 
 " Call imperfection what thou finciest such." — Pope. 
 
 6. Objeclme* by Bide 21st: " He is not the man that I took him to be." — 
 " Whom did you suppose me to be ?" — " Let the lad become what you wish 
 him to be." 
 
 7. OlnecHms by Btde i2d; " To whom shall we go?" — Bible. " The laws 
 by whim the world is governed, are general." — Butler. " Whom he looks 
 upon as his defender.'' — Addison. "That secret heaviness of heart which 
 unthinking men are subject to." — Id. " I cannot but think the loss of such 
 talents as the man of whom I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy 
 instance." — Steele. 
 
 Obs. 17. — In femiliar language, the relative in the objectiee case is fre- 
 quently understood; aa, "Here is the letter [whieh'] I received." The omis- 
 sion of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant ; as, " This is the 
 worst thing [tJioi] could happen." The latter ellipsis sometimes occurs in 
 poetry; as, -«. 
 
 " In this 'tis God — directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
 Obs. 18. — ^The anteeedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry; 
 as, "How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed." — 
 JfimJ)., zxiii, 8. 
 
 \Ee\ "Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 
 [5eJ Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." — Yovm^. 
 Obs. 19. — What is sometimes used adwrUaV/y; as, "Though I forbear, 
 vhai am I eased P'^bS, xvi, 6. — That is, howmmohf or wherein f "The 
 
172 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART III. 
 
 enemy having Ms country wasted, vihM by himself and what by the soldiers, 
 flndeth succour in no place." — Spenser. Here vihai means ^fflr%, — "wasted 
 partly by himself and ^ort^y by the soldiers." 
 Obs. 20. — What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 
 
 "^n^^' ^^'^ ^ sleeve? 'tis like a demi-cannon." — Shakapeare. 
 " What! can you lull the winged winds asleep ? — Gampoell. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE V. 
 
 Note I. — A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion 
 •with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to 
 an other pronoun ; as, 
 
 " My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 
 
 Obs.— This is only an example ot pleonasm; which is allowable and fre- 
 quent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other.- [See Pleonasm in 
 PAET rv.] ' 
 
 Note II. — A change of number in the second person, is in. 
 elegant and improper ; as, " You wept, and I for thee." 
 
 Obs.— Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the harshn«ss 
 of the verb in the second person singular; as, 
 
 " As, in that lov'd Athenian bower, 
 You learn'd an all commanding power. 
 Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd ! 
 Can well recall what then it heard." — Columns. 
 Note III. — The relative who is applied only to persons, and 
 to animals personified ; and which, to brute animals and inani- 
 mate things : as, " The judge who presided ;"— " The old crab 
 who advised the young one ;" — " The horse which ran ;"— " The 
 book which was given me." 
 
 Oes.— Which, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons ; as, " Our 
 MtJ^ mM art in heaven."— ^»fe. It may still be aJpUed to a young 
 child ; as "The child which died."-0r even to adults, when they are 
 spoken of without regard to a distinct personaUty or identity : as, " WJiwh of 
 you wdl go ;"— " Crabb knpweth not which is which, himself or his parodist." 
 
 Note IV.— Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons 
 directly as such, should not be represented by the relative 
 who: to say, "The/a»i% whom I visited," would hardly be 
 proper ; that would here be better. When such nouns are 
 strwtly of the neuter gender, which may represent them; as, 
 
 Ihe committees which were appointed." 
 
 Note V.— A proper name taken merely as a name, or an 
 appellative taken m any sense not strictly personal, must ba 
 represented by which, and not by who; as, " Herod— w^AicA is 
 but another name for cruelty."-" In every prescription of 
 duty, Grod proposeth himself as a rewarder; which he ia only 
 to those that please him." — Dr. J. Owen. 
 
 Note VI —The relative that may be'applied either to per- 
 sons or to thmgs. In the following cases, it is generally Jre- 
 ferable to who or which, unless it be necessary to use a prepo- 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE V.— PRONOUNS. 178 
 
 sition before the relative : — 1. After an adjective of the super- 
 lative degree, when the relative clause is restrictive ; as, " He 
 was ihe first that came." — 2. After the adjective same, to ex- 
 plain its import ; as, " This is the same person that I met be- 
 fore." — 3. After the antecedent who ; as, " Who that has com- 
 mon sense, can think so ?" — 4. After a joint reference to per- 
 sons and things ; as, " He spoke of the men and things that ho 
 had seen."--5. After an unlimited antecedent, which the rela- 
 tive and its verb are to restrict; as, " Thoughts ^Aa<*breathe, 
 and words that burn." — 6. After an antecedent introduced by 
 the expletive j7; as, '■'■It is you that command." — "/< was I 
 that did it." — ^7. And, in general, where the propriety of who 
 or which is doubtftil ; as, " The little child that was placed in 
 the midst." 
 
 Note VII. — When several relative clauses come in succes- 
 sion, and have a similar dependence in respect to the antece- 
 dent, the same pronoun must be employed in each ; as, " O 
 thou who art, and who wast, and who art to come !" — " And 
 they shall spread tliem before the sun, and the moon, and all 
 the host of heaven, whom they have loved, and whom they have 
 served, and after whom they have walked, and whom they have 
 sought, and whom they have worshipped." — Jer., viii, 2. 
 
 Note VIII.— The relative, and the preposition governing it, 
 should not be omitted, When they are necessary to give con- 
 nexion to. the sentence ;\as, "He is still in the situation \in 
 whicK\ you saw him." 
 
 Note IX. 7— An adverb should not be used where a preposi- ' 
 tion and a relative pronoun would better express the-- relation 
 of the terms; as, "A cause where [for in wAichJ justice is so 
 much concerned." y^ 
 
 Note X. — ^Where a pronoim or a pronominal adjective will 
 not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, 
 or inserted in stead of it. Example : " We see the beautiful 
 variety of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the 
 cause of iV [ — ^that variety]. - .^ 
 
 Note XI.^ — ^To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative 
 should be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The 
 following sentence is tkerefore faulty : " He is like a beast of 
 prey, that is void of compassion." Better : " He that is void 
 of compassion, is likeik beast of prey." 
 
 Note XII. — The pronoun what should never be used in 
 stead of the conjunciion that; as, " He will not believe but 
 what I am to blame." What should be that. 
 
 Note XIII. — ^A prpnoun should not be used to represent an 
 adjective ; becjjijp yisitl neither express a concrete (quality as 
 
174 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 such, nor convert it properly into an abstract. Example: 
 "Be attentive ; without which you will learn nothing." Better-. 
 " Be attentive ; for without attention you will learn nothing." 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 No person should be censured for being careful of their rep- 
 utation. 
 
 [FoKmrLE.— Not proper, beoanso the pronoun their is of the plural number and 
 does not correctly represent ita antecedent noun person, which is of the third nors.!, 
 OTMS-irfac masculine. But, according to Eule Bth, "A pronoun must agree irtth ite 
 antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and em. 
 ■.. , inorefore, thm.r should be Ms ; thus, No person should bo oeiismed for h?)n» 
 careful ot^iB reputation.] uemg 
 
 Every one must judge of their own feelings. — Byron. 
 
 Can any person, on their entrance into the world, be fully se- 
 cure that they shall not be deceived ? 
 
 He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 
 
 I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 
 
 .Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 
 
 Take up the tongs, and put it in its place. 
 
 Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
 
 A person may make themselves happy without riches. 
 
 Every man should try to provide for themselves. 
 
 The mind of man should not be left without something on 
 which to employ his energies. 
 
 An idler is a watch that wants both hands. 
 As useless if he goes, as when he stands. 
 Under Note 1. — Pronouns Wrong or Needless. 
 
 Many words thsjj darken speech. 
 
 These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 
 
 These people ftiej are all very ignorant. 
 
 Asa ^ heart was perfect with the Lord. 
 
 Who, in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 
 intent upon doing mischief —rz'/fo^ww. ^ 
 
 Whom ye delivered up, and denied % i„ the presence of 
 Pontius Pilate. — Acts, iii, 13. . , 
 
 Whom when they had washed, they laid her in an upper 
 chamber. — Acts, ix, 37. 
 
 What I have mentioned, there are witnesses of the fact. 
 
 What he said, he is now sorry for it. \ 
 
 '^''r'ati3hem ''^"^''°''"'^ ^^^''^ conditi'ons, she immediately 
 
 This incident though it appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt 
 the author's veracity. 
 
 Under Note ^.— Change of\Numher. 
 Thou art my father's brother, else wo^cessary .^^g y^ ? -. 
 
CHAP, n.] SYNTAX.— EULE V.— PRONOUNS. 175 
 
 Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness i^iot. 
 
 Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon J^ fault. 
 You draw the inspiring breath of ancient swg, 
 Till nobly rises emulous thy own. — Thomson. 
 
 Vhd^ MieS.— Of Who and Which. 
 This is the horse_ iiJinm my, father imported. 
 Those are the birds islij^ ■frft'eaJl m-effiirious. 
 He has two brothers, one^ ^^§0^ ^* acquainted with. 
 What was that creature'wnSiirJob called leviathan? 
 Those wfll^desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 
 
 which isr^ht.A,^l^ 
 A butterfly fl^ri^ Wiought himself an accomplished traveller, 
 
 happened to light upon a bee-hive. //■/.' 
 There was a certain householder wUdi planted a vineyard. 
 
 Under Note 4. — NounA of Multitude. 
 He instructedf a*id>fed the crowds mbo surrounded him. 
 The court, ^«fo' has* great influence upon the public manners, 
 
 ought to be Y&VYi ei^mplary. , 
 
 The wild tribes ^SQ.'ln!iabit the wilderness, contemplate the 
 
 ocean with astonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens 
 
 with delight. 
 
 J /. / , Under Note 5. — Mere Names. 
 
 Judas (who is now another name for treachegr) betrayed bis 
 
 master with a kiss. AiJ / , 
 
 He alluded to Phalaris, — ^wno is a name for all that j§ crueL 
 
 Un^f ffote 6.— That Preferable. 
 
 He was the first vma' entered.'%^ ,' ' 
 
 He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 
 
 This is the same man whom we saw before. 
 
 Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green? 
 
 The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 
 
 Men who are avaricious, never have enough; 
 
 All which I have, is thine. 
 
 Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door ? 
 
 It was not I who shut it. 
 
 The babe who was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Relative Clauses Connected. 
 
 H[e is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and 
 -•r-'who will not do a dishonourable act. 
 The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, will 
 never be able to visit us again. 
 
176 mSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 The curiosities which he has brought home, and"that. we shall 
 have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 
 
 Under Note i.-^Relcitive and Preposition. 
 
 Observe them in the order they stand.' ' ,// 
 We proceeded immediately to the place we were directed. 
 My companion remained a week in the state I left him. 
 The way I do it, is this. M i i\ 
 
 Under Note. 9. — Adverhs .for Relatives. 
 Remember the CMiditid?! whence thou^rt rescued. 
 I know of no rule ^fS^ii micfhe ^one. 
 He drew up a petition,' ■^hfii'6 he t3p freely represented his own 
 
 merits. _ ' ^ j,^, jI l, /', 
 
 The hour is hastening, vmesa whatever praise or censure I have 
 
 acquired, will be remembered with equal indiiference. 
 
 Under Note 10. — Repeat the Noun. 
 
 Many w/l^ apljnowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 
 ' tell w&^EfiaiUt. consists. ' , ■ { 
 
 Every difference of opinion is not tl»^t of principle. 
 Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves ,seem3 most 
 worthy of our endeavour. ; / / ^ , , 
 
 - . ,.^MS^T NoteW . — Place of the Belatfie^ d 
 Thou art thyself" the man that committed tfeiiact, who hast 
 
 thus condemned ft. '/ , / ■- 
 There'is ascertain majesty In simplicity, which is far above the 
 
 quaintness of wit, 
 Thou hast no right to judge- who art a party concerned. 
 It is impossible; fOT such me\as those, ever to determine this 
 
 question, who areTiiayt6 geTlhe appointment. 
 There are millions of people in the empire~of CJKna, whose 
 
 support is derived almost entirely from riceT ^ 
 
 Un^erlfote 12.— What for That. 
 I had no idea but whiat the story was true. 
 The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 
 He had no intimation but what the men were honest. 
 
 Under Note l^.— Adjectives for Antecedents. 
 Some men are too ignorant to be humble';^ without which 
 
 there can, be no docility. — Berkley./ 
 Judas declared him innocent; vThi^^h he could not be had ho 
 
 m any respect deceived the disciples.— Portew. 
 
CHAP. II.] St"NTAX.— RULE VI.— PRONOUN'S. 177 
 
 '-^C .. •< '.^^^- .> 
 Be accurate in all you say or do ; fort^ is importaEtt in all the 
 
 concerns of life. C 
 
 Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; which in- 
 deed he is. if the law is just. 
 
 •4/ 
 
 RULE VI.— PRONOUNS. 
 
 When the anteQedent is a collective noun conveying 
 the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in 
 the plural number; as, "The council were divided in 
 their sentiments." 
 
 OBSERVATION ON RULE' VI. 
 
 Most oolleotive nounB of the neuter gender, may take the regular phiral 
 /ormjitiyd be represented by a pronoun iii the third person, plura], neuter ; 
 as, " The nationa will enforce their laws." This oonstrnctjon comes under 
 Bnle 5th, To Bule 6th there are no acoepUons. 
 
 NOTE TO RULE VI. 
 
 A collective" noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
 pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter, agreeably to 
 Rule 5th ; as, " The nation will enforce its laws." 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 
 The jury will be confined tUl it agrees on a verdict. 
 
 [FoEMDXE. — Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and does 
 not correctly represent its antecedent^ry, which is a collective noun, conveying the 
 idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 6th, " When the antecedent is a coUective 
 noon conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural 
 number." Therefore, »* should be they; thus, The jury will be confined W they 
 agree on a verdict] 
 
 In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were 
 tl^.i^ltii chief good. :-■» 
 
 The council were not unanimous, and it separated without 
 
 coming to any determination. 4Sr^.- , , 
 
 The committee were divided in sentiment, and it-teferred the 
 
 business to the general meeting. 
 Thera -happened to the army a very strange accident, which 
 
 put it iiigreat consternation. 
 The enemy were not able to support the charge, and he dis* 
 
 persed and fled. 
 The defendant's counsel had .adifi\cult task imposed on 5*. ' 
 The board of health publish "itg proceedings."^' 
 I saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 
 
 Under Note -to Bule 6th. — The Idea of U^ty- 
 I saw the whole species thus delivered froirftheh- sorrows. 
 This court is famous for the justice of 4heH: decisions, 
 
 8* <■/,- - 
 
178 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 The convention then resolved thetnselv^s into a committee of 
 
 the whole. 
 The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made 
 
 their way through ^«Ba. /i.f • 
 
 KULE VII.— PRONOUNS. 
 
 "When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
 nected by and, it must agree with them, in the plural 
 number; as, ^^ James and John will favour us with their 
 company." 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST, .gw^i, *^ /#rf* 
 
 Wien two or more antecedents connected by cmd, serve merely to@eserll»« 
 
 EXOKPTION ..SECONP. ~~-.,^ 
 
 When two antecedents connected 'hjvnd, are empiatioally distinguished ; 
 they belong to diiferent propositions, and (if singuTarJ^o' HOtTeqnire a plu- 
 ral pronoun : as, " The bumr, and not the baker, was restored to Hs office." 
 ^" The good man, and the sinner too, bIuiU have Ms reward." — "Truth, and 
 trittt, only, ia worth seeking for its own sake." 
 
 EXCEPTION THIRD. 
 
 '^J - - - — ^- 
 
 When two _pr_mpre antecedents connected by and, are preceded byjha^ 
 I adjective eac%, every, or rue; they are taken separately," and "ao not require a 
 plui'al pronoun : as, "Ehery. ptanl and every tree produces others after Us 
 lund." — " It is the original cause of every reproach and distress wTAdh Itrn at- 
 tended the government." — Junius. 
 
 OBSKRVATIONS ON RULE VII. 
 
 Obs. 1. — When the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is 
 preferred to the second, and the second to the third : as, " John, and thou, 
 and I, arc attached to ow country." — " John and thou are attached to ymr 
 country." 
 
 Obs. 2. — The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is 
 distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pronoun 
 which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should be preferred 
 to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VII. — PRONOUNS. 
 Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. 
 
 [FoEMULE.— Not proper, because the pronoun tlself is of the singular number, and 
 does not correctly represent its two antecedents Msoowtent and sorrme which aro 
 connected by amd,, and taken coiyointly. But, according to Rule 7th, "When a pro- 
 noun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must asreo with thorn in the 
 plural number. Therefore, i(se«/ should be themsehes; thus, Discontent and sorrow 
 manifested tfiemsewes in his countenance.] ' ""* 
 
 Your levity and heedlessness if i^ continue, will prevent all 
 substantial improvement. \. 
 
 Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it '^ 
 oppressive. 
 
CHAP.I.J SYNTAX.— RULE VIII.— PRONOUNS. ITg 
 
 *^ 
 
 Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it^ 
 
 cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. ^^-^ 
 
 Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : H. jj 
 
 implies a want of solid laeEJ^. 
 If love and unity oontinue,'nHMll make you partakers of one 
 
 an other's joy. O /%-,- 
 
 Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it^ill destroy, like 
 
 a canker, every germ of friendship. 
 Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity : 
 
 guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. ^^^ 
 "EiveTY man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom ' 
 
 of opinion, if he does not pervertjit to the injury of others. 
 
 EULE Vm.— PRONOUNS. 
 
 Wlieii a Pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
 dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in _ 
 the singular number: as, '■'■James or John will favour us 
 with Ms company." ^ 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. 
 
 Obb. 1. — When a pronoun has two or more phiral antecedents connected 
 by or or rwr, it is of course plural, and agrees with them severally. To the 
 foregoing rule, there are properly no exertions. 
 
 Obs. 2. — When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are 
 conuected by or or nor, they cannot be represented by a pronoun that is not 
 applicable to each of them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate': 
 "Either thou or /am greatly mistaken in our judgement on this subject." — 
 Murray's Key. But mff'erent pronouns may be so conuected as to refer to 
 such antecedents taken separately ; as, " By requiring greater labour from 
 such Aave or slaves, than ne or she or they are able to perform." — Prince'a 
 Digest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the 
 feminine by implication ; as, " K a man smite the eye of his servant or the 
 eye of his maid that it perish, he shall let Mm go fi-ee for his eye's sake." — ■ 
 Ecoims, xsX, 26. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER EULE VIU. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of their 
 votaries. 
 
 [FoEMniE. — ^Not proper, because the pronoun fhelr is of the plural number, and 
 does not correctly represent its two antecedents wealth and honour; which are con- 
 nected by iwr, and taken disjunctiyely. But, according to Kule 8th, " When a pro- 
 noun has two or more Biugnfar antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree 
 with them in the singular number." Therefore, tlieir should be Us; thus, Neither 
 wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries.] 
 
 Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed their task. 
 
 One or the other must relinquish their claim. • 
 
 A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will 
 
 move only as they are moved. 
 Eye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place 
 
 of coffee. 
 
180 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PAKTIU. 
 
 A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well 
 
 as read them in a description. 
 Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 
 
 life, for they may be thy own lot. 
 
 RULE IX.— VERBS, 
 
 A finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nomi- 
 natiYe^'in person and number : as, "Ifcow; thon knowst, 
 or hnowest; he knows, or hnowethr — " The bird /Zies; the 
 birds ^y." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VS.. 
 
 Oe3. 1. — To this general rule for the verb, there are properly 710 excmUont. 
 The injimiive nwod, having no relation to a nominative, is of course exempt 
 from such agreement ; and all the special rules which follow, virtnally accord 
 with this. 
 
 Oes. i.—'E-vavj finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive mood) 
 must liave some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the subject 
 of the being, action, or passion ; and with this subject the verb must agree 
 in person and number. 
 
 Obs. 3.— Different verbs always iave different subjects, expressed or un- 
 derstood; except Vhen two or more verbs are connected in the same coa- 
 Btruotion, or when the same verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 Obs. 4. — Verbs in the imperative Tnood, commonly agree with the pronoun 
 thou, ye, or ym, understood; as, "Do {tkni] as thou list."— ,S'ia/fc. ''Trust 
 God and he doing, and leave the rest with him." — Dr. Sils. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The place of a verb can have reference only to that of the subject 
 ■mth which it agrees, and that of the obieot which it governs; this matter is 
 therefore sufficiently explained in the observations under Eule 2d and Eule 
 20th. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE IX. 
 
 Note I. — " The adjuncts of the nominative do not control 
 its agreement with the verb : as. Six months' interest was due." 
 — W. Allen. " The propriety of these rules is evident."— 7rf. 
 " The mill, with all its appurtenances, was destroyed." 
 
 Note II. — The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is 
 sometimes the subject to a verb : a subject of this kind, how- 
 ever composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in 
 the third person singular; as, 'To lie is base."— -'Tb see the 
 sun IS pleasant."— "27ia(! you have violated the law, is evident." 
 — ''For what purpose they embarked, is not yet known."— "iTow 
 far the change would contribute to his welfare, comes to be con- 
 sidered." — Blair. 
 
 before ;th7i^rzr"i=v"^^^^^^^^ 
 
 priests only." — Luke, vi, i. 
 Obs. 2.-Wheu the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb, it 
 
CUAJ?. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IX.— VERBS. 181 
 
 is used to express some aotioji or state in the abstract; as, "Jb he eontenta 
 his natural desire."— Pfjpe. Here to be stands for simple exisiene^'. In con- 
 nexion with the intinitive, a concrete quality may also be taken as an ab- 
 stract; as, "lb be good is to be liapp^." Here good and /ioray express the 
 quality of goodness and the state ot Mppiness, considered abstractly ; and 
 therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particnlar noun. So also the 
 passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense; as, "To 
 be satisfied with a little, is the greatest wisdom." — "To appear discouraged, is 
 the way to become so." Here the satisfaction, and the discouragement are 
 considered abstractly, and without reference to any particular person. 
 
 Obs. 3. — When the action or state is to be limited to a particular person or 
 thing, the noun or pronoun may be introduced before tne infinitive, by the 
 preposition ./or j" as, "For a prince to be redvced hj viUany to my distressful 
 circumstances, IS calamity enough." — Tr. of iSaUvst. 
 
 Note III. — A neuter or a passive verb between two nomin- I 
 atives should be made to agree with that which precedes it ; ^ 
 as, " Words are wind :" except when the terms are transposed, 
 and the proper subject is put after the verb by question or 
 hyperbaton; as, "His pavilion were dark waters and thick 
 clouds o? \h& sVyr— Bible. ''Who art thou T— lb. "The 
 wages of sin is death." — lb. ^ 
 
 Note IX;— -When the verb has different forms, that form 
 should be actoptgd, which is the most consistent with present 
 and reputable usag&^intfie style employed: thus, to say fa- 
 mili.irly, " The clock hath stricken,^' — :"Thou laughedst and talh- 
 edst, when thou ouc/htest to have been~~siieHt,"— " He readeth 
 and writeth, but^he'ffo^ not cipher," — would be no better, 
 _thatuto-»?e dont, won't, can^t, shan't, and didiiit, in preaching. 
 \ Note V. — Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, 
 should have a separate nominative expressed ; as, "/ came, 1 
 saw, I conquered ;" except when the verb is repeated for the 
 sake of emphasis, or connected to an other in the same con- 
 struction ; as, 
 
 " They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die." — Watts. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX. — VERBS. 
 You was kindly received. 
 
 [FoBMFLE. — Not proper, because the passive verb wos recet/oed is of the singular 
 number, and does not agree with Its nominative you, which is of the second person, 
 plural. But, according to Enlo 9th, "A finite verb must agree with its subject, or 
 nominative, in person and number." Therefore, was reoei/oed should be were re- 
 ceived,' thus, Tou were kindly recevDed.1 
 
 We was. disappointed. 
 She dare not oppose it. 
 His pulse are too quick. 
 Circumstances alters cases. 
 He need not trouble himself. 
 Twenty-four pence is two shillings. 
 On one side was beautiful meadows. 
 He may pursue what studies ho pleas*. 
 
182 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PAET III, 
 
 What have become of our cousins ? 
 
 There was more impostors than one. 
 
 What says his friends on this subject? 
 
 Thou knows the urgency of the case. 
 
 What avails good sentiments with a bad life t 
 
 Has those books been sent to the school ? 
 
 There is many occasions for the exercise of patience. 
 
 What sounds have each of the vowels ? 
 
 There were a great number of spectators. 
 
 There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 
 While ever and anon there falls 
 Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls. — Di/er. 
 
 He that trust in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 
 
 Errors that originates in ignorance, is generally excusable. 
 
 Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no under, 
 standing. 
 
 Not one of the authors who mentions this incident, is entitled 
 to credit. 
 
 The man and woman that was present, being strangers to him, 
 wondered at his conduct. 
 
 There necessarily follows from thence these plain and unques- 
 tionable consequences. 
 
 O thou, for ever present in my way, 
 Who all my motives and my toils survey. 
 Under Note 1. — Nominatives with Adjuncts. 
 The derivation of these words are uncertain. 
 Four years' interest weje demanded. 
 One added to nineteen, make twenty. 
 The increase of orphans render the addition necessary. 
 The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 
 The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 
 A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folks. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Composite Subjects. 
 To obtain the praise of men, were thei^only object. 
 To steal and then deny it, are a double sin. 
 To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all 
 
 men. 
 That it is oui- duty to promote peace and harmony among 
 men, admit of no dispute. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Verb between Nominatives. 
 The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
 A diphthong are two vowels joined ia one syllable. 
 
CHAP.n.] SYNTAX.— EULE IX.— VERBS. 183 
 
 So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
 What is the latitude and longitude of that island 1 
 He churlishly said to me, " Who is you ?" 
 
 Under Note 4. — Adapt Form to Style. 
 
 1. For the Familiar Style. 
 
 Was it thou that buildedst that house ? 
 
 That boy wxiteth very elegantly. 
 
 Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book 1 
 
 Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day ? 
 
 Doth not your cousin intend to visit you ? 
 
 That boy hath torn my book. 
 
 Was it thou that spreadest the hay ? 
 
 Was it James or thou that didst let him in ? 
 
 He dareth not say a word. 
 
 Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me. 
 
 2. For the Solemn Style. 
 
 The Lord has prepar'd his throne in the heavens ; and his king- 
 dom rules over all. 
 
 Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God : thou was a God that 
 forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions. 
 
 Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said — 
 
 So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of 
 God that shows mercy. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Express the Nominative. 
 
 New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. 
 Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but hope it may 
 be retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assist- 
 ance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow morn- 
 ing. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B. 
 
 New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. 
 Dear sir. Have just received the kind note favoured me with 
 this morning ; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude 
 to you. On further information, find have not lost so much 
 as at first supposed ; and believe shall still be able to meet 
 all my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see 
 you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D. 
 
 Will martial flames forever fire thy mind. 
 
 And never, r^ever be to Heaven resign'd ? — Fope. 
 
 RULE X.— VERBS. 
 
 "\ "WTien the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
 
184 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART ni. 
 
 the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the 
 plural number ; as, " The council were divided." 
 
 OBSERVATION ON RULE X. 
 
 To this rule there are no exceptions. Whenever the collective noun con- 
 veys the idea of plurality without the form, the verb is to be parsed by Eule 
 10th ; but if the nominative conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural 
 form, the verb is to be parsed by Eule 9th. The only difficulty is, to deter- 
 
 \ 
 
 NOTE TO EULE X. 
 
 A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
 verb in the third person, singular ; and generally admits also 
 the regular plural construction : as, " His army was defeated." 
 " His armies were defeated." 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. — VERBS. 
 The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow. 
 
 [FoBMiTLE.— Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singular miteber and 
 does not correctly agree with its nominalive people, which is a collective noun con- 
 veying the idea of plurality. But, according to Eule 10th, " When the nominative is 
 a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the 
 plural number.' Therefore, rejoiaes should be rejoice; thus. The people rmoice in 
 that which should c^use sorrow.] 
 
 The nobility was aS'sured that he would not interpose. 
 The committee has attended to their appointment. 
 Mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society. 
 The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 
 The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use 
 
 of wooden shoes. 
 All the world is spectators of your conduct. 
 Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 
 
 Under NoU to Rule 10.— The Idea of Unity. 
 
 The church have fio power to inffict corporal punishments. 
 The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
 The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
 Ihe regiment consist of a thousand men. 
 A detaehnaent of two hundred men were immediately sent. 
 Jivery auditory take this in good part. 
 In this business, the house of commons were of no weight. 
 Are the ^nate considered as a separate body « 
 There are a flock of birds. 
 
 No society are chargeable with the disapproved conduct of 
 particular members. 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — ^EULE XI. — VERBS. 185 
 
 RULE XL— VERBS. 
 
 When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected 
 by and, it must agree witb them in the plural number: 
 
 " Judges and senates Jiave been bought for gold, 
 Esteem and love were never to be sold." — Pope. 
 
 EXCKPTION FIRST. „ /, , . M^ ,, , 
 
 When two or more nominatives connected hy and, serve merely todeaoriDe 
 ene personor things they are in apposition, and do not reqmre 3 plural 
 verb: as, " This piiiiosophertmi poet was ianieJiedtiominacomArj." — ^'Toll, 
 trilneie, fmd euaUm, was paid unto them." — Eira, iv, 20. 
 " Whose icy aarremt and compulsive amrse 
 '^e'ei feels retiring ebb, but heeps due on." — Shikspeare. 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 When two nominatives connected by on^^fare emphatically distinguished ) 
 they belong to different propositions, and (if Singular) do not require a plum 
 verb : as, "Auiiition, and not the safely of the state, was comsemed." — Qold- 
 tndOi, 
 
 "Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." — Shahtpeare. 
 
 "ZfOve, !»aJ 2ove only, is the loan for love." — Yinmg. 
 
 EXCEPTION THIRD. ^ 
 
 When two or more nominatives connected by andji^e preceded by the 
 adjective eaeh, every, or n«j they are taken separately, and do not require a 
 plnral verb : as, " vvhenr»i& oort of their substance, and no one of their prop- 
 erties, is the same." — Bvtusr. " Every hmb and feature appears with »fe 
 respective grace." — Steele. 
 
 EXCEPTION rOURTH. 
 
 When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which pre- 
 cedes it, and is nnderstood to the rest ; as, 
 
 " ( Forth in the pleasing spring, 
 
 Thy heamiy walks, thy tendemes8,'aaA love." — TJurmson. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XI. 
 
 Obs. 1 -The conjunction is sometimes imderstood; as, 
 
 " -irt, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beaitie. 
 
 Obs. 2c — ^lu Gre^ and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the nearest 
 nominative, and is nnderstood to the rest ; and this construction is some- 
 times improperly imitated in English: as, "Nur! 61 MENEI ir«ms, tAmt, dyvmri, 
 ra rpia Tofiro." — '* Nunc ver6 moTiet fides, spes, charitas ; tria hsec." — " Now 
 dbideth faith, hope, charity ; these three." — 1 Cor., xiii, 18. 
 
 Obs. 3. — When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees 
 with the iirst person in preference to the second, and with the second in 
 preference to the third ; tor thfu and / (or he, thov, and /) are equivalent to 
 we; and thou and he are equivalent to you: as, "Why speakest thou any 
 more of thy matters I I have said, thou, and Ziia dimde the land." — 2 Sam., 
 siz, 29. I. e., " dimde ye the land." 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XI. 
 
 Note I. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected, 
 one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, 
 
 16* 
 
186 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 they belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
 must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to 
 the other : as, " Diligent industry^ and not mean savings, -pro- 
 duces honourable competeijce." — " Not a loud voice, but strong 
 proofs bring conviction." ji- 
 
 NoTB II. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected 
 by as-well-as, but, or save, they belong to different proposi- 
 tions; and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb 
 not,) the verb and pronoun naust agree with the former and 
 be understood to the latter : as, " Veracity, as well as justice, 
 is to be our rule of life." — Butler. " Nothing, but wailings,' 
 was heard. — " None, but thou, can aid us." — " No mortal man 
 save he, &o., had e'er survived to say he saw." — W. Scott. 
 
 Oug. 1. — The conjunction at, when it connects nominatives that are in ap- 
 posUim, is commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, so that ffio 
 verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word; 
 thus, "^« a poet, Im hoMs a high rank." —Murray. But when this ooniuno- 
 tion denotes a comparison between two nominatives, there must be two verbs 
 expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own subject : as, " Such 
 writers as he [is] Tiave no reputation among the learned." 
 
 Obs. 2.— Some grammarians say that but and save, when they denote ex- 
 ception, should govern the objective case, as prepositions ; but this is not ac- 
 cording to the usage of the best authors. The objective case of nottns being 
 i; m, *'"^ .nominative, the point can be proved only by the pronouns ; as, 
 "There is none but he alone."— Per^JM'* Theology, 1608. " There is none 
 otheT but ?w.'l— Mark, xii, 32. (This text is good authority as regards the 
 case, though it is mcon-ect in an other respect : it should have been, " There 
 IS none but Jie," or, " There is m other than he.") " No man hath ascended 
 up to heaven, butjie that came down from henyen."— John, iii, 18. "Not 
 that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is ot God."— John, vi, 46. 
 Few can, save he and I."— Byron's Werner. " There is none iustified hit 
 he that is m measure samtiUA." —Penmgton. Save, as a coniunction, is 
 nearly obBoete. InBev., ii, 17, we read, " Which no man knoweth, samng 
 he that receiveth it." , ' ^ 
 
 Note III. — When two or more subjects or antecedents are 
 preceded by the adjective each, every or no, they are taken 
 separately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular 
 number: as, 
 
 " And every sense, and every heart is ioj."— Thomson. 
 
 " Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Fope. 
 _ Note IV.— When words are to be taken conjointly as sub- 
 jects or antecedents, the conjunction atid must connect them. 
 _ Obb.— In Latin, cummth an ablative, sometimes has the force of the con- 
 junction et with a nominative ; as, " Dux c«m Viliquot prineipibus capiuntur." 
 
 «TiSTS Jrt f?, ™r °5 *'"'• T.l'™°'T' '°™^ ^4iM writers have sub- 
 stituted with for and, and varied the verb aocordinslv -as "A Inn^ pnursa 
 of time, with a var ety of accidents and eiroumstaS'aSreouis1?f to n^o^ 
 duoe these revolutions."-^^.. But, as the prepos ion males tsobTeS 
 only an adjunct of the preceding noun, this conStruotion cannot be jUBtiS. 
 Note V.— Two or more distinct subject phrases connected 
 by and, require a plural verb : as. " To be wise in our own eyes, 
 
CHAP.II.J SYNTAX. — RULE XX. — ^VERBS. 187 
 
 to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight 
 of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to 
 coincide. " — Blair. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UlSTDER RULE XI. — VERBS. 
 Industry and fi'ugality leads to wealth. 
 
 {FoBMULK. — Not proper, because the verb leads is in the singular number, and does 
 not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry aiid frufjaliby^ wMcli are con- 
 nected by (und, and taken conjointly. Bat, according to llule 11th, "When a verb has 
 two or more nomlnatires connected by tvnd^ it must agree with them in the plural 
 number." Therefore Uad^ should be lead; thus. Industry and frugality lead to 
 ■wealth.] 
 
 Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
 Time and tide waits for no man. 
 My love and affection towards thee remains unaltered. 
 Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsakes the indolent. 
 ■My flesh and my heart faileth. 
 In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigour. 
 Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 
 In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. 
 High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 
 Much does human pride and folly require correction. 
 Our conversation and intercourse with the world is, in several 
 
 respects, an education for vice. 
 Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 
 
 nature demands, and virtue allows. 
 What generosity, and what humanity, was then displayed ! 
 
 What thou desii-'st, 
 
 And what thou fearst,' alike destroys all hope. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Affirmation with Negation, 
 Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem. 
 Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 
 Not fear, but labour have overcome him. 
 The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference. 
 Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention. 
 It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention. 
 It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attract attention. 
 
 Under Note 2. — As Well As, But, or Save. 
 His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 
 Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed. 
 Every one, but thou, hadst been legally discharged. 
 The buyer, as well as the seller, render themselves liable. 
 All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. 
 None, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow. 
 Nothing; but frivolous amusements, please the indolent. 
 Caesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their eloquence. 
 
188 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET III. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Each, Every, or No. 
 Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty. 
 Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
 Every thought, every word, and every action, will be brought 
 
 into judgement, whether they be good or evil. 
 The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will 
 be able to screen themselves from punishment. 
 No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
 No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 
 
 Under Note 4. — And Required. 
 
 In this afifair, perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 
 
 Town or country are equally agreeable to me. 
 
 Sobriety with humility lead to honour. 
 
 The king, with the lords, and the commons, compose the 
 
 British parliament. 
 The man with his whole family are dead. 
 A small house in addition to a trifling annuity, are still granted 
 
 him. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 
 To profess, and to possess, is very different things. 
 To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is 
 
 duties of universal obligation. 
 To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or 
 
 small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally 
 
 alien from the nature of thought. 
 
 EULE XII.— VERBS. 
 
 When a Verb ha^ two or more singular nominatiTea 
 connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
 singular number : as, " Fear or jealousy affects him." 
 
 OBSERVATION OW RULE XII. 
 
 To this rule there are properly no exceptions. But in the learned languages, 
 ^phiralmrb is often employed with singular nominatives thus connected; 
 
 OS, 
 
 " Tunc neo mens mihi, neo color 
 Certa sede manent.'''' — Horace. 
 
 _ And the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this construc- 
 tion m MruflisTi, ; as, 
 
 " He comes — nor want nor cold his course delav • s ' ; 
 
 Hide, blushing Glory 1 hide Pultowa's day."— Dr. Johnson. [' . 
 
 NOTES TO BULE XII. 
 
 Note I. — When a verb has nominatives of difierent persons 
 or numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with that 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — ^EULE XII. — VERBS. 189 
 
 ■which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in 
 the person and number required; as, "Neither he nor his 
 brothers were there." — " Neither you nor 1 am concerned." — 
 "That neither they nor ye also die." — Numb , xviii, 3. 
 
 Obs. 1. — When the latter nominative is parenthetical, the verb agrees with 
 the former only; as, "One example (or ten) soya nothing against the uni- 
 versal opinion." — Leiah Hvmi. " And we (or future ages) moa possiblv hme 
 aproofofit."— ^p.^M««»-. -6 / * f , j 
 
 Obs. 2. — ^When the alternative is merely in the viordi, not in the thougM, 
 the terms are virtually in apposition, and the principal nominative alone 
 controls the verb ; but there is always a harslmess in this mixture of differ- 
 ent numbers: as, " AparatAeaU, or brackets, conmte of two angular strokes, 
 or hooks, enclosmg one or more words." — Wi,Mng. " To show us that our 
 own schemes^ or prudence, have no sharo in our advancements." — Addison, 
 "The Mexican ./^r«», or picture-writing, represmt things, not words; they 
 exhibit images to the eye, not ideas to the und'erstanding." — Mvmd/ffa 
 Gram., p. 24S. 
 
 Note II. — But when the nominatives require different forms 
 of the verb, it is in general more elegant to express the verb, 
 or its auxiliary, in connexion with each of them ; as, " Either 
 thou art to blame, or I am." — " Neither were their numbers, 
 nor was their destination known." ~ 
 
 Note III. — The speaker should generally mention himself 
 last ; as, " Thou or / must go." — " He then addressed his dis- 
 course to my father and me." But in confessing a fault he 
 may assume the first place ; as, " / and Robert did it." — M. 
 Hdgeworth, 
 
 Note IV. — ^Two or more distinct subject phrases connected 
 by or or nor, require a singular verb ; as, " That a drunkard 
 should he poor, or that a fop should be iffnorant, is not strange." 
 
 FAIiSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE Xn. — VERBS, 
 ^orance or negligence have caused this mistake. 
 
 [FoRinrLE.— I^ot proper, because the verb Tuive caused 1b of the plural number, and 
 does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ignorance and n^gUgence^ which 
 are connected by or, and taken dlsjanctively. But, according to Bole 12th, " When a 
 verb has two or more singular nominatires connected by or or nor^ it must agree 
 with them in the singular number." Therefore, ha/oe caused should be has caused; 
 thus, Ignorance or negligence luis caused this mistake.] ' 
 
 Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been im- 
 puted to him. 
 
 What the heart or the imagination dictate^ flows readily. 
 
 Neither authority nor analogy support^such an opinion. 
 
 Either ability or inclination were-'wanting. 
 
 Redundant grass or heath affordtfabundance to tWr cattle. 
 
 The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither hon. 
 our, nor virtue, nor utility, in repelling them. 
 
 The sense or drift of a proposition, often dependiupon a single 
 letter. 
 
190 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 
 
 Under Note 1. — Nominatives that Disagree. 
 
 Neither he nor you wa^tjje^. 
 Either the boys or I were'in fault. 
 Neither he nor I intend^ to be preseujj. j_ ,- 
 Neither the captain nor the sailors yas saved. 
 Whether one person or more -v^ concerned in the business, 
 does not yet appear. 
 
 Tinder Note 2. — Complete the Concord. 
 Are thw or I expected to be there 1 . t 
 
 NeithefTie, nor am I, capable of it. -/r '' ■' t'l-^-^A 
 
 Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive. 
 Neither were their riches, nor i^eir influence great. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Place of the First Person. 
 I and my father were riding out. 
 The premiums were given to me and George. 
 I and Jane are invited. 
 They ought to invite me and my sister. 
 We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 
 
 Under Note 4. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 
 
 To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenapce it, are great 
 injustice." .. ; 
 
 To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 
 perfidy. 
 
 EULE XIIL— VERBS. 
 
 "When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
 must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
 separate nominatives expressed: as, "He himself held 
 the plough, sowed the grain, and attended the reapers."— 
 " She was proud, but she is now humble." 
 
 EXCBPTrOlI. 
 Verbs differing in mood, tense, or form, may sometimes agree with the 
 name nominative, especially if the simplest verbs be placed flrS; as, 
 
 " What nothing earthly gwes or can destroy.'''' Pope. 
 
 " Some a/re, and rmist be, greater than the rest." Id. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. 
 
 CNot?irhTo¥n?e11J:" °^ '""^ ""°'''^^«- ^'^^' »>« co'^Vecl'kTquSr^e^ 
 Ob3. 2.— Those parts which are common to several verbs are ffonerallv ex- 
 pressed to the first and understood to the rest: as, "Ev^,^ siSe endea- 
 . vour to amend shall be assisted, {sUll ia] accepted, and [Sfe] r|wa?ded?' 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — EULE Xni. — VERBS. 191 
 
 "Honourably do the best you can" [(io].— "Ho thought aa I did" [think].— 
 " You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it]. — " If you will go, I will" [go]. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XIII. 
 
 Note I. — ^The preterit should not be employed to form the 
 compound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be used for 
 the preterit. Thus: say, "To have gone," — ^not, "To have 
 went ;^' and, "I rfic^ it," — not, "I done it." 
 
 Note II. — Care should be taken, to give every verb its ap- 
 propriate form and signification. Thus : say, " He lay by the 
 fire," — ^not, '' He laid by the fire ;" — " He had entered into the, 
 connexion," — not, " Ho' was entered into the connexion ;" — " I 
 would rather stay" — not, " I had rather stay." 
 
 Ob3. — Several verbs which resemble eaeh other in form, are frequently 
 confounded: as, to^^, to Jl^ j to lay, to Uej to sit, to set ; to fall, tojeU; to 
 rend, to rent ; to ride, to ?'id ,• &c. Some others ai'e often misapphed ; as, 
 learn, for teach. There are also eiToueous forms of some of the compound 
 tenses : as, " We mffi he convinced,'''' for, " We shall be convinced ;" — " It I Jtad 
 have seen himj" for, " If I had seen him." All such errors are to be corrected 
 by the foregomg note. 
 
 FALSE SITNTAX UNDER RULE XIII. — VERBS. 
 They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered others to 
 enter. 
 
 [Formula. — ^Not proper, because the two vorbs would go and suffered, which are 
 couDected without separate nominatives, do not a^-ee in mood. Bat accordincf to 
 Rule IStli, " Wlii-u verbs are conofcted by a conjunction, they must cither ujjree in 
 mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." The sentence is best* 
 corrected by changing suffered to would auffer ; {would understood ;) thus, They 
 wotild neither go in tliemsclves, nor suffer otliers to enter.] ^^ 
 
 Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and g6clli into the 
 mountains, and seek^h that which is gone astray ? 
 
 Did he not tell thee His fault, and entreated thee to forgive 
 him? 
 
 If he understands the business, and attend to it, wherein is he 
 deficient 1 
 
 The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which we 
 must give an account of our stewardship. 
 
 If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who re- 
 membered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condeinna- 
 tion. — Barclay. 
 
 There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and 
 prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 
 
 This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what wa 
 heard before. 
 
 Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally practised 
 also, if men were wise. 
 
 * Errors under this rule may generally be corrected in three ways : 1. By changinj; 
 the first verb, to agree with the second— 2. By changing tho second verii, to agreo 
 Willi the flrst-3. By inserting the nomiuallve. Tho form preferred, is in tho Livy. 
 
V^2 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 Under Note \. — Preterits and Participles. 
 
 lie would have west with us, if we had invited him. 
 They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
 He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
 Somebody has broke my slate. 
 I seen him when he done it. 
 
 ■j^Jl Under Note 2. — Adapt Form to Sense. 
 He was entered into the corispiracy. 
 The American planters -^aw cotton and rice.. 
 The report is pi^icated on truth, -j-^i'fj^ C\ 
 I entered the room and set down. ' 
 Go and lay^)iown, -my son. - ,' " ^* ; 
 
 With such books, it will always be difficult to teasn children to 
 read. 
 
 EULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
 governed by prepositions : as, Elizabeth's tutor, at one 
 time paying her a visit, found her employed in readina 
 Fla.to:'—Eume. " 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST. 
 
 A participle sometimea relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which 
 it lorms no part ; as, ' 
 
 " But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
 As being the contrary to his high mH-^—MUon. 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle ia 
 Bometimes also taken abstractly; (that is, without reference ti any particular 
 noun^ pronoun, or other subject;) as, "to seem ampdUd, is disagreeable." 
 — " To keep alviajs praymg aloud, is plainly impossible." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. 
 
 ^^!^' ■^•;T'S ""'^ ™^'^A".« are properly no other exceptions; for we cannot 
 agree mth mrraythnt it is strictly correct to make participles in ina the 
 Si^ects or «*;.ofe of verl^s, while they retain the government and adji of 
 ^^^ tJ- ''^' . $ '^ite^J-ng to this rule is tBe oause of a very common 
 1 V":.- "■"^''^ -Keg/. "He abhorred Jei»£r in debt."— /to. " CamUina 
 <^nd objecting upon any subject is much easieTthan clearir^ up difficuS^ 
 —Mp. Butler. This mixed and erroneous construction of the Dartioinle is a 
 great blemish in the style of several English authors. It is at best^ ns'elesB 
 anomaly, which it is always easy to avoid; as, "/ra^tel^L to this ruleiB 
 the cause of a very common error."-" He 'abhorred deltZ-^^ToZ^lll 
 olyect upon any subiect is much easier than to clear up difficulties " 
 OB9.2.-The word to which the participle relates, is sometimes wndtr- 
 
 ^™ 'T'l^Jt f " f '"^ *?'' *?i >' J™t' ^^"^ '« '° 1^« inferred f~r'-^ 
 >^; ufeif ''' -^ fr.'^'^tmg this to be true, ask what is to be inferred from 
 f^^if,'^^'^''^^^ ™'' W modestly »p««K„^, [,»„ i as lone as Sv wh3^ 
 ^^i^.ittt^tlZlu^''^'^'''^ •^^^ ™'-'^ taSfhtTh^S 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE 5IV. — PARTICIPLES. 193 
 
 Obs. 8. — Participles are almost ohrrajs placed a/fertho words on wbieh their 
 o»nstructiou depends, but sometimes they are introduced before them ; as, 
 "Immuf^d in cypress shades, a sorcerer iJweUs." — Milton. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XIV. 
 
 y Note I. ^Active Participles have the same government as 
 
 the verbs from which they are derived; the preposition of, 
 
 therefore, should never be used after the participle, when the 
 
 verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, 
 
 of is improper : " Keeping of one. day in seven," — " By preticli- 
 
 ing 0/ repentance," — "They left beating o/"Paul." 
 
 Obs When participles are compounded with something that does not be- 
 long to the verb, they become a'hectives ; and, us such, they cannot govern 
 an object after them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: 
 "When Caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity." — Jones's Church Hls- 
 iory. Such errors are to be corrected either by Note 15th to Rule 4th| or by 
 changing the particle prefixed ; as, "Unbecoming to his dignity," or, '■'■Not 
 becoming his dignity." 
 
 Note II, — When a transitive participle is converted into a 
 noun, of must be inserted to govern the object following. 
 
 Ob3. 1. — An imperfect or a compound participle, preceded by an article, 
 an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal 
 ■noun ; and, as such, it cannot govern an object after it. A word which may 
 be the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires the prepo- 
 sition of, to connect it with the verbal noun ; as, 1. The PAKTicn?LE: " Wor- 
 shiping idols, the Jews sinned." — " Thus worshiping idols, — In worshiping 
 idols, — or, ^yworsAipiB^ idols, they sinned." 2. The Vebbal Noun : ''The 
 vx/rshiping of idols,^-Suoh worshiping 0/ idols, — or. Their worshiping of idols, 
 was sinful.'^- — '■In the worshiping of idols, there is sin." 
 
 Obs. 2. — When the use ot the preposition produces ambiguity or harsh- 
 ness, the expression must be varied. Thus, the sentence, "He mentions 
 Newton's writing of a commentary,'^ is both ambiguous and awkward. If 
 the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double construc- 
 tion, wfiioli is inadmissible. Some would say, "He mentions iVew^oa im-iting 
 a commentary." This is still worse ; because it makes the leading word in 
 sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly expressed 
 thus; " He mentions iAa# Newton wTro^e a commentary." "By Aw studying 
 the Scriptures, he became wise." Here Ms serves only to render the sen- 
 tence incorrect : all such possessives are to be expunged by Note 5th to Rule 
 19tli. 
 
 Obs. 3. — We sometimes find a participle that takes the same ease after as 
 before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained un- I 
 changed in connexion with it ; as, " I have some recollection of Ks' father's 
 being a judge." — ■" To prevent its being a dry detail of terms." — B-uck. T)ie 
 noun after the verbal, is in apposition with the possessive goini^ before. 
 Nouns that are in apposition with the possessive ease, do not admit the pos- 
 sessive si^n. But the above-mentioned construction is anomalous, and per- 
 haps it would be better to avoid it ; thus ; " I have some recollection that 
 his father was a judge." — " To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms." 
 
 Obs. 4. — The verbal noun should not be accompanied by any adjuncts of 
 the verb or participle, unless they be taken into composition; as, "The 
 hypocrite's hope is nke the giving iip of the ghost." The following phrase 
 is therefore inaccurate : " For the more easilp reading of large numbers." 
 Yet if we say, " For reading large numbers the rrmre eanly,'" the construo- 
 tion ia ditferent, and not inaccurate. 
 
 Note III. — A participle should not be used where the infin- 
 
 Q 
 
194 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 itive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a 
 phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. 
 
 _Oes. 1. — ^Participles that have hecome nonns, may be used aa such with of 
 without the article ; aa, spelling, reading, writing, drawing. But we some- 
 times find those which retain the government and the adjuncts oif participles 
 used as nouns before or after verbs ; as, '■'■Exciting such disturbances, is un- 
 lawful."^ — " Eebellion is rising against government." This mongrel construc- 
 tion is hable to ambiguity, and ought to be avoided. The infiuitive mood 
 the verbal or some other noun, or a clause introduced by the conjuuctioii 
 that, will generally express the idea in a better manner ; as, "7b excite such 
 disturbances,— 27i« exoHAng of such disturbances, — I%e exeilation of such dis- 
 turbances,— or, ITiat one should excite such disturbances, is unlawful." 
 _ Obs. 2.— After verbs mg-aiifrng to persevere or to desist, ihe participle in 
 inff, relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infiuitive con- 
 nected to the verb ; as, " So when they continued asMng him."— Jo7im, viii 
 7. Jrlere eontirmed is intransitive, and asU'ng relates to they. Greek 'Qs 6i 
 t^ilii^ov ipmHrrcs airov. Latin, " CdmergoperseverarentMifer;'Of/a«<«s'eum." 
 liut m sentences hke the following, the participle seems to bij improperly 
 madetheo5;-ec<of theverb: "I intend Uoing it."— " I remember m&M 
 him. Better, " I intend to do it."—" I remember to have met him." Verbs 
 do not govern participles. 
 
 Oes. 3.— After verbs_ of beg innina, omitting, and a^voiding, some writers 
 
 wmties. "He omits givmg an account of them."— Too/ie's Div. of Purlen 
 IJ^I. 1, p. 2ol. "He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely."— 
 Muvrafs Gram., 9,vo, Vol. i, p. 194. If these examples ai-e good English, (for 
 the pomt IS questionable,) the verbs are all intransitive, and the participles 
 relate to the nommatives going before, as in the text quoted in the precedm? 
 observation. Bat Murray, not understanding this construction, or not ob- 
 fri'^FrnT^^* ■*'°'''^ ^''™'' °^ ''' '^'■^ ""^^ uuskillfully laid it down as a rule, 
 that, ihe participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive 
 phrase m the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb ,•" whereas 
 he hunse f, on the preceding page, had adopted from LmMh a different doc- 
 trine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in inq, " as if they 
 were of an amphiMous species, partly nou/il and partly verbs ;" that is, " partly 
 nouns and partly participles /" for, according to Muri-ay, participles are verbs, 
 ihe term, substantive phrase" is a solecism, invented merely to designate 
 this anomalous construction. Copying Lowth again, he defines a phriSe to 
 be 'two or more words nghtlyput together;'^ and whatsoever words are 
 rightly put together may be regularly parsed. But how can one indivisible 
 word be made two different parts of speech at once? And is not this the 
 situation of every transitive participle that is made either the sulijecl or the 
 object oi a verb ? Adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction 
 ot the words on which they depend ; and participial nouns always differ 
 froin participles m both. The former express actions as things; the latter 
 attribute them to their agents or recipients. 
 
 Note IV.— In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the 
 leading word in sense, should always be made the leading or 
 governing word in the construction. 
 
 Oes.— A participle construed after the nominative or the obiective case, is 
 ri^J;\"ni™ '? V? \™'¥ """'i^"'''?'.''^ *« possessive, fhere is soiie- 
 ZZt^^ Wo. « Y"]? ^^ ""^r^""^ '° «^e applicntion of these two cou- 
 Btrnotions. For the leading word m sense should not be made the ndiimet 
 an construetion. The following sentences e.-.hibit a d sreVa rd to this S- 
 ciplo and arc both inaccurate : "He felt his strengths deoUniiiP "-"Ho was 
 eensible of his *fr.«y«4 declining." luthe former sentence tho^nouni«^rt 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — ^KULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 195 
 
 Blioiild be in the objective case, governed 'hy/elt ; and in the latter, in the 
 possessive, governed by dedming. 
 
 Note V. — ^Participles, in general, however construed, should 
 have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, 
 or passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty : " By 
 giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This suggests that 
 trouble gives way to sin. It should be, " By giving way to sin, 
 v/e encounter trouble." 
 
 Note VI. — ^The preterit of irregular verbs should not be 
 used for the-perfect-^^jgrticiple: as, "A certificate wrote on 
 parchment" — ^for, "A ceri^pate written on parchment." This 
 error should be carefully avoided. 
 
 Note VII. — Perfeotj).aEtiaiples teing^ variously formed, care 
 should beJaken toexpress them agreeably to the Bfest usage : 
 thus, earnt, snatcht, ckeckt, snapt, mixi, tost, are errj«ieously 
 written for earned, snatched, checked, snapped^-mixsd, tossed; 
 and holden,foughten,proven,sii& now mostly superseded by held, 
 fought, proved. 
 
 FALSE STNTAX UNDER RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
 Examples under Note 1. — JSxpunge Of. 
 In forming of his sentences, he was very exact. 
 
 [PoRMiTLE. — ^Not proper, becaose .the preposition o/is used after the participle /»w- 
 ing^ whose verb does not require it JBat, according to Note 1st under Kuie 14th, 
 " Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived ; 
 the preposition of, therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb 
 does not require it*' Therefore, tj^ should be omitted ; thus, In forming his sentences, 
 he was very exact] 
 
 By observing of truth, you will command respect. 
 
 I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 
 
 I heard them discussing of this subject. 
 
 By consulting of the best authors, he became learned. 
 
 Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Insert Of./ 
 Their consent was. necessary for the raising /ny supplies. 
 Thus the saving'tt grpat nation devolved on a husbandman. 
 It is an overvaluing (^rselves, to decide upon every thing. 
 The teacher dogs not allow any callingffill names. 
 That burning^e capitol was a wanton outrage.- 
 May nothing njpder our reeeivingjso great a good. 
 My admitting*%e fact will not affect the argument. 
 Cain's killinglfis brother, originated in envy. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Change the Expression. 
 Caesar carried off" the treasures, which his opponent had neg- 
 lected taking with him. — Goldsmith. 
 
196 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAK. [PART III. 
 
 It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 
 I intend returning in a few days. 
 Suffering needlessly is never a duty. 
 Nor is it wise complaining. — Cowper. 
 I well remember telling you so. 
 Doing good is a Christian's vocation. — H. More. 
 Piety is constantly endeavouring to live to God. It is earnest- 
 ly desiring to do his will, and not our own. — Id. 
 
 Under Note 4. — The Leading Word. 
 
 There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
 They did not give notice of the pupil leaving. 
 The sun's darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
 The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves being 
 covered with a delicate white powder. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Reference of Participles. 
 Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 
 Being conscious of guilt, death becomes terrible. 
 By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 
 In loving our enemies, no man's blood is shed. 
 By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 
 
 Under Note 6. — Preterits for Participles. 
 A nail well drove will support a great weight. 
 See here a hundred sentences stole from my work. 
 I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
 Being forsook by my friends, I had no other resource. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Form of Participles. 
 Till by barbarian deluges o'er flown. 
 Like the lustre of diamonds sat in gold. 
 A beam ethereal, sullied and absorpt. 
 With powerless wings around them wrapt. 
 Error learnt from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 
 
 EULE .XV.— ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs rei4e te/verbs, p ajtioi p fe g, adjectives, or 
 other adverbs : as, "Any passion that haUiually discom- 
 poses our temper, or unfits us for ■properly dischnrging 
 the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dant'cr- 
 ous ascendency." — Blair. ° 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST. 
 The adverbs yes and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and tlie adverbs 
 
CHAP. II.J SYNTAX. — EULE XV. — ADVERBS. 197 
 
 no and nay, expressing a simpla negation, are always indepenaent. They 
 generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole eentenoe. Is it 
 dear, that they ought to be called adverbs ! M 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 The word anieti, which is commonly called an adverb, is often Used inde- 
 pendently at the beginning or end of a declaration or prayer; and is itself a 
 prayer, meaning, to let it be. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON EtTLE XV. 
 
 Obs. 1.— On tliis rule J>. Adam remarks, "Adverbs sometimea likewise 
 mmiUy substantives f" and gives Latin examples of the following import : 
 " Homer ^inZy an orator ;" — "Truly Metellua ;" — ^^To-morrow morning ;" — 
 " Yesterday morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by such imper- 
 fect phrases, nor can it ever be consistently admitted; because it destroys 
 the characteristic difi'erence between au adjecUve and an adverb. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Whenever any of those, words which are commonly used adverb- 
 ially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they mast be reckoned 
 adjectives, and parsed by Rule 4th; as, "The above* verba." — Dr. Adam. 
 " God only."— Mtile. '^ He alone."— Id. " A far country ."—Id. "iK)wine, 
 — M new thing, — Ifo greater joy." — Id. "Nothing else."— -Blair, ^^To- 
 marrow nooa." — Scott. " This ?i!»«ai4 world." — Shdk. " Calamity «reoaffA." 
 —li-. of Sallust. "Mj hither way." 
 
 Obs. 3. — When words of an adverbial character are used after the manner 
 of nouns, they must be parsed as nouns and not as adverbs: as, " The Son of 
 God — was not yea and nay, but in him was yea." — Bible. " For a greaj; 
 while to come." — Id. " On this perhaps, this peradoenture infamous for hes." 
 — Toung. "From the extremesta2»(iar</ of thine head." — Shalk. "Prate of 
 my wTiereaiout." — Id. " An eternal now does always last." — Cowley. "Dis- 
 course requires an animated no." — Ooioper. 
 
 Obs. i. — ^Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs vmderstood • as, " The former 
 has written correctly: but the latter, elegamMy." " And, [J sai/] truly, if 
 they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they 
 might have had opportunity to have returned." — Seh., xi, 15. 
 
 Obs. 5. — To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self- 
 motion (as go, come, rise, get, &c.) are sometimes suppressed, being suggested 
 to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; as, 
 
 " I'll hence to London on a serious matter." — Shdkspeare. 
 " I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in."— Id. 
 "Away old man ; give roe thy hand ; away." — Id, 
 " Would you youth and beauty stay, 
 
 Love h^h wings, and will amay." — Waller. 
 " Vp, up, Glentarkin ! rouse thee, ho I" — W. Scott. 
 
 Obs. 6. — Most conjunctive adverbs relate to two verbs at the same time, and 
 thus connect the two clauses ; as, " And the rest will I set in order when I 
 come." — 1 dor., xi, 34. Here when is an adverb o,f time, relatii^ to the two 
 verbs, wiU set and come; the meaning being, " And tlie rest will I set in order 
 at the time at which I come." 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XV. 
 
 Note I. — Adverbs must be placed in that position whicli 
 will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 
 
 - * Mwrra/y and Ms copyists strongly condemn this use of above, and we do not con- 
 tend for it; but, both be and tl^ey, (^ well as' others,) ^ve repeatedly employed the 
 word in this manner : as, " The above construction," — 'Murrafifs Gram., 8vo, p. 149. 
 "The abme instances."— p. 202. "The above rule," — p. 270. "In such instanoes as 
 the above." — p. 24. "The same as the oSots."— p. 66. 
 
 11* 
 
198 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETIU, 
 
 0e3. — For the placing of adverts, no definite general rule can he given. 
 Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede them : and those which 
 belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the fii-st auxiliaiy. 
 
 Note II. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives; nor 
 should they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, and 
 not manner : as, " The soonest time ;" — " Thine ojien infirm- 
 ities ;" — " It seems strangely.^'' All these are ■wrong. 
 
 Note III. — With a verb of motion, most grammarians pre- 
 fer hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and where, which 
 are in common use, and perhaps allowable, though not so 
 good ; as, " Come hither Charles," — or, " Come here" 
 
 Note IV. — To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the 
 preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) 
 prefixed. It is well to omit all needless words. 
 
 Note V. — The adverb how should not be used before the 
 conjunction that, nor in stead of it ; as, " He said how he would 
 go." Expunge how. This is a vulgar error. 
 
 Note VI. — The adverb no should not be used with reference 
 to a verb or a,participle. Such expressions as, " TeU me whether 
 you will go or no," are therefore improper: no should be not; 
 for "^-o" is understood after it. 
 
 Oes. — No is sometimes an adverb of degree ; and as snch it has this pecu- 
 liarity, that it can relate only to comparatives : as, "Ao more," — "No better," 
 — "Jfo greater," — "No sooner." When this word is prefixed to a nomi, it is 
 clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nutka; as, "No clouds, no 
 vapours intervene." — Dyer. 
 
 Note VII. — A negation, in English, admits but one nega- 
 tive word: as, "I could not wait any longer," — ^not, "«o 
 longer." Double negatives are vulgar. 
 
 Oes. 1.— The repetition of a negative word or clause, strengthens the ne- 
 gation ; as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the same clause, destroy 
 the negation, and render the meaning aflirmative ; as, "Nor did they not 
 perceive their evil plight."— Jffltore. That is, they did perceive it. 
 
 Obs. i.—Mier and never are directly opposite m sense, and yet they are 
 frequently confounded and misapplied even by respectable writers ; as " Sel- 
 dom, or never, can we expect," &o.—£lair's Lectures, p. 305. "Seldom, or 
 ever, did any one rise," &o.—IUd., p. 272. Here never is right, and ever is 
 wrong. But as the negative adverb applies only to time, ever is preferable 
 to never, in sentences like the following: " Now let man refieet but nevei' so 
 little on himaelV—BuHamaqui, p. 29. " Which wiU not hearken to the 
 voice of charmers, charming never so wisely."— Ps., Iviii, 5. For the phrase 
 ever so, (which ought perhaps to be written as one word,) is a very common 
 expression, denoting degree, however great or small; as, "everso little"— 
 *'everso wisely." And it seems to be this, and not time, that is intended in 
 the last two examples. 
 
 Obs. 3.— By the customary (but faulty} omission of the negative before hut, 
 that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only ; and it may when 
 used with that signification, be called an advert. Thus, the text " lie hath 
 9Wt grieved me but in part," [2 Cur., ii, 5,1 might drop the negative, and 
 still convey tlie same meaumg: " He hath grieved me 4«< in part?' 
 
 " Reason itself, iut gives it edge and power." Pope. 
 
 "Born Init to die, and rciisouing but to err." — Id. ' 
 
CHAP. II.J SYNTAX. — RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 19i 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 
 Examples under Note 1. — The Placing of Adverbs. 
 We were received kindly. 
 
 [FoRMTjLE.— Not proper, because the adverb kindly is not in the most suitabl« 
 place. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 15th, "Adverbs must bo placed in tliat 
 position which will render tho sentence the most perspicuous and agreeublo/' The 
 sentence will be improved by placing kivMy beXore received; thus, Wo were kindly 
 received.] - - . ^ , ^ 
 
 The wprk wilVte never completed. 
 
 We'ulWays sbotUd prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
 
 It is impossible continually to be at work. 
 
 He impertinently behaved to his master. 
 
 The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 
 
 Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy eyen. 
 
 IJndenNote 2. — Adverbs for Adjectives. 
 Give him a «Qpn ^d decisive answer. 
 When a substaniive is put absolutely. 
 Such expressions sound harshl}\ 
 Such events are of seldom occurrence. 
 Velvet feels very smoothly. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Here for Hither, <&€. 
 
 Bring him here to me. 
 
 I shall go there again in a few days. 
 
 Where are they all riding in so great haste 1 
 
 Under Note 4. — From Hence, dx. 
 
 From hence it appears that the statement is incorrect. 
 From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
 Do you know from whence it proceeds 1 
 
 Under Note 5. — The Adverb How. 
 
 You see how that not many are required. 
 
 I knevr how that they had heard of his misfortunes. 
 
 He remarked, how time was valuable. 
 
 Under Note 6. — The Adverb No. 
 
 Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
 Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
 I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Bauble Negatives. 
 
 I will not by no means entertain a spy. 
 
 Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way tc 
 be compared with this. 
 
200 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [PART UI. 
 
 Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
 I did not like neither his temper nor his principles. 
 Nothing never can justify ingratitude. 
 
 RULE XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions connect either words or sentences: as, 
 " Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and 
 thee, and between my herdmen and thy herdmen ; for 
 we are brethren." — (?en., siii, 8. 
 
 EXCEPTION FIRST. 
 
 The conjanetion ihat sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentenoo 
 which is made the subject of a verb ; as, "TAai mind is not matter, is cer- 
 tain." 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 "When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the for- 
 mer should be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the 
 connecting word ; as, '■^Naiher sun nor stars in many days appeared." — Aiti, 
 xxvii, 20. 
 
 EXCEPTION THIRD. 
 
 MtTier, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are 
 sometimes transposed, eo as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end 
 of the sentence ; as, " Where then was their capacity of standing, or his 
 either ?" — Barclay. "It is not dangerous TieiiAer." — Bolmgh'olce. "Ho is 
 very tall, but not too tall neither.'" — ^eetator. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVI. 
 
 Ob9. 1. — Conjunctions that Q(maa(Ajiarticular words, generally join similar 
 parts of speech in a common dependetice on some other term. Those which 
 connect senteTices or classes, commonly unite one to an other, either as an ad- 
 ditional aflBrmation, or as a condition, a cause, or an end. They are placed 
 ietween the terms which they connect, except there is a transposition, and 
 then they stand before the dependent term. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together ; as, 
 " What rests, bid that the mortal sentence pass 3" — Milton. 
 
 Obs. 3. — Conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated; as, ".BaJ 
 jtKD if that evil servant say in his heart." — Matthew, xjdv, 48. Greek, 
 " Eav Si sXirrth KaKdi 6ov\:)? iKzlfOi,^^ &c. Here is no an^, 
 
 Obs. 4. — The conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition ; as, 
 "li^'oSaraihimsdf as & journeyman.'" [See Obs. b, Bute xk.'] so, likewise, 
 when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Eule 
 xxi ; as, "Johnson soon after engaged as usher in a school." — Mviray. "Be 
 was employed as ■usJier.'''' This also is a virtual apposition. If after the verb 
 "engaged" we supply himsdf, uslier becomes objective, and is in nppositiou 
 with the pronoun. 
 
 0ns. 5. — As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun ; as, " Avoid 
 such as are vicious." " But to as many as received him," &c. " He then 
 read the conditions as follow." Here as represents a noun, and is the subject 
 of a verb. [See Toohe's Diversions of Pmrley.] But when a clause, or sen- 
 tence, is the antecedent, it is better to consider as a conjunction, and to sup- 
 ply the pronoun it; as, " He is angry, as [it] appears by this letter." 
 
 Obs. 6. — The conjunction *to is frequently understood ; as, 
 " Thou warnst me [that] I have done amiss." — Scott. 
 
 Obs. 7.— After than or as expressing a comparison, there is usually an el- 
 
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 201 
 
 lipsis of some word or words. The coustraction of the words employad may 
 be known by supplying the ellipsis; as, "She is younger than I" [am]. — 
 " He does nothing who endeavours to clo more than [wJiat] is allowed to 
 humanity." — Johnson. " My punishment is greater than [w)iat] I can bear." 
 —JBiile. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XVI. 
 
 Note I. — When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
 they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense 
 and in form. Thus : in stead of, " It always has, and always 
 will be laudable," say, "It always has been, and it always will 
 be laudable." 
 
 Note II. — The disjunctive conjunction lest or biit, should not 
 be employed where the copulative that, would be more proper : 
 as, "I feared that I should be deserted;" not, "lest I should 
 be deserted." 
 
 Note III. — After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the 
 latter term of comparison should be introduced by the con- 
 junction than: as, '"Can there be any other than this?" — 
 Harris. " Is not the life more than meat ?" — Bible. 
 
 Note IV. — The words in each of the following pairs, are the 
 proper correspondents to each other ; and care should be taken, 
 to give theki their right place in the sentence. 
 
 1. 'though — yet; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he 
 live." — John, xi, 25. 
 
 2. Ti^ether — or ; as, " Whether there be few or many." 
 
 3. Either — or ; as, "He was either ashamed or afraid." 
 
 4. Neither — nor ; as, " John the Baptist came neither eating 
 bread nor drinking wine." — Luke, vii, 33. 
 
 5. Both — and; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to 
 the Barbarians." — Rom., i, 14. 
 
 6. Such — as ; as, " All assembly such as earth saw never." 
 — Cowper. 
 
 7. Such — that; with a finite verb following, to express a 
 consequence : as, " My health is such that I cannot go." 
 
 8. As — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express 
 equality : as, " The peasant is as gay as he." — Cowper. 
 
 9. As — so ; Avith two verbs, to express equality or propor- 
 tion : as, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 
 
 10. So — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the 
 degree by comparison : as, " How can you descend to a thing 
 so base as falsehood ?" 
 
 11. So— as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality: 
 as, " No l.imb was e'er so mild as he." — Langhorne. 
 
 12. So — as ; with an infinitive following, to express a con- 
 sequence : as, '• These difficulties were so great as to discourage 
 age him." 
 
202 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 13. So — thai; with a finite verb following, to express a 
 consequence : as, " He was so much injured, that he could not 
 walk." 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Examples under Note 1. — Two Terms with One. 
 
 The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the 
 second. 
 
 [FoRMTTLK. — ^Not proper, becau se the preposition to, is used with joint reference to 
 the two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions But, 
 according to Note Ist under Eule 16th, " When two terms connected refer jointly to a 
 third, they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and in form." The 
 sentence may be corrected thus j The first proposal was essentially dill'erent^^om the 
 second, and inferior to it.] 
 
 He has made alterations and additions to the work. 
 He is more bold, but not so wise, as his companion. 
 Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
 I always have, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
 What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and 
 
 heard in the clearest light. 
 We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to the 
 
 defaming or to disquiet our neighbours. 
 Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than of showing it. 
 The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the 
 
 teeth of the common law. 
 
 Under Note 2.— Lest or But for Tlmt. 
 
 We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 
 
 I do not deny but he has merit. 
 
 Are you afraid lest he will forget you ? 
 
 These paths and bow'rs, doubt not but our joint hands, 
 
 Will keep from wilderness. — Milton. 
 
 Tinder Note 3. — Prefer Than. 
 It was no other but his own father. 
 Have you no other proof except this ? 
 I expected something more besides this. 
 He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion. 
 Such literary filching is nothing else but robbery. 
 
 Under Note 4— Of Correspondents. 
 Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand, 
 lie would not either dci it himself nor let me do it 
 The majesty of good things is such, as the confines of them are 
 
 reverend. 
 Whether he intends to do so, I cannot tell. 
 Send mB such articles only, that are adapted to this market. 
 
CHAP. II.J SYNTAX.— RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 203 
 
 As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
 
 No errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 
 
 It will improve neither the mind, nor delight the fancy. 
 
 The one is equally deserving as the other. 
 
 There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 
 
 Do you think this is so good as that ? 
 
 The relations are so obscure as they require much thought. 
 
 None is so fierce that dare stir him up. 
 
 There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 
 
 ill consequence. 
 I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. 
 The book is not as well printed as it ought to be. 
 
 So still he sat as those who wait 
 
 Till judgment speak the doom of fate. — Scott. I 
 
 RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions show the relations of things : as, " He 
 came^om Rome to Paris, in the company of many em- 
 inent men, and passed with them through many cities." 
 -~Analectic Magazine. 
 
 BXCKPTION FIRST. 
 
 The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase 
 ■which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of rela- 
 tion; as, "7b learn to die, is the great business of life." — DiUwm. " Never- 
 theless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you." — Si. Paul. '^To be 
 reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." 
 
 EXCEPTION SECOND. 
 
 The preposition^or, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and 
 the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent 
 term of relation; as, "Ihr us to learn to die, is the great business of hfe." — 
 "Nevertheless, /or me to abide in the flesh, is more, needful for you." — "For 
 an old man to be reduced to poverty, is a very great afiliction." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In parsing any OTdinnry preposition, the learner should n.ime tiie 
 two terms of the re&tion, and apply the foregoing rule. The principle is 
 simple and etymological, yet not the less important as a rule of syntax. 
 Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other 
 equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless manner in 
 which they are usually slurred over in parsing. 
 
 Obs. 2. — If the learner be at any loss to discover the two terms of relation, 
 let him ask and answer two questions ; first, with the interrogative what be- 
 fore the preposition, to find the antecedent ; and then, with the same pro- 
 noun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions 
 answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. If one 
 
 To parse rightly is to understand rightly; and what is well expressed, it is 
 a shame to misnn Jerstand or misinterpret. 
 
204 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAETIII. 
 
 Obs. 3.— When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms 
 of relation are transposed; as, "To a studious mare, action is a relAef!'' — 
 Burgh. "iSommc they [the ladies] do not ^?'«fered to." — Id. " Until 1 have 
 done that wMch I have spoken to thee or." — Gen., xxviii, 15. 
 
 Obs. 4. — The former or antecedent term of relation may he a noun, an afl- 
 jeotive, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb : the latter or suiseqiimi 
 term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb 
 or an imperfect or preperfect participle. The word governed by the prepo- 
 sition, is always the aubsegmnt term, however placed. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Both the terms of relation are usually expressed : though either 
 
 tain defence, or who defend."^Pope. 
 
 Obs. 6.— The only proper exceptions to the foregomg rule, are those which 
 are mserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also 
 to be excepted ; as, "To reason right, is to submit."— Pope. But here most 
 if not all grammarians would say, the verb is, is the antecedent or governing 
 term. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, "He is to bu1> 
 mit ;" but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing these two infini- 
 tives, would be a needless refinement. In relation to the infinitive, Dr. 
 ^(fom remarks, that the preposition to is often taken alsohttely ; as, "To con- 
 fess the truth."—" Tb proceed." But the assertion is not entirely true • nor 
 are his examples appropriate ; for what he and many other grammarians call 
 the ififimtwe absolute, evidently depends on something ■understood; and the 
 preposition is surelj m no instance indepen dent of what follows it, and ia 
 therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to he supposed to 
 have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a sen- 
 tence which is made the subject of a verb: for the sentence itself often con- 
 tarns that term, as in the following example : "/« what way mind acts upon 
 matter, is unknown." Here in shows the relation between acts auAviay: 
 because it is suggested, that mind acts in some way." 
 
 Obs. 7.— The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which it 
 governs. But, m poetry, the preposition is sometimes placed after its object; 
 
 "Wild CaiTon's lonely woods among."— LangJiorm. 
 
 Obs. 8.— In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an in- 
 teiTogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with 
 the other term of relation ; as, f' Whom did he speak to?" But it is more 
 dignified, and in general more gracefal, to place the preposition before the 
 pronoun ; as, "2?) wtom did ho speak ?" 
 
 Obs. 9.— Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, " Lambeth is 
 over agavnst Westminster-abbey." — Murray. 
 
 " And. from before the lustre of her face."— Thomson 
 "Blows mildew/TOm between his shrivel'd hps.— Cbwp«r. 
 These should be written as compounds, and taken together in parsing : for 
 It we parse them separately, we must cither call the first an adverb, or sup- 
 pose some very awkward ellipsis. 
 
 Obs. 10.— Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint reference to 
 tne same noun : as,, " He boasted of, and contendedyb?-, the privilege." This 
 constriiction is formal, and scarcely allowable, except in the law stvle. It is 
 better to say, "He boasted of the privilege, and contended for it."' 
 
 UBS. 11.— The preposition %iUo^ expresses a relation produced by motion or 
 change; ajid w, the same relation, without reference to motion : hence, "to 
 walk mto the trarden," and, "to walk w the garden," arc very diflerent. 
 
 UBS. Vi.— Between or ldwi.)d is used in reference to two things or i.arties: 
 armnq or ami,dst, in reference to a greater uiunbor, or to sometMug by which 
 an other may be surrounded ; iu^, ^ ■' """•" 
 
 " Thou pendulum letwhct :i smile iiiid ia-xr."—Biirun. 
 " The host between the mountain and the shore." Id. 
 
CHAP. Il.J SYNTAX.— RULE XVII.— PEEPOSITIONS. 205 
 
 " To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
 A ruin amidst ruins." — 7o. 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XVII 
 
 Note I. — Prepositions must be chosen and employed agree- 
 ably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to 
 
 express the relations intended. 
 
 Note II. — An ellipsis or omission of prepositions is inele- / 
 sant, except in those phrases in which long and general use/ 
 has sanctioned it. In the following sentence, q/" is needed. 
 
 " I will not flatter you, 
 
 That all I see in you is worthy love."— Shak. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 
 Examples under Note 1. — Choice of Prepositions. 
 Her sobriety- is no derogation to her understanding. 
 
 [FoftMiTLE. — ^Not proper, because the relation between deroffaUon and imderstand' 
 t7il7 i3 not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st un- 
 der Rule 17th, "Prepositions must be chosen and employed agi'eeably to tlie usage 
 and iiliom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This rela- 
 tion would be better expressed by from; thus, Her sobriety is no derogation//'om her 
 UQderstandlDg.] 
 
 She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 
 
 This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 
 
 He was accused for betraying his trust. 
 
 There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
 
 I have no occasion of his services. 
 
 You may safely confide on him. 
 
 I entertain no prejudice to him. 
 
 You may rely in what I tell you. 
 
 Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 
 
 This remark is. founded in truth. 
 
 After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 
 
 I will tell you a story very different to that. 
 
 Their conduct is agreeable with their profession. 
 
 Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust. 
 
 I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 
 
 They are gone in the meadow. 
 
 Let this be divided between the three. 
 
 The shells were broken in pieces. 
 
 The deception has passed among every one. 
 
 They never quarrel among each other. ,^,., 
 
 Amidst every difficulty, he persevered. 
 
 Let us go above stairs. 
 
 I was at London, when this happened. 
 
 We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 
 
 This originated from mistake. 
 
 18 
 
206 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 The Bridewell is situated to the west of the City-Hall, and it 
 has no communication to the other buildings. 
 
 I am disappointed of the work ; it is very inferior from what 
 I expected. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Omission of Prepositions. 
 Be worthy me, as I am worthy you. — Dryden. 
 They cannot but he unworthy the care of others. 
 Thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. 
 Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite each other. 
 Ovid was banished Rome by his patron Augustus. 
 
 RULE XVIII.— INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections have no dependent construction: as, "0/ 
 let not thy heart despise me." — Johnson. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON KULB XVIII. 
 
 _ Obs. 1.— To this rule thero are properly no ejxeptions. Though interjec- 
 tions are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet being 
 mere signs of passion and feeling, they cannot have any strict grammatical 
 relation, or dependence acoordini< to the sense. Being destitute alike of re- 
 lation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently if 
 used at all. •^' 
 
 Oes. 2. — The interjection is common to many languages, and is fre- 
 
 . ... ' grammarians, therefore, 
 
 made this interjection the sign of the mmtive case; which is the same aa the 
 nominative put absolute by address in JSnglUh. 
 
 Obs. 3.—" Interjections in English have' no government."— Zowtt. When 
 a word not m the nominative absolute, follows an interieetion, as part of an 
 
 that they were wise !" Such expressions, however, lose much of their viva- 
 city, when the eUipsis is supplied. 
 
 Obs. 4.— Interjections mayTje placed tefore or after a simple sentence, and 
 sometimes baween its parts ; but they are seldom allowed to interrupt the 
 connexion of words closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an inter- 
 jection IS taulty, and directly contradicted by his example : " O virtue I how 
 amiable thou art I" ^ ^.nouoiuvvi 
 
 CHAPTEE III.— GOYEENMENT. 
 
 Governmenthas respect only to nouns, pronouns verbs 
 participles, and prepositions; the other five parts of 
 speech neither govern nor are governed. The governinq 
 words, may be either nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, 
 
CHAP. III.]' SYNTAX.— RULE SIX.— POSSESSIVES. 207 
 
 or prepositions; tlie words governed are either nouns, 
 pronouns, verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner 
 must remember that the rules of government are not to 
 be applied to the governing words, but to those which 
 are governed; and which, for the sake of brevity, are 
 often technically named after the particular form or mod- 
 ification assumed ; as, possessives, objectives, same cases, in- 
 finitives, gerundives. Taken in this way, none of the 
 following rules can have any exceptions. 
 
 Oes. — The Arrangement of words, (which is treated of in the observationa 
 on the rules of constractioD,) is an important part of syntax, in which not 
 only the beauty hut the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and 
 to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. But 
 it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence 
 never affects the method of parsing them : on the contrary, the same words, 
 however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, so long 
 as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have 
 parsed any part of an inverted or diffiealt sen tence rightly, we are at liberty 
 to declare the meaning by any arrangement which wfll make the construc- 
 tion more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words un- 
 altered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text and to make a 
 mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand 
 both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written ; and he 
 who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. "With great 
 indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, 
 that, "in parsing poetry, in order to cnme at (he meaning of the author, the 
 learner will find it necessary to transpose his language." — KirJcham^s 6V., p. 
 166. See also Merdhant, Wilcox, Sutl, and others^ to the same effect. To 
 what purpose can he transpose a sentence, who does not first see what it 
 meflns, and how to explain or parse it as it stands ? 
 
 RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is gov- 
 erned by the name of the thing possessed ; as, 
 " Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine ; 
 " Touch'd by t]iy hand, again Rome^s glories shine." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. 
 
 Oes. 1. — Every possessive is governed by some noun expressed or under- 
 stood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are put in apposition 
 with others so governed ; and for every possessive termination there must 
 be a separate governing word. The possessive sign may and must be omit- 
 ted La certain cases ; but it is never omitted ly ellipsis, as Murray errone- 
 ously teaches. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in 
 every instance, when it must be used^ and when omitted ; but Murray, after 
 as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it undetermined. If a person 
 knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the note, and 
 he shall not en-. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The possessive case generally comes immediately oefore the gov- 
 erning noun; as, "All nature's difi'erence keeps all nature^ s peace." — Fme. 
 " Lady ! be thine [i. e. thy walk] the Cffiristian's walk." — Oh. Observer. But 
 to this general principle there are some exceptions ; as, 
 
208 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 i. When an adjective intervenes; as, ^^ Flora's earliest S7?wKs." — Milton. 
 " Of WiWs last night's lecture.''^— Spectator. 
 
 2. When the possession is affirmed or denied ; as, " The book is mine, 
 and not Johris." But here the governing nonn may he supplied in its proper 
 place ; and, in some such sentences, it must ie, else a pronoun will be the 
 only governing Tvord; as, "Ye are Christ's [disciples], and Christ is God's" 
 [son].— ;S<. Paul. 
 
 3. When the case occurs without the sign ; as, " In her h-ofher Absalom's 
 house." — BiMe. "David and Jonathan's friendship." — "Adam and Eve's 
 morning hymn." — Br. Ash. " Behold, the heaven, and the heaven of heav- 
 ens, is the Lord's thy God." — Deut., x, 14. 
 
 Oe3. 3. — Where the governing noun cannot be easUy mistaken, it is often 
 omitted by ellipsis ; as, " At the alderman's" [house] — "A book of my bro- 
 ther's" {boohs'] — " A subject of the emperor's'' [subjects']. This is the true 
 explanation of all Murray's " double genitives J" for the first noun, being 
 partitive, naturally suggests a plurahty of the same kind. 
 
 Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way 
 connected, they usually refer to things individually different, but of the same 
 name ; and, when such is the meaning, the governing noun is understood 
 wherever the sign is added without it : as, 
 
 " From Stiles's pocket into Mhes's" [pocheij.—S. Butler. 
 "Add JVaiure's, OustoTri'a, Season's, Passion's strife." — Fope. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to thatpart of a com- 
 pound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case ; as, " The captaiTi-of- 
 the-guard's house."— 5»fc. " The Bard-of -Lomond's lay is done."— Eogg. 
 " Of the Oldldren-of-IsraeVs half thou shalt take one portion."— iVWn., xxxi, 
 30. Such compounds ought always to be written with hyphens, and parsed 
 together as possessives governed in the usual way. The words cannot oe ex- 
 plained separately. 
 
 to a I 
 
 trod. ^ ^^_ _^ 
 
 lowing line, the adjective elegantly takes the sign ; fecause there iTarTellip- 
 818 of both nouns : 
 
 " The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay."— Goldsmith. 
 Obs. 7. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the « is sometimes 
 omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the possessive singular; 
 iis,''yor conscience Bd.'ke."— Bible. "Moses' minister."— M>id. "Felix' room." 
 —Mid. "Achilles' wrath."— Pop«. But the elision should be sparingly in- 
 dulged. It is in general less agreeaTjle than the regular form ; as, £"&' tor 
 Hicks' s, — Barnes^ for Barnes's. 
 
 Obs. 8.— Whatever word or term gives rise to the dlreofc relation of prop- 
 erty, and 13 rightly made to govern the possessive case, must be a nown^ 
 must be the name of some substance, quality, state, or action. When there- 
 fore other parts of speech assume this relation, they become nouns; as, 
 'Against the day of my burying."— Jo?m, xii, 7. " Of mv whereabout."— 
 Mat. " ihe \ery head and front of my of endini/." — Id. 
 _ Obs 9.— Some grammarians say, that a participle may govern the possess- 
 ive case before it, and yet retain the government and admncts of a partici- 
 ple; as We also properly say, ' This will be the effect of the mipU's crnn- 
 posmgjtefmently.''"— Murray's Oram. "What can be the reason of the 
 committee s Mmng delayed this business V— Murray's Key. This construc- 
 tion ^Jaulty, because it confounds the properties of different parts of speech, 
 and produces a hybridous class between the participle and the noun ; "but 
 this, says Lowth, " is inconsistent ; let it be either the one or the other, and 
 abide by its proper construction." It is also unnecessary, because the same 
 idea may be otherwise expressed more elegantly ; as, " This will be the effect, 
 if^the^^vpil compose frequently."—" Why have the committee delayed this busi- 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XIX. 
 
 Note I.— In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate 
 
CHAP. III.] STXTAX.— RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 209 
 
 form should be observed : thus, write men's, hers, its, ours, 
 yours, theirs; and not, mens\ her''s, it's, our''s, your''s, thelr's. 
 
 Note II. — When nouns of the possessive case, are connected 
 by conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession 
 must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immedi- 
 ately precede the governing noun, expressed or understood ; 
 as, " John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than 
 James's or Andrew's.'''' — " For David my servant's sake." — 
 £ible. " Lost in lovers and friendship's smile." — Scott. 
 
 ■ Note HI. — The relation of property may also be expressed 
 by the preposition o/and the objective : as, " The viW of man;" 
 for, " man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which 
 will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable ; 
 and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of 
 either. 
 
 Note IV. — A noun governing the possessive plural, should 
 
 not be taade plural, unless the sense requires it. Thus : say, 
 
 " We ha've changed^our mind," if only one purpose or opinion 
 
 is meant. 
 
 Obs. — A nomi taken figuratively may be singular, when the literal mean- 
 ing would require the plural: such expressions as, "their face," — "their 
 neti," — "their ?ui7id," — "their head," — "their heart," — "our mouth," — 
 " oar life," — are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not improper. a 
 
 Note V. — The possessive case should not be prefixed to a 
 participle that is not taken in all respects a's a noun. The 
 following phrase is therefore wrong : " Adopted by the Goths 
 in their pronouncing the Greek." — 'Walker's Key, p. 17. Ex- 
 punge their. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX. — POSSESSlVES'i 
 Examples under Note 1. — The Possessive Eofm. 
 Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 
 
 [FoMnTLE. — Not proper, because the noun wnce9tor8, which is intended for the pos- 
 sessive plural, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, according to Note 1st 
 under Kule 19th, "In tlie use of the possessive case, its appropriate form should h» 
 observed." An apostrophe is required after cmeeators ; thus, Thy ancestors^ virtue 
 is not thine."] 
 
 Mans chief good is an upright mind. 
 
 I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 
 
 Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 
 
 Tliey are wolves in sheeps clothing. 
 
 The tree is known by it's fruit. 
 
 The privQege is not their's, any more than it is yonr*s. 
 
 Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 
 Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs'. 
 18* 
 
210 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART III. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Possessives Connected. 
 
 There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus's 
 
 diameter. 
 This hat is John, or James's. 
 The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 
 This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's.^ 
 This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 
 Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same % 
 Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same ? 
 Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same? 
 Were Cain and Abel's parents the same ? 
 Were Cain's parents and Abel the same ? 
 Was Cain's and Abel's father there 1 
 Were Cain's and Abel's parents there ? 
 
 Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
 A Maker's wise and good. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Choice of Forms. 
 
 The world's government is not left to chance. 
 He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
 The throne we honour is the choice of the people. 
 We met at my brother's partner's house. ^ 
 
 An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
 Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teachers 
 of the city of New York. 
 
 Under Note 4. — Nouns with Possessives Plural. 
 Their healths perhaps may be pretty well secured. — Locke. 
 We all have talents committed to otff charges. 
 For your sakes forgave I it,^in the sight of Christ. 
 We are, for our parts, well satisfied. 
 The pious cheerfully submit to their lots. 
 Fools think it not worth their whiles to be wise. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Possessives with Participles. 
 I rewarded the boy for fti? studying so diligently. 
 Have you a rule for your thus parsing the participle? 
 He errs in his giving the" word a double construction. 
 By out offending others, we expose ourselves. 
 They deserve our thanks, for their quickly relieving us. 
 
 RULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 
 
 Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pre- 
 perfect participles, govern the objective casej as "I 
 
CHAP.III.J SYNTAZ.— KULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 211 
 
 found her assisting ^^TO." — " Having finished the worh, 1 
 submit it." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Every objective ia governed by some verb orpartiei^U, according 
 to this Eiile, or by e,0!a& pr^osiMon, according to Eule 22d ; except such as 
 are put in amposiMonwAa others according to Eule Sd, or wter an infinitive 
 orpariicipte accorffing to Eule 21st; as, "Like him of Gath, Goliath." — 
 " They took him to be me." 
 
 Obs. 2. — The objective case generally follows the governing word : but 
 when it is emphatio, it often precedes the nominative ; as, "jS he restored 
 to mine ofSoe, and him he hanged." — Gen., xli, 13. "M>me he had not." — 
 Thomson. ' ' This poini they have gained.' ' In poetry it is sometimes placed 
 between the nominative and the verb; as, " His daring foe securely htm de- 
 fied." — MiUon. " The broom its yellow leaf hath shed." — ZangAome. A 
 relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the bead of its 
 clause, and of course it precedes the verb which governs it ; as, " I am Jesus, 
 whom thou persecutest." — Acts. " Whom will the meeting appoint ?" 
 
 Obs. 3. — All active-transitive verbs have some nown or pronoun for their 
 object. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood, or a de- 
 pendent clause, forming a part of the logical predicate ; yet these terms, being 
 commonly introduced by a connecting particle, do not constitute such an ob- 
 ject as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb. If, in the sen- 
 tence, " Boys love to play," the verb is transitive, as several grammarians 
 affirm ; why not also in " Boys like to play," " Boys delight to play," " Boys 
 eeem to play ," " Boys cease to play," and the like ? The construction is pre- 
 cisely the same. It must, however, be confessed, that some verbs which 
 thus take the infinitive after them, cannot otherwise be intransitive. 
 
 Obs. i. — The word that, which is often employed to introduce a clause, is, 
 by some grammarians, considered as a pronoun, representing the clause 
 which follows it. And their opinion seems to be warranted both by the 
 origin and the general import of the particle. But in conforniity to general 
 custom, and to nis own views of the practical purposes of grammatical anal- 
 ysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks it 
 better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by that and a de- 
 pendent clause, than to supply the very frequent, ellipses which the other 
 explanation supposes. To explain it as a conjunction, connecting an- acti/ve- 
 transUvoe verb and its (Object, (as several respectable grammarians do,) appears 
 to involve some inconsistency. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Active-transitive verbs are often followed by two objectives in 
 apposition: as, "Thy saints proclaim thee Mag." — Cowper. "The Author 
 of my being formed me manr—Mwrrwy. "And God called 'ih^ firmamerd 
 Heaven." — BMe. And, in such a construction, the direct object is some- 
 times placed before the verb ; as, " And Simon he surnamed Peter." — Marie, 
 iii, 15. 
 
 Obs. 6. — When a verb is followed by two words in the objective case, 
 which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction, one of them 
 is governed by a preposition understood ; as, " I paid [to] himi, the money." 
 — "They offered [toJm« a «eai." — "He asked [of] them the question." — " I 
 yielded, and tmlock'd [to] her all my Jieart." — MiUon. 
 
 Obs. 7. — In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposi- 
 tion is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative ; as, '^Ile was 
 pad the money," in stead of, "2%e money was paid [to] Mm." 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XX. 
 
 Note I.-rThose verbs and participles which require an ob- 
 ject, should not be used intransitively ; as, " She affects {kind- 
 Ke««,] in order to ingratiate [herself] with you."=" I will not 
 
212 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETIU. 
 
 allow of it." Expunge of, that allow may govern the pronoun 
 it. 
 
 Note II. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit 
 an object, should not be used transitively ; as, " The planters 
 grow cotton." Say raise, or cultivate. 
 
 Obs. — Some verbs will govern a kiijdred nonn, or its prononu, tut no 
 other ; a3, " He limd a virtuous Z«/%."^" Hear, I pray you, this d/ream which 
 I have dreamed.''^ — Gen., xxxvii, 6. 
 
 Note III. — The passive verb should always take for its sub- 
 ject the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which 
 it is derived ; as, {Active) " They denied me this privilege." — 
 (Passive,) " This privilege was denied me," — ^not, "/was denied 
 this privilege." 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDEK EULE XX.. — OBJECTIVES. 
 She I shall more readily forgive. 
 
 [FoRMTTLE. — ^Not proper, bejcause the prouonn she is in the nominative case, and ia 
 used as the object of the active-transitive verb shall forgwe. But according to Eule 
 30th, " Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, goveni 
 the objective case." — Therefore, sAe should be hep; i\i\is,ner I sliall more readily 
 forgive.] 
 
 Thou only have I chosen. 
 
 Who shall we send on this errand ? 
 
 My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 
 
 He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
 
 Who should I meet but my old friend ! 
 
 He accosts whoever he meets. 
 
 Whosoever the court favours, is safe. 
 
 They that honour me I will honour. 
 
 Who do you think I saw the other day ? 
 
 Under Note 1. — An Object Required. 
 
 The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
 I must premise with three circumstances. 
 This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
 False accusation cannot diminish from real merit, 
 His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 
 
 Under Note 2. — False Transitives, 
 Good keeping thrives the herd. 
 We endeavoured to agree the parties. 
 Being weary, he sat him down. 
 Go, fleo thee away into the land of Judah. 
 The popuiar lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
 subject. 
 
CHAP. III.J SYNTAX.— RULE XXI.— SAME CASES. 213 
 
 Under Note 3. — Passive Verbs. 
 
 They were refused the benefit of their recantation. 
 Believers are not promised temporal riches. 
 We were shown several beautiful pictures. 
 But, unfortunately, I was denied the favour. 
 You were paid a high compliment. 
 I have never been asked the question. 
 
 RULE XXL— SAME CASES. 
 
 Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
 their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
 when both words refer to the same thing: as, "He re- 
 turned a friend, who came a foe." — Pope. " The child was 
 named John." — "/;! could not be he." 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON R0LE XXI. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The verbs described in this rule do not, like active-transitive 
 verbs, require a regimen, or case after them ; but their finite tenses may be 
 followed by a notmnative, and their infinitives and participles by a nomina- 
 tive or an objective, explanatory of a noun or pronoun which precedes them. 
 And as these oases belong after the verb or participle, they may in a certain 
 sense be said to be governed, by it. But the rule is perhaps more properly a 
 rule of agreement ; the word which follows the verb or participle, may be 
 said to form a simple concord with that which precedes it, as if the two were 
 in wppodtion. [See Eule 3d.] 
 
 Obs. 2. — In this rule the terms after and before refer rather to the order of 
 the sense and construction, than to the placing of the words. The proper 
 subject of the verb is the nominative to it, or before it, by Eule 2d ; and the 
 other nominative, however placed, belongs after it, by Rule 21st. In gen- 
 eral, however, the proper subject precedes the verb, and the other 'wovA fol- 
 lows it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But when the proper sub- 
 ject is placed after the verb, as in the nine instances specified under Paile 
 2d, the explanatory nominative, is commonly introduced still later ; as, " But 
 be ihov an exarnpU of the believers." — 1 Tim., iv, 12. 
 
 Obs. 3. — In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed, or 
 both are placed after me verb ; as, 
 
 " Whence, and what art tlum, execrable shape?" — Milton. 
 " Art thou that traitor angel ? art thou Ice ?" — Idem. 
 
 ' Obs. 4. — In a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical or poetical 
 transposition of the terms ; as, " I was eyes to the blind, and feet was / to 
 the lame." — Job, xxix, 15. 
 
 " Far other scene ia Tkrasymeni now." — Byran. 
 
 Obs. 5. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before 
 the verb ; as, " I know not who she is." — " Inquire thou whose son the stripling 
 is."_l Sam., xvii, 56. " Man would not be the creature which he now is."— 
 Blair. "I could not guess who it should be."—Addiso7i. And they arc 
 sometimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or transposition ; as, " Yet 
 He it ia." — Young. " No contemptible cyrator he was." — Dr. Blair. 
 
 Oss. 6.— As infinitives and participk-s liave no nominatives of tlieir own, 
 such as are not transitive in themselves, may take different cases after them; 
 and in order to determine what case it is that follows them, the learner 
 must carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or 
 thmg This word being often remote and sometimes understood, the senso 
 
214 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET mi 
 
 13 the only clew to the oonstraction. Examples : " Who then can tear the 
 thought of being an outcast from his -presenoel"— Addison, "/cannot help 
 leing so passionate an admirer as I am."— 5fe«fe. " To recommend whM tlio 
 soberer part of manliind look upon to he a trifle." — Id. "It would be a ro- 
 mantic madness, for a man to be a lord in his closet." — Id. '' To affect to be 
 a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness.'''' In this last sentence, 
 lard is in the objective after to be; and madness, in the nominative after wimM 
 'be. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDEB EULE XJI. — SAME CASES. 
 
 We did not know that it was him. 
 
 [FonMiTLE. — ^Not proper, because the pTonoun him, which belongs after the neutci 
 verb was, is In the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, which be- 
 longs before it as the nominative ; both words referring to the same thing. Bat, ac- 
 cording to Eule 21st, "Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their par- 
 ticiples, take the same cjise after as before them, when both words refer to the same 
 thing." Therefore, him should be he; thus, We did not liuow that it was li^.\ 
 
 We thought it was thee. 
 
 I would act the same part, if I were him. 
 
 It could not have been her. 
 
 It is not me, that he is angry with. 
 
 They believed it to be I. 
 
 It was thought to be him. 
 
 If it had been her, she would have told us. 
 
 We know it to be they. 
 
 Whom do you think it is ? 
 
 Who do you suppose it to be ? 
 
 We did not know whom they were. 
 
 Thou art him whom they described. 
 
 Impossible ! it can't be me. 
 
 Whom did he think you were 1 
 
 Whom say ye that I am 1 
 
 EULE XXII.— OBJECTIVES. 
 
 Prepositions govern tlie Objective case; as, 
 " Truth and good are one : 
 And beauty dwells in therA, and they in her, 
 With like participation.'''' — Ahenside. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS OTT RULE XXII. 
 
 Obs. 1. — Most of the prepositions may take the imperfect partidpU fortheif 
 object; and some, the preperfect, or pluperfect: as, '■'On opening the trial, 
 they accused him of 'having defrauded them." — " A quick -wit, a nice judge- 
 ment, &o., could not raise this man above being receioed only upon the foot 
 of contributing %o mvA'h aadi diversion."— 5teefo. And the preposition to is 
 often followed by .an infinitire. But, as prepositions, when they iutroduco 
 declinable words, or words that have oases, always govern the objectim, there 
 are properly no exceptions to the foregoing rule. — Let not the learner suppose, 
 that infinitives or participles, when they are governed by prepositions, are 
 therefore in the objective case ; for case is no attribute of eitlier of them. They 
 are governed as participles or as infinitives, and not as cases. The mere fact 
 
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE SXII.— OBJECTIVES. 215 
 
 of government is so far from creating the modification governed, that it 
 neeesaarily presupposes it to exist. 
 
 Obs. 2.— Prepositions are sometimes ellipticaU^ construed -with adjectives ; 
 as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high ; i. e., in a vain manner, in secret places, 
 at the first time, <m nign, places. Such phrases imply time, place, degree, or 
 manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply 
 the ellipsis. 
 
 Obs. 3. — In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at once, from 
 above, for ever. These should be united, and parsed as adverbs, or else the 
 adverb must be parsed as a noun, according to observation 8d on Kule 15th. 
 
 Obs. 4. — When nouns of tiTJie or measure are connected with verbs or ad- 
 jectives, the prepositions which govern tbem, are generally suppressed : as, 
 " We rode sixty miles that day;" that is, " thr&ugh sixty miles om that day." 
 — " The wall is ten feet high ;" that is, " high to ten feet." In parsing, sup- 
 ply the ellipsis ; or else you must take the time or measure adverbially, as 
 relating to the verb or adjective qualified by it. Such expressions as, " A 
 board of six feet long," — " A boy of twelve years old," are vprong. Strike 
 out of; or say, " A board of six feet in length,'''' — " A boy of twelve years of 
 age." 
 
 Obs. 5. — After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or un- 
 to is often imderstood ; as, "It is lihe [to or vnto] silver." — Alien. "How 
 Mi« the former !" — Dryden. "ifer yonder copse."— ffoMiWMJii. "iW^Athis 
 recess." — Garth. As similarity ana proximity are relations, and not qual- 
 ities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions ; and 
 some grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Jommon seems to be 
 inconsistent in calling near a preposition in the phrase, "iS'o near thy heart," 
 and an adjective, in the phrase, " Being near their master !" "We have not 
 .placed them with the prepositions iorfokr reasons : (1.) Because they are 
 sometimes cwTjparefi." (2.) Because they sometimes have ad/eerls evidently 
 relating to them ; (3.) Because the preposition to or unio is sometimes ex- 
 pressed after them • and, (4.) Because the words which usually stand for ' 
 them in the learned lang:;:iges, are clearly adjectives. Like, when it expresses 
 similarity of mamner, anc near and mgh, when they express proximity of 
 degree, are adverbs. 
 
 Obs. 6. — The word worth is often followed by an adjective, or a participle, 
 which it appears to govern; as, "If your arguments produce no conviction, 
 they are wortA nothing to me." — Beattie. "To reign is wort^ ambition." — 
 JUiMon. " This is life indeed, life worth preserving." — Addison,. It is not 
 ea.sy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs. Dr. Johnson 
 calls it an adjective, but says nothing of the object after it, which some sup- 
 pose to be governed by of understood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously 
 assumed, that worth is equivalent to worthy, after which of should be ex- 
 pressed; as, " Whatsoever is worthy of their Iowa, is worth their anger." — 
 Denham. But, as wcrrth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adr- 
 jective, some call it a rumn, and suppose a double ellipsis ; as, " The book is 
 [of the] worth [of] a dollar." This is still less satisfactory ; and, as the 
 whole appears to be meft guess-work, we see no good reason why worth is 
 not a preposition, governing the noun or participle. If an advei'b precede 
 worth, it may as well be referred to the foregoing verb, as when it occui-s 
 before any other preposition. 
 
 Obs. 7. — Both Dr. Johnsm, and Eome Tooke, (who never agreed if they 
 could helpit,) unite in saying that worth, in the phrases, "Wo worth the 
 man,"— "Wo worth the day," &c., is from the imperative of the Suxm verb 
 wrythan or weorthan, to be; i. e., " Wo be [to] the man," or, " Wo betide the 
 man," &c. And the latter affirms, that, as by is from the imperative of beon, 
 to be, so with (though admitted to be sometimes from witham, to join) is often 
 no other than this same imperative verb wyrth or worth: if so, the words ly, 
 with, and worth, were originally synonymous, and should now be referred to 
 one and the same class. The dative case, or oblique obieot, which they gov- 
 erned as Sascm. verbs, becomes their proper object, when taken as EngUsh 
 prepositions ; and in this also they appear to be alike. 
 &s. 8. After verbs oi giving, procuring, and some others, there is usually 
 
216 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAllT III. 
 
 an ellipsis of to or for before tiie objective of the person ; as, " Give [to] him 
 water to drinli."—" Buy [./«•] me a knife." So in tlie exclamation, "Wo 
 is me.'" — meaning, "Wo is to me!" 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 
 It rests with thou and me to decide. 
 
 [FoKMTjLTC. — Not proper, because the pronoun ^/to« is in the nominative case and 
 is governed by the preposition toith. But, according to Eule 22d, "Prepositions 
 govern the objective .case." Therefore, thou should be thee ; thus. It rests with tti^ 
 and me to decide,] 
 
 Let that remain a secret between you and I. 
 
 I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 
 
 Who did he inquire for ? Thou. 
 
 From he that is needy, turn not away. 
 
 We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 
 
 Does that boy know who he is speaking to ? 
 
 I bestow my favours on whosoever I will. 
 
 RULE XXIIL— INFINITIVES. 
 
 The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
 commonly connects it to a finite verb; "I desire to. 
 learn." — Br. Adam. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XZllU, 
 
 Obs. 1.— No wd is more variously explained b^■ grammarians, than this 
 \TOrd TO, wlucli IS prefixed to the verb in tlie ii.juitive mood. Mmm, 
 
 Wal/cer, bcott, lodd, and other lexicographers, call it an adverb ■ but in ex- 
 plammg Its use, they say it denotes certam relations, which it is not the office 
 °-LT, ^''''' to express. [See JohnsoT,; Dictionary, 4to.] lowth, Jfrnrav, 
 
 Webster, Coar O^y, and others, caU it a preposUion ; and some of these 
 ascribe it to the government of the verb, and others do not.^ Lowth savs, 
 Ihe prepositzon. to placed before the verb, makes the infinitive mood." 
 ,i pinner, in his Oarum,es Etyrrwlogici, calls it an equiwcal article. Home Toole. 
 who shows that most of our conjunctions and prepositions may be traced 
 bacls: to ancient verbs and nouns, says that to has the same origin as do. and 
 he seems to consider it an auxiliary -verb. Many are content to call it a me- 
 fix,aparticle, & sign of the mjinUive, &o., without telling us w;Sv or /iow it is 
 so, or to »Aa< pwrt of speech it belongs. If it be ajpqgt of the inLitive, it is a 
 «ffl« and must be classed with the auxiliaries. jfr.Asl placed it among tlie 
 auxilianes; but he says, the auxiliaries "seem to have the nature of (h«- 
 verbs We have given in the preceding rule that explanation which we 
 consider to be the most correct and the most simple. Who first parsed tbe 
 mlinitive in this manner we know not; the doctrine is found in several 
 Jinglish grammars, one of which, written by a classical teacher, was pubUshed 
 m London m 1796.— See Coar's Grammar, 12mo, p. 263. 
 
 J^t^'- '^T^}"^'^ ^"f ''?.V grammarians have considered the word to as a wri 
 oftkeinfimtne; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the govern- 
 ment of tins mood to .i preceding verb. Bat the rule which they give is 
 partial, and often inapplicable; and their exceptions to it are numerous and 
 T>uzzling. They teach that at least half the different parts of spee" >«?«"?- 
 2y govern the infinitive: if so, there should be a distinct rule for eaT for 
 why should the government of one part of speech be made an exeunt ion to 
 that of an other ? and, if tliis be done, with relpeet to the infiaUive^l^^ not 
 also with respect to the objective case ? In all instances to which thlil- rule 
 
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 217 
 
 is applicable, the rule here given amounts to the same thing ; and it obviates 
 the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment arising 
 from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them. 
 
 Obs. 3. — The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, than in 
 most otlier languages. In French, the infinitive, though frequently placed 
 in immediate dependence on an otlier verb, ms^ also be governed by several 
 different prepositions, (as a, de, paar, sans, apres,) according to the sense.* 
 In Spanish and Italian, the construction is similar. In Zatin and G-reek, the 
 infinitive is, for the most part, dependent on an other verb. But, according 
 to the grammars, it may stand for a noun in all the six cases ; .and many 
 have called it an indeclinable noun. See the Part-Jioyal Latin and Greek 
 Qramimars ; in vrhich several peculiar constructions of tne influitive, are ra- 
 ferred to the government of a preposition. 
 
 Obs. 4.— Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite 
 verb, yet it may be joined to almost all the other parts of speech, or to an 
 other infinitive ; as, 
 
 1. To a noun ; as, " Ho had leate to go." 
 
 2. To an adjective; as, " We were anxiovs to see you." 
 
 3. To a pronoun : as, " I discovered him to be a scholar." 
 
 4. To a verb in the infinitive ; as, " Jb cease to do evil." 
 6. To a, participle ; as, "Ihideavouring to escape, he fell." 
 
 6. To an adverb; as, "She is old enough to go to school.' 
 
 7. To a co7ijunction ," as, " He knows better than to trust you." 
 
 8. To & preposition ; as, " I was about to write." — Bev., x, 4. 
 
 9. To an interjection; (by ellipsis;) as, '^0 to forget her \"— Young. 
 
 Obs. 5. — The infinitive is the mere verb, without afiirmation ; and, in 
 some respect, resembles a noun. It may stand for — 
 
 1. A subject ; as, "To steal is sinful," 
 
 2. AprediaUe; as, "To enjoy is to obey." — Pope. 
 
 3. A purpose, or an end ; as, " He 's gone to do it." — Mgeworth. 
 
 4. An employment; as, " He loves to ride." 
 
 5. A cause ; as, "1 rejoice to Jtear it." 
 
 6. A coming event; as, " A structure soon to fall." — Gowper. 
 
 1. A term of comparison ; as, " He was so much affected as to weep." 
 Obs. e.^Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by /or as well 
 sato; as, "I went up to Jerusalem /or io worship." — Acts,xjL\y,Xl. "What 
 went ye out for to see ?" — Luke, vii, 26. 
 
 -" Learn skilfullie how 
 
 Each grain /or to laie by Itself on a mow." — lusser. 
 Modem usage rejects the former preposition. 
 
 Obs. 7. — The infinitive sometimes depends on a verb understood ; as, "Tb 
 be candid with you, [I confess] I was in fault." Some grammarians have er- 
 roneously taught that the infinitive in such sentences is put absolute. 
 
 Obs. 8. — ^The infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, being 
 Introduced apparently as the subject of a verb, but superseded by some other 
 word, iepui cmohite, or left unconnected, by pleonasm ; as, 
 
 "To be, or not to he;— that is the (question."— Shdkspeo/re. 
 Obs. 9.— The infinitive of the verb be As often understood ; as, " I suppose 
 It [to be] necessarv." [See Obs. 2d on Rule xxiv.] 
 
 Obs. 10.— The infinitive ■as.uSiWy follows the word on whieh it depends ; 
 bnt this order is sometimes reversed ; as, 
 
 "7b catch your vivid scenes, too gross ber hand."— 7%(Wj«on. 
 
 * "La proposition, est un mot indeclinable, place devant les noms, lea pronoms, et 
 les uarftes, qu'elle res'*'.— The preposition is an indeclinable word placed before the 
 nouns, pronouns, and verlie, which it governs:'— Perrin's Grammar, p. 162 
 
 "Everp verb placed immediately after .an other verb, or after a preposition, ougUt 
 to be put in the mfimitive; because it is then the regimen of the verb or pveposltlOD 
 wWcb precedes."— (?ra»J. det Oram, par Giramlt Du Vhier, p. 774. 
 
 10 
 
218 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 
 Ought these things be tolerated ? 
 
 [FoRMFLB.— Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not preceded by tho 
 preposition to. But, according to Eule 28d, "Tho preposition to governs the Inflnitiv* 
 mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, to should be Inserted; 
 thus, Ought these things to be tolerated ?] 
 
 Please excuse my son's absence. 
 Cause every man go out from me. 
 Forbid them enter the garden. 
 Do you not perceive it move ] 
 Allow others discover your merit. 
 He was seen go in at that gate. 
 Permit me pass this way. 
 
 EULE XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 
 
 The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, "hear, lei, make, need, 
 see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after 
 them, without the preposition TO: as, "If he bade thee 
 depart, how darest thou stay V 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. 
 
 Oes. 1. — The preposition is almost always employed after tlie passive fonn 
 of these verbs, and in some instances after the active : as, " He was heard to 
 Bay." — "I cannot see to do it." — "What would dare to molest him who 
 might call, on every side, to thousands enriched by his bounty V — Dr. JoTm- 
 eun. 
 
 Ob3. 2. — The auxiliary ie of the passive infinitive is also suppressed, after 
 /eel, hear, make, and see ; as, "I heard the letter read,'''' — not, " ie read. 
 
 Obs. 3. — A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in tlia 
 foregoing rnle, sometinKS have the infinitive after them without io • such as, 
 behold, ^nd, liave, help, marh, observe, and other equivalents of see. jExample : 
 " Certainly it is heaven upon earth, to Aase a man's mind rrume in charity, 
 rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of truth." — Ld. Bacon,. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 
 They need not to call upon her. 
 
 [FoRMtTLK, — Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before CfOl, which 
 follows the active verb need. But, according to Eule 24th, "The active verbs hid, 
 dare, feel, hear, let, make, jieed, see, and their partlclpleH, usually take the infinitive 
 after them, without the preposition to." Therefore, to should be omitted; thus. They 
 nted not call upon her.] 
 
 1 felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 
 
 1 have heard him to mention the subject. 
 
 Bid the boys to come in immediately. 
 
 1 dare to say he has not got home yet. 
 
 Let no rash promise to be made 
 
 We sometimes see bad men to be honoured. 
 
 A good reader will make himself to be distinctly heard. 
 
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXV.— NOM. ABSOLUTE. 219 
 
 RULE XXV.— -NOM. ABSOLUTE. 
 
 A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the Nomi- 
 native, when its case depends on no other word : as, ".He 
 failing, who shall meet success?" — " Your fathers, where 
 are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?" — 
 Zech., i, 5. 
 
 " This said, he form'd thee, Adam! thee, man! 
 Dust of the ground!" — Milton. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXV. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In parsing the nominative absolute, tell how it is nut so, whether 
 with ti participle, bj[ direct address, hy jjleonasm, or by excioTnaiion: for a 
 noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, under the following 
 /lyur circumstances: 
 
 1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant 
 fact; as, 
 
 "Tliou looking on, 
 
 Sharae to be overcome or overreach'd, 
 Would utmost vigor raise." — iRUon. 
 
 2. When, h/ direct address, it is put in the second person, and set off from 
 the verb by a comma; aa, "At length, Seged, reflect and be wise." — Dr. 
 Johnson. 
 
 3. When, ty pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis ; 
 as, "/fe that is m the citVj famine and pestilence shall devour him." ^'■Oad, 
 a troop shall overcome him." — Gen., xlix, 19. " The north and the soiiih, 
 thou hast created them." — Psalms, Ixxxix, 12. [See the figure Pleonasm, in 
 PAKT iv.l 
 
 4. When, hy mere exclamation, it is used without address, and without 
 other words expressed or implied to give it construction ; as, 
 
 1= " Oh ! deep enchanting prehide to repose, 
 
 \^ The dawn, of bliss, the twilight of our woes !" — Campbell. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The nominative pvt absolute, with a participle, is equivalent to a 
 dependent clause, commencmg with when, while, if, since, or because ; as, "I 
 bemg a child," — equal to, " When I was a child." 
 
 Obs. 3. — The participle bei^g is often understood after nouns or pronouns 
 put absolute ; as, 
 
 " Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such. 
 
 Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 
 
 Ob8. 4. — All nouns in ike second person are either put absolute, according 
 to Rule 25th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, 
 according to Eale 3d : as, " This is the stone which was set at nought of 
 you, buUders." — Acts. 
 
 " Peace ! mirdon, peace ! it boots not me to hear 
 The selfish counsel of you hangers-on.''^ — Author. 
 
 Obs. 5. — Nouns preceded by an article, are almost always in the third per- 
 son; and, in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes appear to have no 
 determinable construction ; as, " 0*Ae <^«p<A of the riches both of the wisdom 
 and knowledge of God." — Bom., xi, 33. 
 
 Obs. 6. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and ab- 
 breviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on some- 
 thing understood; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily explained 
 on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put aisolute. The following examples 
 may perhaps be resolved in this manner, though the expressions will lose 
 much of their vivacity : "A /*<»•««/ a horst/ my kingdom for a horse 1"^ 
 
220 ' INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET III. 
 
 Shak. "Beaps upon heaps," —"Shin, for skin,"—" An eye for an eye, and a 
 tooth for a tooth,"— "Dat/ after day,"—" World witliout end."—£iile. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXV.' — STOM. ABSOLUTE. 
 Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 
 
 [FoRMULE. — ^Not proper, because the pronoun Aim, whose case depends on no other 
 ■word, Is in the objective case. But, according to Enle 25th, " A noun or a pronoun 
 is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word. There- 
 fore, Mm should be A« ; thus. Be having ended Ids discourse, the assembly disperse!] 
 
 Me being young, they deceived me. 
 
 TheBi refusing to comply, I withdre-w. 
 
 Thee being present, he miuld not tell what he knew. 
 
 The child is lost ; and h^, whither shall I go ? 
 
 Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! — Murray, 
 
 " Thee too ! Brutus, my son !" cried Caesar overcome. 
 
 But him, the chieftain of them all, 
 
 His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 
 
 Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
 
 With boding fears approach the serving train. 
 
 There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
 
 Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 
 
 EULE XXVI.~SUBJUNCnVES. 
 
 A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
 the Subjunctive present; and a mere supposition with 
 indefinite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive imperfect: 
 but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
 the Indicative mood: as, "If thon forsake him, he will 
 cast thee off forever." — " If it were not so, I would have 
 told you." — "If thou went, nothing would be gained." — 
 " Though he is poor, he is contented." 
 
 NOTES TO RULE XXVI. 
 
 Note I. — In connecting words that express time, the order 
 and fitness of time should be observed. Thus : in stead of, 
 "I have seen him last week," say, "I saw him last week;" and 
 in stead of, " I saw him this week," say, " I have seen him this 
 week.''' 
 
 Note II. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, 
 intending, permitting, and some others, in all their tenses, r^fer 
 to actions or events, relatively present or future : one should 
 therefore say, " I hoped you wonld come,"— not, " would have 
 come;" and, "I intended to do it,"— not, "to have done it;" 
 &c. 
 
 Note III.— Propositions that are at all times equally true 
 
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 221 
 
 or false, should generally be expressed in the present tense ; 
 as, " He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four," 
 — not, " made,^' 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXVI. — MOODS. 
 Under the First Clause of Rule 26. — Future Contingencies. 
 He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 
 
 [FoRMULB. — ^Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express a fiituro 
 eoDtiDgeocy, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Rule 26th. 
 "A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present." 
 Therefore, repfftits^ should be repeat / thuSj-^He will not be pardoned, unless he repeivt. 
 
 He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. 
 
 They will fine thee, unless thou ofTerest an excuse. 
 
 I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 
 
 Let him take heed lest he falls. 
 
 On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 
 
 If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 
 
 Tal^ heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 
 
 If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 
 
 Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 
 
 Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 
 
 Under the Second Clause of Mule 26. — Mere Suppositions. 
 And so would I, if I was he. 
 
 [FoRMtJLE. — Not proper, because the verb was, which is used to express a mere sup- 
 position, with indefinite time, is In the indicative mood. But, according to the second 
 clause of Kule 26tb, "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a 
 verb in the subjunctive imperfect.^^ Therefore was should be were; thus, And so 
 would I, if I were he.] 
 
 If I was to write, he would not regard it. 
 
 If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 
 
 Though'thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 
 
 prove thee sincerely a fool. 
 If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it. 
 I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 
 If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
 There fell from his eyes as it had been scales. 
 If he was an impostor, he must have been detected. 
 Was death denied, all men would wish to die. 
 O that there was yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
 Though thou wast huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 
 
 Under the Last Clause of Rule 26. — Assumed Facts. 
 If he know the way, he does not need a guide. 
 
 [Fomnrtii.— Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a condi- 
 tional circumstance assumed as a feet, is in the subjunctive mood. Bat, according to 
 the last clause of Kale 26th, "A conditional circumstance assumed as a tact, requires 
 the indicative mood." Therefore, know should be knowa ; thus, If he knows the way, 
 be does not need a guide.] 
 
222 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 
 
 If he think as he speaks, he may be safely trusted. 
 
 Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 
 
 If thou love tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 
 
 If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 
 
 habit of it prove 1 — Blair. 
 Thoiigh he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 
 
 which he suffered. 
 I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Words of Time. 
 The Kvork haaieen finished last week. 
 
 He ;W'&e''oiit'"'6r^kployment this fortnight. 
 
 This mode (rfwcpression'bas-to^p formerly in use. 
 
 I sR©«laji§' much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 
 
 I will pay the vows which my lips Ss»^ uttered when J was in 
 
 trouble. J\t-i/-Ji 
 
 I have compassion on the multitude, becaijse they contHlue 
 
 with me now three days. 
 I thought, by the accent, that he had been speaking to his 
 
 child. 
 And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
 Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sak* 
 
 hast laboured, and hast not fainted. — Rev., ii, 3. 
 Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 
 At the end of this quarter, I shal^ be at school two years. 
 We have done no more than it j^^as our duty to have done. 
 
 Under Note 2.-~-Iielative Tenses. 
 
 We expected that he would have arrived last night. 
 
 Our friends intended to have met us. 
 
 We hoped to have seen you. 
 
 He would not have been allowed to have entered. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Permanent Propositions. 
 The doctor affirmed, that fever always produce!^ thirst. 
 The ancients asserted, that virtue was it own reward. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 
 LESSON I. 
 
 [It Is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper form of 
 correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or Note under wliioh it he- 
 longs.] 
 
 There is a spijitjn man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty 
 
 giveth them understanding. 
 My people dotlj not consider. 
 
 d ^ < ■ 
 
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— EEROES.— PROMISCUOUS. 223 
 
 I have never heard a*^ they invited. *-- *^ 
 
 Then hasten thy return ; for, thee away, i, tt .^ 
 Nor lustre has the s^o, nor joy the day. ^^ 
 I am as well as when you V*&s here. / j i^~" Jw8^ 
 . That elderly man,\§ that came in late, I supposed to be the 
 y superintendent.. }v*>->\, 'V 
 All the virti^ of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin- 
 gers, butflfc lOTifes and vices are innumerable, (i ^^<. j . 
 It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not 
 
 carry in thftw robbery or murder. ^ (^ 
 
 There ^i^ more persons than one engaged, in this affair, f 
 
 A man who lacks ceremony, has/ieed ftjr great merit. /O ^/ 
 A wise' ma^n .avoids the showing^tiy excellence in trifles. ' I, 
 The most liiiportant and fir^t female quality is sweetness of 
 
 temper. ;j, •- % - / .'.^ , 
 
 We choose rather lead than follow. jK 4k f' 
 Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. | y »> 
 He must fear many, who many fear. J^ ^ 
 Every one paxtake^f honour bestowed on the worthy. 
 The kin^^fi^^TSfe queen were not at all deceived. / / *■ W 
 ^Sfla,there i^difTerence, there would be no choice. I 
 
 I had rather have been informed. / V ^. '^ 
 Must thee return this evening ? "* 
 
 Life and death is in the power of the tongue. / / 
 I saw a person that I took to be she. £ / 
 Let him be whom he may, I shall not stop, f i 
 This is certainly an useful invention, f ^ "" ' 
 That such a spirit as thou dost not understand me. -^ -- y 
 ' It is no more but justice,' quoth the farmer. 
 
 I LESSON II. ' ' ^ 
 
 Great improvements 4jB£been made. / 
 
 It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. '-> '/j '• 
 
 The nation is torn by feuds which threaten MMr-ruin. ' «•/ 
 
 The account of these transactions isB^lncorrect. ^ , 1 
 
 Godliness with contentment «egreat gain. | 
 
 The nuKiber of sufferers Smen>ot been ascertained. ^ ' } 
 
 There ttmXme or more of them yet in confinement. 
 
 They have choseHtiS wisest part. / ^ — J. 
 
 He spent his whole life in doing $? good. '■* ^ 
 
 They^nowl|carceIy that temperance is a virtue. / i, j 
 
 I am afraidJ^2^ have laboured in vain. / ^ j^ ' 
 
 Mischief iB" itseff doth back recoil. ' . „. /^ 
 
 This com»tiction sounds rather harshlj^. f 4 '"' 9 
 
 What is the cause of the leaves curling 1 / » '. *• . 
 
224 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 
 
 Was it Iteje, that made the noise 1 j| 
 
 Let thy flock clothe ilfBsi ,tlj6.naked. 
 
 Wisdom and knowledge »s.^ranted unto thee. 
 
 His conduct was surprisin^|trange. /y>xX 
 
 This woman taught my brotflfer and l^to read. 
 
 Let your promises be such that you can perform. 
 
 We shall sell them in the state they now are. 
 
 We may add this observation, however. 
 
 This came in fashion when I was young. 
 
 I did not use the leaves, but root of the plant. 
 
 We have used every mean in our power continually. 
 
 Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir. — Micah, i, IL 
 
 Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon 
 vfith impunity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 
 
 Every leaf and every twig teem with life. 
 
 I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 
 
 At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the 
 pupil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs. 
 
 1 was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 
 
 Which of all these patterns is the prettier ? 
 
 They which despise instruction shall not be wise. 
 
 Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest, 
 
 A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 
 
 The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 
 
 I and my cousin are requested to attend. 
 
 Can only say that such is my belief. 
 
 This is different from the conscience being made to feel.' 
 
 Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace. 
 
 Where are you all running so fast? ' 
 
 A man is the noblest work of creation. 
 
 Of all other crimes willful murder is the most atrocious. 
 
 The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 
 
 From hence I conclude they are in error. 
 
 The girls' books are neater than the boys. 
 
 I intended to have transcribed it. 
 
 Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass 
 
 under the name of a gentleman? 
 Rhoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 
 What is latitude and longitude 1 
 Qoero was more eloquent than any Roman. 
 Who dares apologize for Pizarro ?— who is but another name 
 for rapacity 1 
 
CHAP, in.] SYNTAX.— ERRORS.— PEOMISCUOUS. 225 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Tell me whether you will do it or no. 
 
 After the most straitest sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
 
 We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. 
 
 I know not who it was who did it. 
 
 Doubt not, little though there be, 
 
 But I'll cast a crumb to thee. — Langhorne. 
 
 This rule is the best which can be given. 
 
 I have never seen no other way. 
 
 These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we 
 have lost. 
 
 Dost thou know them boys 1 
 
 This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. 
 
 Many people never learn to speak correct. 
 
 Some people are rash, and others timid : those apprehend too 
 much, these too little. 
 
 Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Csesar or no ? 
 
 It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. 
 
 I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the short- 
 ness of it. 
 
 Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 
 
 They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert 
 themselves to serve you. 
 
 I do not recollect ever having paid it. 
 
 The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 
 
 Every one of these theories are now exploded. 
 
 Either of these four will answer. 
 
 There is no situation where he would be happy. 
 
 The boy has been detected in stealing, that you thought so 
 clever. 
 
 I will meet thee there if thee please. 
 
 He is not so sick, but what he can laugh. 
 
 These clothes does not fit me. 
 
 The audience was all very attentive. 
 
 Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
 Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! — Milton, 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room ? 
 His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
 Whom is he supposed to be 1 
 He is an old venerable man. 
 It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
 It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt) that this as- 
 sistance is recommended. 
 
 10* 
 
226 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PAETIII. 
 
 There are not the least hope of his recovery. 
 
 Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 
 
 In his letters, there are not only correctness, but elegance. 
 
 Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a 
 
 noble mind desires. 
 The year when he died, is not mentioned. 
 Had I knew it, I should not have went. 
 Was it thee, that spoke to me ? 
 The house is situated pleasantly. 
 He did it as private as he possibly could. 
 Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 
 James is more diligent than thee. 
 Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 
 He appears to be diffident excessively. 
 The number of our days are mth thee. 
 Like a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that 
 
 fear him. — Psalms, ciii, 13. 
 The circumstances of this case, is different. 
 Well for us, if some such other men should rise ! 
 A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he have 
 
 lost no time. 
 The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled 
 
 in pieces of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and 
 
 to take them by force from among them. — Acts, xxiii, 10. 
 Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there is left us 
 Ourselves to end ourselves. — Shakspeare. 
 
 CHAPTER ly.— GENERAL ITEMS. 
 
 The following comprehensive canon for the correction 
 of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax, a few gene- 
 ral observations on the foregoing code of instructions, 
 some examples of false syntax to be corrected by the 
 treneral Rule, and a series of parsing lessons, illustrative 
 ol the Hixceptions and Observations previously present- 
 ed, constitute the present chapter. 
 
 GENERAL RULE OE SYNTAX. 
 
 In the formation of sentences, the consistency and 
 adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed • 
 
 V ^^ l^^ ' ''^T\ ^""^ correspondent construction 
 should be preserved throughout. 
 
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — GENEKAL RULE.— OBS. 227 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYNTAX. 
 
 Obs. 1. — In jjroportion as the rules of Syntax are made few and general, 
 they must be either vague or liable to exceptions. The number of the prin- 
 ciples which deserve to be placed in the rules, is not fixed by any obvious 
 distinetiog; hence the diversity in the number of the rules as given by dif- 
 ferent grammarians. In this matter a middle course seems to be best. We 
 have therefore taken the parts of speech in their order, and comprised all 
 the general principles of relation, agreement, and government, in iwentj/six 
 leading Bum. Of these rules, eight (namely, the 1st, the 4th, the 14th, the 
 loth, the 16th, the 17th, the 18th, and the 19th,) arc used only inparsmg: 
 two (namely, the 13th and the 26tn,) are necessary only for the correction of 
 faUe syntax; the remaining sixteen answer the aouble purpose of parsing 
 and correction. The Exceptions, of which there ere twenty-sia, belong to 
 ten diflerent rules. The Notes, of which there are eighty seven, are subordin- 
 ate rules of syntax, formed for the detection of errors. Th« Observations, of 
 which there are about two hundred, are chiefly designed to explain the ar- 
 rangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction. 
 
 Obs. 2. — The General Sule of Syntax, being designed to meet every possi- 
 ble form of error in construction, necessarily includes all the particular rules 
 and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruction, and ought 
 not to be applied were a special rule or note is applicable. A few examples, 
 not properly coming under any other head, will serve to show its use and 
 application: such examples are given in.the false syntax below, 
 
 Obs. 3. — In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax or construction, 
 are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there may be in composition 
 many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show whU should 
 ie substituted. The greater the inaccuracy, the more dif&cult the correction ; 
 because the sentence may require a change throughout. Thus, the follow- 
 ing definition, though very short, is a fourfold solecism: ^^Nuniber is the 
 consideration otan object, as one or more.'''' — Murray. This sentence, though 
 written by one grammarian, and copied by twenty others, cannot be cor- 
 rected but by changing every word in it : but this will of course destroy its 
 identity, and form an other senience, not an amen/iment. It is unfortunate for 
 youth, that a volume of these incorrigible sentences might be culled from 
 our grammars! Examples of false syntax cannot embrace what is either 
 utterly wrong in thought, or utterly uninteUigible in 1 anguage ; for the writer's 
 meaning must be preserved in the correction, and where no sense is discov- 
 ered, particular improprieties can never be detected and proved. The sen- 
 tence above is one which we cannot correct ; but we can say of 'li— first, that 
 number in grammar never can be defined, because unity and plurality have 
 no common property — secondly, that number is not consideration, in any 
 sense of the word — thirdly, that an object is known to be one object, by mere 
 intuition, and not by consideration — uni, fourthly, that he who considers an 
 object as more than one, misconceives it ! ! ! ! 
 
 Obs. 4. — In the first eighteen rules, we have given the syntax of all the 
 parts of speech in regard to relation and agreement. And, by placing the 
 rules in the order of the parts of speech, we hope to have relieved the pupil 
 from all difficulty in recollecting the numbers by which they are distin- 
 guished ; for, in the exercise of parsing, it is very important that the Kules 
 be distinctly and accurately quoted by the pupil. Relation and agreement 
 have been taken together, because they could not properly be separated. 
 One word may relate to an other and not agree with it; but there is never 
 any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation, or a depend- 
 ence on each other according to the sense. 
 
 Obs. 6.— The English language having few inflections, has also few con- 
 cords or agreementn. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many 
 other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and ease, have 
 usually in English, no modiflcations in which they can agree with their 
 nouns. Lomth says, " The adjective in English, having no variation of gen- 
 der and number, cannot but aqree with the subslautive in these respects. 
 What then is the agreement of words 2 Can it be any thing else than then: 
 
228 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART IIIj 
 
 similarity in some common property or modification ? And is it not obvious, 
 that no two tilings in nature can any wise agree or be alike, except in some qual- 
 ity or accident which belongs to each of them ? Yet how often have Mwnay 
 and others, as well as Lowth, forgotten this ! To give one instance out of 
 many: '■'■Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pro- 
 nouns, Ae, she^ ii," — Murray, Pierce, Flint, Lyon, Bacfm, MusseR, Fish, 
 MaUby, Alger, MiMer, Merchani, KvrTcham, and other idle copyists. Yet, ac- 
 cording to these same gentlemen, " Gender is tlie distinction, of rumns, with 
 regard to sex;" and, "Fronouns must always agree with their antecedents, 
 and the nouns for which they stand, in gender.'*^ Now, not one of these 
 three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of tho 
 others 1 1 ! 
 
 "" FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 
 If I can contribute to your and my country's glory. — Goldsmith. 
 
 [FoRMULB. — Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular con* 
 ptruction. But, according to the General Kule of Syntax, " In the formation of een- 
 tencos, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should he carefully observed; 
 flud a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout" 
 The Bcntence having a double meaning, may be corrected in two ways; thiis. If I 
 can contribute to our country's glory — or. If 'I cau contribute to your glory and that 
 of my Country.] 
 
 Is there, then, more than one true religion ? 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy- 
 ment. — Goldsmith. 
 
 Rain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 
 
 The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
 indication of corporeal want. — Cardell. 
 
 There is much of truth in the observation of Ascham. — Id. 
 
 Adopting the doctrine which he had been taught. — Id. 
 
 This library exceeded half a million volumes. — Id. 
 
 The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. — Id. 
 
 Many evidences exist of the proneness of men to vice. — Id. 
 
 To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 
 
 The king of France or England was to be the umpire. 
 
 He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, con- 
 sequently, entitled to the reward. 
 
 The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood be- 
 fore the gate. — Acts, x, 17. 
 
 Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 
 
 The art of printing being then unknown, was a circumstance 
 in some respects favourable to freedom of the pen. 
 
 Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is 
 to make children learn all things. — Goldsmith. 
 
 It requires few talents to which most men are not born or, at 
 least, may not acquire. 
 
 Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demos- 
 thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. — 
 Goldsmith. 
 
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAKSING. 229 
 
 The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides wheeled 
 about and halted, with the river on their backs. — Id. 
 
 Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of 
 our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. 
 That brother should not war with brother, 
 And \v0rr3' and devour each other. — Cou'per. 
 Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
 The first from hope, the last from vacancy. — Byron. 
 Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 
 By aught than Romans Home should thus be laid ? — Id. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
 
 SENTENCES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR CONSTKUOTlOIf. 
 
 The examples here given, with the subjoined references and anno 
 tations, are designed to illustrate, and exercise /he pupil in, 
 the various Observations, Exceptions, and Notes under the, 
 Sections upon Analysis, and the Rules of Syntax. The 
 Praxis is the same as in the preceding Syntactical Exercises. 
 
 I. PROSE. 
 
 The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the good, 
 or the great man — very often lies hid and concealed in a ple- 
 beian, which'^ a proper education might have disinterred and 
 brought to light. — Addison. 
 
 Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon 
 the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the 
 joy of the hypocrite but^ for a moment? — Job, xx., 4, 5. 
 
 Wherefore ye needs'^ must be subject, not only ibr wrath, but 
 also for conscience'^ sake.— iJom., xiii., 5. 
 
 For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to 
 face^ : now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as 
 also I am known. — 1 Cor., xiii., 12. 
 
 Ye have heard that it hath been said, '■An eye for an eye, 
 and a tooth for a tooth'^. — Matt., v., 37. 
 
 Every man should let his man-servant, and every man his 
 maid-servant, being a Hebrew or an Bebrewess, go free ; that 
 
 « Note v., Enlo V. 
 
 1- Obs. 3, Note VII., Pvnie XV. ; nnd Obs. 2, page 112. 
 « Adverb. Contraction of neeil is. 
 J Ob.s. 7, Rule XIX. 
 
 « A<tvcrhi.'il phrase. irfzomc/Zio,* or Independent pbrase, «ftwZ«(g, [Soo page 112.] 
 f £;cplanatury clause, predicate being understood. Oba. 6, llule XXV. 
 
 20 
 
230 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lU. 
 
 none should serve himself of them, to wite, of a Jew his 
 brother. — Jer., xxxiv., 9. 
 
 The beautiful forest in which we were encamped, abounded 
 in bee-trees ; that is to say^, trees iu the decayed trunks of 
 which, wild bees had established their hives. — Irving. 
 
 And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests 
 and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him}, ' Who art thou V And 
 he confessed, and denied not, but confessed, ' I am not the 
 Christ.' And they asked him, ' What then ? Art thou Elias V 
 and he saith, ' I am not.'^ — ' Art thou that prophet ?' and he 
 answered, ' N'o.'^ — John, i., 19. 
 
 The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be given 
 ai' a task, not as an amusement. — Goldsmith. 
 
 Time we ought to consider a^ a sacred trust committed to 
 us by God, of which we are now the depositories, and [of 
 which] we are to render an account at the last^. — Blair. 
 
 True generosity is a duty as indispensably necessary as those'^ 
 imposed upon us by law. — Goldsmith. 
 
 To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them 
 to be poets. — Id. 
 
 Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds, 
 and that a distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. 
 He gives it, without hesitating, to the latter ; for he demands 
 as a tavor what the former requires as a debt. — Id. 
 
 The laws of eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and 
 the master welcomed them, likeV a man liberal and wealthy. 
 He was skilful enough in appearances soon to discernl that 
 they were no common guests, and spread his table with magni- 
 ficence. — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 The year before, he had so used the matter, that, w!ia,t' by 
 force, ivhut by policy, he had taken from the Christians above 
 thirty small castles. — Knolles. 
 
 We exhorted them to trust in God,^ and to love one an 
 other^. — J. Campbell. . " 
 
 With all due respect for the calculations of men of science, 7 
 
 s An Infinitive used as a conjunction. 
 1' A clause useri aga conjunction. 
 
 J Verbs of aslcins and teaching and some others are followed by two objects, one a 
 and? Vulexx"" * ' '''"'''' **'^ »"* ^^^ &U«wing object clause. See Obi. 6 
 
 ^ Exception 1, Rule XT. 
 1 Obs. 7, p:ige 102. 
 
 I" Infinitive phrase, used as an adjective attribute. 
 " Subject of are understood. Obs. 7, Eule XVI. 
 Obs. 7, Eule XX. This clause is a modiflcation of the nrodicatB 
 p An adjective followed by to understood. Obs. ,5, Rule XXII 
 ? Ob< ig" Ka^v'' "* *'^J'""=' '''""Be, modifies enough. 
 • Obs! 6, kule XX. 
 t Obs. 9, Bole III, 
 
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 231 
 
 cannot but remember^ that when most confident, they have 
 sometimes erred. 
 
 I could not do a better thing than to commend^ this habit to 
 my brethren as one closely connected with their own personal 
 piety, and their usefulness in the world. — A. Barnes. 
 
 It is a good practical rule to keep one's reading well propor- 
 tioned"" in the two great divisions, prose and poetry. — H. Heid. 
 
 Fvr a prince to be reduced by villany to my distressful cir- 
 cumstances^, is calamity enough. — Sallust. 
 
 Who knows bull that God, who made the world, may cause 
 that giant Despair may die. — Bunyan. 
 
 What can be more strange than, that an ounce weight should 
 balance hundreds of pounds, by the intervention of a few bars 
 of thin iron ?^ 
 
 This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institu- 
 tions, the dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enjoy, 
 ours to preserve, ours to transmit^. — Webster. 
 
 The knowledge of why they so exist^, must be the last act 
 of favor which time and toil will bestow. — Rush. 
 
 To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times" 
 easier than to undo what is wrong. — Porter. 
 
 And he charged them that they should tell no man^ ; but 
 the more he charged them, so much the^ more a great deaV 
 they published it. — Mark, vii., 36. 
 
 For in that he himself hath suffered being tempteds, he is 
 able to succour them that are tempted. — Hebrews, xi., 18. 
 
 It is not to inflate national vanity, nor to swell a light and 
 empty feeling of self-importance; but it is, that we may judge 
 justly of our situation and of our duties^, that I earnestly 
 urge this consideration of our position and our character 
 among the nations of the eartJV-. — - Webster. 
 
 I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the 
 
 " B&nemher is here infinitive and the object of &w<, a preposition equivalent ta 
 tacept; can auxiliary to do understood. 
 
 V To commend with its adjuncts, subject of a verb understood. Obs. T, Eule XTI. 
 
 w Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, page 102. 
 
 I Subject infinitive clause. Obs. 2, page 13T. Exception 2, Rule XVII. 
 
 7 But, a preposition governing the following clause. 
 
 I The clause introduced by that, is the subject of is understood. Obs. 7, Eule 
 XVI. 
 
 > Infinitives used a.9 .adjectives in the active, instead of the passive, voice. 
 
 b A clause used as the object of a preposition. Obs. S, page 112. - . , 
 
 c Adverbial modification of eaeier ;—ii prepositional phrase, by being understood. 
 ' d Double object. . „ , .. it-. l- -t 
 
 <= Adverbial modification of more, itself modiflert by so rrmcii. Jixoeption 1, 
 
 f Adverbial modification of m^re ; deal governed by iy understood. 
 % Clause used as the object of in. Ob«» 8, page 112. 
 1> An adjective attribute clause. 
 ' Explanatory clause ; adjunct of .»fc 
 
232 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET III. 
 
 Talmud, and the Alcoran, tlian that this universal frame is 
 without a mindK — Bacon. 
 
 Nevertheless there being others, besides the first supposed 
 author, men not unread nor unlearned in antiquity, who admit 
 that for approved story, which the former explode for fiction ; 
 and seeing that ofttimes relations heretofore accounted fabu- 
 lous, have been after found to contain in them many footsteps 
 and reliques of something true, as what we read in poets of 
 the flood, and giants little believed, till undoubted witnesses 
 taught us, that all was not feigned' ; I have therefore deter- 
 mined to bestow the telling over even™ of these repeated tales; 
 be it for nothing else but in favour of our English poets and 
 rhetoricians, who by their art will know how to use them judi- 
 ciously. — Milton. 
 
 That a nation should be so valorous and courageous to win 
 their liberty in the field, and when they have won it, should be 
 so heartless and unwise in their counsels, as not to know how 
 to use it, value it, what to do with it, or with themselves ; but 
 after ten or twelve years' prosperous war and contestation with 
 tyranny, basely and besottedly to run their necks again into 
 the yoke which they have broken, and prostrate all the fruits 
 of their victory for nought at the feet of the vanquished, be- 
 sides our loss of glory and such an example as kings or tyrants 
 never yet had the like to boast of, will be an ignominy, if it 
 befall us, that never yet befell any nation possessed of their 
 liberty. — Id. 
 
 II. POETRY. 
 
 See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow, 
 Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks can know ; 
 Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind. 
 The bad must miss, the good, untaught, will find. — Pope. 
 
 Shame to mankind ! Philander had his foes ; 
 He felt the truths I sing, and I, in him ; 
 But he, nor Ifeelo- more. — Young. 
 
 k Object clause, SeiJOTle being understood. Without a mind is an adiectivo attrl- 
 Dute reifirring to ^frame. 
 
 ^1J^^^^ ?y'' "'' ''''^ sentonce ending ^rl\.h feigned consists of two very complex inde- 
 pendent phrases connected by and, one absoluU, introduced by the',, and the other 
 F,ffnl v« ; ™'''?'"' ^^r^f?- The other part of the sentence whicli comes first 
 in aualj^sis, may be resolved into, 1, A, a, b, c, d, 2, e, f, B, 8; and the indeoendent 
 phrases in continuation, into, g, C, h, D, i, k, E, 4, omitting th^ i >n<lepenaent 
 
 no apparent propriety since euphmy and emphaidi, seem not to be neoessarilv iden- 
 tical. It might perhaps bo caUed a word of empliasla necessarily wen- 
 
 o Obs. 2, Rule VHI. 
 
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ^ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 233 
 
 So reads he nature, wlioni tlie lamp of truth. 
 Illuminates : — thy lamp, mysterious Word ! 
 Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 
 With intellect bemaz'd in endless doubt. 
 But runs the road^ of wisdom. — Cowper. 
 
 Yet the thought, that thou art safe^, and he ! 
 That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. — Id. 
 
 The blessed to-day^ is as completely so. 
 
 As who began a« thousand years ago^. — Pope, 
 
 Full many a gemS of purest ray serene 
 
 The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; 
 
 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 
 
 Then kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 
 The saint, the father, and the husband prays^ ; 
 
 Hope 'springs exulting on triumphant wing,' 
 
 That thus they all shall meet in future days, — Bums. 
 
 He can't flatter, he ! 
 An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth ; 
 An^ they will hear it, so ; if not, he's plain. — ShaJc. 
 
 Whai^ ! canst thou not forbear me half an hour^ ? 
 Then get thee gone'^, and dig my grave thyself. — Id. 
 
 If still she love? thee, hoard that gem ; 
 'Tis worth'' thy vanish'd diadem. — Byron. 
 
 He calls for Famine, and the meagre fiend 
 Blows mWdew from between his shrivel' d Ups°, 
 And taints the golden ear. — Cowper. 
 
 Here he had need 
 All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
 Choice in our suffrage ; for on whom we send", 
 The weight of all, and our last hope relies. — Milton. 
 
 b Obs., Note II., Eulc XX. 
 
 <: Adjective clause modifying thought. 
 
 d BU886d-to-da/y, is used beye as a noun, equivalent to, The man wJio m olessea 
 to-day. 
 
 ' Obs. 12, Eule I. 
 
 f A thousand years ago is an independent phrase (absolute) ; ago being used for 
 agone, gone, or past, 
 
 e Obs. 3, Note II., Eule IV. 
 
 b Exception 1, Eule XI. 
 
 > Obs. 15, Eule I. 
 
 k Obs. 15, Rule V. 
 
 1 Obs. 4, Eule XXII. 
 
 m Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, page 102. 
 
 » Obs. 6, Eule XXII. 
 
 Obs. 3, pa^e 112. 
 
 20* 
 
234 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAS. [PAET III. 
 
 Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 
 
 Is but theV more a fool, the more a tnave. — Pope. 
 
 O God ! methinksl it were a happy life 
 
 To be no better than a homely swain ; 
 
 To sit upon a hill, as I do now, ' 
 
 To carve out dials quaintly, point by point. 
 
 Thereby to see the minutes how they run. — Shak. 
 
 Poor guiltless I ! and can I choose but smile', 
 AVhen every coxcomb knows me by my style. — Pope. 
 
 Me^ miserable ! which way shall I fly 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? — Milton. 
 
 Ay, but to die\ and we go we know not where ; 
 To lie in cold abstraction, and to rot ; 
 This sensible' warm motion to become 
 A kneaded clod ; 
 
 'tis too horrible. — Shak, 
 
 My soul, turn from them — turn we^ to survey 
 
 Where roughest climes a nobler race display. — Goldsmith, 
 
 Cursed be J" that did so ! All the charms 
 
 Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, light"' on you? — Shak. 
 
 Then thus my guide, in accent higher raised 
 Than I before had heard him : 'Capaneus! 
 Thou art more puiiish'd, in that this thy pride 
 Lives yet unquench^d^ ; no torment, save thy rage, 
 Were^ to thy fury pain proportiouVl full.' — Gary's Dante. 
 
 Yet a few daysV, and thee, 
 The all-beholding sun shall see no more 
 In all his course ; nor yet, in the cold ground, 
 Where thy pale form was laid with many tears, 
 Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist 
 Thy image. — Bryant. 
 
 Nor then the solemn nightingale ceas'd warbling^. — Milton. 
 
 V Exception 1, Rule I. 
 
 q Impersonal verb. Contracted from it ihvnka me, a. Latin idiom. Obs., page 98. 
 
 r Smiie, an infinitive governed by preposition hvt. 
 
 • Exception to Kule XXV. See Obs. 8, Rule XVIII. 
 I InBnitive absolute. Olis. 8, Rule XXIII. 
 
 u Imperative, first person. See Obs., page 79. 
 
 y Imperative, tliird person, plural. 
 
 w Obs. 3, pnge 112. 
 
 ^ Subjunctive mood used for the potential. 
 
 y Independent phrase, days being absolute with being or passing understood. 
 
 • Attribute. Bee Obs. 2, Rule XIV. 
 
CHAP, v.] SYNTAX.— QUESTIONS. 235 
 
 CHAPTEE v.— EXAMESTATION. 
 QUESTIONS ON SYNTAX. 
 
 LESSON I. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Of what does syntax treat! 
 
 What is the relation of words ! — ^the agreement of words ? — ^the gmenmunt ol 
 words ?^— the arraTigement of words 3 
 
 LESSON n. — THE KULES. 
 
 How many special mles of syntax are there ? 
 
 Of what do the first eighteen rules of syntax treat? 
 
 Of what do the last eight rules principally treat ? 
 
 Where is the arrangement of words treated of 3 
 
 To what do articles relate ? 
 
 What case is emj)loyed as the snhjeot of a verb ! 
 
 What agreement is required between words in apposition ? 
 
 To what do adjectives relate ? 
 
 How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent ? 
 
 How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun ? 
 
 How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents i 
 
 How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents ? 
 
 LESSON m. — THE SULES. 
 
 How does a verb agree with its subject or nominative? 
 
 How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? 
 
 How does a verb agree with joint nominatives ? 
 
 How does a verb agree with disjunct nominatives ? 
 
 What agreement is required, when verbs are connected? 
 
 How are participles employed ? 
 
 To what do adverbs relate 3 
 
 What is the use of conjunctions? 
 
 What is the use of prepositions ? 
 
 To what do inteqections relate 3 
 
 LESSON IV. — THE BULES. 
 
 ^what is. the possessive case governed? 
 
 What case do active-transitive verbs govern ? 
 
 What case is put after other verbs ? 
 
 What case do prepositions govern ? 
 
 What governs the infinitive mood 3 
 
 What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to t 
 
 When is a noun or pronoun put absolute 3 
 
 When should the subjunctive mood be employed 3 
 
 LESSON V. — THE BCL^. 
 
 What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-six rules ? 
 
 What says Eude Ist?— EuJe 2d 3— Rule 3d3— Eule 4th3— Eule 5th?— EnU 
 6th?— Enle7th3— Eule 8th 3— Eule 9th 3— Eule 10th 3— Eule 11th 3— Eule 
 12th 3— Eule 13th 3— Eule 14th3— Eule 15th 3— Eule 16th3— Eule 17th 3— 
 Eule 18th 3— Eule 19th3— Eule 20th 3— Eule 21st 3— Eule 22d3— Eule 28d? 
 —Eule 2«h 3— Eule 25th 3— Eule 26th 3 
 
 LESSON VI. — ^EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 What are the general contents of chapters second and third of this code of 
 syntax 3 
 
 What are the nature and purpose of the notes to the rules 3 
 
 What is said of the correction of false syntax. 
 
 How many and what exceptions are there to Eule 1st ! — to Eule 2d ? — ^ta 
 Eule 3d 3—to Eule 4th 3— to Eule 6th 3— to Eule 6th?— to Eule 7th 3— to 
 Enle 8th?— to Eule 9th?— to Eule 10th 3— to Eule 11th 8— to Eule 12th?-, 
 
236 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PAET HI. 
 
 toEule 13th?--to Rule 14tli?— to Eule 15tli»— to Eule 16th?— to Enle 
 
 17th«— toEulelSfch. 
 
 [Now explain and correct orally all the false syntax placed under the Rules and 
 Notes; learning for each lesson about thirty exanaples, and reciting them without re- 
 currence to the Key during the exercise.] 
 
 LESSON Vn. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 What is observed of the placing of Articles ? — Nominatives ? — ^Words in Ap- 
 position % — Adjectives'? — Pronouns 3 — Verbs ? — Participles ? — Adverbs !— 
 Conjunctions ? — Prepositions ? — Interjections ? — Possessives ? — Objectives ? 
 — Same Cases ? — Infinitives ? 
 
 Under how many and what circumstances are nouns put absolute ? 
 [Now read all the other observations, so as to be able to refer to them if necessary; 
 
 and then parse and analyze the examples commencing at page 239.] 
 
 CHAPTEE YI.— FOE WEITESTG. 
 
 ■ BXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 ^^^ [When the pupil has been sufflciently exercised in ayntacUcaZ parsing, and 
 has corrected orally^ accovding to the formules given, all the examples of false syntax 
 designed for oral exercises; he should write out the following exercises, correcting 
 them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules and notes,] 
 
 EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 
 
 Christianity claims an heavenly origin. 
 
 An useless excellence is a contradiction in terms. 
 
 It would have an happy influence on genius. 
 
 Part not with a old friend for an new acquaintance. 
 
 Justice eyes not the parties, hut cause. 
 
 I found in him a friend, and not mere promiser. 
 
 These fathers lived in the fourth and following century. 
 
 The rich an^ poor are seldom intimate. 
 
 The Bible contains the Old and the New Testaments. 
 
 An elegant and florid style are very different. 
 
 The humility is a deep which no man can fathom. 
 
 The true cheerfulness is the privilege of the innocence. 
 
 A devotion is a refuge from a human frailty. 
 
 The duplicity and the friendship are not congenial. 
 
 The familiarity with the vicious fosters a vice. 
 
 A forced happiness is a solecism in the terms. 
 
 The favourites are generally the objects of the envy. 
 
 An equivocation is a mean and a sneaking vice. 
 
 He sent an other and rather a more modest letter. 
 
 The flatterers are put to a flight by an adversity, 
 
 An obstinacy is unfavourable to the discovery of the truth. 
 
 The conic sections are a part of the geometry. 
 
 What is the proper meaning of a Landgrave 1 
 
 Sensuality is one kind of pleasure, such an one as it is. 
 
 What sovereign assumes the title of an Autocrat ? 
 
CHAP. \1.] SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 23 
 
 Believe me, the man is less a fool than a knave. 
 He is a much deeper deceiver than a sufferer. 
 Laziness is a greater thief than piciipocket. 
 Heroes who then flourished, have passed away. 
 Time which is to come, may not come to us. 
 
 EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 
 
 A friend should hear a friends infirmities'. 
 
 Deviations' fksm rectitude are approaches to sin. 
 
 Crafty person's often entrap themselves. 
 
 Mens mind's seem to be somewhat variously constituted, 
 
 The great doctors, adept's in science, often disagree. 
 
 The two men were ready to cut each others' throats. 
 
 We went at the rate of five mile an hour. 
 
 His income is a thousand pound a year. 
 
 Five bushel of wheat are worth forty shilling. 
 
 Beading is one mean's of acquiring knowledge. 
 
 The well is at least ten fathom deep. 
 
 I shall be a hundred mile off by that time. 
 
 Wisdom and Folly's votaries travel different roads. 
 
 The true philanthropist is all mankind's friend. 
 
 He desires the whole human race's happiness. 
 
 The idler and the spendthrift's faults are similar. 
 
 A good mans words inflict no injury. 
 
 Be not generous at other peoples expense. 
 
 True hope is swift, and flies with swallows wings. 
 
 Lifes current holds its course, and never returns. 
 
 Many assume Virtues livery, who shun her service. 
 
 I left the parcel at Richardson's, the bookseller's. 
 
 The books are for sale at Samuel Wood's & Sons'. 
 
 Where shall we find friendship like David's and Jonathan's 3 
 
 Acquiesce for peace's and harmony's sake. 
 
 The moons disk often appears larger than the sun. 
 
 Consult Sheridan, Johnson, and Walker's Dictionary. 
 
 Such was my uncle's agent's wife's economy.- 
 
 A frugal plenty marks the wise mans board. 
 
 This mob, for honesty sake, broke open all the prisons. 
 
 Our sacks shall be a mean's to sack the city. 
 
 Such was the economy of the wife of the agent of my uncle. 
 
 These emmet's, how little they are in our eyes! 
 
 Childrens minds may be easily overloaded. 
 
 EXERCISE III.— ADJECTIVES. 
 
 A palmistry at which this vermin are very dexterous. 
 These kind of knaves I know. — Shakspeare. 
 
238 iisrsTiTUTES of English grammak. [paetiii. 
 
 Vanity has more subjects than any of the passions. 
 
 The vain are delighted with fashionable and new dresses, 
 
 So highly did they esteem this goods. 
 
 Washington has been honoured more than any American. 
 
 Which is the loftier of the Asiatic mountains ? 
 
 This ashes they were very careful to preserve. 
 
 Is not she the younger of the three sisters 1 
 
 Could not some less nobler plunder satisfy thee ? 
 
 I can assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason. 
 
 Peter was older than any of the twelve apostles. 
 
 Peace of mind is easier lost than gained. 
 
 Of this victuals he was always very fond. 
 
 Man has more wants than any animal. 
 
 Of all other practical rules this is the most complex. 
 
 Is not the French more fashionable than any language 1 
 
 Vice never leads to old honoured age. 
 
 Cloths of a more inferior quality are more salable. 
 
 This is found in no book published previous to mine. 
 
 He turned away with the most utmost contempt. 
 
 Time glides swift and imperceptible away. 
 
 Of their more ulterior measures I know nothing. 
 
 My three last letters were never answered. 
 
 Fortune may frown op the most superior genius. 
 
 It becomes a gentleman to speak correct. 
 
 The most loftiest mountain is Mont Blanc. 
 
 If a man acts foolish, is he to be esteemed wise ? 
 
 Drop your acquaintance with them bad boys. 
 
 They sat silently and motionless an hour and a half. 
 
 Quiet minds, like smooth water, reflect clear. 
 
 True faith, true policy, united ran ; 
 
 This was but love of God, and that of man. 
 
 EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 
 Him that presumes much, has much to fear. 
 They best can bear reproof, whom merit praise. 
 A few pupils, older than me, excited my emulation. 
 Every man will find themselves in the state of Adam. 
 None are more rich than them who are content. 
 Scotland and thee did in each other live. 
 These trifles they do not deserve our attention. 
 Truth is ever to be preferred for it's own sake. 
 Thou art afraid — else, what ails you 1 
 It is not Lemuel, but God, whom you have offended. 
 All things which have life, aspire to God. 
 So great was the multitude who followed him. 
 
CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 239 
 
 He which would advance, should not look backwards. 
 
 It was Sir Billy — who is an other name for a fop. 
 
 I take up the arguments in the order they stand. 
 
 There is nothing, with respect to me, and such as me. 
 
 He that is bribed, the people will abhor. 
 
 The day when the accident happened, is not recorded. 
 
 We know not who to trust ; them who seem fair, are false. 
 
 The reason I told it was this : thee was in danger. 
 
 I did not know the precise time when it occurred. 
 
 Here he answers the question, who asks it. 
 
 Who who beheld the outrage, could remain inactive ? 
 
 This was the prison where we were confined. 
 
 I could not believe but what it was a reality. 
 
 It was the boys, and not the dog, which broke the basin. 
 
 An unprincipled junto is not nice about their means. 
 
 The people forced its way, and demanded its rights. 
 
 Avoid lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly. 
 
 Either wealth or power may ruin their possessor. 
 
 It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 
 
 Orjgen's mother hid his clothes, to prevent him going. 
 
 Him that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. 
 
 He that withholdeth corn the people shall curse. 
 
 I have always thought ye honest till now. 
 
 Me being but a boy, they took no notice of me. 
 
 They that receive me, I will richly reward. 
 
 Had it been them, they would have stepped. . 
 
 Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye. 
 
 It was not me, that gave you that answer. 
 
 Between you and I, be is a greater thief than author. 
 
 Any dunce can copy what you or me shall write. 
 
 You seem to forget who you are talking to. 
 
 Thee being a stranger, the child was afraid. 
 
 This was the most remarkable event which occurred. 
 
 Happy are them whose pleasure is their duty. 
 
 EXERCISE v.— VERBS. 
 
 Where was you standing during the transaction ? 
 
 Was you there when the pistol was fired ? 
 
 Thou sees how little difierence there are. 
 
 If he have failed, it was not through my neglect. 
 
 Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
 
 There was many reasons for not disturbing my repose. 
 
 The train of brass artillery and other ordnance, are immense. 
 
 Art thou the man that earnest from Judah ? 
 
 What eye those long, long labyrinths dare explore 1 
 
240 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III, 
 
 Magnus and his friends was barbarously treated. 
 
 The propriety of these restrictions, are unquestionable. 
 
 And I am one that believe the doctrine. 
 
 Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel. 
 
 Beauty without virtue generally prove a snare. 
 
 If thou means to advance, eye those before thee. 
 
 A qualification for high offices, come not of indolence. 
 
 The desires of right reason is bounded by competency. 
 
 Useless studies is nothing but a busy idleness. 
 
 Is virtue, then, and piety the same ? 
 
 So awful an admonition was these miraculous words. 
 
 If the great body of the people thinks otherwise. 
 
 A committee are a body that have only a delegated power. 
 
 In peace of mind consists our strength and happiness. 
 
 There is no slander, where love and unity is maintained- 
 
 His character, as well as his doctrines, were assailed. 
 
 Proof, and not assertion, are what are required. 
 
 Right reason and truth is always in vmison. 
 
 No pains nor cost were spared to make it grand. 
 
 Ignorance stupifies, and is the source of many crimes. 
 
 Then wanders forth the sons 
 
 Of Belial, flown with insolence and wine. 
 What you must chiefly rely on, is the attested facts. 
 No axe or hammer have ever aw;akened an echo here. 
 Did not she send, and gave you this information ? 
 Their honours are departing and come to an end. 
 Neither wit, nor taste, nor learning, appear in it. 
 Caligula sat himself up for a deity. 
 A tortoise requested the eagle to learn him to fly. 
 ' O, that it was always spring !' said little Robert. 
 I at first intended to have arranged it in a new form. 
 The gaoler supposed that the prisoners had been fled. 
 Peter saw a vessel, as it had been a great sheet. 
 Peace and esteem is all that age can hope. 
 
 Alas ! no wife or mother's care 
 
 For him the milk or corn prepare. 
 
 Thou bark that sails with man ! 
 
 Haste, haste to cleave the seas. 
 
 EXERCISE VII.— PARTICIPLE^. 
 What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head' 
 A good end warrants not using bad means. 
 Be cautious in forming of connexions. 
 The worshiping the two calves was still kept up. 
 
CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. — E5EECISES. 24] 
 
 In reading of his lecture, he was much embarrassed. 
 
 This devoting ourselves to God, must be habitual. 
 
 Their estimating the prize too highly, was evident. 
 
 He declared the project to be no less than a tempting God, 
 
 Every deviation from virtue is approaching to vice. 
 
 It is extremely foolish boasting of immoral achievements. 
 
 It was the refusing all communion with paganism. 
 
 Our deepest knowledge is knowing ourselves. 
 
 He wilfully neglects the obtaining unspeakable good. 
 
 Retaliating injuries is multiplying offences. 
 
 These things are certain : there is no denying facts. 
 
 Publicly vindicating error is openly adopting it. 
 
 On his father asking him who it was, he answered, ' L' 
 
 Thus shall we escape being defeated and ruined. 
 
 Being unjustly liberal is ostentatious pride. 
 
 Wisdom teaches justly appreciating of all things. 
 
 The procuring these benefits, was a gratuitous act. 
 
 Doing good, disinterested good, is not our trade. 
 
 Such a renouncing the world is a pernicious delusion. 
 
 Freely indulging the appetite impairs the intellect. 
 
 The Acts mention Paul preaching of Christ at DamascuSo 
 
 The Acts mention Paul's preaching Christ at Damascus. 
 
 The Acts mention Paul preaching Christ at Damascus. 
 
 Constantly beholding objects prevents our admiring them. 
 
 We purpose taking that route when we go. 
 
 What was the cause of the young woman fainting ? 
 
 I perceived somebody's creeping through the fence. 
 
 I was aware of them intending to arrest me. 
 
 We saw some mischievous boys' worrying of a cat. 
 
 To pursue fashion, is chasing a bird on the wing. 
 
 Being very positive, is no real proof of a stable mind. 
 
 By establishing good laws, our peace is secured. 
 
 Distinctness is important in delivering orations. 
 
 He guarantied the permission we demanded being granted, 
 
 For the easier reading the numbers in the table. 
 
 Eecovering the first surprise, however, we entered boldly, 
 
 EXERaSE VII.— ADVERBS, &c. 
 
 Respect is lost often by the means used to obtain it. 
 Such were the views of the then ministry. 
 Raillery must be very nice to not offend. 
 Ye know how that it is an unlawful thing. 
 From hence I infer that they were going there. 
 Quaint sayings are long remembered often. 
 I cannot tell you whether this is the fact or no. 
 11 
 
242 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET III. 
 
 Valleys are more fertile generally than mountains. 
 
 A qualification of usefulness is acquired with study. 
 
 Frequent transgression makes men slaves of sin. 
 
 Let nothing induce you ever to utter a falsehood. 
 
 The idle are, of necessary consequence, ignorant. 
 
 The wind came about so as we could make no way. 
 
 Zealots seldom are distinguished by charity. 
 
 Study is as necessary and even more so than instruction. 
 
 I never have, and never shall be compensated. 
 
 Humility neither seeks the first place or the last word. 
 
 He has never told me nothing more of the matter. 
 
 These men ranked highly among the nobility. 
 
 Their bodies are so solid and hard, as you need not fear. 
 
 Of her brother's political life previously to this event. 
 
 Attainments made easily, are not of much value often. 
 
 He has no other merit but that of a compiler. 
 
 Venus appears uncommonly brightly to-night. 
 
 Men cannot be forced neither into or out-of true faith. 
 
 To this man we may commit safely our cause. 
 
 One crime cannot be a proper remedy to another. 
 
 Venus is not quite as large as the Earth. 
 
 It is thinking makes what we read our own. 
 
 Quagmires have smooth surfaces commonly. 
 
 He was so much offended, as he would not speak to me, 
 
 I have put my words in thy mouth. 
 
 How wilt thou put thy trust on Egypt for chariots 1 
 
 EXERQSE VIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 
 
 In his fathers reign, they were connected and joined. 
 
 What is the Earth and its dimensions ? 
 
 He is a great deal heavier man than I. 
 
 The citizens were never denied the privilege. 
 
 Thankful to Heaven that thou wert left behind. 
 
 I have met with few who understood men equal to him. 
 
 He was then recently returned from the east victorious. 
 
 He hoped that money should have been given him. 
 
 Laws may, and frequently are made against drunkenness,, 
 
 He appeared in an human shape. 
 
 I do not attempt explaining the mysteries of religion. 
 Ere matter, time, or place were known, 
 Thou sway'dst these spacious realms alone. 
 
 One of the wisest pe.rsons that hath been among them. 
 
 What is it else but to reject all authority 1 
 
 They advocate distinctions unworthy any free state. 
 
 It would not, and ought not, be felt. 
 
CHAP. VI.J SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 943 
 
 Them who saw the disaster, were greatly alarmed. 
 
 He knew none fitter to be their judge but himself. 
 
 Record the names of every one present. 
 
 We doubt not but we will satisfy the impartial. 
 
 But time and chance happeneth to them all. 
 
 You was in hopes te have succeeded to the inheritance. 
 
 To make light of a small fault, are to commit a greater. 
 
 Judge not before hearing of the cause. 
 
 Clear articulation is requisite in publicly speaking. 
 
 God is the avenger of all breach of faith and injustice. 
 
 I had a letter began, and nearly half wrote. 
 
 It is better being suspected than being guilty. 
 
 Declare the past and present state of things. 
 
 To insult the afflicted are impious and barbarous. 
 
 Goodness, and not greatness, lead to happiness. 
 
 It is pride who whispers, ' What will they think of me? 
 
 In judging of others, charity should''be exercised. 
 
 Zanies are willing to befool, to please fools. 
 
 Questions are easier proposed than answered rightly. 
 He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem. 
 But preaching Jesus is not one of them. — J. Taylor. 
 
 EXERCISE IX.— PROMISCUOUS. 
 The property of the rebels were confiscated. 
 He was extreme covetous in all his dealings. 
 There_.were no less than thirty islands. 
 The plot was the easier detected. 
 Of all the books mine has the fewer blots. 
 Who does the house belong to ? 
 Is this the person whom you say was present ? 
 Knowledge is only to be acquired by application. 
 Policy often prevails upon force. 
 These men were seen enter the house in the night. 
 These works are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. 
 Thomas has bought a bay large horse. 
 Your gold and silver is cankered. 
 Now abideth faith, hope, and charity. 
 And, him destroyed, all this will follow. 
 There is no need for your assistance. 
 To whom our fathers would not obey. 
 Where can we find such an one as this 1 
 They sat out early on their journey. 
 Philosophers have often mistook the source of happiness. 
 The books are as old, and perhaps older, than tradition. 
 This chapter is divided in sections. 
 
244 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PAET in. 
 
 I shall treat you as I have them. 
 
 A prophet mightier than him. 
 
 Neither he or his brother is capable of it. 
 
 Richelieu profited of every circumstance. 
 
 What was the cause of the girl screaming ? 
 
 Let him and I have half of them. 
 
 I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 
 
 Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 
 
 He that is diligent, you should commend. 
 
 They ride faster than us. 
 
 Which of them grammars do you like best ? 
 
 Neither of these are the meaning intended. 
 
 Did you understand who I was speaking of? 
 
 Whosoever of you will be chiefest, shall be servant of alL 
 
 Remember what thou wert, and be humble. 
 Was I deceived ? or did a sable cloud 
 Turn forth her silver lining on the night 1 — Milton. 
 
 EXERCISE X.— PROMISCUOUS. 
 
 Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. 
 
 For him through hostile camps I bend my way. 
 For him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay. — Pope. 
 Thus oft by mariners are shown 
 Earl Godwin's castles overflown. — Swift. 
 
 No civil broils have, since his death, arose. 
 
 Nor thou, that flings me floundering from thy back. 
 
 Who should I see but the doctor ! 
 
 That which once was thee. 
 
 To wish him wrestle with affection. 
 
 So much she fears for William's life. 
 
 That Mary's fate she dare not mourn. — Prior. 
 
 Phalaris, who was so much older than her. 
 
 They would have given him such satisfaction in other parti- 
 culars, as a full and happy peace must have ensued. 
 
 The woman which we saw, is very amiable. 
 
 The three first classes have read. 
 
 An union in that which is permanent. 
 
 Among every class of people self-interest prevails. 
 
 Such conduct is a disgrace of their profession. 
 
 His education has been neglected much. 
 
 There is no other bridge but the one we saw. 
 
 He went and laid down to sleep. 
 
 Whom do men say that I am 1 
 
 Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 
 sprinkle it towards the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. 
 
CHAP. VI.] STNTAX. — EXERCISES. 24o 
 
 In eulogizing of the dead, he slandered the living. 
 
 If a dog botJi give the first turn and the last, he shall viin. 
 
 Neither the virtuous or the vicious are exempt from trials. 
 
 He spoke as if he was in a passion. 
 
 Let him take heed lest he fails. 
 
 We have all swerved out-of the path of duty. 
 
 I cannot agree with him neither. 
 
 He both wrote sermons and plays. 
 
 If a man say, ' I love God,' and hateth his brother, he is a liar. 
 
 He has long ago forsaken that party. 
 
 It was proved to be her that opened the letter. 
 
 Is not this the same man whom we met before 1 
 
 I forego my claim for peace's sake. 
 
 For thou art a girl as much brighter than her. 
 As she was a poet sublimer than me. — Prior, 
 
 EXERCISE XL— PROMISCUOUS, 
 
 There remains two points to be settled. 
 
 I could not avoid frequently using it. 
 
 The Ath6<yans were naturally obliging and agreeable; they 
 were cheerful among each other, and humane to their infe- 
 riors. — Goldsmith. 
 
 I hope it is not me thou art displeased with. 
 
 I never before saw such Isage trees. 
 
 My paper is Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit and 
 learning may try his strength. — Addison. 
 'Twas thee, whom once Stagyra's grove 
 Oft with her sage allur'd to rove. — Scott of Amwell. 
 
 I could not observe by what gradations other men proceeded 
 in their acquainting themselves with truth. — Locke. 
 
 I will show you the way how it is done. 
 
 Imprinting, if it signify any thing, is nothing else but the mak- 
 ing certain truths to be perceived. — Locke. 
 
 This arose from the young man associating with bad people. 
 
 Him that never thinks, never can be wise. 
 
 It was John's the Baptist head that was cut off. 
 
 The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's posterity. 
 
 Two architects were once candidates for the building a certain 
 temple at Athens. 
 
 This treatise is extreme elaborate. 
 
 Them descending, the ladder fell. 
 
 The scaling ladder of sugared words are set against them. 
 
 One or both was there. 
 
 What sort of an animal is that? 
 
 21* 
 
246 
 
 INSTISaTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAETIII. 
 
 These things should be never separated. 
 
 His excuse was admitted of by his master. 
 
 It is not me that he is engaged with. 
 
 I intended to have rewarded him according to his merits. 
 
 They would become sooner proficients in Latin. 
 
 There is many different opinions concerning it. 
 
 There are many in town' richer than her. 
 
 Let you and I be as little at variance as possible. 
 
 A coalman, by waking of one of these gentlemen, saved him 
 
 from ten years imprisonment. 
 If a man's temper was at his own disposal, he would not choose 
 
 to be of either of these parties. 
 
 The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds 
 Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings.— Milton. 
 
 EXERCISE XIL— PROMISCUOUS. 
 But we of the nations beg leave to differ with them. 
 This is so easy and trivial, as it is a shame to mention it. 
 You was once quite blind ; you neither saw your disease or 
 your remedy. 
 
 Fluttering his pennons vain, plumb down he drops 
 
 Ten thousand fathom deep. — Milton. 
 The properties of the mirror depends on reflected light. 
 Was you present at the last meeting ? 
 Hence has arisen much stiffness and affectation. 
 The nation are powerful both by sea and land. 
 Those set of books was a valuable present. 
 The box contained forty piece of muslin. 
 She is much the taller of the three. 
 They are both remarkable tall men. 
 A mans manners may be pleasing, whose morals are bad, 
 I rue politeness has it's seat in the heart. 
 He presented him a humble petition. 
 I do not intend to turn a critic on this occasion. 
 At first sight we took it to be they. 
 The certificate was wrote on parchment. 
 I have often swam across the river. 
 I have written four long letters yesterday. 
 I expected to have seen you last week, but I was disappointed, 
 W e are besat by dangers on all sides. 
 My father and him were very intimate. 
 Unless he acts prudently, he will not succeed. 
 It was no sooner said but done. 
 Let neither partiality or prejudice appear. 
 
CHAF. VI.] SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 247 
 
 The obligation was ceased long before. 
 
 How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek ! 
 
 Who, when they came to Mount Ephraim, to the house of 
 
 Mioah, they lodged there. 
 I prevailed with your father to consent. 
 Always act as justice and honour requires. * 
 
 Them that transgress the rules, will be punished. 
 With him is wisdom and strength. 
 My conductor answered, that it was him. ^ 
 
 Be thou, O lovely isle ! forever true 
 
 To him who more than faithful was to you. — Southwick. 
 
 The joys of love, are they not doubly thine, 
 
 Ye poor ! whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline ? — Id, 
 
 EXERCISE Xm.— PROMISCUOUS. 
 
 Having once suifered the disgrace, it is felt no longer. 
 
 The meanness or the sin will scarce be dissuasives. 
 
 Both temper and distemper consists of contraries. 
 
 Which is the cause, the writer or the reader's vanity 1 
 
 The commission of a generalissimo was also given him. 
 
 The queen's kindred is styled gentlefolks. 
 
 They agree as to the fact, but differ in assigning of reasons. 
 
 Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 
 
 The inquiry is worthy the attention of every scholar. 
 
 Young twigs are easier bent than boughs. • 
 
 It is not improbable but there are more attractive powers. 
 
 By this means an universal- ferment was excited. 
 
 Who. were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others 
 
 very indistinctly. — Sheridan. 
 All vessels on board of which any person has been sick or 
 
 died, perform quarantine. 
 Serverus forbid his subjects to change theSr religion for that 
 
 of the Christian or Jewish. — Jones's Ch. Hist. 
 Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices, were 
 
 put to death without a trial. — Id. 
 Art not thou that Egyptian which before these days madest an 
 
 uproar, and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand 
 
 men that were murderers 1 — Acts, xxiii, 38. 
 Attempting to deceive children into instruction of this kind, 
 
 is only deceiving ourselves. — Goldsmith. 
 ITiere came a woman, having an alabaster box of ointment 
 
 of spikenard, very precious ; and she brake the box and 
 
 poured it on his head. — Mark, xiv, 3. 
 My essays, of all my other works, are the most current. 
 
248 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. [PAETIII. 
 
 We would suggest the importance of every member, individu. 
 ally, using his influence. 
 
 Thy sumptuous buildings, and thy wife's attire, 
 Hath cost a mass of public treasure. — Shakspeare. 
 
 • EXERCISE XIV.— PEOMISCUODS. 
 
 This people who knoweth not the law, are cursed. 
 The people shall be forgiven their iniquity. — Bible. 
 Having been denied the favours which they were promised. 
 Hold, Rosaline, this favour thou shalt wear ; 
 Hold, take you this, my sweet, and give me thine. 
 Rely not on any man's fidelity, who is unfaithful to God. 
 The rules are full as concise, and more clear than before. 
 For they knew all that his father was a Greek.— ^cte. 
 Thrice was Csesar offered the crown. 
 For a mine undiscovered, neither the owner of the ground, or 
 
 any body else, are ever the richer. 
 Death may be sudden to him, though it comes by never so 
 
 slow degrees. 
 A brute or a man are an other thing when they are alive, fi'om 
 
 what they are when dead. — Rale. 
 I have known the having confessed inability, become the occa- 
 sion of confirmed impotence. — Taylor. 
 I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation.— 2 Cor., vii, 4. 
 If so much pow^r, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is dis- 
 played in the material creation, which is the least consider- 
 able part of the universe ; how great, how wise, how good 
 must he be, who made and governs the whole ! 
 A good poet no sooner communicates his works, but it is im- 
 agined he is a vain young creature, given up to the ambi. 
 tionoffame. — Pope. 
 This was a tax upon himself for the not executing the laws. 
 U my people, that dwellest in Zion ! be not afraid.— 5iJfe. 
 As rushing out-of doors, to be resolved, 
 If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no.—Shakspeare. 
 His wrath, which one day will destroy ye hoth.— Milton. 
 I know thee not — nor ever saw, till now 
 
 Sight more detestable than him and thee. Id. 
 
 The season when to come, and when to go, 
 
 To sing, or cease to sing, we never know.— Pope. 
 
CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATIOK.— COMMA. 249 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 P E O S O D Y. 
 
 Peosody treats of punctuation, utterance, jBgures, and 
 versification. 
 
 CHAPTEB I— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by 
 points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly 
 the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the 
 difierent pauses and inflections required in reading. 
 
 The following are the principal points, or marks ; the 
 Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the 
 Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Eroteme, or Note of In- 
 terrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation 
 [ 1 ], and the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis [ () ]. 
 
 Obs. — The pauses that are made. in the natural flow of speech, have, in 
 reality, no dennite and invariable proportions. Children are often told, to 
 panse at a comma while they might count one ; at a semicolon, one, two ; at 
 a colon, one, two, three ; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of 
 some use, as teaching them to observe their stops that they may catch the 
 sense; but the stan<fiird itself is variable, and so are the times which good 
 sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is immeasunible. The 
 followmg geuerfd direction is as good as any that can be given. 
 
 The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semi- 
 colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, a 
 pause double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, or 
 Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The 
 pauses required by the other marks, vary according to 
 the structure of the sentence, and their place in. it. They 
 may be equal to any of the foregoing. 
 
 « 
 
 SECTION I. — OF THE COMMA. 
 
 The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sen- 
 tence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be 
 only one degree removed from that close connexion 
 
 which admits no point. 
 
 11* 
 
.250 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAETIV. 
 
 Rule I. — Simple Sentences. 
 
 A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma- 
 as, " The weakest reasoners are the most positive." — W. Allen. 
 
 Exception. — When the nominative in a long simple sentence 
 is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma should be 
 placed before the verb ; as, " The assemblage of these vast 
 bodies, is divided into different systems." 
 
 Rule II. — Simple Members, 
 The simple members of a compound sentence, whether suc- 
 cessive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally di- 
 vided by the comma ; as, 
 
 1. "He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 
 
 2. " The man, when he saw this, departed." 
 
 3. " It may, and it often does happen." 
 
 4. " That life is long, which answers life's great end." 
 
 5. " As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 
 Exception 1. — When a relative immediately follows its an- 
 tecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
 not be introduced before it ; as, " The things which are seen, 
 are temporal ; but the things which are not seen, are eternal " 
 —2 Cor., iv, 18. 
 
 Exception 2. — When the simple members are short, and 
 closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the 
 comma is generally omitted; as, " Infamy is worse than death." 
 — " Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even 
 or odd." 
 
 Rule III. — More than Two Words. 
 When more than two words or terms are connected in the 
 same construction, by conjunctions expressed or understood, 
 the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the 
 last ; and if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma 
 should follow the last also : as, 
 
 1. " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye. 
 
 Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 
 
 2. " Ah ! what avails ****** 
 
 All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 
 
 If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?" 
 
 3. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 
 
 Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 
 
 4. " She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 
 
 Ob3.— Two or more words are in the same oonetruction, when thev have a 
 common dependence on some other term, and are parsed iSeT 
 
CHAP. I.J FROSODY.—PUNCTUATIOK— COMMA. 251 
 
 Rule IV. — Only Two Words. 
 
 When only two words or terms are connected by a con- 
 junction, they should not be separated by the comma ; as, 
 "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." — Goldsmith. 
 
 Exception 1. — When the two words connected have several 
 adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not 
 to both, the comma is inserted ; as, " Honesty in his dealings, 
 and attention to his business, procured him both esteem and 
 wealth." — "W^o is applied to persons, or things personified." 
 — Bullions. * 
 
 Exception 2. — When the two words connected are emphat- 
 ically distinguished, the comma is inserted ; as, 
 
 " Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beattie. 
 
 "'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." — Goldsmith. 
 
 Exception 3. — When there is merely an alternative of words, 
 
 the comma is inserted; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet." 
 
 Exception 4. — When the conjunction is understood, the 
 
 comma is inserted ; as, 
 
 " She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
 The sweetest, wildest land on earth." — Hogg. 
 
 Rule V. — Words in Pairs. 
 
 When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
 they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest 
 and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, grat- 
 itude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transac- 
 tions." — W. Allen. 
 
 Rule VI. — Words put Absolute. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, 
 be set oif by the comma ; as, " The prince, his father being 
 dead, succeeded." — "This done, we parted."— "ZaccAews, make 
 haste and come down." — "His prcetorship in Sicily, what did 
 it produce ?" — Cicero. 
 
 Rule VII. — Words in Apposition. 
 
 Words put in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) 
 are generally set off by the comma; as, "He that now calls 
 upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Tenerife."— Johnson. 
 
 Exception 1. — When several words, in their common order, 
 are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted ; 
 as, "Samuel Johnson,"— " Publius Gavius Cosanus." 
 
 Exception 2. — When a common and a proper name are 
 closely united, the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook 
 
252 INSTITUTES OF ENSLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 Kidron," — "The river Don," — "The empress Catharine,"— 
 " Paul the apQstle." 
 
 Exception 3. — When a pronoun is added to another word 
 merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted; 
 as, " Ye men of Athens," — " I myself," — " Thou flaming min- 
 ister," — " You princes." , 
 
 Exception 4. — When a name acquired by some action or re- 
 lation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, 
 the comma is not inserted : as, " I made the ground my Aec?;" 
 — " To make him king ;"-^" Whom they revered as Ood;" — 
 " With modesty thy guide.'''' — Pope. 
 
 Rule VIII. — Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they 
 have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their ad- 
 juncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 
 
 !■ " Among the roots 
 
 Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream,, 
 
 They frame the first foundation of their domes." — Thorn. 
 
 2. 1 " Up springs the lark, 
 
 Shrillvoic''d and loud, the messenger of morn." — Id. 
 
 Exception. — When an adjective immediately follows its 
 noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
 not be used before it ; as, 
 
 " On the coast averse from entrance." — Milton. 
 Rule IX. — Finite Verbs. 
 Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally 
 required: as, "From law arises security; from security, 
 curiosity; .from curiosity, knowledge." — Murray. 
 
 Rule X. — Infinitives. 
 The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it 
 must be separated, or when it depends on something remote 
 or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off" by the 
 comma; as, "His delight was, to assist the distressed.'"— ''To 
 conclude, I was reduced to beggary." 
 " The Governor of all — has interposed, 
 Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
 The injurious trampler upon nature's law." Cowper. 
 
 Rule XI. — Pahticiples. 
 Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
 have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to 
 
CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— COMMA. 253 
 
 something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off 
 by the comma ; as, 
 
 1. "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, 
 
 Ling''ring and lisfning, wander'd down the vale," — Beattie. 
 
 2. " United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 
 
 3. ^'■Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 
 Exception. — When a participle immediately follows its noun, 
 
 and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be 
 used before it ; as, 
 
 " A man renowned for repartee, 
 Will seldom scruple to make free 
 With friendship's finest feeling." — Cowper, 
 
 Rdxe XII. — Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sen- 
 tence, or when they have not a close dependence on some par- 
 ticular word in the context, should be set off by the comma ; 
 as, " We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the 
 artificial courtesy of the world." — "Besides, the mind must be 
 employed." — Gilpin. "Most unqitestionably, no fraud was 
 equal to all tlmB.^-rByttelton. 
 
 Rule XIII. — Conjunctions. 
 
 Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal 
 clause that depends on them, or when they introduce an exam- 
 ple, are generally set off by the comma; as, "But, by a timely 
 call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." — Johnson. 
 
 Rule XIV. — Pkepositions. 
 
 Prepositions and their objects, when they break the con- 
 nexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely fol- 
 low the words on which they depend, are generally set off by 
 the comma ; as, " Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the 
 ostentation of riches." — "By reading,yre add the experience of 
 others to our own." 
 
 RuxE XV. — ^Interjections. 
 
 Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma ; as, "For, 
 lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."— 
 Jeremiah, i, 15. * 
 
 Rule XVI. — Words Repeated. 
 
 A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the 
 comma ; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair V'—Bryden. "Ah! 
 no, no, no." — Jd. 
 
254 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET IT, 
 
 Rule XVII. — Dependent Quotations. 
 
 A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a verb, 
 (as, say, reply, and the like,) is generally separated from the 
 rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " ' The book of nature,' 
 said he, ' is open before thee.' " — " I say unto all, Watch." 
 
 SECTION" II. — .OF THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a 
 compound sentence, which are neither so closely con- 
 nected as those which are distinguished by the comma, 
 nor so little dependent as those which require the colon. 
 
 Rule I. — Compound Members. 
 
 When several compound members, some or all of which 
 require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are 
 generally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions in- 
 habited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms ; 
 joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor 
 needs any mound to check its course." — Carter. 
 
 Rule II. — Simple Members. 
 
 When several simple members, each of which is complete 
 in sense, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause 
 greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by 
 the semicolon : as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls 
 lie at the bottom." — Murray. 
 
 " A longer care man's helpless kind demands ; 
 That longer care contracts more lasting bands." — Pope. 
 
 Rule III. — Apposition, &c. 
 
 Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other con- 
 struction, if they require a pause greater than that of the com- 
 ma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the 
 semicolon : as, " There are five moods ; the infinitive, the in- 
 dicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative." 
 
 SECTION III.— OF THE COLON. 
 
 The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound 
 sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those 
 which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little 
 dependent as those which require the period. 
 
 Rule I. — Additional Remarks. 
 When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is fol- 
 lowed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if 
 
CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— PERIOD. 255 
 
 no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly in- 
 serted : as, " Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest man 
 may become ashamed of himself." — "See that moth fluttering 
 incessantly round the candle : man of pleasure, behold thy 
 image." — Kames. 
 
 Rule II. — Greater Pauses. 
 
 When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still greater 
 pause is required within the period, the colon should be em- 
 ployed : as, " Princes have courtiers, and merchants have part- 
 ners ; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have 
 accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." 
 
 Rule III. — Independent Quotations. 
 
 A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or a 
 conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon ; as, " In his 
 last moments he uttered these words : '■I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
 and luxury.'' " 
 
 SECTION IV. — OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark ' an entire 
 and independent sentence, whether simple or compound. 
 
 Rule I. — Distinct Sentences. 
 
 When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and inde- 
 pendent in respect to construction, it should be marked with 
 the period : as, " Every deviation from truth is criminal. Ab- 
 hor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity 
 possesses the most powerful charm." 
 
 Rule II. — Allied Sentences. 
 The period is often employed between two sentences which 
 have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a 
 conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb; as, "The selfish man 
 languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are con- 
 fined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat 
 the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man 
 of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity." — 
 
 Bhir. 
 
 Rule HI. — ^Abbreviations. 
 
 The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very 
 often to the exclusion of other points ; but, as in this case it is 
 not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow 
 it if the words written in full would demand them : as, A. D. 
 for Anno Domini;— Pro tern, for pro tempore ;—\]\i. for ul- 
 
256 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET IV. 
 
 iimo ;— 1. e. for id est, that is ;— Add., Spect., No. 285 ; i. e., 
 Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th. 
 " Consult the statute ; ' quart.' I think, it is, 
 ' Edwardi sext.,' or ' prim, et quint: Eliz.' "—Pope, p. 399. 
 
 SECTION V. — OF THE DASH. 
 
 The Dasli is mostly used to denote an unexpected or 
 
 emphatic pause of variable length ; but sometimes it is 
 
 a sign of faltering ; sometimes, of omission : if set after 
 
 an other sign of pause, it usually lengthens the interval 
 
 Rule I. — Abrupt Pauses. 
 A sudden interruption or transition should be marked with 
 the dash ; as, " ' I must inquire into the affair, and if — ' And 
 if!' interrupted the farmer." 
 
 " Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here." — Young. 
 
 Rule II. — Emphatic Pauses. 
 To matk a considerable pause, greater than the structure of 
 the sentence or the points inserted, would seem to require, the 
 dash may be employed ; as, 
 
 1. " And now they part — ^to meet no more." 
 
 2. "Revere thyself; — and yet thyself despise." 
 
 3. " Behold the picture ! — ^Is it like % — Like whom ?" 
 
 Rule III. — Faulty Dashes. 
 Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops 
 more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punc- 
 tuation. Example : " — ^You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, , 
 said my uncle Toby, to my house, — and we '11 send for a doc- 
 tor to see what 's the matter, — and we '11 have an apothecary, 
 — and the corporal shall be your nurse ; — and I '11 be your 
 servant, Le Fevre." — Sterne : Enfield's Speaker, p. 306. Better 
 thus : " ' You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said nHy uncle 
 Toby, ' to my house ; and we '11 send for a doctor to see what's 
 tTie matter ; and we '11 have an apothecary ; and the corporal 
 shall be your nurse : and I '11 be your servant, Le Fevre.' " 
 
 SECTION VI. — OF THE EROTEME. 
 
 The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to 
 designate a question. 
 
 Rule I.— Questions Direct. 
 Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should al' 
 ways be followed by the note of interrogation ; as, 
 
CHAP, I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— ECPHONEME. 257 
 
 " In life, can love be bought with gold 1 
 Are friendship's pleasures to be sold 1"— Johnson. 
 RuLB II. — Questions United. 
 When two or more questions are united in one compound 
 sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed between 
 them, and the note of interrogation, after the last only ; as, 
 " Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
 All fear, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope. 
 Rule III. — Questions Indirect. 
 When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a 
 question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation; 
 as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept.'' — Murray. 
 
 SECTION VII. — OF THE ECPHONEME. 
 The Ecptoneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to 
 denote a pause with some strong or sudden emotion of 
 the mind ; and,^ as a sign of great wonder, it may be 
 repeated ! ! ! 
 
 Rule I. — Interjections, &c. 
 
 Interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are 
 generally followed by the note of exclamation ; as, 
 
 " O ! let me listen to the words of life V-^- Thomson. 
 
 Rule U. — Invocations. 
 
 After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of 
 
 exclamation is usually preferred to any other point; as, 
 
 "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient unto 
 
 the heavenly vision." — Acts, xxvi, 19. 
 
 Rule III.^Exclamatoey Questions. 
 Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but 
 without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note 
 of exclaaaation ; as, "How madly have I talked!" — Young. 
 
 SECTION VIII. — OF THE CUEVES. 
 
 The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to dis- 
 tinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between 
 the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly be- 
 long; as, 
 
 " To others do (the law is not severe) 
 What to thyself thou wishest to be done." — Beattie. 
 
 Obs. — The incidental dause ahoiild te nttered in a lower tone, and faster 
 than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a 
 comma, or greater. 
 
 22* 
 
258 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 Rule I. — The Parenthesis. 
 A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to be 
 incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed as a 
 parenthesis; as, 
 
 " Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 
 Rule II. — Included Points. 
 The curves do not supersede other stops ; and, as the paren 
 thesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it 
 the same point should be included, except when the sentences 
 differ in form : as, 
 
 1. " Man's thirst of happiness declares it is : 
 
 (For nature never gravitates to nought :) 
 
 That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." — Young. 
 
 2. " Night visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 
 
 Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
 Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more?) 
 Of joys perpetual in perpetual change." — Young. 
 SECTION IX. — OF THE OTHER MARKS. 
 
 _ There are also several other marks, which are occa- 
 sionally used for various purposes, as foUow : — 
 
 1 . [ ' ] The Apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive 
 case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a 
 word: as, "The girVs regard to her parents' advice;" — 'gan, 
 loy'd, e'en, thro' ; for began, loved, even, through. 
 
 2. [ - ] The Hyphen connects the parts of many compound 
 words, especially such as have two accents; as, ever-living. 
 It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syl- 
 lables ; as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows 
 that one or more syllables of a word are carried forward to 
 the next line. 
 
 3. [■■] The Dixresis, or Dialysis, placed over either of two 
 contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong ; as, 
 Dande, aerial. 
 
 4. [ ' ] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires 
 the principal stress in pronunciation ; as, egtoal, equal'ity. It 
 is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distin- 
 guish a close or short vowel; as, "Fancy:" {Murray:) or to 
 denote the rising inflection of the voice ; as, " Is it hi?" 
 
 5. [ '] The Gfrave Accent is used in opposition to the acute, 
 to distinguish an open or long vowel ; as, "Favour .■" (Mur- 
 ray :) or to denote the falling inflection of the voice • as, 
 "Yes; itisAe." ' ' 
 
CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— OTHER MARKS. 259 
 
 6. ['] The Circumflex generally denotes either the broad 
 sound of a, or an unusual and long sound given to some other 
 vowel ; as in ecldt, dll, heir, machine, mdve, bull. 
 
 7. [ " ] The Breve, or Stenotone, is used to denote either a 
 dose vowel or a syllable of short quantity ; lis, raven, to de- 
 vour. 
 
 8. ["] The Macron, or Macrotone, is used to denote either 
 an open vowel or a syllable of long quantity ; as, raven, a 
 bird. 
 
 9. [ ] or [****] Tha Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes 
 
 the omission of some letters or words ; as, K—g, for King. 
 
 10. [a] The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to in- 
 sert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. 
 
 11. [ — ^— <] The Brace serves to unite a triplet; or to con- 
 nect several terms with something to which they are all re- 
 lated. 
 
 12. [ § ] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book 
 or chapter ; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge 
 references. 
 
 13. [ T ] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes 
 the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse 
 which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently dis- 
 tinguished, by beginning a new line, and carrying the first 
 word a little forwards or backwards. -^ 
 
 14. [ " " ] The Chiillemets, or Quotation Points, distinguish 
 words that are taken from an other author or speaker. A quo- 
 tation within a quotation is marked with single points; which, 
 when both are employed, are placed within the others. 
 
 15. [[]] The Crotchets, or Brackets, generally enclose some 
 correction or explanation, or the subject to be explained ; as, 
 "He [the speaker] was of a different opinion." 
 
 16. [ ^g° ] Tt^e Index, or Hand, points out something re- 
 markable, or what the reader should particularly observe. 
 
 17. [*] The Asterisk, or Star, [f ] the Obelisk, or Dagger, 
 [ J ] th^ Diesis, or Double Dagger, and [ {| ] the Parallels, refer 
 to marginal notes. The Section also [ § ], and the Paragraph 
 [ 1" ], are often used for marks of reference, the former being 
 usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note 
 on a page ; for, by the usage of printers, these signs are now 
 commonly introduced in the following order : 1 *, 2 f , 3 J, 
 4§, 5 II, 6 %, 7**, 8 ff, &o. When many references are to 
 be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical 
 figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 18. [ %* ] The Asterism, or Three Stars, a sign not very 
 
260 DSrSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMIIAR. [PART IV. 
 
 often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it 
 as a note, without giving it a particular reference, 
 
 19. [g] The Cedilla is a mark borrowed from the Prench, 
 by whom it is placed under the letter c to give it the sound of 
 s before a or o; as, in the words, '•'• fagade^"* '•^ AlengonP la 
 Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, 
 to denote their soft sounds : viz., " G as J ; S as Z ; x as gz." 
 
 ^^" [For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select any well -pointed 
 book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil. An 
 application of the principles of punctuation, either to points rightly inserted, or in 
 the correction of errors, is as easy a process as ordinary syntactical parsing or correct- 
 ing; and, in proportion to the utility of these principles, as useful. The exercise, in 
 relation to correct pointing, consists in reading some passage, in successive parts, ac- 
 cording to its points; naming the latter, as they occur; and repeating the rules or 
 doctrines of punctuation, as the reasons for the marks employed.] 
 
 CHAPTEE II.— UTTEEANCE. 
 
 Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It includes 
 tlie principles of pronunciation and elocution. 
 
 SECTION I. — OF PEONUNCIATION. 
 
 Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is the 
 utterance of words taken separately. 
 
 Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just powers 
 of the letters in all their combinations, and of the force" 
 and seat of the accent. 
 
 I. The Just Powers of the letters, are those sounds which 
 are given to them by the best readers. 
 
 II. Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
 particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distin- 
 guished from the rest ; as, gram-mar, gram-md-ri-an. 
 
 Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its sylla- 
 bles accented. 
 
 When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinct- 
 ness, we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an 
 other syllable ; as, to the last of tem-per-a-ture, and to the 
 second of in-dem-ni-Ji-cd-tion. 
 
 A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a 
 clear articulation of the consonants, u, forcible and well-placed 
 accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, 
 distinguish the elegant speaker. 
 
 [iE^" For a full explanation of the principles of pronunciation, tlie learner Is re- 
 ferred to Wallier'6 Critical Pronouncing Dictionary; for authorities in reference to 
 f aiiablo usage, to the Universal auj Critical Dictionary of J. E. Worcester ] 
 
CHAP. III.] PROSODY.— FIGURES. 263 
 
 SECTIOlir II. — OF ELOCUTION. 
 
 Elocution is the utterance of words tliat are arranged 
 into sentences, and form disQourse. 
 
 Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, 
 of emphasivS, pauses, inflections, and tones. 
 
 I. Emphasis is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay 
 upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
 thereby distinguished from the rest, as being more especially 
 significant. 
 
 II. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally 
 to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and 
 pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be proportionate 
 to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. 
 
 III. Inflections are those peculiar variations of the humaa 
 
 voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one 
 
 note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voica 
 
 from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising 
 
 or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher 
 
 to a lower or graver note, is called the falling or downward 
 
 inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in 
 
 the following examples : 1. The rising, " Do you mean to gdf 
 
 2. The falling, " When will you gof 
 
 Obs. — Questions that may te answered by yes or no, require the rising in- 
 flection ; those that demand any other answer, must he uttered with the 
 falling inflection. 
 
 IV. Tones are those modulations of the voice, which depend 
 upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Shei'idan 
 denominates " the language of emotions." And it is of the ut- 
 most importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and rightly 
 adapted to the subject and to the occasion : for, upon them, in 
 a ^eat measure, depends all that is pleasing or interesting in 
 elocution. 
 
 CHAPTER in.— FIGUEES. 
 
 A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation 
 from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or 
 application, of words. There are, accordingly, figures 
 of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, 
 and figures of Ehetoric. When figures are judiciously 
 employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. 
 They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose ; 
 and several of them are merely poetic licenses. 
 
262 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 SECTION I. — FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 A Figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation 
 from 'the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 
 
 The principal figures of Orthography are two; namely, 
 Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism. 
 
 I. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistalfe or mis- 
 pronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a 
 false spelling, or the taking of one word for an other; as, 
 " Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in your 
 vdllet?" — Columbian Orator, f. 292. " Ay, he Vf as porn at 
 Monmouth, captain Gower." — Shak. " I will description the 
 matter to you, if you be capacity of it." — Id. 
 
 " Perdigious ! I can hardly stand." — Lloyd. 
 
 II. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according 
 to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthog- 
 raphy ; as, '■'Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe 
 a hotte stomake." — T. Paynel : Tooke's Diversions, ii, 132. 
 
 " With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight, 
 Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue."— jBeaWie. 
 
 SECTION II.— FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviatioa 
 jfrom the ordinary formation of a word. 
 
 The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, 
 A-phmr'-e-sis, Pros' -thesis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, 
 J)i-mr'-e-sis, Syn-cer'-e-sis, and Tme'-sis. 
 
 I. Aphwresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a 
 word: as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'wea<A,— for against, began, beneath. 
 
 II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a 
 word: as, adown, appaid, *estrown, evanished, yclad,— for 
 down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. 
 
 III. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of 
 a word: as, med'cine, for medicine; e'en, for even; o'er, for 
 over; conq'ring, for conquering ; se'nnight, for sevennight. 
 
 IV. Apocope, is the elision of some of the final letters of a 
 word : as, tho',^ for though; th\ for the; t'other, for the other. 
 
 V. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a 
 word: as, withouten, for without; deary, {or dear ; Johnny, for 
 
 VI. -Diceresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
 torm a diphthong: as, cooperate, not cooperate; aeronaut, not 
 ceronaut; orthoepy, not orthmpy. 
 
 VII Synceresis is the sinking of two syllables into one : as, 
 seest, for seest ; tacked, for tack-ed; drowned, for drown-ed 
 
CHAP. III.] PBOSODY.—FIGUEES.— SECTION III. 263 
 
 Obs.— When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronounoiation, (whether 
 retained m-wnting or not,) the consonants connected witti it, fall into an 
 other syllable ; thus, tned, tnest, loved or hv'd, Imeat or hv'sU are monosyl- 
 lables; except m solemn discourse, in which the « is generally retained and 
 made vocal. ' 
 
 VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts 
 of a compound ; as, " On which side soever ;" — 'To us ward " 
 —''To God ward." 
 
 SECTION in. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from 
 the ordinary construction of words. 
 
 The principal figures of Syntax are five ; namely, M-lip'-sis, 
 Fk'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge, and Hyper' -ba-ton. 
 
 I. Ellipsis* is the omission of some word or words which 
 are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary 
 to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be under- 
 stood; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, 
 though they are not uttered. 
 
 Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. 
 There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or 
 even of a whole clause ; but the omission of articles or inter- 
 jections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis. Examples : 
 
 1. Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] woman." — "Tho 
 day, \the\ month, and [<Ae] year." 
 
 2. Of the Noun ; as, " The common [few] and the statute 
 law."—" The twelve [apostles']."— !■' One Xbook} of my books." 
 — " A dozen [6o«fe] of wine." 
 
 3. Of the Adjective ; as, "There are subjects proper for the 
 one, and not [proper~\ for the other." — Karnes. 
 
 4. Of the Pronoun ; as, "I love [him] and [7] fear him." — 
 " The estates [which] we own." 
 
 * There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the con- 
 Btmction or necessary to the sense , for to say what we mean and nothing more, never 
 can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. Ai 
 a figure of Syntax, therefore, the elU^Bis caii be only of such words as are so evidently 
 suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had 
 wiitten them. To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where 
 it really occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the 
 parser's ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general 
 uniformity or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of gram- 
 mar, till tho true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained ; so that tho writer shall 
 distinguish it from a blundering omission that impairs the sense, and the reader 
 be barred from an arbitrary inaertion of what would be cumbrous and useless. By 
 adopting loose and extravagant ideas of tho nature of this fi,gure, some pretenders to 
 learning and philosophy have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions 
 concerning the grammatical construction of language. Thus, with equal absurdity, 
 Cardell and Sherman, in their PhUoaopMa Qrammars, attempt to confute the doc- 
 trines of their predecessors, by supposing elUpsee at pleasure. And while the former 
 teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective case, but that every verb is 
 transitive, and governs at least two objects, expressed or wnderttood, its own and that 
 of a preposition ; tho latter, with just as good an argument, contends, that no verb is 
 transitive, but that everv objectlre case is governed by a preposition expressed or un- 
 iersteod. A world of n'ousense for lack of a defimUon I 
 
264 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAE. [PAET IV. 
 
 5. Of the Verb; as, "Who did this? I" [did it].— "To 
 whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spo^e]. 
 
 6. Of the Participle ; as, " That [being] o'er, they part." 
 
 I. Oi the Adverb; as, " He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." 
 — " Exceedingly great and [exceedingly] powerful." 
 
 8. Of the Conjunction ; as, " The fruit of the Spirit is love, 
 
 [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, 
 ayid goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temper- 
 ance." — Oal., V, 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called 
 Polysyndeton ; and the omission of it. Asyndeton. 
 
 9. Of the Preposition; as, " [0«] this day." — " [/«] next 
 month." — " He departed [from] this life." — " He gave [to] me 
 a book." — "To walk [through] a mile." 
 
 10. Of the Interjection; as, "Oh! the frailty, [Oh!] the 
 wickedness of men !" 
 
 II. Of a Phrase or Clause; as, "The active commonly do 
 more than they are bound to do ; the indolent [commonly do] 
 less" [than they are bound to do], 
 
 11. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. This 
 figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it ab- 
 ruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to im- 
 press it more strongly ; as, "He that hath ears to hear, let him 
 hear !" — " All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the 
 earth /" — " There shall not be left one stone upon an other, that 
 shall not be thrown down." — " I know thee who thou art." — 
 Bible. A Pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant; but 
 an unemphatio repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst 
 faults of bad writing. 
 
 III. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figura- 
 tive sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing 
 spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of 
 the term ; it is therefore, in general, connected with some 
 figure of rhetoric : as, " The Word was made flesh and dwelt 
 among us, and we beheld his glory." — John, i, 14. "Then 
 Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ 
 unto them." — Acts, viii, 5. " While Evening draws her crim- 
 son curtains round." — Thomson. 
 
 IV. Enallagh is the use of one part of speech, or of one 
 modification for an other. This figure borders closely upon 
 solecism ;* and, for the stability of the language, it should be 
 
 * Deviations of this kiiul aro, in general, to be considered aolecisma ; otherwise the 
 rules of grammav would be of no use or authority. Despauier, an ancient Latin gram- 
 marian, gave an improper latitude to tliis flfture, under the name of AnMpio^s ; and 
 Hehnurt and others extended it still further. But Sanati-m says, " Antiptosi gram- 
 TtbiitioorwmnihilimperUius. guod figmentum si esseti>enim. fntstra qnmrereiuf, 
 quem auswm- veiha regerent." And the Messieurs De Fort B'oyal reject the flguro 
 
CHAP, m.] PROSODY.— FIGURES.— SECTION IV. 286 
 
 sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it 
 which can appeal to good authority : as, 
 
 1. " Tou know that you are Brutus, that speak this." — Shak. 
 
 2. " They fall successive [ly], and successive [ly] rise." — Fope. 
 
 3. " Than whom [who] none higher sat." — Milton. 
 
 4. "Sure some disaster has be/elF [befallen], — Gay. 
 
 5. " So fiirious was that onset's shock, 
 
 Destruction's gates at once unlock." — Hbffff. 
 
 V. Hyperhaton is the trauspositim of words ; as, " He wan- 
 ders earth around." — Cowper. " Rings the world with the vain 
 stir." — Id. " Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him de- 
 clare I unto you." — Acts. This figurfe is much employed in 
 poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, 
 strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should bo 
 taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity. 
 
 SECTION" IV. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 A Figure of Ehetorio is an intentional deviation 
 from the ordinary application of words. Some figures 
 of this kind are commonly called Tropes, i. e., turns. 
 
 Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, 
 occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly 
 founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by 
 the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament 
 or illustration. 
 
 The principal figures of Rhetoric are fourteen; namely 
 Sim'-i-le\ Met-a-phor, AV-le-gor-y, Me-ton'-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, 
 Hy-per'^o-le, Vis -ion, A-pos' -tro-phe. Person! -i-fi-ca'-tion, Mr-o- 
 t^-sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Oli-max, and I'-ro-ny. 
 
 I. A Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is 
 generally introduced by like, as, or so : as, 
 
 " At first, like thunder's distant tone. 
 The rattling din came rolling on." — ffogg. 
 " Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 
 The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." — Pope. 
 
 II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
 of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute 
 adjunct, or action of the one, directly to the other ; as, 
 
 1. " His eye was morning^s brightest ray." — Hogg. 
 
 2. " An angler in the tides of fame." — Id. 
 
 ritoeether There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is 
 not competent to condemn, though they do not accord witli the ordinary principles ol 
 construction. -. n 
 
286 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAETIV. 
 
 3. " Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Langhorne. . 
 
 4. " Wild fancies in his moody brain, 
 
 Gambol' d unbridled and unbound.^'' — Hogg. 
 
 5. " Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Thorn. 
 
 III. AxL Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 
 
 designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thug 
 
 the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of 
 
 a vine : " Thou hast brouglit a vine out of Egypt : thou hast 
 
 cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
 
 before it, and didst cause it to take deep root ; and it filled the 
 
 land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the 
 
 boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Ps., Ixxx, 8. 
 
 Obs. — The Allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes 
 moat of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are a&Wei paraMet ; it in- 
 cludes also the better sort offdbles. The term allegory is sometimes applied 
 to a true history in which something else is intended, than is contained in the 
 words literally taken. [See Gal., iv, 24.1 In the Scriptures, the term fahlt 
 denotes an idle and groundless story. [See 1 Tim., iv, 1 ; and 2 Pet., i, 16.] 
 
 IV. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on 
 some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and 
 adjunct, oi place and inhabitant, of container and thing contain- 
 ed, or of sign and thing signified: as, "God is our salvation;'" 
 i. e.. Saviour.—''^ He was the sigh of her secret soul ;" i. e., the 
 youth she loved. — " They smote the city ;" i. e., citizens. — 
 " My son, give me thy heart;" i. e., affection. — " The sceptre 
 shall not depart from Judah ;" i. e., kingly power. 
 
 V. Synedoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or of 
 a part for the whole ; as, " This roof [i. e., house] protects 
 you." — " Now the year [i. e., summer] is beautiful." 
 
 VI. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
 imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; as, 
 
 " The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread. 
 And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed." — Dry den. 
 
 VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
 represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his 
 eyes, and present to his senses ; as, 
 
 " I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
 I see the Moray's silver star 
 Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war. 
 That up the lake comes winding far !" — Scott. 
 yni. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
 subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed 
 up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave 1 
 where is thy victory ■?" — I Cor., xv, 54, 55. 
 
 IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, wa 
 
CHAP. IV.] PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION. - 367 
 
 ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or 
 abstract qualities ; as, 
 
 1. "The PForm, aware of his intent, 
 
 Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Cowper. 
 
 2. " Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears !" — Rog. 
 S. "Hark! ?Vm<A proclaims, thy triumphs cease." — Id. 
 
 X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaicer adopts the form 
 of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confi- 
 dently to assert the reverse of what is aslced ; as, " Hast thou 
 an arm like Godi or canst thou thunder with a voice like 
 him ?" — Joh, xl, 9. " He that planted the ear, shall he not 
 hear ? he that formed the eye, shall he not see V)i—Ps., xciv, 9. 
 
 XL Hcphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
 violent emotion of the mind ; as, " O liberty !— O sound once 
 delightful to every Roman ear ! — O sacred privilege of Roman 
 citizenship! — once sacj-ed — now trampled upon!" — Cicero. 
 "O that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away 
 and be at rest !" — Ps., Iv, 6. 
 
 XII. Audthesis is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten 
 their effect by contrast ; as, 
 
 " Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
 Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain / 
 Though ^aw, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue; 
 And e'en m penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsmith, 
 
 XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to adr 
 vance by. successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more 
 and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is 
 more and more minute and particular ; as, " And beside this, 
 giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, 
 knowledge ; and to -knowledge, temperance ; and to temper- 
 ance, patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, 
 brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity." — 2 
 Peter, i, 5. 
 
 XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly ut- 
 ters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood ; 
 as, " We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest 
 man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life." 
 — Cicero. 
 
 .OHAPTEE lY.— VERSIFIOATIOK 
 
 Versification is tlie art of arranging words into lines 
 of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by 
 the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 
 
268 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 SECTION I. — OF QUANTITY. 
 
 The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of 
 time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable 
 is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable 
 is reckoned to be equal to two short ones. 
 
 Obs. 1. — The quantity of & syllable does not depend on the sound of ths 
 vowel or diphthong, but principally on the degree of accentual force with 
 •which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is 
 employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most easily pro- 
 tracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables. 
 
 Obs. 2. — Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either long or 
 Bhort, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater length, the accented syllabla 
 is always long ; miA a syllable immediately before or after that which is ac- 
 cented, is always short. 
 
 SECTION II. — OF RHYME. 
 
 Rhyme is a similarity of sound, between the last syl- 
 lables of different lines or half Hnes. Blank verse is 
 verse without rhyme. 
 
 Oes.— The principal rhyming syllables jjre almost always long. Double 
 rhyme a.lda oiio aaori syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redun- 
 dant in iambic and anapestie verses. 
 
 SECTION III. — OF POETIC FEET. 
 
 A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of 
 syllables, called /eeiJ. A poetic /ooi!, in English, consists 
 either of two or of three syllables. 
 
 The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the 
 Anapest, and the Dactyl. 
 
 1. The Iambus, or Iamb, is a poetic foot consisting of a short 
 syllable and a long one ; as, betray, confess. 
 
 2. The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of a 
 long syllable and a short one ; as, hatefil, pettish. 
 
 3. The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syl- 
 lables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 
 
 4. The Bactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable 
 and two short ones ; as, labourer, possible. 
 
 We.have, accordingly, four principal kinds of verse, or poetio 
 measure ; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestie, and Dactylic. 
 
 Obs. 1-—The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more exact 
 and oomplote is the ohime of the verse. But poets generally indulge some 
 pXatlons " ^° ™° ' ^°^^™''' "^ '" confound the drift of the rhythmiaal 
 
 f„,?,^' ?;T,f "™^j *^ occasional diversifloations of metre, are sometimes 
 ?™^i. „ ?P? f? sundry other feet, which are called sdondary: as, the 
 ^pondee,,^ foot of two long syllables; the Pyrrlio, of two short: tEe mIIoss, 
 
 s!lSt wi?h^7«w '' ^^^ ^"fh "^^''''-^^ riiort: -the Amphibrach, B.\o4 
 syllable w th a short one on each side ; the Amphvmm.AmphLmer, ox Crelw, 
 a short syllable with a long one on each side: the i«<«4, rshort syulffi 
 
CHAP. IV.] PEOSODY.— VERSIFICATION.— ORDEE I. 269 
 
 and two longones; the Antibaashy, or Hypobaccky. two long syllables and a 
 short one. Yet few, if any, of these feet, are really necessary to a sufficient 
 explanation of English verse; and the adopting of so many is liable to thi 
 great objection, that we thereby produce ditterent modes of measuring th3 
 same lines. 
 
 Obs. S. — Sometimes also verses are variegated by what is called the pedal 
 ecetura, or cesure; (i. e., catting ;) which is a single long syllable counted by 
 itself as a foot. For, despite the absui-d suggestions of many grammarians 
 and prosodists to the contrary, all metrical doflciencies and redundancies 
 embrace nothing but sTwrt syllables, and the number of long ones in a line 
 is almost always the number oifeet which compose it: as, 
 "Keeping | timeA time, | time. 
 In a I sort of 1 feunic | rliyme.'" — JB. A, Poe. 
 
 SECTION IV. — OF SCANNING. 
 
 Scanning, or Scansion, is the dividing of verses into 
 the feet which compose them, according to the several 
 orders of poetic numbers, or the different kinds of metre. 
 
 Obs. — When a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be caidlectM ; when 
 the measure is exact, the line is aaUaUctie ; when there is a redundant syl- 
 lable, it ibrms hypermeter, or a line hypercaialectic. 
 
 Order I. — ^Iambic Verse. 
 
 In Iambic verse, the §J;ress is laid on the even syllables, and 
 the odd ones are short. It consists of the following measures : — 
 
 Measure 1st. — Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
 " all I ye peol-ple, clap ] your hands, | and with | trlum|- 
 phant voic|-es sing ; 
 No force | the might|-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the 
 u|-nivers|-al King." 
 
 0b3. — Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or ox- 
 ehanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; llius, — 
 " The hour | is come ! — the cherl-ish'd hour, 
 When from | the busj-y world | set free, 
 I seek I at length | my Ione|-ly bower, 
 And muse | in si|-lent thought | oil thee." — SboJe. 
 
 Measure 2d. — Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
 "The Lord |..^|Bcend|-ed from [ above, | and bow'd | the 
 heavj-ens high." 
 Obs.— Modem poets have divided this kind of verse, into alternate line* 
 olfouiandof three feet; thus, — 
 
 " blind I t5 each 1 Indflll-gSnt film 
 Of pow'r I supreme|r-ly wise. 
 Who fan|-cy hapl-piness Lin aught 
 The hand | of heav'n | denies P' 
 
 Measure 3d.— Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 
 "Thy realm | f8r6v|-er lasts, | th^ own | Mesgi|-ah reigns." 
 
 Obs —This is the AUxandrim ; it is seldom used except to complete a 
 stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a pieriod in heroic rhyme. French 
 heroics are similar to this. 
 
 23* 
 
270 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 Measure 4th. — Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 
 "For praise | too dear-iy lov'd | or -warml-iy sought, 
 
 Enfee|-bles all | inter -nal strength | of thought." 
 " With sol|-emn ad|-ora|-ti6n down | they cast 
 
 Their crowns | inwove | with am|-arant | and goM." 
 
 0b3. 1.— This is tli« regular Engliah heroic. It is, perhaps, the only meas" 
 Bre suitable for blank verse. 
 
 Obs. 2.— The Elegiac Stanm consists of four heroics rhyming alternatelT; 
 as, 
 
 " Enough I has Heav'n | indulg'd I of joy | below. 
 
 To tempt I our tar|-riance in | this lov'd | retreat; 
 Enough I has Heav'n | ordain'd | of use|-ful wo. 
 To make | us lang|-uish for | a hap|-pier seat." 
 
 Measure 5th. — lambio of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
 "The joys | above | are un|-derstood 
 And rel|-ish'd on|-ly by | the good." 
 Measure 6th. — Iambic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
 "Blue hght|-nings singe | the waves, 
 And thun|-der rends | the rock." 
 Measure 7th. — Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
 " Their love | and awe 
 Supply I the law." 
 
 Measure 8th. — Iambic of One Foot, or MonCmeter. 
 " How bright, 
 The light !" 
 
 Ob9. 1.— lines of fewer than seven syllables are seldom found, except in 
 connexion with longer verses. "^ 
 
 Obs. 2.— In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by introduoine a 
 trochee; as, ' j s 
 
 '■'■PUnUs I and stlns I riin lawl-lSss through I thg sky." 
 
 Obs. 3.— By a synffiresis of the two short SYllables, or perhaps by mere 
 substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or a 
 dactyl, for a trochee : as, ' 
 
 "(?'«»• man\^ a /ro|-zen, man|-^ afi\-ery Alp." 
 Order II. — Trochaic Verse. 
 
 In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and 
 the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the 
 final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This 
 kind of verse is the same as iambic would be without the ini- 
 tial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the 
 same poem. 
 
 Measure 1st.— Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
 "Once up|-on a | midnight | dreary, | while I I pondered, I 
 weak and | weary, ' 
 
 Over I many d \ quaint and | curious I volume 1 of for) 
 -gotten I lore, ' ' 
 
CHAP. IV.J PEOSODT.— VERSIFICATION.— ORDER II. 27] 
 
 While I I nodded, | nearly | napping, | sudden|-ly there | 
 came a | tapping, 
 As of I some one | gently | rapping, | rapping ] at my | 
 chamber | door." 
 
 Measure 2d. — Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
 " Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and [ set me | safe from | 
 trouble ; 
 Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re|-ward their | 
 mischief | double." 
 
 Single Rhyme. 
 "Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Waterj 
 -loo ; 
 Cocks had | sung their | earliest \ greeting ; | faint and | low 
 they I crew." 
 
 Measure 3d. — ^Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 
 " On a I mountain I stretch'd bg|-neath a | Jioar^ | willow, 
 Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'dthe | rolling | billow." 
 
 Single Rhyme. 
 " Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth. 
 Lived a | necro|-mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth." 
 
 Measure 4th. — ^Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 
 " Virtiie's | bright'ning | ray shall | beam for | ever." 
 Single Rhyme. 
 " Idlg I after | dinner, | In his | chair. 
 Sat a I farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair." 
 
 Measure 5th. — ^Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
 " Round a [ hoiy | calm dif |-fusing, 
 Love of I peace and | lonely | musing." 
 
 Single Rhyme. 
 " Restless | mortals | toil for | naught. 
 Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought." 
 Measure 6th.— Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
 
 " When our J hearts are | mourning." 
 ' Single Rhyme. 
 
 " In the I days of | old. 
 Stories | plainly | told." 
 
 Measure 7th.— Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
 " Fancy I viewing, 
 Joys en [-suing." 
 
272 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 Single Ehyme. 
 " Tumult cease, 
 Sink to peace." 
 
 Measure 8th. — ^Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer, 
 
 " Changing, 
 Ranging." 
 
 Order III. — Anapestic Vehse. 
 
 In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable. 
 The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus. 
 
 Measure 1st. — Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
 
 " At thS close I of thS day, | whSn the ham|-let is still, 
 And mor|-tals the sweets | of forget|-fulness prove." 
 
 Hypermeter with Double Rhyme. 
 
 " In a word, | so comp]ete|-ly forestall'd | were the wish|-es, 
 Even har|-mony struck | from the noise | of the dish|-es." 
 
 Hypermeter with Triple Rhyme. 
 
 " Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse ( 
 awry, 
 Threaten'd loud|-ly toturn | me to stone | with his «or|-cer2/." 
 
 Measure 2d. — Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
 
 " I am mon -arch of all | I sfirvey ; 
 My right there is none | to dispute." 
 
 Measure 3d. — Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
 
 " When I look ] on m^ boys. 
 They renew | all my joys." 
 
 Measure 4th. — Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer. 
 
 " On the land 
 Let me stand." 
 
 Order IV. — Dactylic Verse. 
 
 In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first syllable 
 of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, the 
 seventh, the tenth syllable, &c. Full dactylic generally forms 
 triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, 
 the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dactylic with single 
 rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial 
 short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncommon ; and, 
 when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. 
 
Calneh, from | Shi- 
 bore." 
 
 CHAP. ly.] PBOSODY.— VERSIFICATION-.— OEDEB IV. 273 
 
 Measure 1st.— Dactylic ,of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
 " Nlmrod thg | hunter was | mighty m | hunting, &nd | famed 
 as thg I rulgr of | cities of | yore; 
 Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and 
 nar's fair | region his | name afar 
 
 Measure 2d.— Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
 « Out of the I kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by I 
 angels o'er | Satan vie|-torious, 
 All that of |fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honour his 
 I name ever | glorious." 
 
 Measure 3d. — Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 
 " Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, 
 years, and | ages ; 
 Restless as | waves bf the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas 
 I rages." 
 
 Example without Rhyme. 
 "This is the | forest pri|-meval ; but | where are the | hearts 
 that be|-neath it 
 Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the 
 I voice of the | huntsman 1" 
 
 Measure 4th. — Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 
 "Now thou dost I welcome me, | welcome me, | from the 
 dark I sea. 
 Land of the | beautiful, | beautifiil, | land of the | free." 
 
 Measure 5th. — Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
 
 "Boys will an|ticipS,te, ( lavish, and | dissipate 
 
 All that yCur | busj^ pate | hoarded with | care ; 
 And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness. 
 Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r." 
 
 Measure 6th. — Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
 " Ever sing | merrily, | merrily." 
 
 Measure 7th. — Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
 " Free from sa|tl6ty, 
 Care, and anxliety, 
 Charms in vafriety. 
 Fall to his | share." 
 
 Measure 8th. — Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer. 
 
 " Fearfully, 
 Tearfully." 
 12* 
 
274 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PAETiy. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— ORAL EXERCISES. 
 EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 
 
 PRAXIS VIII. — PROSODICAt. 
 In the Eighth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of 
 Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric, which 
 the parser may name and define ; and by it the pupil nay 
 also be exercised in relation to the principles of Punctuatim 
 Utterance, and Versification. ' 
 
 LESSON 1. — FIGURES OF OETHOGEAPHT. 
 MIMESIS AND ARCHAISM. 
 
 "Ferygoot: I will make a. prief of it in my note-book; and 
 we will afterwards 'ork upon the cause with as great discreetly 
 as we .can." — Shak. 
 
 " Vat is you sing? I do not like dese toys. Pray you, go 
 and vetch me in my closet un boitier verd ; a box, a green-a 
 box. Do intend vat I speak ? a green-a box." — Id. 
 
 "I ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessd 
 for WeiiKe, loading her with warious Jceinds of prowisions, and 
 wittualling her for a long woyage ; and I want several mtdred 
 weight of weal, wenison, &c., with plenty of inyons and wimgar, 
 iov^thQ preserwation of ealth.^'—Colurhbian Orator, p. 292. 
 
 "None [else are] so desperately evill, as they that may bee 
 good and will not : or have beene good and are not."— i2w 
 John Rogers, 1620. " A Carpenter finds his work as hee left 
 It, but a Minister shall find his sett back. You need preach 
 continually." — Id. 
 
 " Here whilom ligg'd th' Esopus of his age, 
 But call'd by Fame, in soul ypricked deep."— nom«<w. 
 
 " It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare, 
 Whence, as Dan Homer sings, Imga pleasaunce grew."— /(?, 
 
 LESSON IL— FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 APH^RESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOOE, DIJDRESIS, 
 
 SYNjERESIS, AND TMESIS. 
 
 Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 
 
 Burst down like torrent from its crest."- 5'cort. 
 
 'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
 
 Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused.— Dyer. 
 
 Alas ! alas ! how impotently true 
 
 Th' aeVia/ pencil forms the scene a.mvT.—Cawthorne, 
 
CHAP.T.] PROSODY. — ^PARSING. — PRAXIS IX. 275 
 
 Here a deformed monster ^oyV to won, 
 
 Which on fell rancour ever was ybent. — Lhyd. 
 
 Withouten trump was proclamation made. — Thomson. 
 
 The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 
 
 Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 
 
 ' Certes,' quoth he, ' it is not e'en in grace, 
 
 T undo the past and eke your broken years.' — Id. 
 
 Vain tamp'ring has hxit faster' d his disease; 
 
 Tis desp'rate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. — Cowper. 
 
 I have a pain upon my forehead here — 
 
 Why tliafs with watching ; 'twill away again. — Shakspeare. 
 
 I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes ; 
 
 Come, lefs away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds. — Smith. 
 
 What prayer and supplication soever be made. — Bible. 
 
 By the grace of God we have had our conversation in the 
 world, and more abundantly to you ward. — Id. 
 
 LESSON III. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 FIGURE I. ELLIPSIS. 
 
 And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn. 
 
 And [ — '\ villager [ — '] abroad at early toil. — Beattie. 
 
 The cottage curs at [ — ] early pilgrim bark. — Id. 
 
 'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears. 
 
 Our most important [ — ^] are our earliest years.— Cojoper. 
 
 To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye,' 
 
 He looks on nature's [ — ] and on fortune's course ; 
 
 Too much in vain. — Akenside. 
 
 True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 
 
 Virtue has rais'd above the things [ — '\ below ; 
 
 Who, ev'ry hope and [ — ] fear to Heav'n resign'd, 
 
 Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. — Beattit. 
 
 For longer in that pafradise to dwell, 
 
 The law [ — ] I gave to nature, him forbids. — Milton. 
 
 So little mercy shows [ — ] who needs so much. — Cowper. 
 
 Bliss is the same [ — '\ in subject, as [ — ] in king ; 
 
 In [— ] who obtain defenc^ and [ — ] who defend. — Fope. 
 
 Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim 
 
 That tell you so — say rathei-, they [ — ] for him.^- Cowper. 
 
 Man may dismiss compassion from his heart. 
 
 But God will never [ ]. — Id. 
 
276 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 
 
 First wish to be impos'd on, and then are [ — ]. — Id. 
 
 Vigour [ — ] from toil, from trouble patience grows. — BeatHe, 
 Where now the rill melodious, [ — ] pure, and cool. 
 And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd ? — Id. 
 How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 
 
 How dumb the tuneful [ ~\ ! — Thomson. 
 
 Self-love and Reason to one end aspire. 
 
 Pain [ — ] their aversion, pleasure [ — ] their desire ; 
 
 But greedy that its object would devour. 
 
 This [ — ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower. — Fop*. 
 
 LESSON IV.' — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 FIGURE II. PLEONASM. 
 
 According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay ; fury to 
 his adversaries, recompense to his enemies. — Bible. 
 
 My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of 
 the night. — Solomon's Song, v, 2. 
 
 Thou hast chastised me, and I teas chastised, as a bullock un- 
 accustomed to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned; 
 for thou art the Lord my God. — Jer., xxxi, 18. 
 
 Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. — Matt., vi 28. 
 
 He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. — 2 Cor.,' x,'l7. 
 
 lie too is witness, noblest of the train 
 
 That waits on man, the flight-performing horse. — Oowper, 
 
 FIGURE III. SYLLEPSIS. 
 
 Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shalt be called 
 Cephas ;' which is, by interpretation, a stone. — John, i, 42. 
 
 Thus saith the Lord of hosts: 'Behold I will break the bow 
 of Elam, the chief of their might.' — Jer., xlix, 35. 
 
 Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rocJc of offence; 
 
 and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed Bom. 
 
 ix, 33. 
 
 Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
 Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd.— 'Cow^er. 
 Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows'no more. — Id. ' 
 For those the race of Israel ofl forsook 
 Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
 His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
 To bestial gods. — Milton. 
 
CHAP, v.] PROSODY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS IX. 277 
 
 LESSON V. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 FIGURE IV. KNALLAQE. 
 
 Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 
 
 Are much condemned to have an itching palm, 
 
 To sell and mart your offices for gold. — Shakspeare. 
 
 Come, Philomelus ; let us instant go, 
 
 O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low. — Thomson. 
 
 Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 
 
 Shall finish what the short-lived sire begun. — Pope. 
 
 Such was that temple built by Solomon, 
 
 Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel. — G. Brown. 
 
 He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, 
 
 And quit the shores, undestin'd to return. — Day. 
 
 Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes. — Thomson. 
 
 Sometimes, with early mom, he mounted gay. — Id. ' 
 
 FIGORB V. HTPERBATON. 
 
 Such resting found the sole of unblest feet. — Milton. 
 Yet, though successless, will the toil delight. — Thomson. 
 Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new. 
 Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries. — Beattie. 
 Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace. 
 That who advance his glory, not their own, 
 Them he himself to glory will advance. — Milton. 
 But apt the mind or fancy is to rove 
 Uacheck'd, and of her roving is no end. — Id. 
 No quick reply to dubious questions make ; 
 Suspense and caution still prevent mistake. — Denham. 
 
 LESSON VI. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 FIG0RE I. SIMILE. 
 
 Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odour of in- 
 cense in the fire. — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance : the brightness 
 of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing 
 away in its own odours. — Id. 
 
 Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains; and 
 thy smile, as the dawn of the vernal day. — Id. 
 
 Plants rais'd with tenderness are seldom strong ; 
 Man's coltish disposition asks the thong ; 
 And without discipline, the fav'rite child, 
 Like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Cowper. 
 
 2i 
 
278 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAE. [PART IV. 
 FIGURE II. METAPHOR. 
 
 Catbmon, thy name is a pleasant gale. — Ossian. 
 
 Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. 
 The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. — Id. 
 
 Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he ac- 
 quired the power ; and as the hand of time scattered snow upon 
 his head, the freezing influence extended to his bosom.— 
 SawkeswoTth. 
 
 The sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of Morad ; the 
 clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tempest of 
 hatred roared about his dwelling. — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
 Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits. — Denham, 
 
 LESSON VII.— FIGUBES OF EHETOEIC, 
 
 FIGURE III. — -ALLEGORY. 
 
 " But what think ye ? — A certain man had two sons ; and 
 he came to the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vine- 
 yard.' He answered and said, 'I will not:' but afterward he 
 repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said 
 likewise. And he answered and said, ' I go, sir :' and went 
 not. Whether of them twain did the will of his father?" 
 They say unto him, " The first." — Matt., xxi, 28. 
 
 EIGURB IV. ^METONTMY. 
 
 Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death. — Hervey. 
 
 'Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath, 
 ' Did not I fail in the field V— Ossian. 
 
 Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. Gray. 
 
 Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 
 
 His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate. — Day. 
 
 At length the world, renew'd by calm repose. 
 
 Was strong for toil ; the dappled morn arose.— Parnea 
 
 What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 
 
 The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! 
 
 Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood, 
 
 To that which warbles through the vernal ^ood ! Pope. 
 
 FIGURE V. SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 'Twas then his threshold first reeeiv'd a guest. — ParnelL 
 
 For yet by swains alone the world he knew. 
 
 Whose /ee< came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew. Id. 
 
CHAP, v.] PKOSODT. — PAESING.r— PEAXIS IX. 279 
 
 Flush'd by the spirit of the genial 9/ear, 
 
 Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 
 
 Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round. — Thomson. 
 
 LESSON VIII. — ^FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 FIGURE VI. HYPERBOLE, 
 
 I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted 
 fir ; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a 
 cloud of mist on the hill. — Ossian. 
 
 At which the universal host up sent 
 A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 
 Prighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. — Milton. 
 Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
 Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather 
 The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
 Making the green one red. — Shakspeare. 
 Endless tears flow down in streams. — Swift. 
 
 FIGURE VII VISION. 
 
 How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm 
 of God! How powerfully do they contend who fight with 
 lawful weapons ! Hark ! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pour- 
 ing forth the living energies of the soul ; pleading, with gener- 
 ous indignation, the cause of injured humanity against lawless 
 might, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppres- 
 sor ! — I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed ! I 
 see the eye fallen that kindled the elements of war ! I see the 
 brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hostile thousands ! <l see 
 the knees tremble that trod with firmness the embattled field ! 
 Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into 
 violence ! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the 
 weakness of humanity ! — ^Behold ! and tell me, is that power 
 contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts 1 
 — G.~ Brown. 
 
 LESSON IX. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 FIGURE VIII. APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Yet Still they breathe destruction, still go on 
 Inhumanly ingenious to find out 
 New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 
 Artificers of death! Still monarchs dream 
 Of universal empire growing up 
 From universal ruin. Blast ike design, 
 Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall 
 Unjniied victims at Ambition's shrine.^-Porteut. 
 
280 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETIV. 
 FIGURE IX. PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! 
 
 Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd ! 
 
 Without you, what were man? A grov'ling herd, 
 
 In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd. — BeaUk. 
 
 Let cheerful Memory, from her purest cells, 
 
 Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues, fair, 
 
 Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back 
 
 With tenfold usury the pious care. — Porteus. 
 
 FIGURE X. EROTESIS. 
 
 He that ohastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct ? he that 
 teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know?— PsaZ., xciv, 10. 
 
 Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots' 
 then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil — 
 Jeremiah, xiii, 23. 
 
 FIGURE XI. ECPHONESIS. 
 
 O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of 
 tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the 
 daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness a 
 lodgmg place of way-faring men, that I might leave my people, 
 and go from them \— Jeremiah, ix, 1. 
 
 LESSON 2. — FIGURES OF KHETOEIO. 
 
 FIGURE XII. ANTITHESIS. 
 
 On this side, modesty is engaged; on that, impudence: on 
 this, chastity ; on that, lewdness : on this, integrity ; on that 
 fraud: on this, piety ; on that, profaneness : on this, constancy! 
 on that, fickleness : on this, honour ; on that, baseness : on this 
 moderation; on that, unbridled passion.— CzWo. 
 She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 
 Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise • 
 Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes- 
 Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods',— Pope. 
 
 FIGURE XIII. CLIMAX. 
 
 Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened 
 conscience ; and when they are approved, they are commended 
 to practice; and when they are practised, they become easy; 
 and when they become easy, they afford pleasure; and when 
 they afford pleasure, they are done frequently; and when they 
 are done frequently they are confirmed by habit: and con. 
 firmed habit is a kind of second nature. 
 
CHAP. TL.] PEOSODY. — QUESTIONS. 281 
 
 FIGURE XIV. IRONY. 
 
 And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and 
 said, ' Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he 
 is pursuing, or he is in [on] a journey, or peradventure he 
 sleepeth, and must be awaked !' — 1 Kings, xviii, 27. 
 Some lead a life unblamable and just. 
 Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
 They never sin — or if (as all offend) 
 Some trivial slips their daily walk attend. 
 The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
 A slight gratuity atones for all. — Cdwper. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— EXAMINATION. 
 QUESTIONS ON PROSODY. 
 
 liESSON I. ^PUNOTTJATION. 
 
 Of wliat does Prosody treat I 
 
 What is Punetvation ? 
 
 What are the principBl points, or marks ? 
 
 What pauses are denoted by the first four points 9 
 
 What pauses are required by the other four ? 
 
 What IS the general use of the comma? 
 
 How many rules for the comma are there ? and ■what are their heads ! 
 
 What says Eule Ist of simple sentences? — Eule 2d of simple wicmSej-sf-^Eule 
 3d of mare than two words t — Kule 4th of onliy two words f — Eule 5th of 
 words in pairs ? — Eule 6th of words put absolute ? — ^Eule 7th of words in ap- 
 position? — Kule 8th o{ adjectioes f—bnie 9th otfiniie verbs? — Eule 10th of 
 xnfimimes? — Eule 11th o( participUs f — Eule 12th of adverbs? — Eule ISth 
 ox conjunctions f — Eule 14th of pramsitions ? — ^Eule 15th of interjections ? — 
 Enle 16th of words repeated .'—Eule 17th of dyiendent quotations? 
 
 LESSON n. — ^PUHCTUATION. 
 
 How many and what exceptions are there to Eule 1st for the comma !— to 
 Eule 2d?— to Eule 3d?— to Eule 4th?— to Eule 5th?— to Eule 6th?— to 
 Eule 7th ?^to Enle 8th?— to Eule 9th?— to Eule lOthi— to Eule 11th!— 
 to Eule 12th?— to Kule 13th?— to Eule 14th?— to Kule 15th?— to Kule 
 16th?— to Eule 17th? 
 
 When are diflercnt words said to be in the same construction? 
 
 I.KSSOXS m. — PUNCTUATION. 
 
 What is the general use of the semicolon ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the semicolon J and what are their heads ? 
 
 What says Eule Ist of compound members ?— Sale 2d of simple members?— 
 
 Rule Sd of words im apposition t 
 What is the general use of the colon ? 
 
 How many rules are there for the colon ? and what are their heads ? 
 What says Eule 1st of additional remarks?— 'B.vi.e 2d of greater poMses?— 
 
 Eule 3 J of tTidependent quotatwns ? 
 What is the general use of the period ? , , ^ .. ■ , j , 
 
 Bow many rules are there for the period ? and what are their heads ? 
 What says Eule 1st of distinet sentenees?—Rvie 2d of allied sentences ?—B.xdi 
 
 8d of abbreviations? 
 
 24* 
 
282 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETIV. 
 
 LESSON IV. — PONCmjATIOIf. 
 
 What is tlie use of the dash ? 
 
 How maijy rules are there for the dash ? and what are their heads ? , 
 
 What says Knle 1st oi abrupt pamsesf — Kule 2d ot emphatic pauses f-r-'&iiB 
 
 3d oif Unity dasfies ? 
 What is the use of the eroteme, or note of interrogation ? 
 How many rules are there for it ? and what are their heads ? 
 What says Eule 1st oi questions direct? — Eule 2d of questions united? — Eule 
 
 3d 0? questions indirect? 
 What is the use of the eophoneme, or note of exclamation ? ' 
 
 How many rules are there for it? and what are their heads? 
 What says Eule Ist of interjections ? — Eule 2d of invocations? — Eule 3d of 
 
 exclamatory questions ? 
 
 LESSON V. — PtraCTUATION. 
 
 What 18 the use of the curves, or marks of parenthesis ? 
 ■JIow many rules are there for them ? and what are their heads ? 
 What says Rule Ist oi the parenthesis ?—S.u\ts ^i of included points ? 
 What is said about other marks ? 
 
 What is the use of the apostrophe ? — of the hyphen ! — of the diferesis?— of 
 the acute accent? — of the grave accent? — of the circumflex ?— of the breve? 
 — of the macron?— of the ellipsis?— of the caret? — of the brace? — of the 
 section ?- of the paragraph ?— of the quotation points ?— of the crotchets !— 
 of the index?— of the asterisk, the obelisk, the double dagger, and the 
 parallels? — of the asterism? — of the oediUa? 
 
 [Having oovrectly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil shonld bo taught to 
 apply what he has learned; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read the pre- 
 face to this volume, or a portion of any other accurately pointed book, and to assign 
 a reason Ibr every mark be finds.] 
 
 LESSON VI. — LTTEEANOE, 
 
 What is Utterance ? and what does it include ? 
 
 What is pronuuoiation ? — What does pronunciation require 5 
 
 What arc the just powers of the letters ? 
 
 What is accent ? — Is every word accented ? 
 
 Can a word have more than one accent ? 
 
 What four things distinguish the elegant speaker ? 
 
 What is elocution ? — What does elocution require ?— What is emphasis % 
 
 What are pauses ? and what is said of their duration ? 
 
 What are inflections ? — What is called the rising inflection?— What is called 
 
 the falling inflection ?— How are these inflections exemplifled ?— How ara 
 
 they used in asking questions ? 
 What are tones? and why do they 'deserve particular attention? 
 
 LESSON Vn. — FIOnEEB. 
 
 What is a Figure in grammar ?— How many kinds of figures are there ! 
 
 What IS a figure of orthography ?— Name the figures of this kind. 
 
 What is mimesis ? — What is an archaism ? 
 
 What is a figure of etymology ? 
 
 How many and what are the figures of etymology ? 
 
 What is aphferesis?— prosthesis ?— syncope '—apocope ?— paragoge ?— dijere- 
 sis ? — synan-esia ? — tmesis ? •■ c r -a s 
 
 What is a figure of syntax?— How many and what are the figures of syntax? 
 
 W hat is ellipsis m grammar ? Are sentences often ellipticar « 
 
 How can there be an ellipsis of the article ?— the noun ?— the adiective ?-the 
 pronoun ?-tbe verb ?--the participle ?-the adverb ?-the conjunction !- 
 the preposition ?— the interjection ?— a phrase or clause ? 
 
 Wbat IS pleonasm ?— and when is this figure allowable ? 
 
 What 13 syllepsis ?-enallage ?-hyperbaton ?-what is said of hyberbaton ? 
 
 LESSON Vm. — FIGURES. 
 
 What is a figure of rhetoric ?— What name have some sueh figures ? 
 
CHAP. VII.] PROSODY. — EXEECISES. 283 
 
 Do flgnrea of rhetoric often occur ?— On what are they founded f 
 
 How many and what are the principal figures of rhetorio ? 
 
 What is a simile ? — a metaphor ? — an allegory 1 — a metonymy ?— synecdoche ? 
 
 —hyperbole 3 — vision ? — apostrophe ? — personiflcatiou 3 — erotesis ? — ec- 
 
 phonesis ? — antithesis ! — dimax ! — irony ! 
 
 LESSON IX. — ^VKRSIFIQAnOlI. 
 
 "What is Vefsifiiation f — What is the quantity of a syllahle ! 
 
 How is quantity denominated ! — How is it said to be proportioned ? 
 
 On what does quantity depend! and what sounds are the most easily 
 
 lengthened 3 
 What words are variable in quantity ? and what syllables are fixed 3 
 What is rhyme 8 — What is blank verse 3 
 
 Of what does a lame of poetry consist 8 — Of what does a,fo(A consist? 
 What are the principal English feet 3 
 What is an iambus 8— a trochee ? — an anapest ? — a dactyl! 
 How many kinds of verse have we 3 
 What is scanning, or scansion 3 
 
 LESSON X. — VEHSIFIOATION. 
 
 What syllables are accented in an iambic line 8 
 What are the several measures of iambic verse 3 
 What syllables are accented in a trochaic line 3 
 What are the several measures of trochaic verse ? 
 What syllables are accented in an anapestic line 3 
 What are the several measures of anapestic verse ? 
 What syllables are accented in a dactylic line 3 
 What are the several measures of dactylic verse 3 
 
 [Now parse the ten lessons of the Mghth Praayie ; explaining every thing of which 
 the teacher may demand an explanation.] 
 
 GHAPTEE Vn.— FOE WEITING. 
 
 EXERCISES m PROSODY. 
 
 ^^ LWhen the pupil can readilj answer all the questions on Prosody, and apply 
 the rules of pimctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted, 
 he should wHte out the following exercises, supplying what is required?] 
 
 EXERCISE I.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 
 requisite. 
 
 Examples under Rule 1. 
 The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument. 
 The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
 The fieldraouse builds her garner under ground. 
 Uxc. The first principles of almost all sciences are few. 
 What he gave me to publish was but a small part. 
 To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
 Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of afHuence. 
 
 Under BuU 2. 
 I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
 They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 
 
284 INSTITUSS OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV, 
 
 He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
 
 The mind though free has a governor within itself 
 
 They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
 
 Be silent be grateful and adore. 
 
 He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. 
 
 The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 
 
 Exc. 1. He that has far to go should not hurry. 
 
 Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 
 
 Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 
 
 Exc. 2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
 
 Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak ? 
 
 The spleen is seldom felt were Flora reigns. 
 Tinder Rule 3. 
 
 The city army court espouse my cause. . 
 
 Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors. 
 
 Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden. 
 
 Wit spirits faculties but make it worse. 
 
 Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 
 Under Rule 4. 
 
 Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 
 
 Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
 
 We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
 
 Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 
 
 Exc 1. God will rather look to the inward motions of the 
 
 mind than to the outward form of the body. 
 Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal, 
 Exc. 2. He has experienced prosperity and adversity. 
 All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 
 Exc. 3. One persok is chosen chairman or moderator. 
 Duration or time is measured by motion. 
 The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 
 ^c. 4. Eeflection reason still the ties improve. 
 His neat plain parlour wants our modern style. 
 
 Under Rule 5. 
 I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated 
 beed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day 
 and night shall not cease. 
 
 EXERCISE II.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Copy the -following sentences, and insert the comma where it it 
 
 Under Rule 6. 
 The night being dark they did not proceed. 
 
CHAP. VII.J PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 285 
 
 There being no other eoach we had no alternative. 
 Eemembei- my son that human life is the journey of a day. 
 AH circumstances considered it seems right. 
 He that overcometh to him will I give power. 
 Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 
 Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! 
 
 With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay ; 
 
 Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! 
 
 Under Rule t. 
 
 Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 
 
 'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's cloclc announcing day. 
 
 The evening star love's harbinger appears. 
 
 The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 
 
 There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 
 
 Our whole company man by man ventured down. 
 
 As a work of wit the Duncia-d has few equals. 
 In the same temple the resounding wood 
 All vocal beings hymned their equal God. 
 
 Exc. 1. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. 
 
 Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 
 
 Hxc. 2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 
 
 Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 
 
 Exc. 3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 
 
 Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 
 
 I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 
 
 Exc. 4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 
 
 I count the world a stranger for thy sake. 
 
 And this makes friends such miracles below. 
 
 God has pronounced it death to taste that tree. 
 
 Grace makes the slave a freeman. 
 
 Under Rule 8. 
 
 Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 
 
 Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 
 
 I played a while obedient to the fair. 
 
 Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 
 Then active still and unconfined his mind 
 Explores the vast extent of ages past. 
 But there is yet a liberty unsung 
 By poets and by senators unpraised. 
 
 Exc. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
 
 He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions. 
 
 These are the persons anxious for the change. 
 
 Are they men worthy of confidence and support! 
 
286 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. [PART lY. 
 
 Tinder Rule 9. 
 Poverty wants some things — avarice all things. 
 Honesty has one face — flattery two. 
 One king is too soft and easy — an other too fiery. 
 Mankind's esteem they court — and he his own : 
 Theirs the wild chase of false felicities'; 
 His the compos'd possession of the true. 
 
 EXERCISE III.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 
 requisite. 
 
 Under Rule 10. 
 
 My desire is to live in peace. 
 
 The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their dehts. 
 
 To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 
 
 I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 
 
 To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 
 
 To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable. 
 We come not with design of wasteful prey 
 To drive the country force the swains away. 
 
 Under Rule 11. 
 Having given this answer he departed. 
 Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 
 Eased of her load subjection grows more light. 
 Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 
 He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood. 
 Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 
 M.in considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 
 Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown. 
 He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 
 Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 
 Hxc. He kept his eye fixed on the country before him. 
 They have their part assigned them to act. 
 Years will not repair the injuries done by him. 
 
 Under Rule 12. 
 Yes we both were philosophers. 
 However providence saw fit to cross our design. 
 Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 
 The fact certainly is much otherwise. 
 For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 
 
 Under Rule 13. 
 For in such retu-ement the soul is strengthened. 
 
CHAP. Vn.] PKOSODY.— EXERCISES. 287 
 
 It engs^es our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them. 
 But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 
 The English verb is variable ; as love lovest loves. 
 
 Under Rule 14. 
 In a word charity is the soul of social life. 
 By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 
 Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 
 With regard to morality I was not indifferent. 
 
 Under Rule 15. 
 Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
 Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley! 
 
 Under Rule 16. 
 I would never consent never never never. ■ 
 His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 
 Come come come come — to bed to bed to bed. 
 
 Under Rule 17; 
 He cried ' Cause every man to go out from me.' 
 'Almet' said he ' remember what thou hast seen.' 
 I answered ' Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before 
 thee.' 
 
 EXERCISE IV.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1. Copy tki'^llowinff sentences, and insert the comma and the 
 SEMICOLON where they are requisite. 
 
 Under Rule 1. 
 ' Man is weak' answered his companion ' knowledge is more 
 
 than equivalent to force.' 
 To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past 
 for all judgment is comparative and of the future nothing 
 can be known. 
 * Content is natural wealth' says Socrates to which I shall add 
 ' luxury is artificial poverty.' 
 
 Converse and love mankind might strongly draw 
 When love was liberty and nature Jaw. 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer. 
 The present all their care the future his. 
 Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 
 Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 
 Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 
 Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 
 Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 
 
288 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET IV. 
 
 Under Rule 3. 
 In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive 
 
 the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative. 
 Most English nouns form the plural by adding s as boy boys 
 
 nation nations king Icings bay bays. 
 Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants 
 
 a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of 
 
 man. 
 
 2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
 
 colon, and the colon where they are requisite. 
 Under Rule 1. 
 Death vrounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 
 Bliss ! — there is none but unpreoarious bliss. 
 That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 
 Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure 
 
 surely happiness is somewhere to be found. 
 A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he can- 
 not obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the 
 holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious 
 life. 
 
 Observe his awful portrait and admire 
 Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 
 
 Under Rule 3. 
 Such is our Lord's injunction " Watch and pray." 
 He died praying for his persecutors " Father forgive them 
 
 they know not what they do." 
 On his cane was inscribed this motto ''Festina lente." 
 
 3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
 colon, the colon, and the period where they are requisite. 
 
 Under Rule 1. 
 
 Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose 
 and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course 
 in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the 
 earth and the waters were stored with their respective in- 
 habitants at last man was made in the image of God 
 
 In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve 
 It for he that lives well cannot be despised 
 Under Rule 2. 
 
 Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a dis- 
 
CHAP. VIlJ PEOSODT. — EXERCISES. 289 
 
 tinction is to be made between fame find true honour the 
 statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet 
 the man himself is far from being honoured 
 
 Under Rule 3. 
 
 Glass was invented in Eng by Benalt a monk A D 664 
 The Eoman Era U C commenced A C 1753 years 
 Here is the Literary Life of S T C!oleridge Esq 
 
 EXERCISE v.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1, Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash, and such 
 other points as are necessary. 
 
 Under Mule 1. 
 
 Ifou say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it 
 
 means a famous uniform famous doings What does famous 
 
 mean 
 O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means 
 
 It means It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say 
 
 it It means it means famous. 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 
 But this life is not all there is there is full surely an other 
 state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect O re- 
 morseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom 
 to think thou now hearest the sound of that trumpet which 
 shall awiake the dead Return O yet return to the Father 
 of mercies and live 
 
 The future pleases Why The present pains 
 But that's a secret yes which all men know 
 
 3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of intbr- 
 EOOATioNj and such other points as are necessary. 
 
 Under Rule 1. 
 
 Does nature bear a tyrapt's breast 
 Is she the friend of stem control 
 Wears she the despot's purple vest 
 Or fetters she the free-bom soul 
 Why should a man whose blood is warm within 
 Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 
 Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
 Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale. 
 
 13 
 
290 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PAKTIY. 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 
 Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 
 Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
 Who calls the council states the certain day 
 Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 
 
 Under Rule 3. 
 
 Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
 Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 
 They asked me who I was and whither I was going 
 
 3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of bxcla- 
 
 MATioN, aTid such other points as are necessary. 
 
 Under Rule 1. 
 Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 
 Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm 
 Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and vain 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 
 O Popular Applause what heart of man 
 Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 
 More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound 
 
 Under Rule 3. 
 
 How often have I loitered o'er thy green 
 Where humble happiness endear'd each scene 
 What black despair what horror fills his heart 
 
 4. Copy the following sentences, and insert the marks of par 
 
 BNTHESis, and such other points as are necessary. 
 
 Under Rule 1. 
 And all the question wrangle e'er so long 
 Is only this If God has placed him wrong 
 And who what God foretells who speaks in things 
 Still louder than in words shall dare deny 
 
 Under Rule 2. 
 
 Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
 Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 
 Where is that thrift that avarice of time 
 O glorious avarice thought of death inspires 
 And oh the last last what can words express 
 Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 
 
CHAP. VII.J PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 291 
 
 EXERCISE VI.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Copy the following peomiscuotts sentences, and insert the points 
 which they require. 
 
 As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 
 
 They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 
 
 The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners 
 
 Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field 
 
 It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 
 
 Peace of all wordly blessings is the most valuable 
 
 By this time the very foundation was removed 
 
 The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 
 
 Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 
 
 How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I 
 
 am stationed here to no purpose Harris 
 In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miser- 
 able as to have no parallel in story 
 Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far frym being happy 
 I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 
 Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 
 Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 
 They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 
 Be doers of the word and not hearers only 
 The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 
 Here hope that smiling angel stands 
 Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 
 There are no tricks in plain and simple faith. 
 True love strikes root in reason passion's foe 
 Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain 
 I am satisfied My son has done his duty 
 Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen 
 I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 
 The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 
 But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 
 Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 
 Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 
 In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 
 This being the case I am astonished and amazed 
 These men approached him and saluted him king 
 Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly 
 Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 
 One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions 
 You heroes regard nothing but glory 
 Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall 
 Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 
 
292 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PART IV. 
 
 Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 
 
 Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God 
 
 As for me behold I am in your hand 
 
 Now I Paul myself beseech you 
 
 He who lives always in public cannot liye to his own sou] 
 
 whereas he who retires remains calm 
 Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 
 This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 
 Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 
 King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 
 
 EXERCISE VII.— PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert the points 
 which they require. 
 
 To whom can riches give repute or trust 
 
 Content or pleasure^but the good and just Pope 
 
 To him no high no low no great no small 
 
 He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id 
 
 Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 
 
 Lie in three words health peace and competence Id 
 
 Not so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 
 
 Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon 
 
 Say will the falcon stooping from above 
 
 Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope 
 
 Throw Egypt's by and offer in its stead 
 
 Offer the crown on Bernice's head Id 
 
 Ealsely luxurious will not man awake 
 
 And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy 
 
 The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Thomson 
 
 Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 
 
 So far from aught romantic what I sing Young 
 
 Thyself first know then love a self there is 
 
 Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id 
 
 How far that little candle throws his beams 
 
 So shines a good deed in a naughty world Shakspeare 
 
 You have too much respect upon the world 
 
 They lose it that do buy it with much care Id 
 
 How many things by season season'd are 
 
 To their right praise and true perfection Id 
 
 Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 
 
 And seize thy brother's throat for what a clod Young 
 
CHAP. VII.] PKOSOUT. — EXERCISES. 293 
 
 In two short precepts all your business lies 
 
 Would you be great be virtuous and be wise Benham 
 
 But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed 
 
 What then is the reward of virtue bread Pope 
 
 A life all turbulence and noise may seem 
 
 To him that leads it wise and to be prais'd 
 
 But wisdom is a pearl with most success 
 
 Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies Cowper 
 
 All but the swellings of the softened heart 
 
 That waken not disturb the tranquil mind Thomson 
 
 Inspiring God who boundless spirit all 
 
 And um-emitting energy pervades 
 
 Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole Id 
 
 Ye ladies for indiflF'rent in your cause 
 
 I should deserve to forfeit all applause 
 
 Whatever shocks or gives the least offence 
 
 To virtue delicacy truth or sense 
 
 Try the criterion 'tis a faithful guide 
 
 Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side Cowper 
 
 EXERaSE Vin.— SCANNING. 
 
 Divide the following verses into the feet which compose them, and 
 distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables. 
 
 DEITY. 
 
 Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 
 And all immensity of space thy presence fills : 
 
 For thou alone art God ; — as God thy saints adore thee ; 
 
 Jehovah is thy name ; — they have no gods before thee. — &.B, 
 
 HEALTH. 
 
 Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly ; 
 
 On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies: 
 Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 
 
 Redder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. — G. B^ 
 
 IMPENlfENCE. 
 
 The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers. 
 Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore ; 
 
 As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers. 
 Yet barren and fruitless remain as before. — G. Brown. 
 
 PIETY. 
 
 Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety. 
 Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love; 
 
 Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety. 
 
 Rising unearthly, and soaring above. — G. Brown. 
 26* 
 
294 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
 
 A BIMILE. 
 
 The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, 
 
 Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. — Gr. Brown. 
 
 AS OTHER. 
 
 " Yet to the general's voice they soon obey'd 
 Innumerable. As when the potent rod 
 Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 
 Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 
 Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 
 That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 
 Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile," — Milton. 
 
 ELEGIAC STANZA. 
 
 Thy name is dear — 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; 
 
 Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 
 
 Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 
 
 That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! — G. Brown. 
 
 cupm. 
 
 Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 
 
 With the sweetest odours of the spring. 
 O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 
 
 Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. — G. Brown 
 
 DIVINE POWER. 
 
 When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 
 
 And the billows tremendously rose, 
 The Saviour but utter'd the word, 
 
 They were hush'd to the calmest repose. — G. Brow%, 
 
 INVITATION. 
 
 Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 
 
 Come from the den of the lion ; 
 Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 
 
 Come to the mountain of Zion. — -G. Brown. 
 
 ADMONITION. 
 
 In the days of thy youth. 
 
 Remember thy God : 
 O ! forsake not his truth, 
 
 Incur not his rod. — Q. Brown. 
 
 COMMENDATION. 
 
 Constant and duteous, 
 
 Meek as the dove. 
 How art thou beauteous, 
 
 Daughter of love! — G. Brown. 
 
CHAP. VII.J PROSODY. — EXBECISES. 295 
 
 EDWIN, AN ODE. 
 
 I. STROPHE. 
 
 Led by the pow'r of song, and nature's love, 
 WMeh raise the soul all vulgar themes above, 
 The mountain grove 
 Would Edwin rove. 
 In pensive mood, alone ; 
 And seek the woody dell, 
 Where noontide shadows fell, 
 Cheering, 
 Veering, 
 Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. 
 Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known, 
 When nought was heard around 
 But sooth'd the rest profound 
 Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. 
 Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) 
 The elemental conflict wild ; 
 When, fold on fold, above was pil'd 
 The watery swathe, careering on the wind. 
 Such scenes he saw 
 With solemn awe, 
 As in the presence of th' Eternal Mind. 
 Fix'd he gaz'd, 
 Tranc'd and rais'd, 
 Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd. 
 
 II. AUTISTROPHB. 
 
 Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight 
 Where feebler souls but tremble with alTright. 
 Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, 
 A black impending cloud 
 Infolds him in its shroud, 
 And dark and darker glooms the scene. 
 Through the thicket streaming, 
 Lightnings now are gleaming ; 
 Thmiders rolling dread. 
 Shake the mountain's head ; 
 Nature's war 
 Echoes far. 
 O'er ether borne. 
 
 That flash 
 - The ash 
 Has scath'd and torn ! 
 
SfH) INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART IV. 
 
 Now it rages ; 
 Oaks of ages, 
 Writhing in the furious blast, 
 Wide their leafy honours cast ; 
 Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : 
 Deep rooted in the crevio'd rock, 
 The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, 
 Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. 
 
 III. BPODE. 
 
 ' O Thou who sits above these vapours dense, 
 And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence ! 
 Making the collied cloud thy car, 
 Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar. 
 Thy blessings to dispense. 
 The early and the latter rain. 
 Which fertilize the dusty plain, 
 
 Thy bounteous goodness pours. 
 Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd] 
 All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord ! 
 
 And works thy gracious will; 
 At thy command the tempest roars. 
 At thy command is still. 
 Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides ; 
 'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides 
 The ardent solar beam ; 
 While, from the volley'd breast of heaven, 
 Transient gleams of dazzling light. 
 Flashing on the balls of sight. 
 Make darkness darker seem. 
 Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven— 
 The tempest-driven 
 Cloud is riven ; 
 And the thirsty mountain-side 
 Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' 
 So breath'd young Edwin, when the summer shower 
 From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud. 
 With lightning flash and thunder loud. 
 Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. — G. Brown. 
 
 THE END or PART FOURTH. 
 
KEY 
 
 TO THE 
 
 EXAMPLES OF FALSE CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES, 
 
 rSDEK 
 
 THE RULES OF SYNTAX AND THE NOTES. 
 
 f^P" [The examples of False Syntax here explained, should ho corrected orally by 
 the pupil, according to the formules giwn under the rules ; and the following correc- 
 tions may af terwai-ds be used as examples for parsing, if necessary.] 
 
 UNDER RULE I. — ARTICLES. 
 Vnder Note 1. — An or A, 
 
 This is o hard saying. 
 
 An humble heart shall find favour. 
 
 Passing from an earthly to a heavenly diadem. 
 
 Few have the happiness of living with such a one. 
 
 She evinced a uniform adherence to the truth. 
 
 An hospital is an asylum for the sick. 
 
 This is truly a wonderful invention. 
 
 He is a younger man than we supposed. 
 
 A humorsome ehUd is never long pleased. 
 
 A. careless man is unfit for an hostler. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Nouns Connected. 
 
 Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or a hone broken. 
 As the drop of the bucket, and the dust of the balance. 
 Not a worcT was uttered, nor a sign given. 
 I despise not the doer, but the deed. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Adjectives Connected. 
 
 What is the difference between the old and the new method ? 
 
 The sixth and the tenth have a close resemblance. 
 
 Is Paris on the right handj or the left ? 
 
 Does Peru join the Atlantic, or the Pacific ocean ? 
 
 He was influenced both by a just and a generous principle. 
 
 The hook was read by the old and tjie young. 
 
 I liave both the large and the small grammar. 
 
 Are both the north and the south line measured 1 
 
 Are the north line and the south both measured ? 
 
 Are both the north and the south lines measured ? 
 
 Are both the north lines and t?ie south measured ? 
 
 Under Note i. — Adjectives Cormecttd. 
 
 Is the north and south line measured ? 
 
 Are the two north and south Hnes both measured I 
 
 A great and good man looks beyond time. 
 
 13* 
 
298 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance. 
 Tlie Allegany and Monongahela rivers form tiie Ohio. 
 I rejoice that there is an other and better world. 
 Were God to raise up an other such man as Moses. 
 The light and worthless kernels will float. 
 
 TJnider Note 5. — Articles not BequisiU. 
 
 Cleon was an other sort of man. 
 
 There is a species of animal called seal. 
 
 Let us wait m patience and quietness. 
 
 The contemplative mind delights in silence. 
 
 Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. 
 
 You will never have an other such chance. 
 
 I expected some such answer. 
 
 And I persecuted this way unto death. 
 
 Under Note 6. — Of Titles and NamM. 
 
 He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman. 
 
 Cromwell assumed the title of Protector. 
 
 Her father is honoured with the title of Earl. 
 
 The chief magistrate is styled President. 
 
 The highest title in the state is that of Governor. 
 
 For oah^ pine^ and asA, were names of whole classes of objects. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Of Comparisons. 
 
 He is a better writer than reader. 
 
 He was an abler mathematician than linguist. 
 
 I should rather have an orange than an apple. 
 
 Under Note 8. — Nowns wWh Who or WTmh. 
 
 The words (or, Those words) which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to b« 
 
 misunderstood. 
 Tilt carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
 The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time. 
 
 Under Note 9. — Participial Nouns. 
 Means are always necessary to the accomplishing of ends. 
 By the seeing of the eye, and the hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 
 Ill the keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 
 For tlK revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 
 Have you no repugnance to fhe torturing of animals ? 
 
 Under Note 10. — Participles, not Nouns. 
 By breaking the law, yon dishonour the lawgiver. 
 An argument so weak is not worth mentioning. 
 In letting ^o our hope, we let all go. 
 Avoid tfilking too much of your ancestors. 
 The ouckoo keeps repeating her unvaried notes. 
 Forbear boasting of what you can do. 
 
 UNDER RULE II. — ^NOMINATIVES. 
 
 He that is studious, will improve. 
 
 Tliey that seek wisdom, will be wise. 
 
 She and /are of the same age. 
 
 You are two or three years older than we. 
 
 Are not John and thou cousins ? 
 
 I can wi'ite as handsomely as thou. 
 
 Nobody said so but he. 
 
 Wlio dost thou think was there ? 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — APPOSITION. — ADJS. 299 
 
 Who broke this slate ? /. 
 
 We are alone ; here's none but tTum and I. 
 
 Them that honour me, I will honour; and <%that despise me, shaU b« 
 
 hghtly esteemed. — 1 Sam., ii, 30. 
 He who in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judgement. 
 
 UNDER RULE HI. — APPOSITION. 
 
 The book Is a present from my brother Richard, Mm that keeps the book- 
 store. 
 
 I am going to see my friends in the countiy, them that we met at the ferry. 
 
 This dress was made by Catharine, the millmer, her that we saw at work. 
 
 Dennis, the gardener, he that gave me the tiihps, has promised me a piony. 
 Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
 Se whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and A« 
 Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
 Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw. 
 Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. — Yoimg. 
 
 UNDER RULE IV. — ^ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Agreement. 
 
 Things of thU sort are easily understood. 
 
 Who Broke those tongs ? 
 
 Where did I drop tTuse soissors ? 
 
 Bring out those oats. 
 
 Extinguish those embers. 
 
 I disregard these minutiae. 
 
 HMt kmd of injuries we need not fear. 
 
 What was the height of thai gallows which Haman erected ? 
 
 Vhder Note 2. — Mxed Nvmhers. 
 
 We rode about ten miles an hour. 
 
 'Tis for a thousand ^)OM«(fo. 
 
 How deep is the water ? About mifafhoms. 
 
 The lot is twenty-five^isei wide. 
 
 1 have bought eight loads of wood. 
 
 Under Nate 3. — BeeiprocaU. 
 
 Two negatives, in English, desti'oy ea^h other. — LowCh cor. 
 That the heathens tolerated one an other, is allowed. — FuUer cor. 
 David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. » 
 
 Words are derived (me from an other in various ways. Or better : Dmvaiiv* 
 
 words WQ formed from fha/r vrvmitmee in various ways. — Cooper cor. 
 Teachers like to see their pupils polite to one an other. — Webster cor. 
 The Graces always hold on^ an other by the hand. 
 
 Under Note i. — Of Degrees. 
 
 He chose the last of these three. 
 
 Trissyllables are often accented on tha first syllable. 
 
 Which are the two most remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 
 
 Under Note 5.— Of Comparatives. 
 
 The Scriptures are more valuable than any ot?ier writings. 
 
 The Russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the 
 
 world. 
 Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son 
 
 of his old age. 
 
 Under Note 6. — Of Superlatwes. 
 Of all ill habits idleness is the most inooiTigible. 
 
300 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAB. 
 
 Eve Tras the fairest of women. 
 
 Hope is the most constant of all the passions. 
 
 TTnder Note 7 . — Of Extra Ccmvparuons. 
 
 That opinion is too general (or common) to be easily corrected. 
 "Virtue confers the greatest (or highest) dignity upon man. 
 How much better are ye than the fowls ! — Tr. oflMhe cor. 
 Do not thou hasten above the Most High. — Esdras cor. 
 This, this was the unHndest out of all. — Enfield, p. 353. 
 The waters are frozen sooner and harder. — Verstegan cor. 
 A healthier (or more healthy) place cannot be found. 
 The best and the wisest men often meet with discouTagements. 
 
 Under Note 8. — Adjectives Connected. 
 
 He showed us an easier and nwre a-greeable way. 
 This was XhA plainest and most convinMng argument. 
 Some of the wisest and Tnost nwderate of the senators. 
 This is an ancient and honovrable fraternity. 
 There vioD shall meet a fatal and irrevocable doom. 
 
 Under Note 9. — Adjectives Prejisui, 
 
 He is an industrious young man. 
 
 She has an elegant new house. 
 
 Thejfo-«< two classes have read. 
 
 The two oldest sons have removed to the westward. 
 
 England had not seen an other such Mng. 
 
 Under Nate 10. — Of Adjitl'.tesfor A&rtrbs, 
 
 She reads well and writes neatly. 
 
 He was extremely prodigal. 
 
 They went, conformably to their engagement. 
 
 He speaks ^&Ty fluently, and reasons justly. 
 
 The deepest streams run the most silently. 
 
 These appear to be finished the mast neatly. 
 
 Ho was scarcely gone, when you arrived. 
 
 I am exceedin^gly sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 
 
 The work was uncomTnonly well executed. 
 
 This is not so large a cargo as the last. 
 
 Thou knowest how good a horse mine is. 
 
 I cannot think so meanly of him. 
 
 He acted much m/yre wisely than the others. 
 
 ' Under Note. 11.— Of Them for Those. 
 
 I bought those books at a very low price. 
 Go and tell those boys to be stUl. 
 I have several copies : thou art welcome to those two. 
 Which of those three men is the most useful ? 
 
 Under Note 12.— Of T)iis and That. 
 
 Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : that is the anticipation of 
 
 good, this of eva. 
 The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should not 
 therefore account these happy, and those miserable. 
 Memory and forecast just retru-ns engage, 
 Tliat pointing back to youth, this on to age. — Pope. 
 
 Under Note 13. — Each, Every One, dx. 
 Let each of them be heard in hit turn. 
 
 On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians Iceeps the sabbath. 
 Is either of these men known ? 
 No ; neither of them has any connexions here. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS. 30J 
 
 XFnder Bate 14. — Any and None. 
 Did any of the company stop to assist you ? 
 Here are six ; but none of them will answer. 
 
 XPnder Nate, 15. — I'arUci^l Adjectives. 
 Some crimes are thought deserving of death. 
 Eudoness of speech is very unbecoming to [or m\ a gentleman. 
 To eat with uwwashed bands, was disgusting to a Jew. 
 
 Leave then thy joys, unsuiting to such age — or, 
 Leave then thy joys, not suiting such an age. 
 To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. 
 
 UNDER RULE V. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 Every one must judge of Tiis own feelings. 
 
 Can any person, on his entrance into the world, be fully secure that It* shall 
 
 not be deceived ? 
 He cannot see one in prosperity, without envying Mm. 
 I gave him oats, but he would not eat them. 
 Bebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob. 
 Take up the tongs, and put them in their place. 
 Let each esteem others better than himself. 
 A person may make himself happy without riches. 
 Every man should try to provide for himself. 
 The mind of man should not be left without something on which to employ 
 
 Us energies. 
 
 An idler is a watch that wants both hands. 
 
 As useless if it goes, as when it stands. — Gowper. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Of Pronouns Needless. 
 
 Many words darken speech. 
 
 These praises he then seemed inclined to retract. 
 
 These people are all very ignorant. 
 
 Asa^s heart was perfect with the Lord. 
 
 Who, instead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing 
 
 mischief. 
 "Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate. 
 Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber. 
 There are witnesses of the tact which I nave mentioned. 
 He is now sorry for what he said. 
 
 The empress, approving these conditions, immediately ratified them. 
 Though this incident appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the author'* 
 veracity. • 
 
 Under Note 2. — Of OhoMge in Nurriber. 
 Thou, art my fether's brother, else would I reprove thee — or. 
 Ton are my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 
 Tour weakness is excusable, \mtyour wickedness is not — or, 
 Thy weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
 Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon thy fault— or, 
 Now, my son, I forgive you, and freely pardon your fault. 
 Tou draw the inspiring breath of ancient song. 
 Till nobly rises emulous your own — or, 
 Thou draiDst the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
 Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 
 
 Under Note Z.—Of Who and Whioh. 
 
 This is the horse which my father imported. 
 Those are the birds which we call gregarious. , . , 
 
 He has two brothers, one of whom I am acquamted with. 
 
 26 
 
302 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 What was that creature whieli Job called leviathan ? 
 
 Those who desire to be safe, should be careful to do that which is right. 
 
 A butterfly, wTw thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to 
 
 light upon a bee-hive. 
 There was a certain householder, who planted a vineyard. 
 
 Under Note 4. — Nouns of Multitude. 
 He instructed and fed the crowds thM surrounded him. 
 The court, which has great influence upon the public manners, ousht to lie 
 
 very exemplary. > & "v uo 
 
 The wild tribes that inhabit the wildnemess, contemplate the ocean with as- 
 
 tomshment, and gaze upon the starry heavens with delight. 
 
 Tinier Note 5. — Of Mere Names. 
 Judas {which is now an other name for treachery) betrayed his master with 
 He aUuded to Phalaris, — which is a name for all that is cruel. 
 
 Under Note C:,.— Of the Pronoim ThM, 
 He was the first (hat entered. 
 He was the drollest fellow that I ever saw. 
 This is the same man that we Siiw before. 
 "Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 
 The wife and fortune tliat lie gained, did not aid him. 
 Men that are avaricious, never have enough. 
 All that I have, is thine. 
 Was it thou, or the wind, that shut the door ? 
 It was not I that shut it. * 
 
 The babe that was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 
 
 Under Note l.—ReVOme Olcmses GoTmected. 
 
 He is a man that tnows what belongs to good manners, and that will not do 
 a dishonourable act. 
 
 The friend who was here, and who entertained us so much, will never be 
 
 able to visit us again. 
 The curiosities which he has brought home, and which we shaU have th» 
 
 pleasure of seemg, are said to be very rare. 
 
 Under Note B.— Relative and Preposition. 
 Observe them in the order m which they stand 
 We proceeded immediately to the place to which we were directed. 
 My companion remained a week in the state in which I left him 
 Ihe way m wh%ch I do it, is this. 
 
 Under Note i.—OfAdverlsfor Relatives. 
 Eemember the condition/?-om, which thou art rescued. 
 1 iinow of no rule ly which it may be done. 
 
 He drew up a petition, in which he too freely represented his own merits. 
 The hour is hastemng, in which whatever praise or oensuro I hr™ aogidred 
 wiU be remembered with equal indifierenoe. aoqmrea, 
 
 Under Note 10.— Repeat the Noun. 
 
 ""sSe'^'r^o'S. *'' '='""^"™ "' ^^^'^■°"' "^° -°-' '«" -1^--° 
 ^i:r^fcdifl?jsi^ji-,s,fifrs?2™ ^^'- 
 
 ''ToX'^ioi^t:^^! ^'"' '^'^ "^'^^^^ of o^e^r -seems mo,t 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS. 303 
 
 _ XPnder Note 11.— I'lace of the Belatim. 
 
 Thtm, who hast thus condemned the act, art thyself the man that committed 
 
 it. 
 There is in simplicity a certain majesty, which is far above the quaintnesa of 
 
 wit. 
 Thou, who art a ;garty concerned, hast no right to judge. 
 It is impossible lor such men as those who are likely to get the appointment, 
 
 ever to determine this question. 
 There are, in the empire of China, millions oipeopU, whose support is derived 
 
 almost entirely &om rice. 
 
 Under Note 12.-0/ What/or TJmi. 
 
 1 had no idea but tTuit the story was true. 
 
 The post-boy is not so weary but that he can whistle. 
 
 He had no intimation but that the men wore honest. 
 
 Under Note 13. — Of Adjectives for Antecedents. 
 
 Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; and without humility there can 
 
 be no dooihty. 
 Judas declared him innocent ; hut innocent he could not be, had he in any 
 
 respeet deceived the disciples. 
 Be accurate in all you say or do ; for accuracy is important in all the concerns 
 
 of life. 
 Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; and indeed he is so, if 
 
 the law is just. . 
 
 UNDER RULE VL — PRONOUNS. 
 
 In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were their chief 
 
 good. 
 The council were not unanimous, and they separated without coming to any 
 
 determination. 
 The committee were divided in sentiment, and ffiey referred the business to 
 
 the general meeting. 
 There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put tjiem in great 
 
 consternation. 
 The enemy were not able to support the charge, and they dispersed and fled. 
 The defendant's counsel had a difficult task impbsed on them. 
 The board of health publish their prooeeedings. 
 I saw all the species thus delivered from their sorrows. 
 
 Under Note 1. — The Idea of Unity. 
 
 I saw the whole species thus delivered from Us sorrows. 
 This court is famous for the justice oiits decisions. 
 The convention then resolved itself into a committee of the whole. 
 The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made their way 
 through it. 
 
 UNDER RULE VII. — PRONOUNS. 
 Tour levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will prevent all substantial 
 
 improvement. . 
 Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems them oppressive. 
 Good sense and refined poh<y are obvious to few, because they cannot be 
 
 (iscovered but by a tram of reflection. 
 Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : they vmply a 
 
 want of solid merit. 
 If love and unity continue, they wiU make you partakers of one an other's 
 
 ley. • 
 
 Bufl'er not jealousy and distrust to enter : fh^ will destroy, like » canker, 
 
 every germ of fnendship. 
 
304 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. r-'j 
 
 Hatred and animosity are inconaistent with Christian charity : guard, there^ 
 
 foro, against the slightest indulgence of tlietn. 
 Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and -freedom of opinion, if is 
 
 does not pervi^t fhem to the injury of others. 
 
 UNDER RULE VIII. — PRONOUNS. 
 
 Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed Tier task. 
 
 One or the other must relinquish Jiu claim. 
 
 A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will move only as 
 
 it is moved. 
 Eye or barley, when it is scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 
 A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read it in a 
 
 description. 
 Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life : for it may 
 
 be thy own lot. 
 
 UNDER RULE IX. — VERBS. 
 
 We were disappointed. 
 
 She dares not oppose it. 
 
 His pulse is too quick. 
 
 Circumstances aUer cases. 
 
 He needs not trouble himself. 
 
 Twenty-four pence are two shillings. 
 
 On one side were beautiful meadows. ' 
 
 He may pursue what studies ha pleases. 
 
 What has iecome of our cousins ? 
 
 There were more impostors than one. 
 
 What say his fri ends on this subject ? 
 
 Thou hnoiost the urgency of the case. 
 
 What avail good sentiments with a bad life? 
 
 Save those books been sent to the school ? 
 
 There are many ooeasions for the exeroise of patience. 
 
 What sounds has each of the vowels ? 
 
 There was a great number of spectators. 
 
 There is an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 
 
 While, ever and anon, there /aS 
 
 Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls — or, 
 
 While, ever and anon, thcreya& 
 
 A heap of hoary moulder'd walls. 
 He that trusts in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 
 Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. 
 Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which has no understanding. 
 Not one of the authors who mention this incident, is entitled to credit. 
 The man and woman that were present, being strangers to him, wondered at 
 
 his conduct. 
 There neaeasaTily follow from thence these plain and unquestionable oonsa^ 
 quences. 
 
 thou, forever present in my way. 
 
 Who all my motives and my toils swrveyst — or, 
 
 O thou, forever present in my way. 
 
 Who dost my motives and my toils survey. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Nominative with Adjunott. 
 The derivation of these words ia uncertain. 
 Four years' interest was demanded. 
 One added to nineteen, makes twenty. 
 The increase of orphans renders the addition necessary. 
 The road to virtue and happiness is open to all. 
 Tlie ship, with all her crew, was lost. 
 A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delights some folks. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — VERBS. 305 
 
 Under Xvie 2. — Composite SuhjecU. 
 To obtMn the praise of men, was their only object. 
 To steal and then deny it, is a double sin. 
 To copy and claim the writings of others, is plagiarism. 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all- men 
 That It IS our duty to promote peace and hai-mony among men, admits of no 
 dispute. ° ' 
 
 Under Note 3. — Vert letween A'omiuatives. 
 The reproofs of instruction are the way of life. 
 A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable. 
 So great an affliction to him were his wicked sons. 
 What are the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
 He churlishly said to me, ' Who are you?' 
 
 U/ider Note 4,.— Form Adapted to Style. 
 
 1. Familiar Style. 
 Was it thou that ImiU that house ? 
 
 That boy ivrites very elegantly. 
 
 Could not thou write without blotting thy book ? 
 
 Dost not thou think— ox, Don't thou think, it will rain to-day? 
 
 Does not — or, DonH your cousin intend to visit you ? 
 
 That boy has torn my book. 
 
 "Was it thou that spread the hay 3 
 
 Was it James or tbou that let him in? 
 
 He dares not say a word. 
 
 Thou stood in my way and hindered me. 
 
 2. Solemn Style. 
 
 The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens ; and his kingdom ruleth 
 
 over all. — Psalms, ciii, 19. 
 Thou answeredst them, Lord our God: thou wast a God that forgave* 
 
 them, though thou tooi^t vengeance of their inventions. 
 Then thou spakest in vision to thy Holy One, and saidst. — Psalms, Ixxxix, 
 
 So then, it is not of him that vriUeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God 
 that showeth mercy. — Bom., ix, 16. 
 
 Under Note 5. — The Nominaiim Expressed. 
 
 New York, Fifthmonth Sd, 1823. 
 Dear friend, 
 
 /am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but /hope it may be retrieved. / 
 should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. / shall call 
 to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. 
 
 A. B. 
 New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. 
 Dear sir, 
 
 / have just received the kind note yo^j, favoured me with this 
 morning ; and /cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further 
 information, /find / have not lost so much as /at first supposed; and / be- 
 lieve /shall still be able to meet aU ray engagements. / should, however, 
 be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D. 
 Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
 And wilt tlum never be to Heaven resigu'd ? 
 
 UNDER EULB X. — VERBS. 
 The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 
 
 * Forga/cesl (as in FaaVm xcix, 8,) appears to be wrong; because the relative thai 
 and its antecedent Ood arc of the third person, and not of the second. 
 
 26* 
 
S06 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 The committee Tiam attended to their appointment. 
 
 Mankind were not united by the bonds of oivil society. 
 
 The majority w^e disposed to adopt the measure. 
 
 The peasantry go barelbot, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes. 
 
 All the world a« spectators of your conduct. 
 
 Blessed a/re the people that know the joyful sound. 
 
 Under Note l.—The Idea of Vhity. 
 
 The church Tuis no power to iijflict corporal punishments. 
 
 The fleet was seen saihn^ up the channel. 
 
 The meeting Aas established several salutary regulations. 
 
 The regiment consists of a thousand men. 
 
 A detachment of two hundred mea was immediately sent. 
 
 Every auditory takes this in good part. 
 
 In this business, the house of commons was of no weight. 
 
 Is the senate considered as a separate body 3 
 
 There is a iiock of birds. 
 
 No society is chargeable with the disapproved conduct of particular members. 
 
 UNDER RULE XI. — VERBS. 
 
 Temperance and exercise preserve health. 
 
 Time and tide wait for no man. 
 
 My love and affection towards thee remain unaltered. 
 
 Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsake the indolent. 
 
 My fleah and my heart ./ffli^. 
 
 In all his works, there are sprightliness and vigour. 
 
 Elizabeth's meekness and humility were extraordinary. 
 
 In unity consist the security and welfare of every society. 
 
 High pleasures and luxurious living heget satiety. 
 
 Much do human pride and folly require correction. 
 
 Our conversation and intercourse with the world are, in several respects, an 
 education for vice. 
 
 Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, are what nature de- 
 mands, and virtue allows. 
 
 What generosity, and what humanity, were then displayed ? 
 What thou desir'st, 
 And what thou feaa'est, alike destroy/ all hope. 
 
 Under Note 1. — Afflmuition with Negation. 
 
 Wisdom, and not wealth, pirocure^s esteem. 
 
 Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame. 
 
 Not fear, but labour Aos overcome him. 
 
 The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference. 
 
 Not her beauty, but her talents attract attention. 
 
 It is her talents, and not her beauty, tjiat attract attention. 
 
 It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attracts attention. 
 
 Under Note 2. — As Well As, But, or Save. 
 
 His constitution, as well as his fortune, requires care. 
 Their religion, as well as their manners^ was ridiculed. 
 FA'ery one, but thou, had been legally discharged. 
 The buyer, as well as the seller, renders himself liable. 
 All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute. 
 None, but thoUj O mighty prince ! can avert the blow. 
 Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent. 
 Caesar, as well as Cicero, was admired for his eloquence. 
 
 Under Note 8. — Bwh, Every, or No. 
 
 Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty. 
 Every house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — YEEBS. 307 
 
 Every thought, every word, and every action, wUl be hrought into judge- 
 ment, whether it be good or evil. 
 
 The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will be able to 
 screen himself from punishment. 
 
 No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride. 
 No cavern'd hermit, rests seU-satisflea. — Pope. 
 
 Under Mite 4. — Arid Beguwei, 
 
 In this affair, ,per8everance and dexterity were requisite. 
 
 Town and country are equally agreeable to me. 
 
 Sobriety and humility lead to honour. 
 
 The king, the lords, amd the commons, compose the British pai'liament. 
 
 The man and his whole family are dead. 
 
 A small house amd a trifling annuity are still granted him. 
 
 Under Kote 5, — DUtind Subject PTirases. 
 
 To profess, and to possess, are very different things. 
 
 To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, a/re duties of 
 
 nniveraal obligation. 
 To be round or squai-e, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be 
 
 moved swiftly or slowly, are all equally alien from the nature of thought. 
 
 UNDER EULE 211. — ^VEEBS. 
 
 Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, lias ever been, vm/patei to him. 
 
 What the heart or the imagination dictates, flows readily. 
 
 Neither authority nor analogy svpports such an opinion. 
 
 Either ability or inclination was wanting. 
 
 Eeduudaut grass or heath affords abundance to their cattle. 
 
 The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there is neither honour, nor virtue, 
 
 nor utility, in repelling them. 
 The sense or drift of a proposition, often depends upon a single letter. 
 
 Vnder Note 1. — NommaUiies tliat Disagree. 
 
 Neither he nor you were there. 
 Either the boys or I was in fault. 
 Neither he nor I intend to be present. 
 Neither the captain nor the sailors were sa/ved. 
 
 Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, does not yet 
 appear. 
 
 Under Note 2. — The Concord Convpleted. 
 
 Are they, or am I, expected to be there ? 
 
 Neither is he, nor am I, capable of it. 
 
 Either he has been imprudent, or his associates Tia/De been vindictive. 
 
 Neither were their riches, nor was their influence great. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Place of the First Person. 
 
 tS-Y father and /were riding out. 
 
 The premiums were given to George and me. 
 
 Jane and /are invited. 
 
 They ought to invite my sister amd me. 
 
 We dreamed a dream in one night, he and I. 
 
 Under Note 4. — DieUnct Subject Phrases. ^ 
 
 To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice. 
 To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy. 
 
308 nrSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAH. 
 
 UNDER E0LE XIII. — VERBS. 
 
 Doth, he not Uam the ninety and nine, and go into the mounts&ns, and sui 
 that which ia gone astray 3 
 
 Did he not UU thee his fault, and erdreat thee to forgive him ? 
 
 If he understands the business, and attends to it, wherein is he deficient ? 
 
 The day is approaching, and is hastenmg upon us, in which we must give an 
 account ot our stewardship. 
 
 K thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but dost forget him who remembered 
 thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation— or, better: If then 
 turn not unto the Lord, h\)X forget him who remembered thee in thy dis- 
 tress, great wdl be thy condemnation. 
 
 There are a few, who ham Icept their integrity to the Lord, and viki vrefer 
 his truth to all other enjoyments. 
 
 This report was current yesterday, and it agrees with what we heard before. 
 
 Virtue IS generally ^TOwei, and it would be generally practised also, if men 
 were wise. = .- ^r , 
 
 Under Note 1. — Preterits and Participles. 
 He would hme gone with us, if we had invited him. 
 They Tiave clwsen the part of honour and virtue. 
 He soon iegan to be weary of having nothing to do. 
 Somebody has broken my slate. 
 I soM him when he did it. 
 
 Under Note %.—Form Adapted to Sense. 
 He had entered into the conspiracy. 
 The American planters raise cotton and rice. 
 The report is founded on truth. 
 I entered the room and sat down. 
 Go and lie down, ray son. 
 With such books, it will always be difficult to teach children to read. 
 
 UNDER RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Undar Note 1.— Of Expunged. 
 By observing truth, you will command respect. 
 I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying Em. 
 I heard them discussing this subject. 
 By consulting the best authors, he became learned. 
 Here are rules, by observing which, you may avoid error. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Of Inserted. 
 Their consent was necessary for the raising of any supplies. 
 Thus liie saving o/' a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
 It ia an overvaluing of ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
 The teacher does not allow any calling of ill names. 
 That burning of the oapitol was a wanton outrage. 
 May nothing hinder our receiving of so great a good. 
 My admitting of the fact wiU not affect the argument. 
 Cain's killing of his brother originated in envy. 
 
 Under Note S.—Scpression Changed. 
 
 Csesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had neglected to taie 
 
 with him. 
 It is dangerous to play with edge tools. 
 I intend to return in a few days. 
 
 To suffer needltesly— or, Needless suffering is never a duty. 
 Nor 13 it wise to complain. 
 I well remember to have told you so— or, that I told you so. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — ADVEKBS. 809 
 
 The doing of good — or. To do good, ia a Christian's vocation. 
 Piety is u constant endeavour to live to God. It ia an earnest desire to do his 
 will, and not our own. . 
 
 Under Note i.— The Leading Ward. 
 There is no harm in women's Icnowing about these things. 
 Tbey did not give notice of the^w^'s leaving. 
 The sun, darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
 The maturity ot the aago tree is known by the leaves' being covered with a 
 delicate white powder. 
 
 Under Mte b.Seference of Farticiples. 
 Sailing up the river, you may see the whole town. 
 Being conscious of guilt, men tremile at death — or, Conseiousness of guilt 
 
 renders death terrible. 
 By yielding to temptation, we sacrifice our peace. 
 In loving our enemies, we shed no man's blood. 
 By teachmg the young, we prepare them for usefulness. 
 
 Under Nate 6. — Participles, not Preterits, 
 
 A nail well dri/een will support a great weight. 
 See here a hundred sentences stolen from my work. 
 I found the water entirely _/j'(K!«ffl, and the pitcher broken. 
 Seing forsaixn by my friends, I had no other resourcg. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Form of Participles. 
 
 Till by barbarian deluges o'erfiowed. 
 
 Like the lustre of diamonds set in gold. 
 
 A beam ethereal, Bullied and absorPd. 
 
 "With powerless wings around them wra/pp''d. 
 
 Error learned from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 
 
 UNDER RULE XY. — ^ADVERBS. 
 
 Under Note 1. — The Placing of Adverbs. 
 
 The wort vMl never ie completed. 
 
 We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
 
 It is impossible tobe continually at work. 
 
 He behaved impertinently to his master. 
 
 The heavenly Dodies are perpetually in motion. 
 
 He found her not only i«s^, "but even pleased and happy. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Adaerbsfor Adjectives. 
 
 Give him an ecurly and deeisive answer. 
 
 "When a substantive is put absolute. 
 
 Such expressions sound harsh. 
 
 Such events are otrare (or wifrequent) occurrence. 
 
 "Velvet feels very smooth. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Of Here for Mther, dip. 
 
 Bring him Mfher to me. 
 
 I shall go thitJier again in a few days. 
 
 Whitha- are they all riding in so great haste ? 
 
 Under Note i.— Of From Senee, <tc. 
 
 Hence it appears that the statement ia incorrect. * 
 
 Thenci arose the misunderstanding. 
 Do you know whence it proceeds I 
 
810 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Of the AAeerb Sow. 
 You see that not many are required. 
 1 knew that they had heard of his misfortunes. 
 He remarked, that time was valuable. 
 
 Under Note d.—O/the Adverb No. 
 Know now, whether this u thy son's coat or not. 
 Whether he is iu fault or Tiot^ I caimot tell. 
 I will ascertain whether it is so or not. 
 
 Under Note 7. — Of DovMe Negatites. 
 I will by no means entertain a spy. 
 Nobody ever invented or discovered rniy thing, in arm way to be compared 
 
 with this. '• 
 
 Be honest,^ and take no shape or semblance of disguise. 
 I did not like eiOier his temper or his principles. 
 Nothing ever can justify ingratitude. 
 
 UNDER RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 
 Und^r NoU I.— Of Two Tenm wWi One. 
 He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it. 
 He 13 more hold than his companion, but not so wise. 
 Sincerity is as valuable a* knowkdge, and even more so. 
 I always have been, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
 What is now kept secret, shaU be hereafter displayed and seen in the clearest 
 
 We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to defame or to dis- 
 quiet our neighbours. 
 Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than to show it. 
 The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common law. 
 
 Under Note 2.— Of Lest or Buffer Tliat. 
 W6 were apprehensive that some accident had happened 
 I do not deny that he has merit. 
 Are you afraid that he will forget you? 
 
 These paths and bow'rs, doubt not that our ioint hands 
 Will keep from wilderness. 
 
 Under Note Z.~Prefer Than. 
 It was no other than liis own father. 
 Have you no further proof than this ? 
 I expected something more than this. 
 He no sooner retires than his heart burns with devotion. 
 Such hterary filching is nothing else than robbery. 
 
 Under NoU i.—Of Correspondents. 
 Neither despise nor oppose what you do not understand. 
 He would neither do it himself nor let me do it 
 
 WheShf i^/tf^f t^'J"^' ^ '"*/ ?^^ ''"^ ''""^^^^ of «'«°' are reverend. 
 w netner he intends to do so or not, I cannot tell 
 
 Send me such articles only, as are adapted to this market. 
 
 ^o far as I am able to judge, the book is t^ ell written 
 
 tio errors are so trivial as not to deserce correction 
 
 It will neither improve the mind, nor delight the fancy 
 
 Ihe one ISM deserving as the other. 
 
 There is no condition so secure tluit it cannot admit of change 
 
 Do you think this is as good as that ? --"ougo. 
 
 The relations are so obscure thM they require much thought. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX.— PBEPOSITIONS. 311 
 
 None is so fierce as to dare stir liim up. 
 
 There was no man so s.<ingiime as not to apprehend some Ul oonsequenoe. 
 
 I mast be so candid as to own that I do not understand it. 
 
 The book is not so well printed as it ought to be. 
 
 As still he sat as those who wait, 
 
 TiU judgement speak the doom of fate. 
 
 UNDER EULE XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 
 Under Note 1. — Choke of PryiosUions. 
 She iinda a diffieulty in fixing her mind. 
 This afiair did not tall underm^ cognizance, 
 lie was accused of betraying his trust. 
 There was no water, and he died o/' thirst. 
 I have no occasion ybr his services. 
 Yoa may safely confide i/n him. 
 I entertain no prejudice against him. 
 You may rely on what I tell you. 
 Virtue and vice differ widely /rom each other. 
 This remark is founded on truth. 
 After many toils, we arrived at our journey's end. 
 I will tell you a story very diflferent/iwji that. 
 Their conduct is agreeable to their profession. 
 Excessive pleasures pass from satiety into disgust. 
 I turned in disgust mm the spectacle. 
 They are gone ^nto the meadow. 
 Let this be divided among the three. 
 The shells were broken mto pieces. 
 The deception has passed with every one. 
 They never quarrel «jj<A each other. 
 
 Through every difficulty — or. Amidst aU diffieulUes, he persevered. 
 Let us go «p Starrs. 
 
 I was in London, when this happened. 
 We were detained at home, and disappointed o^ our walk. 
 This originated in mistake. . 
 
 The Bridewell is situated on the west of the City-Hall, and it has no com- 
 munication loiih the other buildings. 
 I am disappointed in the work ; it is very inferior to what I expected. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Omission of Prepositions. 
 
 Be worthy of me, as I am worthy of yoa. 
 They cannot but be unworthy o/' the care of others. 
 Thou shalt have no portion on this side ofVae river. 
 Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite to each other. 
 Ovid was banished/rom Rome by his patron Augustus. 
 
 UNDER RULE XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 
 Under Note 1. — The Poaaesaioe Form. 
 
 MaiCe chief good is an upright mind. 
 
 I will not destroy the city for terCs sake. 
 
 Moseys rod was turned into a serpent. 
 
 They are wolves in sheets'' clothing. 
 
 The tree is known by its fruit. 
 
 The privilege is not theirs, any more than it is yo/urs. 
 Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs. 
 Had grace for al'hers' sins, but none for theirs. — Camper. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Possesaioes Corunected. 
 There is but little difference between the EartKs and Venus's diameter. 
 Tkis hat is John^s, or James's. 
 
312 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 The store is opposite to Morris and Company's. 
 This palace has been the grand Sultan Mahomet's. 
 This was the Apostle Paul s advice. 
 Were Cain's occupation and Abel's the same ? 
 "Were Gain's and Abel's occupation the same ? 
 Were Gain and Abel's occupations the same ? 
 Were Gain's and Abel's parents the same 1 
 Were Cain's parents and Abel's the same ? 
 Was Gain and Abel's father there ? 
 ■ Were GaAn, and Abel's parents there 3 
 
 Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
 A Maker wise and good. 
 
 Under Note 3. — Choice of Forms. 
 The government of the world is not left to chance. 
 He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth. I 
 
 The throne we honour, is Vne people's choice. 
 We met at the house of my brother's partner. 
 An account of the proceedings of Alexander's court. 
 
 Here is a copy of the Constitation of the Teachers' Society in the city of New- 
 York. 
 
 Under Note 4. — Nouns with Possessi/oes Phtral. 
 
 Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
 We all have talents committed to our charge. 
 For your saJce forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 
 We are, for our part, well satisfied. 
 The pious cheerfully submit to their lot. 
 Fools think it not worth their whMe to be wise. 
 
 Under Note 5. — Of Possessives with Participles. 
 
 I rewarded the boy for studying so diligently. 
 Have you a rule for thus parsing the participle ? 
 He errs in giving the word a double construction. 
 By offending others, we expose ourselves. 
 They deserve our thanks for quickly relieving us. 
 
 UNDER EULE XX. — OBJECTIVES. 
 
 Thee only have I chosen. 
 Whom shall we send on this errand ? 
 My father allowed my brother and me to accompany him. 
 ITim that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
 Whom should I meet but my old friend 1 
 He accosts whomever he meets. 
 Whom.soever the court favours, is safe. 
 Them that honour me, I will honour. 
 Whom do you tliink I saw the other day ? 
 
 Under Note 1. — An Object Bequired. 
 
 The ambitions are always seeking to aggrandize themsehes, 
 
 I Twi5%premise three circumstances. 
 
 This society does not allow personal rdlections. 
 
 False accusation cannot diminish real merit. 
 
 His servants ye are whom ye obey. 
 
 Under Note 2. — Of False Transitives. 
 
 Good 'kae-pvag fattens the herd. 
 
 We endeavoured to recmwile the parties. 
 
 Being weary, he sat down. 
 
 Go, fiee away into the land of Judah. 
 
 The popular lords ri'4 not fail to enlarge on the subjeet. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — SAME CASES, ETC. 312 
 
 Under Note 3. — Passive Verht. 
 Tlia hinefit of their reoantation was refused them. 
 Temporal rioltes are not promised to believers. 
 Several beautiful pictures were shown vs. 
 But, uufortuaately, the famur was denied me. 
 A higti eomplirmnt was paid you. 
 IThe ^ueatioa has never been asked me, 
 
 UNDER RULE XXL — SAME CASES. 
 
 We thought it was ihou. 
 I would act the same part, if I were A«. 
 It could not have heen she. 
 It ia not I, that he is angry with. 
 They believed it to be me. 
 It was thought to be he. 
 If it had been she, she would have told ub. 
 We kuow it to be them. 
 Who do you think it is ? 
 Wkim do you suppose it to he f 
 We did not know who they were. 
 Thou art he whom tliey described. 
 Im'Mjssible ! it can't bo /. 
 Who did he think you were ? 
 Who say ye that I am? 
 
 UNDER RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 
 
 Let that remain a secret hetween you and me. 
 
 I lent the book to some one, I know not [to] whom. 
 
 Wimm did he inquire for ? Thee. 
 
 From him that is needy, tnrn not away. 
 
 We are all accountable, each for his own acts. 
 
 Does that boy know, whom he is speaking to 3 
 
 I bestow my favours on whomsoever I wiJL 
 
 UNDER RULE XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 
 
 Please to excuse my son's ahsence. 
 Cause every man to go out from me. 
 Forbid them to enter the garden. 
 Do you not perceive it to move ? 
 Allow others to discover your merit. 
 He was seen to go in at that gate. 
 Permit me to pass this way. 
 
 UNDER RULE XXIV. — ^INFINITIVES. 
 
 I felt a chilling sensation creep over me. 
 
 I have hoard him mention the subject. 
 
 Bid the boys coTne in immediately. 
 
 I dare sat/ he has not got home yet. 
 
 Let no rash promise be made. 
 
 We sometimes see bad men honoured. 
 
 A good reader will make himself distinctly heard. 
 
 UNDER RULE XXV. — ^NOM. ABSOLUTE. 
 
 /being young, they deceived me. 
 
 They refusing to comply, I withdrew. 
 
 Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 
 
 The child IB lost ; and /, whither shall I go ! 
 
 J4 
 
814 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 ** happy we! surrounded thus with hlessings 1 
 
 '7«oa too ! Brutus, my son 1" cried CaBsar overcome. 
 But Tu, the chieftain of them all, 
 His sword hanga rusting on the wall. — W. Soott. 
 She quick relapsing to her former state, 
 With boding fears approach the serving train. 
 There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
 Tluru, only flwu, directing all our way. — Pope. 
 
 UNDER RULE XSVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 
 First Clause — Svljunctwe Present. 
 He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate. 
 They will fine thee, unless thou ofer an excuse. 
 I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rain. 
 Let him take heed lest he/ag. 
 On condition that he come, I consent to stay. 
 If he he but discreet, he will succeed. 
 Take heed that thou speah not to Jacob. 
 If thou cast mc off, I shall be miserable. 
 Send them to me, ii thou please. 
 Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly. 
 
 Second Clause. — Suhjunctim Imperfect. 
 If I were to write, he would not regard it. 
 If thou/«S as I do, we should soon decide. 
 
 ''^ a°fool ''""^ '^^ ""^ ^^'^^ ™ ^^^ "''"^^' " '^""''^ ^°* P™''^ *^*^ siicersly 
 If thou loved him, there would be more evidence of it. 
 I believed, whatever were the issue, all would be well. 
 It love aw« never feigned, it would appear to be scarce, 
 itiere fell from his eyes, as it loere scales. 
 If he were an imj)06tor, he must have been detected. 
 iVere death denied, all men would wish to die. 
 O that there were yet a day to redress thy wrongs I 
 Ihough thou wert huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 
 
 Loit (Muse. — Indicative Mood. 
 ^ough he seems to be artless, he has deceived us. 
 If he <Amfo as he speaks, he may safely be trusted 
 Though this event m strange, it certainly did happen. 
 It thou lovest tranquilUty of mind, seek it not abroad. 
 It seasons of idleness are dangerous, what must a continued habit of it prove ! 
 suftlred^ """* * ^°°' ^ ^® obedience by the things which h. 
 
 I knew thou wast not slow to hear. 
 
 Under Note 1 — Words qf Ttme. 
 The work was finished last week. 
 jHe Aas been out of employment this fortnight. 
 1 his mode of expression was formerly in use. 
 I shm be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 
 T llzF^'^ ""^^ '^^'^^ ™y ,"P^ '"^^''^ ^teu I was in trouble. 
 
 now thrTdays" °" "™ltft«de, because they have continued with me 
 
 I thought, by the accent, that he was speaking to his child 
 Th.^,'t *'j''i**^ *^™ dead, sat up iuybegan to speak 
 '^t^t-d'at''no't Sted!' ^''"''"''' '^^ ^°'-y "-«'' «*« ^-' ^ 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX.—PBOMISCUOUS. 315 
 
 Te mil not come iinto me that ye may have life— or, Ye would not come unto 
 
 me that ye mi^ht have life. 
 At the end of this quarter, I sAaU have been at school two yeara. 
 We have done no more than it was our duty to do. 
 
 Under Biile 2 Edative Tenses. 
 
 We ejected that he would arrive last night. 
 
 Oar friends intended to meet us. 
 
 "We hoped to see you. 
 
 He would not have been allowed to eater. 
 
 Under Note S. — Permanemt Propositions. 
 
 The doctor aCSrmed, that fever always prodttees thirst. 
 The ancients asserted, that virtno is its own reward. 
 
 PEOMISCUOUS EXAMPLES COEEECTED. * 
 
 There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth him 
 understanding. 
 
 My people do not consider. 
 
 1 have never heard whrni they invited. 
 
 Then hasten thy return ; for, tho-i away, 
 Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy tJe day. 
 
 I am as well as when yon icere here. 
 
 That elderly man, hvm that came in late, I supposed to be the superinten- 
 dent. 
 
 All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers ; but thdr 
 follies and vices are innumerable. 
 
 It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in it 
 robbery or murder. 
 
 There were more persons than one engaged in this affair. 
 
 A man who lacks ceremony, lias need of great merit. 
 
 A wise man avoids the stowing of any excellence in trifles. Better— ^/br- 
 iears to show — or, is careful not to shorw^ &c. 
 
 Thc^rsi and most im/portant female quality is sweetness of temper. 
 
 We choose rather to lead than to follow. 
 
 fonorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration. 
 
 He must fear many, whom many fear. 
 
 Every om partakes of honour bestowed on the worthy. 
 
 The king and the queen were not at all deceived. — [Mte ith, Sule xi.] 
 
 Were there no difference, there would be no choice. 
 
 I would rather have been informed. 
 
 Must thou return this evening ? 
 
 Life and death are in the power of the tongue. 
 
 I saw a person that I took to be Acr. 
 
 Let him be who he may, I shall not stop. 
 
 This is certainly a useful invention. 
 
 That such a spirit as thou does not wndersla/nd me. 
 
 'It is no more thmi justice,' quoth the farmer. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 Great improvements h/ive been made. 
 
 What I have heard, is undoubtedly true. 
 
 The nation is torn by feuds which threaten its ruin. 
 
 The account of these transactions was incorrect. 
 
 Godliness with contentment is great gain. 
 
 The number of sufferers has not been ascertained. 
 
 There is one or more of them yet in confinement. 
 
316 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 They have chosen the wisest part. 
 
 He spent his whole life in douig good. 
 
 They scarcely know that temperance is a virtue. 
 
 I am afraid that I have laboured in vain. 
 
 Mischief o» itself doth back recoil. 
 
 This construction sounds rather harsh. 
 
 "What is the cause of the leaves'' curling ? 
 
 Was it thou, that made the noise ? 
 
 Let thy flock clothe the naked. 
 
 "VVisdom and kno wledge are granted unto thee. 
 
 His conduct was surprisingly strange. 
 
 This woman taught my brother and me to read. 
 
 Let your promises be such as you can perform. 
 
 We shall sell them in the state in which they now are. 
 
 We may, however, add this observation. 
 
 This osimminto fashion when I was young. 
 
 I did not use the leaves, but the root of the plant. 
 
 We have continually used every means in our power. 
 
 Pass ye away, ye inJiabitamts of Saphir— or, Pass away, thou inhabitant of 
 
 Saphir. 
 Give every syllable and every letter Us proper sound. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with impunity, 
 
 is knowledge enough for some folks. 
 Every leaf and every twig teems with life. 
 1 rejoiced at this intelligence. 
 At this stage of advancement, the pupU finds little difflcuUy in imderstanMng 
 
 the passive and the neuter verbs. 
 I was afraid that I should lose the parcel. 
 Which of all these patterns is Maaprettiest? 
 They that [or who\ despise instruction, shall not be wise. 
 Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken your interest. 
 An idle soul shall suffer hunger. 
 The lips of knowie dge a/re a precious jewel. 
 My cousin and /are requested to attend. 
 7oiin only say, that such is my belief. 
 This is different from the consdenoe' being made to feel. 
 Here is ground for their leaving -/the world with peace— or, (better,) Here 
 
 13 ground/or leaving the world with peace. 
 Whither are you all running so fast! 
 Man is the noblest work of creation. 
 Of sK crimes willful murder is the most atrocious. 
 The tribes that I visited, are partially civilized. 
 Hence I conclude, they are in error. 
 The girls' books are neater than the loys\ 
 I intended to transcribe it. 
 Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the name 
 
 at gentleman f 
 Ehoda ran in, and told that Peter stood before the gate. 
 What are latitude and longitude ? 
 Cicero was more eloquent than any other Eoman— or, Cicero was the most 
 
 eloquent of the Eomans. 
 Who dares apologize for Pizarro i— which is but another name for rapacity. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 Tell me whether you will do it or not. 
 After the straitest [or strictest] sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
 We have no more than five loaves and two fishes. 
 1 know not who it was that did it. 
 
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PROMISCUOUS. S]7 
 
 Doubt not, little thougli there be, 
 That I'll oast a orumb to thee. 
 
 This rule ia the best that can be given. 
 
 I have never seen any other way. 
 
 These are poor amends for the men and treasures that we have lost. 
 
 Dost thou Know those boys ? 
 
 This is a part of the estate of my uncle's father. 
 
 Many people never lenrn to speak correctly. 
 
 Some r>eople are rash, and otnera timid : these apprehend too much, those too 
 
 little. 
 Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Csesar or notf 
 It was not worth while to preserve any permanent enmity, 
 I no sooner saw my face in it, than I was startled at the shortness of it. 
 Every person is answerable for his own conduct. 
 They are men that scorn a mean action, and that will exert themselves to 
 
 serve you. 
 I do not recollect ever to Tw/ot paid it — the paying qf it — the payment of it — 
 
 or, that I ever paid it. 
 The stoics tiuig;ht that all crimes are equal. 
 Every one of these theories is now exploded. 
 Any of these four will answer. 
 There is no situation in which he would be happy. 
 The boy that you thought so cleeer, has been detected in stealing. 
 I will meet thee there, if thau please. 
 He is not so sick, but that he can laugh. 
 These clothes do not Jit me. 
 The audience were all very attentive. 
 
 Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
 Of shak'd Olympus by mischance did fall ! 
 
 LESSON T. 
 
 Was the master, or were many of the scholars, in the room ? 
 
 "S&faOier and mother's consent was asked. 
 
 Who is he supposed to be ? 
 
 He is a venerable old man. 
 
 It was then my purpose to msii Sicily. 
 
 It is otJ/y to the learner, and hvm that ia in doubt, that this assistance is rec- 
 ommended. 
 
 There it not the least hope of his recovery. 
 
 Anger and impatience are always unreasonable. 
 
 In his letters, there is not only correctness, but elegance. 
 
 Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment (hat a noble mind desires. 
 
 The year in which he died is not mentioned. 
 
 Had I hn/mn, it, I should not have gofi£. 
 
 Was it thuu, that spoke to me ? ^ 
 
 The '\xo\iS,eSs, pleasanUy situated. ^ 
 
 He did it as privately as he possibly could. 
 
 To subdue our passions — Tlie subduing of our passions — 77ie siHgugation of 
 our passions — or. That we subdue our passions, is the noblest of conquests. 
 
 James is more diligent than thou. 
 
 Words interwoven with sighs found out their way. 
 
 He appears to be exeessiA)eh/ diffident. 
 
 The number of our days is with thee. 
 
 As a fether pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him. 
 
 The circamstances of this case, are different. 
 
 Well for us, if some other such men should rise 1 
 
 A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he lose no time. 
 
 The chief captain, fearing that Paul would be pulled into pieces by them, com- 
 manded the soldiers to go down, and to take him by force from among 
 them. 27* 
 
S18 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there are left us 
 Ourselves to end ourselves. 
 
 CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 
 
 Are there, then, more true religions than one ? 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility /or enjoyment. 
 
 Rain is seldom or never seen at Lima. 
 
 The young bird raising its open mouth for food, exhibits a natural indication 
 
 of corporeal want. 
 There is much truth in Ascham^s observation. 
 Adopting the doctrine in which he had been taught^-or, Adopting the doo- 
 
 tnne which had been taught him. 
 This library contained more than Jive hundred thousand volumes. 
 The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest that were foi-med. 
 2'here are many evidences of men's proneuess to vice. 
 To perceive nothing, and not to perceive, are the same— or, To perceive 
 
 nothing, is the same as not to perceive. 
 The king of France or ^England, was to be the umpire. 
 He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, consequently, he it 
 
 entUled [or, to be entitled] to the reward. 
 The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and were standing before the 
 
 gate. 
 Give no more trouble than you oa/nnot possibly help.' 
 Tliai the art of printing was then unknown, was a circumstance in some re- 
 spects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 
 An other passion which the present age is apt to run into, is a desire to 
 
 make children learn all things. 
 It requires few talents to which most men are not bom, or which, at least, 
 
 they may not acquire. 
 Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demosthenes, as he 
 
 had corrupted most of the leading men in Greece. 
 The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded, wheeled about and halted, with the 
 
 river behind them. 
 Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants ; and 
 riches, upon <Jeere;oy% (/our superfluities. 
 
 That brother should not war with brother, 
 Nor one despise and grieve an other. 
 Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
 
 At first from hope, at last from vacancy or 
 
 Such is the refuge of our youth and age • 
 Of that from hope, of this from vacancy.' 
 Triumphant Sylla! couldst thou then divine 
 By aught but Romans Rome should thus be laid. J 
 
 END OF THE KEY TO THE OKAL EXERCISES. 
 
APPENDII I. 
 
 (ORTHOGEAPHT.) 
 
 OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTEES. 
 
 In the first chapter of Part I, the powers of the letters, or the elementary 
 Bounds of the English language, were duly enumerated and explained ; for 
 these, as well as the letters themselves, are few, and may be fully stated in 
 few words : but, since we often express the same sound in many different 
 ways, and also, in some instances, give to the same letter several different 
 sounds, — or, it may be, no sound at all, — any adequate account of the powers 
 of the letters considered sevei-ally according to usage, — ^that is, of the sound 
 or sounds of each letter, with its mute positions, as these oceiir in jiraotice, 
 —must, it was thought, descend to a minuteness of detail not desirable in 
 the first chapter of Orthography. For this reason, the following particulni's 
 have been reserved to be given here as an Appendix, pertaining to the First 
 Fart of this English Grammar. 
 
 The terms Img and tihort, which are often used to denote certain vowel 
 aowids, being also used, with a different import, to distinguish the quantity 
 of syUal>les,sra frequently misunderstood : for which reason, we have often 
 substituted for them tlie terms open and dose, — ^the former, to denote the 
 nound usually gi\cen to a vowel when \t forms or ends an accented syllable; 
 as, 6a, be, bi, bo, bu, bif, — ^the latter, to denote the sound which the vowel 
 commonly takes when dosed by a amsoiiant; as, ab, eb, ib, db, ub. 
 
 I. OF THE LETTER A. 
 
 The vowel A latm-faur* sounds properly its own :— . , ; > j>« 
 
 1. The English, open, or long a; as in fame, favour, eMcaeum. 
 
 2. The French, close, or short aj as in bat, banner, taUmce. 
 
 3. The Italian, or middle a; as vafa/r, father, aJia, comma, scoria, tofa. 
 
 4. The Butch, Old-Saxon, or broad a ; as in waCL; wwrm, water, 
 
 DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 
 
 The only proper diphthong in whifet a is put first, is the word a/y, meaning 
 jw»," in which a has its midme sound, and y that of opera «. 
 
 Aa, when proiTounolS as aiwmproper diphthong, takes the sound of close 
 a; as in Balaam, Ganaaf, IkwR.^ 
 
 ^, a Latin improper fflphtlioiif; very common also in Anglo-Saxon, gen- 
 erally has the sbund^of<^«» or forage ; as in Caisar, cmigma, pecan; sometimes 
 that of close or shrrt «; as in apharesis, dkeireds, et catera. Some authors re- 
 ject the a, and write Cesar, enigma,'&a, 
 
 Ai, an i 
 in vail, sa 
 first sound c_ , , .... 
 
 close or short i; as in certain, curtain, mountain,, yilMn: , 
 
 and' against, that of close e ; and in the name Britain, that of dose u. 
 
 Ao, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word gaol; now frequently 
 written, as it is pronounced, jail; and in the adjective extraordinary, and its 
 derivatives, in which, according to Walker, the a is silent. 
 
 • Some writers distinguish from the first of these sonnds the grOAie sound of a, 
 heard in care, fair, (litre, Ac. But Walker teaches no difference. 
 
320 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH aRAMMAR. 
 
 All, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a; as in 
 cause, camght. Before n and an other consonant, it has the sound of middlt 
 a; as in (mnt,fiaunt, Immch, laundry. Gauge ia pronounced gage. 
 
 Aw, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like droad a; as in draw 
 drawn, drawl. ' 
 
 Ay, an improper diphthong, like ai, has the sound of open or long a; as in 
 ^l/i po/y-, dday ; in sayst and says, that of close e. 
 
 TKIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 
 
 Awe is sounded au, like broad a. Aye, an adverb signifying akeam, has 
 the sound of open a only, being different, both in sound and spelling, from 
 the adverb ay, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. 
 
 II. OF THE LETTER B. 
 
 The consonant 5 has but one sound ; as in boy, robber, cub. 
 ^ is silent before t or after m in the same syllable ; as in dSt, debbrr, doiAl 
 dwmb, lamb, chmb, torrib. It ia heard in subtile, fine, but not in svitie, oun- 
 
 III. OF THE LETTER C. 
 
 The consonant Chas two sounds; the one ha/rd, like that of h, the other 
 soft, or rather hissing, like that of s. 
 
 Iri a few words c takes the flat sound of s, like that of z; as 'in diicmi, 
 sujflce, soGnjice, stce. 
 
 C before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh • aa 
 in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. ' 
 
 C'is silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle. 
 
 Gh is generally sounded like UTi ; as in chwch, chance, child. But in words 
 derived froratlie learned languages, it has the sound of h: as in character, 
 scheme, catechise, chorus, chyle,^ patriarch, drachma, magna charta ; except ia 
 chart, charter, charity. Oh, in words derived from the French, takes the 
 sound of sh ; as m chaise, machine. 
 
 Arch, before a vowel, is pronounced a/rl; as in archives, archangel, arcli- 
 petago: except m a/rchM,_ archer, archery, archenemy. Before a consonant, it 
 IS pronounced artchj as in archhislwp, archduke. ' 
 
 Oh is silent in sch%sm, yatch, drachm; unsettled in schedule. 
 
 IV. OF THE LETTER D. 
 
 The general sound of the consonant D, is heard in dog, eddy, did. 
 
 D, in the terniination ed, preceded by ajgharp consonant, takes the sound 
 
 ot t, when the e m suppressed : as in faced, stuffed, cracked, trim>ed, passed ; 
 
 pronoMuaad, faste, stuft, cract,tript, past i i-j- i^ i 
 
 _ J) before to, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally sounds like 
 
 .; ; as in Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous. So in verdure, arduous, education. 
 
 V. OF THE LETTER E. 
 
 The vowel J'has three sounds properly its own : 
 
 1. The open or long ; as in me, mere, menial, melodious. 
 
 2. ihe close or short; as in men, merry, ebony. 
 
 _ 3. '^):ieobscm<i or fa:mt;B.im open, garden, shovel, able. This third sound 
 18 scarcely perceptible, and is barely sufficient to articulate the consonant 
 and form a syllable. 
 H final is mute, and belongs to the syllable formed by the preoedmg vowel 
 
APPENDIX I. — (orthography.) — LETTERS. 321 
 
 or diphthong ; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except— 1. In the words, ie, In, me, we, 
 she, and tJie, in which it has the open sound. 2. In Greek and Latin words, 
 in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable ; as in Penelope, 
 PasipJiae, Oyanee, GargaphU, Arsinoe, apostrophe, caiastrophe, simile, extem- 
 pore, epiiome. 3, In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the sound 
 of (!&)«« ii ; as in acre, meagre, centre. 
 
 Mute e, after a single consonant, or after st or th, generally preserves the 
 open or long sound of the preceding vowel ; as in cane, here, pine, cone, tune, 
 thyme, taste, chthe ; except in syllables unaccented ; as the last of germine ; 
 and in a few monosyllables ; as lade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, 
 live, shove, love. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 
 
 J'before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an improper dJTph' 
 thong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. 
 
 Ed, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like cipen e; as in ear, fear, tea: 
 frequentlyj like dose e ; as in earl, head, health .• sometimes, like <men a; as in 
 steak, bear,forswear .• rarely, like Tniddle a; as in heart, hearth, hearken. Ml 
 unaccented, sounds like dose u; as in vengeance, pageant, 
 
 Ee, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open e; as in eel, sheep, tree. 
 The contractions e'er and n^'er, are pronounced air and nair, 
 
 M, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open a; as in reign, veil: 
 fi^uently, like open «,' as in deceit, either, neiUier, seize: sometimes, like open 
 i; as in height, sleight: often, in unaccented syllables, like close i; as in 
 foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereign : rarely, like dose e ; as in heifer, nonpareil. 
 
 Jb, an improper diphthong, in^«opfe sounds like opene; in feoff, feqfm^nt, 
 le<^ard, Jeopardy, like doseef in yeoman, like open o; in George, peorgic, like 
 close 0/ in ehingeon, puncheon, sturgeon, <^c., like close u. Feod,feodtu,feoda/' 
 tory, are now written as they are W[ono\icnceA, feud, feudal, feudatory, 
 
 Eu and ew have the diphthongal sound of open u ; as in feud, deuce ; jew, 
 dew, few, nxuo. These diphthongs, when initial, sound like yu. Nouns be- 
 ginning with this sound, require the article a, and not an, before them ; as, 
 A European, a ewer. After r or ri, eu and ew are commonly sounded like 
 00 ; as m drew,grevj, screw, rheumatism. 
 
 In sew and Shrewsbury, ew sounds like open o. Shew and strew are prop- 
 erly spelled, as they are most commonly pronounced, sTum, straw. 
 
 Ey, accented, has the sound of open a; as in bey, prey, survey : unaccented, 
 it has the sound of open e ; as in aUey, vaUey, money. Key and ley are pro- 
 nounced, kee, lee. 
 
 TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 
 
 Earn, a French triphthong, sounds like open o; as in beam, flambeau, port- 
 manteau, bureau : except in beamty, and its compounds, in which it is pro- 
 nounced like open u. „ , , . i, 
 
 Eou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard m one syllable, especially 
 after c or ^; as in crus-ta-ceous, gorgeous. Walker, in his Rhyming Diction- 
 ary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in «ot(«, in all of which he 
 separates these vowels ; as in extra-ne-ous. And why, in his Pronouncing 
 Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies as/ffl-Sa-<!«-o««in four syllables, 
 and her-bor^ieous in three, it is not easy to tell. The best rule is this : after e 
 or g, unite these vowels ; after the other consonants, separate them. 
 
 Mee is a triphthong having the sound of yu. The vulgar pronunciation 
 yoe should be carefully avoided. 
 
 Eye is an improper triphthong, pronounced like open i. 
 
 VI. OF THE LETTER F. 
 
 The consonant ^has one unvaried sound, which is heard infam,, effort, 
 staff; except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov. 
 
 14* 
 
S22 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 
 
 Vn. or THE LETTER G. 
 
 xu?'!".?'"'^'"?™' 9 "^^^ ^■^o Bounds ; the one Tiard, guttural, and pecuEarta 
 this letter ; the other toft, like that of/. ' i" "^^'^ " 
 
 G before a, o, a ;, «• or at the end of a word, is hard; as In game, aone 
 ffult, glory, grace, log, bog. ' " ' " "*' 
 
 a before c, j, or j^, ia soft; as in gem^ ginger, elegy. Exoepl^l. In mt 
 (jioe, gewgaw, finger, and a tew otiier words. 2. When a syllable is addpli„ 
 awordendingin^.- as, fc»?, Z»re^«?'//b(7,/oOTy. ""euw 
 
 g^w,r^^n. '''^''™"""" " '" ''^'^ ^'■'^^ ^>-^^"«; «« ■^pMegm,a,pM^^, 
 pufa^i^rfr'"' "'"""y^^'-g"^™^ tl^« preceding Towel; as in resign, iw. 
 
 ah at the b'egianin? of a word has the sound of g Urd; as in nloa 
 aOiA^^r -'-"-M'-g-rallysilent; as iA *i,A, 4^,,' 
 
 eifeoi^ sometimes sounds like/; as in Uvgh, rmigli, Umgh : and some- 
 
 tZ.^'i'.t^ir.iior "^*'"-^"- i"'-^^>^*;'^^^.it'-udsiik7i,. 
 
 VIII. OF THE LETTER H. 
 
 ,>rl^'^?tWH^°f 'r.H"°''""'^'J*u'^' ("'""^'^ articulate and audible when proD- 
 hllMut'^^T^t" """ ^'^^^ "" ^^P^^*^ ^'^'^^''''"S. It is heard 'II^, 
 J«w j"'" begianiHg of words is always sounded; except in Tmr, herb 
 ho,mt,}mrmur, hospital, hostler, hour, hunMe, humour, ^tA tLir compiuuds 
 -tf alter r, is always silent; as rheum, rhetoric. ^ 
 
 IX. OF THE LETTER I. 
 
 The -vowel 7haa three sounds, each perhaps properly its own-— 
 This is a dTnhthon^FinrnH" ^^^^"'' '^^i^-^' ^■''<*«, ™i^^, »^^»<. 
 
 8. 1 he feeble; as in Asesi, doctrinal, dnerdtv. This sound is eaniv.ilejit 
 I?t"fe"dTan"un:colt]''y- „ V^'Jl? h<£ this sound ^henTo^^' 
 wwt •? ■ an unaccented syllable: except at the end of latin word' 
 where it is open or long; as in literati. In som'e words, (•priucipSly from 
 
 in ^o?'i!o iifjra, muchme, magazine, antique, shire. ' 
 
 Accented t foUowed by a vowel, has its open sound ; and the vowels be- 
 UnaocenS- f^^i"^^".' i '' '''P^^^i ''■i't,mtietv, viiu,pi^!. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 
 
 tion are ;enpr>,TlvT.kr?„T T ^^^'^- -^^e terminations ciro, sion, and 
 S.';c L^ f 5^ pronounced sfc»,- ciom and <io«s are pronounced sl^us 
 
 ^.td^^m Z'^Tr,^?'"^'"'^. ^^-^"^ has'tC^oundof o;«i; 
 Tri^f thief ire^AdZ' t TM gT-'^^ ^""^ ">« ^™°d of "P-^ «/ «« ia 
 chfe'e. ^'^"^'^- Iii>»™<i and its compounds, it takes t&i soiiid of 
 
 TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 
 
 ^^The triphthongs im ^i i^, sound like o^en u; as in L, adi>u, vi*w, re- 
 
APPENDIX I. — (OETHOGRAPHT.) — LETTERS. 323 
 
 The three vowels iou, in the termination iaus, often fall into one syllable 
 and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this 
 ending ; and more than two hundred derivatives from them. Wallier has 
 severd puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation ; such as/aa-Ud-i-out 
 and per-fidr^us, con-ta-gi-aus and aae^n-U-gious. After c, g, t, or x, these 
 vowSs should coalesce ; as in gra-Moita, re-li-gioua, vex-a-tious, oi-naii-ious, 
 and about two hundred other words. After the other consonants, let them 
 form two syllables ; (except when there is a synteresis in poetry ;) as in d«- 
 H-aus, o-di-ous, va-ri-ous, en-mroui. 
 
 X. OF THE LETTER J. 
 
 The consonant sA always has the sound of «5^i! g, orotdzh; Btsmjop,Jeu>el: 
 except in haUdujah, better written as it is pronounced, Judletmidh. 
 
 XI. OF THE LETTER K. 
 
 The consonant ^ has the sound of c hard; and occurs where o would have 
 its soft sound : as in keep, Mnd, amokv. 
 
 X before n is silent; as in k}Uive,K7U)w, krmcMe. It is never doubled iu 
 simple English words ; but two Kays may come together in certain com- 
 pounds, or in the separate syllables of some Hebrew names ; as, irichMln, 
 jeu^ikmfe, Ai:hd>, Buleki, Baibakhak. G before it doubles tlie sound, and 
 shortens the preceding vowel ; as in cocHe, ivicked. 
 
 XII. OF THE LETTER L. 
 
 The consonant L has a soft liquid sound ; as in line, My, roU,foUow. 
 
 L is sometimes silent ; as in alma, ahmmd, calf, chalk, could, would, ehoiM, 
 
 XIII. OF THE LETTER M. 
 
 The consonant JT has but one sound ; as in mop, miwrmur, mamvmon. M 
 before n, at the beginning of a word, is silent ; as in Mnason,^ Mnemosyne, 
 imumonws. Comptroller is pronounced controller. 
 
 XIV. OF THE LETTER N. 
 
 The consonant JThas two sounds : the pure ; as in nun, dormer, camion ; 
 and the rinMng sound oi no; as in think, mangle, conquer, congress, singing, 
 tumiMmg. The latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words end- 
 ing in ing / and in such others as require it. 
 
 iV^naf preceded by m, is silent ; as in hymn, solemn. 
 
 XV. OF THE LETTER O. 
 
 The vowel has fhree sounds properly its own : — 
 
 1. The open or long ; as in no, rwte, t^iate, ojmt/y, domaim, 
 
 2. The dose or short ; as in not, nor, torrid, dolMr. 
 .3. The slender; as in. prove, move, who, to, do, tomb. 
 
 in many words sounds like close u; as in love, shove, son, comx, nothvn^, 
 dost, attorney, gaUon, dragon. In the termination on immediately after the 
 accent, o is often sunli: into a sound scarcely perceptible like that of obscvrt 
 e; nam. mason, person. One is pronounced vmn; and once, wwnce. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. 
 Oa, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open o ; as in boat, coal, roach : 
 except in broad and groat, which have the sound of broad a. 
 
824 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 
 
 Oe, an improper diphthong, when Jlrud, has the sound of open o; as in 
 doe^foe^ throe; except in catioej shoe^ pronounced canoOj shoo. (E^ a Latin 
 diphthong, generally sounda like open e ; aa in Antoeci, /oekis : sometimes, 
 like close e; as vafatid. Some authors reject the o, and write /«M, &o. 
 
 01 is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of dose o or iroud a 
 «ind that of open e ; as in fiow, coU^ soil^ rejoice. But the vowels sometimes 
 helong to separate syllables ; as in atmc. Oi unaccented, sometimes has the 
 sound of close i; as in avoirdupois^ coTinoisseur, tortoise. Choir is now fre- 
 quently written as it is pronounced, quire. 
 
 00. an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of o; as in 
 coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has a shorter sound in foot, good, wood, stood, 
 wool; that oi close u, in llood saAfiood; and that of open o, in door and floor 
 
 Ou ia generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o, and that 
 of « sounded as slender o or oo ; as in bound, found, sound, ounce, thm. 
 Ou is also an improper diphthong ; and, as such, it has six sounds:— 
 
 1. That oi close u; as in rough, tmtgh, yovmg, flourish. 
 
 2. That oibroada; aa in ought, iouqht, thought. 
 
 3. That oiopeno; as in court, dough, four, though. 
 
 i. That oi close o; only in cough, trough, kntgh, shough. 
 6. That oi slender o or oo; as m soup, you, through. 
 6. That of 00, shortened; only in would, could, should. 
 Ow generally sounda like the proper diphthong o« ; aa in irown, dowry, 
 now, shower: but it otten has the sound oiopen o; as in know, show, stow. 
 Oy is sounded like oi; as in joy, toy. 
 
 TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNIN& WITH O. 
 
 Oeu ia a French triphthong occurring in the word mmwemyre, which is pro- 
 nounced in English man^oo-vur. Owe ia an improper triphthong, in which 
 the o only is heard, and with ita long open sound. 
 
 XVI. OF THE LETTER P. 
 
 The consonant P has but one sound ; which is heard in pen, sup, supper. 
 It ia sometimes silent ; aa ia psalm, receipt, corps. 
 
 Ph generally sounds Uke// as- in phUosopky. In St^hen and nmhew,p% 
 has the sound of ». The h after jo, ia silent in diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, 
 ophthalmic; and both the p and the h are silent in apophthegm, phthisis, 
 phthisical. From the last three words, ph is sometimes dropped. 
 
 XVII. OF THE LETTER Q. 
 
 The consonant Q has the sound oik, and ia always followed by the vowel 
 «, which, in words purely English, ia Bounded like w; as in qu^en, quarter, 
 reouest. In some words of Frev^h origin, *-.>ia «. ia aiioT^f • oq irT-^y.-,^/ ?.■«».«« 
 
 <*, ,....^.4, .^ .Twiuo yuioij Miit^b^ait, la auimueu lute w; as m queen, i 
 request. In some words of Fremih origin, the u ia silent ; as in coquet. 
 Burlesque. 
 
 XVm. OF THE LETTER R. 
 
 The consonant B, at the beginning of words, has a rough sound: as in 
 rose, roam; in other situations, a smoother one; as in proud, harrow, barber. 
 
 XIX. OF THE LETTER S. 
 
 The consonant S has a sharp, hissing sound ; as in sad, sister, thus ; and a 
 flat sound, like that of s ; aa in rose, dismal. 
 
 S, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is al- 
 ways sharp ; as m see, steps, cliffs, sits, stocks, smiths. 
 
 S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded 
 by a sharp consonant, la generally flat ; as in eyes, trees, beds, bags, calm. Sa 
 18 generally sharp. i » > ^ 
 
APPENDIX I. — (orthography.) — LETTERS. 325 
 
 S, in tli,a termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a consonant ; as in 
 aiperdon, session ; and that of s%, after a vowel ; as in invasion, elision. 
 S is silent in isU, island, aisle, demesne, msanmt. 
 
 XX. or THE LETTER T. 
 
 The general sound of the consonant T, is heard in time, letter, set. 
 
 T. immediately after the accent, takes the sound of tch, before «, and gen- 
 eraUy also before ecm .• as in natyre, fealiwre, virtue, righteous, cmirteous : wken 
 « or I precedes, it takes this soaud before ia or io; as in fustiam, bastion, 
 mixtion. But the general sound of t after the accent, when followed by i and 
 an other vowel, is that of «A / as in creation, patient, cautious. 
 
 Tia sometimes silent; as in often, rustle, whistle. 
 
 Tk represents an elementary sound. It is either sharp, as in thing, ethical, 
 thinieth j' or flat, as in this, whither, thither. 
 
 Th initial is sharp ; as in thamk : except in than, that, tTie, thee, their, them, 
 then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, tJtou, thus, thy, and their 
 oompounds. 
 
 ThfincH is also sharp ; as in smith : except in betimth, booth, with, and sev- 
 eral verbs in th, which are frequently (and more properly) written with final 
 «; as in soothe^ smooths, bequeathe. 
 
 Th medial la sharp, when preceded or followed by a consonant; as in 
 twaa-lhy, athwart : except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, mwrther, 
 northern, worthy. 
 
 2% between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English ; as in 
 gather, neither, whither : and sharp in words from the learned languages ; as 
 m atheist, ether, miihod. 
 
 Th in ThaTnes, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthim, and their compounds, is 
 pronounced like t. 
 
 XXI. OF THE LETTER U. 
 
 The vowel ZThas three sounds properly its own : — 
 
 1. The open, long, or diphthongal; as in tiAe, cubic, jweenile. 
 
 2. The cbse or short ; as iu tub, butter, justice. 
 8. The middle ; as in puU, pulpit, artful. 
 
 Uionmag a syllable by itself, is nearly equivalent in sound to you, and 
 requires the article a, and not an, before it ; as, a union. 
 
 Bury and busy are pronounced berry, Uzey. Their oompounds are similar. 
 
 After r or rh, open u, and the diphthongs ue and ui, take the sound of oo; 
 as in rude, rkiibarb, roe, rueful, fruit, frmiful. 
 
 DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH TJ. 
 
 V, in the proper diphthongs ua, ue, ui, uo, m/, has the sound of w, or oo 
 feeble ; as in permiade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy. 
 
 Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of middle a; as in quard, 
 guardian: 2. ot close a; as in guarantee, pi^iumt : 3. of obscure e; as in vic- 
 tuals and its compounds : 4. of open u; as in mantuamaker. 
 
 ife, an impropBT diphthong, has the sound — 1. otopen « ; as in blme, ensue, 
 ague: 2. oi close e; as in guent : 3. of obscure e; as in league, amtique. 
 
 Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound— 1. of cpeni; as guide, guile: 
 2. oi close i: as m eonduU, circuit: 3. otopenu; ae in Juice, suit. 
 
 Uy, an improper diphthong, has the soand— 1. oiopeny; as in buy: 2. of 
 feeble y, or open efeebte; a& in plaguy. 
 
 TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. 
 Vai is pronounced like way; as in g^um-a-cum, quail, quaint. 
 Uaw is sounded like wa in water ; as in squaw, a female Indian. 
 Uay has the sound of way, as in Pa-ra-guay ■ except in quay, which W alker 
 pronounces Icee. 
 
 28 
 
S26 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Uea and ««« are Bounded wee ; as in queasy, queer, squeal, squease. 
 Uoi and iwy are sounded ^ooi; as in quoU, buoy. 
 
 XXII. OF THE LETTEB V. 
 
 The consonant F always lias a sound like that of /flattened; as in lote, 
 vulture. It is never silent. 
 
 XXIII. OF THE LETTER W. 
 
 JF, as a consonant, has the solind heard in wine, win, being a sound lesj 
 vocal than that of oo, and depending more upon the hps. 
 
 ?K before Ji, is pronounoea as if it followed the h; as in what, when. Be- 
 fore r it is always silent ; as in wrath, wrench ; so in wjtole, whoop, sword, 
 anmver, two. 
 
 Wis never used alone as a vowel : except in some Welsh names, in which 
 
 it is equivalent to oo ; as in Ciom Gothy. In a diphthong, when heard, it has 
 
 the power of « ; as in brow: but it is frequently silent; as in^me, snow, do. 
 
 _ Tr, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a consonant, we have no 
 
 diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter. 
 
 XXIV. OF THE LETTER X. 
 
 The consonant JThas a sharp sound, like hs; as in oit; and ajlat one, like 
 gz; as in example. 
 
 Xis_ sharp, when it ends an accented syllable; as in exit, exceUtnce: or 
 when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant ; as in 
 expound, expunge. 
 
 Xunaccented, is generally flat when the next syllable begins with a vowel; 
 as in exist, exotic. 
 
 J!^ initial, in Greek proper names, has the sound of z; as in Xanthus,Xaiir 
 tippe, Xenophon, Xerxes. 
 
 XXV. OF THE LETTER Y. 
 
 T. as ajion^onant, has the sound heard in yard, youth ; being rather less 
 vocal than the feeble sound of i or y, and servmg merely to moiBfy that of a 
 succeeding vowel, with which it is quickly united. 
 
 J", aa a vowel, has the same sounds as i : — 
 
 1. The open or long ; as in cry, thyme, cycle. 
 
 2. The close or short ; as in system, symptom, cynic. 
 
 8. The feeble ; (like open e feeble ;) as in cymar, cycloidal, mercy. 
 _ The vowels i and y have, in general, exactly the same sound under similar 
 circumstances ; and, in forming derivatives, we often change one for the 
 other: as in city, cities; tie, tying ; easy, easily. 
 
 Y, before a vowel heard in the same syllable, is reckoned a conMnant ; we 
 have, therefore, no diphthongs or triphthongs commencing with this letter. 
 
 XXVI. OF THE LETTER Z. 
 
 The consonant Z always has the sound of s flat; as in breea, zenith. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 (ETYMOLOGY.) 
 
 OF THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. 
 
 SeriTation is a species of Etymolo^, which explains the various methoda 
 by whioh those denvative words which arc not formed by mere grammatical 
 inflections, are deduced ftom their primitives. 
 
 Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in English, may be 
 traced to ulterior sources, and many of them are found to be compounds or 
 derivatives in other languages. A knowledge of the Saxon, Latin, GreeJe, 
 and BreniA, languages, will throw much light on this subject. But as the 
 learner is supposed to be unacquainted with those languages, we shall not 
 go beyond the predncts of our ownj except to show him the origin and 
 primitive import of some of our defimtive and connecting particles, and to 
 explain the prefixes and termlnationB whicih are frequently employed to form 
 English derivatives. 
 
 The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom literature 
 is unknown, are among those transitory things which, by the hund of time, 
 are irrecoverably buried in oblivion. The fanric of the English language is 
 undoubtedly of Sasam origin ; but what was the form of the language spoken 
 by the Saxotis, when about the year 450 they entered Britain, cannot now be 
 accurately known. It was probablv a dialect of the Gothic or Te/utomUi. This 
 Anglo-Saxon dialect, being the nuclens, received large accessions Aom other 
 tongues of the north, from the Nbmum Fretuih, and from the more polished 
 languages ot Borne and Greece, to form the modern English. The speech of 
 our rude and warlike ancestors thus gradually improved, as Chnstianity, 
 civilization, and knowledge, advanced the arts of life in Britain ; and, as 
 early as the tenth century, it became a language capable of expressing all the 
 aentiraents of a civilized people. From the time of Alfred, its progress may 
 be traced by means of writings which remain ; but it can scarcely be called 
 English till about the thirteenth century. And for two or three centuries 
 later, it was so different from the modern English, as to be scarcely intelli- 
 gible to most readers ; but, gradually improving by means upon which we 
 cannot here dilate, it at lengm became what we now find it, a language, copi- 
 ous, strong, refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree of haimouy. 
 
 The following is an explanation of the Sasam letters employed below : 
 
 sbedefghijklmnop q 
 abcbepzhi kimnopcp 
 
 rst th uvwiyz!. 
 
 jij-t 6or])uvpxyz. 
 
 SECTION I.— ^DEEIVATIOlir OF THE ARTICLES. 
 
 1. According to Some TooJee, the is the Saxon Se from Sean to talce ; and is 
 nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those. We find it written in ancient 
 works, re, se, see, ye, ce, Se,]l.e,and che ; and, tracing it through what wo 
 suppose to be the oldest of these forms, we rather consider it the imperative 
 
 of reon to see. , , j • v ^ 
 
 2. An is the Saxon mn, ame, om, one; and, by droppmf n before a conso- 
 nant, becomes a. Gamm. Douglas, an ancient English wnter. wrote ane, even 
 before a consonant; as, "Ane hook,"— "Ane lang Bp6re,"—"Ane volume." 
 
828 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 
 
 SECTION II. — DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 In English, Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, &om verbs 
 or from participles. 
 
 I. Nouns are derived from Nmms in several diiferent ways : — 
 
 1. By adding ehi/p, dom, Hj, wide, or, ate, hmd, or Imtd: as, feOow, feOm- 
 fhvp; king, kmgdam; hishop, Ushoprio; bailiff, or hailv, baUiwieh; semte 
 senator; tetrarch, Utmrehate; child, childTwod ; God, Godhead. These geac- 
 rally denote dominion, ottioe, or character. 
 
 2. By adding iam,: as, mmic, musician; physic, physician,. These sene- 
 rally denote profession. * 
 
 3. By adding y or ery : as, slave, slavery ; fool, foolery ; seem, scenery ; cul- 
 ler, cutlery; grocer, grocery. These sometimes denote a state, or habit of 
 action ; sometimes, an artificer's wares or shop. 
 
 4. By adding age or ade: ss, patron, patronage ; porter, porterage; hand, 
 bandage; lemon, lemonade. ' ' 
 J /■ ^yj^dling Ma, let, ling, ock, el, or erd: as, lami>, lanibUn; river, rim- 
 let; duek, duckling; hill, hillock; run, runnel; cock, cockerel. These denota 
 
 's. and are nallfiH dimimit-ivfto 
 
 VII, i aiuiic, oMcming ; nui, muock; run, r- 
 httle thmgs, and are called diminutives. 
 
 i»i,i,ic uumga, auu are cauca aimmutives. 
 
 6. By adding' ist: as, psalm, psalmist; botany, botanist. These denote 
 persons devoted to, or skilled in, the subject expressed by the primitive. 
 
 n -u a ' ' ''"■^^•^^ ^^, LiiD ouujucu t-ApresBeu oy me primiHve. 
 
 7. iiy prehxmg an adjective, or an other noun, and tbnning a compound 
 word • as, holiday, forewAm, statesman, tradesman. 
 
 8. By prefixing dis, in, non, or tm, h 
 : order J consistency, inconsistency ; obseri 
 
 9. By prefixing counter, signifying 
 , counter-attraction ; bond, counter-bond. 
 
 ^j ^. .......ug WM3, oit,, ivjiv, uL tin, i,u iwversB tne meaning: as, order, ms- 
 
 •; consistency, inconsistency ; observance,^ mnobservance ; truth, untruth. 
 By prefixing counter, signifying against or opposite: as, attraction, 
 .xr-aUractwn ; bond, counter-bond. 
 
 10. By adding ess, ix, or ine, to change masculines to feminines : as, hew, 
 heiress; prophet, proplietess ; abbot, abbess; testator, testatrix; hero, heroine. 
 
 11. Nouns are derived from Adjectives in several different ways :— 
 
 1. Bj aiirmg ness,Uy, ship, dom, orh)od: as,good, goodness; reaLreaMv; 
 hard, hwdship; wise, wisdom; false, falsehood. > ^ ai 
 
 2. By changing < into ce or ey: as, radiant, radiance; comeqimd, conse- 
 qtience; flagrant, fiagranoy; current, currency. 
 
 8. By changing some of the letters, and adding t or fh: as, long, length; 
 broad, breadth; high, Jmght. The nouns included under these three heads 
 generally denote abstract qualities, and are called abstract nouns 
 
 i. By adding ard: as, drunk, drvnkard; duU, duUard. These denote 
 the character of a person. 
 
 5. By adding ist; as, sensual, senmalist ; royal, royalist. These denote 
 persons devoted, addietedj or attached, to something. 
 _ 6. By adding a, the Latinending of neuter plurals, to certain proper ad- 
 xthxlT to mto ''^' '**'"'' ^^^*^'i^^; i- e., Mltonian tMngs-maOen 
 
 III. Nouns are derived from Verbs in several different ways :— 
 
 1. By addmsm^nt ance, ure, or age: as, pmish, punishment ; repent, re- 
 penta'^e; forfeit, forfeiture; stow, stowage; e(mip,equvpaqe. ' 
 
 2. By changing the termination of the verb, into se, ce,sion, Hon, atim, or 
 Uwn: as, ecpand, expanse, expansion; pretend, pretence, pretension; invent, 
 invention; areaU, creatwn ; omit, omission ; provke, provision ; reform, refoi- 
 maiwn,- oppose, opposition. These denote the act of doing, or the thmg 
 
 Tif^o^^ adding er or or: as, hunt, hunter; imU, writer; coUed, collector. 
 Ihese generally denote the doer. ' i ; i 
 
 4. Nouns and verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but different in 
 CZ^^'f' ."i' "''' "■ *Tf? io house; a reb'el, to rebel' .-a rec'o,-d, to record'. 
 fS^of^^ 7 "? ^'"'"y."''''^''' """^ ''™ -iistinffnisiied only by the con- 
 struction : as, love, to love; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep. 
 
 -^iTiii'S"'^? '''■■ °*''™^ derived from Participles in ing. Such nouns are 
 usually distinguished from partiei,,]es, onlyV their construction : as, a 
 meehng, the understanding, murmurings, disputinge. 
 
APPENDIX II. — (ETYMOLOGY.) — DERIVATION. 329 
 
 SECTION III. — DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 In Unglish, Adjeotivea are derived Arom nouns, from a^jectiyes, from 
 verbs, or from participles. 
 
 I. Acyeotives are derived from iS&tww in several different ways : — 
 
 1. By adding oua, ioui, eous,- y, ey, ia, al, ical, or ine : (sometimes with an 
 omission or change of some of the final letters:) as, danger, dangeroun ; 
 glory, glorious ; right, righteous ^ rock, rocky ; clu^, clayey ; poet, poetic ; na- 
 Uon, -national ; Ttietho^, methodtcal ; vertex, vertical ; clergy, clerical ; ada- 
 mant, adamarUine. Adjectives thus formed, generally apply the properties 
 of their primitives to the nouns to which they relate. 
 
 2. By adding y«'L' as, fear, fearfvl; cLeer, cheerful; grace, graceful. 
 These denote abundance. 
 
 S. By adding some ; as, harden, Inirdensome ; game, gamesome. These de- 
 note plenty, but with some diminution. 
 
 4. By adding en: as, oak, oaken; silk, silken. These generally denote the 
 matter of whimi a thing is made. 
 
 5. By adding 2^ or jca .' aa,frietid, friendly ; chMd, ekUdish, These denote 
 resemblance ; for ly signifies like. 
 
 6. By adding oife or ii2e.' aa, fashion,, fashionable ; access, accesHile. But 
 these terminations are generally added to verbs. 
 
 7. By adding less: as, Jiouse, houseless; death, deathless. These denote 
 privation or exemption. 
 
 8. Adjectives from proper names, take various terminations : as, America, 
 American; England, MigUsh; Dane, Damish; Portugal, Portuguese; Plato, 
 Platonic. 
 
 9. By adding td: as, saint, sainted; Ugot, bigoted. These are participial, 
 and are often joined with other adjectives to form compounds ; as, tnree- 
 sided, barefooted, lon^-eared, hundred-handed, fiat-^nosed. 
 
 10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change of termina- 
 tion : as, paper currency ; a gold chain. 
 
 11. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives in several different ways : — 
 
 1. By adding i*h or some : as, white, whitish ; lone, loneeome. These deuot* 
 quality with some diminution. 
 
 2. By prefixing die, in, or ten ; as, honesty dishonest ; consistent, inconsis- 
 tent; wise, umurise. These express a negation of the quality denoted by 
 their primitives. . „„ , 
 
 3. By adding y or Vy: as, swarth, swarthy; good, goodly. Of these there 
 are but few ; for almost all derivatives of the latter form, are adverbs. 
 
 in. Adjectives are derived from Verbs in several different ways: — 
 
 1. By adding able or iile: (sometimes with a change of some of the final 
 letters:) as, perish, perishable; vary, variable; convert, convertible; divide, 
 dvoisU>le. These denote susceptibility. j, ..t. js i 
 
 2. By adding ive or ory: (sometimes with a change of some ot the Imal 
 letters:) oi, e&ct; eUative ; interrogate, interrogative, interrogatory; defend, 
 d^enaive ; defame, defamatory. 
 
 3 Words ending in ate,' me mostly verbs : but some of them may be em- 
 ployed as adjectives, in the same form, especially in poetry: as, reprobate. 
 
 IV. Adjectives are derived from Participles in the following ways :— 
 
 1. By prefixing ««: as, unyielding, unregarded, undeserved. 
 
 2. By combining the participle with some word which does not belong to 
 the verb : as, way-faring, hdUow-soymding, long-drawn. o v, j 
 
 3 Participles often become adjectives without change of form. Such ad- 
 jectives are distinguished from participles onlvby the «)nstrnotion : as A 
 lasting ornament f-" The starving chjmist ;'<-" Words of learned length." 
 
 SECTION IV.— DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 I. The English Pronouns are all of Saxon origin. The foUowing appears 
 to be their derivation : — 
 
 28* 
 
830 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 /, 
 
 my or mine, 
 
 me; 
 
 «>«, 
 
 (wr or <mr8, 
 
 us. 
 
 Sax. 
 
 ic, 
 
 min, 
 
 me; 
 
 pe, 
 
 upe, 
 
 ur- 
 
 Eng. 
 
 thou, 
 
 1 (hy or thine. 
 
 thee; 
 
 ^«i 
 
 yow or yours. 
 
 ^l>M. 
 
 Sax. 
 
 Su, 
 
 Bill, 
 
 6e; 
 
 Se, 
 
 eojjeji. 
 
 eop. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 he, 
 
 hie. 
 
 him; 
 
 M«j^, 
 
 iAeJr or i^ew-j, 
 
 them. 
 
 Sax. 
 
 he, 
 
 hj-r, 
 
 him; 
 
 hi, 
 
 hijia, or heojia. 
 
 hem. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 she, 
 
 her, or fiers, 
 
 her ; 
 
 they. 
 
 their or theii-s. 
 
 them,. 
 
 Sax. 
 
 heo, 
 
 hejia or hyjia, 
 
 hep; 
 
 hi, 
 
 hijia, (»• heojia, 
 
 hem. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 it, 
 
 its. 
 
 it; 
 
 they. 
 
 <Aeic or theirs. 
 
 them. 
 
 Sax. 
 
 hit, 
 
 hyr, 
 
 hiC; 
 
 hi. 
 
 hijia, or heopa. 
 
 hem. 
 
 The plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives 
 from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, as well as a vast 
 Dumber of other words of frequent use in the language, were variously writ- 
 ten by the old English and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history 
 of our language mil meet with them under all the following forms, and per- 
 haps more : — " 
 
 1. I, J, Y, y, J-, 1, io, ehe, ich, ic ; — mt, mi, min, mine, myne, myn, m^n ;— 
 ME, mee, me, meh,'mec, meoh;— we, wee, ve, ye; — ouk or otjes, oure, une 
 lire, urin, uren, urne, user, usser, usses, usse, ussum ; — us, ous, vs, up, uss' 
 usic, ueioh, usig, usih. ' 
 
 2. Thou, thoue, thow, thowe, thu, bu, Jiu ;^tht, thi, thin, thine, thyne 
 thyn, &H1, ]jin ;— thee, the, theh, thee, be ])e ;— te, yee, ze, zee, ge, ghe ;— 
 TODK or YouEs, youre, zour, gour, 'soure, hnre, eopep ; — tou, youe, yow, gou, 
 zou, ou, lu, luh, eop, low, geow, eowih, cowio, iowih. 
 
 3. He, hee, hie, hi, he, se ; — his, hise, is, hys, hyse, ys, Js, hys, h^)- ;— 
 Hisf, hine, hen, hyne, hiene, hion, hym, hym, im, him ; — they, thay, th'ei, 
 the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hii, hie, heo, hig, hyg, hj, hig, hi;— THEmor 
 THEiHS, ther, theyr, thoyrs, thair, thare, hare, here, her, hir, hire, hira, 
 hyjia, Seopa, ]>eopa, heora ; — them, theym, thym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, 
 em, hem, heom, hiom, horn, eom, him, hi, hig. 
 
 4. She, shee, sche, scho, sho, shoe, rC£e, reo, heo, hio, hiu ;— heb^ [pos- 
 sessive,] hur, hir, hii-e, hyr, byre, hj-pe, hypa, hepa ;— hee, robjective.l hir, 
 hire, hep, hyre, hi. 
 
 6. It, itt, hyt, hytt, yt, yc, hit, le, hic. According to Home Tooke, this pro- 
 noun IS from the perfect participle of hacan, to naTne, and signifies the said; 
 but Dr. Alexander Murray makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, 
 " he, heo, hita, this.''''— Hist. Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 315. 
 
 II. The relatives are derived from the same source, and have passed 
 through similar changes, or varieties in orthography ; as, 
 
 1. Who, ho, wha, hwa, wua, hua, qua, quha, hpa, hue ;— whose, who's, 
 whos, quhois, quhais, quhase, hpsep ;— whom, whome, quhum, quhome, 
 hwom, hpam, hwsem, hwsene, hwone. 
 
 2. Which, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, quUch, quUk, qnhilk, hwilo, 
 hpilo, hwylo, hwelc, whilk, huilic, hvilc. 
 
 _ 8. What, hwat, hwfflt, hwet, quhat. This pronoun, whether relative or 
 interrogative, is regarded by some as a neuter derivative from the masculine 
 or feminine wlia, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modern 
 English, it is not always of the neuter gender. 
 
 4. That, in Anglo-Saxon, is tJi<Et, or fait. Home Tooke supnoses this 
 word to have been originally the perfect participle of "thean, to take. This 
 derivation is doubtful. 
 
 From its various uses, the word (hat is called sometimes a pronoun, some- 
 times an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction ; but, in respect to deriva- 
 tion, it is, doubtless, one and the same.— As an adjective, it was formerly 
 appUcable to a plural noun ; as, "That holy ord,res.''''—Dr. Martin. 
 
 SECTION V. — ^DERIVATION OF VERBS. 
 In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, ft-om adjectives, or from verbs 
 I. Verbs are derived from Nouns in the following ways : 
 
APPENDIX IL — (etymology.) — DERIVATION. 831 
 
 1. By adding ite^ ise, en, or ate: as, aiMor, awtkoriea ; critic, eriUdse; 
 Ungtih, lengthen,; origin,, originate. The termmation to is of Greek origin; 
 and t««, ot French : the former should be generally preferred in forming 
 English derivatives : but ise usually terminates such verba as are essentially 
 formed hy means of prefixes ; as, arise, disguise, advise, lArcwmeise, despise, 
 surmise, comprise, compromise, enterprise. 
 
 2. By changing a oonaonant, or by adding mute e : as, admce, admse; iath, 
 iathe; breath, breathe. 
 
 II. Verbs are derive^ from Adjectives in the following ways :^- 
 
 1. By adding en, ate, oviee: as, deep, deepen; domestic, domesticate; dvil, 
 dviliee. 
 
 2. Many adjectives become verbs, without change of form : as, warm, to 
 warm; dry, to dry; Waei, to blacTc •forward, \.o forward. 
 
 III. Verbs are derived from Verbs in the following ways : — 
 
 1. By prefixing (i»« or un,\.o reverse the meaning: cs, please, displease ; 
 qualify, disqualify ; fasten, unfasten : m,vszle, unmussle. 
 
 2. By prefixing a, be, for, fore, rms, over, oat, under, up, or with : as, rise, 
 arise ; sprinkle, oesprinMe ; bid, forbid; see, foresee; tahe^ mistake; look, 
 overlook; run, outrun; go, undergo ; hold, upluM; draw, vrUhdraw, 
 
 SECTION VI. — DERIVATION OF PABTICIPLES. 
 
 All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner ex- 
 plained under the head of Etymology ; and when foreign pariiciples are in- 
 troduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to 
 some other part of speech. 
 
 SECTION VII. — DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding Zy, 
 which is an abbreviation for like: as, candid, candidly; sordid, sormdiy. 
 Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. 
 
 3. Many adverbs are oompounds formed from two or more English words ; 
 as, herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, whei'ewiCIial. 
 The formation and the meaning of these are in general sufficiently obvious. 
 
 3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix o; as, Abreast, 
 airoad, across, afresh, away, ago, awry, astral/. 
 
 A. Weeds, as an adverb, (meaning necessarily,) is a contraction of need is; 
 prithee, oil pray thee; alone, of ali one; only, of one like; anon, of in on,e 
 [instant] ; never, ofne ever; [not ever]. 
 
 5. Very is from the French ■pei'ay, or vrai, true. "StiU," says Tooke, " is 
 from the imperative of the Saxon rcellan, toput;" and "Else is from the 
 imperative of alepan, to dismiss." Sather is the comparative of the ancient 
 rath, soon. 
 
 SECTION Vni. — DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 The English Conjunctions are mostly of Saxon origin. The best diction- 
 aries of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Saxon 
 characters ; but Borne Tooke, in his Diversions of Purley, a learned and 
 curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage, 
 traces these and many other English particles to Sattm verbs or particles. 
 The following derivations, so far as they partake of such speculations, are 
 offered principally on his authority : — 
 
 1. Althoooh, signifying admit, allow, is from aU and though; the latter 
 being the imperative of an ancient verb, meaning ioaZi>». . » 
 
 2. An, an obsolete conjunction, signifying if, or grant, is the imperative of 
 the Saxon verb anon, to grant. . 
 
 3. And, denoting addition, is said by Tooke to come from an-ab, the \m- 
 Verativeofanan-ab, to grant to, to add. _ ^ . , , r rr 
 
 4. As, according to Z>r. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als; hut tA Jl. 
 Tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es or 
 de, meanipg ii, that, or wTMi, 
 
832 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH 6EAMMAB. 
 
 5. Beoatbe, meaning ly emise, is from be (Saxon for by) ccadjxmse. 
 
 6. Both, tlie two, is from the pronominal adjective buth; wliioli, according 
 to Dr. Alex. Murray, is a contraction of tlie Visigotliic bagotli, doubled. Till 
 Anglo-Saxons wrote for it buH, butwu, buta, and batwa; i. e., ba, toth, two,, 
 
 7. But, implying addition, is supposed by Tooke to have come from " bos 
 the imperative of bocan, to boot, to add." 
 
 8. But, denoting exception, is conjectured by the same author to have come 
 from " be-utan, the imperative of beon-ucan, to be out.'" 
 
 9. ErrnEE, one of the two, is from the Saxon cegether, or egtler. 
 
 10. Eke, Bigmiymg also or add, (now nearly obsolete) is from eac, the im- 
 perative of eacan, to add. 
 
 11. Except, which, as a conjunction, means unless, is the imperative, or 
 (aecordmg to Dr. Johnson) an ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 
 
 12._ Fob, meaning because, is the Saxon poji, or the Dutch voor, from a 
 Gothic noun signifying cause or soie. 
 
 13. If, meaning give, grant, allow, is from z'T, [gi/,'] the imperative of Tiran, 
 to give. 
 
 14. Lest, meaning that net, dismissed, is from lepeb, the perfect participle 
 of leran, to dismiss. ^ r 
 
 15. Neither, not either, is a union and contraction of ne either: our old 
 writers frequently used ne for not. 
 
 16. Nor, not other, not else, is a union and contraction of »« or. 
 
 17. NoTwiTHSTAUDiNG, 710* hindering, is an English compound which needs 
 no further explanation. 
 
 18. Or has been supposed a contraction of the Saxon oSeji, other. Dr. 
 Bosworth gives oC6e as its Saxon equivalent. 
 
 19. Save, [but, except,} anciently used as a conjunction, is the imperative of 
 the verb to save, meaning to except. 
 
 20. Since [seeing or seen] is from rmer, or j-yne, the perfect participle of 
 reon, to see. Seeing,_ too, is sometimes a copulative conjunction. 
 
 21. Than, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the 
 Saxon fianne, which was used for the same purpose. 
 
 22. That [taken] is from Saet, the perfect participle of iSean, to take. 
 
 23. Though [allow] is from iSapis, the imperative of Sapsan, to allow. 
 
 24. Unless [except, dismiss,] is from onler, the imperative of onleran, to 
 
 25. Whether, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is tho 
 Saxon hpseSeji, which was used for the same purpose. 
 
 26. Yet, [nevertheless,] is from gee, the imperative of jecan, to get. 
 
 SECTION IX. — DERIVATION OP PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The following is the derivation of most of the English Prepositions :— 
 _ 1. About [at circuit] is from the French a, or the English prefix a, mean- 
 mg at or to, and bout, meaning turn, or limit. 
 
 2. Above [at-by-high] is from the Saxon, a, be, and npa, high. 
 
 3. Across Tffii-cross J is from a and the noun eross. 
 
 4. After [fartUr in the rear] is the oomparitive of aft, now used only by 
 Beamen. ' ' 
 
 5. AoADiST [opposed to] is from on-jeonb, gone at. 
 
 6. Along [at-long] is from a and long. 
 
 7. Amh) [at mid or middle] is from a and mid. 
 
 8. Amidst [at midst] is from a and midst, contracted from middest, the su- 
 perlative of mid. 
 
 9. Among [a-mixed] is abbreviated from amongst. 
 
 10. Amongst [a-mixed] is from a and mongst, a Saxon participle signifying 
 
 11. Around [at circle] is from a and round, circle or sphere 
 
 12. At [jmmig] is supposed by some to come from the Latin sd ; but Dr. 
 Murraysays, We have m Teutomc at for aqt, touching or touched, joined, 
 
APPENDIS; II. — (etymology.)— DERIVATION. 833 
 
 18. Athwakt [across] ia from a and thwart, oi'oss. 
 
 14. BmfOEE [before] is fi'om the prefix ie and the acLjeotive/OT'e. 
 
 15. Behind \&-hinaJ is from the prefix he and the adjective hind. 
 
 16. Below [by-low] is from the prefix be and the adjective low. 
 
 17. Benbath Jbdow] is from be and the adjective neath, low ; whence th» 
 eompaiative nether, lower. 
 
 18. Besidb \bv-side] is from be and the noun side. 
 
 19. Besides* \h/-aiaes] is from be and the plural noun sides. 
 
 20. Between \m/-twainj is from be and ^wo-m, two. 
 
 21. Beiwixt [o«to««fe] IS from be and to^j^a;, a Grothio word signifying two, 
 or twain. 
 
 22. Betond [Sy-yone] ia from be and geonb, the perfect participle of 
 jeonban, to pass, or go. 
 
 23. Br (formerljr written M and Se) ia the imperative of beon, to be. 
 
 24. CoNOEHNiNO is from the first participle of the verb to eoncem. 
 
 25. Down [low] is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective dim, low. 
 
 26. Ddrino [lastiTig] is from an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use ; as, 
 " While the world may dure.^^Gha-uoer's Knighfs Tide. 
 
 27. Except is from the imperative, or (according to Br. Johnson) the an- 
 cient perfect participle, of the verb to excqat. 
 
 28. Excepting is from the first participle of the verb to except. 
 
 29. Foe [by cause of] is from a Gothic noun signifying cause or saie. 
 
 80. Feom is derived from the Saxon ppum, or pjiam, beginming, 
 
 81. In is from the Latin in : the Greek is cu, and the French en. 
 
 32. Into is a compound of m and to. 
 
 33. NoTwrrHSTANDiKO [not hindering] is from the adverb not, and the par- 
 ticiple uiithstamding. 
 
 34. Off is from the Saxon of, which S. Toohe supposes to be from a noun 
 signifying offering. 
 
 35. Off (opposed to on) Dr. Johnson derives from the Dutch of. 
 
 36. On is traced by etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the 
 Dutch aan : but such a derivation does not^ its meaning. 
 
 37. OuTOF (opposed to intd) is from the adverb ovt and the preposition of 
 — usually written separately, but better joined in some instances. 
 
 38. OvEK [above] is from nFCjm, higher. 
 
 39. OvEKTHWAKT is a compound of over and ihwdrt, cross. 
 
 40. Past is a contraction from the perfect participle ^a«s«(i. 
 
 41. EouHD [about] is from the noun or adjective round. 
 
 42. Since [seen], says Tooke,Ts from the perfect participle of reon, to see. 
 
 43. Through (contracted from thorough) is from a Saxon word meaning 
 door orpassage. » 
 
 44. TSKonGHODT is a compound of through and om. _ 
 
 45. Till [the end] is from the Saxon cil, [Saxonfori!iB,]notingend^f time. 
 
 46. To is a simple word from the Saxon to, which is supposed to come 
 from a Gothic noun signifying md. 
 
 47. TonCHiNO is from the first participle of the verb to touch. 
 
 48. TowABD or TowAEDs is probably a compound of to and ward, from 
 pajibi.™, to look. • 
 
 49. Undek [on nether] is fiwm the Dutch on neder, on lower. 
 60. Underneath is a compound fi'om under and neath, low. 
 
 51. Until is a compound from onorvm and till, tne end. 
 
 52. Unto (now little used) is from on or «» and to. 
 
 53. Up is from the Saxon up, which E. TooTee traces to upa, h^h. 
 
 54. Upon [high on] is from up and on. . • • ' 
 
 65. Wrrn [join] is probably from the imperative of piSan, fojom. 
 
 66. Within [by^] ia from imth and in. 
 
 57. WrrHouT \hi-ou(\ iafrom with and out. , 
 
 58. WoKni [of the mine of] ia from the Saxon verb wyrthan or «>f>^h^, 
 toS;,- and ha^, by pedigree, as good a claim to be a p reposition as by and 
 
 .. £e*ide should be used as a preposition and »«««^«?j^^ « an adverb. Beorea- 
 •ons to this distinction, in OamvpidCs PhiOosoph/y of Rhetoric 
 
334 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 with: the old English writers used worth for le, in every part of the oonin- 
 gation. According to J. H. Tooke, with, in the two compounds wiOim and 
 withmt, is from pyji&, the imperative of pyjiSan, to le; and the meaning of 
 the former is be in, and of the latter be out. Compare the derivations of by 
 WTTH, and woETH ; and see observations 6th and 7th, on Bale 22d, msl 
 209. ' ''^ 
 
 SECTION 2. — DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as 
 Interjections, do not require an explanation here ; and those mere sounds 
 which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or 
 derivation. The interjection Hey is probably a corruption of the adjeotive 
 AwA;— Alas js from the Fre .ch Mlas j—Aulck is probably a corruption of 
 afas;— Welaway (which is now corrupted into weUaAay,) Is from the siaon 
 palapa, wo on wo;— Fie, from pan, to hite j—Oetoxy, from high day;— 
 A\i.wsi, from the French avant, before ;— Lo, from foo*;— Begome, from U 
 and gone; — Weuxms, from well and come. 
 
 SECTION XI. — EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES. 
 In the formation of words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes; 
 which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately ex- 
 plained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin ; and the greater part 
 of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are 
 Latin, trreek, or French prepositions. The roots to which tley are prefixed, 
 are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called 
 bef arable SadvKUs; and those which are not such. Inseparable SaMcdla. 
 
 CLASS I. ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 
 
 1. A, as an English preflx, signifies on, in, at, or to; as in onboard, a-shm, 
 asleep, a-f(w,a-fiM. The French a, to, is probably the same particle ; ^ 
 in a-^M!i. This prefix is sometimes redundant ; as in a-wafo, oAise. 
 
 2. JiEsigmfles wpon, to, by, or for ; as in be-spatter, be-Umes, le-tide,h- 
 epeah. It is sometimes redundant ; as in be-gird,be-deck, be-loved. 
 
 3. CoDNTBK means agaimi or opposite; as hi comUer-poise, counter-evidence, 
 counter-natural. ^ ' ' 
 
 4. Fob, in composition, seems to signify /rom .• it is found in the irregulw 
 verbs for-bear, for-Md, for-get, for-gim, for-sahe, forswear; and mfSr-io, 
 for^ass,for-pme, for-say, for-think, for-wasU, which last are now seldom 
 
 5. FoBE, prefixed to verbs, signifies Se/ore; as in/we-foKOT,/w«-«; pre- • 
 fixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies anterior; as h^ fore-side, for^ 
 
 6. Haif, BignifVing one of two equal parts, is much used m composition ; 
 feoti °' ™^ '^ imperfeotaon: as, half sighted, seemg rniper- 
 
 7. Mis signifies wrong; as in mis-do, mis-place. 
 
 r.ifivilfvP'' 'v ™"''''' S™«™'ly denotes excess ; as in out-do, out-leap: 
 
 Z^rist "°"'"' '" ^ adjective, and signifies icterior; as in cmtZ, 
 
 ™ J; zSlff "™''!]'' '^^"'"®^ superiority or excess ; as in ovei-power. overstrain, 
 over-large, over-dose, over-growth. 
 
 .r,nl ^^^l figtiifles oney own person, or belongina to ongs m»n person. It is 
 S^/i^^^^^^^S'™"?'"™' ?i '" »af-love, self-aLse, self-affai^, self-vMed, 
 self-accusmg. SometimeB self means ver^ ; as ia self same. 
 
 1 o' ttL^"^'^* ?'=«?«<'". »■•. contrariety ; as in n,C-Und, un-had. 
 
 12. Undee denotes inferiority : as m ■under-value, undlr-elerlc. 
 in4-*«< ' ""P'""''^'' <^^^^P-m-- sometimes subversion; as 
 
 14. Wfth, as a prefix, (unlike the common preposition Wiih ■) sieniflei 
 against, from, or back; as Ju vnthstand, wUh-hold, inth-drata. '' ^ 
 
APPENDIX II.— (etymology.)— DERIVATION. 335 
 
 CLASS ill. LATIN PREFIXES., 
 
 The primitives to wbicli theie are prefixed, are not many of them employ- 
 , ed separately in English' The final letter of the prefix ad, con, ex, in, ob, or 
 tub, is often changed before certain consonants. 
 
 1. A, AB, or AB3, means from, or away : as, a-vert, to turn from ; ab-duct, 
 to lead from ; abs-tract, to draw away. 
 
 2. Ad, ac, of, al, an, op, as, at, — to or at : as, ad-vtrt, to turn to ; ac-cede, 
 to yield to; af-fiux, aflowine-to; ally, to bind to; arir-nex, to link to; ap- 
 ply, to put to ; as-eume, to take to ; at-ttst, to witness to. 
 
 3. Ante,— before : as ante-cedeTit, going before ; ante-mundane, before the 
 world; anter-date, to- date before. 
 
 i. CmcuM, — around or about : as, cireum-vohe, to roll around. 
 
 6. Ck)N, com, CO, col, cor, — together ; as, contract, to draw together ; com- 
 fd, to drive together ; co-erce, to force together ; col-lect, to gather together; 
 eor-rade, to scrape together ; conjunction, a joining-together. 
 
 6. GoMTBA, — against : as contradict, to speak against. 
 
 7. D% — of, from, or down : as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw 
 from ; de-pend, to hang down ; de-press, to press down. 
 
 8. Dis, Di, — away or apart: as, dis-pel, to drive away; dis-sect, to out 
 apart ; di-vert, to turn away. IHs, before Enghsh words, generally reverses 
 tneir meaning ; as, please, dis-please. 
 
 9. E or EX, ec, ef, — out : as, e-jed, to oast out ; ex-traat, to draw out ; ec- 
 staey, a' raising-out ; ef-face, to blot out. 
 
 10. Extra, — ^beyond : as, extra-vagani, wandering beyond. 
 
 11. In, il, im,ir, — in, into, against, or upon: as, in-spire, to breathe in; 
 U-lude, to draw in by deceit ; iynr-m^ure, to wall in ; ir-ruption, a breaking-in ; 
 in-cur, to run into ; in-dict, to declare against ; tmr-pute, to charge upon. 
 These syllables, prefixed to nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their 
 meaning; as, ir-religion, ir-rational, insecure, in-sane. 
 
 12. Inter, — between: as, intersperse, to scatter between; inter-jection, 
 ■omething thrown in between. 
 
 13. Inteo, — within : as, iniro-^ert, to turn within. 
 
 14. Ob, oc, of, op, — against: as, ob-irude, to thrust .against; oc-our, to run 
 against; of-fer, to bring against; op-jose, to place against; ob-ject, oast 
 against. 
 
 15. Per,— through or by: as, per-^ade, to go through; per-clmnce, by 
 ohanee ; per-cent, by the hundred. 
 
 18. Post, — after: &s, post-pone, to place after. 
 
 17. Prj:, or pre, — before : as, pre-mme, to take before ; pre-positnon, a 
 placing-before, or something placed before. 
 
 18. Pko, — for, forth, or forwards : as, pro-vide, to take care for ; pro-duce, 
 to bring forth ; pro-trvde, to thrust forwards. 
 
 19. Peeter, — past or beyond : as, preler-it, gone by ; preter-natvral, be- 
 yond what is natural. 
 
 • 20. Be, — again or back: as, re-view, to view again: re-pel, to drive back. 
 
 21. Eeteo, — backwards : as, retro-cesdon, a gomg-backwards. 
 
 22. Se, — aside or apart : as, se-duce, to lead aside ; se-cede, to go apart. 
 
 23. Semi, — half: as, semi-colon, half a colon; seminiircte, half a circle ; 
 temir^owel, half a vowel. 
 
 5 24. Sub, sup, ««r,— under: as, svisaHie, to write under; svp-ply, to put 
 under : sur-^eption, a creeping-under ; sub-ject, cast under. 
 
 25. SuBTER, — beneath : as, subter-fiwms, flowing beneath. 
 
 26. Super,— over or above: as, super-fluous, flowing over; evper-natamt, 
 iwimming above ; svper-lative, carried over. 
 
 27. Trans,— beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, trans-m-esa, to 
 pass beyond or over ; trane-mit, to send to an other place ; trans-form, to 
 thange to an other shape. 
 
 CLASS in. GKEEK PREFIXES. 
 
 1. A and an, in Greek derivatives, denote privation : as, a-nomalous, want- 
 ilng rule ; an-onymous, wanting name ; an-archy, want of government. 
 
336 INSTITtTTES OF ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 
 
 2. Amphi,— botli or two : as, ampIiv-Koua, living in two elements. 
 
 3. Ahti,— against : as, anii-acW, against acicUly ; aiUi-febrUe, agam&titia; 
 anii-iJiesiSf a placing-against. 
 
 i. Apo, aph,—iiom : as, apostrophe, a tuming-from ; apTirfsrems, a taking- 
 from. 
 
 6. DiA, — througli: as, dia^gonal, through the corners; dicMiteter, the 
 measure through. 
 
 6. Epi, eph, — upon : as, epi-demic, upon .the people ; ephremera, upon a 
 day. 
 
 7. Hemi, — ^half ; as, Tiemi-sphere, half a sphere. 
 
 8. Htpee, — over : as, hyper-critiml, over-eritioal. 
 
 9. Htpo, — under : as, hypo-stasis, substance, or that which stands under; 
 hypo-theus, supposition, or a plaoing-under. ■ 
 
 10. Meta,— beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, meta-morplme, 
 to change to an other shape. 
 
 11. Paba, — against: «s,, para^dox, something contrary to common opimon. 
 
 12. Peri, — around : as, perv-phcry, the circumference, or. measure round. 
 18. SrN, aym, syl, — together : as, syn^tax, e plaoing-together ; symrpaSiy, 
 
 a Buifering-together ; syt-VMe, what is taken together. 
 
 CLASS IV. ^FRENCH PREFIXES. 
 
 1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means 
 to. We have suggested that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Snxon 
 prefix a. It is found in a few English compounds that are of French, and 
 not of Saion origin : a^-dieu, to God ; o-tout, to the end or turn. 
 
 2. Db, —of or from : as in de-mure, of manners ; de-liver, to ease from or 
 of. 
 
 8. Demi, — ^half: as, demirman, half a man; demi-god, half a god. 
 
 4. En, em, — in, into, or upon : as, en-chmn, to hold in chains ; em-hrdce, to 
 clasp in the arms ; «»-tom4, to put into a tom4; «m-6os«, to stud upon. Many 
 words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthography of 
 this prefix: as, embody, or imbody; ensurance, or insurance; ensnare, or in- 
 snare; enquire, oi inquire. 
 
 5. Sun, — upon, over, or after: as, sur-name, a name upon a name; m~ 
 t&y, to look over ; sur-vive, to live after, to overlive, to outlive. 
 
APPENDIX III. 
 
 (STNTAS.) 
 
 OF THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 
 
 style is the particular manner in-vrluoli a peraon expresses Ms conoeptioM 
 by means of mi^aage. It is different from mere words, aud is not to be 
 regulated altogether oy rules of construction. It always has some relation 
 to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being that sort of expres- 
 sion which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes^ not only 
 of what is characteristic of the man, but even of national peculiarity. The 
 words which an author employs, may be proper, and so constructed as to 
 violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his style may have great faults. 
 
 To designate the general characters of^ style, such epithets as concise, dif- 
 fuse,— neat, negligent, — ^nervous, feeble,— simple, affected, — easy, Stitf,-;- 
 perspicuous, obscure, — elegant, florid, — are employed. A considerable di- 
 versity of style, may De found in compositions all equally exoeUent in their 
 kind. And, indeed, different subjeotBj as well as tba dlffcreht endowments 
 by which genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But in forming his 
 style, the learner should remember, that a negligent^ feeble, affected, stiff, or 
 obscure style, is always faulty^ and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, 
 strength, and neatness, are qualities always to be aimed at. 
 
 In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and 
 writing something, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and dili- 
 gent attention, rmes or precepts for the attainment of this object, will be of 
 no avail. When the learnSt has acquired such a knowledge df grammar, as 
 to be ifi some degree qualified for the undertaking, he should' devote a stated 
 portion of liis time to composition. This exercise wiU bring the powers of 
 his mind into requisition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. 
 And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the 
 best authors, acquire both language and taste, as well as sentiment; and 
 these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. 
 
 In i«g»rd to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer 
 no more than a fewbrief hints. With respect to words and j^hrases, partic- 
 ular attention should be pmd to pmiia, promwby, and mmxwn; and, with 
 respect to sentences, to permieuiiy, wmiy, and ttrmgth. Under each of these 
 heuls, we shall arrange in fiie form of short precepts a few of the most im- 
 portant directions for the forming of a good sfyle. 
 
 SECTION I. — OF PUBITT. 
 
 Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only; as be- 
 lonjT to the language which we write or speak. 
 
 ftEOEPT 1. AvSd the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms, as, 
 fraiehem; Uidew, delicatease, poUtesse, nobUsee ; he repented Tivmaelf, it servea 
 to an excellent purpose. . , , . ^- t.„j _,„,Ja. 
 
 Peeoeft 2. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated words, 
 aa. whilom, erewhUe, whoso, alMt, moreover, aforetma, "^^/"u'ti^ i^^^ 
 
 ftiECEPTS. Avoii strange or unauthonzed words: as, fiuUeratwii, iiispee- 
 
 Viscsfii. Avoid bombast, or aftectetion of fine writing. «.'» n™*™!,^?^ 
 l,m™vT.r aerious the subiect : as, "Personifications, however rich the depio- 
 tio^,aLdS.^ttS their latitude; analogies, howOVer imposing th, 
 
 15 
 
338 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 . P 
 objects of parallel, and the media of comparison ; can never expose the efel^ 
 sequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration,"— 
 Anomynums. 
 
 SECTION II. — OF PROPEIETT. 
 
 Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction, of 
 such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we in- 
 tend to express by them. 
 
 PeeceptI. Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, "Saj/s I;"— 
 "Thinks I to myself;" — "To get into a scrape;'" — " Stay here while I return." 
 
 Peeoept 2. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely 
 poetical : such as, mom, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; — " what time the 
 winds arise." 
 
 Peeoept 3. Avoid technical terms : except where they are necessary, in 
 treating of a particular art or science. In teohnoloffl', they are proper. 
 
 Peeoept 4. Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or such a 
 repetition of words as denotes paucity of language: as, "His own reason 
 might have suggested better rcasores." — " Gr&gory favoured the undertaking, 
 for no other reason than this; that the manager, in countenance, /atJOKm 
 his friend." — " I want to go and see what he wants.'" 
 
 Peeoept 5. Supply words that are wanting : thus, in stead of saying, " This 
 action increased nis former services," say, " This action increased the merit 
 of his former services." 
 
 Peeoept 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions : as, " His memory 
 shall be lost on the earth." — " I long since learned to like nothing but what 
 you do." 
 
 Peeoept 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions : as, " I have 
 observed that the superiority among these coffee-house pohticians, proceeds 
 from an opinion of gallantry and fashion."—" These words do not convey 
 even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 
 
 Peeoept 8. Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not^J 
 the cart 'before the horse ; as, " The scribes taughi and, studied the law of 
 Moses." — " They can neither return to nor leam their houses."—" He tum- 
 bled, head over heels, into the water." , 
 
 SECTION m. — OF PRECISION. 
 
 Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the ex- 
 pression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than 
 IS intended by the author. 
 
 PeeceptI. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment: 
 as in, " Return agiain ; — return back again ; — converse together ; — rise vp ; — 
 fall down ; — enter in ; — a mutual likeness to each other ; — the latter end ; — 
 liquid streams; — gratd'ul thanks; — ^the last of all; — throughout the whole 
 book." " Whenever I go, he aZways meets me there." — "Where is 'be at? 
 7« there." — "Nothing me but that." — "It is odious and hateful." — "His 
 faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded." 
 
 Peeoept 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, 
 and employ those which are the most suitable : as, " A diligent scholar may 
 oofMire Knowledge, gaim, celebrity, obtain rewards, win prizes, and get high 
 honour, though he ea/rn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same 
 meaning, and yet they cannot well be changed. 
 
 SECTION IV. — OF PERSPICUITY. 
 
 Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a qual- 
 ity so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no_ merit 
 can atone. " "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only glimmer 
 through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader." — Slo/ir. Per- 
 spicuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption 
 from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of posi- 
 tivo beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all 
 
APPENDIX in.' — (syntax.) — STYLE. 339 
 
 Bospensofii regard to the meaning; that "carries us through the suhjeot 
 without embarrassment or confusion ; and that always flows like a limpid 
 stream, through wMoh we can see to the very bottom." 
 
 Prkoept 1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and 
 explanatory phrases, as near as possible to the words to which they relate, 
 and in such a situation as the sense requires. The following sentences are 
 deficient in perspicuity: — "Eeverence is the veneration paid to superior 
 sanctity, int^-mixed with a oertmn degree of awe." "The Somans under- 
 stood liberty, at least, as well as we." " Taste was never Tnade to cater for 
 vanity." 
 
 PSEOEPT 2. In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. 
 
 Pbeoept 3. Avoid faulty ellipsis, and repeat all words necessary to pre- 
 serve the sense. The following sentences require the words inserted in 
 crotchets : " Bestlessuess of mind disqualifies us, both for the e^oyment of 
 peace, and \for\ the performance ot our duty." — Murray's Key. "The 
 Christian rehgion gives a more lovely character of God, than any [oii«r] re- 
 ligion ever did." — IKd. 
 
 SECTION V. — OP UNITY. 
 
 Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses, and keeping one ob- 
 ject predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, 
 whether its parts be few or many, requires strict umty. 
 
 Precept 1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following example lacks 
 the very quality of which it speaks : " But most of all, in asingle sentence, 
 is required the stricteet unity. It may consist of parts, indeed, but these parts 
 must be so dosely bound together, as to make the impression upon the 
 mind, of one object, not o/' many."— J&wa^'s Grammar. 
 
 Pbeoept 2. Treat diflPerent topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sen- 
 laments in separate sentences. Error: "The two volumes are, indeed, in- 
 timately connected, and constitute one uniform system of English granmiar." 
 — Murray^s Preface. « ..it. 
 
 Pbeoept S. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the prmcipal sub- 
 ject in favour of adjuncts. Error r " To substantives belong gender, num- 
 ber, and case ; and they are aU of the third person when spoken of, and of 
 the second when spoken to."—Murray''s Grammar. 
 
 Pbeoept 4. Do not introduce parentheses, except when a hvely remark 
 may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the^ prmcipal 
 subject. 
 
 SECTION VI. — OF STRENGTH. 
 
 Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence, 
 such an arrangement as sh^ bring out the sense to the best advantage, and 
 present every idea in its due importance. A concise style is the most tavour- 
 
 " Pbeoept if Piace the most important words in the situation in which they 
 
 ■will make the strongest impression. , , ^ . „ . „ , „,,„_ 
 
 Pbeoept 2 A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when 
 
 the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the conoludmg 
 
 '"p'receptS When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resem- 
 bknTeTopposition wilrte rendered more striking, if some resemblance m 
 the lane-uaee and construction, be preserved. -ii, j .t. 
 
 li^lpri It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, 
 a™i«on,or anySiconsiAeralleword or phrase, which may either b. 
 omitted or be introduced earlier. 
 
APPENDIX IV. 
 
 (PROSODY.) 
 
 OP POETIC DICTIOK 
 
 Poetry^as defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of paesibn, or of enlivened 
 imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers." The style of 
 poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is commonly adopted in 
 prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech, and unnsnal coUo- 
 cations of words. A great part of the figures which have been treated of 
 under the head of prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim of a poet, 
 is to please and to move ; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and the 
 passions, that he speaks. He may, and he ought to have it in his view, to 
 instruct and reform ; but it is indirectly, and by pleasing and moving, that 
 he accomplishes this end. The exterior and most obvious distinction of 
 poetry, is versification : yet there are some forms of verse so loose and fam- 
 iliar, as to be hardly distinguishable from prose ; and there is also a species 
 of prose, so measured in its cadences, and bo much raised in its tone, as to 
 approach very nearly to poetical numbers. 
 
 POETICAL PECULIAEITIES. 
 
 The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the 
 poets indulge, and are indulged ; — • 
 
 I. They very often omit the ABTIGLES; as, 
 
 " What dreadful pleasure 1 there to stand sublime. 
 Like sM/puyreeVa marmer on desert coast P^ — Beattie. 
 
 II. They abbreviate many NOZTNS: as, amaze, for amazement; aedaim, 
 for acolamatkm ; consult, for consultation ; corse, for corpse ; eve, or even, for 
 evening; foimt^ for fountain; Tielm, for helmet; lament, for tanientation ; 
 Toorn, for mornmg ; plaint, for complaiml; targe, for target; weal, for weaUh. 
 
 III. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose, or are used 
 but rarely; as, iemson, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, 
 meed, sire, steed, sOtky, welkin, yore. 
 
 IV. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the possessiTa 
 case; as, 
 
 1. " Aflfliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
 
 Afiliction's self deplores thy youthful doom." — Syran. 
 
 2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's seZf."—&»j«o». 
 
 V. They place before the verb, nouns, or other words, that usually oome 
 after it ; and, after it, those that usually come before it : as, 
 
 1. " No jealousy tTievr dawn of love o'ercast. 
 
 Nor blasted werre their wedded days with strife." — JBeatUe. 
 
 2. " No Mve hast thou of hoarded sweets." 
 
 3. " Thy chain a vyretched weight shall prove." — Langhorne. 
 4t. "Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar."—Thorrmon. 
 
 5. " That pt»;pZ« grows the primrose pale:''— Lartghrme. 
 
 VI. They often place ADJECTIVES after their nouns ; as, 
 
 1. " Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand. 
 
 Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold."— MUton. 
 
 2. " Come, nymph demure, with mantle bhte." 
 
APPENDIX IV. — (PROSODY.) — POETIC DICTION. 341 
 
 VII. They ascribe qaalitdes to things to which they do not literally b&. 
 long; as, 
 
 1. " Or drowsy tinMings lull the distant folds." — Cfray, 
 
 2. " Imbitter'd more and more fiompeeilish day to day." — Thomson. 
 
 3. " All thin and naked, to the nunM cold »iyS." — Shakspeare. 
 
 Vni. They nse concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; (i. e., adjec-J 
 tives for nouns ;) as, 
 
 1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 
 
 And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." — Yoim^. 
 
 2. " Meanwhile, whate'er of bemiUfitl or tieui, 
 
 Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 
 
 By chance or search was offered to his view, 
 
 He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." — Seattle. 
 
 3. "Won from the void and formless mfimte." — Milten. 
 
 IX. They substitute quality for manner; (i. e., adjectives for adverbs;), 
 as, 
 
 1. ". The stately-smling swan. 
 
 Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale j 
 
 And, OTGhing proud his neck, with oaiy leet 
 
 Bears tbrwaTd./!er(!e, and guards his osier isle." — Ihomson. 
 
 2. " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." — Id. 
 
 X. They form new compound epithets ; as, 
 
 1. " In world^ejoidna state, it moves sublime." — Thomson. 
 
 2. "The dem/-sMrted clonda imbibe the sun." — Id. 
 
 S. " By brooks and groves in hoKouMshisperiaif gales." — Id. 
 i. "The violet ot shy-^ocen vest." — LamgkorM. 
 5. "A league from Epidamnum had we sidled, 
 
 Before the always-wind-dbeyiag deep 
 
 Gave any tragic instance of our harm." — Shakspeare. 
 
 XI. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as, 
 
 1. " Near a/nd more near the billows rise."— Merrick. 
 
 2. " Wide and mdw spreads the vale."— T?^*?. 
 
 3. " Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 
 
 Take every creature in, of every kind." — P<^e. 
 
 Xn. They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in prose ; 
 aa, Agleam^ TB.y, — toweryheS^\it,-'-ste^hiii; — «fe% casque, — Aeo^ harvests, 
 — moony shield, — wri&y snake, — still^Uk.e,—^asty deep,— paly circlet. 
 
 Xm. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form : as, dread, for 
 dreadful; drear, for dreary; ebon, for ebony; hoar, ior hoary j lone, for 
 Vandy; aeamt, toriamty; slme, for sloping ; Bvbmisa, {or subrmsswe; vermii, 
 for vermOlion; yon, for yonder. 
 
 XIV. They employ several adjeetaves that are not used in prose, or are 
 used but seldom; as, aaare, Mthe, boon, dcmk, da/rtHmg, darksome, doughty, 
 dun,/iU, rife, rwpl, ru^iid, sear, sylvan, twain, warn,. 
 
 XV. They employ personal PB0W0UN8, and introduce their nouns 
 afterwards; as, 
 
 1. " 7< curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze."— W. Scott. 
 
 2. "Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 
 
 That on the thicket streams ; 
 Or do they flash on spear and.fcnoe, 
 The sun's retiring beams f"^-Id. 
 
 XVI. They sometimes omit the relative, of the nominative case; as, 
 " For is there aught in sleep cam charm the wise ?" — Thommn. 
 
 XVH. They omit the ahteoedeht, or introduce it after the relative ; a», 
 1. " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er emoys. 
 
 Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." — Armstrong. 
 
342 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. " W7io dare3 think one thing and an other tell. 
 
 My Boul detests Aim as the gates of hell." — Papers Hcmer. 
 
 XVIII. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, into the 
 laody of their clauses ; as, 
 
 J.. "Parts the fine looks, her graceful head that deck.^'' —Darwin. 
 2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
 
 Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Fopis Homer. 
 
 XIX. They make intransitive F-ES^iS transitive ; as, 
 
 1. " A while he stands, 
 
 Oazmg the inverted landscape, half afraid 
 
 To meditate the blue profound below." — Thomsmi. 
 
 2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv^d 
 
 The rural day, and taVi'd the flowing heart." — Id. 
 
 XX. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person ; as, 
 
 1. " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 
 
 2. " Be man's peculiar worTcms sole delight." — Beattie. 
 8. " And what is reason ? Be she 'CaVL?, dejin^ A : 
 
 Eeason is upright stature in the soul I" — Taung. 
 
 XXI. They employ cam, amid, and would as principal verbs transitive ; 
 as, 
 
 1. " What iOT ourselves wo can, is always ours." 
 
 2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 
 
 Does well, acts nobly: — angels cmdd no more.'''' — Tovmg. 
 S. " PF^ai womM this man ? Now upward will he soar, 
 And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 
 
 XXII. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends ; as, 
 
 " When first thy sire to send on earth 
 Virtue, his darling child, designed.'''' — Gray. 
 
 XXIII. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as, 
 
 " No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
 That plays on Carron's breast he <»«." — Lamgharne. 
 
 XXIV. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes : 
 as, iegird, bedim, evanish, emove ; for gird, dim, iiamsh, move : — hire, wail, 
 wilder, reave ; for aUure, bewail, bewUder, bereave. 
 
 XXV. They abbreviate verbs : as, list, for listen; ope, for open. 
 
 XXVI. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are used 
 but rarely ; as, appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wena, ween, trow. 
 
 XXVII. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infinitive ; 
 as, 
 
 1, " Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew 
 
 Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." — Hilton, 
 
 2. " For not, to have been dipp'd in Lethe lake, 
 
 Could save the son of Thetis /?•<»» to die.'" — Spenser. 
 
 XSVIII. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than prose 
 writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar; as, 
 i. " He came, and, standing in the midst, explain'd 
 
 The peace rejected, but the truce obtain'd." — Pope. 
 2. " As a poor miserable captive thrall 
 
 Comes to the place where he before had sat 
 
 Among the prune in splendor, now depos'd, 
 
 Reeled, emptied, gaz'd, wnpUied, shwrm'd, 
 
 A spectacle of rum or of scorn." — MUton. 
 
 XXIX. They employ several AD VMBBS that are not used in prose, or 
 are used but seldom ; as, oft, haply, inly, blMhely, cheerily, deftly, felly, rifdy, 
 ruefully, siaMy, yo/rely. 
 
APPENDIX IV. — (^PROSODY.) — PuKilU DICTION. 343 
 ■»^ 
 - >^^' They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 
 
 ^" !l |!®®P™g irom forth their alleya- green."— CoiZtTW. 
 "Si. I' Erect the standard there of ancient night."— J^iJton. 
 S. '* The silence often of pure innocence 
 
 PerauadeSj when speaking fails." — ShaJcapeare. 
 
 4. " Where universal love not smiles around." — TImmson. 
 
 5. " Eobs me of that which not emiches him." — SAakspeare. 
 XXXI. They omit the introductory adverb there ; as, 
 
 " Was nought around but images of rest." — Thomson. 
 
 SXXII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or— or, and not^-nor, aa 
 correspondents ; as, 
 
 1. " Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Voy— Goldsmith. 
 
 2. " Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth rwr safety buys." — Johnson. 
 
 3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
 
 Isnor of heaven, Twr earth." — Hhahspeare. 
 
 XXXIII. They often place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, before 
 the words on which they depend ; as, 
 
 " AgaiTist your fame vMh fondness hate combines ; 
 The rival batters, and the lover mines." — Johnson. 
 
 XXXTV. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 
 
 1. " When beauty, Eden''s lowers within, 
 
 First stretch'd the arm to deeds of sin. 
 When passion bum'd, and prudence slept. 
 The oityiagangels bent and wept." — Hogg. 
 
 2. " The Muses feir, these peaceful shades wmong. 
 
 With skillful fiiigers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd. 
 
 XXXV. They employ INTERJECTIONS more frequently than prose 
 writers; as, 
 
 " let me'gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 
 O let me think ! — Thought too is wilder'd here." — Towng. 
 
 _ XXXVI. They em^loj ANTIQUATED WORDS sai modes of expres- 
 sion; as, 
 
 1. " Withovten that would come an heavier bale." — Thomson. 
 
 2. "He was to weet, a Uttle roguish page, 
 
 Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Id. 
 
 3. " Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." — Id. 
 
 4. " To number up the thousands dwelling here. 
 
 An useless were, and eie an endless task."^7(i. 
 
 6. " Of clerks good plenty here you mofe esjDj'." — Id. 
 
 6. " But these l^iMsen. by, with nameless numbers moe." — Id. 
 
 THE END. 
 
SCHOOL BOOKS; 
 
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